CONTENTS, OF VOLOME XLITL

No. 1

Some BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Fart X.

By N. L. Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., I.F.S,, and M, B. Raizada,

M.Sc. (With one coloured plate of the Golden Cestrum,

Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl. and eight black and white

plates, and five text-tigur Ay) SAR ACD Cnet HE OER oon On ereee

NotEs ON THE BirDs OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD,

BomBAY PRESIDENCY. By Walter Koelz. cae mentany

by H. Whistler)... BRS th

THE EARLY eines OF INDIAN er onan seat IDG.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. Seco ei

ON THE BANKS OF THE NARBADA, “1a ia, ey Tents one

R. W. cea TA. ay (With four black and white

plates)... Se RieiasToene ScloweleSopmesisettiewctes shes

A MoNTH IN THE wine yee By Lieut.-Col. R.

S. P. Bates, M.B.0.U. ae eight black and white

plates)... soe caeess . :

THE Sos Tense OF THE Sono Dee SGnei on.

By W. C. Osman Hill, M.p., F.L.S., F.Z.S. (With one

PRUGISO) ob Co SOB COE TOO OO ECE OOO ee eee ree

FisH oF Poona. PartI. By Capt. A. G. L. Fraser, I.M.D....

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND

_ PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH AND

AguaTic Prants. Part II. By J. F. R. D’Almeida,

BaAerm Me SCouml (LVALULELILLCE DIQLCS))’. -dectitcernaces'ssitost asouscoticen ioe

REVIEWS :—

1. Shells and other Animal Remains found on the

Madras Beach. By F. H. Gravely... é

2. The Ecology and Control of the Rireed lasects

of India and the neighbouring countries. By

CRTC IS CES OMe seemiccdiet socncetaiers resco sat

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. An Hermaphrodite Tiger. By C. Fraser.............

‘Ti: -Fhe-Indian: Wild Dog. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton, Indian Army (Retd.)... Adcodot

III. Widespread rabies among Wila maoe on tie

Billigirirangan Hills (S. India). By Captain

ERs CANTOR IS toto cee see nelc ee oe ae oie leet we ecs.eee are

PAGE

lei

uw)

iden)

100

XT:

ING,

KV.

XVI.

XVII:

DWAIN

XIX.

XXIT.

XXIII.

. The Distribution of

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII

A Coin lodged in a Tiger’s Palate. By A. St.

John Macdonald.. ss hacslsleeuenrs

Measurements of an ihaian Eicon reread (Bile

gaurus), By S.C; H. Robinsons. ses--0- sae

Notes on the Occurrence of the English Partridge

(Perdix perdix L.) in North Persia. By

‘ Perdrix ’. me

The Nesting! ot ine Malabar Grae. Hornbill. “Bs

Humayun Abdulali.. Paces els

The Identification ae ie Small Cuciee. “Be

Humayun Abdulali... mice

The Common Hawk- euceoe: or Bein ‘Paver Bird.

By Dr Ge MestOniere scce cocecetes ta ees es onan

‘the Rosy Tern. By

Humayun Abdulaii.. or

Some Birds seen ou (ns train” in the ‘Madras

Presidency. By Humayun Abdulali..............

The Distribution of the Nukta or Comb Duck in

Sind. By N. H. Menesse, 1s.k£.. po

Occurrence of the Chinese Hawk Basle i in cue

Chin Hills. By Major A. C. Moore..

The Crocodile in Burma. By J. A. M. “Syanie..

Note on an experience with an Indian Python.

By7E. J- Ss) Lurners.

The number of eggs in “the: ‘Clutch: Of ne

Checkered Water Snake. By N. G. Pillai.

(With a photo)...

Glow-W orm (Lisnpirodnones ie He feed.

ing onaslug. ByR. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S..

The Plant-Bug Cyclopelta sicctpolia Westw. on

Pongamia glabra. By C. McCann....2.....0.5- see

A Battle between Black and Red Ants. By

Ne Go Pillai. a

Wanted male specimens of ‘ins, Beall (Alle

myrina dichotomus) from India.

Parsons. (With a photo)... Saab shawn

The Distribution of the Suotpion Hormaras

nigripes Pocock). By J. F. Caius...

Additions to the Flora of Waziristan. “By Major

D. G. Lowndes.. =e cay

Fasciated Taaote cena rok CAGROA Fone precaies

folius Wight. By N.L. Bor. (With a photo)...

By R. HE.

PAGE

100

101

102

103

104

106

107

108

109

110

alae

112

113

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII

No. 2

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XI.

Bye Nee DOL vaAcn DISC.) Ube Sem Tah-Gs, range MM. Bs

Raizada, M.sc. (W2zth one coloured plate of the Potato

Creeper, Solanium seaforthianum Andr. and three black

and white plates, and nine lext-LIQures) co.cc. cesses ceccercccece

THE Birps oF Mysore. Part I. By Salim Ali. ee: four

plates)... SB cane eyee sive cel Negiseies toeetis

Onkeeeeee ON “TSmUs DES eaEuDS: Deere ee “By

C. McCann, F.L.S. ee nine plates and one text-

figure.)... Steere SGaeciete ot Galea i nwtews vebieot

THE GAME Pienes OF Tara: apa XV. By Sunder Lal

Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., BNI. (With one

coloured plate and one black and white Plate)... ....ceceveeesee

SOME CoMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANA-

TOMICAL CHARACTERS. Part IX. By M. Sayeedud-

Dime GU2eL LAV CE PlAleS) owiivae Vast esnasicwesinceth « cebiieydhe~ ceases

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH

IN INDIA AND BormaA. Part I. By A. St. J. Macdonald.

(Wath one Plate And two tect tt CUrves) spine eclicceciiecs so> soe ss

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE HILL. By Abdul

Hameed, m.sc. (With eight plates)... deel ened

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE MRC ‘Wanths OF THE

INDIAN CouURSER, Cursorius coromandelicus [Gmelin]. By

M. M. A. Phillips, F.L.s., M.B.o.U. (With three plates)...

A ‘BusMAN’s’ HOLIDAY IN THE AzU Hits. By C. McCann,

F.L.S. (With one plate and ome lext-f71 Ure) .es.o..orcoe res see

FisH oF Poona. Part II. By Dr. S. L. Hora, p.sc. F.r.s.8.,

F.N.I., and K. S. Misra, M.sc. (W2th one text-figure)......

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWwWoRTS OF INDIA. By J. F. Caius,

OBITUARY :—

H. H. Shri Khengarji, Maharao of Cutch. 1886-1942

REVIEWS :—

ate @onietin and Display among Birds.................

2. Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. III Edition.

3. The Mammals of India. (The Fauna of British

India, including Ceylon and Burma, Vol. II).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

J... Adaptive colouration of Desert Animals. By

AP Wee burdons BISC.r ec.

PAGE

148

163

170

173

190

246

250

TT.

MENG

[We

VII.

VIII.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII

The Wolf (Canzs lupus Linn.) in Baluchistan.

BytCaptrinwekey Mei Ba thy cars. eee eee

Extension of Range of the Marbled Pole Cat

(Vormela peregusna Gild.). By Major R. S.

Johnson.. se

Notes on ‘he Eaneoun (Manis CPasSenH HID). Eh

A. Aiyappan. (With two text-figures and a

Why ‘Red-Biiled’ Babbler?

F.Z.S., M.B.O.U..

Extension of Rone of Rafoueneene Seine

By H. Whistler,

Babbler (Pomatorhinus ruttcollis ee By

W.A. Hewitt.. Shes

A visit to Macian air adhe ict in the

Persian Gulf, off Kuwait. May 7th, 1942. By

Mrs. Violet Dickson... 3 a cic ai

Black Mahseer. By R. ‘, Pi F.R.E.S.

(With a plate)... ES EMa tas

Black Mahseer. By ‘M. ©. manne O.B.E..

Can Hilsa be taken with Rod and pian “Be

R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.. se Sees

Acclimatization of Horeiees Bien in Deane

By R. Gopinath, M.sc.. ;

On the role of Binopius: sinieusis (es) coal

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) in the control of

mosquitoes. By.V. O. Sebastian, M.Sc...........

Stag Beetles (Lucanus ee in combat. By

W. A. Hewitt.. < sich ae ee

Extension of Rave “6s ‘He Ae pene

Chalcosoma atlas. By Lieut.-Col. R. S. P.:

Bates, I.A.. eo

On the tatonte of some Sot ain Ur ents. “TBs

M. Sayeedud-Din and M. Abdus Salam. (Wzth

a plate)...

A Note on apne Pane in “ebias ee

venulosum Seem. By M. J. Thirumalachar,

B. G. L. Swamy and K. B. A. Khan. (With a

DUA sth 9000.00 00 0030 050.000006000090 00000 950062000 68006

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS :—

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting......... ......

RAGE

254

274

276

278

VSR BDRIGAL, LEST OF CONTRIBUTORS

| VOLUME XLII

Nos. 1 and 2

ABDULALI, Humayun; ‘The

Meeting of the Malabar Grey

Hornbill

———_ —_—_-——_-——-; The

Identification of the Small

Cuckoo ...

--——; The Dis-

tribution of the Rosy Tern ...

—; Some

Birds seen from the train in

the Madras Presidency

AIVAPPAN, A.; Notes on the

Pangolin (Manis crassicau-

data) (With two text-figures

and a plate) — os

ALI, Satim; The Birds of

. Mysore. PartI. (With four

plates)

BATHS. wi-COl. Raat. Al. B.

o.u., A month in the Kazinag

Range. (With eight black and

white plates)... °

Extension of Range of the

Atlas Beetle—Chalcosoma

atlas ees

BATTVE, CAPT, R. 1G ie: The

Wolf (Canis lupus Tanal) in

Baluchistan wee die

BORING Gee M.A. D:SC., HelSe5

I.F.S.% atid “RAIZADA,;“M.B.,

M.Sc. ; Some Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs. (With

two coloured plates, eleven

black and white plates, and

fourteen text-figures). Parts

X& XI

aoe O

Fasciated Inflorescence of Acro-

carpus fraxinifolius Wight.

(With a photo) ve

BuRpDON, T. W., B.SC. dant:

ive colouration oft Desert

Animals

PAGE

102

104

254

130

274

252

BuRTON, Lt.-Cor. R. W., 1. A.

(retd.) ; On the Banks of the

Narbada. Part II (With

four black and white

plates).

The Indian Wild Dog ae

CATUS, Jean Se gelis hase. elhe

Distribution of the Scorpion

(Hormurus nigripes Po-

cock) a we

AN ave)

Medicinal Mallowworts

india a

D’ ALMEIDA, J.F RQ, B.A., M.SC.;

A Contribution to the Study

of the Biology and Physiolo-

gical Anatomy of Indian

Marsh and Aquatic Plants.

Part Il. (With three plates).

Dickson, Mrs. VIOLET; A visit

to Maskan and Auha Islands

in the Persian Gulf, off

Kuwait, May 7th, 1942

FRASER, Capt, A.G.L., 1.M.D. ;

Fish of Poona. Part I

FRASER, C.; An Hermaphrodite

Tiger see 500 o00

GOPINATH, R., M.Sc.; Acclima-

tization of Horton Fish in

Travancore

HAMEED, ABDUL, M.SC.; “Nas

on the Liverworts of Murree

Hill. (With eight plates) ..

Hewitt, W.A.; Extension of

Range of Rufous-necked

Scimitar Babbler ( Pomatorhi-

nus ruficollis Hodgs.)

——; Stag Beetles

(Lucanus lunifer) in combat.

HILL, ‘W. C...OSMAN, M.D.,

F.L.S.,. F.Z.S.; The. Slender

Loris of the Horton Plains,

Ceylon. (With one plate) ...

of.

PAGE-

267

190

Viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE PAGE

Hora, SUNDER LAL, D-Sc., Moore, Masor“A. C.; Occur-

MI RARINIGA Ui4AsSoy — WotktaSSigi a5 rence of the Chinese Hawk

F.N.I.; The Game Fishes of Eagle in the Chin Hills 106:

India. Part XV. (With one Morris, Capt. R. C., Wide-

coloured plate and one black spread rabies among Wild

and white plate) 163 Dogs on the Billigirirangan

poet anment : Hills (S. India) 100.

and Misra, K. S., M.Sc.; OBITUARY :—

Mish sof BPeonas erattan ll. H. H. SHRI KHENGARJI,

(With one text-figure) SERS 1886-1942, Maharas of Cutch 242

JOHNSON, Major R. S.; Exten- Parsons, R. E., F.R.E.S.,

sion of Range of the Marbled Glow-Worm (Lamphropho-

Pole Cat (Vormela peregusna rus nepalensis 1.) feeding on

Gild.) aa 253 a slug)? <. aoe 500 109

Kuan, K.B.A.; See eae —_—— —-—-;

LACHAR, M. ih 276 Wanted male specimens of

KOELZ, WALTER ; Notes on fae the Beetle (Allomyrina

Birds of the Londa Neighbour- dichotomus) from _ India.

hood, Bombay Presidency 131 (With a photo) INDE

LOWNDES, Masor D.G.; Addi- SS ee )

tions to the Flora of Waziris- Black Mahseer. (Witha plate) 264

tan Be re ae fon SUZ a SSSI SET ES §

MACDONALD, A. St. JoHN; A Can Hilsa be taken with Rod

Coin lodged in a Tiger’s and Line ?is > .s. 266

Palate . 100] ‘ PERDRIX’; Note on che lacie:

—————_——__—_—__ - —— rence of the English Partridge

Circumventing the Mahseer (Perdix perdix a in North

and other Sporting Fish in Persia 500 eeu LOL

India and Burma. Part I. PHILLIPS, W. W. tA 12 bs Ish5g

(With one a and two text- M.B.O.U., Some Observa-

figures) as ae soon, eye) tions on the Nesting Habits of

McCANN, C.F.L.S.; The Plant the Indian Courser, Cursorius

Bug Cyclopelta siccifolia | coromandelicus (Gmelin).

Westw. on Pongamia glabra... 109 (With three plates) 200

—_——————_——_—_; Observa- Pirial, N. G. ; The Number afi

tions on Indian Duckwecds) eggs in the Clutch of the

Lemnaceae. (With nine plates Checkered Water Snake.

and one text-figure) Meas (With a photo) ah Ales

-——— ; A ‘ Bus- — A Battle

man’s’ Holiday in the Abu between Black and Red Ants. 110

Hills. (With one plate and one Rarzapa, M. B., M.Sc.; See

text-figUure) ae fe ease (206 Bors WN. Eee MorAs, b DsCe,

MENESSE, N. H., 1.S.E.; The Pin SRG eeleH. Ss ]

Distribution of the Nukta or REVIEWS :—

Comb Duck in Sind ... see ELOG Shells and other Animal Re-

MestTon, D. G.; The Common mains found on the Madras

Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain Fever Beach. By F. H. GRAVELY. 97

Bird) tees. ne 50 104 The Ecology and Control of

MISRA, K.S.,M.Sc.; See Hone the Forest Insects of India

SUNDER LAL, D.SC., F.R.S.E., and the neighbouring coun-

EoNeLs tua ose a0 218 tries. By C. F. C. BEESON. 98

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ix

PAGE PAGE

Courtship and Display among tensis (Bloch) and 4troplus

Birds ... : 244 maculatus (Bloch) in the con-

Popular Handbook of indian trol of mosquitoes So CA

Birds. III Edition .. 245 | SEVASTOPULO, D.G. F.R.E.S.

The Mammals of Tnaia (The (Commentary by H. Whist-

Fauna of British India in- ler); The Early Stages of

cluding Ceylon and Burma, Indian Lepidoptera. Part

Vol. I) we 246 IX 39

Rosinson, S.C. H.; Mensune. Swamy, G. L.; he A sTERIORWN

ments of an Indian Bison’s LACHAR, M. 5. boo KS

Head (760s gaurus) 100 | Symns, J. A. M.; The Croco-

SALAM, M. ABDUS; See Saas ) dile in Burma ads eee LO

puUD-Di1n, M. .. 2/4 | TANNER, M. O., 0.B.E.; Black

SAYEEDUD-DIN, M.; Some Mahseer 265

Common Indian Herbs with ‘THIRUMALACHAR, M. ie WANG

Notes on their Anatomical on the Epiphytism in epiah:

Characters. Part IX. (With leurum venulosum Seem.

three plates) vers “oo ARZAD) (With a plate) e276

os ;On the TURNER, F.J.S.; Note on an

Anatomy of some of the Experience with an Indian

OTVEaC HG. (With a Python ... : wee Ae eeolUe/

plate) ... bes eee / 4 eNVHISTEER.. El oR Zoe, MBs

SEBASTIAN, V. O., M.Sc.; On o.U., Why ‘ Red-billed ’ Bab-

the role of Htroplus sura- bler ? ee aes 257;

IES SIE MOVE Veil WES

VOLUME XLIII

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate X. The Golden Cestrum (Cestrum aurantiacum.

Lindl.) os -

Plate The Golden Cestrum (Geri auphieen Lindl. ),

Botanic Gardens. Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun iss 6

Plate The Golden Cestrum (C esti Wy anb Loner Lindl. \,

New Forest, Dehra Dun ... 6

Plate The Day Jasmine (Cestrum diurnum i inn.), New

Forest, Dehra Dun whe eee 6

Plate The Day Jasmine (Cestrum diurnum Linn.), Wee

Forest, Dehra Dun ap we 7

Plate Lady of the Night (Cestrum Vechonin ieee ), New

Forest, Dehra Dun 506 8

Plate Lady of the Night (Cestrum nocturnum eins Ne Nev ew

Forest, Dehra Dun oO : ae )

Plate Willow- eave Jasmine (eee Range L’ Heri-

tier), New Forest, Dehra Dun te: 8

Willow-leaved Jasmine (Cestrum Pargui L’ IGE

tier), New Forest, Dehra Dun Sat ue i)

On the Banks of the Narbada

Plate The Temple of Omkar on the Island of Mandhata..., 48

A Narbada Crossing, The Fort Ferry ... tis 48

Plate A Narbada Tiger sO 600 aa 49

Little Ben’s fifth Panther... 600 060 49

Plate Omkarji: The Sacrificial Precipice o6 oe 52

A Narbada Fort of Pindari Days Bei aie 52

Plate A Korku Amazon 500 ses one 38)

‘ Simba ’ das ane ue 606 Se)

A month in the Kazinag Range

Plate Eastern Jackdaws (Corvus monedula soommeringit). 60

Plate Scully’s Wood Owl (Strix aluco biddulphi) ao BY

Plate Slaty-headed Paroquets (Psitlacula h. himalayana). 64

Plate White-browed Blue Fly-catcher (Cyornis s. super-

ciliaris) ao bee 300 aes 67

Plate Jerdon’s Hedge-Sparrow (Prunella strophiata

jer dont) oC one 68

Plate Blue-headed Rock- Thrush (Monticola RENAUD). 70

Plate Blue-headed Rock-Thrush (Monticola cinclorhyncha). 70

Plate Indian Red-breasted Flycatcher (Siphia parva

hy perythra) 50 800 eae oes 72

LIST OF PLATES xi

PAGE

The Slender Loris of the Horton Plains, Ceylon

Plate (1) Skulls of Loris tardigradus nycticeboides (left) and

L.t. tardigradus (right) in norma lateralis.

(2) Skulls of Loris tardigradus nycticeboides (left) and

L.t. tardigradus (right) in norma verticalis ... 74

Loris tardigradus nycticeboides subsp. nov. (Type

ad 2). Horton plains, circa 6,0)0, Central Ceylon. 74

A Contribution to the Study of the Biology and Physiological Anatomy of Indian

Marsh and Aquatic Plants—Part II.

Plate I. Sergia capensis Linn. ee 500 3 96

Plate 106 Do. ans sae en 96

Plate III. Do. ists es Bae 96

The number of Eggs in the Clutch of the Checkered Water-Snake (Verodia

piscator). . :

Photograph av 108

Wanted Male Specimens of the Beetle Cieninn enone) from toda

Photograph 400 Soo Saal

Fasciated Inflorescence of Wiovetarbus Fe mole Wight.

Photograph ave 000 eee tS

Some Beautiful Indian Glmber: and Sanabe

Plate II. The Potato Creeper (Solanum Seatorthianum Andr.) 115

Plate Giant Potato Vine (Solanum wendlandii Hook) ... 119

Plate Datura fastuosa Linn. New Forest, Dehra Dun .. 124

Plate Angel’s Trumpet (Datura suaveolens Humb. et.

} Bonpl.). New Forest, Dehra Dun ... setae cD

The Birds of Mysore

Plate I. 1. A portion of the Biligirirangan Hills showing

typical lay-out of evergreen sholas or forested

ravines.

2. Bird’s-eye view (close-up) of a typical skola

PARDO

3. A coffee plantation with Silver Oak (Gyrevillea

robusta) shade trees oa: 500 ao 10)

Plate II, 1. The edge of a Shola. Open hillside covered with

tall, coarse Andrcpogon grass and sparse scrub.

2. Secondary jungle facies of Deciduous Biotope ... 132

Plate III. 1. A Cardamom plantation with lofty eyelets

natural shade trees.

2. Dry stony hills country—Chitaldrug environs ... 134

Plate IV. The Gersoppa cr Jog Falls, Sagar District ee 36

Observation on Indian Duckweeds, Lemnacee

Plate J. Indian Duckweeds aa aoe Ado ales

Plate we 1Ule Do. Lemna £leanorae, sp. nov. coo Lod

Plate III. Do. Do. no lise!

Plate We Do. Do. ae wl 54:

Plate We IDs Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.) ... 156

Plate VI. Do. Do. 5 alsy/

Plate: VI. Do. Spirodela oligorrhiza eee 158

' Plate Vill, Do. Wolftfia arrhiza (Linn.) LOO

Plate IX. Do. Do. aoe 161

xii LIST OF PLATES

The Game Fishes of India ;

Plate I. The Khudree Mahseer; Barbus (Tor) khudree

Sykes

Plate II. Copies of Sykes’s nee ‘bE Peciens paemIleR

and B. kolus

Some Common Indian Herbs with notes on their Abeeymicall Ghavactent

Plate I. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Plate Il. . Do.

Plate Ill. Do. sek

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in initia. ard Burma

Plate A Brace of ‘Grandmothers’, 55 and 75 pounds,

taken at the famous Confluence N. of Myitkyina.

Notes on the Liverworts of Murree Hill

Plate I. Liverworts of Murree Hill

Plate II Do.

Plate TL: Do.

Plate IV. Do.

Plate Viz Do.

Plate VI. Do.

Plate VII. Do. bon

Plate VIII. Do.

Some Observations on the Nesting Habits of the Indian Conia, Giories

coromandelicus [Gmelin].

Plate I. The Indian Courser (Cursorius coromandelicus

[Gmelin]), (Incubating her two eggs)

Plate Il. Hatching of Indian Courser.

Chick of Indian Courser

Plate III. Indian Courser approaching nest.

Eggs of the Indian Courser

A ‘Busman’s’ Holiday in the Abu Hills.

Plate Butterflies on Migration a0

Obituary—H. H. Shri Khengarji, Maharao of Cutch

Plate H. H. Shri Khengarji, Maharao of Cutch, 1886-

1942 a eae bc

Notes on the Pangolin (A/ants prassian dar) )

Plate 1. Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

2. Ventral view of tail showing genito-anal region.

Black Mahseer

Plate I. 1. 113-lb Fish. Kamrup District.

2. 18-lb. Fish. Syom River.

3. Smallest Black Mahseer seen ost

On the Anatomy of some of the U rticaceae

Plate On the Anatomy of some of the Urticaceae

A Note on the Epiphytism in Heptapteurum venulosum, Seem.

Plate Heptapleurum venulosum, Seem

PAGE

163:

166

170

171

242

254

264

274

276

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XLIII

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE PAGE

Alcrocarpus traxinifolius Cestrum aurantiacum

Photograph 113 Pl. X we Are roe 1

Allomyrina dichotomus a ee

Photograph aes eo) weed! ls: 6

Anatomy of Urticacez -——_——. diurnum Fs. 6-7

Pa Pl: re 274 Text-fig. 3 7

Banks of the Narbada ——_—— elegans

Pl. Temple of Omkar Text-fig. 2 a she 5

Hort Herrys 2s: .. 48 | ——— nocturnum

Pl. Narbada Tiger Pls. nies soles «. 8-9

Panther 49 Text-fig. 4 ave oy 8

Pl. Omkarji ——_—— Pargui

Narbada Fort bys | Pls. oon oat .. 8-9

Pl. Korku Amazon Text-fig. § a ae 8)

Sac Simbay, 53 | Corvus monedula

Barbus kolus eal. ae se 60

12, DE ook ac 166 | Cursorius coremandelicus -

——— —— mussullah Leas At tes 200

Pl. TI PP ee GG Cyornis s. superciliaris

———— (Puntius) jerdoni PI: 67

Text-fig. 1 ae .. 224 | Datura fastuosa

———_——. (Tor) khudree let des 124

ir are 163 Text-fig. 5 123

mee pulitora - suaveolens

Text-figs. 1-2 180-181 els ‘ 125

Birds of Mysore Text-fig. 6 125

ee 130 | Harvesting the Mandrake

eal, = IO 132 Text-fig. 1 inh aoe 3

Pl. Ill 134 | Heptapleurum venulosum

P].1V 136 lle 276

Black Mahseer Indian Courser

laces 264 Pls, II-III 202-204

Bruntelsia americana Indian Duckweeds

Text-fig. 9 129 Pls. I-IX 152-161

—-—_ latifolia Indian Marsh and Aquatic Plants

Text-fig. 7 127 Pls. 560 96

———. undulata Lemna Eleanorae

Text-fig. 8 128 Pls. II-1V see 154

Butterflies on Migration Liverworts of Murree Hill

Pi. and text-fig. jan UY) Pls, I-V1II 198-199

Xiv LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

Loris tardigrvadus myticeboides

12k, sa ee seen nade:

——- -—— tardigradus

Be Sac bc8 sui 474

Maharao Shri Khengarji

Pl: es ue apd | A

Mahseer and other Sporting Fish

leak eee ses oe ASE

Manis crassicaudata

Jedk 605 a6 a 204

Text-figs. 3-4... voeie LOO

Monticola cinclorhyncha

Pls. 606 See sree AU

Nerodia piscator

Photograph ee els

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia

Pls, I=Itl <. wes 170-171

Prunella strophiata jerdont

Bl cee La ce OS

Psittacula h. himalayana

Pl. ee C8: |

Siphia parva hyperythra

Pl: see a3 ware Te.

Solanum jasminoides

Text-fig. 4

———. pseudo-capsicum

pee Rext hom eae

-——— FRantonnetii

Text-fig. 2

——— Seaforthianum

LAls «ae

——-— Wendlandii

12% p

Text-fig. 3

Spirodela maxima

Text-fig. 1 ée

——-— oligorrhiza

Pl. -VII

——-— polyrrhiza

Pls. V-VI eee

Strix aluco biddul phi

Bi ‘ AS

Woltfia arrhiza

Pls, VIII-IX

160-161

ERRATA

VOUs ei Now

Contents of Volume: The sub-title (Commentary by Whistler)

has been misplaced and should appear

as a sub-title to the Notes on the Birds

of the Londa neighbourhood, printed

immediately above.

Page 106, Misc. Note XI. The date at the end of the note

should vead ‘ November 30, 1941’

instead of ‘ November 30, 1942’.

Misc. Note XIV, page 107. The date at the end of the note

should vead ‘ September 10, 1941’

instead of ‘September 10, 1942’.

VO XIETM Non 2:

Page 242, line 2 (Obituary Note). The date of His Highness’s

birth should vead ‘1866’

instead of ‘1886’.

Page 254—plate opposite. In the description of Fig. 2 facing

page 254, for ‘ genito-anal region’

vead ‘terminal scale’. ‘The refer-

ences to this figure in the text

should likewise be revised.

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INDEX OF SPECIES.

PAGE |

Abutilon asiaticum soot GE)

——-——_ avicennz 227, 229

————— exstipulare 227

—_——— glaucum en AL

————- hirtum ... a06 : 227, 228

——-——- indicum... 227, 228, 229

——-——_ maturitianum ... Most 220),

—— Theophrasti 227, 229

Acacia arabica 135

- eburneus 200

- planifrens 200

Acanthion leucurus PANS)

Accipiter badius dussumieri 29

——— nisus nisosimilis 30

——-——- trivirgatus trivirgatus 29

————-_ virgatus besra... 30

Acherontia styx ..s 217

Achillea santolina 112

Acridotheres tristis tristis 20

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius 113

-Acrocephalus agricola agricola 18

- dumetorum = 18

- stentoreus pronmeseene 18

Actias selene ZA

Atgithina tiphia ... 139

———— humei... m3

——_—_—~ -— septentrionalis 34

Zegle marmelos ... 135

A®golius funerea juniperi 30

/Ethiopsar fuscus 304 139

-———_—_- +—-—— mahrattensis 20

Ageratum .. ‘ Or Cp ea:

Alauda calle auseranis nee ree 205

Alcedo atthis 140, 213, 216

bengailensis

— taprobana ~

- meninting asiatica

Alcemerops athertoni athertoni

Alcippe poioicephala brucei 13

Alomyrina dichotomus ... 111

Alseonax latirostris oe 139

aosSe a - poonensis 1

———- muttui muttui

——=+ ruficaudus 71

PAGE

Althzea cannabina 229

— hirsuta 229

- Ludwigii... so A

- officinalis... 229, 231

- pallida 7ei38)

- - rosea sae 229, 230

Aimandava amandava ... 139

Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus 31

Ambassis ranga ... 83, 84, 87-89, 233

Ammomanes phcenicurus . 139

Anabasis setifera 258

Anatoma stillata 217

Anguilla bengalensis 82, 219

————— elphinstoni 24S)

Anhinga melanogaster .., 32

Anogeissus wae ; . 214

Anopheles sundaicus ... a ae «=» 24

Anthoceros himalayensis . 190, 191, 193

Anthus campestris godlewskii * me 22

- hodgsoni burzil... 36

inopinatus ... eas 22

-rufulus malayensis ... A 22

- trivialis trivialis ... wee 22

Aplochilus lineatus a 88, 91, 222

Apus melba Seek ees: a3 Ane 27

Aquila clanga ... oes . 28

-——— rapax vindhiana Nee Ai 28

Arachis hypogeea 44

Arachnothera longirostra yantenel 23, 37

_ longirostris BSH 137-

Ardea cinerea ae : 32

Ardeola grayii ... Bre ves a 33

Argya caudata 105

subrufa ... aes Is ee 12

Artamus fuscus ... a an 4 ae 17

Artocarpus hirsuta 134

—— integrifolia ... 135

Astragalus ancistrocarpus 300 See ares

—— purpurascens 112

Astur badius t41

Astycus pythias ba aS is 41

Atella phalantha... 210, 217

. 191, 192, 195

. 191-192, 195

Athalamia pingtis

——~-—— pusilla

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Athene brama_ ... : 141 | Brachypteryx major... 600 ANS I7/

Bambusa arundinacea ... 134 | ———____________ major 142

Baoris zelleri cinnara ... <e ate, 41] Brunfelsia ... iat 126

Barbus chrysopoma 2233 -—— americana 126, 129

- curmuca ... 1663, .— latifolia 126, 127

————.- Dobsoni ... 224 | —— undulata 126, 128

- dobsoni 220, 224 | Bubo bengalensis eee 27

- Jerdoni ... 224 | ——- bubo ee acon glk

- jerdoni 168, 224 | Bubulcus ibis coromandus ... 33

——— — maciveri 220 | Bucia athertoni ... 5 ee els8

—_—__—_—_-—— vay. maciveri ... 224 | Bufo andersoni ... 215, 216

-———.- khudree ... 167 | ——- melanostictus 214, 216

- kolus ane Ses : 166 | Burhinus cedicnemus ee 42

—- (Lissochilus) hexagouolepis 165, — — mayri ... Bod eH by ete:

185, 281 | Butastur teesa . 29,105, 141

- mussullah 164 | Butea frondosa a 22

- pinnauratus sie ... 225 | Butorides striatus 106

- pulchellus nF eee 220, 224 — - abbotti 33

———.- (Puntius) amphibius ... 85, 86, 88, Cacomantis merulinus ... os 103

89, 220 | -—-——_—.- —— passerinus 143

—— —— —— hola... 82, 83, 86, 88, 220 | Cactus as 214

—__-___-_——. chrysopoma... oe 20 | Ceesalpinia sepiaria aie 213

——_——_—_—- -—— dobsoni a se 90 | Callichrons bimaculatus 83, 87, 88, 221

—_—_ ——___——- Jerdoni... 82, 83, 85, 88, 89 ——- pabo... . 83, 85, 87, 89, 221

—_—. - —— —— jerdoni 220, 224 | Calophaca ternata 00 Ho ale

————- —_—_- ——_ kolus... 82-90, 91, 220 | Calotes versicolor aes ZA 2

—_——__-___—_ pinnauratus ... 220 | Camponotus sp. ... 110

———- ——_—__——- sarana 82, 84, 85, 87-90, Canis alpinus 247

220, 224 | ——-— aureus Pe 247

ee —— ticto ... 82-88, 220, 224 | ——- dukhunensis 247

- sarana 168, 224 | ——- indica a0 212

= tOD's: ae oe be .. 165 | ——- indicus 216

———-- (Tor) khudree ... 82, 84, 85, 220 | ——- lupus 247, 252

—_——— --mosal _... vs 187 | ——-——— chanco wae 247, 253

——_— ———- putitora ... .-- 179, 186, 282 | —____——- pallipes ass See sez

- —--- tor gear) toy) ~—— rutilans Sic S00 247

Barilius barna 83, 219 | Capella stenura ... = 206 32,.201

Bassia latifolia 135 | Capparis spp. 210

Bauhinia purpurea en 50 214 | Caprimulgus asiaticus ... S00 ooo a

— sp. «; Poe oe wae 46 —- gurgaoni 0 37

Begonia trichocarpa =... wee ee 212 | ————- indicus ... 100 509 HL

Belenois mesentina 209, 217 | ——-——-——_~—__—— indicus... ess 27

Bergia ammannioides 92,93, 94 | ——- macrourus atripennis... 27

aquatica ae ges 500 Sy Eb | ee monticolus monticolus 27

capensis ... ... 92, 96 | Carisca carandas... nh 600 ao CALS)

——— odorata 92, 93, 94 | Cassia auriculata Soe ic ns come) OS

verticillata ee ves “ 93 | Catophylum wightianum S00. no) dl

Bibos gaurus 100 | Catopsilia crocale 506 209, 217

Bombax malabaricum ... 134 —— florella gnoma 209, 210, 217

Brachypternus benghalensis 140 — pomona catilla ... 209, 217

woodi ... 23, 37 | ——————- pyranthe ... one a Col)

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Catopsilia pyranthe minna . 209, 210, 217

Centropus sinensis 140

——- parroti - 25

Cephonodes hylas 208, 217

Cercomela fusca ruinarum 34

Certhia himalayana himalayana 67

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura 5 Oy, Zils}, AS

Cestrum ... es 2

— Parantiacunt Bie eee een ONG

— diurnum Sy

— elegans.. Py)

- nocturnum wats Mra)

- — Parqui ... 600 Be oo | Oy)

- Ceyx tridactylus tridactylus 26 |

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala ... 66

Chalciope hyppasia 45

Chalcophaps indica 138

———_-—— indica 30

Chalcosoma atlas 274

Chaptia czenea malayensis es 17

Charadrius dubius curonicus ... 31, 143

82, 84, 86, 88, 91, 219

... 82, 85, 88, 89, 219

82, 83, 86-89, 91, 219

Chela boopis

——-- clupeoides ...

Chelidorhynx hypoxantha noa 35

Chibia hottentotta 08 500 143

. 18, 35 143

Chiloloba acuta ... 50 Sin tee Cae ea A

Chiloscyphus Rrniaweneis -. 190, 193, 196

Chloropsis aurifrons davidsoni NS

Chloroxylon swietenia ... wee 134

Choetura giganteus 138

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus ... S738

ee — socialis 24, 37

Cinnyris asiatica... 140

— minima... 137

— zeylonica 606 dee 140

Circaétus ferox eer 506 141

Circus eruginosus ceruginosus... 29

macrourus 29

melanoleucos ... 29

pygZargus .. 000 29

Cirphis albistigma O06 a. 204

Cirrhina fulungee 500 oo) ty, SE, ZA

Clamator jacobinus eee B56 .. 140

Cliuteria klugi_ ... 600 217

Coccus cacti 906 500 135

Cocos nucifera .. 000 135

Coleus vettiveroides .. 285

Columba elphinstonii ... oes ea. LOS

WIZ

Composite ies ves cae ree

X1X,

PAGE

Conocephalum conicum soo Hebi by Hs, AIG}

Convolvulus spp. 44

Copsychus saularis saularis 15

Coracias benghalensis ... 140

—__——_———--—- indica ... 25

_——-— garrula semenovi 72

Corvus macrorhynchus... 500 213

2 —-- culminatus... 12, 143

as —--macrorhynchus 216

- splendens oes 50 213

— ——— splendens . 12, 144, 216

Coryllis vernalis 138, 143

— ——- rubropygialis.. 143

- -rubropygius ... 25

Coturnix coromandelica 142

Crassochilus latius ». 83, 84, 86, 88

Crocidophora ptyophora 46

Crocodilus palustris 107

—— porosus 107

—— siamensis 107

Crecopus phcenicopterus 141

—-- — ——- chlorigaster... 30

Crossochilus latius 220

Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus... 103

Culicicapa 147

Cursorius coramianaericns 200

—- cursor cursor 200

Cyathodium tuberosum sO OZ aml os

Cyclopelta siccifolia oo LUO

Cymbopogon Martini Zee 22

Cyprinus curmuca se mee 166

— — potail 225

—— —— sarana... eae Se oc ©«=©§s- sk

Dalbergia latifolia 134

Danaus limniace ZO M27,

- plexippus 210, 217

Danis equipinnatus 82, 84-86, 88, 219

Waturay wo. 500 or eae 122

- fastuosa ... ee 23

-stramonium ... 500 122

—-— - suaveolens see 124, 125

Dendrocitta leucogastra 137, 144

——- vagabunda... 12

oe parvula 144

—__-— ——_ ——— vernayi 144

Dendronanthus indica ... 2]

Dendrophassa pompadora 138

——— -— — affinis 30

Diczeum concolor subfiavum ... 23

Dichoceros bicornis oes see 26

Dicrurus, coerulescens Beer icscent 17

EX INDEX OF SPECIES

. PAGE

Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus - 17

Dictyoploca simla 00 ee a 42

Dineutes indicus 208, 217

Dinopium javanense ... Les el Od

Smacleiiadtetan 906 24

Diospyros ebenum Bae wea) 34

Dissemurus paradiseus SAVE ER TLS 18

Dissoura episcopa episcopa ... ase 32

Dodoncea viscosa 5100 BOA So. WlShs)

Dolichos Lablab_ . ann ep B06 44

Dryobates hardwickii ... 55 se ae 40

—— ——: hardwickii ... 23

——_--——- mahrattensis ra .. 140

— maratteneie 23

Ducula badia_... 506 a on loo

————-——- cuprea ... ac nee 30

Dumetia SESE Ae ae) Jets

—— SES albouuianie bic 13

Earias cupreoviridis chromataria ... 44.

Egretta garzetta garzetta wat a; 33

— intermedia intermedia nae 32

Elamus ceeruleus eos Ba6 acon Za

—-————- vociferus ... ee 29

Elatinaceae oss Ae A PR Ree

Elatine Alsinastrum _.... 400 925935

- ambigua ... 500 one ass 32

- americana es aa oe 92

- hexandra eh we ae 32

- Hydropiper safe eke ASG 92

- verticillata eH Pa ae 93

Emiberiza cia stracheyi... 5 oaveg aes! wrase 61

- stewarti ... co ae: a 61

Eremopterix grisea wie ae 500 ANSI)

Eriophorum comosum ... 207, 210

Erythrina erythrina kubanensis Ne 20

Erythrina rubicilla eblis. Sp oe 36

——-——-- spp. ... nfs ase eee atl:

Etroplus maculatus 271-273

— —— suratensis » 271-273 |

Eucalyptus oh : ce Ne eed.

Eudynamis ecolonaeeret oe soe aD)

---—— - scolopaceus... 24

Eugenia Jambolana... 135, 214, 276

Eulabes religiosa indica Set oe 19

Eumiyas albicaudata ... 300 ete AS,

———— thalassina thalassina... as 16

Euphorbia oor 46, 214

— lingularia ... 600 toe gee

—--- nerifolia a? S00 Le

Falco tinnunculus objurgatus ... “ 28

Felis affinis... ti: Aa var eal

PAGE

Felis chaus ae Bo a ce) oD

Feronia limonia ... Bae See ee ke}

Ficus sae ap BS ae Sade aley

——- hbengailensis sie 214, 277

——- oppositifolia ue oa oe 47

——- religiosa 110, 214

Fimbriaria angusta 191,.192, 195

— Blumeana 191, 192, 194

—— —— mussuriensis 191, 192, 194

— reticulata 191, 192, 194

Fossombronia himalayensis 191, 193, 197

Francolinus pondicerianus ... aoe a2

Franklinia gracilis aes Solero oe,

—— - albogularis 18, 143

Frullania gracillima 90; 192 e136

-——_——.- muscicola 190, 192, 196

Funambulus pennanti 208, 215

Gagata itchkeea 83, 222

Gaierida malabarica On: nqua Mo ey OS)

Gallinula chloropus indicus... 500 31

Galloperdix sonneratii caurina Al, ZUG

—-,spadicea ... 500 yo eel?

-- - - spadicea ae 31

Gallus sonnerati... es 138, 143

sonneratii... : 5 OILY ZAI ZAG

Gambusia affinis ... ao v3 RAO

Garra mullya 82-86, 88-91, 220

Garrulax delesserti 12, 137

Gavialis gangeticus Bee es so OY

Geokichla citrina cyanotus ... ode 15

Geometridee ee oe Bbc nae 45

Geraniaceze was se Bea alte

Geranium Wallin artite sia ee ele

Girardinia heterophylla 207, 214

Glaucidium radiatum ... fs ee 28

Glaucium squamigerum ve wae elle,

Glossogobius giuris 83-85, 88, 223

Glyphodes bivitralis .. ... 00 506 46

Glyptothorax eomilvatiat var, pooua-

ensis 85, 222

— eran 83, 222

Gossypium arboreum ... ef So 9 CBI

-—— barbadense 231, 232

—_——-——- herbaceum 231, 232

—_—--——- hirsutum 231, 234

—- Pekenne mae. ise iecveeeole

—_.-_—__ peruvianum oss CON

-—— racemosum a0 RECO

Graculus religiosa an aac nda) 1S}

Graucalus javensis aa a0 139

———--macei__.... Ss L?

- Grevillea robusta

Gymnorhis xanthocollis...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

ul,

Gymnoris xanthocollis xanthocollis ...

Gyps fulvus 500

——-~ fulvescens ...

Halcyon pileata ...

smyrnensis

— fusca

Haliastur indus ... 141

— —— indus 29

Hamiltonia suaveolens ... 210

Harpactes fasciatus 138

legerli 000 37

- ——-— malabaricus oA

Helianthus spf. ... 44

Hemicercus canente 138

- cordatus 24

Hemidactylus brookei 216

- flaviviridis 504. CLG

Hemiprocne coronata ... 27, 141

Hemipus picatus insulz 35

— - picatus 7

Hepta pleurum venulosum 276

Herpestes burmanicus ww. 247

————-- edwardsii 208, 215

———-— fulvescens 247

——-— fuscus an sag.

— smithi 208, 212, 215

Herse convolvtli convolvuli Rig Ae

Heteropogon contortus ZZ 27

Heteropterinz ae ess 40

Hibiscus Abelmoschus ... 234, 235

— ethiopicus 234

— asper... ... 234

—_——— californicus eee

cannabinus 234, 235

— digitiformis eS: Pe Oe

— diversifolius 234, 235, 236

— esculentus 234, 235, 236

—— — furcatus 234, 237

———. grewiefolius ay Beco

———— Lampas 234, 237

———— leiospermus 234

———— liliiflorus 234

——— malacospermus 5 .. 234

——— manihot 234, 235, 2338

———— micranthus 234, 238 -

————- mutabilis 000 234, 235, 238

———— phanerandrus ... 234

——— pusillus ... 234

— rosa-sinensis.

28,

5 Bey MB;

234, 235, 238

214

139

213

216

140

216

Xxi

PAGE

Hibiscus rostellatus Ses vse OOS

— Sabdarifta 234, 235, 239

—— surattensis 234, 240

——— syriacus 234

——— tiliaceus 234, 235, 240

———— Trionum ee 234, 241

— vitifolius 234, 255, 241

Hierococcyx varius 104

Hilsa ilisha ses 266

Himantopus nimentoane Rreetcniele 204

Hippolais caligata annectans 18

Hippotion celerio 10, 217

Hiptage Madablota 210

Hirundo daurica erythropygia 21

— - nipalensis 21

--— smithii filifera ... 21

Holoptelea inteerifolia 274

Hormurus nigripes 112

Horornis pallidus pallidus 62

Huphina ; ees 210

———— nerissa Ecnets 209, 217

— phryne 2105 217,

Hyeena hyzena Ve PS

Hydrocissa coronatus ASG ey Reras

Hyperythra lutea See ES

Hyphothymis azurea amie 16, 34

Hypolimnas missippus ... 210% 217;

Indicapus sylvaticus 27, 138

Iole icterica icterica 13

— - intensior 34

Ipomeea aquatica ... Seent aa

—-— palmata 44, 46

— Shp. 44

Irena puella 137

—- puella 19

Ixias : 210

marianne . 209, 217

—— pyrene satadra 209, 217

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 33

Ixora sp, ue BA wee 102

Ketupa Pe Onesie Pelonensic wi

Kittacincla malabarica malabarica 15

_ Kydia calycina 0 sae 210

Labeo bogeut 82, 88, 89. 218, 220

—- calbasu 84, 220

——- fimbriata 220

——- porcellus Se : Ber eae

——- potail 5a "82. 85, 89, 2210225

- fimbriata 83.

Lagerstroemia indica 42, 46

Lagerstroemia microcarpa 134

xxii INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Lalage melaschista melaschista 17

sykesi cog» JAS)

- sykesi il7/

Lamphrophorus nipalensis 109

Lanius cristatus cristatus ee 16

- excubitor 105

- lahtora 139

- schach : 139

erythronotus .,. 16

- vittatus 139

Lantana ... 134, 135

Lemna 210

- arrhiza 159

———- Blatteri 153

- Eleanore ace one So le

- gibba 1535155

——- minima ... 154

———-- minor... aoe 153

- paucicostata BC0 148, 153

- perpusilla ons 500 154

- polyrrhiza . =: 148

- trisulca 148, 154

Lepidocephalus guntea ... 82, 88, 90, 221 |

Leptocoma asiatica brevirostris 22

—— lotenia Zoe

—-————— minima ue as 23

— zeylonica 23

Leptoptilus javanicus 32

Lepus 215

——-- Sp. ... ae ey 21]

Leucocirca albicollis 246

— canescens ... 39

— — aureola 139

Leucopolius alexandrinus seebohmi ... 204

Limnophylla sf, ... ope Calle

Lissocheilus hexagonolepis a0) CAS)

Lobipluvia malabarica ... ... 32, 142, 201

Lobivanellus indicus indicus ... 31, 201, 216

— lankee 38

Lonchura punctulata lineoventer 20

—- striata eStriata sco AYA 5)

Lophocolea minor ees col ON 93197,

Lophotriorchis kienerii kienerii 28

Loris tardigradus grandis Ss. 5 Oe

— nycticeboides ee. 13-78

en ——— tardigradus Hh US, C7)

Lacanus lunifer ... 273

Luscinia pectoralis pectoralis ... 14

— suecica ... 14

Lutra lutra oe : 248

Mabuya carinata ... rae . 212

PAGE

Machlolophus xanthogenys ... 137, 142

—aplonotus 146

——_—_—__—__—__-_- travancore-

ensis 145

———_—-—_ -—__ —_——-_ xanthono-

tus 12, 34, 146

Macroglossum ... “fee By ier 2210

——-——_-—- belis Te se 208, 217

Macropicus javensis ... nee Bed kSi/

- hodgsonii a 24

Madotheca decurrens ... 191, 192, 196

Mallotus ... ae or oe .. 2210

——_ — Sp. 600 aes Wee ee ly

Mangifera indica sot 600 135, 214

Manis crassicaudata _... ee 254, 255

———- gigantea ... aes ee se aeene OF

- - javanica ... oes sve 255, 256

-pentadactyla ... ny; ZOO

Marchantia nepalensis ... .-. 190, 191, 193

Mastacembelus armatus... 83, 86, 88, 219

Matapa aria O06 a: ee ae 40

Melanitis leda ismene ... 50 aes 39

Melursus ursinus Se Bio ano = CAMS

Merops javanicus es re x) (UE

- leschenaulti hs oe ce (40

—_——- ——_———-- leschenaulti aa 25

- orientalis oats HE .. 140

—_—___-_—_—_-—_- orientalis ... oe 25

————-— persicus ... 566 O00 eel

— -superciliaris ... er vereelOo

- superciliosus javanicus obi 25

Metopidius indicus Go 566 50 31

Microhyla ornata Se 500 212, 216

Micropternus brachyurus 566 sca, eK)

—_—-——_——_ ——_——-—--- jerdonii ... 23

Micropus affinis ... vs i. LOS) Lae S22

— ——__——_——- affinis ... sais CO

——-melba ... ont On cee elds

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa... dec 13

Microtarsus poiocephalus a6 ues 14

Milvus govinda 5o0 oo asa IL, ZAG)

migrans govinda... sto 300 29

——_ ——-——_—_ lineatus. ... 000 508 29

Mirafra affinis ... 506 5 cos les

_ -cantillans bangsi ia or 36

———-erythroptera ... joc ecu wrlas

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla ... cote lias

Mocis (Remigia) frugalis Se Sa 44

Molpastes cafer ... ses .»- 213, 214, 216 ©

= ——cafer ... eee wee 13

Monticola cinclorhyncha 3) ss» Ld, 69

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Monticola solitaria pandoo 15

Motacilla aloa_... sei cone LOS

Beeenunenss 21

— — personata 2]

——_-——-- cinerea caspica 500 21

——_——-- cjtreola were... 21

——_——-- flava beema ... Zl

—___—___— — thunbergi 21

——__——-- maderaspatensis kangree 36

— maderaspa-

tensis 21

Muscadivora cenea 141

- — pusilla 30

Muscicapa parva albicilla 15

————— parva... 1S

— strophiata as 34

Muscicapula pallipes ... 137

—pallipes ... oC 15

— -- rubeculoides rubeculoides 16

— superciliaris superciliaris

67, 142

— -- tickellize tickelliz 16

Myophonus cceruleus horsfieldii 15

Mystacoleucus veeecls

——_——_——__-- ogilbii ae 82, 221

Mystus cavasius ... 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 221

—-— - Deenghala 500 87

- gulio oe 500 eee 87, 222

- seenghala ase po CL

Naia tripudians ... 500 moo AS

Nemachilichthys ruppelli Oecei

Nemachilus botia vary. aureus 82, 83, 86,

88, 91, 221

—— dayi 83-86, 88, 91, 221

Neophron percnopterus aes 28, 141

ginginianus 212, 216

Nephele didyma ... 210, 217

Nerodia piscator 500 500 sco L0S

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia ooo | AD)

Noctuide ... Ses) b eroes 44

Nonnea picta oe 56¢ cen lS

Notopterus notopterus ... 82, 83, 85-89, 219

Nycticebus es 73

Nymphula responsalis ... 60 152

Ochlandra travancorica 136

Ochromela nigrorufa 137

CEcophylla smaragdina 110

Cinopopelia tranquebarica 141

Onobrychis dealbata ... ee ev?

Ophicephalus gachua 91, 222

- leucopunctatus ... 90, 223

RD ee

xxiii

PAGE

Ophicephalus inarulius ... 83, $5, 88, 223

Opuntia : 135

Oreocincla aaa 137

-—— neilgherriensis 15

Oriolus chinensis diffusus 19

- oriolus baltistanicus 36

Oriolus oriolus ku BBE 19

- xanthornus THESIS NAAIDOS 19

Orthotomus 500 O00 oeeLOS

——-=-sutorius ... i fie ip l39

——___——. -_—---——. londze S35

—~ - sindiana... 35

Osphronemus gourami ... 271

Otocompsa jocosa 243: 216

—- faecicaudata 13

Otus bakkamoena bakkamcoena 28

—-stewarti ... ae 8

——- sunia rufipennis ... 28

Pamphilinze 41

Panthera pardus... 215

—— tigris 215

Papaveraceze 112

Papaver polychetum 112

Papilio demoleus... 210, 217 -

Papilionaceze 112

Paradoxurus niger 216

Parapsilorhynchus enteoniaetee 90, 221

Paratelphusa ace 56 212

Parnara cingala ... 42

Parus major mahrattarum 144

-——- stupae 33, 144

—- monticolus 71

——- nuchalis 5 145

Passer domesticus wo 105, 216

--—— indicus 20

Pastor roseus 00 ‘ 19

Pavo cristatus a 31, 142

Pellia calycina 190, 192, 196

Pellionia Daveauana 274

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps ... ses 13

Pennisetum Alopecuros 214, 217

Penthoceryx 103

———- sonneratii sonderatil 24

Perdicula argoondah 142

salimalii ... 143

— —~- asiatica ae oer doo ed 4

-——- vidali 31

Perdix perdix ee 101

perdix coe : 102

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamo-

meus see 7

xxiv

PAGE

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus sidhou-

tensis ethers wed 35

———— flammeus ... ... 17, 138, 147

- peregrinus... 139

Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis ra 30

Phalacrocorax niger... es ae 32

Phaseolus spp... 500 hs Ay 44

Phoenicopterus ruber... eb 242

———— antiquorum 242

Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris ... 14

Phoenix farinifera JESS)

— sylvestris P39

Phyllanthus reticulatus... 135

Phylloscopus affinis ween 143

—__—_—_-——- magnirostris 19, 143

—— nitidus nitidus ... Nae LS

—— - viridanus e 18

—_—— — occipitalis 143, 147

— occipitalis ... 19

————__- poregulus simleensis .... 68

——_——-——- tytleri..... “ ba 18

PiGCAyMOrING ar ae aero stssee 190

Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster dee 23

——-— xanthopygeeus 140

Pilea microphylla 274

Pinus excelsa 190

~—- longifolia ... ae DESY)

Piprisoma agile saturatior 23.037

Pitta brachyura brachyura. ... oC 23

——_——_-— ——- pulchra oe ube 37

Plagiochasma appendiculatum 190, 192, 195

———— ——-~ articulatum 190, 192, 195

Plagiochila mundaliensis soo JCAL, AUS aly

Ploceus philippinus 139, 143

— ——_-——-— travancoreensis... © 20

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus... soo we AU

Polyalthea longifolia... ane 606 46

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi 142

——_— + —__ -__- obscurus 216

——— travancoreensis 12

— —__-——- maderaspatensis 142

—_—_——. --—- ruficollis ... 257

———. —__ —__- —~ —— - ruficollis 258

-~————_-—— travancoreensis 142

Pongamia .glabra... LOGRISS

Precis orithyia ZLOR 217

Primulacece 112

Primula floribunda 1i2

Prinia sylvatica mahendre .... eas 36

AK ———— A SAY palniensis “ @@e eee 35

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Procutropichthys taakree 83, 89, 222

Pseudibis papillosus ... O06 wa 32

Pseudogyps bengalensis ae sts 28

Psilorhynchus homaloptera 282

Psittacula columboides... By, Alsi)

————- cyanocephala 140

—_——-~ ——- cyanocephala 25

—_—_—_——- himalayana himalayana ... 60, 63

———~- krameri be 140

-———. ——- borealis... a 25

— manillensis... 143

terocarpus santalinus ... a Sooner 1S

Pterocles exustus... 142

—— indicus ... 142

Pterolobium indicum erin ap 2 CtS)

Pteropus giganteus 2t1; 215

Ptyas mucosus 216

Puntius pinnauratus 224

-- ticto ah 225

Pycnonotus gularis ‘ee “id O00 14

——- luteolus luteolus ... 600 14

— - xantholeemus pee eee

Pyralide ... 400 Se 0 vie 46

Pyrrhulauda grisea 205

Python molurus .. 107

Radula complanata .-' LON, 192" 196

Ramphalcyon capensis gurial ... ses 26

’ Rana cyanophilictis ae 212; 216

——- limnocharis... Bho “3 21:2; 216

——- tigrina 216

Randia spp. 135

82, 84-88, 90, 219

Soo EI, ISA, 1S

Rasbora daniconius

Reboulia hemispherica ..

Rhinophis dorsimaculatts 281

Rhopocichla atriceps ve 137

———_——_-—_ --_——--- atriceps ... 506 13

Rhopodytes viridirostris 24, 140 -

Rhynchosia minima... ee aR. 46

Riparia concolor... La “ti eae 20

- rupestris... eee 500 500 20

Rita hastata 606 600 oe oon aae

—— pavimentata 83, 85, 222

Rohtee cotio os ae pa | CCD)

vary.cunma 82, 85, 87-89, 221

- = neilli 500 She a PSS OM

-vigorsii $2, 84, 85, 87-89, 221

Rusa unicolor nee SOC 0)

Salix tetrasperma SAW e NO. 2417)

Salmo fario 268

—_—— irideus 269

Santalum album ... 135

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Sarcogyps calyus 28

Saturniidee 42

Satyridee 39

Saxicola caprata ... 105

——_— ———--- rupchandi . 14, 34

=———— torquata maura 14

Saxicoloides fulicata lucknowensis 34 |

-- ptymatura 14

—_—___— —___ __—_--- stuart-bakeri 34

Searabeeidee ZALT)

Schefflera venulosa 276

Schizmatorhynchus ta 218

(Nukta) aukta 85, 22]

Scolopax rusticola 69

—————-- indica 32

Scorzonera papposa WW

_ Semnopithecus entellus... 201, 215) |

Serecia Desfontainei 112

Silonopangasius childrenii 83, 222

Siphia parva hyperythra lel

Sitta castanea ... 006 138

- -castanea ... 146

Sitta frontalis oh 137

-—-—- frontalis ... 147 -

- simplex 12, 34

solanacee ... a0 1

Solanum see 115, 214

———— jasminoides 121, 122

———— lycopersicum ... 116

———— melongena 116

= RA Go = 115 |

———— psetudo-capsicum LIke, Italy

—— —— Rantonnetii 118 |

———— seaforthianum... 120 |

tuberosum 116

oo Wendlandii 119, 120

Sphingide... 42 |

Spilornis cheela mcanots 23. |

Spirodela maxima 158

woe - oligorrhiza 157

—- polyrrhiza . 148, 155 155

Spizeetus cirrhatus cerancnets 23; |

—-~ nipalensis fokiensis ... 106 |

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops Cp

Stephensoniella brevipedunculata 191, 192,

193

Sterna aibifrons sinensis 201

dougalii korustes 104

Streptopelia chinensis sci 141 |

= - suratensis :

— ~ decaocto 105, 141

Streptopelia orientalis erytnhrocephala

meena ...

sylvicola

—__——-——-- senegalensis

Strix aluco biddulphi

——-- indranee indranee...

—- ocellata

Strobilanthes

—— callosus

Sturnia malabarica

blythii

malabarica

Sus cristatus aoe

Synantherias sylvatica ...

Tamarindus indica

Targionia hypophylla

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea

Tarucus plinius ... see 5 as

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster ...

———-——— paradisi

Tectona grandis..

Temenuchus ee iarian

——_—--————-——-~ sylvestris

oe -dornis gularis sylvicola

ss ——~= warel

Terminalia tomentosa ...

Terias hecabe

libythea s

Thalasseus bergii velox

Thereiceryx viridis

Tockus birostris ... :

——-- birostris

—__-___ ——- pergriseus

- griseus 0

—_——_——- griseus...

Tringa glareola ..

~ hypolewcos

— ochrophus

‘Tropidonotus piscator ..

- plumbicolor

Soe! A)

eee ee

“Turdoides somervillei malabaricus

ees - Sindianus

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis

Turnix suscitator

Tylognathus porcellus ...

Tyto alba crypta

Upupa epops i

——— -—_—- - eonensis

—epops

Uroloncha malabarica ...

192, 194

105,139

135

217

134

17, 35

134

209, 217

104

24, 138

105, 141

216

213, 216

142

225

sot ois)

141, 216

139

¥Xvi

Uroloncha punctulata

striata

Ursus arctos ous

—— gedrosianus

——-— torquatus...

Valeria indica

Vanessa cardui

Varanus bengalensis

——-——— monitor

Vateria indica

Veronia authelmintica ...

Vipera russellii

Vivia innominatus

Vogelia indica

Vormela peregusna’

Vulpes bengalensis

——-—- leucopus

- vulpes

PRINTED

— shanorum..

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE |

139 |

139

247

gals

208, 217

216

107, 212

185

231

216

. 24, 137, 143

6 BIO

253, 254

247

PAGE

Vulpes vulpes griffithi ... 606 oo AM

——_————- montana... 500 500 A

——_——_-——- pusilla ... eet soon ead

Wallagonia attu ... 500 ie boo CAL

Wolff avant hizamse anes anes ee melt ©

Xanthium strumariurm ... ait Peiaaim aA

Xantholema hemacephala ... (ke SD)

-————— . ———\-—— confusa 24, 37

—— ——. —— malabarica ae se 24

rubricapilla ve Boo «dLY/

Xenentodon cancila 83, 87-89, 222

Xylia ae Pa sles senna Se

Zinnia ae. 506 oe Ban . 214

Zinziberacece aa ae ses 606 45

Zizyphus jujuba ... 660 500 oe Sh)

——-—— cenoplia a es weap pela

Zosterops palpebrosa ... a6 LOS

~_—_—___ —_——_—— palniensis wee 36

-— —_——_——_— salimallii sec 22

AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS.—1943. C2068

an eae |

VoL. XLIII, No. 1. APRIL, 1942. “Price, “Rs. 10met

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OF THE —

Bombay Natrurant History Socirry.

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Za SONIAN INST> ES

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AUG I 2 194

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CONTENTS OP SOLO M EEX, No.

<SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part X. By N. L.

Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one

coloured plate, eight black and white plates, and five text-figures)

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD, BOMBAY .PRESIDENCY.

By Walter Koelz

THE Earty SvtaGes oF INbDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part IX. By D. G.

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A CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY

OF INDIAN MarsH AND Aguatic PLants. Part II. By J. F..R.

D’Almeida, B.a., M.sc. (With three plates) ;

EVE WS)

Shells and other Animal Remains found on the Madras Beach. By

F. H. Gravely

The Ecology and Control of the Forest Insects of India and the

neighbouring countries. By C. F. C. Beeson

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. An Hermaphrodite Tiger. By C. Fraser

Il. The Indian Wild Dog. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,

Indian Army (Retd.) 506 S06 560 560

III. Widespread rabies among Wild Dogs on the PUNE ibanean

Hills (S. India). By Captain R. C. Morris ...

IV. A Coin lodged in a fee Palate. By A. St. John

; Macdonald ae ee 500

V. Measurements of an Indian Bison Head (Bibos gaurus). By

S. ©. H. Robinson Soo 360 ts aes

VI. Note on the Occurrence of the English Partridge eeia

perdic L.) in North Persia. By ‘Perdrix’

VII. The Nesting of the Malabar ee) Hornbill. By Humayun

Abdulali oy 500

VIII. The Identification of the Small Cuckoo. By ee

Abdulali 560

IX. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain Fever Bird. By

D. G, Meston 6 506 600 : aes

X. The Distribution of the Rosy Tern. By Humayun Abdulali

¢ ye)

Rea)

PAGE

100

IO!

102

103

104

104.

XXI.

XXIT.

XXIII.

CONTENTS OF Vol. XLITI, No.1

Some Birds seen from the train in the Madras Presidency.

By Humayun Abdulali 506

The Distribution of the Nukta or

By N. H. Menesse, .1.s.z.

Occurrence of the Chinese Hawk Heed in the Chin Hills.

By Major A. C. Moore .

Comb Duck in Sind.

The Crocodile in Burma. By J. A. M. Symns

Note on an experience with an Indian Hes eel ldo

Turner

The Number of eggs in the Clutch of the Checkered Water

Snake. By N. G. Pillai. (With a photo) .

Glow-Worm (Lamphrophorus nepalensis H.) feeding on

a slug. By Ro E. Parsons, F:R.E-S. ... Bris as

The Plant-Bug Cyclopelta siccifolia Westw. on es

glabra. By C. McCann .

A Battle between Black and Red Ants. By N. G. Pillai...

Wanted male specimens of the Beetle (Allomyrina dichoto-

mus) from India. By R. E. Parsons. (With a photo)

The Distribution of the Scorpion

Pocock). By J. F. Caius

Additions to the Flora of Waziristan.

Lowndes

(Hormurus nigripes

By Major D. G.

Fasciated Inflorescence of Acrocarpus MA Wight.

By N. L. Bor. (With a photo)

Tale lis

JES?

Tee

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Golden Cestrum.

CESTRUM AURANTIACUM Lindl.

(nat. size),

NOTICE TO MEMBERS

The Committee of the Society has been compelled

by war conditions to introduce a rigid economy in the

Society’s expenditure, and this has implied, among other

things, a reduction in the size of the Journal.

It is sincerely hoped that members will understand

the reasons which compelled the Society to adopt this

course, and will continue to give the Society their co-

operation and support in these critical times.

i a

—"

8a saM3M oT JDITOW

hupeamas pad esl -y2eise? silt. to ‘sane edhe ‘

ofl si ymonoos bight § soubowal ot gnctibaop. 16w .

jedio gnoms -beilarni esd 2d? bag @wribasaxs 2'ys9ioe

lamiuot ort to esis orld ab Be la & aBnite

brsdeisbau iw svedmern end boqoll. lat90 “Ee

ads igebs 02 yieizee. aft ballegmes: dsidwe enoesat oda

“62 orld pst ed? evig ot ounlidas Uw bas .aen

2aMid [soitD ase Ai woes bos: ABS aqe

rer

a yee ihe =

t At RS

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1942. WO, 2 OIU0 No.- 1.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INE BORN IMVAR wDASC uh LaS. lak. Sa,

5 Forest Botanist

AND

M. B. RAIzZADA, M.Sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

IPART 9 ON

(Continued from Vol. xlii, No. 4 (1941), p. 703).

(With 1 coloured and 8 black and white plates and 5 text-figures),

Solanaceae.

THE DEADLY NIGHTSHADE FAMILY.

Solanaceae is derived from Solanum, a name used by Pliny to

designate the well-known Bitter-sweet (Solanum dulcamara Linn.)

a poisonous plant found in waste places in Europe.

The Solanaceae comprise herbs, erect or climbing shrubs, or even

small trees. The leaves are usually alternate, entire, or lobed or

cleft in various ways, exstipulate. The inflorescence is either lateral

or terminal and the flowers are cymose or panicled or even solitary,

regular, pentamerous or tetramerous. The corolla is gamopetalous,

short and rotate or long and infundibuliform, rarely campanulate,

more or less deeply lobed, sometimes entire; lobes 4-5-10. Stamens

4-5, inserted on the coroila tube; the filaments are very short and

the anthers are either attached by the base or by the dorsal surface.

Dehiscence is by pores or longitudinal slits. The ovary is in most

cases 2-locular, rarely with 3-4-5 compartments; ovules many, on

prominent peltate placentas; style linear: stigma capitate or shortly

lobed. Fruit a berry or capsule, many-seeded. Seeds compressed,

discoid or kidney-shaped, ;

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The family contains many plants cultivated for food e.g., potato,

tomato, Cape gooseberry, capsicum and tree tomato. The tobacco

plant, Nicotiana Tabacum Linn., is widely cultivated in this country.

The family also contains many well-known ornamental plants among

which are Browallia, Petunia, Solanum, Brunfelsia, Datura,

Cestrum, Schizanthus and Salpiglossis.

Apart from the value of the family to horticulturists, many

species found wild in nature are prized as drug plants. The Deadly

Nightshade, Atropa Belladonna Linn., derives its specific name

from the fact that in bygone days ladies in Italy used the leaves

to impart lustre to their eyes and so enhance their beauty. The

plant actually contains a drug (atropine) which is used for ophthalmic

complaints, for neuralgia and as a valuable antidote in opium

poisoning. One of its effects is to enlarge the pupil of the eye.

The berries are sweet and poisonous and are often eaten by children

with fatal results. The name Atropa is from the Greek, Atropos,

one of the Fates who cut the thread of life, and has reference to

its deadly poisonous nature. Belladonna is found wild in India

on the Himalayan ranges of the Punjab, Kashmir and Lahoul.

The Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger, Linn.) is a common plant

of rather high altitudes in the western Himalayas. It is supposed

to be fatal to fowls hence the trivial name. In the middle ages in

Britain it was used for toothache. The alkaloids it contains are

narcotic and antispasmodic. :

Two species of Withania Paug., W. coagilans Dunal and

W. somnifera Dunal, are found in India. The former is found in the

Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan. The seeds have the interesting pro-

perty of being able to coagulate milk, and hence can be used as a

substitute for animal rennet. The fresh fruit can be used as an emetic.

W. somnifera Dunal, found in Bombay, possesses an alkaloid

which is used in rheumatism, as an aphrodisiac and as a cure for

scorpion. sting.

Datura is another genus with poisonous properties. An account

of these properties will be found under the genus.

No account of the Solanaceae would be complete without some

mention of the Mandrake, a plant famous in legend and history.

This genus of plants, Mandragora, has been for many centuries,

and is even today, regarded with superstitious awe. All this super-

stition has arisen because the thick fleshy root bears a remote

resemblance to a human figure. To that resemblance can be directly

traced the belief that the plant shrieks when pulled from the earth.

Apart from this, however, it was known in ancient times as an

aphrodisiac and also as an anaesthetic. According to F. W. Jones’,

1935, it is a well-attested fact that Hua T’o, the great Chinese sur-

eeon, who was born in the first century after Christ, performed major

operations (such as the removal of the spleen) upon patients to

whom he had administered a drug that produced insensibility. Part

of the fame of that fabled plant, the mandrake, rests upon the fact

that it was the first anaesthetic discovered by man. Its properties

have been known for over three thousand years, but _ only

1 Jones, F, W., Syme Oration, ‘The Master Surgeon,’ 1935.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS a

comparatively recently has it been shown that it contains hyoscine,

hyoscyamine and scopolamine as well as other soporific alkaloids.

In ancient medicine this plant was used to produce deep sleep and

complete insensibility.

The roots of this plant, and the tuberous roots of certain other

plants, are even at the present day, carved to resemble more nearly a

human figure, and are hoarded by the superstitious as powerful

magical charms.

As can be expected, a plant which had these valuable medical

properties and which also possessed certain human characteristics,

acquired in olden times the most extravagant reputation for magical

powers. Theophrastus, for instance, in his history of plants, says

that it is dangerous to gather it unless a sword is swung in a circle

three times, and the face turned towards the west before the plant

is lifted from the ground.

Fig. 1.—Harvesting the Mandrake.

(From a drawing in the Niirnberg Museum).

But listen to what Josephus wrote in the first century after

Christ in his history of the Jewish war: ‘In the valley in which

the town of Macharus is situated, is found a wonderful root called

Baara. In colour it is a fiery-red and in the evening it emits rays

of light. It is difficult to pluck it because it avoids the hand of

anyone who goes near, and in any case to touch it means certain

death. There is a way, however, in which it can be collected quite

harmlessly. You must dig away the soil from around the plant so

that it is only attached to the earth by a single rootlet. A dog 1s

taken and tied to the root. Its owner then calls it and it will run

to him at the same time severing the rootlet. It immediately falls

dead and then the plant can be handled without danger. Men take

such great trouble because of its wonderful properties. It can even

drive out evil spirits if it is brought near a sick person.’ Baara

was an early name of the mandrake. The accompanying sketch

shows the conception of an artist of the Middle Ages of the way in

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

which the plant should be collected. It follows very closely the

procedure recommended by Josephus.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

Flower trumpet-shaped or if salver-shaped with a short tube.

Fruit a drupe.

Corolla tube longer than the lobes. 1. Cestrum.

Corolla tube shorter than the lobes. 2. Solanum.

Fruit a capsule ae 3. Datura.

Flower salver-shaped with a long tube. 4. Brunfelsia.

ARTE

1. Cestrum Linn.

The name Cestrum is derived from the Greek word kestron,

which was used by Dioscorides in his manual on medicinal plants

to designate a Labiate, Stachys officinalis or S. alopecuroides. The

word itself means pointed iron, or the style of the ovary, and may

refer to the pointed anthers of these plants. Why Linnaeus applied

the name ‘Cestrum to this genus is not known.

This genus comprises shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate,

entire, petioled or subsessile, exstipulate, often with an unpleasant

odour when bruised. Inflorescence in axillary or terminal cymes

or panicles. The calyx is usually short, campanulate or cylindric,

5-lobed or 5-partite. Corolla usually fragrant, green, white, yellow,

orange or even reddish; tube elongate, cvlindrical or narrowly

infundibuliform, sometimes bell-shaped at the mouth and_ then

contracted, 5- or more-lobed or 5-partite; lobes spreading, much

shorter than the tube, with the margins often incurved, glabrous

or hairy. Stamens 5, included. Filaments adnate to the corolla

for a large portion of their length, often dilated or hairy at the

point of insertion and provided with an appendage of variable

shape; anthers globular, deshiscing longitudinally. Ovary 2-celled;

ovules few; style filiform, more or less glandular at the summit ;

stigma capitate. Fruit an oblong or ovoid berry, black, purple

or rarely white.

The Cestrums are natives of South and:Central America, but

are now cultivated in the open in many parts of the warmer regions

of the world or under glass in temperate latitudes.

When flowering the flowers are usually to be found pendulous,

a position which ensures that the pollen is not wetted and rendered

ineffective by rain.

Owing to the fact that the flowers of Cestrum are fragrant, it

is to be inferred that this is a device to secure cross fertilisation.

In the case of some species the flowers are only fragrant at night

which leads one to believe that the unconscious agent of cross-

pollination is a night-flying insect.

If cross-fertilisation is not accomplished the flowers still possess

a mechanism which ensures self-pollination. When the stigma has

been fertilised the style decays. On the other hand when the

anther cells have opened the corolla becomes detached from the

receptacle. Should the style have decayed as a result of fertilisa-

tion the corolla can drop off... If, however, the style is still intact

ee ee

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 5

the corolla is prevented from dropping off by the appendages at

the base of the filaments. These appendages vary in shape but are

often tongue-like processes which curve inwards round the style.

The coroila on becoming detached is prevented from dropping off

immediately by the tips of the appendage becoming locked under

the capitate stigma. There is, theretore, every likelihood of self-

fertilisation taking place even though cross-fertilisation has not been

accomplished through the agency of insects.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Flowers reddish. C. elegans.

I‘iowers white, green or varying Sheles of yellow.

Lobes of corolla blunt, becoming distinctly reflexed.

Corolla orange-yellow. aa se 2 C. aurantiacum.

Corolla white. 306 0 we C. diurnum.

Lobes acute, erect or spreading. ;

Leaves oblong- -ovate, shortly acuminate, not foetid

when bruised. he “Be .- C. nocturnunt.

Leaves lanceolate, very long tapering, very foetid

when bruised, 5 =P ne aco) Ge. JOG ive

Cestrum elegans Schlecht.

Description.—A large shrub with pendulous, leafy branches;

branches cylindrical, covered with a soft velvety pubescence. Leaves

Fig. 2.—Cestrum elegans Schl. X 3/4.

alternate, exstipulate, shortly petioled, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate

in shape, quite entire, tapering to a point, 3-4 in. long, up to 1 in.

wide, covered on both surfaces with short, crisped hairs, parti-

cularly so on the nerves beneath, deep green in colour, membranous

in texture, rounded, acute or obscurely cordate at the base; petiole

oi im, long, pubescent. |

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIl

Inflorescence in axillary or terminal dense, pendulous, thyrsoid,

compound racemes. Individual flowers subtended by hairy bracteoles,

sessile or subsessile. Calyx .2 in. long, top-shaped, green, hairy,

5-lobed; lobes broadly triangular-ovate, acuminate, erect. Corolla

purplish-red, tubular, gradually inflated then contracted below the

mouth, glabrous, .75 in. long. Lobes 5 or more, triangular, acute,

very shortly ciliate on the margins, mouth and inner surface glabrous.

Stamens as many as the corolla lobes and alternate with

them; filaments inserted two-thirds the way down the tube, filiform;

anthers included, small, yellow. Ovary globose, shortly stipitate,

seated in a disk, 2-celled, ovules few on the axile placentas; style

slender; stigma capitate. Fruit a berry, .5-.75 in, in diameter,

fleshy, deep red-purple in colour, . 2-celled, many-seeded.

Flowers.—September-December.

Distribution.—Native of Mexico, largely grown in gardens in

temperate countries.

Gardening.—A shrub eminently suitable for growing in hill

stations. The red purple flowers which are borne in dense,

terminal drooping cymes are produced almost continuously through-

out the year and make this shrub a very attractive object. It prefers

partial shade and rich well-drained soil and is propagated by cuttings.

Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl...

(aurantiacum is a Latin’ word meaning orange-red, and refers

to the colour of the flowers).

Description.—An erect or scrambling shrub, glabrous or young

parts puberulous. Leaves alternate, stipulate, petioled, ovate-acute

or ovate-acuminate in shape, membranous in texture, entire, glabrous,

dark green in colour, somewhat undulate on the margins, 3-4 in.

long, up to 2.5 in. broad; petiole .75 in. long. :

Inflorescence axillary or terminal in pedunculate, racemose or

panicled clusters; peduncles often pubescent. Lower flowers pedi-

celled, the upper sessile or subsessile, bracteolate; bracteoles leaf-

like, narrow, lanceoiate, puberulous. Calyx gamosepalous, .25-.3 in.

long, cylindrical-campanulate, 5-ribbed, each rib continued above

into a linear awl-like lobe. Corolla tube constricted at the base,

obconical in shape, orange-red in colour, .9 in. long, .3 in. wide

at the top, ribbed; ribs double the number of the lobes. Lobes

ovate-obtuse, completely reflexed at full anthesis, 5-7 in number.

Stamens corresponding in number to the lobes and alternate with

them; filaments inserted in the tube, adnate to the lower half of the

tube, free in the upper half, included, appendaged; appendage

bracket-like, glandular. Ovary seated on an obscure fleshy disk;

style slender; stigma capitate.

Flowers.—October-December. Does not fruit in this country.

Distribution.—Native of Guatemala, now commonly cultivated in

the warmer and temperate regions of the whole world.

Gardening.—-A pretty bushy shrub with scentless orange flowers

borne in panicles. It will grow up to 1o ft. or so and can withstand

considerable moisture. Six weeks after flowering the plant should

be well cut back in order to obtain a shapely bush and induce profuse

Photo by N. Bakshi

The Golden Cestrum.

Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl.

Botanic Garden, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

RN. BOMBAY Nav. Hist. Soc.

M. N. Bakshi

The Day Jasmine.

Cestrum dinrnum Linn.

Forest, a Dun.

JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by

Jasmine,

The Day

Ceslrynm ¢

Linn.

Dehra Dun.

LiMiRMIN

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS fi

flowering. It prefers rich soil and 1s propagated by cuttings. This

plant forms a very pretty green-house shrub and as its flowers do

not drop off easily it has become a great favourite in all European

gardens.

Cestrum diurnum Linn.

THE Day JASMINE.

Description.—An erect shrub with numerous leafy branches.

Branches green (fawn in age) with well-marked, white lenticels ;

young parts covered with a very sparse glandular scurf. Leaves

Fig. 3.—Cestrum diurnum Linn. x 1/1.

alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, dark green above, pale below,

glabrous, entire, obtuse at the apex, obtusely wedge-shaped below,

ovate-lanceolate in shape, up to 5 in. long by 1.5 in. wide; petioles

up to .5 in. long. i

Inflorescence a long axillary peduncle bearing short clusters

of white sweet-smelling flowers, each cluster supported by a leaf-

like bract. Individual flowers sessile, with or without bracteoles,

calyx gamosepalous, about .15 in. long, somewhat puberulent,

obtusely 5-ribbed, 5-lobed; lobes obtuse, ciliate. Corolla tube

narrowly infundibuliform, white, sweet-scented, about .5 in. long,

5-lobed; lobes very obtuse, completely recurved when the flower is

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?T. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

fully open. Stamens oblong, 5 in number, alternate with the corolla

lobes, brown in colour, included; filaments adnate to the tube, free

for a very short distance. Ovary seated on a nectary-secreting disk;

style filiform, glabrous; stigmas truncate-capitate. Berry nearly

globular, black.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Native of the West Indies, widely cultivated in

gardens throughout the country.

Gardening.—A_ quick-growing evergreen shrub with dark green

foliage and white flowers that are very sweet scented during the day.

It is well suited for screens and borders. Easily propagated by

seed which it produces abundantly. It is advisable to prune it after

flowering so as to prevent it from becoming ragged.

Cestrum nocturnum Linn.

Lady of the Night. Night Jessamine. Rat-ki-rani (Hind.).

(The specific name refers to the fact that this plant opens its flowers

at night). |

Description.—A — glabrous

shrub reaching a_ height of

Qik Branches _ slender,

smooth, often yellowish with

numerous lenticels. Leaves

alternate, exstipulate, ovate-

oblong, acute at the apex,

cuneiform or rounded at the

base, membranous in texture,

entire, glabrous, up to 4 in.

long by 1.5 in. wide; petioles

Hy) 1D o& thm, Ikons

Inflorescence in many-

flowered, pedunculate, axillary

or terminal panicles, exceed-

ing by much the length of the

leaves; common peduncles up

to 1 in. long, erect or spread-

ing. Individual flowers sup-

ported by a lanceolate bract,

pedicelled or subsessile. Calyx

campanulate, sparsely glandu-

lar, .15 in. long, glabrous,

with 5 small triangular teeth,

which are acute, scarious and

short ciliate at the tips.

Corolla greenish, sweet-smell-

ing at night, tube cylindrical

or narrowly infundibuliform,

MOONE o/s) hil, © ‘WMovave, © TA,

broad at the top; lobes 5,

ovate-acute, margins incurved ;

Bie i Cagieat ee Ae AN stamens 5, alternate with the

~ 3/4- lobes of the corolla; filament

adnate to the corolla tube for a quarter of its length from the top,

yURN. BomBAY Nav. Hist.

Photo by M. N. Bakshi

Lady of the Night.

Cestrum nocturnnm Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

JOURN. BomBAy Nar. Hist. SOc.

3 ee

Riese

GY;

yy,

}

Photo by Lady of the Night. M. N. Baksii

Cestrnm noctnrnume Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

OMBAY

ismin

"Her

“itier.

‘Gui

1 Dun.

Cestrum Pay

‘

—

—&

orest,

New FI

Jasmin

Willow

AGW

JouRN. BomBAY Nat. HI

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 9

provided at the junction with a linear-acute appendage. Ovary

globular, seated on a fleshy disk which probably secretes nectar ;

style filiform, glabrous; stigma capitate, above the stamens. Fruit

a blue or blackish berry, ovoid in shape, about .16 in. long. Seeds

numerous, compressed.

Flowers.—Practically throughout the year, but most profusely

during the rains. Fruit cold season.

Distribution.-_Indigenous to the West Indies. Largely culti-

vated throughout the plains of this country.

Gardening.—A hardy sub-scandent, quick-growing shrub about

to ft. high. The small, greenish and rather inconspicuous flowers,

which are produced in great profusion open at night, and are strongly

sweet-scented. It 1s a great favourite with Indians and is exten-

sively cultivated in their gardens. This shrub is well adapted for

tall borders and screens and can easily be trained on a trellis. It

is hardy and drought resistant. Very easily propagated by cuttings.

Cestrum Parqui L’Héritier

WILLOW-LEAVED JASMINE.

(Parqui is the Chilean name of this plant and was once proposed

as the generic name).

Fig. 5.—Cestrum Parqui L’Herit. x 1/2.

_Description.—A. shrub reaching 4-5 ft. in height. Branches

cylindrical, glabrous, greenish, covered with small greenish-white

lenticels. Leaves petioled, alternate, exstipulate, lanceolate, long

tapering at the apex, up to 6 in. long, .5-.75 in. wide, very foetid

when bruised, entire, glabrous, margins undulate; petioles short,

scarcely .1 in. long.

10 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Inflorescence in pedunculate unbellitorm cymes or panicles,

many-flowered, not exceeding the leaves in length. Individual

flowers sessile, supported by a linear bract. Calyx gamosepalous,

cylindrical, sparsely glandular without, about .1 in. long, with

5 acute, triangular, ciliate teeth. Corolla gamopetalous, fragrant at

night, glabrous, pale yellow in colour, about .75 in. long, narrowly

infundibuliform in shape, .15 in. wide at the top. Lobes ovate-acute,

ciliate on the margins which become revolute in age, slightly tinged

with purple on the outside. Stamens 5; alternate with the lobes

of the corolla; filaments inserted on the corolla about 1/3 its

length from the top; stamens globose; appendage absent. Ovary

globose, seated on an inconspicuous disk; style elongate, glabrous;

stigmas truncate-capitate.

Flowers.—More or less throughout the year. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Native in the mountains of Chile, South America,

now largely cultivated in the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the

globe.

Gardening.—A shrub about 4-5 ft. high, with leaves that have

a foetid smell when bruised.. The greenish-yellow flowers are very

fragrant at night. It was introduced into England in the year 1787.

Easily propagated by seed.

(Lo be continued.)

NOTES ON. THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA

NEIGHBOURHOOD, BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

WALTER KOELZ.

In 1938 I spent from January 7 to March 13 in the vicinity of

Londa, North Kanara, Bombay Presidency, and among other

things, collected birds. The region covered during the course of

this collecting was roughly the triangle, about 15 miles on a side,

formed by a line joining Londa, Supa and Castle Rock. The area

is in the peneplain of the Western Ghats with an average elevation

of about 2,000 feet. The terrain consists of worn-down knobs and

low hills with well-formed and numerous drainage channels. In

general, the mountain-core is covered with earth, with outcroppings

only on certain shoulders, and most of the region is forested. The

soil on the elevations is generally thin and there the forest growth

is scrubby and the species are mainly deciduous. Where the soil

is deeper the growths become denser and evergreens become increas-

ingly important. Scattered through most of the area there are small

clearings, given over to rice growing, with somewhere at the side,

the clustered huts of the cultivators. For the most part, the fields

were fallow in winter, for want of water to irrigate them, but in

favoured places at the lower levels the rice was being transplanted

in February. The largest of these small settlements are Castle

‘Rock and Londa, each with a railroad station, Supa and Jagalbed,

all of them with a post office. The only extensive strip of un-

broken forest in the delimited area is that between Jagalbed and

Supa, and in it there are patches of well-grown trees. One also

sees groves of such even among the clearings. There is abundant

water in the streams, even in winter, so that crocodiles lived

within a stone’s throw of the railway station at Londa, and the

large river at Supa was far too deep to wade. Ponds were small

and rare. Water birds were limited in numbers and of few species,

and some widely-distributed species, like ducks, were totally absent.

Land birds were plentiful and many of the species were generally

distributed and of common occurrence. Only a few were rare.

There were few suitable habitats for species like Saxicoloides fult-

cata, Monticola s. pandoo and Rhophodytes viridirostris, and some

like Ceyx tridactylus, Halcyon pileata, Dinopium j. malabaricum,

Arachnothera 1. vantynei, Alseonax m. muttui seemed to prefer

relatively restricted parts of major habitats. A few species like

Oreocincla d. neilgherriensis, Hippolais c. rama, Muscicapa p. albi-

cilla, Lalage m. melaschista, Ploceus p. tvavancoreensis, Circus

pygargus, Ducula b. cuprea, reported from single specimens, may

be strays in the region or seasonally absent. Anthus r. godlewskii

was apparently a short-stay visitor.

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Specimens collected are in my collection.

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Southern Jungle-Crow.

Occurred in some numbers around the villages.

Wing measurements 3 ¢ 289-304; 3 @ 278-301 mm.

Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot. The Common Indian House-Crow.

Occurred with the preceding.

Wing measurements 2 6 267, 270; 3 @ 262-264 mm.

Dendrocitta vagabunda. The Indian Tree-Pie.

Common, in pairs in the open jungle. Londa birds are much larger and

paler than the Malabar race parvula and are darker than pallida of the

north.

Wing measurements 7 ¢ 143-150; 6 @Q@ 140-150 mm.

Machlolophus xanthogenys xanthonotus Koelz’.

Occurred everywhere except in the dense forest, usually in small flocks or

in pairs most often in company with foraging flocks of other birds. These

troupes usually contained: Sitta f. simplex, Alcippe p. brucei, Atgithina t. humet,

lole icterica, Hemipus p. picatus, Tephrodornis g. sylvicola, Chaptia a.

malayensis, Pericrocotus flammeus, P. c. cinnamomeus, Phylloscopus o.

occipitalis, P. n. nitidus, with at least a half dozen of each species. Other

species were often to be found also and it was always worthwhile to follow

the army as it moved, not too leisurely, in a broad band through the forest.

Several such troupes could be found in the course of a halfday’s travel. In early

morning the members were most conspicuous.

Sitta frontalis simplex Koelz’.

The species was found frequently, single or in pairs, often in the wandering

troupes.

Garrulax delesserti (Jerdon). The Wynaad Laughing-Thrush.

A flock of about a dozen was found in a dense thicket near Castle Rock

on March 6 and 7 and three were collected. No others were seen.

Turdoides somervillei malabaricus (Jerdon). The Malabar Jungle Babbler.

This species was abundantly represented in flocks of about a dozen noisy

members at the border of fields or throughout the scrub forest. They liked

particularly the camps where the oxcart-drivers stopped to refresh themselves

and their animals, and were there very tame. I always looked to see what

the cause was when they made a special commotion, because elsewhere I

have found the species helpful in locating small owls, but here I seldom

found out a reason for their excitement and only a few times found a bird,

always Ketupa.

Wing measurements 4 @ 101-106; 6 @ (93) I0I-109 mm.

Argya subrufa (Jerdon). The Rufous Babbler.

Occurred in flocks of 6-8, most often at the edge of the forest. The birds

were as a rule rather quiet and probably were often overlooked. A_ flock

might be found everyday by looking in the right places.

Wing measurements 7 ¢ 90-93; 6 Q 88-92.5 mm.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii travancoreensis Harington. The Southern Indian

Scimitar-Babbler.

Common in small flocks usually in the thickets but also often in the

tree tops with the mixed troupes. They have a variety of notes and_ their

_ oe ,

* Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 18

vocalization is one of the liveliest features of the jungle. Londa_ birds_are

similar to my series from the Palnis and Nilgiris.

Wing measurements 8 4 (94) 99-101.5; 7 Q 88-96 mm.

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth). The White-throated Babbler.

Flocks of about 10 were found occasionally, most often in the thickets at

the edge of fields or along water.

Wing measurements 8 ¢ (52) 55-57; 8 @ 52-55.5 mm.

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson. The Spotted Babbler.

An abundant species, occurring in pairs, always in the scrub forest.

Collected specimens are much like a_ series from Mahendra Giri, Orissa

with a tendency to be somewhat richer in color.

Wing measurements 10 <6 (70) 73-76; Q 66-73 mm.

Alcippe poioicephala brucei Hume. The Bombay Quaker-Babbler.

One of the common species, found in flocks of 6-10 in deep woods or

in Open scrub, a common constituent of the mixed troupes. Specimens taken

in early March were breeding. Collected specimens are like a series from

Mahendra Giri, Orissa.

Wing measurements 4 6 72-73.53; 9 @Q 66.5-71 mm.

Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps (Jerdon). The Black-headed Babbler.

Like the preceding but not so commonly found in the travelling flocks

and more often near the ground. March specimens were nesting.

Wing measurements 4 G 58.5-61; 7 @ 56.5-58.5 mm.

Agithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Tora.

One of the common elements of the troupes. Specimens taken prior

to March show no black feathers on the body proper.

Wing measurements 8 3 63-66; 6 Q 62-63.5 (65) mm.

Chloropsis auriirons dayidsoni Stuart Baker. The Malabar Chloropsis.

Usually occurred in pairs and were found feeding on the Butea frondosa

blooms.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ (87.5) 91-97; 3 Q 86-88.5 mm.

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa (Sykes). The Southern Indian Black Bulbul.

I have usually found this and others of its races to occur in flocks,

but at Londa I never saw more than pairs. They were not common but

occurred throughout the region wherever there were trees.

Wing measurements 10 @ 112-120; 3 Q 107.5-I11 mm.

Molpastes cafer cafer (Linnaeus). The Ceylon Red-vented Bulbul.

This was one of the commonest birds. Usually small flocks were seen,

most often in the thickets around fields.

Wing measurements 4 9 91.5-96; 11 Q 87.5-90 (92) mm.

Otocompsa jccosa fuscicaudata Gould. The Southern Red-whiskered

Bulbul.

Like the preceding, but more numerous. One specimen taken January

26 has only one leg. The stump is completely healed. One Q has albino

primaries on both wings. One other specimen has the entire plumage stained

light brown.

Wing measurements 8 dG 84-87; 2 @ 80, 81 mm.

lole icterica icterica (Strickland). The Yellow-browed Bulbul.

This was a common element in the troupes and occurred most often in

flocks of 6-10.

Wing measurements 10 G (90) 92-96; 4 Q 88.5-90.5 mm,

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIEDY> Violy XT

Pycnonotus gularis (Gould). The Ruby-throated Bulbul.

Only four specimens were taken, though others were seen. The species was

rather rare and was seen only in the thickets on low ground along the rivers.

Wing measurements ¢ 76; 3 @ 70-72 mm.

Pycnonotus futeolus luteolus (Lesson). The White-browed Bulbul.

This species was not seen except at Londa where one or two were found

on several occasions in a suitable patch of bushes on a dry slope. The birds

stay hidden in the bushes and unless they sing or call they would be over-

looked.

Wing measurements 2 @ 89, 90 mm.

Microtarsus poiocephalus (Jerdon). The Grey-headed Bulbul.

In the brushy country about Castle Rock the species was rather common.

Usually several were found together. Though they stayed hidden in the thickets

they were usually calling.

Wing measurements 8 ¢ 76-79.5; 3 Q 73-5-77 mm.

Saxicola caprata rupchandi Koelz’.

Occurred in the fallow fields, in pairs. Common.

Saxicola torquata maura Pallas.

Found in the same situations as the last, but rather rare.

Wing measurements 3 ¢ 67-69.5; 2 Q 61.5, 66 mm.

Pheenicurus ochruros rufiventris (Vieillot). The Eastern Indian Redstart.

Two females were taken and two others were seen.

Wing measurements 83 mm.

Luscinia suecica (Linnaeus).

A few individuals could always be found along the rivers where the beds

were half dry and thin bushes and grass offered shelter. Around the fallow

fields they also found a suitable habitat. For want of named material of

the many Siberian races I am unable to assign a subspecific name to these

birds.

Wing measurements 3 ¢ 68, 72, 75; 10 9 (67.5) 69-72 mm.

Luscinia pectoralis pectoralis (Gould).

Only a single specimen was observed, a female collected in an old rice

field on February 15 (W 75 mm.).

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea (Hodgson). The Indian Blue Chat.

Found singly, usually in the undergrowth of heavy forests, or in heavy

undergrowth on damp ground.

Wing measurements 7 3 73.5-80; 4 °Q 72-75.5 mm.

Saxicoloides fulicata ptymatura (Viecillot), The Indian Black-backed Robin.

Rare, probably because the dry open areas with low stunted bushes that

the species likes are not developed in the Londa neighbourhood.

Wing measurements ¢ 76; 2 92 68, 7o mm.

Whistler (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, p. 286) has decided Vieillot’s name may be

used for the race of Southern India. My Londa birds differ from the Ceylonese

fulicata, intermedia of northern Madras Presidency, and the brown-backed

race of Northern India. I have seen no specimens from anywhere near

Pondicherry, which has been designated as the type locality (l.c.) and it may

be that Vieillot’s name is not applicable to these specimens.

* Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol, Soc.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82, .

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 15

Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus). The Indian Magpie.

Common in pairs, chiefly in the thickets around the edges of fields or

along open streams. The specimens taken differ from Bengal birds in having

a shorter wing and the females average somewhat darker. They differ more

from the Ceylon race ceylonensis. Males of the later are possibly more purplish,

and have a heavier bill and longer tail and temales are darker.

Wing measurements 7-¢ 95-100.5; 5 2 91-5-94 (97) mm.

Kittacincla malabarica malabarica (Scopoli). The Shama.

Pairs were found not uncommonly, usually where there were bamboo clumps

in shade. During the latter part of the collecting period, males were often

singing.

Wing measurements 13 ¢ 93-99; 7 @ (84) 86.5-91 mm.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Kinnear and Whistler. The Black-capped

Blackbird.

This species was common, mostly in rather dark and damp forest. Usually

a small flock was seen.

Wing measurements 7 ¢ 126-133; 8 @ (118) 121-126 mm.

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and Selby). The White-throated Ground-

Thrush.

Scattered individuals were common in the forest, almost always near or

on the ground.

Wing measurements 4 @ 107-112; 10 Q 105-109 mm.

Oreocincla dauma neilgherriensis Blyth. The Nilgiri Thrush.

A single specimen was taken in a dark ravine on January 13 and though I

always kept on the look out, no more were seen.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Scattered individuals were not uncommon in the dry scrub jungle, often

with the travelling troupes.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ (97) 99-106; 11 9 96-103 mm.

Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). The Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.

Two males were collected, the only individuals of the species seen, on

March 1 and 12. There are in the Londa neighbourhood low peaks with rock out-

croppings, such as this species likes to frequent, but I did not visit them.

Wing measurements 114, 115.5 mm.

Myophonus ceruleus horsfieldii Vigors. The Malabar Whistling Thrush.

The species was found on wet ground in heavy forest only, where it was

commmon. No birds were singing.

Wing measurements 8 6 (150) 153.5-158 (168); 9 @ 143-151 (155) mm.

Muscicapa parva parva Bechstein. The European Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Individuals were frequently found, usually in the thin brush fringes around

the clearings. About half of collected specimens were in immature plumage.

Wing measurements 10 3 (65.5) 67-71.5; 7 G 64-67 mm.

Muscicapa parva albicilla Pallas. The Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher.

An adult male was taken on January 13; Wing 71 mm.

Muscicapula patlipes pallipes (Jerdon). The White-bellied Blue Flycatcher.

Individuals or pairs were commonly found in the low cover of dense shade,

Wing measurements 15 © (73-5) 75-80; 16 Q 70.5-74 mm,

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Muscicapula rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors). The Blue-throated Flycatcher.

The species was rare. It occurred in thickets, usually at the edge of heavy

forest. Specimens collected appear indistinguishable from those of a series

taken in Bhadwar, Kangra District, Punjab.

Wing measurements 5 G 71.5-77.5; Q@ 68 mm.

Muscicapula tickelliz tickelliz (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

A common species, usually in the scrub jungle, and elsewhere, mainly in

bushes.

Wing measurements 9 G (69) 71-74.5; 12 Q 68-72.5 mm.

Eumyias thalassina thalassina (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.

Occasional specimens were found, usually in dense trees, like Mango, most

often in clearings.

Wing measurements 5 ¢ 81.5-85 (88.5); 6 Q 78-81.5 mm.

Alseonax latirostris poonensis (Sykes). The Indian Brown Flycatcher.

The species was not common. Occasional specimens were found in such

situations as Eumyias frequented. Collections of this species from various

parts of India show curious variations in size and color and only when

breeding material is available will it be possible to understand their meaning.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ 69-72; 2 @ 67, 69 mm. Breeding birds of Baijnath,

Kangra Dt., Punjab: 5 3 69-71.5; 2 9 69, 70 mm.

Alseonax muttui muttui (Layard). Layard’s Flycatcher.

Along open streams in thick forest these flycatchers were occasionally

found.

Wing measurements: 2) 6) 72575 392 ON67a5 5) 7s mms

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (Linnaeus). The Indian Paradise Flycatcher.

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

Paradise flycatchers were not uncommon and _ occurred generally, except

in the deep forest. Only two specimens of the to in female plumage are of

the typical race, and two of the 11 adult males. The rest are leucogaster.

Hypothymis azurea similis Koelz’.

A common bird, usually found in thickets and scrub jungle in pairs. It was

often associated with the travelling troupes.

Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors). The Rufous-backed Shrike.

Shrikes were rather common, singly or in pairs, usually in the thickets

about fields.

Wing measurements 9 4 (92.5) 94-98; 6 Q 92-95 mm., as compared with

Kulu (virtually topotypical) 12 od (86) 88-95; 2 @ 87-89 mm. Strangely, no

specimens of caniceps were taken, though I have found that race in the Nilgiris

and at Udaipur.

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus. The Brown Shrike.

Occasional specimens were found in all sorts of woody habitats, even in

the undergrowth of the dense forest.

Wing measurements 7 ‘3 82-88; 9 CG 84.5-88 mm.

' Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol, Soca

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82. te

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD i%

Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes). The Black-backed Pied Shrike.

This was one of the common species of the hunting bands; some half

dozen were usually found together.

Wing measurements 7 ¢ 60.5-60; 6 @ 61-63 mm.

Tephrodornis gularis sylyicola Jerdon. The Malabar Wood-Shrike.

This was one of the common elements of the hunting troupes; often a

dozen or more were seen together. When called, they were tame and curious.

Wing measurements 7 9 114.5-120; 9 Q 114-119.5 mm.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus warei [Koelz’.

Common in pairs or in small parties in the thin scrub jungle. Birds taken

in early March were getting ready to breed.

Pericrocotus flammeus (lorster). The Orange Minivet.

A common element of the mixed assemblies, usually in small parties.

Wing measurements 12 adult ¢G 87.5-94; 7 Q 87-95.5 mm.

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus).

About as common as Tephrodornis p. warei and of about the same ecolog-

ical preferences. Specimens taken are like those of Ceylon in color.

Wing measurements 7 ¢ 68.5-71; 5 @ 68-71.5 mim.

Lalage melaschista melaschista (Hodgson). The Dark Grey Cuckoo-Shrike.

1 got a female on February 8, the only time the species was seen.

Lalage sykesi sykesi Strickland. The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike.

Usually found singly, and not uncommonly in the bamboo clumps in more

open country.

Wing. measurements 13 ¢ (98) 100-100; 8 Y 98-103 mm.

Graucalus javensis macei (Lesson). The Large Indian Cuckoo-Shrike.

Rather rare. Seen singly or in pairs in the heavy forest or in the larger

trees of the open country.

Wing measurements 4 G 157-161; 2 Q 160, 161.5 mm.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

Occasional flocks, of up to 8 individuals, were seen in the clearings, where

the birds perched on some high dead tree, and from thence hunted flying

insects.

Wing measurements 7 @ 132-138; 5 Y 130-137 mm.

Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus (Jerdon). The Indian Grey Drongo.

Common in small flocks in the scrub jungle. March birds are moulting.

Wing measurements 11 G 128-138 (148); 4 @Q 127.5-144 mm.

Dicrurus ccorulescens ccerulescens (Linnaeus). The White-bellied Drongo.

Found in such situations as frequented by the last, but singly or in pairs.

Wing measurements 5 6G 116-127; 7 Q 115-122.5 mm.

Chaptia enea malayensis A. Hay. The Southern Bronzed Drongo.

A common element of the hunting bands, in pairs or small flocks.

Wing measurements 6 O I11.5-122.5; 5 @Q 111-118 mm.

1 Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol. Soe.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

is jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIil

Chibia hottentotta londe Koelz'.

Not uncommon in the blooming Bombaz trees.

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham). The Malabar Large Racket-

tailed Drongo.

One of the common birds of the forest trees. They occurred in pairs, or

sometimes there would be a band of 4 or 5. Immature birds seemed to prefer

dense thickets.

Wing measurements 6 @ 152-102.5; 7 @Q@ 140.5-152.5 mm.

Acrocephalus Stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon). the Indian Great Reed-Warbler.

A single specimen was collected, but several were seen in the grassy edging

of a small stream near Supa.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.

One of the common birds, and found in most of the habitats. The series

of collected specimens shows more olive, less brown, than birds in fresh

fall plumage from Afghanistan, Baltistan and Ladakh.

Acrocephalus agricola agricola Jerdon. The Paddy-field Warbler.

A tew birds stayed along the grassy. border of a small stream running

through rice fields near Londa. Elsewhere none were seen. ‘They are like a

topotypical specimen from Madras Presidency.

Wing measurements 4 ¢ 55-58.5 mm. 2=7-8, once 6-7.

Orthoto mus sutorius londe# oelz’'.

Tailor-birds occurred not uncommonly in pairs, usually in the dry scrub

and along field borders. |

Franklinia gracilis albogularis (Walden). The Coorg Wren-Warbler.

The species frequented the open forests and scrub jungle and flocks of

about 10 were occasionally seen. I follow Whistler (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii,

p. 408) in using Walden’s name as a trinomial, assuming that my specimens

are like those of Coorg.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ (43) 45-48-53; 5 @ 42-44 (47) mm.

Hippolais caligata annectans Sushkin.

A single specimen (wing 58 mm.) was taken in the scrub jungle on

January 18 and though search was regularly made, no more were seen. This

bird is darker than specimens I have_trom Sidhout and Kodur, in the Madras

Presidency (topotypical rama), and from Sind and Punjab.

Phylloscopus tytleri (Brooks). Tytler’s Willow-Warbler.

Occasional specimens seen; two collected.

Phylloscopus nitidus nitidus Blyth. The Green Willow-Warbler.

Recorded only three times, when specimens were taken: January 26,

February 27 and March 11.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 61, 61.5; Q 60 mm.

Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus Blyth. The Greenish Willow-Warbler.

A common element of the hunting parties. Specimens taken throughout the

season are in worn plumage ‘and some in lTebruary were moulting primaries.

1 Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol. Soe.,

Washington, 52, June §, 1939, pp. 61-82.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD i9

Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth. The Large-billed Willow-Watrbler.

A rather rare species. ‘Occurred usually in the heavy forest.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 64; 5 @ 58.5-64.5 mm.

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth.). The Large Crowned Willow-

Warbler.

A common element of the hunting parties. All specimens collected were

males.

Wing measurements 17 ¢ 64-70 mm.

Irena puella puella (Latham). The Fairy Biue-bird.

A common bird of the forest, often with the hunting parties, and in the fig

trees, eating the ripe fruits, along with Orioles, Barbets, Piprisoma, Fruit

Pigeons, Starlings, Mynas, Hornbills, Bulbuls, Turdus. Often a half dozen or

so occurred together.

Wing measurements 9 G 123-129; 7 Q 117.5-126.5 mm.

A male taken on March 12 had testes enlarged to breeding condation.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. The Indian Oriole.

Orioles were found commonly, feeding on the fruits of the various species

of figs, and often also in the flowering Bombaz: trees.

Wing measurements 6 G 135-147; 6 Q 133-143 mm.

Oriolus chinensis diffusus Sharpe. The Indian Black-naped Oriole.

A single female (wing 147 mm.) was collected on February 3. No others

were seen.

Oriolus xanthornus maderaSpatanus Franklin. The South Indian Black-headed

Oriole.

Found usually in the scrub jungle and around clearings.

led less commonly on the figs than O. 0. kundoo.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ 129-140; 2 Q@ 131 mm.

Eulabes religiosa indica (Cuvier). The Southern Grackle.

The species was not common till mid February, and thereafter flocks of

2-20 or so were often seen, usually in the fig- or Bombax trees. Specimens

appear to be of the Ceylonese race.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ 137-140; 5 @Q 136-140 mm.

Pastor roseus (Linnaeus). The Rosy Pastor or Rose-coloured Starling.

Pastors occurred in parties of half dozen, or even singly, mainly in the

elds.

Wing measurements 4 6 127.5-130.5; @ 123.5 mm.

Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gmelin). The Grey-headed Myna.

Sturnia malabarica blythii (Jerdon). Blyth’s Myna.

The species occurred in flocks, often of a5 or more, and were frequently

seen in the flowering Butea trees. Most of the individuals collected belong

to the race blythit.

Temenuchus pagodarum sylvestris (Hodgson).

Like the Rosy Pastors, this species kept to the fields. It occurred in

small groups like that form, but was more often met. It fed in the Bombax

often, but. rarely in the fig trees.

Wing measurements 5 ¢ 100-110; 5 Q 99-104 mm.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus). The Common Myna.

_ In habits and abundance like the last, except that it was often seen eating

figs. Specimens taken are not in fresh plumage and are lighter and more

vinous than fresh Afghan birds.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ 148-153; 6 Q 139-147 mm.

AAthiopsar fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes). The Southern Jungle Myna.

Commoner than’ the last; common in the fig trees.

Wing measurements 6 G 126-129; 5 Q 121-126 mm.

Ploceus philippinus trayancoreensis Whistler. The Travancore Baya _ or

Weaver-Bird.

A single record: a male (wing 71 mm.) taken in a sugar cane patch on

January 19.

Lonchura striata estriata Koelz’,, ;

This was a common bird in the open scrub jungle and in the fields.

Flocks were met usually containing birds in mature and immature plumage,

both usually in moult. Breeding specimens were, however, taken throughout our

stay.

Lonchura punctulata lineoyenter (Hodgson). The Spotted Munia.

This species also occurred in flocks of adult and juvenile birds and none

of them were in stable plumage. Moult had usually just begun and in adults

the primaries were much frayed. Clearings were the favorite habitats and

the Lantana berries were approved food.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ 53-58; 8 Q 53-5-59 mm.

Erythrina erythrina kubanensis (Laubmann).

Common in flocks, of up to about 25, usually about clearings. They often

fed on the blooms of Butea frondosa. I have seen an adult male of kubanensis

from the Caucasus in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology

which fits into the series of specimens collected from Londa and from _ the

mountain districts of the Punjab, Ladakh and Afghanistan. Roseatus is a

more saturated form that breeds farther east and occurs in winter in the

Nilgiris. and Palnis.

Gymnoris xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Common in the scrub jungle and about the clearings. Breeding had begun

in late February.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ 81-89; 6 Q 78-81 mm.

Passer domesticus indicus Jardine and Selby. The Indian House-Sparrow. _

Except at Londa, there were few House Sparrows, probably because the

native house architecture is too simple to afford them shelter.

Wing measurements 4 ¢ 70.5-74 mm.

Riparia rupestris (Scopoli). The Crag-Martin.

An occasional specimen was seen in the air near Castle Rock in early

March.

Riparia concolor (Sykes). The Dusky Crag-Martin.

Seen in pairs, most often around railroad bridges.

Wing measurements 4 109; Q 107 mm.

! Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 21

Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow.

A common species, often seen in early morning on the telegraph wires

beside a clearing. Breeding had begun in mid January.

Wing measurements 5 < 112-118; 5 Q I1I-114 mm.

Birds from North India and Afghanistan average larger. The intensity of

head color is variable.

Hirundo daurica nipalensis Hodgson. _Hodgson’s Striated Swallow.

The commonest swallow. Large flocks often were hunting over the clearings

or resting on the telegraph wires. Sometimes swarming ants would cause a

congregation to spend hours over a forest area. Mostly the individuals taken

were in various stages of moult.

Wing measurements 8 ¢G (105) 112-119; 4 Q 113-117.5 mm.

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Sykes’s Striated Swallow.

A female (wing 108 mm.) that appears to be of this race was taken on

January 11.

Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. The Indian White Wagtail.

Species of Motacilla, along with Dendronanthus and Cyanosylvia came in

large numbers to roost in a small patch of sugar cane near Londa. The

various forms probably came from afar because some of them were rarely

seen during the day.

This was not a common Wagtail but one or a few could usually be found

in some wet rice fields. Specimens taken in March were moulting to breeding

dress.

Wing measurements G 90.5; 5 Q 83.5-88 mm.

Motacilla alba personata Gould. The Masked Wagtail.

Rather rarer than the last.

Wing measurements ¢ 91; 3 9 88 mm.

Motacilla maderaspatensis maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Pied Wagtail.

A common form, found in pairs, usually along the larger streams with

open banks. March birds were breeding.

Wing measurements 7 © 97-101.5; 6 Q 92-97.5 mm.

Motacilla cinerea caSpica (Gmelin). The Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Found in such situations as frequented by the last, but singly or in pairs.

Wing measurements ¢ 84; 10 Q 78-82 mm.

Motacilla flava beema Sykes. The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail.

Rather common in the dry rice fields. A few of the specimens, all in

winter dress, have a yellowish supercilium.

~ Motacilla flava thunbergi Pillberg. The Grey-headed Wagtail.

_ Rather abundant in the roosting parties.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 82 mm.

Motacilla citreola were Buturlin.

‘One’ of the commonest Wagtails. Specimens were mostly in immature

plumage.

Wing measurements 7 < 80-83; 2 Q 72, 78 mm.

Dendronanthus indica (Gmelin). The Forest Wagtail.

Abundant in the roosting parties and rather common in the open forest

and along streams where a few could be Helsinee from the ground. Usually

they were very shy in the day time.

Wing measurements 10 ¢ 709-83 ; 6 Q 76-81.5 mm.

LW)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linnaeus). The Tree-Pipit.

Flocks of up to about 10 individuals were common in the clearings. Most

of the specimens taken were moulting.

Wing measurements 4 <¢ 86-90; 13 @ 83-86 (89) mm.

Anthus hodgsoni inopinatus Hartert and Steinbacher.

Common in flocks like the last, but in the scrub jungle, not in the

openings.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ 84-88; 7 Q 80-85 mm.

Anthus rufulus malayensis Eyton. The Malay Pipit.

Common in pairs in the fields. Breeding had begun in early January.

Wing measurements 11 G 80.5-84; 2 Q 79, 81 mm.

Anthus campestris godlewskii Taczanowski.

Seen only on the pasture plain at Jagalbed, where a flock of perhaps 20—

arrived on March 9g.

Wing measurements 3 ¢ 92-94 mm.

Galerida malabarica propinqua [Koelz’.

Common in pairs in the fields. Birds were breeding all during our stay,

and on January 27 a full fledged young was collected.

Zosterops palpebrosa salimalii Whistler. The White-eye.

Not found until mid February when it was common in certain blooming

trees in the scrub forest.

Wing measurements 10 ¢G 53-560; 4 Q@ 52-55 mm.

Leptocoma lotenia (Linnaeus). Loten’s Sunbird.

Rare except in the scrub jungle around Castle Rock where breeding pairs

were found in early March.

Wing measurements 3 G 57-58.5; 2 2 54, 55 mm.

Leptocoma asiatica brevirostris (Blanford). The Sind Purple Sunbird.

Common. They frequented the Butea frondosa blooms as well as the less

showy flowers of forest trees, shrubs and climbers.. Some specimens were

breeding all during our stay and full fledged young were seen and collected.

Some males taken were not yet in full plumage in early March and many

were in full plumage on our arrival.

Wing measurements 16 ¢ 54.5-59; 8 @Q 51-54.5 mm.

I have 16 males and 8 females from Londa, mostly in adult plumage,

except that four of the January males are moulting to adult plumage and one

March bird has not completed the change. Compared with 4 adult males and

a female from Kalaigulaman, Afghanistan and a series from Sind (brevirostris),

11 males, including. all the immature ones and 6 females (one juvenile) have

bills that match closely in length and depth those of Sind and Afghanistan.

I have a pair of birds from Dacca, Bengal which should’ be intermedia,

and a pair from Patna, Bihar, a male from Benares, U.P., and a female

from near Darjeeling which may be like typical asiatica=Gurgaon. These birds

have heavier, not longer bills, than the 6 males and a female from Londa

that do not match the brevirostris just mentioned. I can see no color differ-

ences in the males of these groups, but the female from Dacca and that from

Darjeeling are richer yellow below than any of the others, except juveniles

from Londa. It may be that brevirostris is distinguished by a somewhat

weaker bill and extends along the west coast of India, and that intermedia

is separable by richer color of females, not males.

‘ Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, ‘Chiefly from India’, Proc, Biol. So«

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82, ,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 23

Leptocoma minima (Sykes). The Small Sunbird.

Common, and found like the last, except that it did not frequent the

Buiea trees. Specimens taken in mid February were breeding.

Wing measurements 14 ¢ 44-48; 9 Q 42.5-45.5 mm.

Leptocoma zeylonica (Linnaeus). The Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Found mostly in the scrub jungle and not so common as the two last.

Wing measurements 5 6 54-560; 2 Q 54 mm.

Arachnothera longirostra vantynei Koelz’.

Rare. Breeding pairs were found in March in the heavy jungle of the

river bottoms near Supa and Castle Rock.

Diceum concolor subflavam Stuart Baker. The Belgaum Flower-pecker.

A common bird feeding chiefly in the Loranthus. Specimens taken in early

March were breeding. Whistler (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, p. 284) is probably right

in considering subflavum a synonym of concolor. These specimens are virtually

topotypical and are like birds from the foothills of the Nilgiris, except possibly

they are paler.

Wing measurements 6 <C 45-49; 11 Q 44-47 mm.

Piprisoma agile saturatior Koelz’.

Not uncommon. Fed on the flowers, like Leptocoma asiatica, but also on

the figs. Specimens taken in early March were breeding.

Pitta brachyura brachyura (Linnaeus). The Indian Pitta.

Rare, though there were extensive habitats, apparently suitable.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 108, 109 mm.

Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster Jerdon. The Southern Indian Small Yellow-

-naped Woodpecker.

Found singly or in pairs in the forest. Sometimes not met for several days.

Wing measurements 10 © 120-127.5; 8 Q 120-127 mm.

Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham). The Southern Yellow-fronted

Pied Woodpecker.

Not uncommon, in pairs, in the scrub jungle.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ 98-103; 3 Q 99-101 mm.

Dryobates hardwickii hardwickii (Jerdon). The Southern Indian Pigmy Wood-

pecker.

Rather common, singly or in pairs in the forest, often with the hunting

parties.

Wing measurements 8 ¢@ 74-77.5; 4 92 75-78 mm.

Micropternus brachyurus jerdonii (Malherbe). The Southern Rufous Wood-

pecker.

Rather common, in pairs, in the forest. They were often seen attacking the

paper nests of ant colonies in the bamboo.

Wing measurements 8 6 126-131, 8 Q@ 125-130.5 mm.

Brachypternus benghalensis woodi Koelz’.

Not uncommon, usually at the edge of clearings.

1 Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Dinopium javanense malabaricum Kinnear and Whistler. The Malabar Golden-

backed Three-toed Woodpecker.

Found only in the heavy forest of the river bottoms. There it was nat

uncommon, singly or in pairs.

Wing measurements 4 ¢G 138.5-143; 3 Q 139-143 mm.

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus socialis Koelz.

Probably the commonest and also most conspicuous woodpecker, usually

found in pairs, or often in groups of up to 6, in the forest or scrub jungle.

On February 23 a male in first plumage was taken.

Wing measurements 10 G 152-159; 8 Q 152-162 mm.

Hemicircus canente cordatus Jerdon. The Malabar MHeart-spotted Wood-

pecker.

Common, singly or in pairs in the scrub jungle.

Wing measurements 8 ¢ 92-97; 8 Q 88-93 mm.

Macropicus javensis hodgsonii (Jerdon). The Malabar Great Black Woodpecker.

Occasionally found in the clearings, or scrub jungle, singly or in pairs.

The birds were not noisy and must often have been overlooked. Excavations

probably made by them were common enough.

Wing measurements 4 ¢ 213-220; 2 Q 224, 226 mm.

Vivia innominatus (Hartert).

Rare, only 3 specimens observed. A female taken on January 30 was laying.

Wing measurements 3 Q 58-60 mm.

Thereiceryx viridis (Boddaert). The Small Green Barbet.

A common bird. They fed extensively on figs. Birds taken in late Jaunary

were beginning to breed.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ 97-104; 5 @ (92) 100-102 mm.

Xantholema hemacephala confusa Koelz’.

Not common and seen only in January when they were feeding on figs.

Specimens taken were in ‘breeding condition.

Xantholema malabarica (Blyth). The Crimson-throated Barbet.

A common species, always to be found among the ripe figs. Breeding

specimens were taken from mid January.

Wing measurements 9 ¢ 78-83.5; 4 92 79-82 mm.

Penthoceryx Sonneratii sonneratii Latham. The Banded Bay Cuckoo.

Not noticed until late February, when the call was occasionally heard. In

March the birds were noisier and they called commonly in the heavy forest

around Jagalbed.

Wing measurements 2 @ 121.5, 123.5 mm.

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linnaeus). The Indian Koel.

Considered rare until March when their calls were heard frequently. The

favourite habitat appeared to be mango trees in the clearings.

Wing measurements 3 @ 187-194; 3 Q 178.5-186 mm.

Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon). The Small Green-billed Malkoha.

Rarely seen, then singly or in pairs. They frequented the openings with

nse Lantana growths where pursuit of them was impossible.

Wing measurements ¢ 135 mm.

—

1 Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’, Proc, Biol. Sot.

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 2

Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann. The Southern Crow-Pheasant.

Rather common. Occurred usually in the thickets along clearings and

along streams.

Wing measurements 8 ¢ 177-196; 3 @ 191-213 mm.

Psittacula krameri borealis Neumann. The Eastern Rose-ringed Paroquet.

Not common, the pairs or even small flocks were occasionally seen in

the Bombax or Butea trees. Collected specimens have as large a wing as

Punjab specimens, which Whistler (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, p. 752) says should

be called borealis.

Wing measurements 3 6 175-178; Q 164 mm.; 9 adult G 170-179 (186);

9 169 mm., from Sira, Hissar Dt. and Bhadwar, Kangra Dt.

Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linnaeus). The Western Blossom-

headed Paroquet.

Common. Often seen in the Butea frondosa where it fed on flowers and

seeds. A female taken on February 14 had nearly all the body-feathers worn

to the midrib, with no moult. A young male taken on March 4 shows only a

few rosy feathers over the right eye. Breeding specimens were taken in late

January. Collected specimens have longer tails than Ceylon birds, and are

not so yellow below.

Wing measurements 5 adult ¢ 137.5-143.5; 6 Q 128-137.5 mm.

Psittacula columboides (Vigors). The Blue-winged Paroquet.

Not seen except in the extensive forests about Jagalbed. They often fed

in the fig trees, but it was difficult to approach them.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 143, 144; 4 9 134-140 mm.

Coryllis vernalis rubropygius Stuart Baker. The Malabar Loriquet.

Not uncommon; most often seen in the fig trees. Pairs were usually

found together. Specimens taken in March were breeding.

Wing measurements 12 3 86-96; 4 @ g1-95.5 mm.

Coracias benghalensis indica Linnaeus. The Southern Indian Roller.

Not uncommon in the open country.

Wing measurements 5 J 179-183; 3 Q 176-179 mm.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham. The Common Indian Bee-eater.

Common in the open country, often in pairs or small flocks.

Wing measurements 5 ¢ 93-96.5; 9 Q go0-92.5 mm.

Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsfield. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Rather common. in the river bottoms where they hunted from the tips of

tall bamboos or dry trees. The birds were usually in parties of up to half

dozen.

Wing measurements 3 3 131-134; 5 Q 120.5-126.5 mm.

Mefops lIeschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot. The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Found with the last, likewise in parties; probably more numerous.

Wing measurements 7 3 105-110.5; 8 Q 104-107.5 mm.

Alcemerops athertoni athertoni (Jardine and Selby). The Blue-bearded Bee-eater.

Seen but three times, singly, always in the heavy timber.

Wing measurements ¢ 135 mm.

Ceryle rudls leucomelanura Reichenbach. The Indian Pied Kingfisher.

Frequented the large streams, such as the Crocodiles lived in. As King-

fishers go, not rare. Specimens of late January had sex organs in breeding

condition, The plumage is somewhat worn but it seems that the amount of

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIN

White is probably as in the typical Ceylonese form. The black is not so

sooty as in the Travancore race travancoreensis.

Wing measurements 4 @ 134-138; 3 Q 140-145 mm.

Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin. The Common Indian Kingfisher.

Alcedo atthis taprobana [<leinschmidt.

Found along the streams, large and small, open or in the heavy forest.

Of 15 specimens collected oniy 3 belong to the richly-coloured race, taprobana,

unless they should be immature.

Wing measurements 7 9 68.5-71; 3 Q 69.5-71 mm. and 3 ¢ 68-71.5 mm.,

respectively.

Alcedo meninting asiatica Swainson. Beavan’s Kingfisher.

Rather uncommon. Found almost exclusively along the streams in heavy

cover.

Ceyx tridactyius tridactylus (Pallas). The Three-toed Kingfisher.

Found only in the heavy forest along nearly dry trickles. where it fed on

crustaceans, etc.

Wing ¢ 56, 2 2 58.5 mm.

Specimens appear indistinguishable from those from Sikkim, Malay and

Hainan.

Ramphalcyon capensis gurial (Pearson). The Brown-headed Stork-billed King-

fisher.

Found along the larger more open streams. One of the common Kingfishers.

Wing measurements 3 6 147-153; 3 2 155-162.5 mm.

Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Boddaert). The Indian White-breasted Kingfisher.

A common Kingfisher, found in fish-producing waters more frequently than

usual.

Wing measurements 7 @ 115.5-123.5; 8 Q 118-124 mm.

Halcyon ‘pileata Boddaert. The Black-capped Kingfisher.

Rare and found only in growing ricefields around Supa.

Wing measurements 2 G 131.5, 132 mm.

These specimens average somewhat darker than Chinese birds.

Dichoceros bicornis (Linnaeus). The Great Indian Hornbill.

A single specimen was seen at Jagalbed on February 25.

Hydrocissa coronatus (Baddaert). The Malabar Pied Hornbill.

Not rare in the heavy timber, often in flocks of 20 or so, when feeding or

roosting. They were often noisy and always shy.

Wing measurements <¢ 332; 3 92 290-309 mm.

Tockus birostris birostris (Scopoli). The Common Grey Hornbill.

One was collected and one other seen.

Wing measurements 9 202 mm.

Tockus griseus griseus (Latham). The Malabar Grey Hornbill.

Common, in pairs, usually in the lighter, drier forests. They fed heavily

on the various figs. When travelling they were often noisy. Their call is

like crazy laughter.

Wing measurements 2 ©: 211, 218; 8 @ 185-193 mm.

Upupa epops epops l.innaeus. The European Hoopoe.

Two females were collected, one February 24, one March 7.

Wing measurements 139.5, 144 mm,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 27

Upupa epops ceylonensis Reichenbach. The Ceylon Hoopoe.

Rather rare, usually in pairs. February birds showed swelling gonads.

Wing measurements 6 (122-142; Q@ 122 mm.

Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould). The Malabar Trogon.

Common, usually in pairs, in the dry forest.

Wing measurements 9 ¢ 123-129; 6 Q 123-131 mm.

Apus melba. The Alpine Swift.

Large flocks passed regularly over the town of Londa, headed south, at

about 8.30 a.m. They were usually out of gun range and none were ever

taken.

Indicapus sylvaticus (Tickell). The White-rumped Spinetail.

Rather local and in small colonies. They were nesting in February in

holes in dead palms (Caryota urens).

Wing measurements ¢ 113; 4 Q 112-116 mm.

Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell). The Indian Crested Swift.

Not uncommon. Seen hawking over the fields with the swallows or travelling

in the higher strata.

Wing measurements 3 ¢ 146-155; Q 157.5 mm.

Caprimulgus macrourus atripennis Jerdon. Jerdon’s Long-tailed Nightjar.

Rather common. Seen most often at night sitting on the ground in the

fields. In the day time specimens were most often found on the ground in

the scrub jungle.

Wing measurements 4 G 170-181; 3 Q 175-186 mm.

Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham. The Indian Jungle Nightjar.

About like the last.

Wing measurements 6 @ 182-191.5; 5 @ 185-I9g1.5 mm.

Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus Franklin. Franklin’s Nightjar.

Commonest of the Goatsuckers and found with the others.

Wing measurements 6 6 ‘187-201.5; 12 Q 182.5-196 mm.

Tyto alba crypta Koelz’.

Only 3 specimens seen, taken from under a railroad bridge on January 26,

27 and 29.

Wing measurements. 2 S$ 262, 297; @ 293 mm.

Strix indranee indranee Sykes. The Brown Wood-Owl.

Found only in the heavy forest. Only one specimen was obtained.

Ketupa zeylonensis zeylonensis (Gmelin). The Ceylon Brown Fish-Owl.

A common species that was usually found in pairs. Food consisted mainly

of fish and crustaceans, but one individual had eaten a small mammal.

Wing measurements 7 G 355-398; 3 2 370-379 mm.

These skins appear as dark as Ceylonese.

Bubo bengalensis (Franklin). The Indian Great Horned-Owl.

One could be heard calling occasionally at night but none were ever seen.

‘ Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’ Proc. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Otus bakkamena bakkamena Pennant. The Ceylon Collared Scops Owl.

Around Jagalbed in late February and early March birds could be heard

commonly, but they kept to the bamboos and few were seen.

Wing measurements Q 148 mm. |

Otus sunia rufipennis (Sharpe). The Indian Scops Owl.

Probably commoner than the last. At Jagalbed sometimes four could be

heard from camp. They began singing in late January. They often sang from

the mango trees and sometimes could be heard in the day time in the bamboo.

Wing measurements ¢ 127 mm.

Glaucidium radiatum. The Jungle Owlet.

Not common, but after January one could be heard almost every night.

In March they began to sing in the day time. Two males were taken (wing

131 mm.). They are intermediate in color between radiatum and malabaricum.

Sarcogyps calyus (Scopoli). The Black Pondicherry or King Vulture.

Occasionally seen at camp, attracted by refuse. Usually single individuals

came, sometimes 3. They were shy and only one was killed.

Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume. The Indian Griffon Vulture.

Observed only at Jagalbed when on February 18 some 50 had gathered at

a carcass. One was collected.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). The White-backed or Bengal Vulture.

The common Vulture that always came to camp for bird meat. One was

preserved.

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). The Egyptian or Large White, Scavenger

Vulture.

Rere and only an occasional individual was seen; none killed.

Falco tinnunculus objurgatus Stuart Baker. The Indian Kestrel.

Kestrels were not common but an individual or two could usually be found

in a day’s walking, usually in large clearings. Of four pairs collected, all

but one male may be referable to the heavily-barred race objurgatus. The

exception may be tinnunculus. Food of four specimens was insects, mainly

Orthoptera. Two had eaten skinks.

Wing measurements 4 d 233-248; 4 Q 247-263 mm.

Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin. The Indian Tawny Eagle.

Judged by experience in Sind and the Punjab, the bird was _ rare.

Occasionally one came to camp and sometimes 2 or 3 could be seen soaring.

Only one was killed.

Aquila clanga Pallas. The Greater Spotted Eagle.

Rare. Only one taken.

Lophotriorchis kienerii kienerii (Sparre). The Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle.

Only one specimen seen, one taken on February 21. It flew out to pick

up a bird. The feathers of one were found around a village later.

Spizaétus cirrhatus ceylanensis (Gmelin). The Ceylon Crested Hawk-Eagle.

Not common and usually very shy. Male taken on January 21, wing 384 mm.

Spilornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon). The Crested Serpent Eagle.

One of the commonest hawks. Often a pair stayed together. The birds

sometimes were seen soaring about, high up, but more often came to notice

from their habit of screaming when perched on some high vantage point.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 329

They never screamed when resting in dense foliage. Is it possible that snakes

respond to the vibrations of their cry? Food of specimens taken was often

snakes, but as often skinks, once a large grasshopper and once a large mantis.

A male taken on March g had testes in breeding condition. Only one bird

in immature whitebreasted plumage was taken.

Wing measurements 6 ¢ 411-430; 6 Q 405-431 mm. :

Butastur teesa (Franklin). The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle.

A common species, found most often about the fields. Specimens taken were

adults and birds in immature plumage. Food was most often frogs or skinks.

One had eaten mice.

Wing measurements 7 ¢ 279-291; 9 Q 288-317 mm.

Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert). The Brahminy Kite.

Not common. I have found the species most commonly in marshes or pools.

and such habitats about Londa were rare. Specimens taken had eaten mostly

shrimps and frogs, but one had eaten an Ardeola grayii.

Wing measurements ¢ 391; 4 Q 378-414 mm.

Milvus migrans govinda Sykes. The Common Pariah Kite.

Common. One collected, Q wing 419 mm.

Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray). The Black-eared Kite or Large Indian

Kite.

Three females were taken, wing 459, 491, 510 mm.

Elanus ceruleus vyociferus (Latham). The Black-winged Kite.

Rather rare. An occasional specimen was found where there was a high

dead limb to perch on in a clearing growing up to bushes.

Wing measurements ¢ 257; 2 @ 268, 270 mm.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin). The Pale Harrier.

Rather common. Harriers of all species were seen hunting over the fields

or resting in the trees at their edge. Specimens collected had no food or had

eaten birds.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 325, 3553 © @Q@ 355-370 mim.

Circus pygargus Linnaeus. Montague’s Harrier.

A single specimen taken, @, wing 379 mm. Food: grasshoppers.

Circus melanoleucos (Pennant). The Pied Harrier.

A single specimen, G in immature dress, was taken.

Wing 344 mm. Food insects.

Circus exruginosus eruginosus (Linnaeus). The Mash-Harrier.

Not so common as C. macrourus and seen most often around the wet

fields near Supa.

Wing measurements juv. § 393; ad. Q 395 mm.

Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck). The Indian Shikra.

Rather common. Found usually in the clearings, most often along streams,

where it fed on insects and skinks. Only one specimen had eaten birds: a

Munia. In late February birds with sex organs in breeding condition were

collected.

Wing measurements 12 3 173-199; 9 2 199-209 mm,

Accipiter trivirgatus trivirgatus (Temminck). The Crested Goshawk,

Not uncommon, usually in the forest where it was oftenest found perched

in a tree. All specimens taken had eaten only birds. One had eaten a Gallus

sonneratii cock and one a Galloperdix.

Wing measurements 2 g 202, 210; 6 Q 225-237 mmm.

In size the specimens are apparently intermediate with rufitinctus.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIili

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (1ickeii). The Asiatic Sparrow-Hawh.

Rare.

Wing measurements 2 @ 202, 212; Q 250.5 mm.

Acccipiter virgatus besta Jerdon. The Southern Besra Sparrow-Hawh.

Of the same habitat preferences as A. trivirgatus, but not found so

commonly.

Wing measurements dO 158.5; 3 Q 185-188 mm.

Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis Lesson. The Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard.

Probably not uncommon in the heavy forest. Four specimens taken differ

in plumage, and vary from the form with dark underparts to the form with

white streaked underparts. These can be matched phase for phase in a series

of skins from the Kangra’ District, Punjab, and it may be that the various

stages of plumage reflect age. Food: bees, larvae, comb, are usual. Three

birds taken in March were breeding.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 403, 419, 2 Q 420, 421 mm.

Crocopus pheenicopterus chlorigaster (Blyth). The Southern Green Pigeon.

Rare. Pairs were seen on three occasions in late January, all breeding birds.

They fed on fig fruit, as did all the other Fruit Pigeons.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 183, 190; @ 178.5 mm.

Dendrophassa pompadora affinis (Jerdon). The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon.

The commonest of the Fruit Pigeons. In favourable fig trees flocks of 20-36

congregated to feed on the fruits, specimens taken in late January were

breeding.

Wing .measurements 10 9G 137-5-147; 5 @ 142-149 mm.

Ducula badia cuprea (Jerdon). Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon.

A single bird (Q, wing 218 mm.), was noted.

Muscadivora enea_ pusilla (Blyth). The Ceylon Imperial Green Pigeon.

Common in the heavy forest. Flocks of up to 25 used to feed in certain

lofty trees. I never saw them eating figs. They were shy when feeding

and could usually be killed only when flying to feed in the morning. One

specimen in mature plumage dissected almost immediately on killing had no

trace of sex organs. Specimens are intermediate in size with sylvatica.

Wing measurements 3 dG 222-226; 6 Q 213-225 mm.

Chalcophaps indica indica (Linnaeus). The Indian Emerald Dove.

Not rare in the heavy forest. They were oftenest seen as pairs or indi-

viduals feeding on the forest roads. Spcimens taken average more bronzed

than those from Malay and east.

Wing measurements 3 d 140-154; 5 @Q 135-148 mm.

Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes). The Indian Rufous Turtle-Dove.

Common. During the warm part of the day small flocks stayed together,

usually in the mango trees along streams. They fed mornings and afternoons

in the dry ricefields and were always shy. Specimens taken resemble breeding

birds of Lahul, Punjab.

Wing measurements 8 ¢ 185-193; 8 Q2 179-195 mm.

Streptopelia orientalis sy!vicola Ioelz'.

This race was found only in the Castle Rock area where they were breeding

in country covered with thick evergreen bushes and feeding with the preceding

in the rice fields.

' Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’ Proc. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 31

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Ginelin). The Indian Spotted Dove.

Common. Flocks were often seen feeding in the rice fields. Collected

specimens are in juvenile plumage, or are adults, the last for the most part

breeding. ji

Wing measurements 5 adult dG 130.5-145; 5 juvenile 9 126-133; 9 adult

@ 127-137-5; 4 juvenile Q 129-134 mm.

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. The Common Peatowl.

The natives said peafowl occurred in certain places in the district but we

saw no evidence of them.

Gallus sonneratii Temminck. The Grey Jungle-Fowl.

Common, singly or in small groups, and exceedingly wary around human

habitations. Only along the road phiough the heavy forest was it possible to

collect specimens at all easily.

Wing measurements 6 ad. ¢ 225-247; 3 2 187-196 mm.

Galloperdix spadicea spadices (Gmelin). The Red Spur-kowl.

Common, in pairs; wary. Spurfowls keep to more open country than the

Jungletowls and were most often seen in the scrub.

Wing measurements 6 OG 147-156; 4 Q 141-151 mm.

Perdicula asiatica vidali Whistler.

Common in small flocks in the grassy scrub.

Wing measurements 8 3 83.5-99; 3 Y 80-83 mm.

Amaurornis pheenicurus pheenicurus (Pennant). The White-breasted Water-

Hen.

Commonly seen along the small streams. When disturbed they either ran

for cover or flew into a thick bamboo and climbed about in the interior.

Metopidius indicus (Latham). The Bronze-winged Jacana.

One was collected at a littlke weedy pool near Londa on February 14.

Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth. The Indian Moorhen.

One was taken on the pool mentioned above on February 4.

Burhinus cedicnemus mayri [<oelz’.

Stone-Curlews were constantly ‘in evidence at night from their call, when

they came to feed in the clearings. They apparently hunted beetles around

the cattle-dung. During the day they were seldom seen. In January individuals

or even small flocks could occasionally be found resting on the outcrop-rocks

of certain brushy knolls and the natives said that they regularly congregated

at such places in the winter. In February they had seregated into pairs and

then were secretive. A female taken on March 12 was laying. They

apparently nest in the scrub jungle.

Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin. The European Little Ringed Plover.

A few individuals were occasionally seen in the Browne ricefields.

Wing measurements. $ 109.5; 2 @ 113 mm. ,

Lobivanellus indicus indicus (Boddaert). The Indian Red-Wattled Lapwing.

Rather common, usually in pairs, in the clearing. Sometimes they were

also found on the ‘rock outcroppings frequented in winter by Burhinus.

Wing measurements 4 G 218-229; 4 Q 212-232 mm.

* Walter Koelz, ‘New Birds from Asia, Chiefly from India’ Proc. Biol. SOC,

Washington, 52, June 5, 1939, pp. 61-82. :

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIiti

Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Found only on the pasture plain at Jagalbed where several pairs were

breeding.

Tringa ochrophus Linnaeus. The Green Sandpiper.

Found not uncommonly along the streams and standing water.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus. The Wood-Sandpiper.

Found: most often in the growing rice, and there not uncommon.

Tringa hypoleucos (Linnaeus). The Common Sandpiper.

Common along the streams. A specimen taken had albinistic primaries on

both wings.

Scolopax rusticola indica Hodgson.

Borings were common along the soft banks of g¢ertain streams and absent

on others. On February 10, 2 birds were collected along one of these

favourable streams and thereafter no more came. The only sight records that

do not concern these specimens were made on February 10 and 28, March to,

when single birds were seen at widely separated localities.

These specimens and others that { have seen from the Nilgiris and the

Kangra District of Punjab, differ sufficiently in my opinion, to be recognized

subspecifically and I think that Hodgson’s name Scolopax indicus (J.A.S.B.,

vi, 1837, p. 490) of Nepal, should be used for them. The Indian birds are

darker, especially above, and have more black in the markings. The feet

average heavier.

Capella stenura(Bonaparte). The Pintail Snipe.

Rather common in the rice fields.

Wing measurements 5 @ 127-136 mm.

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). The Little Cormorant.

Not rare along the larger streams.

Wing measurements 2 G 202, 204 mm.

Auhinga melanogaster Pennant. The Indian Darter or Snake-bird.

Like the last. No specimens taken.

Pseudibis papillosus (Temminck). The Indian Black Ibis.

A single specimen was seen on March to.

Dissoura episcopa episcopa (Boddaert). The White-necked Stork.

Not rare; singly or in small groups; shy.

Wing. measurements ¢ 481; 2 Q 480, 482 mm,

Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsfield). The Smaller Adjutant.

Two individuals were feeding in a ricefield on February 20. No others

were seen.

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. The Common Grey Heron.

Occasional individuals were seen along the larger streams, but they were

too shy to approach.

Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler). The Indian Smaller Egret.

A flock of about 30 stayed in a ricefield near Castle Rock. Elsewhere only

stragglers were seen.

Wing measurements ¢ 293 mm.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 33

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus). The Little Egret.

Rather rare and seen only singly.

Wing measurements 2 ¢ 271, 275 mm.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert). The Cattle Egret.

Not rare, attending the pasturing flocks on suitable plains.

Wing measurements ¢ 250; 3 2 237-240 mm.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). The Indian Pond-Heron,

Common, and found wherever there was water. Since puddles and _ pools

were rare, the birds frequented running water more generally than they

usually do.

Wing measurements 5 6 209-224; @ 190.5 mm.

Butorides striatus abbotti Oberholser.

Not rare, along the larger streams.

Wing measurements 4 ¢G 172-176; 4 Y 166-169 mm.

On the basis of these measurements, the form might be considered javanicus

(wing 165-180 mm.) but I find on comparison with specimens from the Java

region that in the latter males have light markings reduced and duller, and

females have a smaller white wing-spot and whiter underparts.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). The Chestnut Bittern. ‘

Rather rare. Two specimens taken, and four others seen.

‘“NEw Brirps FROM ASIA, CHIEFLY FROM INp1a?’’,

Under the above title Mr. Walter Koelz has described 63 new races in the

Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol. 52, pp. 61-82 (5 June,

1939) of these new races 17 are described from Afghanistan and 44 from India

so the paper should be of considerable interest to Ornithologists in India. Un-

fortunately a perusal of the paper leads to considerable disappointment as it

is evident that Mr. Koelz has not had access to sufficient material to enable

him to discriminate between good and bad races.

As these new forms have been described, named and published it is necessary

to take notice of them. I have therefore been carefully through them and _ it

may be of interest to record the results of my examination of the 44 new

Indian races. These will be examined in detail but before doing this it may

be well to make two preliminary observations.

The first is that of the 44 new races no less than 17 are given type localities

at Londa, Jagalbed and Castle Rock, places which lie just inland from Goa.

This area was already well known owing to the papers on the South Konkan

by Vidal (Stray Feathers ix, pp. 1-96), on Belgaum by Butler (S. F. ix

pp- 367-442) and North Kanara by Davidson (J.B.N.H.S., x, pp. 652-679), xii

pp- 43-71 and good collections made in these areas by these gentlemen are in

the British Museum. The triangle, roughly 15 miles on a side, formed by

lines joining Londa, Supa and Castle Rock, which includes the type localities

of the 17 forms is ornithologically intermediate in character marking the transi-

tion of the South Indian and the South-western humid mountain forms into

the North Indian and drier Deccan forms.

The second point to make is that Mr. Koelz makes no attempt to define

the distribution of his new forms. He fixes a type locality and sometimes

mentions another locality or two where other specimens were obtained. Had

he completed his work and attempted to define the distribution of his races

he would have soon discovered how few of them could stand.

Now to comment on the new forms :—

P. 61. Parus major stupae (type locality Sanchi, Bhopal).

It is quite correct that birds from Peninsular India should be separated

from P. m. mahrattarum (Ceylon).

* We publish comments by Mr. H. Whistler on the new races of Indian birds

described by Mr. W. Koelz, some of which are referred to in the paper printed

above.—EbDs. :

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Mr. Koelz has, however, overlooked the essential differences: stupae differs

from mahrattarum in being brighter and paler above, the white edging to the

tertiaries is much broader and the bill is not so large.

P. 63. Machlolophus xanthogenys xanthonotus (Londa).

This is merely the intermediate between M. x. aplonotus and M. «&. travan-

coreensis and is not a recognisable race. , These 2 forms intergrade along the

western coast of India and birds from N. Kanara and Belgaum (between which

Londa is situated) go best with travancoreensis, whereas from Mahableshwar

northwards the form is clearly aplonotus; xanthonotus can be relegated to the

synonomy of travancoreensis.

P, 63. Sitta frontalis simplex (Londa).

I have recently compared good series of this Nuthatch from various localities

in Peninsular India with topotypes from Ceylon and can find no recognisable

difference. Simplex is merely a synonym of frontalis.

P, 63. Agithina tiphia septentrionalis (Bhadwar, Kangra).

This form is separable on the differences given.

P. 64. Tole icterica intensior (Kunjapani, Nilgiri Hills).

I have carefully examined this species for races on several occasions, com-

paring birds from Ceylon, Travancore, Nilgiris, Mysore, Kanara and Maha-

bleshwar. There are no races and the differences alleged for this race are not

constant.

P. 65. Saxicola capreta rupchandi (Londa).

This must become a synonym of burmanica, which is itself a synonym of

the typical race. I have examined specimens from north, south and west of

Londa and from as close to it as Belgaum and all are clearly the same. The

differences alleged are merely individual.

P, 66. Cercomela fusca ‘ruinarum (Sanchi, Bhopal State).

I have recently examined specimens from Jaithari, near Sanchi and could

find no difference in size or colour from birds from the Punjab. This species

has no races, nor would one expect them from its limited distribution.

P. 66. Saxicoloides fulicata lucknowensis (Lucknow).

I have not actually seen specimens of this bird from Lucknow, but they

must be the same as those from Etawah, Futtehghar, Benares and Moghulserai,

other similar localities in the United Provinces from which there are specimens

in the British Museum. These are all S. f. cambaiensis and lucknowensis will

become a synonym of that name. It is evident that Mr. Koelz has not allowed

for the considerable variation induced by wear and bleaching in this form.

P. 67. Saxicoloides fulicata stuartbakeri (Bodhgaya, Bihar).

Two males from Rognathpur and Lohardugger (wings 72-73.5 mm.) and two

females from Maunthum (wings 70-71 mm.) in the British Museum are also

small compared with north-western birds (10 $ Punjab; with 73-81, 12 9, wing

71-76.5 mm.). As this is the north-easterly limit of the distribution of this

species in India the recognition of this race may be useful though its limits

will be very difficult to define.

P. 67. Muscicapa strophiata euphonia (Kulu).

This race is recognisable, west Himalayan birds being definitely paler than

East Himalayan specimens. I noted the point some years ago but wanted

to confirm it with more, fresh material.

‘P 68. Hyphothymis azurea similis (Londa).

There is a good series of this flycatcher in the British Museum from the

whole of its distribution in western Peninsular India, and it is clear that it

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 35

cannot be divided into 2 races in that area. Mr. Koelz’s name must therefore

become a synonym of H. a. sykest (Dukhun) even if he does not agree with

my action (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 91) in holding that sykesi is a synonym of

styani (Hainan).

P. 68. Chelidorhynx hypoxantha noa (Naggar, Kulu).

I have several times examined good series of this species for east and west

Himalayan races, and though I agree it would be possible to select specimens

to illustrate the differences cited by Mr. Koelz they are not sufficiently constant

to warrant the recognition of two races.

P, 68. Leucocirca albicollis canescens (Bhadwar).

The remarks made under the last species apply again here.

P. 69. Hemipus , picatus insula (Wavenden, Ceylon).

This is an excellent race in that the female has a black back like the

male and not a brown back as in the typical South Indian form. Mr. Koelz’s

name is however antedated by Hemuipus picatus legget Whistler, Bull, B.O.C.

vol. lix no. ccccxxii (15 May 1939) p. 101.

P. 69. Tephrodornis pondicetiana warei (Londa).

I have already discussed the position regarding the races of this somewhat

variable species (/.B.N.H.S., xxxvili, p. 309) and shewn that the typical form

is itself a variable intermediate. No good purpose can be attained by sub-

dividing the intermediate again and this name can only be a synonym of the

typical form. Mr. Koelz would be puzzled to define a range for his new form.

P. 69. Pericrocotus cinnamomeus sidhoutensis (Sidhout, Madras Presidency).

The question of the name and races of this interesting and variable bird

has already been dealt with at some length (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p. 343), and

the original reference may be consulted as too long to repeat ‘here. Specimens

from Kodur and the Cumbum Valley (south and north of Sidhout) were obtained

in the E. ghats Survey and they were referred under the above argument to

the typical race Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus of which I propose to con-

sider this name a synonym.

P.70. Chibia hottentota londe (Londa).

This is a recognisable form on its smaller size compared with Sikkim birds.

P. 70. Orthotomus sutorius londe (Londa).

I have examined specimens from Ahmednagar, Matheran, Mahableshwar and

Belgaum on the one side of Londa, and from various localities in Mysore on

the other and could detect no difference between them. All appeared to me

to agree with guzerata and with Sykes’ Deccan types of vennetti and lingoo

which would in any case antedate Mr. Koelz’s name.

P. 71. Orthotomus sutorius sindiana (Hyderabad, Sind).

Ticehurst (Ibis, 1922, p. 551) compared fresh Sind specimens with topotypes

and. could find no ditference, but as he pointed out the fact was not surprising

as in Sind this species does not come under the influence of desert conditions.

P. 72. Prinia sylvatica patniensis (Kodaikanal, Palni Hills).

This is the first record of the Jungle Wren-Warbler from the Palni Hills,

but Mr. Koelz in citing his paratypes from Kodaikanal and Ootacamund admits

that the Palni and Nilgiri birds are the same. The new name is therefore

merely a synonym for the typical race of which the type locality is the Seegore

Pass. Nilgiris. Jerdon’s words ‘I have only seen this species hitherto in open

forest jungle in the Seegore pass of the Nilgiris’ (Madras Journal Lit. Sci.,

36 .JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

vol. xi, 1840, p. 4) are explicit and it is not open to Mr. Koelz to underline

the word hitherto as he has done) and then say that ‘it seems likely then that

Jerdon’s description refers rather to the race in the surrounding lowland than

to the Nilgiri race and the former may be considered typical sylvatica’. I have

seen no evidence in any case to suggest that this species varies according to

altitude and the alleged differences are not impressive.

P. 73. Prinia sylvatica mahendre (Mahendra Giri, Orissa).

I have not seen enough material of this warbler from N.-E. India to com-

ment on this name with confidence but Mr. Koelz has not explained how this

new race is to be distinguished from P. s. gangetica to which one would rather

expect it to belong and to which the description might easily apply.

P.72. Oriolus oriclus baltistanicus (Sagoni, Baltistan).

Specimens from Balbistan in my own collection are not separable from O. o.

kundoo. One would not expect them to differ as Turkistan birds are also

kundoo. The difterences alleged for the new race are merely individual. .

P. 73. Lonchura striata estriata (Jagalbad).

There is a good series of this Munia in the British Museum including one

of Fairbank’s birds from the Goa frontier, and others from the north and

South of the type locality of the new subspecies. These show that South Indian

birds as a whole, including the area under discussion, cannot be separated

from the typical race of Ceylon.

P. 74. Erythrina rubicilla eblis (Puga, Rupshu).

Specimens from Puga were examined by Hellmays (.M.N.H. Publ. 263,

1929 p. 47) and found to be perfectly typical specimens of severtzovi. Other

specimens collected in Ladakh by Henderson, Osmaston, Meinertzhagen and

Landlow and a series collected by myself in Spiti and Lahul have all been

critically examined by various workers and found to be identical with Turkestan

birds so it is evident that this new race is not recognisable.

P. 75. Anthus hodgsoni burzil (Burzil Pass).

I would hazard a guess that this will prove to be a synonym of Anthus

tvivialis haringtoni which possesses the character of the new race, a heavy bill.

At any rate Osmaston and I obtained haringtoni on the Burzil Pass at 12,000 ft.

on 26 July 1928 and found it common in that area, whereas Anthus hodgsont

has not been reliably reported west of Chamba and the Duale Shar, nor in

Lahul from where Koelz quotes his paratypes.

P. 75. Motacilla maderaspatensis kangre (Bhadwar, Kangra).

My own collection contains a series of this wagtail from Kangra and other

Punjab localities, but neither Dr. Ticehurst nor 1 have been able to separate

them from the typical form.

P. 76. Mirafra cantillans bangsi (Hospet, Madras Presidency).

Neither the material in the British Museum nor my own collection nor

the few specimens I have seen from other sources allow me to comment on

this form.

P. 76. Galerida malabarica propinqua (Londa).

There is a large series of this lark in the British Museum, including speci-

mens from Belgaum, close to Londa, and from both north and south of Londa

and this series shows that no race can be separated for the Londa area. The

breeding season of this lark is not a clearly defined one and individuals may

be in a different state of wear at the same time, such wear affecting their

appearance greatly.

P. 76. Zosterops palpebrosa palniensis (JXodaikanal, Palni Hills).

I have not actually examined specimens of the White-eye from the Palnis

but these hills are only a spur of the Travancore ranges and all bird’s from

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE LONDA NEIGHBOURHOOD 37

the latter are identical with nilgiriensis. As it is incredible that one spur

should contain a peculiar race of this active and generally distributed little

bird this name is doubtless a synonym of nilgiriensis.

P.77. Arachnothera longirostra vantynei (Jagalbad).

The type locality of Certhia longirostra Latham is ‘Bengal’ later restricted

by Stuart Baker (J.B.N.H.S., xxviii p. 124) to Sylhet; the Malay specimens

cited by Mr. Koelz in his diagnosis are therefore irrelevant, and his separation

of a Peninsular Indian race is based on comparison with one specimen from

N. India. A comparison of a proper series from N. India and the Peninsula

would have shown him that there is no difference either of colour or size.

P. 77 Piprisoma agile saturatior (Londa).

There are 3 specimens from Belgaum, close to Londa, in the British Museum

and these are quite inseparable from the birds of the rest of the Peninsula.

The amount of streaking is a question of individual variation.

P. 77. Pitta brachyura pulchra (Bhadwar, Kangra).

In separating this supposed Himalayan race from Ceylon topotypes, Mr. Koelz

has overlooked the fact that this Pitta is a summer visitor to the sub-Himalayan

area and a winter visitor to Ceylon. My own specimens from Kangra and

fresh birds examined in the Ceylon survey are quite indistinguishable.

P. 78. Brachypternus benghalensis woodi (Jagalbad).

This is of course merely the intermediate between puncticollis and tehminae.

The existing races of Brachypternus benghalensis are already sufficiently difficult

to seperate and there is no value in giving names to their intermediates. I

have already pointed out (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii p. 292) that the red fringing to

the feathers found in a greater or less degree on the golden upper parts of

many specimens has no racial significance beyond the fact that it apparently

never occurs in the desert race dilutus.

P. 78. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus socialis (Jagalbad).

In the British Museum material, I could see no difference between birds

from South India and birds from Malaya. On the Rothschild material Mr. Koelz

claims a difference in colour. An independent examination of fresh material

seems necessary.

P, 78 Xantholama hemacephala coniusa (Londa).

Phe differences alleged appear to be due to wear. I have examined a good

series of this species from the whole of the west of Peninsular India and,

allowing for differences due to wear and individual variation, could find no

difference between them and other Indian birds.

P. 79. Tockus birostris pergriseus (Lahore).

This race is based on a_ single specimen on characters which my own

Punjab series shows to be merely a question of individual variation.

P. 79. Harpactes fasciatus legerli (forests at the fort of Mahendra Giri,

Orissa).

This race is based on a single specimen so it is difficult to understand how

Mr. Koelz can say ‘the wing may average longer.’ I have seen no specimens

from this area and can give no opinion therefore on the validity of the new

race.

P. 80. Caprimulgus asiaticus gurgaoni (Huttin, Gurgaon).

There are other Gurgaon specimens in the British Museum and this race

may be recognisable. Yet it would be well to bear in mind what I wrote in

the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, p. 38). ‘I have not been able

to understand the division of this Nightjar into races satisfactorily. There

are at any rate three colour phases, pale sandy, brown and grey and _ there

appear to be some correlation of these phases with locality, the pale sandy-

birds coming from the north-west, the grey birds from the Deccan and the

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

brown birds from other localities. The phases, however, so grade into each

other and there seem to be so many exceptions to their connection with special

localities that I hesitate to consider these colour phases as definitely subspecific.’

P. 80. Tyto alba crypta. (Londa).

I have examined a large number of Barn Owls in the British Museum

and elsewhere from the Punjab to Travancore (including specimens from

. Bombay and from Belgaum close to Londa) and all are evidently one, somewhat

variable form T. alba stertens of which this new name appears to be a synonym.

P. 80. Otus bakkamena stewarti (Baijnath, Kangra).

Mr. Koelz has here evidently been deceived by individual variation. I have

a small series of these Scops owls from Kangra and they are variable both in

depth of colouration and in the amount of darker marking. The name will

be a synonym of plumipes.

P. 80. A€golius funerea juniperi (Kyelang, Lahul).

This species is a most interesting addition to the Indian Empire list and

I have no material on which to discuss the validity of the new race.

P. 81. Streptopelia orientalis sylvicola (Castle Rock).

It is difficult to discuss the colouration of these doves from written des-

criptions, but Mr. Koelz has not stated how this series, evidently breeding in

March at Castle Rock, differs from the breeding bird of the Peninsula whose

exact range is uncertain, but which clearly breeds both in the Sambalpore area

and in Mysore. If the same, as would seem to be the case, it already has a

name Turtur erythrocephalus Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. av. vol ii. p. 60 after

April 15, 1855 (type locality errove Cape of Good Hope) of which the type is in

the British Museum.

P. 82. Burhinus edicnemus mayri (Londa). |

I have not seen any specimen of a Thick-knee from this area so cannot

comment positively on this new race. All birds examined, however, from

Cutch, Gujrat, Khandesh, Central and South India and Ceylon belong to the

one from B, @. indicus so one would hardly have expected a local race of limited

distribution in this area.

P. 82. Lobivanellus indicus lanke (Galgamuwa, Ceylon).

There seems to be very little point in separating. a Ceylon race of this

species. The position is as follows. This species grades in size and colour from

Ceylon to N.-W. India. If birds from these two extremes are compared they

are fairly distinct, Ceylon birds being deeper in colour above with the gloss,

especially the purple gloss, more pronounced. They are also slightly smaller,

but not as small as Mr. Koelz’s Series (3 d Wing 201-209 mm.) suggests.

4 males in the British Museum have wings of 213-223 mm. and 4 males obtained

by the Ceylon Survey have wings of 211-220 mm. Five males from the

Punjab in my collection have wings of 211-234 mm. ‘The type-locality Goa

lies in the middle of this intergrading but closer to Ceylon than to the north-

west. There is so little difference between the two extremes and there is so

much individual variation that I wondered at one time whether it was even

worth recognising the two races indicus and aigneri. To divide the intergradation

into three races seems quite valueless.

H. WHISTLER.

CaLpHEc Houses,

BaTTLE Sussex, ENGLAND,

7-10-1941

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

ParT IX.

(Continued from Vol. xlii, No. 4 (1941), p. 756.)

RHOPALOCERA.

SATYRIDAE.

Meiunitis leda L., ismene Cr.

Wioore, ep Cevls, 1, 14, pl. 10, fies 2b. 1880-8r.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 159. 1905.

Ovum spherical, the base flattened. Pale silvery green, without

sculpturing. Laid in twos or threes on the underside of a blade of

grass. Laid 25-ix-41. Hatched 20-ix-41.

Ist instar—Head large, dark brown, the mouth parts paler and

with a pale knob on either side of the vertex. Body white when

first hatched, turning green after feeding. Anal plate produced

into two short processes. Both head and body clothed sparsely

with comparatively long black hair. Moulted 1-x-41.

2nd instar—Head black, hairy, square, with comparatively long

black horns in place of the pale knobs of the previous instar. Body

blue-green, at first unmarked but later a double dotted white sub-

dorsal line develops. Anal processes comparatively longer. The

body clothed with short colourless hairs, the anal processes with

black. Moulted 3-x-41.

3rd instar—Similar. The hairs on the anal processes colourless.

A second form has the head green, the horns black, and a black

stripe edged behind with white from the base of the horns to the

side of the jaws. Moulted 5-x-q1.

4th instar—Head square, black and hairy, an elongate white spot

laterally just outside the jaws, horns black. Some examples

have three green spots frontally, which may be joined together into

a roughly triangular mark. A second form has the head green,

the horns black and with a black stripe edged behind with white

from the base of the horns to outside the jaws. <A third form is

similar but the black stripe is broader and there is a black stripe

across the vertex connecting the base of the horns. Body rather

yellower green than previously, shagreened. A dark blue-green

dorsal stripe edged with a line of minute yellow dots, a double

subdorsal yellow dotted line and a pale subspiracular stripe.

Moulted 8-x-q1.

5th instar—Head similar to previous instar but the horns dark

purplish with black hairs. The black stripe of the second form

often with a tooth onto the face about two-thirds down its length,

in which case the stripe is broader. Mouth parts black edged above

-40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIl

with white. Body similar to the previous instar but of a lovely

bright grass green, rather similar to the colour of young paddy.

Pupated 15-x-41.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster from a pad of white silk.

Shape head truncate, thorax slightly humped, wing cases rounded.

Colour jade green, rather translucent, a diffused darker abdominal

dorsal stripe “and an indistinct yellowish spiracular line. Veins of

the wing cases dark. A male emerged 21-x-41.

Food-plant—Grasses.

The larvae keep together up to the 3rd instar, after which they

scatter.

Described from larvae bred from ova deposited by a Calcutta

caught female.

Moore, in Lep. Ceyl., gives the following description: — ‘Larva

elongated, thickened in middle, pubescent, head large, surmounted

by two short pubescent red processes, last segment also with two

processes; pale green with longitudinal rows of whitish dots; dorsal

and lateral line darker green; head bluish, striped with white and

black. Pupa green, cylindrical, head and thorax obliquely flattened.

Feeds on Gramineae.’ The figure is untrue to life in both shape

and colour. Bingham, without giving references, writes as fol-

lows :—'Larva long, slender, somewhat fusiform, rough; terminal

segment armed with two divergent setose fleshy processes (Moore).

Colour grass-green with a yellow lateral line and many rows of

small white spots, with the horn and continuing cheek-stripe red,

and three black spots on the face, but sometimes the head and

horns are dark brown with three white spots on the face (Aitken).

Pupa, thick, smooth, abdomen dorsally convex; head case terminat-

ing in an obtuse point; colour pale watery green without markings

(Moore).’

GRYPOCERA.

HETEROPTERINAE.

Matapa aria Moore.

Young larva--Head black, rather large and heart-shaped. Body

bright crimson, tinged with green. <A transverse black line on the

posterior edge of the ist somite.

Full grown larva-—Head heart-shaped, amber yellow with the

mandibles black and the eyes blackish. Body with the rst somite

only slightly constricted and the anal flap broad but not much

flattened. Colour pale silvery green at the beginning of the instar,

the green gradually fading and the larva becoming covered with

a dense white powder as it ages, the secondary segmental folds

tinged with yellow. A transverse blackish line on “the posterior

portion of the 1st somite. Spiracles black, that on the 11th somite

very much larger than the others. A pair of dark orange kidney-

shaped organs under the skin of the dorsum on the oth somite.

A few short whitish hairs, most abundant on the edge of the anal

flap. Legs very pale fawn. Prolegs and venter whitish green.

Lives in a spirally twisted leaf,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 41

The transition from the coloration of the young larva to that

of the adult is gradual, the head becoming paler in colour with

each ecdysis and the crimson gradually fading.

Pupa in a cell made from a spirally twisted leaf and lined with

white silk. Moth-like in shape, the divisions between head, thorax

and abdomen fairly well marked. Somites rather deeply cut. Apex

of abdomen flattened and triangular. Colour very pale whitish

green, covered sparingly with a white waxy powder. The pupal

skin is very thin and collapses completely after emergence. The

pupa wriggles very violently in its cell when touched and makes

a distinct buzzing sound.

Food-plant—Bamboos.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 14-ix-41, pupated

20-x-41, and a female emerged 28-1x-41.

PAMPHILINAE.

Astycus pythias Mab., bambusae Moore.

Head pale fawn with a dark brown central stripe from vertex to

apex of the clypeus, where it divides and follows the clypeus’ outer

edge. Usual shape of the family with the rst somite constricted

and the anal flap broad and flat. Colour yellowish green, but the

skin is transparent and the colour appears a dark green due to the

contents of the intestines.. The skin is so transparent that the

larger trachea, silk glands, etc. are all clearly visible. Traces of

a pale subspiracular line. Spiracles pale yellow. Legs, prolegs

and venter paler green. A few short whitish hairs, particularly

noticeable on each side of the anal flap. When completely full fed

two small bright yellow kidney-shaped organs appear under the

skin of the dorsum of the 9th somite. Lives in a cell formed from

a turned-over leaf.

Pupa in a cell formed from a turned-over leaf; a bite is made

more or less at right angles to the edge of the leaf and the flap

formed is turned over and secured with silk. The cell is lined

with white silk and covered with a white waxy powder, which also

covers the pupa. Pupa moth-like in shape, pale yellowish chestnut

in colour, the head, thorax and wing cases tinged with purplish.

Cremaster broad and flat, a short stout spine on each side, the

central portion with hooked, almost colourless, hairs.

Food-plant—Bamboos.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 8-ix-41, pupated

II-ix-41, and a male emerged 20-1x-41.

Baoris, gelleri Led., cinnara Wall.

Moore, Le. CeVylls il, Wo, ly WOS ile Bos ailsterotshi

Head heart-shaped, pale olive green, a broad white stripe on

either side edged behind by a narrower dark brown stripe. Ground

colour of body bluish green, the secondary segmental folds rather

more yellow. A darker dorsal stripe edged on each side with

whitish and a whitish subdorsal line. Spiracles white. Legs,

prolegs and venter bluish green. Shape with the 1st somite con-

stricted, the anal flap broad and flat and fringed with a few short

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

whitish hairs. In the very early instars the head is black, develop-

ing a broad white stripe on the side in the penultimate instar. In

some examples the black and white striped head appears in the final

instar and the usual colour is not attained.

_ Lives in a folded blade of grass and suffers very badly from the

attacks of ichneumons, out of six larvae found in the penultimate

instar only one reached the final and that failed to pupate.

Pupa grass green, rather translucent. A double white dorsal

and a white subdorsal line on the abdominal somites. Head pro-

duced into a stout spike. Ina slightly folded blade of grass, secured

by a girdle of white silk and the cremaster attached to the silk

lining of the grass. |

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 13-x-41, pupated

15-x-41, and a male emerged 22-x-41.

Moore gives the following description under the name Parnara

cingala:—‘Larva very pale olivaceous-blue, with a darker dorsal

and a paler lateral longitudinal line; head yellowish. Feeds on

Graminaceae. Pupa pale olive-green.’

HETEROCERA.

SATURNIIDAE.

Dictyoploca simla Westw.

Head green, with short bristly green hairs. Body pale silvery

green, with a raised subspiracular yellow line which is flecked with

orange below each spiracle. Dorsal area clothed with medium

length erect blue-green hairs, lateral area and venter with short

bristly yellow-green hair. A subdorsal and lateral series of very

small green tubercles tufted with short urticating bristles. Spiracles

blue and broadly ringed with blue. Legs orange pink. Prolegs

ereen, the feet pinkish with a basal black ring. Anal plate and

claspers green minutely flecked with black.

Cocoon net-like, of golden brown silk, the threads and mesh

coarse. Pupa pale pinkish brown, the wing cases slightly green

tinged, the intersegmental areas darker brown. Cuticle very hard

and minutely wrinkled.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn. and a number of un-

identified shrubs.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 8-v-41, pupated

16-v-41, and a male emerged in Calcutta 20-xi-41. In Shillong,

probably, emergence would not have taken place until March or

April.

SPHINGIDAE.

Herse convolvuli L., convolvult.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11, 5, pl. 75, figs. 1, 1 b-e. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 103. 1892.

Seitz Seitz, Indo-Austr, Bombyces, x, 527.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 43

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 63, pl. ix, figs. 1-7.

1937:

Ovum disproportionately small, of the usual Sphingid shape.

Colour bright jade green. Unsculptured. Laid 4-x-41. Hatched

7-X-4I.

Ist instar—Head round, yellow green. Body yellow green when

hatched becoming darker and bluer after feeding, rather long and

thin. Horn straight and black, the tip bifid. Moulted 1o-x-q1.

2nd instar—Similar. Under a jens the skin of the dorsum is

shagreened and there is a bluish tinged dorsal stripe. Moulted

12-x-41. A wild caught larva was similar.

3rd instar—Similar. A lateral series of black spots, usually

obsolete on 2nd and 3rd somites. Legs purple. Prolegs green,

in a few larvae they were blackish. Horn upright, black, in a few

larvae with a whitish band about one-third down from the apex,

in these the underside of the horn is also whitish towards the base.

Later in the instar a series of darker oblique stripes edged behind

with whitish, and with a black speck in the centre of each, appears,

these stripes extending from the dorsum to the lateral area. Moulted

15-x-41. The wild caught larva mentioned above did not develop

the lateral oblique stripes towards the end of the instar.

4th instar—Head green with white granules and with a blackish

lateral stripe. Body green with white granules. An interrupted

purplish black subdorsal stripe composed of slightly oblique streaks.

A lateral series of oblique pale stripes edged above with purplish

black. Spiracles orange ringed with black. Legs purplish, the base

black. Horn with the base orange, the rest black, in some examples

with a whitish band about a third from the apex. Prolegs black.

The amount of blackish purple marking varies considerably, some

larvae having the subdorsal stripe continuous and broad, in others

it being broken and narrow. ‘The lateral stripes also may extend

the whole length of the pale stripes or be reduced to a short streak

in the middle. Venter with a blackish median line. Moulted

17-x-41. The wild caught larva mentioned above had the head

green ‘with white granules and a white lateral stripe. The body

green with white granules, a series of oblique slightiy darker green

stripes meeting on the dorsum and edged below on the lateral area

with whitish. Spiracles orange ringed with black. Legs purplish.

Prolegs green. Horn whitish green with white granules, the extreme

tip black and a black stripe along the upper surface from base to

about a third from the apex.

Final instar—Head buff with an inverted black Y-shaped mark,

a broad black subdorsal stripe and a second broader one behind it

but not reaching the vertex of the head nor the base of the antenna.

Ground colour of body deep chocolate brown speckled with paler,

in some examples the ground colour is tinged with tawny. A pale

buff subdorsal stripe on the thoracic somites, usually continued on

the abdominal by a spot on the anterior portion of each somite,

this spot sometimes becoming a streak. Some examples with traces

of a buff dorsal stripe with a median line of the ground colour. A

lateral series of oblique dark stripes, obscurely edged behind with

paler, these stripes almost invisible in the darkest forms. A broad

whitish subspiracular stripe crossed by an occasional dark brown

14. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

line. Spiracles black and set in circular black patches. Legs black.

Prolegs and venter smoky brown. Anal claspers almost black

externally. Horn black, downcurved. Anal flap outlined by an

orange-buff stripe. Pupated 23-x-41. The wild caught larva was

similar to the above in the last instar.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cell. Colour chestnut brown,

the thorax and wing cases paler. A dorsal stripe and the inter-

segmental areas of the abdomen darker. Proboscis sheath free, in

a rather flattened curve to about the end of the first leg sheath

and then back again along the body, the end slightly bulbous. °

Spiracles and cremaster almost black. A female emerged 3-xi-41.

Food-plant—Ipomaea palmata Forsk. and I. aquatica Forsk.

Bell and Scott give the following list:—Phaseolus spp., Dolichos

Lablab Linn., Arachis hypogaea Linn., Helianthus spp., Ipomaea

spp. and Convolvulus spp.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta ©

caught female.

Moore’s descriptions are somewhat vague and his figures any-

thing but lifelike, the pupa in particular being incorrect both in

shape and colour. Hampson ignores the existence of the brown

form completely and mentions that ‘the European form has a black

spot above each lateral stripe, the absence of which is the only

character relied on for separating orientalis’. ‘The female parent of

my brood was of f. orientalis and most of the imagines bred belonged

to this form.

NOCTUIDAE.

Earias cupreoviridis Wik. (chromataria Wk.)

Larva mottled dark and pale brown, rather swollen anteriorly

and arined with rows of short fleshy spines, It unfortunately pupated

before it was possible to describe it in detail.

Cocoon canoe-shaped, of thick, dark brown, papery silk. As

is usual in the family, the imago escapes through a slit in the front

of the cocoon.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta, spun 3-x-41,

and a male emerged 12-x-q1.

Mocis (Remigia) frugalis F.

Moore;ULepirCevl., 1, 290, pli 172) fies aas1Ss4-87.

Lamps iauna bat. ind. sMotnsy mins 27m loO 4

Hamps., Cat Lep. Phal., xiii, 89. 1913.

Head dark olive brown, the clypeus filled in with whitish and

with a white stripe from apex to vertex with a fine central brown

line. The brown part of the head with fine white lines, one rather

broader one arising from the external edge of the subdorsal body

stripe. Ground colour of body yellow, in some examples almost

orange, in others tinged with green. A double orange brown dorsal

line. A subdorsal stripe composed of three olive brown lines. An

olive brown lateral line with two orange brown lines between it

and the subdorsal stripe. An orange brown subspiracular line.

The lowest line of the subdorsal stripe is sometimes much darker

on the anterior two-thirds of the 7th somite, The intersegmental

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 45

area between the 4th-5th and 5th-6th somites velvety black but only

visible when the body is bent. s1th and rath somites with a sub-

dorsal black dot. Venter similar in ground colour but duller, a

dark median stripe and three olive brown lines close together

laterally. Legs pale brown. Prolegs pale olive brown, the first

two pairs obsolete. Spiracles blackish.

The larvae vary very considerably in depth and brightness of

colour. One example had the subdorsal stripe very dark, the lines

composing it and also the lateral line blackish brown, Another had

a white line on either side of the double orange brown dorsal line.

Pupa in a small cocoon of thin white silk -covered with blades

of grass. Pupa purplish brown and covered with a dense coating

of white bloom. Apex of abdomen slightly conical and wrinkled,

surrounded dorsally by eight blunt teeth and with six hooked spines

at the extreme end.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 30-ix-41, spun _

2-X-41, and a female emerged I1-x-q1. _

Moore’s description is ‘Larva semi-looped; with twelve legs;

pale yellowish-ochreous, with slender longitudinal darker ochreous

lines, an intervening sublateral row of dark olivaceous spots, and

two subdorsal lines; fifth and sixth segment posteriorly edged with

a dorsa! black streak. Pupa ochreous-red. Feeds on Zinziberaceae.’

Hampson’s description in the fauna is based on this but in the

Calalogue he quotes the following description by Semper (Ieise

Phil. Schmett., i1, p. 564, plate T, fig. 2) :—‘Ochreous with numerous

fine waved red-brown lines, the subdorsal, lateral and sublateral

stripes with black-brown lines; maculate black dorsal bands between

5th and 6th and 7th and 8th somites; a vellow stripe below the

stigmata and ventral stripe; first two pairs of claspers absent.

Food-plant, Zinziberaceae.’

Chalciope hyppasia Cr.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 289. 1941.

The larva is extremely variable. In addition to the form pre-

viously described, a brood bred from ova in November 1941 con-

tained the following.

One form very similar to that originally described but with the

subdorsal and lateral areas irrorated with blackish. Another form

had the 4th to 6th somites so densely suffused with blackish that

the usual markings were obliterated, the subdorsal stripe being

indicated by a series of white specks. The ground colour of this

form may be yellowish, greyish or tawny, the lateral and subdorsal

areas suffused to a greater or lesser extent with blackish. The head

in the dark forms rather darker than in the form originally described.

GEOMETRIDAE.

ITyperythra lutea Cr.

Ovum barrel-shaped, dark slate grey and with about fifteen

prominent longitudinal ribs, which do not extend to the ends of

the ovum. :

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Newly hatched larva very long and slender. Bright chestnut

brown in colour.

The larvae were offered Peepul, Bauhinia sp., Lagerstroemia

mdica Linn., Rhynchosia minima DC., Polyalthea longifolia Wall.,

Ipomaea palmata Forsk. and a cultivated Euphorbia, but refused to

feed:

Ova laid by a Calcutta caught female 24-x-41, and hatched

28-X-4I.

PYRALIDAE,

Crocidophora ptyophora Hamps.

Head chestnut brown. Ist, 2nd and anal somite clear yellow.

grd to 12th somites creamy yellow, a dorsal! line and the inter-

segmental areas with the skin transparent and the ;dark green

colour of the contents of the intestines shewing through. Legs pale

chestnut. Prolegs creamy yellow. Venter coloured as dorsum. A

few pale hairs. Before pupation the green colour disappears and

the larva is a creamy yellow with the formerly green parts a pale

clear amber.

Lives in a cigar-shaped roll of bamboo leaves, rolled the one

over the other and secured by a few coarse strands of white silk.

Pupa in a slight cocoon oi white silk and frass formed at the

lower end of the larval case, the head pointing upwards. Colour

bright chestnut, the ventral surface and wing cases considerably

paler. The first four abdominal somites with a raised dark blister-

like ridge dorsally.

Food-plant—Bamboos.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 8-ix-41, spun

1I-ix-41, and a female emerged 19-ix-q1.

Glyphodes bivitralis Guen.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 322, pl. 180, fig. 2a. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, iv, 355. 1806.

Head honey colour. Body yellow green with the contents of

the intestine shewing as a dark green central chord. 1st somite

with a black dorsal plate. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black sub-

dorsal spot with a conjoined white speck above. 11th somite with

a transverse series of four black specks. Legs and prolegs

almost colourless. The skin, except for the spots, is unpigmented

the yellow green colour being due to the blood and fat. Before

pupation the ground colour becomes a clear pinkish yellow. Lives

in a folded leaf.

Pupa in a web of white silk in a folded leaf. Colour yellowish

brown, the dorsum, particularly the intersegmental areas, rather

darker. Leg sheaths, etc. very long and reaching almost to the

end of the abdomen. Proboscis sheath projecting slightly frontally.

Food-plant—Peepul.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 3-xi-41, pupated

8-xi-41, and a male emerged 16-xi-41.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA . 47

Moore’s: description is ‘Larva rather stout, attenuated at the

ends; olive brown, palest beneath; head reddish, and with a black

lateral streak; a dorsal, subdorsal and lateral row of white dots,

the latter with a few fine short radiating white hairs; some black

dots on anterior and posterior segments. Pupa pale olivaceous-

red; with an acute anal point and lengthened pedal sheath. Feeds

on Ficus opposiiifolia.’ His figure shews a larva with a reddish

brown dorsal and yellowish ventral area, the two divided by a grey-

blue lateral stripe. Hampson’s description is based on that of

Moore.

(Lo be continued).

ON THE BANKS OF THE NARBADA.

LiguT.-CoLt. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Reid.)

Part II.

(With four black and white plates).

(Continued from Vol. xl, No. 4 (1941), page 76s).

Now that there are some forty thousand miles of working rail-

ways in India it is difficult to: realize those days prior to 1851

when the first section of the G. I, P. Railway was commenced from

Bombay. Then the Narbada river was accessible only after weeks

of travel, much of it through wild and difficult country.

The portion of the river where we are is about forty miles up-

stream from Dhariaghat, and some fifteen miles north of the line

which runs more or less parallel to the river between Khandwa and

Hoshangabad. There is no made road, so the car has a rough

passage over tracks seldom traversed, even by bullock carts.

It is on the 25th December we reach the river to pitch camp ~

in the open, in the vicinity of shady trees beneath which the tents

will be placed when the weather gets warmer. Some young buffaloes

are procured at an average price of eight rupees, and two goats

at about the same rate. There are few villages, so beating after

a ‘kill’ is not feasible and slaying of carnivora has to be from hide

or machan. After a careful survey up and down stream a large

tamarind tree by the side of a path some fifty yards from the river

bank a mile and a half east of camp is fixed upon for a full length

machan, the deciding factor for the exact location of the buffalo

being the possibility of noiselessly stalking the place from the

shelter of a sandbank and some bushes at earliest dawn, when the

tiger should be on the ‘kill’. |

Less than a mile down stream a shady tree overhanging a steep

path to the water is chosen for a chair; the place for the poor

buffalo to await his blood-thirsty slaughterer being beside a drift-

wood tree trunk already half imbedded in the sand, a protruding

branch, suitably trimmed, affording an excellent hold for the un-

breakable wire rope with which the animal is to be tethered.

Tracks have shown that tigers are in the habit of crossing the river,

from island to island from the thick forests of the Indore side, to

wander about the river bed and along the higher banks, on the

look-out for game and domestic animals.

There is much acquired experience in all our arrangements. The

machans must be well screened all round, also from above and

below, this having to be done before any bait is tethered. Nothing

is left to chance. ‘There is a rest for the rifle and a small peephole,

separate from the aperture from which the shot is taken by leaning

forward, so that the kill can be observed without movement on

the part of the watcher. Some nails are fixed into the tree trunk and

boughs on which to hang water-bottle and other sundries. Each

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

: ASS SE

Sons

ares

Wes

The Temple of Omkar on the Island of Mandhata.

A Narbada ctossing : the Fort Ferry.

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A Narbada Tiger.

Little Ben’s fifth Panther.

ON THE BANKS OF. THE -NARBADA AY

day green branches are intertwined within the screen so that soon

the machan viewed from the outside appears to be a mere bundle

of dry leaves. To the chair a comfortable foot-rail is essential,

and a small pillow has to be tied where the head will comfortably

rest; for the vigil may be long or it may be short : we have to await

the pleasure of our guest to his dinner, and at this season of the

year we should be in position by three o’clock in the afternoon.

When all is ready at both the selected places men are engaged

—two for each butfalo as they won’t go alone—to tie up the baits

each evening and visit them in the morning about an hour after

sunrise. The animals require one’s personal attention as to plenty

of dry grass for night bedding, and proper feeding and watering

during the day. Grass hereabouts is difficult to get, so a cartload

is obtained from a distant village. We have two spare animals in

order to give each ‘bait’ an alternate ‘night in bed’, and a couple

of goats.

With mind at rest regarding all arrangements there are interest-

ing walks abroad to learn one’s surroundings. From the camp

we see a ferry plying backwards and forwards across the river.

The large flat-bottomed barge is run by a contractor who secures

the necessary labour by subsidizing the villages on either bank,

the people arranging among themselves a ‘roster of duty’. The

ferry fees are moderate enough. Two annas for a loaded cart and

an extra anna if the bullocks are carried. An anna being a con-

sideration most of them have to wade and swim, so there is much

shouting and throwing of stones to force the animals across. Fare

for a human passenger is one pie—rather more than a farthing!

It was by means of a number of barges of this kind collected

from up and down the river that a passage was effected in 1817

by British Forces at the Hindia Ghat, which is twelve miles up-

stream. The army marched north into Rajputana, to fight the

campaign against Holkar and the Pindaris which culminated in the

battle of Mehidpur (21 Dec. 1817), the final defeat of the Mahratta

confederacy, and the suppression of the Pindari marauders.

The village from near which the ferry piies is a small one of

ten or twelve houses; the inhabitants Rajputs and Dhimars, with

one Korku family providing the Headman appointed by Govern-

ment. He is also the local shikari, but not of much use, being old

and having fever every other day. This we treat him for and

learn that there are two tigers on this side and others in the Indore

forests along the further bank. A blue-bull being seen in the

jungle the Korku is asked his taste in meat and replies that he

could not stomach such flesh as that! and when an antelope is

brought into camp and the tape run over its horns by a Christian

and therefore ‘unclean’ hand he, in common with the low caste

Dhimars, would have no truck with the meat. Such is the Hinduis-

ing influence of residence along the banks of this sacred river;

for in the Satpura Hills not far distant, the principal habitat of this

jungle tribe, the Korkus eat tiger, panther, bear, and anything

else that may be shot, even if the Sahib has had the principal hand

in the skinning. It is the same in all the riparian villages of the

valley in which some of these aboriginal Korku people have even

taken to adding the Rajput affix ‘singh’ to their own lowly

—

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIi1

patronimics, and ‘Kuer’ to that of their women. The cult of social

climbing is common to all mankind.

The camp larder is empty and we have to find the wherewithal

to fill it, so the mornings find us early abroad with a view to

_rounding up peafowl, junglecock, partridge, pigeon, with shot gun

and .22 rifle. We have to work hard for small results.

In this way several days pass, and then the down river buffalo

is killed by a male tiger whose pugs show large in the sand. We

see by the tracks that he was hunting along the reeds and bushes

of the river bed; that he saw the buffalo and made rapidly towards

it; that he swam across a small lagoon and then, quickly stealing

under the bank beneath the dark shade of trees got within a few

yards of his unsuspecting victim, the body of which is now covered

with branches weighed down by stones. We have known a branch

pulled aside by a prowling jackal expose a limb to the ubiquitous

crow with the consequent arrival of hawks and vultures and the

complete disintegration of the ‘kill’ and the loss of any chance

at the tiger.

It was intended to be in position by three o’clock but we are

late in leaving camp, so final screening operations are still being

done when the coughing of the ever-watchful lungoors announce

the tiger is on the move close by. The men hurriedly unscreen

the carcase and make off up the river bed. The suspicions of the

tiger have been aroused. He has heard movement at the place;

and instead of appearing in daylight as he would certainly have

done, keeps away until 10-30 p.m.

The moon is well above the trees, and the kill, in the shadow

early in the evening, is now in the light, almost as clear as day-

light, of a moon at the full. The stillness of the jungle at this

hour of a breathless night can almost be felt. One could hear a

pin drop. So when there is a slight rustle on the bank but a few

yards away it is known who has arrived on the scene. After

several minutes—well we know his attitude of intent listening watch-

fulness—we hear his heavy approach as he sets aside all caution

and comes striding down the sandy incline to pass within twelve

feet of the muzzle of the rifle so soon to rend

the peaceful night. Lifting the carcase with a quick movement,

as is almost invariably done on first arrival, he finds it still hard

and fast so stands, again intently listening, at gaze over the river

bed. A jungle king indeed.

The rifle is raised, sighted and lowered. There is plenty of

time, and such preliminary sighting shots are a guard against undue

haste. It is the first shot which is all important. The stillness

and beauty of the night is torn by the tremendous explosion of

seventy-five. grains of cordite. The stricken beast lurches to one

side, collapses, and slides to the foot of the slope, shot through

the heart and instantly killed by the terrific impact of the soft nose

and split bullet of five hundred grains weight. One moment stand-

ing in all his majestic strength and symmetry, the next his life

extinguished, and his death even more merciful than that of the

buffalo he slew a few hours before. He weighed 400 lbs.

A period of ten days elapses before the tigress puts in an appear-

ance. For six successive morning's the tied-up buffalo is stalked at

ON THE BANKS OF 1 HE NARBADA 51

earliest dawn in hopes of that shot which, in common with stalking

sleeping tigers near jungle pools, in the hot weather, is the acme

of all tiger shooting. On the seventh day we were weary of the dark

and difficult walking over the stones of the river bed to the sandy

patch from which the stalk commences, so take a day off. That

very morning the tigress is found to have killed! One should

never let up, but persevere to the end.

She was an unwary beast, or very hungry. Having slain the

buffalo at about daybreak, as could be known by the tracks along

the sand, she appeared shortly after four o’clock with the slanting

sun shining fitfully through the tree-tops on her striped hide.

Previously to this three jackals arrive, and as the right eye had

been giving trouble for some days a ‘sighting shot’ is taken on

one of them, using left eye and right shoulder. In very early

days the useful accomplishment of shooting with a rifle from either ’

shoulder had been acquired, but the machan having been arranged

for a right shoulder shot this third method of aiming is found

necessary on this occasion—and not for the first time. “The tigress

frequently looks in the direction of the path through the forest

along which the men visited the kill, so there is little doubt that

she was feeding in the early morning. A memorable opportunity

missed for want of one more morning’s perseverance.

The soft-nose-cum-split bullet does instant execution as usual.

Such a bullet is best for all sideways shots, the soft nose in the

other barrel being used for chest shots, or when the bullet has to

rake forward. ‘Two ‘dongas’ (dug-out canoes) are obtained, and

the poor tigress is peacefully floated down the beautiful river along

the banks of which she had hunted for so many years; for she

was quite an old beast, may be twenty years or more, her teeth

very yellow and blunt, the left lower canine broken, the eyes filmy

with the appearance of approaching blindness. It was afterwards

regretted they had not been preserved for examination by an

ophthalmologist. She weighed 280 lbs.

It was expected that some time would elapse before other tigers

took the places vacated by these two animals, and so it proved.

Another year, however, finds us at the same place: and making

similar arrangements we await the pleasure of the tiger and tigress,

successors to their departed relatives, who are now in possession.

We do not, alas! have the. same fortune, as the tiger is disposed

of by a village shikari over a pet bullock some miles away, and

the tigress is the wiliest met with for many a day. She killed the

upstream buffalo very early one morning, the tracks showing that

when first sighting the tethered animal she stuck out her claws,

whisked round, and galloped off to the jungle fifty yards away;

but eventually came from another direction and killed. It may

be she would have returned that night to meet her fate but fortune

was on her side. The night’s vigil was unrewarded, the reason

being that while she was awaited in the machan she was feeding

off a calf, chance met in the forest. A second vigil was also fruit-

less, but interesting as a large mugger issued from the pool close

by and had a good feed on the kill. The wire tethering rope was

proof against his efforts to take the carcase to the river.

Tracks and jungle noises showed the wily tigress to be still

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLill

in the vicinity, so another boda was led to take the place of the

other, now almost completely demolished. Owing to mistaken

kindness a drink was given too soon after a feed on green grass

so the severe colic which ensued prevented the buffalo going more

than half way to the machan. It was left near a jamun tree which

would afford sufficient roost for a chair, and where the tigress

would be sure to find it if she hunted along the bank of the river.

Sure enough she did. It was found that after slaking her thirst

early in the morning as known by the drops of water in the sand,

she had sneaked along among the reeds in one place going belly

to ground to pass under an arch of reeds, not eighteen inches high,

then, rounding a small bush, she came right on to the boda! This

was too much for her nerves for she stuck out her claws and raced

off to the forest close by. The buffalo being ill—it died later—must

have been lying very quiet: the tigress did not return. Had the

buffalo not tallen ill she might have come along to the machan and

killed it.

Twelve days later this same tigress came from up river, saw

the boda, stopped, and went up the bank, had a backward look,

went on to a place in deep shade and had another look, then passed

on down river. All this being very plainly written by her tracks.

Evidently a very cunning beast, and probably with some sharp

experience to remind her of the danger attending a tethered bait !

So we are tigerless on this trip.

The ferry is close to the northern end of an island on which

is a fort dating from the time of the marauding Pindaris. It was

built by Amir Khan, a noted Pindari Chief who wisely entered into

a treaty with the British Government and so, in the settlement

subsequent to the battle of Mahidpur, secured to himself and _ his

heirs Jaghirs as price of his standing out of the war. Chitu, another

Pindari Chief of the same period, although described as more

sagacious than others of his kind, continued in arms and was hunted

down like a wild beast all over the country until eventually he was

killed by a tiger which devoured him in the jungles of Asirghur.

The Fort is constructed of boulders collected from the river

bed, put together with mortar. It is protected under the Monu-

ments Act enacted during the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon. There

are three tiers of battlements, many loopholes, but no gun embrasures.

It is lozenge-shaped as is the island on which it is built. In places

the walls are in course of disruption by the roots of banyan and

pipal trees, those deadly enemies to all masonry in eastern countries.

In the north-eastern corner are several former granaries, and two

tombs said to date from the time of the construction of the fort

(1795); there is also a small Hindu temple of no architectural

interest, and a Musjid, the white minarets of which can be seen

from afar. Access to the river water was on the north side by

means of a flight of steps leading to a well at the water’s edge.

Just here is a wide, deep pool fed by two rapids: a good place

for gram baiting and an occasional five-pound mahseer by spinning

bait or fly spoon; but it is much harried by the village fishermen.

Two miles up stream there is more good water, but it is difficult

and toilsome to fish this river by means of dug-out boats, and

often have I longed for the Berthon Collapsible boat of former days

JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

Omkarji: The Sacrificial Precipice,

A Narbada Fort of Pindari Days

JourN. BomBaAy Nat. HIsT. Soc. |

ON THE BANKS OF THE NARBADA 53

for, apart from transport difficulties, the dug-out is unwieldy and

noisy for river fishing of the kind one likes. A buffalo-hide and

bamboo basket coracle of the pattern used in South India would

be excellent, but would entail the importation of a man from those

parts to work it. There is an American made rubber collapsible

coracle which carries two people and is propelled by sculls. That

would be a less troublesome boat. Indians soon pick up rowing,

but not the coracle paddle, which is an expert business needing

long practice and experience.

During these days of waiting tigers were actively killing on the

Indore side, and the Chamars of the opposite village were early

on the spot each morning. One evening about half past seven

there was a great squealing of porkers from that direction accom-

panied by grunts of the attacking tigress, for such it proved to

be. The noise lasted for twenty minutes, and a previous experience

of the kind caused the remark that there must be cubs under in-

struction. In the morning the Chamars were early on the scene,

and by the time I got there the carcasses of two pigs had been

taken away. It seemed that the tigress had sprung amid _ the

sounder and disabled two half-grown pigs by blows of her paws,

as both the animals were slain within a few yards of one another.

One carcase had been taken to the river bank and there placed

beneath a jamun bush: the other into some long grass in a side

nala. Tracks showed there were two cubs of three or four months:

so instruction it was.

Panthers kept clear of tied up goats and bodas in an unusual

fashion. None were killed, but one morning tracks of two panthers

were noticed a few yards from a tethered goat. Perhaps the wind

was favourable to the goat, and it was lying so still as to escape

detection. That sometimes happens.

Our Irish Terrier of the Kerry Blue type, named ‘Simba’ because

ten years earlier she was just a little lion cub in appearance, might

‘have met a tragic end one evening when we were quietly strolling

along a jungle path not far from camp. There were lungoors all

unexcited in leafy tree so presumably no danger about; but, near-

ing the tree, beneath and around which was thick lantana, there,

plainly to be seen from ground level, was a panther! Simba was at

once chained, and our movement disturbing the crafty feline it

was quickly detected by the ever watchful lungoors. Then there

was no end of a scolding and swearing demonstration. Doubtless

had we not appeared on the scene some one of the long-tailed party,

descending unsuspecting to the ground, would have been seized

for an evening meal. Simba was herself of yellowish colour and

often sworn at by arboreal watchers as a possible enemy while

other dogs of darker colour would be ignored. Dear Simba! One

silky yellow ear cocked, the other flapping. She must be given a

place of honour posed on a table at the Narbada camp.

Thinking of Simba turns thoughts to question of camouflage.

The colour of one’s clothes is important. A khaki coat hampers

approach even to the forest doves. Most of us have recollections

of a borrowed cultivator’s blanket securing a shot at a black buck

otherwise unapproachable in one’s ordinary shooting kit. The simian

tribe will scold and thus alarm all the jungle folk within hearing

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

when they spy the Sahib creeping about in a khaki coat. And that

topee ! there is nothing like it in nature so it must be concealed by

leaves kept in place by a band round the crown.

One thing leads to another; and this train of thought reminds

me that from my very early days in India my gun and rifle barrels

have been painted a dull khaki-green, but not all a uniform colour-

stripes and blotches !—much to the disgust of the gunmaker who

disapproves of his work of art being thus disfigured. It was

instructive when crouched among the reeds on a duck jheel to

see the wild swerve of the birds from a companion’ sportsman

concealed on the further edge, any slightest movement of his gun

being a danger signal to the wildfowl. As with guns so with

fishing rods; how many fish have not been scared away by the

flashing signal of a varnished rod? Modern craftsmen and anglers

have neglected to paint their rods green after the manner so care-

fully instructed by Izaak Walton in 1653 and the many subsequent

editions of The Complete Angler.

It is in the cold weather of a later year that inclination and

opportunity find us again in the Narbada Valley and once more

setting out from Punasa. A preliminary is a walk of some eight

miles to the west to scout around for information and tiger tracks,

the result being old and new pugs of a large tiger north of Borphal

village: there is also news of several panthers levying toll of calves

from the gowala’s encampment close by: so camp is pitched in

that neighbourhood.

The last rain in this area was on the roth October so the tiger

is located all right. The dews are very heavy and the nights cold

in this first week of November. In spite of the people being in

a half starved condition owing to severe agricultural depression

they will not reduce their demand of eight rupees for a small buffalo

calf. ‘Gandhi Maharaj is our God,’ say they; perhaps that has

something to do with it. A Muhammadan attached to the camp

as a Forest Guard introduces himself by intimating that the last

Sahib gave him free rations, thirty rupees, and a watch! He gets

five rupees for rations and will live in hopes of the rest.

It is interesting to wander several miles through strange forest

and view the Narbada, now in flood. Several sambur are seen,

also tracks of a bear, and not far from camp remains of a nilgai

calf are discovered in the fork of a small teak tree, placed there by a

panther during the previous night. Passing the same place on our

return the panther is found to have removed his meat, so quite

likely he was not far off when we first saw his temporary larder.

Not far from the river the villager shows a place where is a

perfect hot-weather retreat for a tiger; from this small amphitheatre

is but one entry and exit so Tom Puss taking his kill into that fancied

security would be as good as bagged. In level country such places

are rare: when found make a note! <A peafowl, a hare, a green

pigeon are shot with the .22 rifle. The jungle is very leafy, grass

and undergrowth thick in places not grazed down by cattle, and

passing through it one gets soaked from the waist. |

Next day the coming and going tracks of the tiger are seen on

a path to the west, the return tracks clearly showing he was in a

very bad temper about something, as he had_ torn up two teak

ON THE BANKS OF THE NARBADA 55

saplings with his teeth and violently raked the ground in several

places. Perhaps he had failed in his stalk of some animal and

did not lke the idea of tummy rumblings for another day. A

sambur with horns recently out of velvet and 394 inches long is

shot much to the satisfaction of the villagers, the morrow being

the day of the Diwali Festival. The village shikari assists in

moving the beast for purposes of a camera picture. and does not

let on to his co-religionists that the Sahib’s hands have pulled the

animal about! There is questioning on the point when the cart

brings the animal to camp but the shikari is a tactful man: what

the eye does not see, etc.

On the night of the 9th November a calf was killed by a panther

and about the same time the tiger passed by the tethered buffalo

and refused to kill it. It is remarked to the men that he would

probably return this night and take the bait; and so it proved. The

machan is ready, and | should have been in it instead of avenging

the death of the pretty white calf. That proves to be a fatal error.

One should always follow one’s intuitive knowledge in such matters.

I knew the tiger would re-visit the bait but— —? no excuse. Little

Ben, the black Cocker spaniel, is photographed with the third

panther of his puppyhood.

The tiger’s killing of the buffalo was particularly savage and

there was blood all over the place, which is most unusual: he is

clearly a bad tempered, savage beast. It sometimes happens that

the tethering rope of flexible plaited wire is broken, and it is so

on this occasion, the break taking place where soldering of the loop

had been done. Joints should be plaited only, and not soldered.

In most cases when that happens no harm is done as the tiger will

return with less suspicion to a kill placed by himself; but there

is not always a tree for machan, in which case it has to be dragged

and arouse further suspicion. The kill is dragged forty yards so

the prepared machan is of no use. Another is made, but the trees

are small and the tiger must have detected it, as he gave no chance.

Two more all night vigils from another machan have the same

negative result, and as the kill is very far gone we decide to strike

camp and go to Makrar Ghat some miles up the river. The rough

cart track is stony in some places, deep in tenacious mud in others.

A yoke breaks and can fortunately be repaired by tools always

carried on such trips as this. It takes an hour and a half to cut a

suitable dry teak branch, shape it, and bore the holes for the

iron neck pins. Were R. B. not able to do such jobs as this the

camp would have had to be pitched on the spot, and a yoke obtained

from some village, meaning a whole night of uncomfortable delay.

The early start which had been hoped for this short march of

six miles did not come off: so it is past eleven when we follow along

with the .22 in hand. The people are listless and lethargic from

continual fever. On arrival at the camping site the shadows are

fast lengthening and it is only possible to pitch half a tent for our-

selves and one for the camp followers. Here, just above the high,

steep bank of the river, it is much colder than at Borphal. The

camp is in the forest and no habitations within several miles, though

cattle graze up to a mile from where we are. The low hills are

stony and covered with mixed forest and bamboos, while along the

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

banks of the nalas are large evergreen trees: here and there are

open spaces covered with coarse grass.

During the night there are alarm calls of sambur, and in the

nalas and along the sandy bank of the river are recent tracks of

a tigress. It is interesting to notice how careful she is to keep in

the shadows and take advantage of all cover and ground inequalities

during her nightly perambulations. The river is several hundred

yards wide in places and runs very strongly, for though much clearer

the flood waters have not yet subsided to cold weather level.

It being obvious that the big tiger would one night certainly

wander along the incoming cart track from the last camp, a machan

is fixed in a tree where the path to camp leaves the main track.

It is intended to pass each night in this machan, for one can slumber

there as well as in camp, and hear all the jungle sounds. This is

done for seven successive nights and then tracks of a tiger are

found near the down river bait so the eighth night spent there. Fatal

error! That night the tiger passed below the machan where is

no bait and no rifle. The only compensation was the lovely sight

of a tigress wandering along the further bank in full light of the

setting sun. People at the camp viewed her amid great excite-

ment.

Now the time limit for this month’s permit is not far off so we

return to the neighbourhood of the cattle encampment. It is found

that the tiger visited the putrid remains of his kill on the night

after the last vigil for him, and that so far gone was it that it fell

to pieces on the way to the place where he removed the horrible

repast, little but the skeleton, and some hide, surviving the drag.

Truly the tiger is a foul-feeding creature, and no wonder that wounds

inflicted by him have been fatal to so many sportsmen. Now that

medical science has produced M &B 720 there is considerable prospect

of recovery from maulings by tiger and panther as compared with

former days.

On the evening of the 28th November a male panther is killed,

without incident, over a tethered buffalo calf. This is the animal

which some days before had removed a calf from amid the tethered

herd without stampeding the cattle or rousing the watching herds-

man. A skilful marauder. He is a beast of marvellous grace, a

splendid athlete in appearence. There are fast-healing wounds on

head and neck conjectured to have been caused by a rush through

the barbed wire untidily festooned round some of the adjacent fields.

The milk-white mother of the pretty calf slain by the former panther

is killed some miles from camp—the work of two tigers, says the

reporting cowherd, as almost all the carcase has been consumed.

Carnivora take considerable toll of cattle in all the jungle tracts

and as game decreases so does the killing of cattle increase: and

in parts of the country where cattle are carefully guarded and

difficult to obtain, and the game is greatly reduced, the carnivora

have taken to killing the people. The Sironcha jungles and_ the

Kumaon Hills are instances.

Now time is up and we move camp to Dharighat for a few days

fishing having failed to obtain a permit for the adjoining shooting

block, though it is vacant and not asked for by any other sports-

man, Shabby treatment to meet out to an old shikari for reasons

ON THE BANKS OF THE NARBADA 57

that can be conjectured, but not mentioned! The correspondence is

treasured. :

Thirteen days on the banks of the river produced half a dozen

mahsir all between 5 and 9 lbs. The water was now clear but

perhaps too cold, as sport was poor compared to the month of

October on the former occasion. The diary records some marvel-

lous sunsets: flaming skies of crimson and orange with a_ final

glow as of an immense fiery furnace spreading over the great bowl

of the heavens. There was light rain, as expected. The officials

of the Dhar State on the further bank were kind and helpful in

small matters of supplies for camp.

Four marches through a rocky and uninteresting terrain took us

to a ferry thirty miles upstream where we crossed to the right

bank by means of a large barge taking fully loaded carts, half a

dozen or more at a trip. Camp was pitched near the village of

Bagesar, the administrative centre of the Chandgarh Jaghir. The

Mukhtear was helpful and politely hinted that the late Jaghirdar had

not allowed people to kill peafowl and small deer. It was found

that the wishes of the late Ruler as to this were strictly followed,

and that the number and tameness of these animals and birds was

markedly in contrast with Government Forest areas in the neigh-

bourhood. It has been observed by the writer in several parts of

India that the Landowners can, if they wish, exercise complete

restraint in matter of preservation of specified species. What all

the pains and penalties of the Government do not achieve is brought

about by the “‘hukam nahin hai’ of the owner of the land. Similarly

a religious embargo has great force.

In a few days a move was made to a pleasant camping ground

in the vicinity of Chandgarh village six miles to the west. A small

tigress was about but shied off tethered baits which she by-passed

several times, neither did the local panther touch them, but he met

his end through killing a calf in the centre of the hamlet of Jatam.

The villagers did not protect the remains from vultures so there

was not much left by the evening. However, the killer came to

his grilled bones soon after dark and was slain by a chest shot.

A fine panther; weight 125 lbs. His picture makes him somewhat

resemble the beast on the fresco around the walls of the tea-room

of the Tate Gallery in London. Little Ben’s fifth panther; and he

is getting more resigned to the joint photograph.

Bears are said to be feeding on fruit of wild plum trees a few

miles to the east so a before-dawn visit is made to the place, with

the result that a fine bear, seen at twenty feet and doubtless taken

by Little Ben to be his grandfather, for he stares at him in astonish-

ment, is handsomely missed over the top of the back. In the dark-

ness the rifle had been carried by the local guide, so the 200 yards

leaf was up. Such an elevation is never needed in jungle shooting

and the leaf should always be fastened down. The arrangement

had come unstuck, hence a bear with a whole skin, for which we

are not sorry.

One day a place called Keralia was shown where one of the

men some years previously had roused a tiger sleeping among

bushes by side of the path where is moisture and cool lying in the

hot weather, The man was centre of several hauling a boat up

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

stream, so no doubt the tiger thought he was being ‘encircled’.

Deep scars of bites on the buttocks indicated just the sudden get-

away attack once would expect under such circumstances. There

would be no particular malice in it. It is in a forest clearing near

the village that one early morning we meet a charming little Korku

maiden with ‘nodings on’. She stands all unconscious, with bow

and arrow set to. shoot at some fancied mark, a most pleasing

sight. Alas! that one morning the camera is not with us. How-

ever it is possible to arrange a formal picture which is not so bad.

On the 14th January camp was moved to the left bank as first

stage of a seven days bullock cart march to a good shooting block

in the more hospitable Forest Division of Hoshangabad.

Mention has been made of Omkarji. For one reason or other

the hoped-for up-river trip from there to Dharighat was not made,

but a visit to the locality, which is an important place of pilgrimage,

afforded much of interest. Omkarji town is on the left bank of

the Narbada, while the Temple of Omkar is on the island

of Mandhata.

It is a striking view which meets the eye as one descends the

wide flight of stone steps below the town, the slabs of which are

secured by iron ‘dogs’—a necessary precaution in view of the annual

monsoon floods. A wide stream, deep blue with the reflection of

the cloudless sky on its placid waters; above the tiers of steps on

either shore tower many temples and other buildings; rugged, boldly

stratified rocks, of a greenish hue, surmounted by yellowing forest

of teak trees; crowds of people of all ages, sexes, and castes in

gay apparel of many hues; boats of several sizes busily conveying

packed loads of pilgrims to either bank; and small naked urchins

in dug-out canoes eagerly diving for coins thrown to them and

almost as much at home in the water as the fish and the crocodiles.

The river is full of fish. Mahsir up to twenty pounds can be

gathered into splashing shoals by the throwing of a handful of

parched grain. How one would like to ‘fly fish’ with monkey nut !

For three rupees a roomy boat is hired to take us up stream.

We pass beneath the precipice at the eastern extremity of the island.

It was from this rugged hill-top that voluntary human sacrifice used

to be performed before the country came under British Administra-

tion after the year 1824. It was in that year the last sacrifice took

place. It was witnessed by a British officer who vainly endeavoured

to persuade the devotee, a lad of twenty, from hurling himself to

destruction. A vivid description of all that took place is on record.

The final act of the dread drama was the figure of the man standing

on the brink of the precipice, in view of the hushed and expectant

multitude, with arms outstretched while making the final invocations.

Then he disappeared from view, to re-appear in a manful running

leap silhouetted against the sky. Thus he fell half way, and then,

striking a projecting rock, fell headlong, to be dashed to pieces

amid the roar of voices on the rocks below.

As we pass up the placid stream we see men at work smearing

a huge slab of rock with bright vermilion paint. They also put

splashes of paint along the foot of the wall of the precipice, which

they hand-mark with extended red fingers. An hour later, returning

down the river, we see that the sacrifice has heen completed; not

ON THE BANKS OF THE NARBADA 59

by the death of a sentient human being voluntarily hurling himself

to destruction with the acclaim of fifty thousand throats, but by

the cutting of the throat of a poor little kid whose life-blood smears

the sacrificial rock—that very rock on which the devotees of a

century ago were dashed to pieces—and whose entrails are being

_ washed in the sacred stream to form a meal for some of the attend-

ants: for though a formal sacrifice there is no need for waste !

Six miles below Mandhata is Mortakka, where the river is

spanned by the road and rail bridge. It was fishing down stream

in 1906 with a companion that the canvas boat sank, committing

us to a lengthy swim before touching bottom. , We lost the boat

and all our rods and tackle. ‘I have at any rate salvaged my

boots,’ says S, jubilantly. ‘My boots,’ say I, at once recognizing

cork-lined surgical boot which had naturally come to the surfacc !

It was not until later that we knew we had swum through the many

crocodiles living just there to feed on the more or less burnt remains

of devout Hindus committed to the sacred stream from the funeral

pyres on the sandy foreshore. There was no danger, as the saurians

are not accustomed to ‘things’ that swim.

This below-bridge reach of water used to be a favourite locality

with anglers from the Mhow Cantonment. Excellent swims for

gram baiting.

Now comes the final leave taking of ‘Narbada Mai’. Perhaps

we may never again enjoy halcyon days along its banks, but the

memories are always with us.

A MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE.

em -COLy IR Saale ARES Me MEBSONUE

(With eight black and white plates).

Thanks to the unsettled times in which we are now living, a

month’s leave was all I could obtain. The problem which arose

therefore was which would be the most profitable area to work

and the quickest to reach in the time available. Finally my wife

and I fixed on the Kazinag range, as records of what birds those

mountains contain are noticeably few and far between—not that

we expected to find anything startling, but it appeared to afford

a good opportunity of extending our knowledge of the distribution

of Kashmir’s birds.

The Kazinag is that range which starting at Baramullah closes

the western end of the Vale of Kashmir, providing a stopper as

it were to the monsoon between the Pir Panjal and the ranges

enclosing the Kishenganga Valley. The north-eastern slopes are

drained by, numerous short and charming torrents going to swell

the Pohru river which itself takes source in the extreme northern

limit of the range. These slopes are clothed from almost valley

level to between 7,000 and 8,oo00 feet in magnificent deodar forests

which, except for a stretch along the Kishenganga Valley and in

the Lolab, occur extensively nowhere else in Kashmir. Amongst

the deodars there are of course other trees but this beautiful cedar

predominates. At about 7,500 feet where they cease the forest

assumes a more mixed character gradually becoming almost exclu-

sively coniferous again as the 10,000 feet level is approached.

The birds of the deodar zone are mainly those of the same

levels anywhere around the main Vale and its side valleys, but

certain species are scarce—if not quite absent; it is hard to be

sure on a month’s tour—while others are more common than

elsewhere; and one, the Slaty-headed Paroquet (Psittacula himala-

yana himalayana) has his headquarters exclusively in this zone,

though parties raid out into the open valleys and spread further

afield after the breeding season is ended and the maize has ripened.

We spent the night of June 3 at Baramullah, heavy rain

having rendered the fair weather motor road to Handwara quite

impassable.

Before leaving the next afternoon in a ramshackle bus whose

front springs eventually proved unequal to the strain imposed upon

them by that dreadful road, I noted that Slaty-headed Paroquets

were not uncommon in the gardens though I only heard and saw

single birds. That night we camped where the derelict bus had

deposited us, in the vicinity of the bridge over the Pohru river

two miles short of Handwara. Shortly before dusk I noticed two

huge flights of Jackdaws which appeared to be heading for Sopor.

Throughout the hours of daylight Daws were to be seen carrying

food to holes in almost every walnut and chenar tree, so what

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(123U1LIWMLOOS DINPIUVOU SN210D) GMVANOW! NUALSVA

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A MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE 61

birds went to make up these enormous evening flights I cannot

imagine.

Our objective next day» was Sanzipur 11 miles away, but I

blush to call it a march for we annexed an ancient tonga, the

driver affirming that he could put us three miles upon our way.

Thanks to his dexterity in negotiating a much-damaged culvert,

he eventually deposited us right at the gate of the Forest Rest

House. The excuse for our ultra laziness was to be found in the

presence of a Golden Cocker pup for whose legs exercise was still

taboo. Needless to say he ran quite wild in the Sanzipur woods,

covering many more miles in one hour on his fat little feet than

we ever did in a day.

As we broke camp I noticed Paroquets were numerous, for

small flocks appeared quite frequently zooming across the river

with harsh squeals to the cover of a bagh near by. The bright

yellow terminal third of the tail would be a perfect distinguishing

mark were any needed, but the Slaty-headed Paroquet happens

to be the only member of the Psittacidze occurring within Kashmir

proper.

Although Sanzipur is but 500 feet above main valley level,

differences in its birdlife were quite apparent. Most of the Valley

birds one would expect to see did occur, but some of these were

already rare while a few quite common species were missing

altogether. I saw no House-Crows, Starlings, Kingfishers or

Paradise Flycatchers. Orioles were uncommon and_ Tickell’s

Thrushes very scarce. On all the side rivers running into the

main valley from the north I have always found Sandpipers

exceedingly numerous from the moment the slack waters are left

behind right up to 10,000 feet and even higher. On these Kazinay

torrents however, many of which are of fair size with plenty of

low bushy cover along their stony margins and divided by many

suitable islands, I saw one bird the whole trip, at Kiterdarji on

June 27. On our return march to Baramullah as we dropped down

to the stream at Panzal I did however hear the unmistakable

querulous chittering of these birds being wafted up the hillside

on the warm air of the lower valley.

But to go back to Sanzipur. I was struck by the appearance

of species normally connected in one’s mind with higher altitudes.

Meadow Buntings (Emberiza cia stracheyi) occurred in small num-

bers in suitable areas, although this is the elevation where around

the not so distant Wular Lake and on the rather arid slopes on

the northern rim of the main vale, Stewart’s Bunting (Hmberiza

stewarti) holds the field, the Meadow Bunting being quite absent.

I had always considered the former as breeding up to about

6,000 feet only and then having its place taken by the Meadow

Bunting. In fact I have often stressed that during the breeding

months the habitats of these two species do not overlap. Yet at

the end of June near Chak-i-Lai Singh, 5 miles from Baramullah

where one crosses the last spur, I came upon both species in the

Same area, on grassy bush-dotted slopes not more than 200 to

300 feet above the valley. The presence of Meadow Buntings

is often first given away by their very subdued mouse-like squeaks

which they seem to keep up when feeding through long grass

b2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLili

and concealing cover, perhaps by way of apprising each other

of their whereabouts or of giving warning.

There were a few pairs, very few, of Dark Grey Bushchats

and I also on occasion heard the Pale Buch Warbler (Horornis p.

pallidus) well within the forest though there was generally a

parrottia dotted clearing of sorts not far off, This shy little bird

is not uncommon within the State rukh at Achhibal so there was

nothing very startling about its presence at this elevation; a point

to note however is that in its higher range te seems definitely to

avoid forest.

I disturbed a pair of Yellow-billed Magpies in the wood by the

Rest House and came upon a Blue-headed Rock-Thrush there

seated upon 4 fresh eggs. Cinnamon Sparrows started half a mile

further up the valley at Vihom village. But what did surprise me

was the scarcity of Hume’s Lesser Whitethroats in country which

seemed eminently suited to their habits. It is not many miles to

those slopes around the Wular Lake where this species is so very

common, but except for one pair seen at Sanzipur—] later found

their nest in a rose bush—I never saw this bird in the Kazinag.

Of course some birds were very numerous—Jackdaws, Mynas,

House-Sparrows, and last but not least Slaty-headed Paroquets.

It was evident however that we were at an intermediate elevation

where species were many but individuals rather few.

On June to I had my first dealings with a Paroquet at its

nest-hole, but that was a red-letter day for other reasons. ‘Three

times in the same locality, a deep shady nullah running up into the

forest directly behind the F.R.H., we had come upon a Scully’s

Wood Owl (Strix aluco biddulphi), once on the pair of them. 1

could however find no nest although they seemed rather bold and,

when accompanied by the Cocker, we were followed by one of them

for about a hundred yards.. I decided therefore to try a ruse which

seldom pays. I screwed the stand on to the reflex, put in a filmpack,

and fixed the strap round my neck. Walking quietly through. their

usual haunts I drew an absolute blank, but in spite of my awkward

buiden | fortunately did not give up hope. Crossing the little

siream I tried a particularly gloomy patch otf forest on the opposite

side of the nullah. Quite suddenly I realised I was within twenty

yards of an Owl roosting on a lower branch of a deodar and not

eight feet from the ground. I approached quietly, not eae to look

at the bird lest 1 take fright. When about 25 feet away I spread

the tripod legs and started to focus; none too easy in so poor a light.

However I stopped right down to Gaeice sure and exposed a couple

of films giving one 5 and the other £5 seconds, during which the

bird stared fixedly at the lens but with no undue sjgns of fear.

Moving forward a few paces at a time I exposed a couple of films

at each halt until I had used up eight and was hardly 12 feet from

the bird. After the last exposure it seemed to have become so used

to the procedure that it turned away its head, yawned deliberately,

and closed its eyes. Emboldened by this extraordinary behaviour

I moved still nearer, but when 1 looked down into the focussing

screen the branch was bare; the owl had taken its departure as

silently as a ghost.

Journ. Bomsay Nar. Hist. Soc.

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SCULLY’S WOOD OWL (Strix aluco biddulphi)

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A MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE 63

At the bottom: of the slope the Blue-headed Rock-Thrush was

sitting on her eggs. As usual she allowed me to stand right over

her, merely putting on that strained look so typical of the Thrushes

when disturbed incubating. Unfortunately there were a couple of

twigs and some leaves in the way so I could not repeat the Owl

pertormance and photograph her without the hide.

It was still quite early so we climbed half a mile up the wood

to a point where I had remarked signs of activity among the

Paroquets (Psittacula h. himalayana), so much so that I already

had a strong feeling that these birds were perhaps colonial in their

breeding habits. Actually I had only marked down one hole which ~

I suspected to be occupied but this quarter of the wood seemed

always to be tenanted by Paroquets talking confidentially to one

another. This was a circular hole considerably larger than that of

a Woodpecker about 18 feet from the ground in the trunk of a

deodar.

As we approached I was thrilled to see the head and shoulders

of an adult Paroquet protruding from it, so we quickly erected

the hide. The slope of the ground was so abrupt that [ got the

camera comparatively close but even so the lens was tilted at

such an angle that the photos I got that day were mere silhouettes

against a cloudless sky. The female came back quite soon and

stood for some minutes on the perch near the nest and then sidling

along the branch levered herself into the hole with the aid of her

beak. A woodcutter I sent up the tree said he could make out

the edges of two eggs about eight inches to a foot down. On

our way back through Sanzipur a fortnight later we could not

make out what the hole contained, but the female seemed still

to be sitting. This time we built up a platform and erected the

tent upon it in the evening; partly so that I could get to work

early before the sun got too high in the sky, and partly because

birds seem to be less frightened of a new structure erected in a

fading light and become quite accustomed to its presence during

the hours of darkness. On the way back we faked a dummy

hide 7 feet from the Blue-headed Rock-thrushes which now had

three young ones in place of the original 4 eggs, and pushed a

large black fir cone into the front to represent the lens.

1 returned to the Paroquets at 9-30 a.m. They seemed to be

getting used to us, for the sitting bird did not leave the hole

until we had been there some minutes and I was almost ready to

get into the hide. She was back on the perch very soon after

I had been left alone, giving me time for only one exposure

before she clamboured in. I’ve called her the female but there

was really nothing to go by as to which parent it was.

And now ensued a long wait. My patience started to give

out. Nothing happened. The wood settled down to utter. still-

ness but for the tapping of a Woodcutter’s axe in the distance,

and at last I decided to call up the shikar: to shift the sitting

bird. Fortunately | hesitated, for a few seconds later my boredom

turned to feverish activity. With husky screams a_ band of

Paroquets came twisting through the wood; the next moment my

startled gaze beheld no less than five paroquets on the perch and

clustered round the hole. There were three adults with bright

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

yellow tail-tips and slaty faces, and two youngsters short-tailed

by contrast and a uniform dull green all over. Were they a

neighbouring family escorting the head of the house to his front

door? The lady within evidently did not care a hoot who they

were and took not the slightest. notice. In fact, to begin with i

was not sure that she had not slipped away unawares but about

ten minutes after the roysterers had taken their departure as

noisily as they had come, she poked her head out of the hole,

had a look round and slowly withdrew to continue her duties.

First one of the youngsters had a look at the entrance hole,

upending himself on a small branch above it and craning his neck

to get a better view. But soon one of the adults took possession ;

perhaps he was the owner. At any rate he seemed the odd man

out of the five. I was quickly at work using a so-called silent

shutter, which in actual fact made just sufficient noise to attract

the audience’s attention without frightening them. I was able to

‘take 7 photographs employing short time exposures, as_ the

scratchy noise of the shutter and the slight sounds I made chang-

ing plates merely caused them to freeze in grotesque attitudes.

Eventually they dashed off for no apparent reason just as suddenly

as they had appeared. |

To keep all my observations on this bird together I will relate

here the remainder of my contacts with them. When we lelt

Sanzipur we first went to Bungus and then back to Nildori. Now

Nildori is approximately 8,400 feet. In that locality and at that

elevation I never saw a paroquet. It was not until we dropped

down into the deodars again that we met with them. Unfortunately

‘I am not sure of the elevation at which these trees recommenced

but it was below the 8,ooo foot mark. There certainly seems to

be a connection between the distribution of the deodar and ‘the

Slaty-headed Paroquet in this part of the Himalayas. ‘After the

breeding season they certainly spread further afield. Osmaston

records them at Gulmarg in August, and Colonel Ward states

that in the autumn bands of them visit the side valleys, Sind,

Lidar etc. This wandering is undoubtedly correlated with food

supply. In many different villages I questioned cultivators about

them and always received the same information. They do little

damage to the rice but much to the ripening maize and this of

course ripens in the late summer and early autumn. They also

attack fruit and in the spring the apple blossom.

I had my final proof of their love of company on July 2

when on our way. back to Baramullah. At Panzal, 9 miles there-

from and only a few hundred feet above the level of the main

valley, the path skirts the lowest rim of the forest. As we left

Panzal we cut through a little tongue; it amounted to what in

the Plains would be called a bagh and consisted mostly of chir

pines with about half a dozen very tall birches scattered amongst -

them. The latter were tenanted by colonies of slaty-headed

paroquets—unfortunately I omitted to inspect the pines. On the

side facing me of one birch I counted five holes, three of which,

definitely occupied ones, were hardly two yards apatt. Many of

the holes were far from being perfect circles, a few of them being

somewhat unsymmetrical ovals with the axes at no particular

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A MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE 65

angle. They varied in size considerably; from little bigger than

that of a Pied Woodpecker through which the birds squeezed with

difficulty to about 4 inches across. The lowest was about 20 feet |

from the ground while some I estimated to be 60 or more feet

up. I saw three or four birds entering and leaving holes while

all the time there was an incessant screaming {from birds con-

versing with one another or from small bands weaving swiftly

in and out of the trees. These bands contained numbers of im-

mature birds and seemed to be family parties whose nesting for

the year was over and done with. Watching them was intensely

interesting but alas we were on the move and could not afford to

stay.

After that digression I must return to the description of this

trip in its chronological order. As there seemed=to be nothing

at the right stage to photograph, on June 11 we decided to move

from Sanzipur to Bungus, a large marg lying at approximately

g,700 feet under the main slopes of the Kazinag. As the Naugam

F.R.H. was but 24 miles up the valley, we decided to leave it

out and do the march in one. Within less than a mile we crossed

a wide almost-dry nullah bed and walked past the little village

of Vihom where I at once noticed that the sparrows flitting about

the hedges were cinnamon-headed. It is extraordinary how at

times new species appear in numbers with complete suddenness.

Entering the shady woods at Naugam we still followed the course

of the river for another mile before turning abruptly up the hill-

side. Birds were few amongst the deodars and little of interest

appeared until we suddenly reached the crest of the spur enabling

us to look into a broad amphitheatre dotted with widely-spaced

pines all of which seemed to have been blasted by lightning or killed

by disease; rather a striking sight, especially as soaring majestically

heavenwards with but a tiny whisp of cloud trailing from its sum-

mit to offset its beauty, there floated over the bowl’s further rim

the snow-white outline of Nanga Parbat, the unbeaten giant of

the Western Himalayas, many miles distant but none the less

an amazing sight. To our right I heard the flutelike triple whistle

of a Black and Yellow Grosbeak, a bird whose call is as attractive

as its brilliant plumage, while the Small Cuckoo was abjuring ‘our

smoky pepper’ from a distant perch.

Following the crest of the ridge in order to reach the first pass

into the little valley where lie a couple of Gujar huts and the

charming marg called Nildori, I suddenly realized we had _ left

the deodars behind and had entered a new bird world. We would

then be about midway between 7,000 and 8,000 feet up. Chocolate

and white Spotted Nutcrackers became very common indeed but

unfortunately pair after pair seemed to- be accompanied by their

young. I investigated two nests, both 30 to 4o feet from the

ground, which agreed well with the description in Volume I of

Nidification; but the young had obviously left them days before,

so I think their nidification must end normally bythe end of May.

This bird is far more numerous throughout the Kazinag, from a

little beyond 6,000 feet up to at least 10,000 feet, than anywhere

else in Kashmir, and I am equally sure that no other bird in that

State produces more extraordinary noises. Their calls, if one may

Re JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIBTY, Vol. LIE

use that word, range from wheezy crowlike caws to piggish squeals

which they sometimes produce unceasingly for minutes at a time

while concealed in the summit of some dense fir.

Tree-Creepers, Tits, Flycatchers, and Grey-headed and Missel

Thrushes, now became common. I heard once more the swect

rapid song of the Kashmir Wren, the agitated chucks of the Pied

Woodpeckers, and began to note many birds of the higher eleva-

tions, but I am sorry to say that when at length we attained the

last summit and looked across the great stretch of the Bungus

marg, we were very disappointed. Rainfall had been excessive

and the unbroken stretches of green showed deeper patches of

colour where the ground had become iittle more than swamp so

that before we reached the tiny, and | regret to say decidedly

draughty, forest hut, we were soaked to the knees, so water-logged

had it become. As far as the eye could see sheep dotted the

landscape, hundreds upon hundreds of them, not only keeping the

grass short-clipped but producing a flowerless land where we had

hoped for colour and beautiful blooms. Dwarf irises and a few

frittilerias were alone to be seen. ‘The surrounding woods were

rather thin with acres of fallen trunks on the flanks of the steeper

spurs where the crushing weight of slipping snow had _ battered

them down. There and then we decided to keep on the baggage

ponies, stay at the hut for one complete day, and then retrace our

steps to Nildort which looked such a charming little spot and

certainly far more hospitable—after all we were on leave and

supposed to be enjoying ourselves.

The following morning I found a White-capped Redstart

(Chaimarrhornis leucocephala) sitting on a nest of 4 eggs. It was

really somewhat conspicuously placed in the upturned end of a

fallen trunk close to an almost dry stony nullah running into the

woods behind the hut. The bird sat tight allowing us to inspect

her at close quarters. I also found a wren’s nest tucked into a

crevice in the bark on the underside of a fallen tree and so well

concealed from view that it was quite impossible to bring the

camera lens to bear upon it. I stuffed up the entrance hole with

my handkerchief and then focussed on a fallen stick which the

bird used as its final pitch on its way to the nest. I did not get

good results, however, as the light was too poor to enable me to

cope with its very quick agitated movements. In the evening

I was brought a Witherby’s Pipit, a female shot off the nest. The

4 eggs were nearly ready to hatch but I eventually managed to

blow them.

On June 13 we retreated the few miles to Nildori and pitched

our tent at the extremity of the flattened spur at the northern

end of the narrow little marg. It was a charming little spot, well

sheltered on both sides and behind by woods carpeted with sky-

blue Jacob’s ladders and with a clear view of three 14,000 feet

peaks directly ahead. For the time of year these had an inordinate

amount of snow upon them.

We were glad to have come down from Bungus. I have des-

cribed the Kazinag range as a stopper. Almost every afternoon

clouds from the direction of Uri would attempt to sweep over

their crests into the main valley, and alas we struck a period when

JouRN. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

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A MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE 67

for the first few days of our life in tents they succeeded in doing

so. During the second afternoon we had a terrific downpour

accompanied by perfectly deafening thunder. We afterwards

learned that it had been the cause of depriving Srinagar of its

electricity for a couple of days. :

On our way up to Bungus I had noticed a pair of Tree-Creepers

(Certhia h, himalayana) obviously with young in a narrow slit in

the bark of a deodar about a mile from camp. The nest was not

more than 7 feet from the ground and close to the path; so off

we set at the first opportunity burdened with cameras, the hiding

tent, and our tiffin. In direct contrast to a very bold pair I once

photographed at Sonamarg, both the parents proved shy. It was

an hour before one of them plucked up courage to poke more

than its head into view and slither rapidly into the hole with a

scratchy sound of its thin claws over the intervening bark.

Slither is the correct term and they slithered about the trunk

in such rapid jerky little runs that I found it difficult to get off

_ exposures except by using a large stop and a very short exposure.

I have certainly taken better photographs but they show off the

close barring of the tail feathers of this species very well.

After about two hours work on the Tree-Creepers, we moved

back along the path to an old stump with many rotten little

cavities in it. One of these held a minute mossy nest of the

White-browed Blue Flycatcher (Muscicapula s. superciliaris).

This is perhaps the most common Flycatcher in the Kazinag and

occurs everywhere in the forests from their lowest levels. I also

found two nests in quite small orchards at not more than 6,000 feet.

The males are easy to identify in spite of their rather unobtrusive

habits as their colour pattern of dark blue and purest white is so

distinctive. The upper parts appear blue in their entirety except

for the conspicuous white stripes over the eyes, widest and all but

meeting on the nape. The blue is continued in a broad collar on

either side of the breast which however is always interrupted in the

centre to a greater or lesser extent. It is not given to conspicuous

flights after insects from a fixed perch like the dull-coloured Sooty

Flycatcher but its subdued oft-repeated attempts at a song serve

to notify its presence whenever one is sufficiently close to hear

them. ‘Te-che-prrr’ it says, dropping its voice considerably on the

[DIFF

This couple proved easy subjects with the lens but 7 feet from

the nest, coming back within five minutes of my being left alone,

the female to brood her microscopic babies, the male to bring food

both for her and the chicks. He fed his wife at the nest, apparently

relieving her of any necessity of forsaking her charges at such a

tender age. On his first visit he presented the very aspect I most

desired to portray, showing off his interrupted blue breast band

to perfection. Unfortunately to let them get used to the lens and

hide I let both of them put in a couple of visits before starting

photography, and this turned out to be the only time on which

the male did not present his back to me.

On the way home I watched a couple of pairs of Missel

Thrushes but could find no nests. The Missel Thrush is a bird of

particularly wide altitudinal range in Kashmir, in the breeding

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NLM

season living in the forest areas from their lower levels at about

6,000 feet upwards and gathering in the late summer and autumn

into flocks which find their way to the very limit of the birches

at between 12,000 and 13,000 feet. Near the top of the ridge

sweet smelling cream columbines were growing.

After this we spent most of our time much nearer home. The

wood behind camp was of a very mixed character with clearings

here and there dotted with old stumps, bushes and a little juniper.

There were also a number of short steep- sided ravines with little

trickles and a few muddy patches in their beds. Such country

naturally held many ‘species of birds. Tits were scarce, rather to —

my surprise, but woodpeckers whose nesting was over abounded.

Grey-headed and Missel Thrushes were common. I found three

nests of the former, one very conspicuously wedged in the first fork

Where the main trunk of a tree divided about 12 feet from the

ground, the other two being, as is so often the case, well hidden

in the crowns of young firs. Amongst the bushes in the clearings

I found nests of Meadow Buntings, two Jerdon’s Hedge-Sparrows’,

a Blue Chat’s, and a Streaked Laughing Thrush’s with two young

ones in it. ins last nest was very bulky for the size of the bird,

a somewhat loose structure of dead grasses. Wullow-Warblers of

course abounded, particularly Ticehurst’s (Phylloscopus proregulus

similaensis), which I learned to trace to its almost invisible little

nest in the ends of the fir branches by listening for its sharp mono-

syllabic ‘Tsip’ and then watching it carefully to its lair.

The Hedge-Sparrows’ we left alone as we had one on an outer

branch of a fir not 20 yards from the tent door. I photographed

the female on this. Jt was a beautiful structure, a foundation of

quite stout sticks padded with quantities of moss with a. thick

felted lining of wool, hair, and a few feathers. The whole was

intermixed and covered with a layer of a stringy almost white

lichen. The female was most amazingly tame and sat on while

we raised the sheltering branch immediately above and tied it

back out of the lenses’ vision, after w hich I took long-time exposures

of her with the silent shutter.

How many people realize that Jerdon’s Hedge-Sparrow is no

mean songster, its lay being not unlike a Wren’s but not so boister-

ous and penetrating.

Late one afternoon we sauntered along the flank of one of the

short ravines. As we neared its head the forest closed in, so,

finding it rather gloomy in the fading light we crossed over to

return on the other side. It was then that we had one of those

outstanding experiences of a lifetime, something to be looked hack

upon in years to come as an episode never to be forgotten. As

we made our way through some bushes on the edge of a more

open grass- carpeted slope there arose a strange croaking. First

I thought it the production of Nutcrackers but it came from the

ground hardly 20 yards away. We called in the Cocker spaniel

and pushed forward. I was rapidly coming to the conclusion that

a hawk or owl had got some luckless victim in its talons, when

my wife shouted that two large birds had left the ground just in

front of her and were flying downhill towards the bed of the nullah.

I emerged from the bushes just in time to see a pair of Woodcock

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc.

JERDON’S HEDGE-SPARROW (Prunella strophiata jerdoni)

The soft nest of moss, thickly lined with hair and a few feathers, was plastered with almost white

lichen.

Ad MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE 69

(Scolopax rusticola) wheel into some cover near the boggy stream

below. But where was that easy almost owl-like flight? They -

flew heavily with tail spread wide, seemingly weighed down behind.

And they kept up that strange croaking even after pitching into

“COVer.

We tied up the dog and I started down the slope. Suddenly

croaking broke out anew hardly 15 yards below. One of the birds

had returned while my attention had been taken up with the dog.

I saw a Woodcock on the ground. Its wings were spread wide

with the tips drooping into the erass, the tail fanned out, and

the body upraised at about 45° with the bill pointing downwards.

Croaking and groaning harshly as I rushed towards it, it started

into Aisht, but it was evidently unable to use its legs for the take

off so that it dragged down the slope for a yard or two beating

the earth with its wingtips before getting clear. Even while flying

its body remained at the same awkward angle and it rose but a

few feet off the ground coming heavily to earth 30 yards further

down.

This time I made a still greater effort to catch it in an attempt

to elucidate the cause of its strange antics. I could have laid it

low with my khud stick, but it just got clear as I stretched out

a hand to seize it and succeeded in crossing the nullah where |

lost all trace of it.

I think it is now taken as an established fact that Woodcock

do carry their young for two purposes, namely to get them to

distant feeding grounds and to remove them from danger. I have

read various accounts at different times but there are still those

who contend that a point still at issue is the actual method of

carriage. Unfortunately in this instance the birds throughout were

facing away from me, making it-quite impossible to see not only

the method of transportation but any burden whatsoever, though

of course it was quite obvious that they were carryirg something.

And does this croaking always take place as a matter of course

or was it the sudden entrance of our spaniel which caused the

commotion ?

Nildori provided so many points to explore that even at the

end of ten days I felt that we knew but few of its treasures and

still had half a dozen potential photographs in view. But a very

large slice had already been taken out of our month so we felt

it to be time to move to fresh fields.

We returned to Sanzipur on June 21 stopping there two nights

to cope with the Slaty-headed Paroquets. After finishing with

those interesting birds, I moved the tent to the Blue-headed Rock-

Thrush’s (Monticola cinclorhyncha) nest in front of which I had

previously erected a dummy. hide. [It now held three well-nourished

young ones in place of the original four eggs.

It is just 20 years since I first attempted to photograph this

beautiful but allusive Thrush. Anyone who has come upon a nest

and has noticed the outraged demeanour of the female thereon,

sitting as if nothing short of a forest fire would force her to leave,

would imagine that there could be no easier prey for the bird

photographer. Unfortunately there are few birds’ nests in front

of which one can just put down the camera and eet busy. There

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XEIII

is almost always grass or leaves or some obstacle requiring removal

to give the lens a clear view, and once ilushed off the nest I have

never yet met a more suspicious nature than is possessed by both

sexes of this rather common bird.

On this occasion I used an almost silent ‘luc’ shutter in the

extension box on the front of the reflex, and was gratified to hear

almost immediately one of the birds in the parrottia scrub close

to the right side of the tent. Suddenly it flew straight to the

nest and there I beheld the blue and chestnut male standing in

strained silence upon its rim while the voung ones clamoured for

food. .I had set the silent shutter for brief time exposures, not

venturing to use the clattering focal plane. I pressed in the

release letting it go again almost as quickly as I could thereby

giving about one quarter of a second. ‘The slight scratch of the

shutter leaves caused him to listen intently so that I dared not

attempt to change the plate. Full of suspicion he eventually flew

off without feeding his babies and that was the very last I saw

or heard of either bird. One slight scraping noise had been sufh-

cient to convince both of them of the worst. Still, although I

possess only that one negative of the male, I can hardly complain.

My next encounter with this species came a few days later at

Kiterdarji, our last resting place It is only about half a dozen

miles from Sanzipur and about the same elevation. To reach

it we crossed a couple more of the charming tributaries of the

Pohru river, since we made our way directly across the lower spurs |

of the Kazinag. The country was lovely; forest glades and park-

land alternating with fields of ripe corn, acres of linseed nearly

as blue as the sky, over which the larks rose and fell singing

their loudest, while at the lower levels the rice was being planted

out to the accompaniment of the monotonous yet fascinating chants

of the peasants.

This time the Rock Thrush’s nest was balanced on a narrow

ledge on a decaying stump. It was quite open to view and close

to a cattle track through the forest. When first discovered the

female continued to sit on her newly-hatched triplets as still as a

rock seemingly as bold as any bird could be, yet to get a glimpse

of either bird, even from afar, visiting the nest with food was

quite impossible. First I left a dummy hide in place for a couple

of days and the real one for the best part of another twenty-four

hours. When I got inside I waited patiently for an hour and

a half but nothing happened. I had taken the greatest care in

entering the hide, getting the shikari to stand close to me while

I went in through the back. Halfway through the morning I

took a short time off in order to try a new dodge. On my return

my wife and the shikari both tucked me in and went off carrying

an empty coat between them. Now, can these birds count? Or

was it sheer coincidence that the male should fly straight to the

nest not five minutes later, and almost immediately afterwards the

female, seeing the rim of the nest occupied by her husband, landed

on a. dead stump midway between the lens and the nest so that

she was hardly three feet from me.

I was disappointed with my view of the bird at the MES, Lal

squeezed in too close to the trunk with his back to the camera, so

’OURN. BOMBAY oc.

| 4 ‘ .

BLUE-HEADED ROCK-THRUSH (Monticola cinclorhyncha)

Comparatively common and extremely widespread, this beautiful bird is excessively cautious in

its approach to the nest.

vey ee

tie *

9 = im

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc.

BLUE-HEADED ROCK-THRUSH (Monticola cinclorhyncha)

So very soberly arrayed in comparison with her brightly dressed husband.

4 MONTH IN THE KAZINAG RANGE 71

as soon as they had both gone I turned the lens on to the stump.

Shortly afterwards the female returned, but to my complete disgust

she flew straight to the nest and settled down looking directly at

me. I don’t suppose she could see anything but ! had an awful

feeling that she was looking straight through the peephole at

my left eye. For half an hour I attempted to emulate the pro-

verbial mouse. Fortunately a noisy individual with some cattle

and goats came on the scene and off.she went. Twenty minutes

went by and then suddenly her image seemed to fill the whole

focussing screen. There she was standing sideways on the stump

eyeing the hide; in fact a glance at the illustration shows a tiny

image of it in her pupil. Cautiously I pressed the release and

gave an exposure of a good three seconds. She flew to the nest

so I started to change the plate. At once she froze and I perforce

did likewise, the result being that for perhaps to minutes, which

seemed more like an hour, we maintained the most uncomfortably

strained attitudes; she with her head twisted sideways looking

over her shoulder, and I trying to preserve a precarious balance

with my hands full of plate-holders and my feet all over the place,

as the camp stool had slipped on the steep hillside—their nests

so often seem to be on steep hillsides !

A bird which I found extremely common throughout the lower

parts of the Kazinag forests was the Rufous-tailed Flycatcher

(Alseonax ruficaudus). One of the most unobtrusive of the whole

family both as regards its colouration and its habits which are

really somewhat chat-like, it would often escape notice were it

not for the incessant complaining note ‘Peup’ which it utters

incessantly when one is anywhere near its nest. I found we had

a typical nest close to the Kiterdarji Forest Rest House, a rather

large pad of moss plastered on to the upper side of a fork of a

horizontal branch of a fir tree. It was about 15 feet from the

ground and 7 feet out from the trunk. From directly below it

was quite invisible but from either side it showed up clearly as a

substantial compact excrescence, considerably larger and far less

symmetrical and neat than that of the Sooty Flycatcher. There

were three typically spotted young ones in it nearly ready to fly.

I had no difficulty whatsoever in getting photographs from the

hide placed on a platform laid across two very convenient horizontal

branches sprouting from the opposite side of the trunk. I found

the parents had varied notes for their arrivai at the nest, some-

times uttering a soft ‘chur’ and sometimes a double ‘te-peup’,

the danger note preceded by a short ‘te’.

Indian Red-Breasted Flycatchers (Siphia parva hyperythra)

were common here. In other nullahs I had seen very few, one or

two near the Naugam F.R.H..but none at elevations above 7,000 ft.

Their breasts were such a deep brick-red that in order to make

certain of the race I’m afraid I succumbed to shooting one pair

which had still got eggs in a Woodpeckers’ disused boring. I also

Saw more Green-backed Tits (Parus monticolus) in the Kazinag

than I have seen elsewhere in Kashmir. They seem to be very

much of a forest bird whereas the Grey-backed Tit is more a bird

of the orchards, willow groves, and hedge rows.

Most of these little valleys had a pair or two of Kashmir

“I

1x)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Rollers (Coracias garrula semenovi). One pair were always visit-

ing the Rest House not far from which they caught frogs and

large grasshoppers and flew off with their prizes to somewhere

beyond the village, about half a mile away. Eventually I found

they had three small young ones and an addled egg in a large

cavity in a tall willow tree just beyond it. We managed to build

up a platform for the hide on the very summit of an adjacent apple

WES i

They were bold birds but not half so noisy and acrobatic as

their more brightly plumaged cousins of the plains. There were

two holes above the nest one of which was very small while a third

one, lower down and the largest, directly faced the camera. It soon

became evident that the birds had a fixed routine, entering by the

larger of the top holes and coming out through the one in front of

me. This arrangement did not suit at all as I got a tailend view

each time a bird entered and they left without pausing on the rim

of the large hole.

After a few attempts I had their normal entry hole stuffed up

with a coolie’s.pugeri. The result was quite ludicrous. One of

them arrived with a large frog in its beak. For more than ten

minutes it allernated between standing forlornly on the puggri

and trying vainly to force its shoulders through the small hole

near it. Eventually it swallowed the frog and flew away. It

seemed quite incapable of appreciating the fact that it could get

in through the hole by which it usually came out. At last the

other bird appeared. At first it seemed just as much at sea as

its mate but all at once light dawned upon it with such celerity

that it popped in without giving me time to press the release.

Shortly afterwards the male again arrived with a frog.

going through the same performance as before except that he

flew off to their favourite perch still with the food in his bill. This

was doubly unfortunate as they seemed to feed the young ones in

strict rotation so that the female promptly refused to come near

until she thought he had done his bit. He wasted twenty minutes

in flying backwards and forwards before he guiltily scoffed the

frog himself whereupon the wife at once condescended to come

once more. This time I was the one at fault: she stood so still

across the top of the hole that I could not resist taking her

portrait with the result that when she suddenly flew down and

clutched its bottom rim with her tail spread out across’ the bark

in the very attitude I had vizualised, I was in the act of changing

the plate. Thereupon feeling that all three of us were being equally

futile I went home in disgust to pack up in readiness for “the next

day’s march to Baramullah.

JouRN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

;

INDIAN RED-BREASTED FLYCATCHER (Siphia parva hyperythra)

The entire underparts appeared a deep brick red as the male left the nest-hole, while the female

was only slightly less bright and lacked the dark stripes down the sides of the neck.

THE SLENDER LORIS OF THE HORTON PLAINS, CEYLON.

Loris tardigradus nycticeboides, subsp. nov.

WW, Cy OSMAN IBIINEI,, NGIDG, olin Ss, 1s4oSe

(With plates)

The recent demise of a pair of Slender Lorises obtained originally

in May 1938, by Mr. A. C. Tutein-Nolthenius from the Horton

Plains, (altitude 6,000 feet) in central Ceylon, enables me to supply

a descriptive account of them under a new subspecific name. That

the animal is rare in that locality is evidenced by the fact that

Mr. Tutein-Nolthenius had been on. the !ook out for it for the

‘previous twenty years without success. The pair was forwarded

to Colombo immediately and kept in captivity by Dr. L. Nicholls

until August 1940, when they were transferred to my own collec-

tion. During their sojourn with Dr. Nicholls the femalé gave birth

to two young, one in December 1938 and another in May 1940.

An account of the earlier pregnancy and gestation period has al-

ready been published by Nicholls (1939). Both young died, the

‘first, a male, at the age of one year and the second, also a male,

whilst still an infant. Both have been used in compiline the

present contribution. A week after the two adults were deposited

with me the female collapsed suddenly and died. A half-term

gestation sac was discovered in her vagina. The male died of

hepatic disease about a week later. The skins and skeletons of

both were preserved.

When first received in 1938 these Lorises were noticed to be

remarkably fine animals, large in size and with exceptionally heavy

pelage, which, with the apparent relative shortness and stoutness

of the limbs, especially the hind pair, gave to them the aspect of

small Slow Lorises (Nycticebus) Nicholls (loc. cit.) had referred to

them as extreme types of ‘Loris tardigradus grandis, Hill and

Phillips (1932), the form recorded hitherto only from altitudes of

about 3000-3500 feet, but it was clear on further examination that

if L. t. grandis was worthy of subspecific status, then these Horton

Plains examples were very much more deserving of separate treat-

ment. Typical grandis is intermediate between the present animal

and the common lowland animal L. t. tardigradus, but at present

there is a wide altitudinal hiatus between 3500 and 6000 feet from

which no specimen has yet been obtained. Meantime it is considered

best to treat the Horton Plains examples as a new sub-species for

which the name nycticeboides is proposed, in allusion to the

resemblance to the Slow Loris referred to above,

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Loris tardigradus nycticeboides, subsp. nov.

Type. «ad. 2 from Horton Plains, circa 6000 feet, Central Ceylon.

t. MEASUREMENTS.

TABLE I. General Bodily Measurements of Loris tardigradus nycticeboides

Body weight 1°0 140

gm. m.

Length of head and body soc ne OU) 204 199 93

Length of head ... a x 57 2? 53°5 40

Length of ear aes i ae 26 25 23 14

Bimalar breadth _... sh 300 PS 94 | > BSH 22

Nasion-rhinion 064 606 a 19 We NS) 10°5

Width of palpebral fissure... te. 16 NS) 8°5

Height of palpebral opening sco ta IW fog

Bisacromial breadth 55 38 | 44 25

Length of brachium | @D SY 45°5 26

Length of antebrachium ; 70 66 | 62 35

Length of hand... Se S06 | 208) 33 | gil 17

Bitrochanteric breadth i SAO Ow 33 35 16°5

Length of thigh .. Bo aoe eee OO Sf SO) 34

Length of crus 603 a sa6 | — OY G5 | 68 37

Length of foot 06 eo 47 46 29

Length of phallus... wet Ca eck | 10 11 16°5 6°5

TABLE IJ. Measurements of Digits of Z. ¢t. nycticeboides

Sale hay |

Measurement | 7 ne 2 | Dee &

i Sep eichc| Ce

Cree io, yee il VSS “O

mm | mm. mm | mm

Radial styloid to tip of pollex ... By NW | aS 13 | 10

L. of index ane A ; Gue 10 10°5 8:5

L. of medius nies fo 1B ee KORG

L. of annularies 1) | 14°5 14°5 J 12

L. of minimus WO ie Wile’ 125) | 9°5

L. of hallux XK) | BBS 21 13

L of second toe 6 | 6 sy | 4°5

L. of claw on above | 6°25 | 6 “y | 4°5

L. of third toe IS a EPS 14 7

L. of fourth toe : Be vee | 15 18°5 WS 9*5

L. of fifth toe A At ea] 14 | 17 lo S

‘SDINAIA VUAOU Ul

(QYysit) SNPVDASIPAD] “4 “T pue (joey) saploqaaaKku SHPDASIPAY] SUO'T JO ST[NYS *z

0009 vould ‘surejd uoOFT *( 5

“uojA

AU SNPDASIPAD] S140°T

‘pe adXy) ‘sou ‘dsqns sapi0qag1a

O) EB Mieloy 3

10QAI1JIKU SNPVASIPAY] S1AO7T JO S][N¥S *I

(QYsi4) snposSipin, *1 “T pure (aye) sap.

THE SLENDER LORIS OF HORTON PLAINS, CEYLON 75

TABLE III. Limb-Indices of Lorises*

' . ' . inn ° ' i) A) ¥ A)

Sa Saeal&= SES a Sel Ne

SSP QS as Sc RS Sean eo

Index oe es e) P5 vo 4H Re

WEB SRESS [SS | SE] So) Se

2 Dy SS = Ss ~ °

8S | SE) Ss .8 || 8) jae

EE eI ee a OR ns a Gos) PA el

Fore-limb—trunk index ...|_ 83°5 | 82 | 74 | 115 | 84 88 | 93°5

Hind-limb—trunk index ..| 85°5 | 85 | 78 | 134 | ¢5 | 96 /107°5

Intermembral index | 98 7 i) 6B | 8 [8 1 oa es

Humero-radial index soot LES 1) TB ASR Use |p aL) aay WS

Femoro-tibial index 02 105 | 126 ee | 110 | 105 106

* Hand and foot have been excluded in calculating the limb indices.

The following inferences may be drawn from a perusal of the

preceding tables. In the Horton Plains Loris the limbs are relatively

shorter in reference to the trunk than in any of the other races

dealt with. The hind limb is especially shortened. These differ-

ences are not noted in the new-born individual, which retains the

proportions noted in the other races. The lowland animal differs

most from nycticeboides, grandis being intermediate. The inter-

membral indices elicit similar deductions ; but the humoro-radial

and femoro-tibral indices present no significant differences among

the forms. studied,

I]. PELAGE.

(a) Type

| The fur is very long, soft and thick causing the animal to look

much larger than its actual bodily measurements would suggest.

This is particularly true of the limbs, which are thickly furred

towards their extremities, especially the hind pair. Hairs on upper

back measure up to 25 mm. long, and on ventral surface up to

30 mm.

General colour of upper surface brown, with no reddish tinge,

slightly darker on crown, nape and upper back, much paler on

lower back and hind limbs. Bases. of hairs plumbeous grey fol-

lowed by buffish zone, and finally with brown. Some of the longer

hairs on shoulders and upper back. are tipped with buff, but there

is no white frosting anywhere. Ventral surface from chin to upper

abdomen. buff. Belly more ochraceous. Hairs grey at the base,

except on a collar across the lower throat, where the long hairs are

light buff throughout. Anterior to this the bases of the hairs are

pale grey and the tips light buff (cf. the white throat of L.1

grandis). Posterior to the collar the bases of the hairs very sud-

denly assume a dark grey tinge, which gradually darkens posteriorly.

Interocular white stripe narrow, enlarged on forehead and con-

tinued round very dark, almost black circumocular areas. Hairs

on cheeks tipped with white. Eyelashes well developed, long and

black. Muzzle with a few short dark brown hairs. Ears densely

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

clothed. with greyish-brown fur. Arms paler than back, especially

on flexor aspect and towards distal end. Hand clothed sos short,

sparse white hairs, except on distal phalanges. Hind limbs similar

to lower back, but a little paler distally and on flexor surface. Foot

more heavily clothed with white fur than hand, with sharp line of

demarcation at ankle.

(b) Adult male.

Similar to the female, but smaller and shghtly darker in colour ;

the dark brown of the upper back extending farther backwards,

and the basal grey zone of the dorsal hairs being of a darker tint.

Ventral aspect similar to the female, but all the hairs of the throat

are uniformly buff. Face, ears and limbs as in female.

Dorsal surface dark grey with a slight surface wash of brown,

paler on limbs especially flexor aspects and more distal parts.

Ventral surface including throat dirty white. Circumocular areas

chestnut, surrounded above and laterally by a zone of white- -tipped

dark grey hairs. White tips most marked in preauricular region.

Muzzle whitish. Ears more scantily haired with long dark grey

hairs than in adult. Hands and feet also less heavily furred.

III. Skin PIGMENTATION.

Naked part of rhinarium pink, but hairy part of muzzle has a

littte dusky pigment. Eyelid margins and margin of nictitating

membrane deeply pigmented, the pigment sometimes extending a

little way on to the conjunctival surface. Rest of conjunctiva un-

pigmented. Ears pigmented a little towards their free margins.

Lips, hands and feet show no appreciable pigment in the adults,

but the dorsum of the hand and foot are somewhat dusky in the

infant, the edge of the pigmented area being sharply defined from

the pallid surface of the palm and sole. Honeycomb pigmentation

of scrotum of rutting male very slight and confined to the posterior

aspect of the sac.

IDW, - Sioa,

Although the somatic measurements indicate that the present

race of ‘Loris is no larger than specimens of L. t. grandis, despite

its apparently greater bulk during life, the above table shows that

the skull is definitely greater than in grandis in many of its dimen-

sions. The cranium is appreciably longer, but narrower than in

grandis or tardigradus. The breadth across the bullae, however,

is greater than in either of the preceding forms. The palate is

shorter, but wider, and the mandible slightly smaller accordingly.

The osseous snout is somewhat more prominent than in the other

races, and this is associated with considerably larger anterior palatine

canals. Ethmo-maxillary fossae, which have been previously (1933)

shown to differ among the different races of Loris, are here equally

distinct, being relatively larger than in any of the previously known

forms and almost oval in shape. The thin flanee of bone forming

THE. SLENDER LORIS OF HORTON PLAINS, CEYLON V7

TABLE IV. Cranial measurements of Lor/s tardigradus nycticebotdes.

ee:

; ws oO S38 | on 2

6 8 a SAY ~ S

eS eae ears Se

Measurements 3 en os OS

: G 1 eae Se)

ee ps | ae

8 | ~° 5 GS

i ESS ie cd

| |

mime | .mme | mm | mm

Maximum cranial length ae sol), O28 54 | Sle | eye

Maximum crania! breadth os: jaa) Zao) 26 | 29°25 | 30°3

Skull height . 55 Ie 122 | al lene

Minimum cranial breadth behind orbits ... 18 eter |. 16°6 7

Least frontal breadth 500 ae ole eae iaite: op aoe

Breadth across bullee sie sce|| o) | 0 | 2 27°38

L. of ioramen magnum wee Sacal| | Ae Za) MP ac | “ooo Bb

Br. of foramen magnum Se aoelliee eke) all oa hercae =

Palatal length 5a ‘ie seal) Sake} er re | ies} NPS

Breadth across m 3 ae sa || edt Pel725 15 14.7

Upper tooth row... 705 scald eellG | -aloes 15°3

Bizygomatic breadth atic soll OCR ih GY sien 2 ule aos

Interorbital breadth Eas Re ee 2 mle Opes loc oe

Condylion-symphysion ' 500 oe | 26 | 27 28 27

Mandibular ht. (at condyle) Sailbesatal bat eee ie

Mandibular ht. (at coronoid) ae |e elt 7) Ie ade eae aor

Lower tooth row... me a eS eel lss6 14°8

the lateral boundary of this fossa in the floor of the orbit is extremely

attenuated and quite transparent giving a free view into the maxil-

lary antrum. The temporal ridges are very prominent, approaching

within 14 mm. of one another on the frontal bone and then receding

gradually until they are 25 mm. apart where they join up with

the lambdoid crest. In the mid line of the squamous portion of

the occipital bone the external occipital crest, after an inital 2 mm.

swells up to form a sugar-loaf-shaped vertical torus, the base of

which extends down to the foramen magnum and fills up the whole

of the space between the two occipital condyles. This ‘torus is

present in the other races, but in a much reduced form compared

with its appearance in L. t. nycticeboides.

SUMMARY.

A new race of Slender Loris superficially resembling a Slow

Loris is described from the Horton, Plains, (alt. 6000 feet) in Central

Ceylon. The description is based on an adult pair and two of

their offspring.

The race is nearest in most characters to the previously known

L. t. grandis, but differs in its appendical proportions and in coat

characters. Although not exceeding grandis in its general bodily

size, the new race has a larger head, and shorter limbs, the hind

pair being especially affected. The coat is exceedingly thick and

long and clothes the limbs more fully than even in grandis. It

differs in colour from grandis, approaching nearer to tardigradus

in this respect, though lacking any erythristic tendency.

a a

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLitfl

my warmest thanks to Dr. L.

In conclusion [I have to tender

both living

Nicholls for having handed over to me the material,

and preserved, upon which the above account is based.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.

Gt Wie (6. OL 102, CAWoR Io Of SCs, S67, [ orig,

Hill, W. C.. ©: and Phillips W..W. A. 1932 Ceylon RO fe SI CaeXVallap DP RLOG 12m

Nicholls, L., 1939 Nature, cxliii, p. 246.

FE-XPLANATION OF PLATE.

1.—-Photograph of the prepared skin of the type female of Loris tardi-

Fig.

gradus nycticeboides, subsp. nov.

Fig. 2 ——Photographs of the skulls of (a) Loris tardigradus “nycticeboides, adult

female, (b) L.t. tardigradus, adult female. Upper figure in norma later alis.

lower in norma verticalis.

FISH OF POONA.

Carr, A. G. 1 FRASER, 1. M.D.

IPANRG IU

General Account and Descriptions of Localities with Lists of

Iishes Collected from each.

INTRODUCTION.

At the request of Mr. S. H. Prater, Curator, Bombay Natural

History Society, and Dr. S. L. Hora of the Zoological Survey of

India, I undertook to get together a collection of fishes from the

Poona waterways. Mr. Prater very kindly obtained for me the neces-

sary permits to fish in the lakes in the area.

The collection was begun on 15th September 1936 and continued

over a period of eight monn Weekly excursions were made,

generally on Sundays, and various points of the Mutha-Mula river, as

also lakes Fife and Pashan, the tanks at Katraj, and the right bank

canal were visited. Altogether 34 batches, collected from 19 localities

which in the count total 2851 specimens of various species were

secured. As regards the number of species, it’ would appear that

local fishermen recognize 143 different species. This number |

consider is greatly exaggerated. In the collection, however, accord-

ing to the vernacular names given by a fisherman, there are 111

species. This number is subject to investigation and correction by

Dr. Hora’.

It is much reg rretted that I was unable to visit the outlying lakes,

namely Mulshi and Whiting, and the river Indrayani. The collection

I think represents in a fair way the fish fauna present in the

Poona district waterways as a whole. The Indrayani being a

tributary of the Mutha-Mula river, it can be assumed that the fish

in it are also fairly represented in the collection made.

The fishes obtained from the lakes are hardly representative, in

that only a few species were secured, and there are no examples of the

larger carps and game fishes. The reason for this is because the

great depths of the water in the lakes rendered impracticable the

use of the bell-shaped casting net ordinarily used by fishermen,

and by this means only small fry were obtained from the shallow

parts near the beach. Trolling all day in a boat with rod and

line and using all kinds of artificial, live and other, baits, including

a range of bright and dull spoons, drew blanks at three separate

SS St a

* Dr. Hora and Mr. Misra have identified 53 species in the entire collection

which was sent to the Zoological Survey of India for determination. I am

indebted to them for their kindness in this matter. A systematic list of the

species will be published in the second part of this series of articles.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

visits to Lake Fife and two to Pashan. In the experiences here

with rod and line I found that the river Mutha-Mula, especially in

the stretch above the Bund Garden, and around Kirkee near Holkar

bridge and at the junction of the two rivers Mutha and Mulla,

locally known as the Sangam, offers better scope in the way of

ae to the angler than the lakes. The game fishes in the river

readily take baits of any kind, particularly if trolled from a boat

between the bank and midstream. This I think i is because there are

no restrictions to fishing, except in a few reserved sections, and fish

are angled for with rod and line by numerous enthusiasts! who bait

their pitches and line the banks everywhere. On the other hand

fishing in the lakes is prohibited except to a privileged few. It is

a singular fact that the big game fishes cannot normally be netted

by fishermen midstream in the river Mutha~Mula, where only small

{ry can be taken. ‘The larger carps can be netted and hooked during

the day between the bank and midstream. As regards the lakes, I

have seen huge carps in the middle of the lake leaping out of the

water particularly during the early morning and late in the evening.

GENERAL ACCOUNT.

The Mutha-Mula river is by far the largest and broadest river

in the Poona district area. A singular feature noted is that the

tributary nallahs which I encountered here are dry. In the Deolali

area perennial streams fed by springs are more the rule than an

exception. The Mutha river begins in the hilly region above and

around lake Fife, which has been created by the damming of its

waters by masonry constructions resulting in the formation of a

huge catchment area about 10 miles long and on an average } mile

broad. The river continues its course from below the dam, but as

the larger volume of water.is released into the right and left bank

canals, comparatively very little water passes through the river bed

itself. The lake is eleven miles by road from Poona. It lies at

an altitude of roughly 2,000 feet above sea level. The Mula river ts

fed by the waters from lake Mulshi which lies at an altitude of

1,900 feet above sea level, and it is 40 miles distant from Poona.

Both these rivers descend to a level of 1800 feet at their junction

near to Wellesly bridge. This junction is known as the Sangam.

The Mula is a broader and deeper river than the Mutha and in the

section around Kirkee and Holkar bridge there is undoubted evidence

of the presence of some very large members of the carp family.

The broadest and deepest section “of the combined rivers is from

the Sangam to the bund near Fitzgerald br idge. This stretch is

roughly 2 miles long and 4 mile broad and runs in a slightly north-

easterly direction. In it a variety of fish fauna exists. The banks

average 15 to 20 feet above the water level and the average depth

of the water must be at least 15 feet. The south bank is heavily

wooded throughout except in a few certain sections. The north

bank is sparsely wooded in parts and for the greater part is bare

of vegetation. The south bank is partly rocky, but the greater

lengths of it are earthy. On the other hand the north bank is

practically rocky thr oughout and partly earthy only in certain sections.

This accounts for the absence of vegetation on the one bank as

FISH OF POONA 81

compared with the profuseness of it on the other. The flora consists

of Babul principally, Tamarind, Mango, Pipal, Gold Mohur and a

variety of other trees. The south bank is more covered with grass

and rushes near the water’s edge. During the monsoon (15th June |

to 15th September) the river rises, particularly at the end of June by

at least 15 to 20 feet and in certain areas overflows over the south

bank and inundates the adjoining lands. The volume and flow is

then very considerable and the bund near the bund garden is com-

pletely covered, the water rising to a little over half the height of

Fitzgerald bridge which is about 4o feet high. Usually at the end

of the second week of July the river subsides, but the force and

volume of water are still great and turbulent. The bund near the

bund garden is now visible and there is a fall of about 2 feet into

the seething waters below. At this time I have seen large fish

gaining access to the reach above the bund by successfully leaping

upstream over the fall. Fishing in the early phase of the monsoon

is practically impossible, but when the waters have subsided about the

end of July the fishermen are able to place nets in the area below

the bund despite the turbulence of the water. THis is because they

have built up walls of stone up to the level of the bund and by this

means are enabled to use their particular type of nets which are

strongly made in the shape of elongated sacks with a mesh of 1$

inches. One end is very wide, and the other narrows down to a

point which is effectively sealed up with gunny sacking. The

subsidence goes on, and by October the flow over the bund has

greatly decreased and areas of the rocky base below it become

visible. By December there is very little water falling from the

bund, and by the middle of January this ceases except for a small

rush of water near to the bund garden end where there is an outlet

in the masonry construction which allows of this. The stretch for

34 miles below Fitzgerald bridge is rocky throughout with large

basalt boulders some of which are i5 feet high. The main river

bed proper is as wide as the reach above the bund, and during the

rains 1s completely covered with raging storm waters, but in the

dry weather the rocky nature of the bed is exposed and this is

interspersed with earthy patches which are grass grown and in parts

are rank with rush and other aquatic plants. The banks proper are

identical in their features as those described in the stretch above the

bund, except that the south bank is less wooded and the trees here

are all babul. The main presentation here is that during the dry

season of the year there is a sluggish flow of water through narrow

channels in the higher parts of the run. In the deeper sections

large pools are created with an average expanse of 40 to 50 yards

and a depth in the deepest parts of 4 feet. In the portions where

there is a fall in the gradient the current is moderately strong, but

generally in the months of February to May a stagnation of the water

is evident. Irom December onward the whole of this area is chocked

with algae. During the latter end of April and May the whole of

the river presents a peculiarity which is unique. Then the surface

of the water, in parts of the upper reach above the bund as far

as Kirkee is, completely covered by a floating aquatic plant, which

presumably is a species of duck-weed, so profuse and rapid is its

growth that at times the whole expanse is completely grown

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIi

over with it to the extent that it has to be cleared to allow of the

working of ferry services and contractors rafts on which sand is

carried from one bank to the other. The section below the bund is

particularly rank with the weed and fishermen have to suspend

operations during this time and are compelled to go down the river

as far as Manjri and further afield to earn a living. In the pockets

near the banks where this weed is held up it becomes a menace to

the health of residents in the locality because of the facilities it

affords to mosquitoes for breeding. Mosquito larvae, particularly

Anopheline, were found in the collection of water in between its

petals which form a rosette. Small wading birds are able to stand

and walk about on it, especially in the heavy collection which

gathers immediately above the bund.

The various batches of fishes were placed in serial order of the

dates on which each was secured. The Hindi names of the many

species were given to me by a ‘Pardeshi Boie’. The Mahratti names

have not been given, as in the naming of fishes there is a great:

variance and discrepancy existing amongsi Mahratta fishermen. The

‘Pardeshi Boies’, as they call themselves, a great many of whom

have been fishing in these waters for many generations, are more

consistent and accurate in the Hindi names by which they differ-

entiate the species. These local names are included in the list of

species which will be publishd in the next part of this series of articles.

DESCRIPTIONS OF LOCALITIES WITH LISTS OF FISHES COLLECTED

FROM EACH.

1. Below Fitzgerald bridge. 15-9-1936, 4-10-1936, 13-11-1936,

31-1-1937, 8-2-1937, 28-3-1937, and 10-4-1937.

This section is rocky for the main part. The depth of the pool averages

4 feet, and it has a wide expanse of 50 to 60 yards. There is a fair volume

of water rushing through with a moderately strong current midstream. The

water is somewhat turbid.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) .. 14 Specimens.

ii. Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) 560 I specimen.

iii. Chela boopis Day 0 2 2N Specimens:

iv. Chela clupeoides (BI.) 77 specimens.

v. Chela phulo (Ham.) 225 specimens.

vi. Danio aequipinnatus McClell. I specimen,

vii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

viii. Barbus (Puntius) chola (Ham.) 4 specimens.

ix. Barbus (Puntius) Jerdoni Day 13 specimens.

x. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes 14 specimens.

xi. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) 7 specimens.

xii. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. I specimen.

xiii. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes I4 specimens.

xiv. Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes) 5 Specimens,

xv. Garra mullya (Sykes) 48 specimens.

xvi. Labeo boggut (Sykes) 5 specimens.

xvii. Labeo potail (Sykes) 160 specimens.

xvill. Mystacoleucus ogilbii (Sykes) 7 specimens.

xix. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day 12 specimens,

xx. ohtee neilli Day 2. specimens,

xxi. Rohtee vigorsiti Sykes 19 specimens,

xxli. Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.) 1 specimen.

xxiii, Nemathilus botia var. aureus

Day g specimens,

XXIV.

XXV.

XXV}.

XXVil.

XXVIli.

XXiX.

ROKK

XXXi.

XXXil.

XXXlil.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI

XXXVI.

FISH OF POONA

Memachilus dayi Hora

Callichrons bimaculatus (BI.)

Callichrons pabo Ham.

Mystus cavasius (Ham.)

Rita hastata (Val.)

Rita pavimentata (Val.)

Gagata itchkeea (Sykes)

Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes)

Proeutropichthys taakree

(Sykes)

Silonopangasius childrenii

(Sykes)

Xenentodon cancila (Ham.)

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Ambassis ranga (Ham.)

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)

RoFrA NW NAY

specimen.

specimens.

specimens,

specimens.

2. About one mile east of: Fitzgerald bridge.

specimens,

specimens.

20-9-1936.

There is a rocky bed in this stretch which is about 80 yards wide and

some Ioo yards long.

The average depth of the water is 4 to 5 feet and the

current is more in the nature of a surface flow than one of a rushing current

either centralised in midstream or against one of the banks.

islands which consist of basalt boulders standing up out of the water to a

height of 15 to 20 feet.

Barbus (Puntius) Jerdoni Day

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes

Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes)

Crossochilus latius (Ham.)

Labeo fimbriata (Bl.)

Labeo potail (Sykes)

specimens.

specimen.

specimens.

Stretch about 2 miles east of Fitzgerald bridge.

There are several

29-11-1936.

The stretch is an extensive pocket about 40 by 50 yards connected with

the main channel of the river.

A section of the ground here is deeper than

the bed adjoining and a collection of water in it has become landlocked. The

average depth is 3 feet in the middle of it and in the shallows about 1 foot.

It is partly rocky and silted up.

In the silted sections algae are present and

some weeds. There is no current. The water is dirty-looking with a scum on

the surface.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

ii. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.)

iii. Barbus (Puntius) chola (Ham.)

iv. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham,

v. Garra mullya (Sykes)

vi. Nemachilus botia var. aureus Day

vil. Nemachilus dayi Hora

Vili, Mystus cavasius (Ham.)

ix. Ambassis ranga (Ham.)

bon

specimens.

specimens,

specimens.

specimen,

specimens.

4. A rocky pool, 3 miles east of Fitzgerald bridge. 6-12-1936,

and 28-5-1937.

The pool is situated in a boulder strewn stretch and is nearly in the form

of a square.

running current of moderate intensity.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

ii. Chela phulo Ham.

iii. Barilius barna Ham.

iv. Barbus (Puntius) Jerdoni Day

Ge e OO

It is practically all roclk and so is its bed.

specimens,

specimen.

specimen,

specimens,

There is a centrally

Green algae are present in some portions

of the pool where the current is weak, especially in its angles.

varies from 2 feet to over 6 feet centrally.

The depth

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

v. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes I specimen.

vi. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) 4 specimens.

vii. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham, , TES MSPEClIMenS:

viii. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes 5 Specimens.

ix. Cuirrvhina fulungee (Sykes) I specimen.

x. Garra mullya (Sykes) 7 specimens.

xi. Labeo potail (Sykes) 3 Specimens.

xii. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

o. A run about 3 miles below lake Fife. 20-12-1936.

This particular reach of the river is a broad expanse of water about

goo yards long and 80 yards broad. Here apparently the river has collected

in a deep depression in the surface of the land, because above and below the

section the river flows in very narrow channels barely 8 yards broad. The

average depth midstream must be over 6 feet as the depth near the banks are

4 feet. The banks are roughly 3 feet above the water level. The direction

of the river is due north-east and the banks lie roughly west and easty On

the west bank and flanking it is a hill on which Babul, Tea, Tamarind and Mango

flourish. The east bank is similarly wooded and the adjacent land is undulating.

The banks are earthy here and so is the bed of the river, and the edges are

grown with weeds and underwater vegetation. The river bed above and below

the reach under reference is covered with small boulders and coarse sand.

There is a moderate current which hugs the west bank and here the bed is

silted. It was difficult working with a net on account of the weeds.

i. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) 4 specimens.

ii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 5 specimens.

iii. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes 3. Specimens.

iv. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes I specimen.

v. Crossochilus latius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

vi. Labeo calbasu (Ham.) 5 specimens.

vii. Labeo potail (Sykes) I specimen.

vill. Rohtee vigorsii (Sykes) 2 specimens.

ix. Nemachilus dayt Hora 2 specimens.

x. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) 2 specimens.

6. Lake Fife (Kharkwasla). 20-12-1936.

The fishes were caught on the east beach which is shingle and rock, and

they were taken near the dam which is about 35 feet high. There is a current

created here due to the flow of water through the sluices into the right bank

canal. The bank slopes to the water’s edge and for a yard length is about

a foot in depth. It then deepens suddenly to 5 feet and thereafter it must be

very deep. I do not know the exact depth of the lake in its deepest portions,

but in casting a net from the boat and letting out the drag rope to the fullest

extent the weighted end of the net did not touch bottom. Towards the Boat

Club enclosure the water does not deepen suddenly. The maximum level of

the water as shown on the map is during September 1911 feet and the minimum

1883 feet in June. The lake is fed by the Mutha and Mose rivers and the

greater volume of its water is diverted into the right and left bank canals.

The left bank canal ends near Kirkee.

i. Chela boopis Day 2 specimens.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) 4 specimens.

iit, Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes I specimen,

iv. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) I specimen.

v. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes I specimen,

vi. Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes) I specimen,

vil. Garra mullya (Sykes) 3 specimens,

vill. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) 18 specimens.

7. The stretch of the Mutha-Mula river near the Infectious

Hospital, Poona. 24-12-1936.

At the time of the visit this section was covered with a green scum of

algae, and there was no surface flow or evidence of any current. The stretch

FISH OF POONA 85

is about 40 yards wide and 4oo yards long. In actual! fact the continuity of

the river here is divided into two streams by a large island. The stretch

under reference is the one which runs by the island on its eastern side as the

direction of the river is north-east. The island is large and is as long as the

run itself and as broad. It is grown with Babul, Mango, Tamarind and Pipal

trees and is cultivated. The average depth of the run must be at least 4 feet.

Near the banks it is 1-2 feet and is mostly earthy composed of an earthy bed

covered with silt. In parts of the bed there is evidence of some rock. The

bank on the hospital side is heavily wooded with Babul.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) ... 2 specimens.

ii. Barbus (Puntius) Jerdoni Day Dees peCiine ls

iii. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. .. TOO specimens.

iv. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ... 17 specimens.

v. Garra mullya (Sykes) ... 67 specimens.

vi. Nemachilus dayi Hora ... IQ Specimens.

vii. Mystus cavasitus (Ham.) se) 30 Specimens.

vili. Rita pavimentata (Val.) ... I specimen.

8. Mutha-Mula river near Kharadigaon village. 27-12-1936,

16-1-1397 and 10-6-1937.

The river in this section is a long run of a mile or more flowing due east.

The north bank is rocky, and the force of the current which is moderately

strong is directed against the north bank. There is no vegetation on this

side. The south bank is a shingled beach, and nearer the water’s edge is

pebbled. The bed of the river is rock partly, and the greater portion is pebbled.

The depth in its deepest parts nearer the north bank must be over 6 feet.

It is more shallow—about 2 feet—near the south bank. The width of the

expanse is roughly 90 yards across. The south bank is wooded with Babul.

On the last visit (10-6-1937) the volume of water in this section had greatly

decreased, and the current was very sluggish. The width of the run is now about

-50 yards, and there is a large amount of algae at the sides of the river. The

beach, from which the water has receded, is now dry and shows a large amount

of silt admixed with sand in which are numerous empty shells of univalve and

bivalve molluscs.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) 2 specimens.

ii. Chela clupeoides (B1.) 38 specimens.

ili. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) 5 Specimens.

iv. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 9g specimens.

v. Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C.V.) 5 specimens.

vi. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes I Specimen.

vii. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) I specimen.

viii. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. .. 9 Specimens.

ix. Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes 4 specimens.

x. Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes) ... 4 Specimens.

xi. Garra mullya (Sykes) ... 15 Specimens.

xii. Labeo potail (Sykes) 5 specimens.

xili. Rohtee cotio var..cunma Day 2 specimens,

xiv. Rohtee vigorsii Sykes 7 specimens.

xv. Schizmatorhynchus (Nukta) nukta

(Sykes) EO IeRSPeCimnent.

xvi. Callichrons pabo Ham. Tee UESPCCIIIen:

xvii. Rita pavimentata (Val.) et Specimens

xviii. Glyptothorax conirostre var.

poonaensis Hora ... I Specimen.

xix. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. OSE Speciniens:

xx. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) Pe ECMSDeCIMNENS.

9. Lake Pashan. 3-1-1937.

Lake Pashan is shaped like the segment of a circke, roughly half a

mile long and a quarter of a mile broad, and is really a catchment in which

mostly rain drainage during the monsoon collects. There are a few narrow

streams, more in ‘the nature of rivulets and fed by springs, draining into the

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

lake on its western side. Lake Pashan is the water supply for Government

House at Ganeshkind. There is a filtration plant and reservoir on the side

near the bunded portion on its northern face. The bund is an earthy bank

which has been built upon with stone masonry and extends for about

400 yards. Part of the southern boundary of the lake consists of a dam

about 10 feet above the water’s surface, and about 100 yards long.

The rest of the bank is earthy on a rocky base except in parts where it is

altogether earthy, and a fringe of about 300 yards on the southern side and

another similar length on its western aspect are rankly grown with under-

water weeds. The bed of the lake is in the greater part rocky and sanded.

The western side is fairly well wooded with Mango and Babul, and where the

streams join the lake it is marshy and grown with weeds and rushes. The

banks here are turfed. In the marshy section there are numbers of aquatic birds

of various kinds including duck. It was from this portion that most of the

fishes were secured. The small streams—three in number—mentioned above

had no fishes in them. This may be due to the presence of aquatic birds in

the locality. The streams are about 100 yards in extent and run down from

hillocks which are about 100 feet above the level of the lake, and their sources

had no pools but the water oozed through rocky strata in the hill-side. Owing

to the great depths in parts of the lake which has an average depth of 18 feet,

it was impracticable to use a net, and although I was given the use of a boat

and made every effort to have the bell-shaped casting net thrown over and

over again in the middle of the lake, the results were very poor indeed.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) ... I Specimen.

ii. Chela boopis Day ... 30 Specimens.

iii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) ... 38 specimens.

iv. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 2-72) Specimens:

v. Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C.V.) .... 4 specimens.

vi. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes ... I Specimen.

vii. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. ... 40 Specimens.

‘viii. Cirrhina fulungee Sykes ... 37 Specimens.

ix. Crossochilus latius (Ham.) ... 2 Specimens.

x. Garra mullya (Sykes) ... I Specimen,

xi. Nemachilus botia var. aureus Day... 3 Specimens.

xii. Nemachilus dayi Hora I specimen,

10. Mula river near the Ice Factory, Kirkee. 24-1-1937.

On the main road to Kirkee after leaving Government House on the left

of the Railway line and half way between it and Kirkee there is an ice factory

located on the west bank of the Mula river. The stretch explored here is a

broad expanse roughly 150 yards in width. A ferry service works here, and

numerous contractor’s rafts ply between the banks carrying sand. The direction

of the flow is from north to south and the banks therefore lie east and west

respectively. The east bank is sparsely grown with trees and other vegetation,

and there are a number of workmen engaged in digging operations removing

sand from the small hillocks on it. The west bank is more wooded and_ the

part near the water’s edge is well turfed. The east bank has a beach of coarse

sand and more inland are the sandy hillocks which rise to about 30 feet above

the water’s surface. The west bank is 10 to 15 feet above the water and the

ground here is earthy. There is a strong central current, and midstream the

depth must be at least 12 feet while near the water’s edge it is 3-4 feet. The

bed near the bank is sanded and silted in parts. Nearly all of the larger fishes

in this batch were caught between the bank and midstream. The fish called

Ambli [Chela phulo Ham] and all of the smaller fry including especially

Chandwah [Ambassis ranga (Ham.)] were netted from a boat in midstream.

Chandwah and Chalut [Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)] are the dominant species.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) , ... 18 Specimens.

ii. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.) I specimen.

iii. Chela phulo Ham. .» (38 Specimens.

iv. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) 5 Specimens.

v. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) I specimen,

vi. Barbus (Puntius) chola (Ham.) 3 specimens.

vii. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes ue 2 specimens.

‘earthy and sloping and parts of it are turfed.

FISH OF POONA 87

viii. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) 5 Specimens.

ix. Barbus (Puntius) tigto Ham. 4 specimens.

x. Callichrons pabo Ham. 606 2 specimens.

xi. Mystus Deenghala (Sykes) 5 Specimens.

xii. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) I specimen,

xiii. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) I specimen,

xiv. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) ++. 321 specimens,

Il. Junction of the Mutha with the Mula river, called the Sangam.

7-2-1937.

About 80 yards below Wellesly bridge the Mutha river meets the Mula and

this junction is known as the Sangam, There is a very large expanse of water

here, The direction of the Mutha river is due north. The Mula river after

flowing south, is deflected westwards a little above the junction with the Mutha,

and from this point the waters of the combined rivers flow in a north-easterly

direction. On the east bank at the junction there is a temple and the stretch

below this temple on the same bank was explored. There are crowds of people

here washing and bathing around and in the temple precincts. The bank is

The opposite bank is about

10 feet above the water, it is well turfed and sparsely wooded. Between the

banks a ferry service operates. There is a strong central current and the depth

midstream must be well over 15 feet. The bank which was explored is from

2-6 feet in depth and the bed is silted over an earthy base. Peelah Powwul

[Chela phulo Ham.] and Deotee [Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day] appear to

be the dominant species in this locality.

i Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) ao) Quspecimens, ins

ii. Chela phulo Ham. .» 24 Specimens. a

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) Pe eSPeCiiment.

iv. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes ... 4 Specimens.

v. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) EEE SPECIMENS:

vi. Cirrhina fulungee Sykes ~ NmeleSPeCiinen:

vil. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day ... 29 Specimens.

vili. Rohtee vigorsit Sykes ... IQ Specimens.

ix. Callichrons bimaculatus (B1.) ... 2 Specimens,

x. Mystus gulio (Ham.) ee pelespecimen,

xi. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) ee SPeClIneNns.

xii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) 3 specimens.

12. Right bank canal, below the Empress Gardens. 14-2-1937,

6-3-1937, 4-4-1937, and 1-6-1937.

The right bank irrigation canal conducts the waters from lake Fife and

runs in an irregular way meandering through Poona, and by a rocky sub-

terranean channel under the race course, reaches the Empress Gardens. From

thence it flows south of and almost parallel with the Mutha-Mula river for

many miles until it finally terminates at a point about a mile or more south

of a village called Nangaon on the Bhim river. In the direct route it is

roughly 60 odd miles, but actually is probably 100 miles long. The section

explored is the run between the Empress Gardens and the M. S. M. Railway

crossing and from thence to the Hardapsar road bridge a total of about 43 miles.

In parts of this stretch the bed is rock and sand and in other sections it is

silted over and rankly grown with weeds. The banks stand 15 feet above

the water and for the canal’s whole length in this section there are broad foot-

paths on both banks. On both sides of these footpaths the banks are heavily

wooded. Those trees on the near side of the water consist chiefly of Date

Palms, interspersed with Babul and Pipal, and the branches of some of the

latter trees overhang the water to the extent that they nearly touch the water’s

surface. The off side of each bank is much more wooded and the Mango tree

here predominates. About half way in this stretch there is a small village

standing 50 yards away from the bank. Its population numbers some 100 persons

who use the water for all purposes. The average depth is roughly 4 feet, but

in parts it is 8 feet and there is always a large volume of water flowing through

it with a very strong current at all times, except for 3 days in the year—2nd

to 4th June—when the water is shut off at lake Fife to allow of the channel

88 [OURNAL, BOMBAVONAT URAL HIST) SO CLEAN eV Olam ce Wi

being cleared of weeds. The- canal is then in the higher parts quite dry,

but there are long stretches in its deeper section which contain at least 18 inches

of water and the fishes do not suffer very much. The fishes in the batch which

have been recovered from the canal should in a fair way represent the range

of species which share a preference for strong currents.

i. Chela clupeoides (BI!.) 400 14 specimens.

ii. Chela phulo Ham. 28 specimens,

iii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) -. 136 specimens,

iv. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 47 specimens.

v. Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C.V.) Soo Sit SIERO.

vi. Barbus (Puntius) chola (Ham.) sieve Ir specimens.

I specimen.

vil. Barbus (Puntius) Jerdoni Day :

16 specimens.

viii. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) :

ix. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. oo | Guy Siplekouanesnse

x. Cirrhina fulungee Sykes adel her MOUSE

xi. Crossochilus latius (Ham.) ries) PEACH RIE} UISE

xii. Garra mullya (Sykes) 13 specimens.

xiii. Labeo boggut (Sykes) 5 specimens.

xiv. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day 2S DECIMEeN Ss:

xv. Rohtee vigorsii Sykes I specimen.

xvi. Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.) IS SPC CITE ty

xvii. Nemachilus botia var. aureus Day Je SPECIMENS.

xviii. Nemachilus dayi Hora I specimen.

xix. Callichrons bimaculatus (B1.) 3 SPECIMENS:

xx. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) 4 specimens.

xxi. Aplochilus lineatus (C.V.) ib USOT

“Xxii. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) 7 specimens.

xxiii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) II Specimens.

xxiv. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) To specimens.

13. Stretch of the Mula river near to the Central Mental Hospital,

Yeravda. 21-2-1937 and 24-2-1937.

The fishes were taken from the stretch of about a furlong length which

runs by the Central Mental Hospital, Yeravda. The Mula river here flows in

a fairly straight course from north to south and the banks therefore lie east

and west. There is a broad expanse of water here about 50 yards across, and

there is a sluggish current which bears directly against the west bank which

is practically bare of vegetation and consists of rocky plinths sloping to the

water’s edge with large boulders interspersed here and there. The east bank

on which lie the vegetable and fruit producing lands controlled by the authorities

of the Central Mental Hospital, Yeravda, is entirely earthy, but nearer the

water’s edge in certain parts there is evidence of a rocky foundation underlying.

This bank is precipitous and stands about 30 feet above the water. The depth

in this run would be at least 15 feet midstream. Near the bank it is 3 feet

for about 5 yards and then suddenly deepens to over 8 feet. The bed appears

to be rocky and silted over. The silted area is grown with weeds. There is

evidence also that there is a strong undercurrent about midstream, where eddies

are visible and in using a rod and line one’s float is drawn down, but this

happens only occasionally and objects such as leaves floating on the surface of

the water are seen moving very slowly.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) +. 2 specimens.

ii. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.) I specimen.

iii. Chela boopis Day I specimen,

iv. Barbus (Puntius) jerdoni Day I specimen.

v. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes 2 specimens.

vi. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) I specimen.

vii. Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. 19 Specimens.

viii. Cirrhina fulungee Sykes 4 Specimens.

ix. Garra mullya (Sykes) 2 specimens.

x. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day 41 specimens.

xi. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. t specimen.

xii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) 15 specimens.

xiii. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) 12 specimens,

FISH OF POONA 89

14. Stretch of the Mula river east of Holkar bridge. 28-2-1937.

_ The fishes were taken from the stretch of about 400 yards east of Holkar

bridge. The Mula river here flows in a practically straight course from east

to west and the banks lie north and south respectively. There is a large

expanse and volume of water with a strong midstream current and a flow of

less intensity near the banks. The north bank is heavily wooded with Pipal,

Mango, Tamarind, and Babul. Their branches, in parts, overhang and touch

the water. At the water’s edge there is a heavy growth of rushes and weeds.

The south bank is less wooded and the trees are all Babul. This bank is

turfed up to the water’s edge where in the greater part of its length there is

a thick growth of weeds. The base of the bank is practically all rock with

an earthy layer overlying, and in the parts which are breached there are pockets

of stagnant water 18 inches deep with much algae in evidence. The bed of the

river on the south bank is practically all rock and the greater portion is silted

over. The depth midstream must be well over 15 feet and near the south bank

3-4 feet. The width of the river is the length of the bridge which is go yards

long and 35 feet above the water line.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) 2 specimens.

ii. Chela clupeoides (BI.) 3 Specimens.

iii. Chela phulo (Ham.) 30 specimens.

iv. Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C.V.) I specimen.

v. Barbus (Puntius) kolus 3 Specimens.

vi. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) 4 specimens.

vii. Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes) 2 specimens.

viii. Garra mullya (Sykes) 2 specimens.

ix. Labeo potail (Sykes) 9 specimens.

x. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day 10 specimens.

xi. Rohtee vigorsiit Sykes I specimen.

xii. Callichrons pabo Ham. I specimen.

xiii. Proeutropichthys taakree (Sykes) 3 specimens.

xiv. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) 7 specimens.

15. Section of the Mula river near Bopkhel. 14-3-1937.

In this section the Mula river runs in a loop. The reach explored is the

portion of this loop which flows due east. The width here is about 60 yards,

and there is a fair volume of water with a central current which is moderately

strong. The depth at the sides is 3-4 feet and centrally it is at least 10 feet.

The surrounding country is bare of vegetation except for a few Babul trees.

The banks are rocky and slope to the water’s edge and are 20 feet above the

water. The surface of both banks shows strata of shingle and the adjacent

land is in the nature of shingle with rock showing here and there and covered

with a thin earthy layer which is turfed. The bed of the river is rock and

sand and parts of it are silted.

i. Chela phulo Ham. 2 specimens.

ii: Barbus (Puntius) jerdoni Day I specimen.

iii. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes 2 specimens.

iv. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) 4 specimens,

v. Labeo boggut (Sykes) I specimen.

vi. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day I specimen.

vii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) “I specimen.

16. Tanks (catchment areas) at Katraj village. 21-3-1937.

There are two tanks here near to the village of Katraj which has a population

of about 2,000 inhabitants. The majority of this number are low caste men

called ‘Mahars’ and they use the water in the upper tank, which is nearer the

village, for all purposes. The high caste section of the village use a well

which is located on high ground between the upper and lower tanks. The

upper one is higher, placed at a height of roughly 50 feet or more above the

lower. There is a drainage channel between the two by which water, dependent

upon the level of it in the upper, flows into the lower tank and the distance

between them is one furlong and a half, The upper tank is one quarter

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

the size of the lower and both are catchments which fill up during the rains.

There are no perennial streams feeding it and no springs. Both have dams

of solid masonry. The upper dam is about 50 yards long and 8 feet broad and

the lower is 200 yards long and 15 feet broad. The unfiltered water in the

tanks is used by the Poona Suburban Municipality for watering roads. A

pipe line from the lower tank conducts water for this purpose, presumably by

gravity as there is no engine house in the near precincts. The upper tank

is 50 yards long and 30 yards broad with a depth of 4 feet in its deepest part

near the dam and 2 feet in the shallows. The lower tank is some 300 'yards

long and 200 yards broad with a depth of 6-8 feet in its deepest parts against

the dam and 1-3 feet in the shallows. The height above sea level is roughly

2,440 feet. The singular peculiarity here is that the upper tank had all the

fish in plenty. A few casts of the net brought in many. On the other hand

although the larger tank was systematically surveyed every 25 yards or so—

each cast, and there were many—recovered on an average one fish per cast.

Instead cf fish the net enmeshed a giant species of aquatic beetle in such

numbers as to constitute a nuisance. These beetles appear to be the cause for

the absence of fish in the shallows near the margin of the tanks There was

no boat available here to explore the deeper sections. The fisherman who

was with me states the beetles kill the fish. In all probability the fishes

have been driven into the middle of the tank in its deeper partsy About 30 wild

duck were in the middle and a variety of other aquatic birds in the neighbour-

hood. Except in the section against the dam, the margins of the tank had a

growth of weeds and much algae. The upper tank had a small amount of

algae but no weeds. The banks of both tanks are earthy and turfed over, and

the terrain is fairly well wooded with Babul and Mango and near the banks

are some Babul trees.

i. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ... 130 Specimens.

ii. Garra mullya (Sykes) ... 87 specimens.

iii. Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus

(Annan.) ... I Specimen.

iv. Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.) ... 4 Specimens.

17. Section directly above the Bund. 2-5-1937.

The section above the bund shows a wide expanse of water and is the

length of the bund—about 150 yards in extent. At the time of the visit there

was no water falling over the bund except a small rush through an

exit in the masonry construction near the bund garden end. The flow of the

river is to the east and the part of it against the north bank was explored.

This bank is practically all rock and slopes to the water’s edge. There -was a

large collection of an aquatic plant (the duck weed, referred to above in the

general description of the river) spread over the surface of the water for the

whole extent of the bund and above it for a distance of about 50 yards.; The

water above this again was clear of the weed and it was here that the fishes

were caught. The bed appears to be all rock and there was no evidence of

any current. The depth was from 2-6 feet near the bank.’ Higher up and

nearer the road to Kirkee there were some Pipal and Tamarind trees which are

50 feet above and 30 yards from the water’s edge. In the shallow margin

there were some weeds and algae, particularly in the portions where the rocky

base is silted up.

i. Barbus (Puntius) dobsoni Day vee, Specimens:

ii. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) ... 4 Specimens.

ili. Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes) a SuSbeciInens:

iv. Ophicephalus leucopunctatus Sykes ‘UES DECIINEN.

18. Mutha river in the section above the bridge called Lakri

Pool. 29-5-1937.

The section explored was the run near the concrete causeway connecting

the east bank on which Poona City lies with the west bank by which the

road to Piranghat, Paud, and Mulshi lake passes. The causeway is roughly

goo yards south from and above Lakri Pool. The flow of the river is slightly

north-easterly and in this section it is divided into two streams one running

by the east bank and the other by the west bank. This latter stream has the

FISH OF POONA 91

lesser volume of water. Directly above the causeway both streams unite to

form a large collection of water in the depression which here exists, and the

fishes in this batch were secured here. Except for a surface flow which is very

sluggish against both the banks there is no current and the water is stagnant

and foul smelling. Droves of cattle are driven into this peol to wallow about

in it. Crowds of people also bathe and wash clothes here.. Below the causeway

and extending up to Lakri Pool between the two streams is a pebbled beach.

Above the causeway the collection of water, which is about 100 yards long and

130 yards broad, there is a similar pebbled stretch between the two streams.

The width between the two banks proper is some 150 yards and the banks

are earthy and slope down to the water from a height of about 30-40 feet.

The depth in this pool is from 2 feet in the shallows to 5 feet in its deepest

portions. The bed is earthy and silted over and in parts grown with weeds

and algae. Directly where the iwo streams merge to form the pool the bed

is sanded and silted. There is a large amount of mud in suspension as a

result of cattle being driven into this pool. The flow in the streams is very

sluggish.

i. Chela boopis Day ... 12 specimens,

ii. Chela phulo (Ham.) TES PeCIIMNen.

ili. Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes s- § Specimens:

iv. Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes) .. 5 Specimen.

v. Garra mullva (Sykes) specimens.

vi. Nemachilichthys ruppelli (Sylxes) specimen.

vii. Nemachilus botia var. aureus Day ... 57 Specimens.

viii. Nemachilus dayi Hora 3 specimens.

ix. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. ee TeSpeciment

19. A stagnant pool on the south bank of the Mutha-Mula river.

28-6-1937.

The pool is stagnant and very foul with evidence of sulphuretted hydrogen

emanations. There is a heavy scum on the greater portion of its surface with

fragments of floating algae. This collection of water is due to an ooze through the

rocky strata of which it is mainly composed. There are large boulders flanking

one side and also in the near precincts, and some portions of the bank and bed at

the edges of the pool have an earthy deposit which is overgrown with long grasses

and weeds. The bed is practically rocky throughout and grown with algae.

The average depth is 18 inches and not more than 2 feet in its deepest parts.

It is circular in shape with a diameter of 5 yards. The water is turbid, ashen

in colour and foul smelling. The overflow is carried through a narrow channel

(2 feet wide) which drains directly into the river. The pool is located on high

ground near the south bank of the Mutha-Mula river between it and a sewage

plant roughly about 23 miles east of Fitzgerald bridge. The fish called Konkani

Garah [Aplochilus lineatus (C. V.)] is the only species in the pool. The single

specimen of a baby Murral [Ophicephalus gachua Ham.] in this batch was

secured in the river end of the channel cosnecting the pool with the river.

1. Aplochilus lineatus (C. V.) -. 10 specimens.

11. Ophicephalus gachua. Ham. aa I specimen.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iam greatly indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora and Mr. K. S. Misra of

the Zoological Survey of India for the identifications of the species

in this series, and to Mr. S. H. Prater, Curator of the Bombay

Natural History Society Museum, for having given me the oppor-

tunity for carrying out the survey.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY

AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH

AND AQUATIC PLANTS,

Part II.

jo Bs R= DAEMEIDAy = ByAy Mus:

St. Navier’s College, Bombay.

(With three plates).

(Continued from p. 304 of Vol, xhi, No. 2).

ELATINACEAE.

The Elatinaceae is a very small family containing only about 4o species

in 2 genera, viz. Elatine and Bergia, widely distributed through the tropical

and temperate regions of both hemispheres. They are generally small annual

herbs for the most part living in water or on mud, with creeping stems root-

ing at the nodes and simple, opposite or whorled leaves with interpetiolar

stipules. We owe our information regarding the anatomy of this family

chiefly to the statements of Neidenzu (10).

KEY TO THE GENERA.

A, Sepals obtuse, aquatic herbs............... 1 Hlatine.

By wSepalse acute sflss 5-meroust ae. eetn nee 2 Bergia.

The genus Elatine comprising 15 species of minute, glabrous aquatic or

marsh annuals is spread over the northern hemisphere in the New as _ well

as the Old World. Several of its species are amphibious and have been

found to possess both land and water forms (6). Its best known members

are the two British species E. hexandra DC. and E. Hydropiper Linn. (Water-

pepper or Pipewort) which occur in Britain and Ireland and are _ scattered,

though sparsely, over a wide range in Europe and North Asia. But what

appears to be the most completely adapted plant of this family for aquatic

life is E. Alsinastrum Linn., the whorled Waterwort of Europe and North

Africa, which in addition to the characteristic air-passages and other aquatic

features displays a well marked heterophylly described by Kerner (8) as _ fol-

lows: ‘The aerial leaves are grouped in whorls of three, They have an

ovate shape, and their margins are finely notched. Each is traversed by

3-5 veins. The leaves developed under water are divided almost their whole

length into 3-4 narrow linear segments, and each whorl looks as if it were

composed of twelve leaves. Each segment is smooth round the edge and

traversed only by one central vein.’ Two Indian species of Elatine have been

recorded, viz. FE. americana Arn. found in the Nilgiris and spread over New

Zealand and Australia, and E, ambigua Wight occurring in the Western Penin-

sula and also in the Fiji Islands. They are insignificant and little known.

Three Indian species of Bergia are known, viz. B. odorata Edgew., B,

ammannioides Roxb. and B. capensis Linn. Of these the latter two species

are described in the Floras as aquatic or semiaquatic and are actually recorded

from such habitats. B. odorata, on the other hand has no definite aquatic

localities against it and is regarded as a terrestrial plant. Saxton (14) how-

ever mentions it in his synusium of Marsh plants, but adds that it also

appears as a xerophytic type on land which is not swampy. Sabnis (5, 13)

has described the anatomy of B. odorata and B. ammannioides, in hoth of

which he has found a _ typical xerophytic structure indicating that he was

dealing with plants taken from dry habitats.

It would appear from these conflicting accounts that both B. odorata and

B. ammannioides are terrestrial plants that are capable, on occasion, of living

under marsh or aquatic conditions. B. capensis, on the other hand, is a

habitual marsh plant, and though it has not attained the marked specializa-

tion recorded for Elatine Alsinastrum, it possesses certain features in its

external and internal morphology which are unmistakably adaptations to an

BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 93

aquatic mode of life. In the light of what has been said above in regard

to the habitats of the species of Bergia the following key to the Indian species

will be found to be more correct than the conventional one given in the

Floras :—

Kry To THE INDIAN SPECIES.

A. Plants usually terrestrial woody.

Blo SITIES | Tis acocosobdoadee tooo nacbodooasouaNCOoCneeed B. odorata.

Do, SUBBAEMS Go00d00000400000 0000 nsp0090000500000000Nc0000 B. ammannioides,.

B. Plants usually aquatic, succulent,

SUAINGNS. 1 y0900080640G00000000000000600000000000000500 B. capensis.

Since Bergia capensis Linn. is the only Indian species definitely aquatic

and is pretty common in India we take it for special study.

SYNONYMY.

Bergia capensis Linn. Mantiss. (1771), 241.

=B. aquatica Roxb.

=B. verticillata Willd.

=Elatine verticillata W. & A.

The plant grows on the margins of tanks and in ricefields. It is found

in Bombay, Salsette, and in the Konkan and Deccan. It occurs also in other

parts of India, and is distributed to Ceylon, Rangoon, Tropical Africa

and Egypt. It usually lives partially submerged in water and also on mud

in the rains, and scarcely survives the monsoon, dying, after seeding, almost

as soon as the ground on which it lives becomes dried up. It is an annual

glabrous succulent herb 15-30 cm. high, with branches decumbent or ascend-

ing. The stem and branches are pink, translucent, making visible, through

the surface, the narrow central cylinder and the radially arranged partitions

of the cortical air-spaces which make the stem appear ribbed. The leaves,

even those which happen to be submerged, show no special aquatic features.

They are ill-adapted for life under water and decay on submergence. They

are 2.6-4 cm. by .7-1 cm., simple, opposite, elliptic-lanceolate, serrate, glab-

rous with short petioles and triangular-acute caducous stipules. The flowers

are minute and occur in sessile or subsessile axillary clusters. The primary

root is short-lived. It is soon replaced by a system of adventitious roots

coming off from the lower nodes. In plants that grow partially or completely

submerged, the roots show a differentiation into two kinds, viz. ground roots

or mud roots (Figs. 1 and 2, M) and water roots (Figs. 1 and 2, W). The

ground roots, i.e. those buried in the mud, are stout and white and they

bear few slender threadlike branches. Root-hairs are present on the mud

roots and are not confined as in most ordinary roots, to a small region above

the root tip, but are spread all over the main roots and branches. The water

rcots, i,e. those which come off from the submerged nodes and float freely

jn the water, are thinner, more profusely branched, feathery in appearance,

devoid of root-hairs and frequently green, simulating both in form and _ func-

tion the adventitious floating roots (2), the so-called ‘pectinate organs’ of

Trapa (4). It may be mentioned that a differentiation of roots somewhat

similar to those just described for Bergia capensis has been observed also in

other water plants (1,7,11).

The anatomy of the plant is in conformity with its semi-aquatic mode of

life. The transverse section of the stem (Fig. 3) closely resembles the figure

given by Schenck (15) for the transverse section of the stem of Elatine Alsina-

strum. The epidermis (Fig. 3, Ep, Figs. 5 and 6) consists of tabular cells

elongated in the direction of the length of the axis and with the. outer walls

somewhat thickened in the subaerial parts. Chloroplasts are present in the

epidermal cells of the submerged parts. Stomata are absent. Beneath the

epidermis is a hypoderma (Hyp) of 4-5 layers of compactly arranged paren-

chymatous elements. The cortex is traversed by wide vertical air-passages

or lacunae (Lac) separated from one another by single-layered radially arranged

parenchymatous plates or partitions (KP) whose cells show a tendency for

radial elongation the more so in the submerged portions of the stem (Fig. 4).

The partitions are compactly built up and, viewed from the side (Fig. 7),

04 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

show no lateral outlets in the shape of intercellular spaces connecting adjoin-

ing lacunae, an arrangement calculated, it would appear, to effect an expedi-

tious passage of air to the underground parts. The cortex on the inner side

of the lacunae is only about 2 or 3 layers thick including the endodermis

(End in Figs. 3 and g) which latter in transverse section can be recognized

as a band of thinwalled barrel-shaped cells. Chloroplasts are present in the

cortical cells and are in greater abundance in the cells lining the

cortical air-spaces. A pink pigment (anthocyanin) may be present in the cells

of the epidermis and also in the innermost layers (including the endodermis).

The cortical passages, however, are interrupted at the nodes by many-layered

diaphragms which have intercellular spaces at the angles of the cells (Fig. 8)

facilitating vertical communication - between superposed air-passages. These

nodal diaphragms are crowded with conglomerate crystals and contain abund-

ant chloroplasts. Unlike B. ammannioides and b. odorata a_ sclerenchymatous

pericycle is absent and the wood vessels are scarcely, if at all, lignified. In

transverse section (Fig. 4) the wood vessels are seen to be arranged in radial

rows separated by rays of parenchymatous cells extending to the pith. The

pith is parenchymatous with intercellular spaces, Chloroplasts are present

in the pith, especially in the neighbourhood of the xylem, and in the medul-

lary rays.

The leaves show a mesophytic structure which, as the plant grows usually

in saturated soil or in shallow water, grades towards the aquatic type especi-

ally in regard to the development of air-spaces. In the lamina the upper

and lower epidermis consists of tabular cells (Figs. 10 and 11) which in sur-

face view (Figs. 12 and 13) have wavy outlines. The thickening and cuti-

nization of the epidermal cell-walls varies with the conditions of moisture in

which the plant is growing. It is slight in plants growing in water but

increases appreciably under drier conditions. There are no chloroplasts in

the epidermal cells. Stomata are found on both the upper and lower surfaces

being more abundant on the lower side as will be seen by comparing Figs. 12

and 13 which are drawn to the same scale. The guard-cells are more or

less level with the ordinary epidermal cells. The mesophyll is bifacial. The

palisade tissue is relatively thinner than the spongy part. It is represented

by short cells, packed with chloroplasts, arranged in 3-4 rows, Though dis-

posed in palisade fashion the cells are not very compactly arranged allowing

for a free communication with the exterior through. the stomata. The spongy

tissue is made up of isodiametric cells more or less oval, rounded, or irregular-

shaped. They are more loosely arranged than the palisade cells and contain

fewer chloroplasts. The vascular bundles of the leat-blade are surrounded by

sheaths of clear cells. They are poorly lignified and there is, except for the

slight thickening of the outer epidermal walls when the plant grows under

drier conditions, scarcely any mechanical tissue formed. In the mid-rib, how-

ever, there is some development of mechanical tissue (Figs. 14 and 15). Both

the upper and lower epidermal cells have their walls considerably thickened

especially on the outer side. Further, on the depressed upper side the usual

mesophyll is replaced by mechanical tissue (m in Fig. 10) composed of thick-

walled cells. A parenchymatous tissue of clear cells with large air-spaces

(lig. 10) makes up the greater part of the prominent underside of the mid-

rib which also contains a_ strongly developed vascular strand occupying the

centre (Fig. 10).

According to Solereder (19) the air-passages (which- are found in the

stem of B, aquatica Roxb. (=Bb. capensis Linn.) and in all species of Elatine)

recur in the primary cortex of the root where they are traversed by radial

filaments of parenchymatous cells. This description would be applicable only

to the floating water roots of B. capensis for there is a marked difference

in structure between these water roots and the ground roots buried in the

mud. In the former (Fig. 16) beneath the superficial layer (Kp) composed

of thinwalled tabular cells there is a hypoderma (Hyp) of about 3 layers of

parenchyma and inside this the cortical lacunae are seen, in _ transverse

section, to be separated by radial filaments (RF) composed of more or. less

rounded or oval cells. Chloroplasts are present in the cells of the cortex

abutting on the lacunae. ‘The stele is very narrow relatively to the diameter

of the root. In the ground root also the stele is much reduced in width.

In the transverse section of such a root (lig. 17) the cortex is seen to be

much wider. Beneath the superficial layer (Lp) is a hypoderma (yp) ol

BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 95

two layers of parenchymatous cells. The rest of the cortex appears to be

made up of radial filaments (RF) of mostly elongated cells, These filaments

are separated from one another by wide radially running gaps or spaces.

In longitudinal section (Figs. 18, 19, 20) these radial filaments or chains are

seen to be connected with filaments lying above and below them by means

of vertical arms of certain irregular shaped cells belonging to the filaments.

These meet corresponding arms of similar cells composing the filaments that

lie above and below. In this way successive tiers of filaments are connected

vertically. Connection between an upper and lower tier may also be effected

by the oblique direction of a whole radial filament or of one of the arms

ot the cells composing it. A connection between two adjacent filaments of

the same tier may also be brought about by branching in the horizontal

plane or simply by the oblique direction of a filament (lig. 17). The result

of all this branching and anastomosis is a complicated spongy structure

which closely resembles the loose. air-containing tissue found by — several

observers (3, 9, 12, 16, 17, 18, 20) in plants growing in marshy situations

and regarded as a secondary tissue developed from a phellogen, the so-called

aerenchyma’ of Schenck (16). Whether the spongy cortex of the root of

Bergia capensis is really an aerenchyma in the true sense, i.e. a secondary

air-containing tissue developed from aé_phellogen, is doubtful. The plant

shows no secondary» development of tissues in its other parts and there

is no trace of a phellogen in the root. The presumption would therefore be

in favour of regarding this tissue found in the ground roots as a_ primary

cortex developed in loose fashion after the manner of an aerenchyma_ in

response to the condition of diminished aeration in the water-logged mud.

The differences in external and internal features observable between the

water and the mud roots are clearly related to their respective conditions

of life, The profuse branching of the water roots, by increasing the absorb-

ing surface and establishing intimate contact with the surrounding medium,

facilitates absorption. The presence of chloroplasts in these roots indicates

that the roots are also photosynthetic in function, and the occurrence of the

chloroplasts in the very cells that abut on the air-spaces of the cortex while

facilitating gas interchange between these cells and the air-spaces, renders

possible the much needed accumulation of oxygen given off in the process.

The mud roots, on the other hand, in addition to their ordinary function of

fixation and absorption, serve as reservoirs of air and thus help indirectly

in respiration.

REFERENCES

1. Arber, A., 1920.—Water Plants. Cambridge 1920.

2. Barnéoud, F. M., 1848.—Mémoire sur l’anatomie et l’organogénie du

divapa natans) (linn.). “Ann, d. scr. nat. Sér. Ill. Bot. T. IX. 1848, pp. 222-

244, 4 pls. } pawed

3. Batten, L. 1918.—Observations on the Ecology of Epilobium hirsutum.

Journ. Ecology, Vol. VI, 1918, pp. 161-77.

4. Blatter, E., 1906.—The ‘Pectinate Organs’ of Trapa bispinosa, Roxb.

(Water-chestnut), Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. April 23, 19006.

Be Blatter, E.; Mc@ann, ©: and Sabnis,, I. S., 1929:—Flora of the Indus

Delta. Part VII D. Anatomy. Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc., Vol. viii, No. 1, 1929,

PP. 19-77-

6. Glick, H., 1911.—Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen tiber

Wasser- und Sumpfgewachse. III Die Uferflora XXXIV+644 pp., 8 pls.,

105 text-figs. Jena, Ig11I.

7. Hildebrand, F., 1885.—Uber Heteranthera zosterifolia. Engler’s Bot.

Jahrbiich. Bd. VI, 1885, pp. 137-145, 1 pl.

8. Kerner, A. and Oliver, F. W., 1894-1895.—The Natural History of

Plants. 2 vols., 1760 pp., 1000 figs., 16 pls.

g. Lewakoffski, N., 1873.—Ueber den Einfluss des Wassers auf das Wach-

sthum der Stengel und Wurzeln einger Pflanzen. (Gelehrte Schriften der K.

Universitat in Kasan, 1873). Abstracted in Just’s Bot. Jahresbericht, Jahrg. I,

1873, Pp. 594.

10. Neidenzu, 1895.--In Naturl. Pflanzenfam., Teil, Abt. 6, 1895, 278.

11. Pallis, M. 1916.—The Structure and History of Plav: The Floating

Fen of the Delta of the Danube. Journ. Linn Soc. Bot., Vol. 43, 1916,

pp. 233-290, 15 pls., 1 text-fig.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

12. Rosanoff, S., 1871.—Ueber den Bau der Schwimmorgan von Desttan-

thus natans Willd.. Bot. Zeit. Jahrg. 29, 1871, pp. 829-38.

13. Sabnis, T. S., 1919-21.—The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of

the Indian Desert. Journ. Ind. Bot., Vols. I and II, 1919-1921.

14. Saxton, W. T., 1924.—Phases of Vegetation under Monsoon conditions.

Journ. Ecology, Vol. XII, No. 1, pp. 1-38, 1924.

15. Schenck, H., 1886.—Vergleichende Anatomie der submersen Gewachse.

Bibliotheca Botanica, Bd. I., Heft. I, 1886, 67 pp. to pls.

16. Schenck, H., .1889.—Ueber das Aérenchym, ein dem Kork homologes

Gewebe bei Sumpfpflanzen. Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. wissen. Bot. Bd. XX,

1889, pp. 526-574. 6 pls.

17. Schrenk, J., 1889.—On the Floating-tissue of Nesaea verticillata (L.)

Hop Be Ke Bull forrs Bots Club. Viole XV 1880s pp 3 t5-326eas i pls:

1. Scott, D. H. and Wager, H., 1888.—On the Floating Roots of Sesbania

aculeata Pers. Ani. Bot. Vol. I, 1887-1888, pp. 307-14.

19. Solereder, Hans, 1908.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons,

English Translation by Boodle and Fritsch, Oxford, 1908.

20. Witte, H., 1900.—Ueber das Vorkommen_ eines aerenchymatischen

Gewebes bei Lysimachia vulgaris, L. Botaniska Studier, Tillagnade F. R.

Kjellman, Uppsala, 1906, pp. 265-274.

EXPLANATION OF PLaTEs.

Bergia capensis Linn.

PiaTE I.

Fig. 1.—A habit drawing of the plant growing partially submerged. II,

water roots; M, mud roots.

Fig. 2,—Mud root (M) and water root (W) enlarged.

Pruate II.

Fig. 3.—T.S. of the stem (aerial portion) of a plant which had been grow-

ing in water. Ep, epidermis; Hyp, hypoderma; Lac, lacuna; RP, radial

partition wall; End, endodermis ; Ph. phloem; Xy, xylem; P, pith. (Xx 40).

Fig. 4.—Portion of the T.S. of the same stem as above (submerged por-

tion) showing radial elongation of the cells composing the partition walls

(RP). (x 40).

Fig. 5.—Epidermis of Stem (surface view). (xX 120).

Fig. 6.—Epidermis of Stem in T.S. and one layer of hypoderma. (X_ 120).

Fig. 7.—Side view of a radial partition wall as seen in a ls. of the

stem. No intercellular are visible between the cells. (xX 40).

Fig. 8.—T.S. of stem showing the nodal diaphragm tissue. (X_ 120).

Fig. 9.—T.S. of stem showing stelar region. End, endodermis; Xy, xylem;

J, sorts (38 WADE

Prate III.

Fig. 10.—(a) T.S. (diagrammatic) of the leaf showing the disposition of

the various tissues. p, palisade tissue; s, spongy tissue; m, mechanical tissue

on upper side of midrib; 7, lacunar tissue of clear cells on under side of

midrib; vb, vascular bundle. (xX 20).

(b) T.S. (diagrammatic) of the leaf nearer the base than above

showing the air-spaces in the region of the midrib. (xX 20).

Fig. 11.—T.S. of the leaf. (xX 96).

Fig. 12.—Upper epidermis of the leaf (surface view). (X 96).

ig. 13.—Lower epidermis of the leaf (surface view). (x 96).

Fig. 14.—T.S. of the leaf showing the midrib tissue on the upper side.

(x 96).

lig. 15.—T.S. of the leaf showing the midrib tissue on the under side. (X 96).

Fig. 16.—T.S. of water root. Ep, epidermis; Hyp, hypoderma; RI, radial

filaments ; End, endodermis. (X 72).

Fig. 17.—T.5. of a mud root. Lettering as in Fig. 16. (x 72).

Figs. 18, 19 and 20.—Radial L.S. through mud root showing the various

shapes of the cells composing the radial filaments, as well as the vertical

connections between the successive tiers of filaments. (Fig. 18: xX 48; Figs.

1g and 20: X 72).

(l'o be continued),

‘ajatjan fo pua aas uounuvidxa 404

“SINVId OLLVOGV GNV HSYVA NVIGNI-—Eplewyy,q

IT ALV ld ‘205 "SIT ‘Jey, Avquieg ‘asnor

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Il.

D’Almeida—INDIAN MARSH AND AQUATIC PLANTS.

For explanation see end of article.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IIf.

A es RAY

by : se ra)

QR Eee

F ers GD

D’Almeida—INDIAN MARSH AND AQUATIC PLANTS.

For explanation see end of article.

REVIEWS

I.—SHELLS AND OTHER ANIMAL REMAINS FOUND ON THE

MADRAS BEACH.—1. Groups other than Snails, etc. By F.. H. Gravely

(Bull. Madras Govt. Museum (n.s.), Nat. Hist. Sect. Vol. V, No. 1, pp. 1-112,

figs. 1-30; December, 1941).

In India collectors of shells and Natural History objects in general are

greatly handicapped for want of suitably illustrated handy volumes for identifica-

tion of the material that is easily available, often in large quantities, on sandy

beaches along the shores. Dr. Gravely has rendered a real service to the cause

of Natural Science in general and to collectors of shells in particular by pro-

viding in the work under review a guide for the identification of the bivalves and

animal remains, except for snails’ etc., that are likely to be found ‘on the sandy

beaches of Madras and other places on the Coromandel and Golkonda Coasts,

and even perhaps beyond’. The shells of molluscs form the majority of the

animal remains washed up on sandy beaches, but other animals such as Protozoa,

sponges, corals, jelly fish among Coelenterata, Ctenophora, Platyhelminths,

Nemertine and segmented worms, Polyzoa, Brachiopods, Cephalopoda, Crustacea,

Pycnogonida, Echinoderms and even some Chordates are also found, some-

times in large numbers. In this work Dr. Gravely has dealt with the com-

monly occurring forms of all these classes and provided short descriptive accounts,

and excellent line drawings of representative species. In the case of hermit

crabs and some edible crabs distinguishing characters of the commonly occurring

genera and dichotomous keys for their identification are also published.

The main part of the work is devoted to the bivalve shells—mussels, ship-

worms, etc. (Lamellibranchiata or as they should more correctly be termed Pelecy-

poda). This part of the account is much more detailed than that dealing with

other classes of animals. A simple but very useful dichotomous key of the

various families is followed by brief accounts of the families, descriptions of

the species and ‘notes on their habitats. Figures usually of the right valve of

a representative species of each genus are also published.

The account is based on the collections in the Madras Museum, fresh

collections made by the author, and, last but not the least, the very rich collection

of Mr. M. D. Crichton of Madras. All species definitely recorded from Madras

are included, even though many of them are only found in the harbour or

brought up by fishermen in nets and do not seem to get washed on to the

sands. An interesting fact that has come to light is that many of the species

which are marine at Krusadai Island near Pamban are exclusively estuarine

at Madras. According to the author, this is probably due to the confinement

of mud to the backwaters at Madras. As is, however, stated, further work is

necessary to determine how far estuarine species are able to stand changes in

salinity to which backwaters are subject, if they are to survive the changing

conditions throughout the year.

In the descriptions and general accounts the author has tried as far as possible

to replace scientific terms, which may not generally be intelligible, by more

easily understood words, but this has not always been possible. For the same

reason the names of the authors of the species and references to literature,

synonymy, etc. are given at the end of the paper ; this information would enable

serious students to pursue the matter more easily. The detailed index of the

names of genera and species adds to the value of the work.

Dr. Gravely’s attempt to produce a semi-popular but scientifically accurate

account of the animal remains of the Madras beach is very welcome, and it

is hoped that it will be followed by similar works for other parts of the country

and also for other groups of animals. Unless such works become available,

the study of Natural History by amateurs is not likely to make much headway.

The work is well printed and the illustrations well reproduced. The price of

Rs. 3-2-0 for a work of this type does not seem to be excessive.

1B, 12%

' The second part on snails is under preparation,

58 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIiI

Il.—THE ECOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE FOREST INSECTS OF

INDIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES. By C. F. C. Beeson.

Published by the author, printed at the Vasant Press, Dehra Dun, 1941. Pp. i-ii

+1-1007, price Rs. 15.

The work under review is a veritable compendium of practically the whole

field of our knowledge of the forest insects of economic importance in India.

The fact that the author has been engaged in forest-entomological research

in India during the last 30 years should ensure that the book is authoritative.

The author also seems to be well posted with up-to-date literature. By a happy

thought he has interspersed the text with apt and delightful quotations from ~

that boon companion of our childhood, Alice in the Wonderland.

The book begins with an excellent chapter on the history of forest entomology

in India. The early struggles to interest governmental heads in forest-ento-

mological research are described, and also how they were finally successful.

Nevertheless, they are of live interest to this day when one finds almost the

same apathy. The growth of our knowledge of forest entomology in India

may be judged from the fact that whereas in 1899 the life-histories of only

about 100 forest insects were known, the present book deals with some 4,300

species, and this figure does not include all the species worked out.

Dr. Beeson estimates the total expenditure on the entomological branch of

the Dehra Dun Institute during the last thirty years at rupees sixteen lalxhs.

A single major infestation in forests might cause damage equalling that figure.

Entomological research conducted at the Institute has controlled at least one

such infestation. Therefore, all the knowledge gained, the library and the

insect cellections that have been built up, and the numerous infestations con-

trolled to-date can be regarded as a net profit available for financing future

research. However, said Alice, ‘I can’t believe that’!

The rest of the book is divided into two parts. Part I (pp. 19-792), ‘The

Ecology of Forest Insects’, deals with the ecology and life-history of nearly

4,300 insects affecting forests. In accordance with the author’s peculiar alpha-

betical arrangement, the first order dealt with is Anoplura, the second Coleoptera,

and so on. Under each order, the families are arranged alphabetically, and

under each family the various species also follow a similar arrangement. For

each species a list of the plants attacked is given, followed by a brief description

of the life-history. The more important species are dealt with in considerable

detail. At the end of each family, or in some cases, each species, a list of

references is given. Thus, the references to literature are interspersed throughout

the book. ;

Part II (pp. 793-990) deals with control measures. At first the general factors

governing the abundance of insects are discussed in considerable detail, including

factors both of natural control (e.g., climatic, nutritional and biotic) and arti-

ficial control (e.g., silvicultural, biological, mechanical and chemical). This is

followed by the section on scientific control measures for the specific pests.

At the end there is a subject index. The illustrations are numerous and

ood.

= The book suffers from certain defects for which both the author, as publisher,

and the printers must share responsibility. To start with, there is no table

of contents. Such a table would have been invaluable for reference purposes.

The scattering of literature in a hundred and one places in the body of the book

is an annoying practice and makes consultation difficult. The author might

have listed the references at the end of each chapter, or, best of all, at the

end of the book. While the illustrations are on the whole good, their utility

is in several cases marred by an absence of margin, resulting in essential parts

of the illustration being trimmed away. The arrangement of the insect orders

and families alphabetically rather than in their natural sequence based on

affinity is a grave defect. However, for the species within the family the alpha-

betical arrangement seems to serve a practical purpose. These are, however,

minor defects in an otherwise sound book.

We can heartily commend this excellent book to all forest officers and

entomologists. It provides an up-to-date textbook on forest entomology in

India, and Dr. Beeson is to be congratulated on producing it at the low price

OtmINSrals:

M. L. R.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—AN HERMAPHRODITE TIGER.

I send you the few details available of an hermaphrodite tiger

shot recently in the Nilgiris.

The tiger was enormously fat but unfortunately it savas not

weighed, and measured to ft.

The male organ was above and the female lower down. Both

were very small.

The tiger was never seen with any other tigers, and has been

weil known for about a year 14 miles to the west of Ootacamund.

If you have any record of an hermaphrodite tiger please let me

know.

LOURDESVILLE, ~ C. FRASER.

OCQoTACAMUND,

November 9, 1941.

IIl.—THE INDIAN WILD DOG.

(A correction).

In my article on ‘The Indian Wild Dog’ (Journal, Vol. xli, page

695) I pointed out under the heading colouration that Mr. Dunbar

Brander states in his book, ‘Wild Animals in Central India’, that

in the C. P. the white tip to the tail is much more common than

the black tip.

Mr. Dunbar Brander brings to my notice that his meaning as

expressed in his book at page 28 was not perhaps sufficiently explicit

and I have quoted him under a misapprehension of his meaning.

The sentence quoted, he points out, should be read together with

the previous sentence in the book. He never meant to convey that

a white tip to the tail is common, but that it is common for the

grey hairs within the black tuft of the tail to amount to a small

white tuft within the large black tuft.

I am glad to enter this correction to make it clear that white

tips to C. P. wild dogs’ tails are not common. The three lines

below Dunbar Brander’s description as excerpted in my article

should be deleted when being read.

R. W. BURTON,

Lieut.-Col.,

Indian Army (Retd.).

BANGALORE,

October 28, 1941.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

IIl.—WIDESPREAD RABIES AMONG WIELD DOGS ON

THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS (S. INDIA).

Rabies among wild dogs on the Billigirirangans, and surrounding

areas, 1S so widespread that a considerable number of Sholagas

(aborigines) in all parts of the hills have been attacked and bitten;

one has already died of hydrophobia. Cattle have been bitten, and

domestic dogs. Three coolies on one of the coffee estates were

bitten; the wild dog entering into their house. The dog was

killed; as also another which made repeated attacks on a cartman.

The brains of both these dogs have been reported as positive for

rabies by the Pasteur Institute.

Two or three other dogs have been killed by the local Sholagas.

The disease is reported to be spreading.

R. C. MORRIS,

Captain.

IV.—A COIN LODGED IN A TIGER’S PALATE.

Captain Chetwode’s interesting note under this heading in

your Journal, Vol. xli, No. 1, appears to have remained unanswered.

I do not think there is any reason to suppose that the tigress

was a ‘maneater’, or that the coin was fired from a gun.

In many parts of India, cattle and especially young calves of

both cows and buffaloes, are decorated with necklaces of beads and

charms, among which are frequently seen pice and metal talismans.

This rather exceptional case might have arisen by the tigress

killing an animal so decorated.

In the heat of excitement a bite on a worn coin, might easily

have embedded it into the roof of the mouth. Time healing and

causing it to adhere to the roof of the mouth of the tigress.

BELA Hariya, A ST. JOHN MACDONALD.

BRIDGMANGUNG,

Dist. GORAKHPORE, U.P.

October 11, 1941.

V.—MEASUREMENTS OF AN INDIAN BISON HEAD

(BIBOS GAURUS).

I enclose the measurements of the head of a very old solitary

bull bison which died of old age lately in the Travancore Game

Sanctuary. He was well known to visitors to the Sanctuary and

was the subject of many a photograph.

This head has now been placed in the Government Museum at

Trivandrum.

[ also enclose for comparison the measurements of the largest

head which was in the Museum prior to this.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 101

I believe the head now placed in the Museum constitutes a

World’s record, but would beg you or any of your readers to

kindly let me know whether I am correct about this.

Measurements of Measurements of

the new bison the largest head

head. in the Museum.

Tip to tip aS: Cog Zoro”

Spread (extreme width) ... Bod “ 43°37

Girth of horn 7) WAX)”

Length along outer curve ‘of |

right horn Bae SOnie

Length along inner curve OL

right horn se OPI 25°07”

Weight Tae 45:5 lbs. 3S: onlibss

GAME WARDEN, Ss. C. H. ROBINSON.

TRAVANCORE,

November 12, 1941.

|The record Indian Gaur head measures as follows. Tip to tip

39; spread 44 3/4; girth of horn 20; length along outer curve 314.

The animal was shot in Siam by Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockleg. The

largest head from S. India, measures tip to tip 34; spread 43 3/8;

girth of horn 174; length along outer curve 303.—EDs. |

VI.—NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE ENGLISH

(Ge RAKTRIDGE (RERDIX PERDIX I.) IN NORTH PERSIA.

On the 24th October 1941 I was proceeding north from SENNA

in Persian Kurdistan (approximately go miles north of KERMANSHAH.)

Twenty miles north of Senna, close to HUSSAINABAD, at about

10 a.m., I saw a covey of birds, obviously partridges of some sort,

run into a cover of willows and bushes on the banks of a mountain

stream. I walked them up and killed a brace and, on picking them

up found them to be, as I thought, unmistakable English partridges.

There were about 14 birds in the covey.

The same day, 50 miles further north, at a small village called

SENATA where I camped for the night, a covey of partridges settled

in the field in which I was camped at about 5 p.m. I shot one of

them.

I passed through Hussainabad again on the 26th of October

and stopped to walk over the area in which I had first seen the

partridges. I put up three coveys, each of 12-16 birds, and killed

another brace.

On October 30, in the mountains about 15 miles west of

Senna I put up another strong covey and killed one bird.

I killed more of these partridges at Hussainabad on November

the 23rd.

On November the 24th when beating out a small plantation of

poplars a mile south of Senna for Woodcock, in addition to the

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Woodcock a solitary partridge also came out which I killed. An

old bird.

I have been shooting partridges at home for close on 30 years

and as far as I could see there was no difference between these

birds and the English partridge. Silvery legs for old birds, yellow

legs for young; some had complete chestnut horse-shoes on their

breasts, some partial and some none.

They appear to live at an altitude of round about 6,000 feet.

The places where I found them were all between 5,500 and 6,500 ft.

The country consisted of mountains. Where the mountains were

earth and stones, with patches of cultivation on the hill sides, one—

found the partridge, where they were rocky one found the chikor.

The partridges appeared to be fond of the thickets of bushes of

various kinds growing along the stream beds.

Unlike the partridge at home, they are great runners, and if

found on open ground will continue running. indefinitely rather than

take to wing. If there is any further information | can give, I

shall be glad to do so, and would be very interested in anything

you can tell me about these birds. . |

Bompay, ‘PERDRIX’. |

5th January 1942.

| The Partridge (Perdix p. perdix L.), resident in the British Isles,

is generally distributed over the greater part of Europe and is

replaced by closely allied forms in the Alpine meadows of the

Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, the Altais and Northern Persia.—Ebs. |

VII.—THE NESTING OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBIELL.

Never having seen a hornbill’s nest, I ran down to Khandalla

on 14th April, 1941, with Br. Navarro of St. Xavier’s College to

examine a reported nest of the Malabar grey hornbill (Tockus

griseus griseus | Latham]). |

Hornbills were heard all morning, but when we reached the

nest it was past r1 and most birds had stopped calling. The nest

was 4o ft. up in a tree with the entrance facing a hill-side, where |

we concealed ourselves and waited. The male approached cauti-

ously and silently, settled down on a lower branch and made a

decided attempt to regurgitate. A small red berry appeared at the

tip of its beak. The bird then visited the hole and shoved in its

head and shoulders.

He came back without the berry and then went through the

regurgitating and straining process again, producing another berry.

It returned to the nest, apparently fed the invisible female and flew

silently away. After half an hour, the male appeared again, carry-

ing a dragonfly in its beak. We were, however, seen, and the

bird flew off, returning by another route 20 minutes later, but still

carrying the apparent lure. It took fright again and returned after

15 minutes, but now without the dragonfly. The bird was shot

and about 25 red berries of Ixora sp. were found in its gullet, ro

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 103

more having spilled out as it fell. There was no trace of the

dragonfly, but the stomach contained remains and seeds of 4o more

berries. There was no trace of any covering to form packets of

seeds, as has been suggested by other observers.

The female was taken off three naked young (two much larger

than the third) and an addled egg. She had finished moulting her

wings, but the new quills were too. short for use. The tail was

also moulting, the new rectrices being only 2 inches long, while

four of the old feathers remained. There was no body moult.

Patches under the tree showed that the female ejects her faeces from

the hole.

Br. Navarro who has examined several other nests tells me that

the male feeds the female the whole day. It is extremely noisy

in the morning and the cackling suddenly stops at about 10. The

feeding continues and the bird becomes noisy again at about 5

in the evening. He has also noted all nests in holes facing a hill-

side.

He has noted the male tapping at the entrance, patiently wait-

ing the female’s consent to be fed. Considerable waits are involved,

but the tapping continues.

Several factors appear to have been established, but a more de-

tailed account of this bird’s strange nesting habits would he of

interest and value.

BoMBAy,

January 17, 1942. HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

VIII.—THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE SMALL CUCKOO.

A hepatic Small Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus

Latham) from Khandalla (Navarro, 15th October, 1935) with a

145 mm. wing caused a lot of trouble in identification, and I might

draw attention to the difficulties experienced.

The Fauna is wrong in requiring a 150 mm. wing for this

species, and if it were not for another skin in the St. Xavier’s

College Collection (Palacios, Khandalla, Oct. 1931), wing 140 mm.,

named by Whistler, I might still have been guessing at its identity.

Similar birds from Assam in the Society’s Collection are wrongly

labelled Cacomantis merulinus. This species is much larger than

Cacomantis and Penthoceryx, and in hand the hepatic phase may

be separated from the latter by the black bands across the breast

being much broader and thicker, and the head being generally

darker. The white spots along the shafts of the tail feathers are

also distinctive.

A third bird in normal plumage from the same locality also obtain-

ed in October (wing 148 mm.) appears to indicate that it is a common

passage migrant (?) as in Dhulia (Davidson, Sept. Oct.) though

a white ege 19X14 mm. from a tailor bird’s (Orthotomus) nest

(a5th June, 1941) is attributed to this species. There is no record

the Small Cuckoo from the immediate neighbourhood of Bombay.

Bompay,

January 17, 1942. HUMAYUN ABDULALL

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

IX.—THE COMMON HAWK-CUCKOO OR BRAIN FEVER

BIRD.

A common hawk-cuckoo (Hierococcyx varius) laid two eggs in

a crow’s nest in my bungalow compound. The foster parents, who

to my mind appear to be rather perturbed with the results, are at

present busy feeding the young cuckoos.

There are two points which I think might be of interest.

First. Is it usual for a cuckoo to lay two eggs in one nest?

Second. I always understood that a cuckoo laid its egg or

eggs (?) in the nest of a bird smaller than herself.

BISHNAUTH, D. G. MESTON.

ASSAM,

September 19, 1941.

X.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ROSY TERN

Messrs. Whistler and Kinnear in their report on the Eastern Ghats

Ornithological Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxix, p. 249) refer to the fact

that there appear to be no specific records of the Rosy Tern (Sterna

dougalli korustes Hume) in the Madras Presidency, and object to

its inclusion in Baker and Inglis’s “Birds of Southern India’.

On a recent visit to Madras, I dropped in at the Government

Museum, and was surprised to see a group case, showing a pair

hovering over eggs, labelled ‘Rameswaram Island—June 1914’.

With the kind assistance of Dr. Aiyappan of the Museum, both

the identity of the bird and the correctness of the data have been

confirmed.

BomBay, HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

October 20, 1941.

[Subsequent to the above note we had the following letter from

Mr. Abdulali:

‘In continuation of my letter and notes of the zoth ult., I

might mention that ‘‘Viziadrug’’ (which locality was apparently un-

traceable J].B.N.H.S., 39, p. 248 under Thalasseus bergii velox) is

a small port on the west coast between Ratnagiri and Malwan,

and has therefore nothing to do with the Madras Presidency. In

that excellent map accompanying the third volume of the Fauna,

it appears as “‘Vijayadrug’’.’—Ebs. |

XI.—SOME BIRDS SEEN FROM THE TRAIN

IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

A glance at that valuable and impressive report on the birds

collected by the Vernay Scientific Expedition of the Eastern Ghats,

will reveal the paucity of information regarding the most common

species in the Madras Presidency.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 105:

On the 12th October I went down to Madras by train and took

the Eastern Ghat papers with me for reference. We had hardly

crossed the Tungabhadra River into the Madras Presidency, when

almost every bird seen appeared to add to the information available.

I was in Madras for only two days, and notes were kept on the

return journey also. While none of the notes claim to be revolu-

tionary or startling, they fill apparent gaps in our information and

suggest possibilities of bird watching from trains in these days

of petrol rationing. I need hardly stress that without an authorita-

tive reference in hand, it is impossible to discriminate between the

relative value of observations. These notes—for whatever they are

worth—would never have been written if I had not had the survey

reports with me. }

South of the Tungabhadra, Brown Doves, Green Bee-eaters,

King-crows, Bay-backed Shrikes, Blue Jays, Kestrels, Brahminy and

Pariah Kites were common almost all along the line.

The other records are detailed together with extracts from the

survey report in parenthesis.

Argya caudata at Kupgal near Adoni. (‘Few records’).

Saxicola caprata subsp. This was common round Adoni. There

were Agave hedges running on both sides of the railway, and the

birds appeared partial to them. Fewer birds were seen further

south (where these plants are less prominent), though one was noted

at Arkonam. Strangely enough, no saxicoloides were seen any-

where.

Lanius excubitor. More than one bird seen near Adoni. This

appears to be a fresh record for Madras.

Temenuchus pagodarum at Kupgal near Adoni. (‘Southern por-

tion of the Northern Circars’).

Passer domesticus. Seen at Adoni and Guntakal Stations. (“No

information if it occurs north of Madras’.)

Motacilla alba. One seen near Madras.

_Merops superciliaris subsp. A few single birds were seen round

Madras, but they appeared commoner and more numerous around

Tadpatri, 30 miles south of Gooty (Anantapur Dist.) The move-

ments of both sub-species are very imperfectly known and further

notes would be of interest. In the Bombay-Salsette paper

(J.B.N.H.S., Vol. xl., p. 169) we have referred to both persicus and

javanicus as passage migrants in Sept.-Oct. and treated the latter

race as the apparently regular and common form. These birds are

commonly met when snipe shooting, and it is strange that two

birds subsequently obtained (Dharamtar Creek, 17-xi-4o W—155

and Bhyander 19-x-41 W—150) should both be persicus !

Tockus birostris. Four seen flying through a palmyra grove at

Kupgal, just south of the Tungabhadra. (‘Not recorded north of

Palkonda Hills’).

Micropus affinis. Dewar says ‘it is not very frequently seen in

Madras’, but I found it the commonest bird there!

Butastur teesa. Not found by the Survey and said to be scarce

in the Presidency. At least four birds were seen in the open country

between Cudappah and the Tungabhadra.

Streptopelia decaocto. Often noted south of the Tungabhadra

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. XLIII

though not procured by the Survey (‘appears to be far less common

in the Presidency than in other parts of India’).

Butorides striatus seen at Madras. (‘Occurrence on eastern side

of the Presidency has not been substantiated beyond the fact that

a local specimen in the Madras Museum is apparently the basis

for its inclusion in Dewar’s Madras list.’). |

BOMBAY, HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

November 30, 10942.

XII.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUKTA OR COMB

DUCK IN SIND.

While shooting on the Bakarwari Dhand, near Sujawal, Karachi

District, on the 27th December 1941, two comb duck (S. melanotus)

were seen together by me.

I shot the female, and the skin is in my possession.

As this is a very: rare duck in Sind, I am reporting the matter

in case you desire the information for record.

On the previous day the bag from an adjoining dhand included

one female cotton teal.

EXECUTIVE ENGINEER, N. H. MENESSE,

KaRACHI BUILDINGS DIVISION, ; HoS\olBn

VICTORIA Roap, KARACHI,

January 11, 10942.

[ According to Dr. Ticehurst (Ibis, vol. v., p. 443, 1923) the Comb

Duck only occurs in the Southern and Eastern portions of the

Sind Province, nearly all the records being from the Sujawal Dis-

trict. —Ebs. |.

XIII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE CHINESE HAWK-EAGLE.

(SPIZAETUS N. FOKIENSIS KIRKE-SWANN) IN THE

CHIN HILLS.

I enclose the skin of a hawk or eagle shot at Falam in the

Chin Hills Burma altitude 5,300. Would you please identify the

bird and let me know the result.

BURMA FRONTIER FORCE, A. C, MOORE,

FaALamM, Major.

CuHIn HILxs,

BURMA,

june 1, 1941.

| The bird forwarded to us by Major Moore is an example of the

Chinese Hawk-Eagle (Spizaétus nipalensis fokiensis Kirke-Swann).

The distribution is stated to be S. China south to the Indo-Burmese

countries and Tenasserim.—Ebs. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 107

XIV.—THE CROCODILE IN BURMA.

I should be interested to know whether any of your readers can

throw some light on the distribution of crocodiles in this country.

As far as I can ascertain, the only common Crocodile here is

Crocodilus porosus, which is confined to the mud banks and man-

grove swamps of the coast of Tennasserim and certain parts of

the Delta.

Although Peacock in his “Game Book of Burma’ states that

both Gavialis gangeticus and Crocodilus palustris (or possibly C.

siamensis) rarely occur in the Irrawaddy I have never met anyone

who has confirmed this observation. Even if rare specimens do

sometimes occur it seems to me a remarkable fact that these two

species have been unable to establish themselves in any numbers

in the Irrawaddy when they are so common in the Indus, Ganges

and Brahmaputra. Although crocodiles are now unknown near

the town of Pegu, Ralph Fitch who visited it in 1590 tells us that

the moat was full of these reptiles. Sangermano who visited Burma

two centuries later states that ‘Crocodiles are not very numerous

in the great river Ava (Irrawaddy)’ which would rather point to

the fact that crocodiles did once inhabit our rivers but are now

almost extinct there. This view is rather endorsed by the name

Migyaung-ye literally (Crocodile Water) which is a town situated

on the river some 250 miles up from the mouth of the Irrawaddy.

Although I have frequently asked Burmans living on the banks

whether they have ever seen crocodiles in this area, they all replied

in the negative though some of them added that they often met

their young on shore. By their young however they explained

that they meant the ‘Hput’ (Varanus monitor) which is common

in the Dry Zone and which many Burmans believe transforms itself

later in life into a crocodile.

BuHamMo BATTN. Jo AMS IMI, SSYZIMONTS),

BURMA FRONTIER FORCE,

September 10, 1942.

| Of the various species of crocodiles occurring within our region

C. porosus is known to occur in Burma. ‘As regards C. palustris,

its existence in Burma is at present doubtful. Theobald (1868)

recorded a large specimen from Thayetmyo and remarked that it

was the only specimen he had ever seen in Burma. There is no

record of its having been obtained since. As regards Gavialis gan-

geticus, it is said, in the new edition of the Fauna, to occur in the

Kaladan river, Arrakan. Barton ‘1g29’ records a specimen shot

at the mouth of the Maingtha, a tributary of the Sweli River,

Upper Burma. It is the sole record from the Irrawaddy river

system.—EDs. |

XV.—NOTE ON AN EXPERIENCE WITH AN INDIAN

2 PYTHON (PYTHON MOLURUS).

Some twenty-eight years ago in the low country of the Province

of Uva, in Ceylon, one cloudy afternoon I wounded a spotted deer.

A Sinhalese village tracker and I followed the blood spoor, the

Sinhalese leading. The spoor went down into a small gully con-

taining running water and up the other bank along a game track,

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLITI

The tracker was running about six or seven yards ahead of me,

up the bank, when I saw about six feet of a python dart suddenly

at the calf of the man’s leg and as suddenly withdraw. I could

have sworn that the snake’s head had made contact with the man’s

leg. I naturally stopped dead at seeing what had happened and

called to the man. He stopped and turned and I told him what

had happened. He said he had not been touched. We then looked

into the dense undergrowth by the game path and, within two

feet of the path, there was a ‘pile’ of python neatly arranged. The

Sinhalese jungle villager remarked ‘they never catch a man’. I

killed the snake, which measured some fourteen feet, and it was

difficult to get the python off its anchorage. Since then, I have

asked many Ceylon jungle folk whether a python will catch a man

and have been invariably informed ‘no’.

KANDY, Ig [fo Sy UID INTER.

CEYLON, Ceylon Forest Dept. (Retd.)

September 21, 1941.

| While the Indian Python may attack a man, there appear to be

no authentic records of this snake actually overcoming or swallow-

ing a man though capable of doing so.—Eps. | :

XVI.—THE NUMBER OF EGGS IN THE CLUTCH OF

THE CHECKERED WATER-SNAKE (NERODIA PISCATOR).

(With a photo).

With reference to the note on the record number of eggs (88)

laid by the Chequered Water Snake, Nerodia piscator, published

on p. 225, Vol. xxxii of this Journal, I wish to report that this

record has been slightly raised by a specimen kept in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 109

Trivandrum Zoo, laying 91 eggs on 29-1-42. The eggs were of the

usual type described for this species. The snake took one minute

to void the egg that I watched, while the interval between two

successive voidings was io minutes. One egg taken at random

measured g/10 in. X 8/1io in.

Major Wall, on p. 864, Vol. xvi, of this Journal, instances two

cases of this snake extruding eggs into water. In the present case

however,it may be seen from the picture that the snake has chosen

to lay beside the gumlah of water, though it was seen to rest

coiled up in it for hours together the previous day.

Govt. Museum, INS Ge IVINEIBAUE

TRIVANDRUM,

February 18, 1942.

XVII.—GLOW-WORM (LAMPHROPHORUS NIPALENSIS

HH) PEEDING ON A SLUG. |

In your letter dated 9/9/38 you mentioned that the larvae of

the glow-worm Lamphrophorus nipalensis H. (Malacodermudae,

Lamphrynae) were carnivorous and feed largely on land snails. It

may be of interest to let you know that I saw one of these

larvae feeding here last week. It was on an almost bare twig of a

bush in the garden and was hanging head downwards clasping the

twig with its extreme posterior pair of legs. Firmly held by the

front legs was a slug about # of an inch long and the larva was

chewing its way into the slug from the head. Its mandibles could

be clearly seen moving. There was also a good deal of froth round

the insect’s mouth. The slug was apparently dead but looked quite

fresh. The time was 11-30 a.m. and the weather was sunny, but

there had been heavy rain the night before.

DEBRUGARH, RE eR SONS HoRTESs,

LaKHIMPUR DISTRICT, Indian Police.

ASSAM.

September 10, 1941.

XVIII.—THE PLANT-BUG CYCLOPELTA SICCIFOLIA

WESTW. ON PONGAMIA GLABRA.

On the 29th December 1941 at Khandala, W. Ghats, I observed

large numbers of plant-bugs (Cyclopelta siccifolia Westw.) clustered

together on the thinner branches of the Curanj trees (Pongamuia

glabra). These clusters, composed of about 50-100 bugs, were small

when compared with the masses of bugs collected in the hollows of

the trunks and main branches. These masses were often nearly a

foot in diameter and from 3-6 bugs deep, all piled one on top of

the other! The bugs were extremely sluggish and it was with more

than gentle persuasion that they were induced to move. Even when

knocked down it took them some time to ‘wake up’. Judging from

their behaviour it seems that the bug's had collected in this fashion to

pass through the cold months. I brought. a large number to Bombay

in a Cigarette tin, but the difference in temperature between the

cold of Khandala and the warmer. temperature of Bombay did not

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

increase their activity—they just huddled together in the tin. It

may be of interest to note that these bugs only infested the Pon-

gamia trees.

I noticed similar conditions while in Rajputana with a species of

Halys. In this instance the bug's clustered in the hollows of Peepal

trunks (ficus religiosa L.). When the weather became warmer |

found egg-clusters in the same hollows. This seems to suggest

that the winter clusters bring together the sexes prior to the breed-

ing season which follows hibernation (?). However, this is a point

I must leave to future observation.

BomBay NATURAL History SOCIETY,

BomBaAy, C. McCANN.

January 5, 1942.

XIX.—A BATTLE BETWEEN BLACK AND RED ANTS.

On June 28, 1941, I happened to witness a battle between a party

of red ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) and a column of black ants.

(Camponotus sp.) in which several of the latter were taken prisoner,

and subjected to the stretching process described in Major R. W. G.

Hingston’s iwluminating study of the Red Ant on p. 681, Vol. xxix

of this Journal.

I was coming up the path leading to the Museum when | noticed

a column of black ants in front of me, crossing the path and making

for the lawn on the right side. As there was nothing unusual, |

was about to. move on, when a number of curious patterns fixed to

the floor and sides of the drain, near the point where the ants crossed

it caught my attention. Each had a black line in the centre, sur-

rounded by a number of brown strands radiating from it, reminding

one of the structural formulae in books of Organic Chemistry. On

nearer approach, I found that the black ants were being attacked

by a party of red ants as they crossed the drain, and that the black

ants, captured during the fight, were put ‘on the stretch’ by the

conquerors which hooked themselves by their jaws to the limbs of

the prisoners, somewhat in the manner of the spokes of a wheel.

These red ants were part of a large colony which lived on a

neighbouring tree. Disposing themselves on the floor and left slope

of the drain, so that they had the left flank of the black ants exposed

to their attack, they crept up to the enemy line and waited with

waving feelers for a suitable ‘jawhold’ on the passing ants. In a

moment one of them would dart forward, seize a black ant by the

leg and pull the victim towards it. The captive struggled, but

nothing was of avail against the steady pull of the red ant, which

by now, with its legs firmly planted on the ground and with abdomen

slightly tilted, set about its task in a determined manner. A passing

red ant soon turned up and offered to help by taking hold of one

of the legs and pulling it in the opposite direction. One by one,

more ants collected on the spot and following the example of the

others, took hold of the remaining limbs and helped to keep the

prisoner down until the curious patterns referred to above were

formed. :

The chief strategy of the black ants in this conflict was flight

under cover of a rear guard action fought by a few which separated

from the column and faced the enemy. There they stood eyeing

{ {

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES inal

each other, ready to attack. But suddenly a red ant would dash

forward and seize his opponent by the leg. Invariably the red ants

were the victors in these frontal attacks. None of them was captured

as the black ants seemed to be mainly on the defensive and attempted

only to engage the enemy while the majority escaped. But occasion-

ally a red ant slipped from the rather steep slope of the drain into

the middle of the enemy’s ranks, when they closed in on it like

Furies and meted out swift punishment.

The battle lasted for about 3 minutes until the last of the black

ants disappeared over the ledge of the drain.

GOVERNMENT MUSEUM. N. G. PILLAI.

‘TRIVANDRUM

October 10, 1941.

XX.—WANTED MALE SPECIMENS. OF THE BEETLE

(ALLOMYRINA DICHOTOMUS) FROM INDIA.

(With a photo).

Se ec ereeerReey ee =

Allomyrina dichotomus. (Nat. size.)

Would you please refer to my note on the beetle, Allomyrina

dichotomus published on page 668 of Volume XLII of the Journal?

[ have since received another letter from Mr. Gilbert Arrow on

this subject. He has sent me a photograph of the male of this

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xtiii

species, specimens of which sex he is very anxious to examine.

This photograph I enclose herewith since you may like to publish

it with a view to assisting him to obtain specimens. He mentions

that the photograph is natural size and represents a specimen from

China. Apparently, Indian males are likely to differ slightly from

the Chinese males and specimens are required to investigate this

matter.

SHILLONG, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E.s.

ASSAM,

February 2, 1942.

XXI.—THE ‘DISTRIBUTION OF THE SCORPION

(HORMURUS NIGRIPES POCOCK).

In October 1941 M. W. A. Hewitt, District Traffic Superintendent,

B.N.W. Rly., Gonda U.P., sent two scorpions which were identi-

fied as Hormurus nigripes Pocock.

As recorded to date, the distribution of the species is:—Panch

Mahals in Gujarat (Wallinger); Satna in Central Provinces (Dane) ;

Almora in United Provinces (Hewitt).

BOMBAY, Ifo 8a (CANONS.

November 12, 1941.

XXIHI.—ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF WAZIRISTAN.

Papaveraceae,

Papaver polychaetum. Wana, S. Waziristan. Open stony plain

L 642 21-4-30. ay

Glaucium squamigerum Kar. et Kir. Inzar Narai, Near Wana,

ca. 5,000. L. 652. 29-4-39. Also at Tanai and Toi Khula, S. W.

Geraniaceae.

Geranium Wallichianum. Alexandra Ridge, Razmak, ca. 7000

IL @p KO Ba

Papilionaceae.

Astragalus ancistrocarpus. Wana, 8-4-39, [ee o4ougee lngseedr

14-5-40, L 678.

2 E er Ne .

Astragalus purpurascens, Bunge. Inzar Narat, nr. Wana, Ca.

5,000. 29-4-39. L 654. : ; Via,

Onobrychis dealbata, Stocks. Ingar Narai, nr. Wana, Ca 5,000

29-4-39 L 651. :

Calophaca ternata, Popow. Inzat Narai, nr. Wana, ca 5,000,

29-4-39- L 649.

Primulaceae.

Primula floribunda. Ladha, SW. 1921.

Compositae

Scorgonera papposa DC. Wana, 24-4-39; No. 645.

Senecio Desfontainei Druce. Wana, 24-4-39; No. 646.

Achillea santolina. Wana, S.. Waziristan. In flower 13-5-40.

On banks between fields. No. 676.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113

Nonnea picta. Wana, S. Waziristan. In flower 28-3-4o. Fields

and cultivated land. No. 670.

Lanbr Korat, D. G. LOWNDES,

September 2, 1941. Major.

XXIII.—FASCIATED INFLORESCENCE OF ACROCARPUS

FRAXINIFOLIUS WIGHT.

(With a photo).

Photo by M. Bakhshi.

Fasciated inflorescence of Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight.

il4 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLITI

An interesting case of fasciation of an inflorescence was dis-

covered in the grounds of the Forest Research Institute last March.

The species in question was Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight, a species

widely distributed in the evergreen forests of India and Burma, and

which ordinarily has an inflorescence consisting of short pendulous

axillary racemes.

In the accompanying photograph one portion of the inflorescence

consists of one very stout raceme, which approximates to the ordinary

raceme, but which nevertheless, betrays signs of fasciation. The

other portion, however, exhibits extreme fasciations in that the nodes

of the shoot have become suppressed and the racemes all arise at

one point, finally becoming fused together in a flattened fan-like

structure. This portion was 9 inches long and 8 inches broad.

Forest BoranisT, Ng Ib, IBOIR.

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

DEHRA Dun.

November 17, 1941.

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EDITORS; J. F. CAIUS, S. H. PRATER AND C. MCCANN, 6, APOLLO STREET,

FORT, BOMBAY

Vou. XLIII, No. 2 AUGUST, 1942, Sere et

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Ss. H. PRATER. M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., AND C. McCANN, F.L.S.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII, No, 2

Some BeauTiFuL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND Surups. Part XI. By N. L.

Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., 1.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one

coloured and three black and white plates and nine text-figures)

Tue Birps or Mysore. Part I. By Salim Ali. (Wzth four plates)

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DucKwEEpDs, Lemnaceae. By C. McCann, F.L.s.

(With nine plates and one text-figure)

THe Game FisHes oF Inpia. Part XV. By Sunder Lal Hora, p.sc.,

e _—~F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F-N.I. (With one coloured plate and one

black and white plate)

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

Part IX. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates)

CIRCUMVENTING . THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND

Burma. Part I. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With one plate and two

text-figures) ose eee eee eee

Notes ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MurREE Hitt. By Abdul Hameed, M.sc.

(With eight plates)

SomME OBSERVATIONS ON THE NESTING HABITS OF THE INDIAN COURSER,

Cursorius coromandelicus [Gmelin]. By W. W. A. Phillips, F.L.s.,

M.B.0.U. (With three plates).

A ‘BUSMAN’S’ HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HiLts. By C. McCann, F.L.s. (With

one plate and one text-figure)

Fish or Poona. Part II. By Dr. S. L. Hora, D.sc., F.R.S.E,, F,N,I.

and K. S. Misra, M.sc. (With one text-figure)

THe MepicinaL MaLtowworts oF InpIA. By J. F. Caius, s.J., F.L.S.

OBITUARY :—

H. H. Shri Khengarji, Maharao of Cutch. 1886-1942

REVIEWS :—

1. Courtship and Display among Birds oe

2. Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. III Edition

3. The Mammals of India (The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma, Vol. IT)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Adaptive colouration of Desert Animals. By T. W. Burdon,

B.SC. :

Il. The Wolf (Canis lupus Linn.) in Baluchistan. By Capt. R. K. M.

Battye Wee ss S00 Mi ar dee

PAGE

163

170

173

190

200

242

Il.

XVI.

CONTENTS OF Vol. XLII, No. 2

Extension of Range of the Marbled Pole Cat,

peregusna Giild.). By Major R. S. Johnson

(Vormela

Notes on the Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata). By A. Aiyappan.

(With two text-figures and a plate)

Why ‘Red-Billed’ Babbler? By H. Whistler, F.z.s., M.B.O.U.

Extension of Range of Rufous-necked Scimitar Babbler (Pomator-

hinus ruficollis Hodgs.). By Mr. W. A. Hewitt ...

A visit to Maskan and Auha Islands in the Persian Gulf, off

Kuwait. May 7th 1942. By Mrs. Violet Dickson

Black Mahseer. By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.s, (With a plate) ...

Black Mahseer. By M. O. Tanner, 0O.B.E.

Can Hilsa be taken with Rod and Line?

F.R.E.S.

Acclimatization of Foreign Fish in Travancore. By R. Gopinath,

M.SC.

On the role of Etroplus suratensis (Bloch) and Etroplus maculatus

(Bloch) in the control of mosquitoes. By V. O. Sebastian, M.Sc.

Stag Beetles (Lucanus lunifer) in combat. By W. A. Hewitt ...

Extension of Range of the Atlas Beetle—Chalcosoma atlas. By

ete Cols Reis aae-e atestaule Ac

On the Anatomy of some of the Urticaceae. By M. Sayeedud-

Din and M. Abdus Salam.’ (With a plate)

A Note on the Epiphytism in Heptapleurum venulosum Seem.

By M. J. Thirumalachar, B. G. L. Swamy and K. B. A. Khan.

(With a plate) 50 me ee a0

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS :—

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting

By R. E. Parsons,

278

JouRN. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XI]7 |

: ¥

pr iyik if

yi Coa a A y f

Lia ale CC ie ll Mu ib ein ]

" ‘i |

byigattid picinnsnMnnnheel i

sami vngmnin i

i }

ed |

atl

The Potato Creeper. |

SOLANUM SEAFORTHIANUM Andr. |

(nat. size ),

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1942. Wits SEAL INOy Bo

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

ier BY

N. Lg BXOR, Moo, TeSCs5 WoileSoy Uses

Forest Botanist

AND

M. B. Raizapa, M.Sc.,

Assistant Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

Part XI.

(Continued from Vol. xliti, No. 1 (1942), p. 10).

(With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates and 9 texl-figures).

| ; {Solanaceae (continued).

2. Solanum Linn.

fee DEADLy NIGHTSHADE FaMiy.

(This plant name is mentioned by Celsius in his De Medicina,

published in the first century. In the Middle Ages such names

as Solatrum, Solaticum, etc. were applied to Solanum mgrun. Other

authors derive it from Solamen, a Latin word meaning solace or

quieting, which may have a reference to the narcotic properties of

some species of the Solanaceae),

_ This genus contains a vast group (over 2,000) of temperate and

tropical herbs, erect or climbing shrubs and even trees, glabrous or

woolly, often spiny. Leaves usually alternate, entire or lobed,

rarely pinnate. Inflorescence of solitary flowers or of pedunculate

or subsessile fascicles of terminal or axillary cymes. Calyx funnel-

shaped, angled or not, rarely entire, usually lobed, slightly or not

EC 1% 49h2

1i6é JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLUI

enlarging in the fruit. Corolla rotate with a very short tube, 5-10-

(4-6-) lobed; lobes glabrous or more often woolly, flat or shallowly

channelled. Stamens the same number as the corolla lobes; fila-

ments short, inserted in the throat; anthers erect, contiguous, form-

ing a tube around, the style, dehiscing by pores or by very short

slits at the top of the anthers. Fruit a two-celled, round berry;

seeds numerous.

The genus Solanum contains a number of food plants of which

S. tuberosum, the potato, is perhaps the best known. The egg-

plant, S. melongena, and the tomato, S. lycopersicum, also belong

to the genus. lt may be, perhaps, well to mention here that brinjal

and tomato are the actual fruits of the plant, while the potato is a

tuber developed on the roots. |

Several Indian species of Solanum are poisonous on account of

the presence of an alkaloid, solanine, in their tissues. The drug

is said to be present in the potato close to the so-called ‘eyes’.

It is found, however, that cooking renders these poisonous plants

innocuous. ‘the leaves of several species of Solanum are smoked

in a chilam like tobacco and are considered to give relief from tooth-

ache, the belief being that the smoke kills the insects which are

supposed to cause the pain.

A good many species, both indigenous and introduced, are cul-

tivated in gardens tor their handsome flowers :and often spiny

foliage. |

KEy TO THE SPECIES.

Shrubs, young parts more or less pubescent.

Flowers small, less than .5 in. in diameter, white... S$. pseudo-capsicum.

Flowers .75 in. or more in diameter, violet with a

central yellow spot. S. Rantonnetit.

Climbers.

Flowers 1.5-2 in. in diameter S. Wendlandit.

Flowers under 1.5 in. in diameter ... Bee ee

Lower leaves pinnatisect ane

ee a Seaforthianum.

Lower leaves lobed, but not pinnatiseet

. jasminoides.

TN iD

Solanum pSeudo-capsicum Linn.

JERUSALEM CHERRY.

(pseudo-capsicum means false Capsicum and bears witness to this

plant’s similarity to that genus).

Description.—A small leafy shrub reaching a height of 3-4 feet.

Branches slender, cylindrical, glabrous, green. Leaves alternate,

bright green and shining, shortly petiolate, lanceolate, oblong- lance-

olate, oblanceolate or narrowly elliptic, narrowed gradually at. the

base into the short petiole, obtuse or obtusely acute at the apex,

membranus in texture, glabrous or minutely pubescent and smooth

on both surfaces, sinuate on the margins; nervation prominent below.

Flowers solitary or in few-flowered fascicles, seated on pedicels

up to .5 in. long. Calyx .25 in. long, turbinate, glabrous, 5-lobed ;

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS il7

lobes linear-acute, .1 in. long or more. Corolla white, up to .5 in.

in diameter, star-shaped, rotate, 5-lobed; lobes apiculate. Stamens

5, alternate with the corolla lobes: filaments short; anthers erect,

oblong, opening by apical pores, at any rate at first. Style slender,

glabrous. Fruit a yellow or scarlet globose berry, .5-.75 in. in

diameter, which persists for a long time.

Fig. 1.—Solanum pseudo-capsicum Linn, X 1/1.

| Flowers.-—August. Fruit ripes in May.

_ Distribution.—Native country uncertain. Indigenous or natura-

lised_ in. Australia, South Africa, China, Madeira and Brazil.

Comparatively recently it has also been naturalised in various parts

of the Dun.

-. Gardening.—A low erect undershrub with white or purple flowers

borne extra-axillary, solitary or in few-flowered, umbellate cymes.

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

The flowers are followed by scarlet berries which persist on the plant

for a long time. It is an old fashioned plant and is grown usually

in pots for its scarlet fruit. Cultivation is by seed.

Solanum Rantonnetii Carr.

(This plant was named in honour of Rantonnet, a French horti-

culturist, who published several articles on species of Solanum about

the middle of the nineteenth century).

Fig. 2.—Solanum Rantonnetii Carr. x 1/1.

Deseription.—An erect bushy shrub reaching 3-4 feet in height.

Stem covered with a dense short greyish or yellowish tomentum,

almost quadrangular from the raised lines upon it which appear to

be decurrent from the base of each side of the leaf-petiole. Leaves.

alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to ovate, up to 2.5 in. long, 1.5 in.

wide, acute at the tip, attenuate at the base, covered with a short

stiff pubescence on the upper surface or sub-glabrous; pubescence

marked on the prominent nervation of the lower surface; petiole

pubescent, .25-.3 in. long.

JourN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

iy yy

WY yyy

Py 4

WY Yy

Wy yyy)

Yj,

YY yy

Photo by N. L. Bo

Giant Potato Vine.

Solanum wendlandti Wook.

Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN ‘CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 119

Flowers solitary or fascicled in the axils of the leaves, 1 in.

Or more in diameter, violet in colour with a central yellow spot.

Calyx .1 in. long turbinate, pubescent, truncate at the top and

furnished with 5 linear processes. Corolla rotate, 5-lobed; lobes

apiculate, covered with a short pubescence on the lower surface

near the margins. Stamens 5; filaments slender, alternate with

the corolla lofhe ss anthers thick, oblong, bright yellow, erect. Style

slender, elabrous. Fruit about 1 in. in diameter, drooping, scarlet.

Flowers.—May-August. Does not fruit in Dehra.

Distribution.—Indigenous to the Argentine, widely cultivated in

the plains throughout the country.

- Gardening.—An attractive erect shrub growing up to 6 ft. It

has a pretty deep green foliage and violet-coloured flowers with a

yellow centre. The flowers are followed by red fruits an inch in

diameter which make the plant very ornamental. The plant is not

particular as to soil conditions. Frequent pruning will improve its

appearance as the old branches become straggly and leafless. Easily

grown from cuttings.

Solanum Wendlandii Hook.

GIANT POTATO VINE.

(This magnificent climber was named in honour of Dr. Wendland,

Director of the Botanical Gardens, Herrenhausen, Hanover, who

first sent it to Kew in 1882. Its home, however, is in Costa Rica).

Description.—A climbing © shrub. Branches rather fleshy,

cylindric, green, glabrous. Prickles on the stems, branches and

petioles few in number, stout, recurved. Leaves alternate, very

variable, the uppermost simple, oblong or elliptic, acuminate or

apiculate on the tip, rounded, cuneate or cordate at the base, entire

on the margin, membranous, glabrous, 1-4 in. long by 2 in. wide;

the lower up to ro in. long by 4 in. wide or more, divided or cut in

various ways, pinnate with the terminal. leaflet very large or deeply

lobed, membranous, glabrous; midrib with a few recurved prickles

below ; petiole glabrous, 2-4 in. long, with 1 or 2 prickles.

Inflorescence of terminal pendulous cymes, 6 in, wide or more.

Calyx campanulate, .3 in. long,. glabrous outside, 5-lobed; lobes

.I in. long, ovate or oblong-apiculate, spreading in the opened

flower, minutely hairy on the margins. Corolla lilac-blue or mauve

in colour, up to 2 in. across, rotate, shallowly 5-lobed; lobes api-

culate, hairy, induplicate in the bud. Stamens 5, alternate with

the corolla lobes; filaments short, flat, inserted on the throat;

anthers bright yellow, opening by slits, loosely connivent round the

style. Ovary hairy, 2-celled. Fruit globose. |

Flowers.—Rainy season. Does not fruit in Dehra.

Distribution.—Native of Costa Rica, now cultivated in all tro-

pical and temperate parts of the world.

Gardening.—A magnificent climber with very large, pale lilac-

blue flowers in pendulous cymes about 6 in. across. It grows

luxuriantly, but if neglected becomes ragged. The flowers which

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY.NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

are mostly produced during the rainy season are very effective.

This is perhaps the most showy of the cultivated Solanums.. It

Fig. 3.—Solanum Wendlandii Hook. f. xX i/t.

prefers partial shade and is a splendid object for a green house.

lt was introduced into the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1882. Propa-

gated easily by cuttings.

Solanum Seaforthianum Andrews

POTATO CREEPER.

(The plant was named in honour of Francis Lord Seaforth, a patron

of botany).

Description.—A elabrous climber. Stems and branchlets slender,

cylindrical or angled, glabrous. Leaves alternate, the uppermost

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 121

simple, elliptic-lanceolate, acute, seated on a petiole, .5 in. long,

entire or undulate on the margins, membranous, glabrous on both

surfaces; the lower trifoliate or pinnatisect, the leaf being cut to

the midrib into a number of opposite segments which simulate

leaflets; upper leaflets elliptic, narrowed at both ends; the next

pair broad at the base and the rest almost petioled, all glabrous,

acute or accuminate, entire or undulate on the margins; petiole up

to 2 in. long.

Flowers arranged in axillary, rarely terminal, cymose panicles.

Pedicels slender, up to .5 in. long. Calyx about .1 in. long, tube

very short, obconical, glabrous, s-lobed ; lobes BE acute,

Corolla rotate, .5 in. or more in diameter, blue or rose-coloured,

shallowly 5-lobed; lobes hairy on the margins, induplicate-valvate

in the bud: Stamens 5, alternate with the lobes; filaments short ;

anthers bright yellow in colour, oblong, connivent above the hairy

style; ovary hairy, 2-celled. Fruit a globose berry, glabrous, scarlet.

Flowers and Fruits. July-September.

Distribution.— A native of Brazil now extensively cultivated in

all tropical and sub-tropical parts of the gloke.

Gardening.—A pretty, somewhat woody climber with bluish-

purple flowers borne in axillary compound cymes. This ‘vine’ does

well in the sub-Himalayan tract but not in the plains. It prefers cool

situations and begins to flower even when very young. Multiplied

by seed or cuttings. It was introduced into FE ngland i in the year 1804.

Solanum jasminoides Paxt.

POTATO VINE.

(jasminoides means jessamine-like, and refers to the leaves of this

twiner). :

Description.—A slender twining shrub. Branches cylindrical,

elabrous, smooth. Leaves alternate, petiolate, 1.5-2 in. long, lan-

ceolate or ovate-lanceolate in shape, round at the base, acute or obtuse

at the tip, glabrous on both surfaces, somewhat coriaceous in texture,

entire on the margins; nervation obscure; netiole about .5 in. long,

terete, glabrous. Lower leaves sometimes lobed or pinnatisect.

Flowers white with a tinge of blue, star-shaned, arraneed in ter-

minal cymose panicles, about 3 in. across. Calyx .1 in. lone, tube

very short, 5-lobed; lobes nerved, ovate-acute or lanceolate-acute,

elabrous. Corolla rotate, glabrous, 5-lobed; lobes spreading

apiculate, shortly hairy towards the margins on the under surface.

Stamens 5, alternate with the corolla lobes; filaments short; anthers

oblong erect about the hairy stvle. Ovary hairy. 2-celled.

Flowers.---March-October. Does not fruit in Dehra.

Distribution..—Native of South America. commonly grown in

gardens in the plains and hills throughout the country.

Gardening.~A pretty climber with ovate-lanceolate leaves.

Flowers star-shaped white about .8 in. across in many flowered

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Fig. 4.—Solanum jasminoides Paxt. X 1/1.

cymes. It prefers well drained soil and partial shade and is a useful

climber for the cool house. Propagated by cutting's.

3. Datura Lin n.

(Datura is the Arabic name for the plant Datura Stramonium Linn.).

The genus comprises herbs, rarely shrubs or small trees, branchy,

glabrous or slightly hairy, with a foetid odour. Leaves alternate,

entire, or shallowly incised. The flowers are large, axillary and

solitary. Calyx tubular, herbaceous, 5-lobed, rarely 3-lobed, split-

ting horizontally into 2 portions, the lower of which is persistent

and surrounds the capsule, the upper deciduous. Corolla large,

elongate, cylindrical at the base, widened at the top, 5-6-1o0-lobed

or -toothed. Stamens 5; filaments inserted towards the base of

the corolla tube and attached to it for half their length; anthers

included, linear, dehiscing by longitudinal slits. Ovary 2-celled or

imperfectly 4-celled; style long, filiform; stigma small, 2-lobed.

Fruit an ovoid or globular capsule, spinescent, rarely smooth, open-

ing by 4 valves or irregularly. Seeds numerous.

This genus contains Tfrom 20 to 25 species which are generally

confined to the tropics, especially of South America, and of which

several are cultivated for their large flowers which become scented

towards the evening. The large flowers close during rainy weather

so that the stamens and nectaries are protected from wetting.

SOME ‘BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 123

Several of the species are said to be cross-fertilised through the

agency of birds. Other agents of cross-pollination are beetles and

moths.

The seeds, leaves and other parts of several species of this

genus are very poisonous and also medicinal, and have been known

as such from very early times. The alkaloids to be found in the

plants are usually hyoscyamine and scopolamine. An interesting fact

about Datura (quoted by Burkill) is that when the plants are de-

flowered it is found that the amount of alkaloid is greatly increased.

KEY> TO THE SPECIES.

Flowers erect or inclined, often purplish ors fruit

globose, armed with conical prickles. : cee D. fastuosa.

Flowers drooping, greenish white outside ; fruit. unarmed. D, suaveolens.

Datura EIST) Linn.

(fastuosus is a Latin word meaning proud; why it ines been applied

to this plant we are unable to state unless it refers to the erect

flowers which in this genus are usually pendulous).

Fig. 5.—Datura fastuosa Linn. x 3.

Description.—-An annual herb, glabrous, reaching a height of

4-5 feet. Branches purplish and spotted with white patches. Leaves

alter nate, long petiolate, obliquely and broadly ovate-acute, toothed

or entire; 2.5-6 in. long by 2-5 in. wide; petiole 2-3 in. long.

Flowers axillary, solitary, shortly pedunculate; peduncle .5 in. long,

more or- less. Calyx cylindrical 2-3.5 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes about

124. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

-5 in. long, lanceolate-acute. Corolla large, 6-10 in. long, trumpet

or funnel-shaped, white, violet or tinged with purple, with 5-6 folds

and 5-6 lobes which are more or less cuspidate. Stamens 5, fila-

mavens attached to the corolla tube for half their length; anthers

-3 in. long. Ovary glabrous; style as lone as the corolla; stigma

capitate, bifid. Fruit a glohose capsule, spiny, 1 in. in diameter,

glabrous, indehiscent, opening irregularly at the top. Seeds flatten-

ed, furrowed, tubercled.

Flowers and Fruits.—Chiefly during the rains.

Distribution.—Native of India, wild or naturalized throughout

the tropics of both hemispheres.

Gardening.—An erect herb 4-5 ft. high. The double and triple

forms of this species which are common in cultivation, are extremely

handsome when in bloom during the rains. Easily grown from

seed. aie

Medicinal and Economic Uses.—The seeds of this plant are highly

poisonous and have been in use for centuries for criminal purposes.

The victim is drugged by means of food or drink to which the

ground seeds have been added, AS AB preliminary to the theft of his

property. The action of the poison is, however, so powerful that

sometimes the victim does not recover. The leaves are of use for

making cigarettes and fumigating powders for the relief of asthma.

Ganja eaters often adulterate the ganja with datura leaves. The

juice of this plant is believed to be a cure for hydrophobia. The

leaves are boiled and used as a poultice to relieve pain.

Datura suaveolens Humb. et Bonpl.

ANGEL’S TRUMPET.

(suaveolens means sweet-smelling in Latin.)

Description.—This shrub reaches ro-15 ft. in height. Ultimate

shoots green, terete, smooth and eventually glabrous, when young

covered with a minute, evanescent tomentum. Leaves opposite,

6-12 in. long, 2-4 in. broad, one of the pairs about one-third shorter

than the other, petiolate, ovate-oblong, quite entire on the margins,

oblique at the base, glabrous, smooth on both surfaces, darker

above, pale below, foetid when crushed; nervation prominent below ;

petiole up to 2 in. long, terete, finally glabrous, nodding.

Flowers axillary, solitary, seated on peduncles up to 1.5 in.

long; peduncles smooth and elabrous, terete. Calyx 4-5 in. long,

yellowish green in colour, tubular, 5-veined, ending above in five

oblong acute lobes which are valvate in the bud, and through each

of which passes a vein, glabrous within and without, smooth.

Corolla greenish-white or creamy white, up to 12 in. long, trumpet-

shaped, with a spreading plicate limb, shortly broadly and acumina-

tely lobed, 5-angled and narrow below, swelling above into the

trumpet, which has three nerves to each lobe, minutely hairy out-

side, becoming glabrescent. Inside the corolla the three nerves of

each lobe are deeply impressed, each group of three lying between

hn, BomBAY Nav. Hisr. Soc.

Datura fastuosa Linn.

Dehra Dun.

orest,

New |

JouRN. BOMBAY NAT. HIs

Angel’s Trumpet.

Datura suaveolens Humb. et Bonpl.

New Forest, Dehra Dun,

SOME BEAUTIFUL -INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 125

the five filaments of the stamens. Stamens five in number, connate

by the edges of the anthers into a column round the style; the fila-

ments are quite definite and are adnate to the tubular part of the

corolla and are only detached from it where the tube swells into

Fig. 6.—Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl. x i.

the trumpet; adnate filament and free filament, for a short distance

above their attachment, villously hairy; anthers 1.5 in. long, connate

by their. margins and opening by slits outwards; pollen of perfect

spheres. Ovary cylindrical at the bottom of the corolla tube,

smooth and glabrous, 2-celled; ovules many. Style very long.

Fruit spindle-shaped, up to 5 in. long, unarmed, devoid of any trace

of the calyx.

Flowers.—Hot season. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—A native of Mexico, . frequently cultivated in

gardens.

Gardening.—A large, tree-like shrub with large flaccid leaves

and very large handsome, sweet scented, seo creamy-white

flowers. A very showy, easily-grown plant which thrives in wet

shady places such as the banks of streams, It does well in the

126, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Sub-Himalayan tract but does not flourish in the plains. Easily

grown from cuttings. :

4. Brunfelsia Sw.

(Named in honour of Otto Brunfels 1489-1534, famous surgeon,

theologian and botanist. His herbal ‘Kontrafayt Kreuterbuch’

brought him fame during his life time. The genus has also been

named Franciscea in honour of Francis the First, Emperor of

Austria, and at least one of the species may be better known to

horticulturists under this name).

This genus contains mostly shrubs, but a few are small trees.

The leaves are alternate, petiolate, entire, elliptic-obovate or

narrowly elliptic, exstipulate. The flowers are usually large and

showy and have the strange property of changing colour as they

erow older; some change from mauve or blue to white, others from

yellow to white, or white to yellow, arranged in terminal cymes

or clusters, sometimes solitary, sometimes sweetly fragrant.

Calyx gamosepalous, 5-lobed. Corolla salver-shaped; tube narrow

long; lobes. five, rounded. Stamens four didynamous; filaments

attached to the throat of the corolla. Ovary superior; style included

or slightly exserted; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a berry.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Flowers mauve Me: eee oe ote PT Belaiwfowas

Flowers yellow or white

Small tree sar eos ee ee ... B. undulata.

Shrubaae ee oat oe ie ee Di AMenicanas

Brunfelsia latifolia Benth.

(latifolia in Latin means broad-leaved).

Description.—A small shrub with spreading branches, and

ereen smooth glabrous twigs. Leaves elliptic or oblanceolate in

shape, 2-4 in. long, acute or obtuse, glabrous and dark green

above, slightly pubescent and lighter green below, quite entire;

nervation obscure. Flowers arranged in terminal clusters, or few-

flowered axillary cymes. Calyx erect, campanulate, .5 in. long,

elabrous and smooth, ending above in five, short, blunt, triangular

lobes. Corolla hypocrateriform, pale violet or mauve in colour

with a white centre, fading a few days after opening to a pure

white; tube 1.5 in. long, slender, slightly curved; lobes 5, orbicular

about .75 in. long, somewhat undulate. Stamens four, two long,

two short, e¢ach pair connate by the kidney-shaped anthers.

Filaments expanded and flattened below the anthers and attached

to the corolla tube. Ovary superior, 2-celled. Ovules many, on

axile placentas; style just exserted; stigma two-lobed.

Flowers.—Profusely in the hot weather, but is in a bloom practi-

cally throughout the year. Does not fruit in Dehra,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS WH

Distribution.—Native of tropical America; commonly grown in

ali tropical and subtropical countries of the world.

Fig. 7.—Brunfelsia latifolia Benth. xX 1/1.

Gardening.—A small low bush with slender branches and soft

green leaves, which it sheds in the cold weather but which are

replaced by the end of February, producing at the same time numer-

ous sweetly scented flowers which are at first pale violet with a

white centre but change in a day or so to white. For this reason

It is often called by the popular name of ‘Yesterday, To-day and

Tomorrow’. It is rather a slow growing plant and usually culti-

vated in large pots though it flourishes equally well in the ground.

It is slightly affected, especially when young, by frost when it is

severe. It flowers very freely in the early hot weather, the pale-

blue flowers against the dark green foliage producing a marvellous

effect. It is a great favourite with Indians who invariably call

it by the name of Franciscea. It prefers full sunshine or partial

shade. Easily propagated by layers.

Brunfelsia undulata Sw.

(undulata is a Latin word meaning wavy and refers to the margins

of the leaves and petals).

Description.—An evergreen shrub or small tree which reaches

20 ft. in its own home. Leaves variable in shape, ovate-lanceolate,

narrowly elliptic, oblanceolate or elliptic-oblanceolate, narrowly

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLUI

cuneate at the base, obtuse or acute at the tip, entire on the

margins, exstipulate, quite glabrous, 2-7 in. long, up to 1.5 in.

wide, nervation rather obscure, finely reticulate, petiole .25 in. long.

Flowers solitary and terminal in wild plants, in cultivated plants

Fig. 8.—Brunfelsia undulata Sw. xX 1/1.

forming clusters in the upper axils. Calyx about .25 in. long, cam-

panulate, somewhat irregularly 5-lobed, shortly glandular-pubescent

externally. Corolla hypocrateriform, pure white fading to a creamy-

white with age; tube cylindric, slightly curved, pubescent externally,

up to 3.5 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes .5, 1 in. long, rounded, with

undulate margins. Stamens 4, as long as the tube. Ovary oblong ;

style as long as the tube, slightly exserted, ending in a 2-lobed

stigma. Fruit berry-like.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Native of Jamaica, now frequently cultivated in

all tropical and subtropical parts of the world. :

Gardening.—An upright shrub very similar to B. americana Sw.

It prefers a loamy soil and a sunny site. Propagation is by seeds

or layers. It was introduced into England about the year 1800

from Jamaica. It is a magnificent free-flowering species and js

a great acquisition to any garden.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 129

Brunfelsia americana Linn.

Fig.

Description.—A dwarf shrub with smooth glabrous or minutely

pubescent branches and branchlets. Leaves .2-4 in. long, alternate,

exstipulate, elliptic, elliptic-oblanceolate, or elliptic-obovate in shape,

cuneate at the base, obtuse or acute at the tips, dark green and

glabrous above, paler and pubescent below, petiolate; petiole

-I+.25 in. long; nervation obscure.

Flowers arranged in few-flowered terminal clusters or solitary

in the axils of the leaves. Calyx campanulate, smooth and glabrous,

divided above into 5 triangular-acute lobes, the whole including the

lobes about .25 in. long. Corolla hypocrateriform, minutely pubes-

cent outside, pure white fading to yellow, sweetly scented, especially

at night, about 2-2.5 in. long and 1.5-2 in. wide at the mouth;

tube very slender; lobes 5, broadly elliptic or orbicular in shape.

Stamens 4, attached to the tube, didynamous; anthers reniform.

Ovary superior, style almost as long as the tube, terete, glabrous,

ending above in a two-lobed stigma. Loculi 2, ovules many on

central placentae. Fruit a berry.

*. Flowers.—March-April with a second flush in October. Fruits

cold season. |

Distribution.—A native of tropical America now commonly cul-

tivated throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of the globe.

Gardening.—An erect, dwarf shrub about 3 ft. high with slender

branches. The flowers are at first pure white fading with age

to pure yellow and sweetly scented specially at night. It is not

-so ornamental as B. latifolia Benth. except when in full bloom

during March and October. It prefers full sun and is multiplied

by layers as well as by seed.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE.

SALIM ALI.

With notes by Hugh Whistler.

Part I.

(With 4 plates).

The recent bird surveys of the Madras Presidency, Hyderabad,

Travancore and Cochin States brought to light, among other things,

some rather curious divergences between certain forms inhabiting

the eastern and western sides of the liidian Peninsula. Their line

of separation obviously lay somewhere in the intervening country

of Mysore where no systematic work had hitherto been done’. An

investigation of this area thus became highly desirable, and by

means of careful collecting of specimens and study of ecological

conditions an attempt to reconcile and account for the existing

differences in the geographical races of the east and west.

This survey was made possible primarily through the generosity

of the Mysore Durbar, to whom the thanks of the Society and of

all ornithologists are due. The welcome financial co-operation

received from the American Museum of Natural History, New York,

anxious to obtain fresh ornithological material from India, facilitated

the field work further.

It was fortunate that the New York Museum agreed to our

proposal that the entire collection should be entrusted to Mr. Hugh

Whistler for taxonomical study before it was dispersed and they

received their share. This has been a distinct gain to Indian

ornithology. Mr. Whistler has been responsible for the examination

of practically every systematically made regional collection in India

during the last 15 years or more. His opportunities and experience

in the handling of fresh Indian material have been unequalled.

Continuity can now be maintained in the excellent notes he has

contributed previously and in the course of this paper. As before,

his constant advice and suggestions have been of considerable help

in the field and I feel greatly indebted to him.

It would be impossible here to thank individually every one

whose kindness and assistance enabled the smooth running of the

work in the field. Sir Charles Todhunter, c.1.E., deserves parti-

cular mention. It was due to his keenness and initiative that the

Society’s original proposal regarding the survey obtained suitable

response from the Mysore Durbar. Without the constant solicitude

—____.

rere

1 Besides the literature on Mysore ornithology quoted in the following pages,

Pree) the only other publications with any claim to importance are:

‘Notes on Some Birds collected on the Nilgiris and parts of Wynaad and

Southern Mysore’ by Wm. Davison (Stray Feathers, vol. x, pp. 329-4109).

. ‘A Tentative List of the Birds of Munzeerabad, Mysore’ by C. J. W.

rayon (ibid., vol. x, pp. 454-67). 2

JouRN. BomBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

1. A portion of the Biligirirangan Hills showing typical

lay-out of evergreen sholas or forested ravines.

2. Bird's-eye view (close-up) of a typical shola “‘roof”’.

3. A Coffee plantation with Silver Oak (Grevillea robusta)

shade trees.

Photos by R. C. Morris

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 131

and untailing help of Mr. C. Abdul Jabbar, Chief Conservator of

Forests, and his various District Forest Officers and stalf the survey

would have been greatly hampered. My special thanks are duc to

my friends Major and Mrs. Randolph C. Morris, not only for the fre-

quent and genial hospitality of their delightful home at Honnamettt,

but also for the very valuable contribution he has made at my

suggestion to Mysore ornithology at considerable trouble and

expense to himself. He engaged trained skinners and collected

intensively in the neighbourhood of his coffee estate in the, Biligiri-

rangan Hills during seasons of which the survey could, in its normal

course, have gained no first-hand information. It is earnestly to

be hoped that he will return at the end of the War to continue his

good work on the natural history of the fascinating country where

he lives. |

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.a. (Retd.), recently contributed

a useful article on Small Game Shooting in Mysore (J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. xli, no. 3 (1940), pp. 594-606). That article was the outcome

of many years’ experiences of a keen and observant shikari. it

concerns chiefly the Mysore District and furnishes much fuller infor-

mation on game birds than it would have been possible to obtain

in one short seasonal survey. I could not have done better than

draw largely upon this informative article. I am thankful to

Major Phythian-Adams for letting me have a copy of some further

notes on Mysore birds made by him from time to time, and also

for allowing me to look over his collection of eggs chiefly from

the Mysore District. i

Col. R. Meinertzhagen, b.s.o., has been good enough to have

some helminths from Mysore birds determined for me through the

kindness of Dr, H. A. Baylis of the Zoological Dept., British

Museum (Natural History). Unfortunately the material was meagre

and inadequately preserved, but it is hoped that attention of field

workers will now be drawn to this much-neglected branch of Indian _

ornithology. ites

Finally, a word of praise is due to my assistants Messrs. N. G.

Pillai and J. Gabriel. Their keenness on the respective jobs assigned

to each, and the care with which they prepared all the specimens,

cften under somewhat trying conditions, made it a pleasure to

work with them.

PHYSIOGRAPHY,

The Mysore State, situated in S. India between 11° 36’ & 15°N

and 74° 38/ & 78° 36' E is a more or less triangular tract of

country lying wedged in between the Eastern and Western

Ghats, and covers an area of 29,433 square miles. Its greatest

length N to S is 230 miles, its greatest width E to W 290. It is

bounded on all sides by districts of the Madras Presidency except on

the N-W where two Bombay districts (North and South Kanara)

form the boundary, and towards the S-W where Coorg abuts on

LOPE:

The area. as a whole is an clevated tableland much broken up

by roeky hills and scored by deep ravines. The hills, though rarely

132. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

connecied in chains, run longitudinally more or less parallel to the

Ghats. Isolated peaks of massive rock called droogs rear their

heads on all sides to an elevation of 4-5,000 feet. The apex of

the triangle is to the south at a point where the Western and Eastern

Ghats converge in the group of the Nilgiris. The general elevation

rises trom about 2,000 teet along the northern and southern frontiers

to about 3,000 feet at the central water parting which separates

the basin of the Kistna to the north from that of the Cauvery to

the south. The watershed divides the country into two nearly equal

parts a little north of lat. 13°N and as far as long. 77°E where

a transverse line marks the eastern watershed. .

The drainage of the plateau as a whole is to the Bay of Bengal.

li is divisible into 3 great river systems: the Kistna on the north,

the Cauvery on the south and the Penner with the Ponnaiyar and

Palar on the east. The Tanga and Bhadra rising in the Western

Ghats unite into the Tangabhadra a little north of Shimoga, and

after receiving the Hagari or Vedavati join the MKistna beyond

Mysore limits, near WNarnocl. The Hemavati, Shimsha, Kabbani,

Arkavati and other streams flow into the Cauvery which rises in

Coorg. The only streams that How into the Arabian Sea are those

in the north-west. These unite with the Sharavati and hurl them-

selves down the Western Ghats in the magnificent Gersoppa or

Jog Falls. There is an extensive system o! irrigation tanks (keré)

and channels from the Cauvery and its tributaries by means of

anicut dams. Sulekeré lake, about 30 miles N-E of Shimoga,

is 4go miles in circumference. Marikanivé or Vanivilas Sayar

between Hiriytr and Hosdrug (Chitaldr ug District) is over go miles,

while the latest to be completed, Nrishnarajsagar near Mysore town,

has a water-spread of about 50 square miles. And there are in-

numerable smaller tanks dotted all over the country.

The remarkable transformation wrought by canal irrigation is

nowhere more apparent than in the country around Mandya (Mysore

District). Large tracts until recently bare, open and stony moorum

plains have been altered by the Irwin Canal and its numerous tri-

butaries into a fertile, intensely cultivated area under sugar cane,

rice, gingelly and other crops.

The two most important hill ranges are the Bababudan and the

Biligirirangan. The Bababudan, the highest range in Mysore

State, lies between! 13) 22! sXe aecGNe srandlia 75637) eiwan sau uke)

in the Kadtr District. It is in the form of a crescent or horse-shoe

with opening to the north-west. Its character is that of a stupend-

ous ridge ca. 6,000 ft. in elevation, in parts only a few yards wide

along the summit, and rising at intervals into lofty peaks. The

higher portions consist of steep grassy slopes cut up by well-wooded

ravines or sholas through which flow perennial streams. The

sides are densely clothed with forest among which are numerous

coffee plantations. The Jagar Valley which occupies the centre of

this horseshoe with an elevation of about 2,000 ft. is one stretch

of forest (Evergreen biotope: chiefly moist-inter zone) as far as the

eye can see. The highest peak is Milainagiri (6317 ft.) towards

the south of the range. North-east of this is Bababidangiri

(6214 ft.) on which are the sources of the Veda and Avati rivers.

|JourN. Bompay Nar. Hisr. Soc. PLATE II.

1. The edge of a Shola. Open hillside covered with tall, coarse Andropogon grass and

sparse scrub. Favourite habitat of Locustella naevia, Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum ete.

2. Secondary jungle facies of Deciduous Biotope. Typical

habitat of Franklinia gracilis and numerous other birds.

Photos by RG (Gy MOTHS

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 12%)

The Biligirirangan Hills in the south-east of Mysore District

originate at about 12° 27/ Nx76° 11’ E. After running N and S

ro) / / D

for about 10 miles the range passes into the adjoining Coimbatore

District of Madras. Its highest peak, on which is situated the

temple of Biligiri Ranga, is 5091 ft. The slopes of this range are

well-wooded, teak and sandalwood being found among the treés.

Long coarse grass 10 to 15 ft. high grows everywhere.

METEOROLOGY.

Mysore gets the greater part of its rainfall during the South-

west Monsoon between June and October, but the North-east

Monsoon, which tollows immediately and prolongs the rainy season

to about the middle of November, also exercises considerable

influence in parts.

The annual precipitation varies between about 350 inches on the

crest of the Western Ghats and ig inches in north central Mysore.

But these extremes apply only to very limited tracts, and _ the

general annual average tor the greater part of the State is 25-40”.

Lhe excessive rainfall of the Mainad region (described later) rapidly

diminishes eastwards.

A zone of heavy rain (60” and over) is confined to the Western

Ghat region from Sorab to Manjarabad; 4o-60' between Sorap

and Shikarptr in the Bababtudans region and in Heggadedevankote.

The zone of 25-40’ extends over the remainder of the State except

the Chitaldrig Wistrict, the north of Tumktr and Jlsolar Districts

and the extreme south-east of Mysore District which get less than

25”. Lhe distribution of raintall here as in Travancore’ is regulated

by the physical configuration of the country, especially. direction. of

the hill ranges relative to the strike of the S-W Monsoon currents.

Naturally the torest belts closely follow its distribution, the ever-

green belt coinciding with the neaviest rain, the deciduous forest

with the less heavy and the dry scrub jungle with the least rain.

The minimum and maximum temperatures in the hottest months

at Bangalore are ca, 66° and gi’t. or in extreme seasons g6°I*.

Chitaldrig and the northern parts of the State are considerably

hotter. “Lhe mean annual relative humidity is 66 as compared with

79 for Malabar and Coorg and 67 for the Carnatic (Blanford).

The country is conveniently divided into 2 clear-cut physio-

graphical regions viz. the Malnad and the Maidan.

1. Malnadd on the west, is confined to the tracts bordering or

resting on the Western Ghats (Shimoga, Kadtr and Hassan Dis-

tricts). It is a picturesque tract of heavy rainfall and high humidity

abounding in mountains and forests presenting diversified and

beautiful scenery. This area contains the richest flora and is clothed

with magnificent timber. The summits of the mountains are mostly

bare of trees but covered with grasses and herbs. Descending from

them are valleys or nullahs leaving grass-covered ridges between

- 1 See ‘Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, pp. $27-

28). - »

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?T. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

them. These nullahs—locally called sholus—are covered with a

luxuriant forest growth, more or less evergreen above 4,500 {t.

but mixed with an increasing proportion of deciduous species lower

dewn, the undergrowth in the sholas is targely composed ol

otrovtlanthes, Cotree, pepper and cardamoms are cultivated in the

highest sholas. ; .

the evergreen forest, confined to the Western Ghats and the

country immediately at their base, extends from the north of sagar

lo ine south of Santesnpur (Manjarabad)—a belt trom 6 to 14 miles

Wide. boon (Cucuplyium wightianum), Ebony (Diospyros eoenum),

ialeria indica ana teswe or wild jack (Artocarpus hirsuta) are

some of its Characteristic trees. Both here and in the mixed belt

lalian brakes, cane palms and brackens~abound, especially in dank

hollows. Mast OF this evergreen 1s a mixed or intermediate zone

10 to 45 miles wide extending from north of Sorab to south ot

Gundiupet. lt consists of the finest timber producing forests and

is bordered on the east with much sandalwood. It also comprises

the best areca-nut and cardamom gardens and the coffee planta-

tions of Koppa and Manjarabad. its junction with the evergreen

belt on the west is marked by splendid Nandi (Lagerstroemia

microcarpd), Biackwood (Dalbergia latifolia), Leak (Lectonu grandis),

Satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia), Matti (Lerminalia tomentosu),

lronwood “(Aylia), bombux malabaricun. and Ficus of numerous

species. A protusion of the spiky Dhattay or Hebbidaru bamboo

(bamousa arundinacea) is met, while old forest clearings and the

sites of abandoned colttee plantations are overgrown everywhere with

impenetrable tangles of Laniuna. his mixea or intermediate zone

with its extremes at either end, referred to in. the notes that follow

as Moist-inter and dry-inter beis depending upon the predominance

in the mixture of evergreen or deciduous vegetation, is the richest

area as regards bird lile both in spec.es and in numbers. It appears

ito be the climax zone tor woodpeckers in particular.

‘Lhe types of forest mostly met with in the Malnad area, accord-

ing to Cnampion’s classification, are the following :—

Western Tropical Evergreen (Group 1A, type C3).

Southern Tropical Semi-evergreen (Group 2A, type C2).

Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous (Group 3A, type C1).

2. Maidan.—East of the tract under the direct influence of the

\western Ghats rainfall and humidity is the more open country

known as Maidan which comprises the greater part of the State. It

may be divided into several parts each taking its character from

the means of water supply and the prevailing cultivation. In the

north are level plains of black soil growing cotton and millets; tracts

to the S and S-W are irrigated from channels drawn from the

rivers and are covered with sugar-cane and rice fields. Those irri-

gated from bunded tanks have gardens of cocoanut and areca palms.

The wide tracts of red soil in the east yield ragi and other dry crops.

The stony and wide-spreading pasture grounds in the centre of

the plateau are stretches of coarse scraggy grass relieved by shady

groves of trees, Some of the trees characteristic of this region are

JouRN. BoMBAy Nat. Hist. Soc, PLATE III,

1. A Cardamom plantation with lofty evergreen

natural shade trees. A favourite haunt of birds.

2. Dry, stony hills country — Chitaldrug environs.

Scrub patches inhabited by Pycnonotus xantholaemus.

Photos by Salim Ali

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 135,

jamin (Eugenia jambolana), bael (A?gle marmelos), ippé or mhawa

(Bassia latifolia), Pterocarpus santalinus, tamarind (Tamarindus

indica), wood-apple (Feronia limonia), mango (Mangifera indica),

jack (Artocarpus integrifolia), babool (Acacia arabica), karanj (Pon-

gamia glabra), sandalwood (Santalum album), cocoanut (Cocos

nucifera), date (Phoenix sylvestris and P. farinifera), the last species

particularly in the centre and east. The bare, erocky hill ranges in

this zone as well as extensive areas in the plains are covered with

small trees and twiners of various species forming scrub-and-bush

jungle, Dodonoea wiscosa, Zizyphus cenoplia and jujuba, Cassia

auriculata, Phyllanthus reticulatus and Randia spp. being some of

the more prominent. Of the twiners an unforgettable species for

any one who has tried to retrieve a wounded bird from amongst its

tangles is Pterolobium indicum, the vicious recurved thorns of which

tear out bits of ones clothing with flesh attached. It is aptly named

‘badabakku in Canarese, meaning ‘Flesh-puller’.

Lantana is again plentiful everywhere. Apparently until quite

recently large areas were laid waste by Opuntia cactus (prickly pear)

which has died down since the introduction of the cochineal insect

Coccus cacti. Its disappearance has evidently not proved an unmixed

blessing. The brakes of Opuntia are said to have afforded protection

from browsing animals to all naturally regenerated seedlings,

especially sandal, while its fruit was largely eaten in times of scarcity

by the poor as well as by numerous animals and birds. ‘Lantana

tangles are also said to be beneficial in fostering sandalwood seedlings

in the same way.

The forests in the Maidan region approximate largely to the

following types of Champion:

Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous (Group 4A, type C2).

Southern Thorn (Group 5A).

ITINERARY.

6-13 November 1939... Biligirirangan Hills, 3,000-5,500 ft.

—Mysore District (Honnametti, Attikan.

Bedaguli, Dodsampagi, Bellaji).

15-26 November .... Bandipur, 3, 300/—Mysore District

(Gaudaltir Ghat, Hangala, Gtndltpet.

Maddtr, Gopalswami betta).

27 Nov.-7 December .... Antarsanté, 2,500’/—Mysore Dist. (Manch-

gowdanhalli, Heggadedevankote, Kara-

pur, Bégir).

8-11 December ... Mysore—Mysore Dist. (Hinsar, Man-

dya, Periapatna, Seringapatim,

Krishnarajsagar).

12-18 December .. Satntr ca. 2,500/—Banealore District

(Shimsha, Sivasamiidram, Devarbetta).

19-30 December ... Dodballaptr, ca. 2,900/—Bangalore Dist.

(Maklidrig, Thondébhavi, Nandidrie

(Kolar Dist.).

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Dec.-4 Jan. 1940... Namadachilumé, ca. 3,000/—Timkir Dist.

(Devarayadrig).

5-11 January ... Marikanivé (Vanivilasptra) ca. © 2,500/.

—Chitaldrag Dist. (Vanivilas Sagar,

Jogimaradi, Hiriyar).

12-18 January .. sakléshptr, ca. 3,o00o/—Hassan Dist.

(Kkadamané Estate. Also Hebbalé in

. Coorg).

19-24 January ... Kemmangindi, Bababidan Hills, 4-5,000!

—Kadir Dist. (Jagar Valley ca. 2,500’).

25 Jan.-2 Feb. ... Settihalli, ca. 2,500/—Shimoga Dist.

3-9 February ... Agitmbé; ca. 2,000/—Shimoga Dist.

10-13. February .... J6g (Gersoppa), ca. 2,000/—Shimoga Dist.

20-25, February ... Kolar Gold Fields—Kolar Dist.

A car at my disposal enabled me to scour large tracts of country,

visit remote localities and collect over a much wider area around

the camps than would otherwise have been possible. Thus it can

reasonably be claimed that no important habitat types within the

State escaped study.

It might be useful again to define the terms Biotope and Facies

as used in the following pages. Biotope is the larger unit. For

example by “Evergreen biotope’ I mean all the zone of luxuriant

tropical vegetation brought about by, and under the influence of,

the heavy rainfall and excessive humidity that occurs on the sea-

ward faces of the south-western Ghats lying directly in the path

of the S-W Monsoon currents. <A biotope is split up into several

facies. For instance one frequently comes across patches in ever-

green forest which are covered predominatingly with eeta bamboo

(Ochlandra travancorica). These are referred to as ‘eeta facies’

of evergreen biotope, and so on. Again, there occur here and

there patches in evergreen biotope which, owing. to having been

cleared in the past or due to some peculiarity in the composition

of the soil, are covered largely by deciduous or semi-deciduous trees

and vegetation and present a more or less deciduous aspect. Such

patches are referred to in my notes as ‘deciduous facies’ of evergreen

biotope. The terms ‘zone’ and ‘belt’ are employed rather loosely ;

they both mean more or less the same unit of area, except that by

the term ‘belt’ I specifically have in mind that imaginary ‘seam’ of

diffusion or transition which joins the deciduous biotope with the

intermediate zone on the one hand, and the intermediate zone with

evergreen biotope on the other.

Just as a genus may contain several species, so may a biotope

contain several facies. The latter may, for convenience, be further

subdivided in the same way as we subdivide bird species into races.

On the other hand biotopes may be raised into higher and higher

eroups just as genera rise into families, sub- orders and orders

In the course of this survey special attention was paid to

habitats and to the aetiology of local distributions. The following

lists are based on data collected and notes made in the field. To

avoid repetition, field notes on habits, etc. of birds are only given

JourN. BomBay Nav. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV.

The Gersoppa or Jog Falls, Sagar Dist,

Cliffs behind and flanking the falls provide breeding sites to countless

Rock Pigeons (Columba livia) and Alpine Swifts (Mccropus melba

bakeri). They are also the scene of the legendary granaries of birds.

Photo by Z. Futehally

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 137

where they were omitted or where they supplement my previous

paper on Travancore and Cochin birds.!

RESIDENT BIRDS CHIEFLY RESTRICTED TO EVERGREEN BIOTOPE:

No. 4 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (1935).

Dendrocitta leucogastra

(Cardamom sholas and overgrown rubber plantations)

Machlolophus xanthogenys

(Typical habitat Group 3A, type Cr. Lofty trees in cardamom

plantations. Bamboo facies as in the Jagar Valley, Baba-

budan Hills).

Sitta frontalis

(Sholas and bamboo facies. Also in the mixed intermediate

zone)

Garrulax delesserti

Rhopocichla atriceps

Brachypteryx major

(Sholas at ca. 4,000 ft.)

Oreocincla dauma

(Sholas)

Muscicapula pallipes

(In undergrowth of seedlings).

Eumiyas albicaudata

(Sholas above ca. 3,500 ft.)

Ochromela nigrorufa

(Sholas : amongst undergrowth of thin upright seedling’s or eeta.

Also cane brakes and cardamom plants in dank ravines.

Usually above ca. 3,500 ft.)

Trena puella

(On the plateau and up to the highest sholas)

Cinnyris minima

(Plateau and up to the highest sholas)

Arachnothera longirostris

(Partial to moist-inter belt, Group 3A, C1 and 2A, C3)

Dinopium javanense

(Preferential habitat: moist-inter belt)

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus

(Moist-inter belt)

Macropicus javensis

(Moist-inter belt)

Vivia innominatus

(Moist-inter belt with bamboo)

Nantholoema rubricapilla

(Moist-inter belt)

Psittacula columboides

(Also enters intermediate zone)

* ©The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin’? commencing jin vol. xxxvii,

Uaich | KONOU INANE SeXOM IE INUINU RAID JAHISI, SOCUBRIRY, Wo, ULM

Tockus griseus

(Sholas)

Hlarpactes fasciatus

(Sholas and moist-inter belt)

Cheetura giganteus

(Grassy hilltops and forest clearings)

Indicapus sylvaticus

(Grassy hilltops and forest clearing’s)

Dendrophassa pompadora

(Also in moist-inter belt)

Ducula badia

(Also in moist-inter belt)

Chalcophaps indica

(Also in moist-inter belt and intermediate zone)

Columba elphinstonii

(Partial to moist-inter belt)

RESIDENT BIRDS CHIEFLY RESTRICTED TO THE MIXED INTERMEDIATE

EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS

(OR TRANSITION

ZONE) BETWEEN

BIOTOPEs.

Pericrocotus flammeus e

(Extending sparingly into fringe of both extremes)

Graculus rveligiosa

(Wandering freely into fringe of either extreme)

Flemicercus canente i

(Bamboo facies, and about edge of coffee plantations up to ca.

3,000!)

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus ‘

(Partial to moist-inter belt)

Thereiceryx viridis

(Also in evergreen)

Zosterops palpebrosa

(Also in evergreen)

Coryllis vernalis

(Also wandering into both extremes)

Bucia athertoni

(Wanders across into both extremes)

Gallus sonnerati

(More or less throughout the evergreen at one extreme and

down into secondary jungle and scrub-and-bush facies at the

other)

RESIDENT BIRDS CHIEFLY RESTRICTED TO DECIDUOUS BIOTOPE.

A A A SO A tS A A i el a A SS NOE A A AS AS A ASA A RRA SD

Sitla castanea

Dumetia hyperythra

(Also in deciduous facies of evergreen biotope, as in Biligiriran-

gan Hills)

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 139

Atgithina tiphia

(Also in deciduous facies of evergreen biotope, as at Agtimbe

and Sakléshptr)

Alseonax latirostris

(Light open forest and teak plantations, with bamboo and

undergrowth of grass and sparse scrub)

Leucocirvca aureola

Lanius vittatus

| Typical habitat: midway between that of Lanius lahtora (semi-

desert) and that of Lanius schach (fairly wooded country) |

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

(Scrub and secondary jungle)

Pericrocotus peregrinus

(Scrub and secondary jungle)

Lalage sykesi

(Scrub and secondary jungle)

Graucalus javensis

(Scrub and secondary jungle. Occasionally wandering into inter-

mediate zone)

Orthotomus sutorius

(Scrub-and-bush country)

Franklinia gracilis

(Tall coarse grass in secondary junele)

Sturnia malabarica

(Teak and other forest plantations. Scrub and secondary

jungle)

Temenuchus pagodarum .

(Scrub and secondary jungle. Near human_ habitations)

Atthiopsar fuscus ;

(Patchy. Sporadically in intermediate zone also)

Ploceus philip pinus

(Lightly wooded country about cultivation. | Seasonal local

migrant)

Uvoloncha striata

(Scrub and lightly wooded country about cultivation)

Uroloncha malabarica

(Scrub and lightly wooded country about cultivation)

Uvoloncha punctulata

(Scrub and lightly wooded country about cultivation)

Amandava amandava

(Reeds and rushes by swamps and jheels)

Gymnorhis xanthocollis

(Light secondary jungle. Near cultivation and human habita-

tions. Seasonal local migrant)

Eremopterix grisea

(Open, dry sparse scrub and fallow land)

Ammomanes phoenicurus

(Open, dry sparse scrub and fallow land)

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Cinnyris asiatica

(Secondary jungle, wooded cultivated country, gardens and

compounds)

Cinnyris zeylonica

(Scrub and light secondary jungle. Dry, cultivated country

with tamarind, cactus and babool trees)

Picus xanthopygaeus

(Secondary jungle. Forest plantations)

Dryobates mahrattensis

(Secondary jungle. Entering dry-inter belt)

Dryobates hardwickii

(Secondary jungle. Thin tree and bush country)

Micropternus brachyurus

(Secondary jungle, especially bamboo facies. Teak and other

forest plantations)

Brachypternus benghalensts

(Lightly wooded country, gardens and compounds. Groves of

trees about cultivation)

Nantholoema haemacephala

(Wooded country. Groves of trees about towns, villages and

cultivation)

Clamator jacobinus

(Wooded country. Groves of trees about towns, villages and

cultivation)

Eudynamis scolopaceus

(Wooded country. Groves of trees about towns, villages and

cultivation)

Rhopodytes viridirostris

(Thin secondary jungle. Scrub-and-bush facies)

Centropus sinensis

(Thin secondary jungle. Scrub-and-bush facies. Usually about

cultivation)

Psittacula krameri

(Fairly wooded country, usually about cultivation)

Psittacula cyanocephala

(Fairly wooded country, usually about cultivation. Also enters

dry-inter belt)

Coracias benghalensis

(Open, lightly wooded country and cultivation)

Merops orientalis

(Scrub-and-bush facies. Open cultivated country)

Merops leschenaulti

(Wooded country in dry-inter belt)

Alcedo atthis

(Also throughout intermediate zone)

Halcyon smyrnensis

(Tanks and ponds. Also light secondary jungle)

RTE BUD SOR MVS ORE 141

Tockus birostris

(Secondary jungle. Wooded country about cultivation)

Upupa epops

(Extends decreasingly across intermediate zonc)

Micropus affinis

Hemiprocne coronata ;

(Secondary jungle. About forest clearings for cultivation.

Also in dry-inter belt)

Caprimulgus indicus

(Teak plantations. Bamboo facies)

Caprimulgus asiaticus

(Sparse scrub and fallow land)

Strix ocellata

(Groves of densely foliaged tamarind and similar trees in the

neighbourhood of villages and cultivation)

Bubo bubo

(Ravines and boulder hillocks in secondary jungle. Groves of

large trees about villages and cultivation)

Athene brama |

(Groves of trees about human habitations and cultivation)

Neophron percnopterus

(About human habitations. Occasionally also in intermediate

zone)

Circaétus ferox

Butastur teesa

(Open secondary jungle. Near cultivation)

Tlahastur indus

(About human habitations and water)

Milvus govinda

(About human habitations)

Elanus coeruleus

(Secondary and scrub jungle)

Astur badius

(Wooded country and groves of trees, frequently about villages

and cultivation)

Crocopus phoenicopterus

(Also in dry-inter belt)

Muscadivora aenea

(Also decreasingly through dry-inter belt into intermediate zone)

Streptopelia chinensis

(Wooded country. Also in dry-inter belt)

Streptopelia senegalensis

(Dry, open and less wocded country than above)

Streptopelia decaocto

(Dry, open, lightly wooded country) _

(Hnopopelia tranquebarica :

(Dry, open, lightly wooded country and cultivation)

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Pterocles indicus

(Dry, stony, sparsely scrubbed and broken country)

Pterocles exustus

(Dry, stony semi-desert)

Pavo cristatus

(Secondary jungle with bamboo, near streams. Occasionally

in dry-inter belt) :

Galloperdix spadicea

(Scrub-and-bush facies. Broken hilly country. Extends into

dry-inter belt)

Coturnix coromandelica

(Grassland. Cultivation)

Perdicula asiatica

(Flat, stony, sparsely grass covered scrub-and-bush)

Perdicula argoondah

(Scrub-and-bush, more stony than above, and laterite soil)

Fvancolinus pondicerianus

(Flat, dry scrub-and-bush about cultivation)

Turnix suscitator

(Flat, scraegy grass-covered scrub-and-bush, usually bordering

cultivation)

Burhinus oedicnemus

(Light secondary bamboo and scrub jungle, interspersed with

open spaces)

Lobipluvia malabarica

(Dry, open, sparse scrub and fallow land about cultivation)

Summary of the more important scientific results of the Mysore

Bird Survey detailed in this paper.

1. Careful collection of ecological data has led to an attempt

to connect up immediate environment and life conditions with the

distribution of resident bird species, and to fix provisional Habitat

Types.

2. The question of plumages of the races of the Yellow-cheeked

Tit (Machlolophus xanthogenys) is settled.

3. The 3 races of the Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus horsfieldi,

namely travancoreensis, horsfieldi and maderaspatensis occur 1n

South India with a parallel distribution in the Western Ghats,

Central Plateau and Eastern Ghats respectively.

4. The known distribution of the Yellow-breasted Babbler

(Mixornis gularis rubricapilla) is greatly extended by its unexpected

discovery at Antarsante.

5. The habitat type of the scarce and patchily distributed Yellow-

throated Bulbul (Pycnonotus xantholaemus) is indicated.

6. The range of the Rufous-bellied Shortwine (Brachypleryx

major major) of the Nilgiris, is considerably extended to the north

by its discovery in the Bababadan Hills.

7. The winter range of the White-browed Blue Flycatcher

(Muscicapula s. superciliaris) is greatly extended southward by a

specimen from Timktr District. :

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 143

8. The west coast range of the Hair-crested Drongo (C ibia

hottentotta) from iMialwalniealaneeavs to Travancore is extended con-

siderably inland by specimens from Ttimktr District. This form

is smalier than the northern (typical) race and has recently been

separated as Chibia hottentotta londae Woelz.

g. Mysore can now be added to the ascertained range of

rranklinia gracilis albogularis.

10. Phylloscopus affinis, P. magnirostris and P. occipitalis are

recorded for the first time.

11. The long pending question of what the female of Siturnia

mdlavarica blythi is like is settled.

12. Seasonal local movements of the Baya (Plcoceus philippinus)

here as in Bahawalpur seem largely controlled by the incidence of

paddy cultivation.

13. From the local distribution of the 2 species of Bush-Lark

i. is suggested that Mirafra erythroptera, occurring on laterite soil,

may, on closer study, prove to be merely an ecological race of M.

ayjliis found on moran brownish coloured soil, or vice versa.

14. The habitat type and biological associations of the Spotted

Piculet (Vivia innominatus) are defined. | .

15. Lhe ‘hepatic’ plumage of Cacomantis merulinus passerinus

is Shown to moult to ‘hepatic’ plumage.

16. Males of the Rose-ringed Paroquet (Psiltacula kramer manil-

lensis) evidently breed even while in immature female-like plumage.

17. The southern race of Coryllis vernalis, viz. rubropygialis,

cannot be maintained. : td,

18. The richly coloured form of the Rufous Turtle-Dove, now

proved to be the resident race of peninsular India, is named Strepto-

pelia orientalis erythrocephala (Bonaparte).

19. Gallus sonnerati is evidently polygamous in a particular way,

and apparently breeds throughout the year.

20. Lhe Rock Bush-Quail found on red laterite soil is apatheti-

cally coloured and is described as Perdicula argoondah sdalimalti

subsp. nov.

21. Confirmation is provided that one of the winter quarters of

the European Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius curonicus)

is Mysore.

22. Mating of Alpine Swifts (Micropus melba) takes place in

mid-air. A possible reason for their gradually ying higher and

higher after sunset is suggested.

SYSTEMATIC LIS®:

Corvus macrorhyachus culminatus Sykes. The Southern Jungle Crow.

Specimens collected: 535¢ 3-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000); 838 9, 839 ¢

*5-2-40 Augumbé (2,500°); Biligirirangan Hills: M4(H) @ 7-5-34, M42(H) o

14-5-34' Ca. 5,000.

Noted: Chamarajanagar, Bandiptir, Mysore City and environs, Sakléshpur,

INolar Gold Fields and elsewhere.

M denotes collected by R. C. Morris. He had two series, G and H. ‘The

letter in brackets refers to these.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIil

| Measurements ;

Bill Wing Tail

DOG Eels OL 304-318 172-182 mim.

2 6 G@ immni, 59-05 307-313 172-178 mm.

I @ ead. 63 Bie 184 mun.

1 Q imm. 54 280 158 mim.

The principle on which I divided these crows was given in the Eastern

Ghats Survey (/.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 511-513) and these specimens agree with that.

All have the base of the nape feathers dusky.—H. W. |

Fairly common about outlying habitations. On the whole this is the common

crow of Mysore State. Even in Mysore City it is more abundant than the

House-Crow.

In the specimen of 3 January the testes measured 105 mm., but no further

information as regards breeding was procured by the Survey.

Corvus splendens splendens Vieill. the Common Indian House-Crow.

Specimens collected: 505 Q 29-12-39 Thondebhavi (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Chamarajanagar, Mysore City, Antarsdanteé, Kolar Gold

Kields.

Absent at Bandipur, Sakléshpur, Biligirirangan Hills (3-5,000 ft.).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

1 oO) vad: 47.5 284 173 mm.—H. W.]

Not. common by its usual standards. Everywhere less abundant than the

Jungle Crow.

Dendrocitta vagabunda vernayi Kinnear & Whistler. The Eastern Ghats Tree-

Pie.

Specimens -collected : 348 9, 349 Q 15-12-39 Devarbetta (ca. 3,000’); 439 9,

445 Q 24-12-39, 495 GO 28-12-39 Dodballapur (ca. 2,900); 519 Q I-1-40

Namadachilumé (3,000'); 633 @Q 15-1-4o0 Sakléshpur (3,000’); Biligirirangan

Hills: Mig(H) & 4-3-34 (4,000 Dodsampagi); M115(H). 0? juv. 25-5-34 (4,000°

Kdbuthi); Mz9(G) ¢ 13-7-34. M46(G) 0? 17-7-34, M52(G) 3 15-7-34- (3,000°

Udahatti, Eastern base of hills); Mqg2(G) @ 23-9-34 (Satyamangala 2,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Bedaguli, Bandipur, Maddur, Settihalli.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

446 ad. 30-34 148-150 201-236 mm.

7 O90 ad. 28.5-32.5 137-152 188-225 mim.

The Indian Tree-Pie is a bird that shows a good deal of individual variation

in size and colour and it is also rather susceptible to wear and bleaching. There

is intergradation between the races as is to be expected with a bird that has

very general distribution in India. The opportunity of examining a good series

of new skins from southern India has therefore been very welcome to me as

affording a means of re-checking the validity of the race vernayi. A careful

comparison of these specimens with an equally good series from N-E India

has satisfied me afresh that vernayi is a good race. In a series it is definitely

smaller and paler as originally stated. The smallness of size is also emphasized

in the comparative weakness of the beak and the narrowness of the central

tail feathers. The difference in colour with the neighbouring Malabar race

D. v. parvula is also very marked.—H. W.|

Fairly common in deciduous forest—usually in the mixed hunting parties.

Gonads of the Survey specimens (November to mid-January) were quiescent.

Dendrocitta leucogastra Gould. The Southern Tree-Pie.

Specimens collected; 666 ¢ 17-1-4o Kadamané Estate (3,200’); 855 9 8-2-40

Agtimbé (2,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Sakleshpur, Bababtidan Hills (ca. 4,000’), Settihalli.

eon

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 145

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

rg 35 141 280 mim.

1 Q 37 148 291 -mma-—El, W.|

Inseparable from evergreen biotope.. Met with sparingly—usually pairs—

among shade trees in cardamom = sholas and ravines, and dense lofty forest.

Always very wild.

_ Parus major stupae oelz. The Indian Grey Tit.

Specimens collected: 80 © 15-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’); 402 § 20-12-39,

403 6, 404 CG. 20-12-30, 4716) 481 6 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900). Biligiri-

rangan Hills: Mogg4(G) 0? juv. 26-7-34 (Udahatti 3,000’) 18 0? 8-11-39. (3,000°

Bedaguli).

| Measurements ;

Bill Wing Vail

363 II-11.5 07-71 50-59 mm.

oe 11.5 05-05-5 52-55 min.

No. 4o2 is cross-billed, both mandibles being elongated (upper mandible

from skull 13 mm.) the upper mandible passing to the left and the lower mandi-

ble to the right.

The juvenile obtained at Udahatti in the Biligirirangans has the upper parts

washed taintly with green. The nuchal and cheek patches and the vent are

faintly tinged with yellow. ;

In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 517) on the poor series of

Ceylon birds then available to me I agreed _ with previous authors in kceping

the resident Grey Tit of peninsular India with the Ceylon bird Parus major

mahrattarum. Since then I have had_ the opportunity of examining a good-

series of 12 fresh specimens in the Ceylon Survey and there is no doubt ‘that

the island form is not the same as that of the mainland. As compared with

true mahrattarum Indian birds are paler and brighter in colour; the white

edging of the tertiaries is broader and the bill is not so heavy. —H. W.]

Not uncommon in light deciduous forest. Occasionally met with in the

dry-inter zone and further towards evergreen, but I never saw it actually within

that biotope.

The juvenile of 20 July would place the breeding season at about June.

Parus nuchalis Jerdon. The White-winged Black Tit.

Specimen : Biligirirangan Hills: Mo(G) 3 juv. 14-9-34 (2,000’ Satyamangala).

| Measurements :

Wing Tail

Tee) HUVe 65 44.5 mm.—H. W.]

Besides Jerdon’s type ‘from the Eastern Ghats west of. Nellore’ this specimen

is the only one now in existence from South India, although one is said to

have been obtained by a Dr. Stewart at Bangalore.

Unfortunately the Survey failed to come across this tit inspite of a very

special look-out for it, and the species is obviously very rare in S, India,

Satyamangala is dry deciduous country.

Machlolophus xanthogenys trayancoreensis Kinnear & Whistler. The Travan-

core Yellow-cheeked Tit.

Specimens: collected) 617 9) 13-1-40;, (632) G) 14-1-40, 638 Gg, 639 2 -15-1-40

Sakléshptr (3,000’); 678 2 19-1-40 (4,500), 694 2 20-1-40 (2,500’), 695 o

21-1-40 (4,500’) Bababudan Hills; 783 @ 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing . Tail

3 O@ 13 76-77 55-58 min,

5 Oe 12.5-13 72-76 ~ 53°57 mm,

i460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII)

Phese specimens belong, as might be. expected from their localities which

«re in’ western Mysore, (Malnad), to the race travancoreensis though jn the

sightly brighter, less saturated coiour of the green upper parts and the yellow of

the lower plumage they show the beginning of intergrading with the altogether

brighter Central indian race aplonotus. Nos. 638 and 695 are adult and first

winter males with black crowns and black ventral stripes. No. 632 is a juvenile

male ‘which, allowing for the usual juvenile characteristics, is sinular with a

black crown and a black ventral stripe.

The five females (Nos. 617, 639, 0678, 694, 783) all have the crown and

cyestripe and the ventral stripe duit olive green, that is to say they belong to

phase (2) of my account of the plumages of this group (Central India Survey,

/.B.N.H.S., xli, p. 85). Unfortunately this resume has been rendered valueless

by the accidental transposition of the names M. «. aplonotus and M. x. travan-

coreensis in the printed iext. That this phase is a dimorphism and. not a

question of age is shown by No. 617 which is in the post-nuptial moult (which

takes place in December-January in this late breeding species); the crown

and ventral stripe are replacing old olivegreen feathers with new olive-green

feathers. No. 694 is also a particularly valuable specimen as it is just finishing

the post-juvenal moult and retains sufficient juvenile feathers on the crown

to show that it is replacing a dull black crown with a dull olive-green crown.

This clears up the ditficuity to which I have drawn attention in the Travancore

Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvili, p. 66) of knowing whether the black-crowned

juveniles can turn into green-crowned adults.

Once again therefore 1 will summarise the plumages of this difficult species

with the proviso that. 1 have seen no juvenile female of aplonotus but assume

its plumage by analogy. In all cases the coiour of the eyestripe follows that of

the crown.

Machlolophus xanthogenys xanthogenys. Adult male and female alike.

Crown black; ventral stripe black. Juveniles alike and = similar to the

adults.

Machlolophus xanthogenys aplonotus. Adult male and female not alike.

Male: crown black; ventral stripe black. Female: crown black; ventral stripe

dull olive-green. Juveniles not alike but resembling their respective adults.

(Note. 1 have seen birds indistinguishable from adult males marked female, so

possibly the female is dimorphic but this should be verified).

Machlolophus xanthogenys travancoreensis. Adult male and female not alike.

Maie: crown black; ventral stripe black. Iemales polymorphic: phase (1) similar

to adult male (I have seen at least 4 skins similar to the adult male with black

crown and black ventral stripe marked female, so this phase may provisionally

be accepted though I have seen no recently collected skins of this type to verily

such sexing); phase (2) as in aplonotus crown black; ventral stripe duil olive-

green (here again | should like fresh verification); phase (3) crown dull olive-

green; ventral stripe dull olive-green.

Juveniles not alike: male similar to the adult with black crown and black

ventral stripe; female crown black and ventral stripe dull olive-green.—H. W. |

The Yellow-cheeked Tit was met with only in evergreen biotope ; small parties

hunting insects among the foliage of lofty trees such as in cardamom sholas,

frequently in the mixed hunting parties. It was also partial to bamboo facies

as in the Jagar Valley.

Sitta caStanea castanea JLesson. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

Specimens collected: 81 @ 17-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300/); 191 GO 28-11-39,

270 2 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500). Biligivirangan Hills : 14 3 8-11-39 (3,000

Bedaguli); Mz22(G) o 12-7-34, M85(G) Q 25-7-34 (3,000 Udahatti); M26(G)

20-9-34 (2,000° Satyamangala).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

46o6d 20-21 70-82 39-42 nam. .

3 18.5-20 77-78.5 38-41.5 mm.—H.. W.]

Pairs and family parties of 3 to 5 in deciduous forest, usually in the itinerant

hunting parties of small insectivorous birds. Utters a mousy, quick-repeated

chtp..chip..chip.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 147

Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.

Specimens collected: 354 0? 15-12-39 Devarbetta (3,000); 738 Q 26-1-40,

781 Q 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500). Biligirirangan Hills: GG 22-12-32 (5,000

Honnametti); 5 ¢ 6-11-39, 15 GO 8-11-39 (4,000° Bedagili); Ms59(H) 0? 24-4-34,

M26(H) ¢, M27(H) 2 9-5-34, M1(H) od 7-5-34 (4,000°) ; M32(H) 0? juv. 10-5-34,

Mr15(G) ¢ 16-10-34 (5,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Karaptr, Sakléshpur, Jagar Valley and Baba-

budan Hills (2-4,500’).

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

TOG 15-10.5 75-80 39-45-5 mm. |

5 2@e 15.5-17 73-755 38-42 mm.—H. W.]

Common. Frequents evergreen sholas, creeping up, along and around the

moss- and lichen-covered branches. Usually met with as a member of the

mixed hunting parties of which Culicicapa, Phylloscopus occipitalis and Pert-

crocotus flammeus are some of the most constant components.

It is also common in the intermediate zone particularly in the moist-inter

belt, in patches where plenty of bamboo clumps occur amongst the scattered

trees. In dry-inter forest I occasionally found it in the same patch as the

Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch though it is essentially a bird of evergreen biotope

while castanea is more or less restricted to the deciduous.

(To be continued)

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS, LEMNACEAE

| BY

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(With nine plates and one text-figure).

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Lemnaceae, though they offer no particular pro-

blem of their own, present to the research-worker a large number

of possibilities, for their study raises many interrogation marks

common to the order as a whole. The usually small size of the

plants—the smallest Phanerogams in the world—with naturally

minute and obscure floral parts is enough to cool the enthusiasm

of all but the keenest botanists. Further, the comparatively short

flowering period ot some of the species in a _ particular

locality, makes it necessary that the plants be collected at

the right time. This brief periodicity probably explains the oft-

repeated statement ‘rarely flowering’ found in so many botanical

works. The difficulties of the botanist are further increased when

he comes to determining the diagnostic characters. The size of the

plants is so restricted and the form so variable, particularly those

of the genus Lemna, that the botanist is immediately faced with

the difhculty of separating the species. Numerous species have

been described from various quarters of the globe, many of which

were perhaps never obtained in flower, so that the specificity rests

merely on the description of the vegetative organs, an admittedly

very variable set of characters.

When I undertook the study of the order some years ago,

1 had no idea of the difficulties involved. <A preliminary survey

of the Bombay material soon convinced me that the local coilect-

ions could not lead me very far on the way to elucidating the

numerous problems raised. Accordingly, I issued an appeal in

the Society’s Journal for material from various localities in India

and Burma. The response was, unfortunately, not very encourag-

ing. Nevertheless, I teel that some effort has to be made towards

clearing up the present confusion. For example, JT. Cooke

records three species of Lemna for the Bombay Presidency, viz.,

L. paucicostata, L. trisulca, and L. polyrrhiza (=Spirodela polyr-

rhizga). So far, I have failed to obtain the first two. Cooke had

not seen these two species, but has evidently recorded them on

the authority of others. There is no doubt that Cooke must have

seen species of ‘Lemna in the Presidency, but what were those

species ?

This paper is published with a view to place on record the

many observations I have made in the course of my study, both

in the field, and in preserved material. The bulk of this material

was obtained in Salsette Island and the notes are chiefly from living

plants kept under observation in the field and in aquaria.

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS 149

The literature at my disposal is meagre, for the bulk of it

consists of passages copied trom one flora to another, and mostly

extracts from Hegelmaier’s valuable monograph Die Lemnaceen

(18608). Hegelmaier’s excellent figures are familiar to most stu-

dents of botany tor they have been repeated in almost every text-

book.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ORDER.

sMircmOnder, La@nnaceae, is composed of three small genera,

Lemna, Spirodela, and Wolffia, all small floating aquatic plants,

having a cosmopolitan distribution. The general appearance of

Woljfa immediately separates it from the other two genera.

Spirodela is readily distinguished from Lemna by its numerous

roots, Lemna possessing but a single root. Of the three genera

Lemna is perhaps the most cneucullt of dissolving into its respective

species.

The Lemnaceae are one of the least understood orders of the

flowering plants. The reasons are the usually small size of the

plants and their floral parts; the comparatively few stable specific

characters; the difficulty of obtaining the plants at the right

period; and the great variability of the vegetative regions due

to environment and age. }

Fronds.—Vhe true nature of the frond is a matter of much

discussion and difference of opinion. Some authors consider it

foliar, others axial, while yet others seek a middle path and refer

to it as partly foliar and partly axial—axial at the base, and foliar

in the distal region. The last view is perhaps the correct one,

but needs elucidation. In my opinion the axial region is confined

to the narrow thread-like structure which is fused to the ventral

portion of the frond and which gives rise to new fronds and

flowers, and the roots. It is clearly visible in both Lemna and

Spirodela, but in Woljfia it is reduced to a minute structure.

Ihe frond I consider as a foliar structure ‘superimposed’ on the

axis. Portions of the axis are capable of giving rise to new

plants, but a fragment of the foliar region does not do so. ‘The

tusion of the axial and foliar expansions is so complete that they

cannot be separated. Another view is that the foliar region is

merely an expansion of the axis itself. The axial ‘thread’ gives

rise to short branches and new fronds and the floral structures

or the resting bud (in Spirodela only).

Resting buds.—Regarding the propagation of the Lemnaceae,

Hooker writes, ‘propagated by budding or by hibernating bulbils,

rarely by seed.’ During the period of vegetative activity the

species of all three genera are propagated by budding, but only

in the genus Spirodela have I found actual resting buds, highly

charged with reserve material. In this genus I have noticed that

the flowers are not so profusely produced as in Lemna and Wolffia.

Roots.—Of the three genera Wolffia is rootless; Lemna has

but a single root; and Spirodela has multiple roots. The roots

hang down stiffly and serve mainly as a ‘drag anchor’ preventing

the plants from turning over and from drifting about too readily.

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIii

In Spirodela, I have observed that the roots are ‘equally’ suited

for a terrestrial habit, i.e. when the plants are stranded on slush,

the roots develop to a remarkable degree and penetrate deeply

into the substratum. Under such conditions the plants appear

larger and more vigorous than purely aquatic specimens. Speci-

mens disturbed from their natural habitat soon lose their roots,

but may develop new ones. In specimens of Lemna growing in

thin slush extremely long roots are likewise developed.

Flower or inflorescence (?).—A comparison, of the characters

of the order and genera as given in various works appears mis-

leading, and indicates that authors are often undecided as to

whether the floral structures constitute a single flower—consisting

of both male and female elements, or an inflorescence composed

of separate male and female flowers enclosed in a common

spathe. Being closely allied to the Avaceae I consider the whole

as an inflorescence, composed of one female and two male

elements in Lemna and Spirodela, and of one female and one

male element in Wolffia. The inflorescence arises between two

marginal flaps forming a ‘pocket’ near the basal portion of the

frond; in Wolffia in a medium cup-like cavity.

Spathe.—The spathe, which in Lemna and Spirodela arises

from the ventral surface of the ‘pocket’ is totally absent in Wolffia.

In Lemna it is composed of a single or double-layered membraue,

but it is always two-layered in Spirodela.

Male flowers.—Ihe male flowers are reduced to just two ‘short

stamens in Lemna and Spirodela, and to one in Wolffia. The fila-

ment is thick and cellular and is surmounted by a bilobed anther

(single in Wolffia), When two stamens are present, one rises

above the frond and matures; this is followed by the maturation

of the stigma, and finally by that of the second stamen.

Pollen.—The pollen is spherical and echinate. Pollen tubes of

considerable length are developed rapidly, and the germination is

distinctly visible under the microscope. In colour the pollen is

a translucent white. The grains adhere and ‘overflow’ the anther

cells.

Female flowers.—TYhe female flower is reduced to an ovary and

stigma.

Ovules.—The floras give the number of ovules as ‘1 to 7’, but

in no case have I observed more than two ovules—the ovule is

solitary’ in Lemna and Wolffia, and twin in Spirodela. Much

stress has been laid on the position of the ovule. Some species

are supposedly anatropous, others orthotropous, and yet again

others are variations of the two. According to my observations

with living plants, I find that the seed passes through these tropic

movements at different stages of its development. The ovule is

at first erect. After fertilization it commences to assume a horizon-

tal position; in which position it remains for a considerable time,

till the seed is nearing maturity. It now gradually moves back

from the horizontal to the erect position. Thus it is clear that

‘ Vide Hegelmaier, L. gibba has 1 to 6 ovules,

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS 151

the ovule as it matures to a seed is successively orthotropous,

amphitropous, anatropous, and finally orthotropous! The ‘tropic’

position of the seed is therefore dependent on age, and is accordingly

of no systematic value.

Seed.—The seed when mature separates from the seed coat

and sinks to the bottom where it remains buried till the next

vegetative season, or may refloat to the surface if the water is

perennial. In Lemna the parent plant dies soon after. In Wolffia

the entire plant containing the seed becomes yellow, dies, and

sinks to the bottom where the seed is eventually freed by decom-

position. In the dry weather the seeds shrink somewhat. At the

next vegetative period the seeds are washed out of the mud by the

rains and float to the surface where they soon germinate. The seeds

of Wolffia rise to the surface again after a short period of rest

when water is perennial.

Fertilization.—Cross-fertilization and _ self-fertilization are both

provided for. As already indicated (in Lemna) one stamen matures

before the stigma and then the second stamen. As the plants drift

among themselves neighbouring stigmas and anthers come into

contact. Should fertilization not be effected in this way, the second

anther is matured in such a position as to effect self-fertilization.

Apart from cross-fertilization by contact, there are usually attend-

ant on Lemnaceae a large number of small weevils which feed on

the fronds and act as pollen carriers. As far as I am aware wind

and water play no direct part at all in pollination. This double

provision for ensuring fertilization I have also observed in some

of the members of the closely allied order, Araceae.

Development.—Seeds kept dry from the previous year ger-

minated in from five to six days (others took a longer time) after

being placed in water at the appropriate period. At first they

floated irregularly, became gradually turgid and then assumed the

erect position. A green ‘globule’ now appeared at the top of the

seed, the plumule. No radicle was observed at this stage. Soon

after the plumule there appeared the first frond. A few days

later a second frond arose from the first and a single root made

its appearance on the underside of each frond. During the forma-

tion of the two fronds the remains of the seed and the plumule

remained attached, but the former was considerably shrivelled. A

few days later the plumule died away and the frond led an independ-

ent existence. The only changes observed from now on was the

enlargement of the fronds and the elongation of the roots. The

above observations were made on the development of Lemna (see

plate IV).

Seed dispersal.—Ridley’, referring to seed dispersal in the Lem-

naceae writes, ‘The Lemnas owe their wide distribution to the

transport of the whole plant by floods or rivers, or adhesion to

the birds or batrachians, and are treated under those sections.

They seem to produce seed but rarely. Ravn states that the testa

of the seeds consist entirely of aériferous tissue with intercellular

spaces, as in the case of Menyanthes and Schenzeria, so that they

" The Dispersal of Plants throughout the World, p. 236,

1&2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

may be dispersed also by the floating seeds, occasionally at any

rate.’ There is no doubt that the Lemnaceae are greatly assisted

in their distribution by aquatic or semi-aquatic animals; and there

are two periods when animal agents come most into play: firstly,

when the habitat is drying, the seeds being carried in mud clods

and then dispersed by the wind; secondly, when the monsoon

bursts and the habitats begin to fill up with water, for this is the

time when numerous aquatic animals of all kinds are looking for

suitable breeding grounds and in their search go from pool to pool

carrving away on their bodies seed from one locality to another.

In Spirodela the resting buds are spread in the same way. As

the Lemnaceae are plants that generally, if not always, inhabit

still waters, rivers are of little importance as dispersal agents. -

Pests.—On the fronds of Lemna and Spirodela I have found

large numbers of tiny weevils (Curculionidae) which drill holes

into the fronds, but without going right through. In time the

fronds die off. This same beetle also acts as a ‘pollen carrier.

The beetle also lays its eggs in the tissues of the fronds.

Another insect always found on Lemna and Spirodela is a small

moth, Nymphula rvesponsalis Walker. The larvae of this moth

make their cases of the fronds, and feed on them; but as the

fronds remain green and the pupae spend their short lives in the

same cases the larvae frequently do a lot of damage to the plants

in the aquarium before the presence of the moth is detected.

Genus: LEMNA

Fronds.—The fronds of Lemna may be either solitary or two to four

attached to one another. Above the colour varies from dark to light green,

but the undersurface is always paler.

Roots.—Solitary, only one being given off by each frond. Mr. Fischer,

Flora of the Presidency of Madras, vol. iii, p. 1593, writes, ‘with one or more

capillary rootlets from the margins’ or lower surface.’ The plurality of the

roots is explained by the fact that the author includes the genus Spirodela

under Lemna, but marginal roots are unknown in the order! However, I

may offer an explanation for this statement. I have frequently observed a

stiff filiform alga parasitic on the margins of the fronds of Lemna.

Resting buds.—Not observed in any of the species examined.

Flowers.—Under suitable conditions flowers are freely produced. Male

flowers are reduced to two stamens, one maturing before the stigma and the

second soon after the stigma. Cooke, Flora of the Bombay Presidency, vol. ii,

p. 831, with regard to the male flowers says, under the generic characters,

‘Stamens solitary’; yet under the specific characters he states, ‘Stamens 2.’!

Actually there..are two stamens. Pollen echinate, producing long pollen

tubes. The stigma when mature produces a droplet of ‘water’ which if

remoyed is replaced by another. Evidently this is an aid in fertilization.

Seeds.—Solitary”?: when mature it falls out of its envelope and sinks. The

frond dies after seeding.

Dispersal.—As .in the order.

Vernacular name.—Pacha in Malayalam (This name, which merely means

‘green’, is probably given to all Lemmnaceae). :

Medicinal uses.—Mixed with other ingredients Lemna, Spirodela, and per-

haps also Wolffia are administered in cases of haemorrhagic loss during the

menstrual life. Mixed with pepper they are applied to the eyes in cases of

typhoid when. the patient is unconscious.

‘ Italics are mine.

*1.to 6 in L. gibba, vide Hegelmaier,

PLATE I.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

a Oe eee hanes s

McCann—Indian Duckweeds.

Del. McCann after Hegelmaier.

For explanation see end of article.

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS - a keo

Lemna minor Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 976. (Pl. I fig. 1).

Description’.—Fronds }-} in.? long, symmetrical, obovoid or oblong, nearly

flat on both surfaces.* Root-sheath not appendaged, cap obtuse.* Spathe 2

lipped. Stamens 2 (each a male flower). Style long. Ovule solitary. Seed

horizontal, hemianatropal® albuminous.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan.

Localities —Burma; Thamaing Railway Station (L. P. Khanna 24-4-37 !);

Kamayut, Rangoon (L. P. Khanna _ 10-8-36!); Agri. Hort. Gardens, Rangoon

(L. P. Khanna 24-4-37 !).

Note.—Hooker® under L. minor writes, ‘Kurz (Journ. Linn. Soc. xi’, 266)

thinks that L. minor does not occur in India proper.’ Actually Kurz’s state-

ment quoted above refers to L. gibba and not to L. minor! Through some

error this statement of Kurz’s was transplanted. With regard to L. minor,

Kurz, under ‘habitat’ writes, ‘All over India and the Indian Archipelago,

Bengal! flowers abundantly ;’ and he then enumerates the localities. Hegelmaier

appears to have disregarded Kurz’s localities and does not mention them under

either L. minor or L. paucicostata. It seems possible that Hooker’s mistatement

led Cooke to exclude L. minor from his Flora of the Bombay Presidency, and

Fischer from his Madras Flora.

Lemna paucicostata Hegelmaier, Die Lemmnaceen (1868) 139, t. viii. (PI. TI,

figsn 253504):

Description®.—Fronds obovoid or oblong-obovoid, somewhat membraneous,

nearly flat on both surfaces, strongly asymmetrical with a sharp spine not

reaching the margin; 3-nerved. Root-cap acute. Root-sheath broadly appen-

daged. Seed asymmetrical.°®

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan tropical.

Localities.—Inp1a: Victoria Gardens, Byculla, Bombay (D. S. Laud, 1936!);

BurmMa.—Agri.-Hort. Gardens. Rangoon (L. P. Khanna 24-4-37!).

Note.—A comparison of the figures on plates viii (L. paucicostata) and ix

(L. minor) of Hegelmaier’s monograph, of the entire plants shows that they

are hardly separable, if at all.

Both the acuteness of the root-cap and the presence or absence of the

appendage to the root-sheath are not good diagnostic characters, bdéth are

easily damaged. The thinness or thickness of fronds in Lemna is also an

unreliable character as the fronds often vary in thickness according to the

situation in which they are growing—thin in the shade, thick in bright sun-

light. L. gibba is perhaps an exception.

Lemna Blatteri McCann nov. comb.

Lemna minima Blatter & Hallberg. Journ. Ind. Bot., ii. (1921) so.

Description’®*.—Fronds 2-5 mm. long or shorter asymmetrical obovate or

obovate-oblong, or orbicular, pale green, upper side minutely tuberculate ;

young fronds sessile on the parent. Root solitary, strong, about 15 mm.

long, cap acute. Stamens 2, filaments long filiform, anthers bilobed, lobes

round; pollen irregular, roundish. Style short, stigma lacerate. Seed hori-

zontal, hemianatropous,?! oval.

* Description partly after Hooker.

* According to Hegelmaier ‘slightly symmetrical’.

* According to Hegelmaier ‘keeled above with a small elevated spine.

3-nerved (seldom 4-5 nerved).’

* Hegelmaier includes a variety with acute root-caps.

* The position of the seed has been discussed.

° Flora of British India, vol. vi, 556.

” per ervovem xi, it should be ix.

* Description after Hegelmaier.

. et ‘erect, orthotropous’. The position of the ovule has been dis-

cussed.

*° Description after Blatter & Hallberg.

™ The position of the ovule has been discussed,

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Localities: Achalgar, Mt. Abu, 1300 m. (Blatter).

Note.—The name L. minima is preoccupied, vide Hegelmaier’s monograph

p. 156 (L. minima Chev.) and must therefore be changed. The plant was

described from specimens preserved in formalin and, I fear, the type has

been lost.

Lemna trisulca Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 970. (Pl. I, figs 6-9).

Description’.—Fronds submerged,? 3-2 in.* long (‘not including the tail,

which often attains 4 in. long’) translucent, thin, flat, elliptic-lanceolate or

oblanceolate, crenate-serrate near the apex, the young fronds hastate, at length

tailed and attenuated into a stalk by which they remain attached to the

parent frond, each frond giving rise to a single root-fibre; root-cap acute.

Ovule solitary. Seed semianatropous,* horizontal; testa rough, grooved.

Distribution.—Temperate and tropical regions.

Localities.—none.

Note.—Judging from the fine figure in Hegelmaier’s monograph, L.

trisulca with its large size, and the crenate-serrate margin, should not be

difficult to separate from other species, yet there seems to be no authentic

records from the Indian region.

Hooker records it from the Punjab on the authority of Stewart, and adds

Bengal, the Concan, Munnepore, and Burma.’ Cooke records it as occur-

ring in the Bombay Presidency, but gives no precise locality, merely stating,

‘In ponds and tanks in the Konkan, not common.’ Cooke has evidently not

seen any specimens. Fischer excludes it from the Flora of Madras. I have

seen no Indian specimens.

Kurz records under habitat, ‘Bengal, common in standing water!’ Though

Kurz is supposed to have seen this species in Bengal, Hooker omits to

record the fact. Yet Kurz under distribution indicates that he has_ seen

the plant in Eurcpe; he does not however indicate, by the usual ‘note of

exclamation’, that he has seen it in Asia!

Lemna Eleanorae McCann sp. nov. (PI. II, III, and IV).*

Description.—Fronds floating, 2-3 mm. by 1.5-2 mm., bright green above,

paler beneath, semi-translucent, obovoid or elliptically obovoid, symmetrical

or asymmetrical, with a longitudinal median ridge, highest towards the. base

above the insertion of the root,- surmounted by two (sometimes 3) sharply

pointed conical cusps, one on the highest point of the ridge, the other, near

the apex; ventrally a shallow groove corresponds to the ridge above; apex

obtuse; margins entire, hyaline; obscurely 3-5 nerved. Young fronds: semi-

orbicular. with a single apical cusp. 2-4 fronds remain attached to each

other. Root solitary, up to 20 mm. fong; root-cap acute. Spathe 0.60.5

mm. suborbicular transparent, reticulately veined, apex obtuse, rounded.

Stamens 2; filament when mature slightly longer than spathe; anthers 2-celled,

cells orbicular. dehiscing by a median suture. Pollen minute, echinate,

translucent. Pistil solitary slightly longer than spathe; ovary: urceolate,

sessile, 1-celled; stigma infundibuliform; ovule solitary. Seed 0.70.35 mm.

(including pericarp) ellipsoid, faintly longitudinally ribbed, ribs 12-14, traber-

culate. eb

L. Eleanorae resembles L. perpusilla Torr. in shape but differs from it in

possessing the hicuspidate ridge of L. angolensis as figured by Hegelmaier

(Lemnae pls. VI, figs. 19-20 and VII, figs. II); it however differs from ango-

lensis in having fewer ribs to the seed.

Distribution.—India (as far as known).

Description after Cooke.

None of the Lemnaceae are submerged.

An extremely large Lemna—the largest of the order.

Hemianatropous vide Hooker. The position of the ovule has been dis-

cussed,

®* This plant is named after my wife who has had to do without much of

my company during my researches,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PEA sil:

Gre

pease es

Law

Goal ps esseny cc creeiersocnssnems

Del. McCann,

McCann—Indian Duckweeds. Lemna Eleanorae sp. nov.

For explanation see end of article.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. PLATE ITT.

were.

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= ¥ "

Witen GS aera VW 99 8S0'e

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Del. McCann.

MeCann—Indian Duckweeds. Lemna Fleanorae sp. nov. |

For explanation see end of article,

PLATE IV.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Del. McCann.

sp. nov.

McCann—Indian Duckweeds. Lemna Eleanorae

For explanation see end of article.

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS 1E5

Localities.—INpDIA: Borivli, in a quarry, Salsette Isl. (McC. 7-9-35 Type!)

in flower and fruit; Condita Tank, Salsette Isl. (McC. 23-6-40!); near Condita

Tank (McC. 4-2-40!) in flower and fruit; Tulsi Lake, in slow trickle of water

anchored in the ooze, in shade (McC. 7-4-40!); Thana, in a tank, mixed

with Wolffia (H. Abdulali 2-9-35!) in fl. and fr.; Uttan, in a well near the

sea shore (McC. 24-2-40!) in fl. and fr.; Shilar, Bhiwandi—Wada Rd. (McC.

28-7-40!); Lat. Ichalkaranji Gaghir, mixed with. Wolffia (Col. Frere!);

-Alapakam, near Tambaram, Chingleput Dist. (Barnes Nov. 1937!); High

Range, 3,500 ft. Travancore (Barnes Sept. 1937 !).

Lemna gibba Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 970. (Pl. I, fig. 5).

Description’.—Fronds floating, suborbicular, entire, not tailed © 3-3 hel shal

diam., opaque, thick, flat above, at length very convex beneath, the young

fronds sessile, each giving rise to a single root-fibre, the undersurface at length

spongy and greatly swollen; root-sheath elongate, cylindric; root-cap acute.

Stamens 2. Utricle opening circumsessilly. Seeds erect,* anatropous*; albu-

men scanty or o.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan.

Localities.—None.

Note.—Regarding the occurrence of L. gibba in India, Hooker says: ‘Still

waters throughout India, ascending to 7,000 ft. in the Himalayas.’ Hegelmaier

does not record it from India. Cooke records.it from the Bombay Presidency

on the authority of Woodrow, ‘Boshri near Poona’, but has seen no speci-

mens. Fischer records it from the Madras Presidency in general terms: ‘In

“still waters in all Districts’, but there is no indication that he has seen speci-

‘mens of this plant.

Hegelmaier’s excellent figure, the large size of the plant and the character-

istically tumid fronds should be sufficient to distinguish this species from any

of the other Lemna species. So far I have seen no specimens from India

and I doubt if it occurs there at all.

Genus: SPIRODELA

The genus Spirodela has been included, by some authors, under the genus

Lemna, and by others raised to full generic rank. Hegelmaier retained it as

a separate genus and I favour this view which is justified by the following

points: (1) the numerous roots, (2) the formation of resting buds, and (3)

the number of ovules (2 ovules).

Fronds.—Except for a few variations the fronds of Spirodela exhibit the

characters of the Order. In Spirodela there is a tendency for a greater number

of fronds to remain attached to one another, and these arrange themselves in

a semicircle. Another point worthy of note is that the ‘thread-like’ axial

portion sometimes grows to a considerable length, exceeding the length of the

frond by two or more times. In the case of S. polyrrhiza the undersurface

of the plant is a deep purple, but under certain circumstances this usually

characteristic colour may disappear entirely. Some specimens growing in

shaded localities, and those left in glass aquaria are good examples. When

light is reflected on to the underside the purple colour usually vanishes. On

the strength of the absence of the purple colouring, Kurz described a variety.

of S. polyrrhiza under the name concolor. According to his statement the

‘variety’ was found under trees in Bengal. Thus we see that the colouring

of the underside is of no value as a diagnostic character. Size and shape are

also varving characters. .

Formation of new fronds.—New fronds may be developed on either side

of the existing frond in ‘pockets’ near the base. The new frond is formed

on a short extention of the ‘axial thread’, as a branch, which may elongate.

The new frond is developed between an upper and lower scale; but instead

? After Cooke.

* 13-3 lines, Gray, Manual of Bot. N.U.S.A. (1876) p. 470.

* Hooker says, ‘Ovules 2-7’; Hegelmaier (Lemnae, 14s) ‘Seeds 1-6’,

* The position of the ovule has already been discussed,

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

of evolving normally into an additional frond it may become arrested in its

growth and form a ‘resting bud’, in which case it remains orbicular, thick,

and highly charged with reserve material.

Resting buds.—In S. polyrrhiza the development of resting buds is most

profuse, as flowers appear to be more rarely developed than in Lemna. Speci-

mens under observations, both in the field and in aquaria, continued to produce

resting buds, and it was only after four years of close search that I discovered

ficwers on the 22nd August, 10937, in the Powai Lake, Salsette Island. As

already indicated, the resting bud is a modified frond which assumes its true

character on vegetating. On maturing as aé_ resting bud it detaches

itself from the parent frond and sinks to the bottom. Here it lies dormant.

till the next> season, but where water is perennial, it will rise again to the

surface after a few days’ rest and become a normal frond, except that it is

generally smaller, and more orbicular than the ordinary fronds. Dried resting

buds shrink and curl, but remain unimpaired. The dry condition facilitates

their rise to the surface as soon as favourable conditions obtain. Resting

buds vegetated readily when placed in water after being kept dry under

normal conditions for two years.

Roots.—The roots may be short or long, few or many, deeply pigmented

or not. The number of roots often varies with the size of the plant, but

there is always more than one.

Flowers.—As in the order.

Spathe.—The spathe is orbicular and composed of two layers of cells.

Pistil.—The pistil is flask-shaped, flatter on the ventral than on the dorsal

side.

Ovules.—There are two ovules (more than two according to some authors).

Neither ovule appears to mature to seed (S. polyrrhiza), and I have failed to

obtain seed. I suspect some imperfection in the floral organs; hence the pro-

fuse production of resting buds.

Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.) Schleid. in Linn. V. 13 (1839) 392. (PI. V & VI)

Lemna polyrrhiza Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 970.

Description'.—Fronds herbaceous, broadly obovate or orbicular, not tailed,

floating, opaque, thick, flat above, slightly convex below, 4-4? in. in diam.,

dark green above, usually purplish beneath, 7-viewed ;° epidermal cells with

sinuous walls; young fronds sessile, each frond giving rise to a tuft-fibre.‘

Spathe 2-lipped.2 Stamens 2. Ovules 1-2,8 semianatropous.’

Distribution.—Temperate and tropical regions throughout the globe.

Localities.—Royal Botanic Gardens, (3-8-35) Biswas!; McCann!; Rangoon,

Kamayut pond (10-8-36, 26-9-36) Khanna!; Mandalay (Mav 1935) Khanna!;

Kolapur (7-9-35) Col. Frere!; Secunderabad, Deccan-(Oct.-Nov. 1937) Fernan-

des!: Condita Tank, Salsette (1-12-35) McCann!; Powai Lake, Salsette (22-8-37

in flower) McCann!; Matunga, in a borrow pit, Bombay, McCann!

Note.—Resting buds: The resting buds measure 5-7X%4-5 mm. They are

orbicular or broadly elliptical, thick and firm. The dorsal surface is flat or

slightly convex, the lower strongly concave. On the dorsal surface is a small

orbicular scale equalling the bud in size or somewhat smaller; free from its

base. Below is a ventral scale, obovate-oblong and slightly narrowed at the

base. It is persistent throughout. The lower half or two-thirds of this scale

is fixed, the remainder free. It exhibits a more or less lunate arrangement

of raphids. On either side of the ventral scale there is a small broadly ovate

scale. Both scales are composed of single layers of cells and are transparent.

A longitudinal section through the centre of a resting bud at an early stage

of development into.a new frond reveals an elliptic body of embryonic tissue

' Description mainly after Cooke.

2 2-4 lines, Gray (Man. Bot. N.U.S.A., 479).

® e-1y nerved: Hegelmaier. In figure 12 of table xv Hegelmaier.

“ *Rocts many’ Hook, ‘up to 16 roots’ Hegelmaier.

5 Not observed by me in fresh. material.

‘It has been my experience that two ovules only are developed,

” Position ovule has already been discussed, )

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Sos. PLATE V.

Del. McCann.

McCann—Indian Duckweeds. Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.)

For explanation see end of article,

Journ. Bembay Nat. Hist. Soc.

. i: 2 * ad

We Css ig

a5, SONS,

. e BY ws

Del. McCann.

McCann—Indian Duckweeds.

Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.)

For explanation see end of article,

PLATE VI-

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS 157

in a cavity with a narrow passage leading to the base of the dorsal scale. A

similar section at a later stage of growth shows the elongation of the embry-

onic tissue up the passage, while at the same time, another projection of the

embryonic tissue thrusts its way towards the free base of the ventral scale.

These developments represent the formation of the future frond and_ root

respectively. As the new frond develops it protrudes below the dorsal scale

and finally pushes it to the ventral surface. The new root does not displace

the ventral scale but perforates it. In S. polyrrhiza usually only one root

pierces the scale but occasionally two may do so, particularly in large speci-

mens. The other roots form-below the free portion of the scale thereby push-

ing it aside.

Spathe.—The spathe is an orbicular ‘saccate’ organ enclosing the floral parts.

It is composed of two layers of cells, is firmer in texture than in Lemna and the

protruding stamens rupture the top giving it the appearance of being bifid or

bilobed. Numerous aggregate crystals and raphids are present in the cells.

Flowering and Fruiting.—Few botanists have ever seen the flowers of

polvrrhiza as it seldom flowers, the place of the flowers being taken by resting

buds. When in flower two ovules are developed, but they never (in mv

experience) mature to seed. The reason for this, as already remarked, I

suspect is due to some imperfection in the floral elements, as the anthers do

not appear to dehisce.

Spirodela oligorrhiza Hegelmaier, Lemnae (1868) 147, t. 16. (PI. I, fig. re

Ge PL WAU)

Lemna oligorrhiza Kurz. Journ. Linn. Soc., ix (1867) 267.

Description.'—Fronds flat, thin suboblique, oblong or obtuse, 2-3 rooted,

purple below. Fronds arranged in circinate groups, 3-4 lines long by 14-2

lines broad, deep green, shining, 1-3 ridges. Roots two, often three, yellow

or greenish, flaccid, very long. Flowers as in L. minor,” but filaments of the

anthers slightly exerted. Pollen granular. Ovules 2—, rarely one, rosy.

Distribution.—India.

Localities.—None.

Note.—A comparison of Kurz’s illustration with those of Hegelmaier’s plate

xvi clearly indicates that these two authors had totally different conceptions

of S. oligorrhiza. Kurz figures the inflorescence minus the spathe, but evid-

ently Hegelmaier had not seen any flowers, as they are not illustrated in

his work: Hegelmaier’s figures of oligorrhiza appear much like those of

polyrrhiza. The number of roots also exceeds the number mentioned by Kurz.

A curious fact is that no worker, as far as I am aware, appears to have

found Kurz’s oligorrhiza since it was described in 1867. Yet Hegelmaier

includes varieties under this species (S. oligorrhiza)! I am inclined to the

view that Hegelmaier’s oligorrhiza is no other than S. polyrrhiza. How are

we to account for the disappearance of oligorrhiza? A critical analysis of

Kurz’s illustrations tempts me to say that the artist has confused two different

plants, a Lemna and a Sphirodela. In his description of S. oligorrhiza Kurz

indicates that the fronds are arranged in ‘circinate groups’, figure 1 does not

bear this out. Such grouping of fronds as depicted in figure 1 I have not

observed in any Indian species. Figures 2, 3 and 4 are enlargements of the

plants showing fronds, roots and inflorescence in situ. In my opinion the

shape of the frond is that of L. minor. Kurz recognised this fact and wrote,

‘It has the size and form of L. minor, but the bright green surface and purple-

coloured undersurface of L. polvrrhiza’. The last clause of this sentence is

difficult to explain—no Indian Lemna or Spivodela, 1 know, has a_ purple

undersurface barring S. polyrrhiza (and S. maxima). Again multiple roots in

a Lemna are difficult to account for—in Lemna the root is solitary—unless

we admit that the artist has confused two different plants. Figure 4 seems

? Description after Kurz.

4 This -statement is rather misleading as the inflorescence in Lemna and

Spirodela is similar in arrangement, but the ovule in L. minor is always solitary

whereas in Spirodela there are two ovules,

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

to me to be a flowering frond of L. minor, but here again the three roots is

the obstacle. Figure 5 is undoubtedly the inflorescence of a Spirodela, but

the spathe has been omitted. The female flower as depicted agrees closely

with my own figure of the inflorescence of S. polvrrhiza.

As the plants were growing together such an error may quite easily occur.

Young and feeble plants of S. polyrrhiza frequently have but few roots.

The type sheet of Kurz’s Ll. oligorrhiza is in the herbarium of the Royal

Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta. Unfortunately circumstances do not per-

mit my examining this sheet. Pressed material of Lemnaceae is very unsatis-

factory as the size of the plants and the delicateness of the tissues, particularly

the roots, soon damage and examination of such material will undoubtedly

lead to poor results.

Strangely enough Kurz’s oligorrhiza was recorded from Australia in 1888.

Dr. W..Wools in an article, Lemnaceae or Duckweeds [Proc. Linn. Soc.

N.S.W., 2nd series iii (1888) 1247] records :—

‘Of the genus Lemna, the Baron (Baron Mueller) gives for Australia five

species, three of which, L. trisulca (Linn.), L. minor (Linn.) and L. gibba

(Linn.), have only one root or fibre; whilst L. oligorrhiza (Kurz), which

the writer collected in Paramatta, has five roots or more, and L. polyrrhiza

(Linn.) a cluster of many.

Dr. Wools says that oligorrhiza ‘has five roots or more’ while Kurz says,

‘reots 2-3’; and this seems to show that the two, oligorrhiza and polyrrhiza

were merely separated by him (Dr. Wools) on the number of roots. As I

doubt the specific value of oligorrhiza, I am of opinion that the two Australian

‘species’ as recorded by Dr. Wools are one and the same plant.

Spirodela maxima McCann nov. comb. (Text-fig. 1).

Lemna maxima Blatt. & Hall. Journ. Ind. Bot., v, 11 (1921) 49.

Description’.—Fronds herbaceous, flat on both surfaces, not spongy, grow-

ing in humid soil, thinly coriaceous, brittle, opaque, symmetrical, suborbicular,

Fig. 1.—Spivodela maxima comb. nov.

broadly ovate or obovate, about 13 mm. long by 10 mm. broad, g_nerved.”

upper surface deep green, lower purple, from the lower surface numerous

(about 17), fascicled roots 30 mm. long are given off, young fronds sessile.

‘ Description after Blatter & Hallberg.

* Many more nerved.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VII.

one ane ome

een any,

NO arm PPR ET GET OS oe

McCann—Indian Duckweeds. Spirodela oligorrhiza Hegelm. (figs. 1-6).

Reproduced from Kurz’s illustration (Linn. Soc. Journ. Bot., Vol. TEX, p. 5).

For explanation see end of article.

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCK WEEDS 159

Distribution.—India.

Localities —Achalgar, Mt. Abu, 1,300 mm. Rajputana (Blatter 1856,

type), McCann!

Note.—The type No. 1856, Herb. St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, I fear is

now non-existant. 1 was with the authors at the time when the original

plants were collected. On the 15th December 1938 I had the opportunity

of revisiting Achalgar where I obtained fresh material for study. The original

material was collected from a gently flowing stream, an overflow of an arti-

ficial tank. At the time of my second visit the stream was dry, but I obtained

sufficient material from the tank, which material, in the absence of the type,

may now be considered the topotype. The slushy banks of the tank were

covered thickly with growths of maxima, which had sent roots into the soil.

In the original description the authors stated 9-nerved; on an examination

of the fresh material obtained by me I find that there are many more nerves,

double the number. In the preserved specimens the nerves appear canali-

culate and radiate from the point above where the roots appear below, to the

margin. The margin is hyaline or nearly so and tinged with purple (fresh).

The basal scale is perforated by two roots as a general rule.

In my opinion S. maxima is very likely an extremely large and vigorous

form of S. polyrrhiza, but until such time as I am able to obtain the flowers

the species must stand.

Genus: Wolffia

Wolffia the smallest flowering plants in the world. Here the entire plant

is reduced to a minute ‘globule’ of vegetative tissue with an_ internal

‘axial’ portion embedded in it, which gives rise to new fronds and the floral

elements. The axial portion is inseparable from the rest of the plant. When

not in flower there is no indication of any groove or ‘pit’ in which the floral

elements appear, but when in flower the single stamen and pistil appear oul

of a circular ‘pit’. The frond as a definite anterior and posterior end, and

the new frond is developed from the posterior ‘pocket’. Soon after bearing fruit

the entire frond dies and sinks to the bottom of its habitat together with the seed.

Roots.—None.

Resting buds.—No resting buds: have been observed.

Male flower.—-The male flower is solitary, composed of a single stamen. The

anther is globular, mounted on a short filament. It splits across the top when

mature. Hooker and Fischer refer to the ‘anther as being sessile, but actually

this is not the case, as the anther is shortly stalked. Pollen as in the order.

Pistil—As in Lemna. The stigma matures a little after the anther. On

the mature stigma there is always a globule of a viscid (?) secretion. When

removed another droplet appears shortly after, as in Lemna. ‘This stigmatic droplet

was first observed in Wolffia. Its significance is difficult to surmise, but it

probably has some bearing on fertilization—the pollen grains sticking readily

to the globule.

Fertilization.—The anther matures a little before the stigma. The pollen

spreads over the surface of the plant, but fertilization may be effected by

contact with adjacent plants, by insects crawling over the plants resulting

in cross-fertilization ; or self-fertilization may result .by the pollen of the same

individual reaching the droplet on the stigma.

Ovule.—Solitary and erect. The plants seed profusely.

Spathe.—None.

Dispersal—As in the order.

Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.). (Pl. VII, figs. 7-12, Pl. VII] & IX).

Lemna arrhiza “Linn. Mant. 2 (1771) 294.

Description’.—A minute, granular, floating plant. Fronds opaque, sub-

globose, ovate or ovate-oblong or elliptical when viewed from above, I-1.5 mm.

long, silghtly convex above, highly convex below, rootless; young fronds soli-

tary and sessile, arising from a pocket at the base of the old frond. Flowers

+ Description partly after Cooke.

i60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

arising from a central cup-like hollow in the centre of the frond. Spathe

o. Male flower solitary. Stamen short, slightly exceeding the depth of the

floral cup; anther globose, 1-celled; pollen echinate. Female flower solitary.

Ovary globose or ovoid; ovule solitary. Seed ovoid, slightly umbonate at the

top. ; | '

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan.

Localities.—Dehli, 12-2-36 (S. H. Meheralli 174!); Sibpur, Royal Botanic

Gardens, 2-8-35 (Biswas!), (McCann!); Lat, Ichalkaranji Jagir, Deccan,

mix with Lemna (K. V. Tamhankar !); Alapakham, Chingleput Dist., Nov. 1937

(Barnes !); Thana, in a weedy tank mixed with Lemna, 2-9-35 (H. Abdulali !);

Ghorbundar,! Salsette, in a masonry tank, 11-3-37 in flower (McCann !); Uttan,*

Thana Dist., in a well mixed with Lemna, 24-2-40 (McCann !); Belgaum, in

a well, 6-6-38 (McCann !).

CONCLUSION.

Of the six species of Lemna mentioned in this paper two L.

trisulca and L. gibba, do not appear to occur in India and must

accordingly be excluded from the Indian Flora. L. paucicostata,

L. Blatteri and perhaps also L. Eleanorae are probably identical

with L. minor, but must for the present be regarded as distinct

till the subject has been further investigated. The original des-

criptions are in many cases so meagre and the plants so variable

within limits, that they have tempted authors (myself included) to

create new species often based on the fronds alone. In the case of

L. Eleanorae, I created the species in order to give a description

which would include details which do not tally with those of the

other species as described at present. Further I have given details

of the development and other notes of interest.

Of the three species of Spirodela, | regard S. maxima as being

an extreme form of S. polyrrhiza, but must leave it separate for the

present until such time as flowers are obtained. S. oligorrhiza |

regard as a composition of the characters of L. minor and S. polyr-

rhiza and therefore no species.

Wolffia arrhiza I believe to be the only species of the genus

occurring within Indian limits.

Thus, if my views are correct, the Indian members of Lemnaceae

amount to three: L. minor L.; S. polyrrhiza L. and W. arrhiza L.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I wish to express my thanks to the following gentlemen for

sending me material of Lemnaceae from their respective districts:

Mr. K. Biswas, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta; the late

Col. A. G. Frere, 1.a.; Mr. H. Abdulali, Andheri, Bombay Suburb ;

Mir Barnes) Vin ey hanna ean aOony a: blancs Vim)

Fernandes, Hyderabad (Deccan). Dr. W. C. O. Hill, Medical

College, Colombo, Ceylon. To Mr. C. E. C. Fischer, Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew, for copies of certain literature; to Dr. Baini Prashad.

Indian Museum, Calcutta, for the photographic copy of Kurz’s

plate; and lastly but not least to Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, St. Xavier’s

' Entire surface of tank covered thick with this plant only.

* The well was not more than 500 yds. from high tide level.

“aj93j40 fo pua aes uosypunidxa 40g

(UUITT) BZFQIIe BOW “Spaomyonqg ueipuy—uurgoj,

‘UURDIW ‘JOE

oot

JIA ALVId ae °90G ‘“JSIEF “3UN) Avqmog ‘usnor

“XI ALVI1d

= Snel ao.

oats te em ane

aos

aanaszamesens Taw

uul”

YT) BZpYIIB BOA -spoom3onq ueIpuj—uuE DOI

“UUBDIW “eq

Rr Ree

"905 ‘JSIE] "UN Avqmiog ‘uiner

—_-

OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN DUCKWEEDS 161

College, Bombay, for going through the MS. and making useful

suggestions.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PiatTeE I.

kig. 1.—Lemna minor (Seedling).

Figs. 2, 3 and 4.—L. paucicostata.

Fig. 5.—L. gibba.

Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9.—L. trisulca.

Fig. 10.—Spirodela oligorrhiza.

PuateE II.

Lemna Eleanorae McCann sp. nov.

_ Fig. 1.—Entire plants.

(9)

Fig, 2.—Longitudinal outline of fronds showing conical spikes.

Figs. 3 and 5.—Inflorescence.

Figs. 4 and 7.—Pistil.

Figs. 6, 8 and g.—Fruit: (6) Young fruit; (8) a little older, seed horizontal ;

seed in vertical position.

Prate III.

Lemna Eleanorae McCann sp. nov.

Fig. 1.—Germinating pollen.

Fig. 2.—Transverse section of frond. P. pistil; L.F. lower flap of ‘pocket’ ;

. ovule; R.A. root appendage; R. root. (spathe not drawn).

Figs. 3-7.—Sections of germinating seed. 3, 6 and 7, L.S.. of seed; 4 T.S.

seed; 5 L.S. of embryo.

PLaTE IV.

Lemna Eieanorae McCann. sp. nov.

Fig. 1.—Germinating seed showing cotyledon (ist stage, 14-5-36).

Fig. 2.—Further stage in development with first frond (19-5-36).

Fig. 3.—Fig. 2 viewed from above.

Fig. 4.—Same as Fig. 2 but frond reversed to show root appearing.

Fig. 5.—The same plant with two fronds on 26-5-36 (No roots developed

as yet).

eesti LLOnd pies 2nd: trondem ke snoot:

PLATE V.

Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.)

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of plants.

Fig. 2.—Ventral aspect.

Fig. 3.—Texture of undersurface.

. Fig. 4.—Spathe only. :

Figs. 5 and 6.—Inflorescence with spathe.

Fig. 7.—Pistil (side view).

Fig. 8.—Pistil and stamens (ventral view).

Fig. 9.—Anther.

Fig. 10.—Ventral aspect of frond showing details.

Fig. 11.—Dorsal'aspect of frond. (L.F.=lower flap of frond; N.F.=new

frond; R.=roots; V.S.=ventral scale of frond; A.X.=axial thread).

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIt

PiateE VI.

Spirodela polyrrhiza (Linn.).

Fig. 1.—Resting bud (dorsal aspect).

Fig. 2.—Resting bud (ventral aspect).

Fig. 3.—Developing resting bud (dorsal aspect).

Fig. 4.—Same (ventral aspect).

Figs. 5 and 6.—L. S. through resting bud.

_ A=attachment; C=raphids; D.S.=dorsal scale; I*'.=flap of ventral scale,

prety frond; Pb=pigment body; R=root; Rbresting bud; V.S.=ventral

scale.

PiLatE VII.

Figs. 1-6.—Spirodela oligorrhiza Hegelm.

Figs. 7-12.—Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.) Figs.

For explanation vide text, pp. 120-21.

Pirate VIII.

Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.).

Figs. 1, 2 and 3.—Top view of flowering plants.

Figs. 4, 5 and 6.—Side view of same.

Note the droplet of secretion on the stigma in Fig. 6.

Piate IX.

Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.).

Fig. 1.—Dorsal outline of plant with bud of new frond.

Fig. 2.—Transverse outline of plant.

Fig. 3.—Plant showing ‘socket’ of new frond.

Fig. 4.—Showing position of floral parts.

Fig. 5.—Pistil and stamen. :

Fig. 6.—As fig. 5, showing texture of stamen.

Fig. 7.—Stamen dehieced.

Fig. 8.—Cross-section of outline of seed.

Fig. 9.—Seed.

Fig. 10.—Structure of floral cavity.

lig. 11.—Stomata.

‘soy4g TAUGNHM (YOL) sAgUVa

‘Joosye VIpNyy oy],

‘90S “LSI “LYN AvaINOg ‘NuNof

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.*:

( ,

SUNDER LaL Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F-R-A.S.B., F.N.I.

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one coloured plate and one black and white plate)

(Continued from page 815 of Vol, xi, No. 4.)

XV. THE MAHSEERS OR THE LARGE-SCALED BARBELS OF INDIA.

8. ON THE SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF SYKES’S SPECIES OF Barbus FROM

THE DECCAN.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction ape an ee 58 dh PeilOS

Barbus mussullah Sykes an & Bae te Be FS oe LO

Barbus khudree Sykes one Ti an stele os er LOd

Acknowledgments sit te yt bls Aes LOS

List of References 3 re ae aon Py. ca 168

Explanation of Plates be SB 3% ts sas HOD

INTRODUCTION.

Having discussed chronologically in the preceding six articles

the specific limits of the Large-scaled Barbels described by Hamilton

(4, pp. 303-307)? and McClelland (7, pp. 333-338) from Northern

India, we now turn to the species of Barbus described by Sykes

torn iavey IDeecgym, Iba insite, Sykes) “(Gia GG) ep IS aoa eetoR 38

pp. 356-358) read a paper before the Zoological Society of London

‘On the Fishes of the Deccan’, and described 3 new Barbels, viz.,

B. mussullah, B. khudree and B. kolus. Of these, B. kolus with

two barbels, an interrupted labial groove and_ pertaining to

Hamilton’s subgenus Puntius has been recognised as a valid species

by later workers (3, p. 136; 2, p. 573), while the taxonomy of the

other two has till recently been in a state of great confusion. In

1919, Annandale (1, p. 135) referred certain specimens from the

Kistna river to B. mussullah and commented upon the specific

characters of the species; while in 1938, Hora and Misra (9, p. 24)

discussed and defined the specific limits of Barbus khudree. It

must, however, be understood that, judging by the present standards,

1 Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of

the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Sykes’s descriptions are inadequate and his drawings! inaccurate

in several respects. We have, therefore, very meagre data to rely

upon for elucidating the taxonomy of his species, and a collection

of topotypes is essential for defining the specific limits of all the

forms described by him from the Deccan. In view of the examina-

tion of a large amount of additional material of B. khudree from

the Western Ghats and the information collected, through the kind-

ness of Dr. M. Suter, p.sc., from the respective type localities of

B. mussullah and B. khudree, 1 am in a somewhat better position

to evaluate the specific limits of these forms.

Barbus mussullah Sykes,

The following is the full description of the species as given by

Sykes. (11, pp--356, 357):

‘Pectoral fins of .16 rays; ventral of g rays; dorsal fin of 12 rays, including

the first double ray: tail forked, of 24 rays, including the short rays at each

exterior side of the insertion of the tail: a remarkabie projecting prominence

between the upper lip and nostrils, giving to the fish the appearance of being

Roman-nosed: the eyes are situated far back, and between the eyes and the

corners of the mouth there are a number of circular, rough, prominent papillae,

but these are not constant: corners of the mouth furnished with a short teeler,

and the base of the nasal prominence, near the tip, also furnished with one

on each side: dorsal fin in the centre of the back, on a prominence which slopes

suddenly behind; ventral fins on the centre of ‘the belly, on a perpendicular from

the first dorsal ray: tail suddenly narrows below, atter the anal fin; anal fin

with the posterior angle bluntly rounded off. The lateral line is slightly arched

at the shoulder, then falls,” and runs straight to the anal fin; over this it rises

a little, and then runs straight to the centre of the fork of the tail. The whole

of the upper parts of the fish are covered with large’, coarse silvery scales,

having blue and red reflections, and on the under parts a yellow tinge prevails ;

it is very bony, and its length, to the end of the tork of the tail, is 12 inches,

and height, 3 inches; but its greatest growth is 5 feet. When small this

species resembles the Kolus, but in the latter the colour is more reddish-silvery :

the fins are reddish, and the Mussullah is a much coarser, and infinitely larger

fish. A male brought to me at Seroor*, from the Goreh river, measured in

' Regarding his fish illustrations, Sykes (9, p. 157) observed :

‘lt only remains to state that the whole of my fishes were drawn from

absolute measurements, and have a scale of size attached to each figure ;

they were caught in the various rivers on whose banks I encamped, as _ indi-

viduals were required; so that my draftsman, who worked constantly under

my own eye, never had to finish his drawings from shrivelled and discoloured

specimens.’ f

In spite of this assurance, unfortunately much reliance cannot be placed on

Sykes’s illustrations for the correct identification of the species described by

him.

* A perusal of the account of the species described by Sykes shows that

by ‘large’ scales he means up to 44 scales along the lateral line, as all his

species with ‘small’ scales possess 60-70 scales along the lateral line. Sykes’s

drawing of B. mussullah clearly shows that the species is not characterised by

large scales in the sense the term is used in the present series of articles.

* Regarding the type-locality of Barbus mussullah, Dr. M. Suter has very

kindly given the following note :—

‘I believe that Sykes’s ‘‘Seroor’’ must be identical with the place called

“Sirur’? on modern maps. This is a large village 43 miles from Poona on the

road to Ahmednagar. It figures in Grant Duff’s History of the Mahrattas as

‘*Seroor’’ and also in the Gazetteers, and was formerly a military Cantonment.

It is situated on the Ghod river. The last consonant, being palatal, is pro-

nounced more like an ry than like ad and the name sounds more like Ghore.’

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 165

length 3 feet 4 inches, and in height 1 foot, and weighed nearly 42 Ibs. avoirdu-

pois. Lhe flesh wanted flavour. The Mussullah differs from the Mosal of

Dr. Hamilton, in having 1 ray less in the dorsal and pectoral fins, and in the

first rays of these fins being double instead of quadruple; in the latter respect,

and indeed in many others, resembling the C. Putitora: it also difiers in

having the nose and upper lip tuberculated, and in colour. The prominence

on the nose is also marked. Russell describes three Barbels, calling them

Cyprini, but none of them are identical with the present fish.’

In spite of the above fairly long but generalised description and

figure of B. mussullah, it was not possible for later ichthyologists

to recognise its identity. Ginther (5, p. 83) regarded it as a species

inguirendum and Day (2, p. 565) included it in the synonymy of his

composite Barbus tor. Annandale (1, p. 135) in rescuing this species

from obscurity observed :

‘Sykes’s description of this fish is inadequate, and his figure inaccurate,

but he refers to and illustrates one trivial but apparently constant? character

that gives me confidence in identifying specimens sent by Mr. Mclver. ‘Lhis

character is the presence under the eye of a group ot small tubercles not

confined to one sex and visible with the aid of a lens in quite young fish.

‘A more important differential character, not recognized by Sykes but

shown in his figure, is, however, to be found in the structure of the mouth,

the opening of which is much more oblique than in any race of Barbus tor.

The extremity of the maxillary les directly under the middle part of the

eye. [his feature is well shown on plate III. There are 13 (3/10) dorsal

and 8 (3/5) anal fin-rays; 25-26 scales in the lateral line, 4 rows of scales

above it and 3 below.

‘B. mussullah is common in the upper Kistna, where it occurs with the local

race of B. tor. The Mahratta fishermen of Satara never fail to distinguish the

two species. B. tor they call Kudis; B. mussullah, Masundi. Mr. McIver, to

whom I am indebted for this information, has caught a , Sesetontesa of the Masundi

21 lbs. in weight.’

Spence and Prater (9, p. 46) have given a brief account. of

B. mussullah after Annandale and have also recorded B. tor from

the Deccan.

I have examined Annandale’s specimens of B. mussullah (local

name: Masundi) and B. tor (local name: Kudis) from the Kistna

river. If the tubercles’ on the snout constitute a valid specific

character, then we certainly have two distinct species in this

material; the nature of the mouth opening is variable and the two

species cannot be distinguished on this character. An examina-

tion of a large number of specimens from the Western Ghats and

Central India shows that the presence of tubercles on the head is

not a constant feature as was pointed out by Sykes himself. I now

find that some of the specimens from Deolali referred to B. khudree

by Misra and myself (9, pp. 24-28) also possess tubercles. In

fact, the large specimen figured by us has a patch of tubercles on

the sides of the head. These tubercles are small and low, and not

as prominent as those of the Bokar Mahseer, Barbus (Lissochilus)

hexagonolepis McClelland. For this reason, unless they are care-

fully looked for, they are liable to be missed. I am now convinced

1 Sykes stated that the tuberculated condition of the sides of the head is not

constant. In the case of Barbus kolus, Misra and I (5, p. 28, pl. i) found that in

the males the tubercles on the snout are more numerous and prominent, while

in the females only a few small tubercles are present on the sides of the snout,

Similar sexual dimor phism is perhaps characteristic of B. mussullah also,

i66 /OURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLITI

that Annandale’s B. mussullah and B. tor are referrable to a single

species B. khudree Sykes.

What then is Sykes’s B. mussullah? A reference to his des-

cription given above shows that ‘When small, this species resembles

the Avolus, but in the latter, the colour is more reddish-silvery : the

fins are reddish, and the Mussullah is a much coarser, and infinitely

larger fish’. Under the description of B. kolus, Sykes observed:

‘This fish resembies the Mussullah much in form, but the latter

is a larger and coarser fish, and bluer in colour’. He also compared

B. kolus with Hamilton’s Cyprinus curmuca and stated ‘Differs

slightly from the Cyprinus curmuca of Hamilton, in having 2 rays

in the dorsal and 1 in the ventral more, and in the scaly appendage

to the ventral fins.’

A comparison of Sykes’s figures of B. mussullah and B. kolus,

reproduced here, clearly shows the great similarity between the two —

species in the form of the head and the presence of tubercles on the

snout. The differences are in the number of barbels, 4 in the

former and 2 in the latter, and the form of the body.

In the fish-fauna of the Western Ghats, there are two kinds of

Barbels, B. curmuca and B. kolus, in which the snout is produced

and covered with series of tubercles. According to Day (2, p. 567),

B. curmuca attains ‘at least 4 feet in length,’ while B. kolus ‘up-

wards of a foot in length’. It would thus appear that the larger

fish, B. mussullah Sykes, may be identical with Cyprinus curmuca

Hamilton. Unfortunately, Curmuca was described and figured by

Hamilton (Buchanan’s Journey from Madras through the countries

of Mysore, Canara, and, Malabar, III, p. 344, pl. xxx, 1807; 4,

p. 294) with 2 barbels, though in reality this species possesses

4 barbels as described by Day (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 707,

1873; 2, p. 567). This species, as pointed out by Day, is remarkable

in possessing both pairs of barbels on the maxillaries and none on

the snout; the lower barbels are stated to be equal to the length

of the orbit while the upper ones are much shorter and are, there-

fore, liable to be missed, especially when hidden in the maxillary

grooves. It is likely that both Buchanan (afterwards Hamilton)

and Jerdon (Madras Journ, Lit. Sci. XV, p. 306, 1848) overlooked

the upper pair of barbels. In Sykes’s figure of B. mussullah, how-

ever, both pairs of barbels are shown as subequal and arising from

the maxillaries.

The above information regarding the possible identity of

B. mussullah with B. curmuca was supplied to Dr. Suter, who very

kindly undertook to visit Sirur and collect specimens from the type-

locality. He visited Sirur in the latter half of November and sent.

me the following report about his trip in his letter dated the 3rd

December 1941:

‘My trip to Sirur ete. unfortunately proved abortive as far as collecting

specimen of Barbus mussullah Sykes is concerned. The Ghod river at Sirur

is nowadays very silted up and large fish are there available only during and

just after the rainy season.

‘I also visited the pools above and below the confluent of the Mutta-Mulah

and Bhima rivers, which are famous for holding large fish. These pools were,

however, still too deep for netting, and the local fishermen asked me to come

sometime in January or I*ebruary,

PLATE II.

JourN. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Copies of Sykes’s drawings of Barbus mussullah and B. kolus.

a. Barbus mussullah Sykes;

b. Barbus kolus Sykes.

THE GAME FISHES OF iNDIA 167

‘In all the places visited ‘‘imussullah’’ seems to be well known to the fisher-

men. ‘There is no question of these men confusing it with mahaseer, as they all

declared that ‘mussullah’ is quite distinct from mahaseer. They describe it

as a long fish with large scales and with a long head, the mouth being more

blunt than in mahaseer, owing to the upper parts of head and mouth being

higher. This feature corresponds to Sykes’s remark about its being Roman

nosed. It is described as silvery on lower parts and sides and dark on the

back. |

‘When shown the pictures in Day’s book they picked out the picture of

Barbus curmuca as representing ‘mussullah’. This is indeed very interesting,

and I hope another visit to the pools below and above the confluent of the

Bhima and the Mutta-Mulah in the netting season will solve the question.

‘I further visited a large pool in the Mutta-Mulah some 15 miles south-east

of Poona, where the local men gave the same description of ‘mussullah’ as

mentioned by their colleagues at Sirur ete. . They say that they catch this

fish mainly in August and September, after which time the fish retire to the

much deeper pools further downriver.’

Though the absolute identity of B. mussullah with B. curmuca

can only be established after an examination of the specimens from

the type-locality, from the taxonomic findings detailed above and

the field investigations carried out by Dr. Suter, there seems hardly

any doubt that B. mussullah is in all probability a synonym of

B. curmuca. If that be so, mussullah is not a fish of the Mahseer

or Tor-type, but of the Puntius-type.

Barbus khudree Sykes.

Hora and Misra (5, pp. 24-28) have already discussed and

defined the specific limits of Barbus khudree and from the material

that has recently become available from the type-locality it is clear

that this is the Mahseer of the Poona Waterways. Though the

form varies to some extent with age, its general resemblance to

B. mosal (Hamilton) is very striking. As pointed out above, in a

number of specimens of all sizes the lateral sides of the snout are

covered with a patch of small, rather indistinct, tubercles and_ it

was this character which led Aenmnenracalle (1, p. 135) to divide young

specimens from the Kistna river into B. jonesnllan with tubercles

and B. tor without tubercles. The presence or absence of tubercles

may be a secondary sexual character, but the material available

is not sufficient to elucidate this point.

According to Sykes, the anal, ventral and pectoral fins of

B. Rhudree are tipped with blood-colour, but “The same fish, under

varied circumstances of age, has the fins tipped with bluish instead

of red’. Dr. Suter, who has seen many hundreds of Mahseer from

all the rivers of Poona and its environs, informs me that he has

never caught a specimen of B. khudree having the fins tipped with

heGeae lit iS probable that in this region only young specimens up

to ro inches in length have the fins tipped with red while the fins

are bluish in older “individuals. According to Dr. Suter, ‘the fish

attains a much larger size than the limit of 14 feet mentioned by

Sykes, mahaseer up to 35 Ibs. and over having been caught here

on many occasions and fish over 30 Ibs. are caught every year in

the Mutta-Mulah river at Kirkee in the hot weather on balls of

atta (wheat flour)’. These fish are known to reach a weight of

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

50 Ibs. However, in a colour sketch of the Khudree Mahseer col-

lected from Mysore by Messrs. Van Ingen & Van Ingen and sent

to me by Mr. S. H. Prater of the Bombay Natural History Society

the colouration is similar to that described by Sykes. I take the

present opportunity to reproduce it here. I shall deal later with

the sketches and specimens of B. khudree received from Dr. Suter.

It may, however, be pointed out that the vernacular name ‘Khudree’

is not very helpful in determining Sykes’s B. khudree, since Barbus

sarana (Ham.) is called ‘Lal Puree Khadree’ and B. jerdoni Day

‘Sufed Puree Khadree’. Though both these species possess 4 barbels,

the dorsal spine of the former is serrated while that of the latter

is weak. Basing his identification on colouration, Dr. Suter is

inclined to regard B. khudree as identical with B. sarana, but Sykes’s

three species of Barbels were characterized by the possession of a

smooth spine, and the allied species with a serrated spine were

included -by him in other genera.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge with sincere thanks

the help I have received from Dr. M. Suter in elucidating the

probable systematic position ore Sykes’s species of Barbus. My

thanks are also due to Mr. K. S. Misra who helped me in various

ways; in fact the suggestion abe B. mussullah may be identical with

B. curymuca came from him in the first instance. The Bombay

Natural History Society has borne the entire cost of the illustrations

and for this I am indebted to the authorities of the Society. For

the colour sketch of the Mahseer from the Bhavani River and for

several other courtesies, I am obliged to Mr. S. H. Prater.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Annandale, N.—‘The Fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay

Presidency. V. Notes on Freshwater fish mostly from the Satara and Poona

Districts.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xvi, pp. 134-7 (1919).

2. Day, F.—Fishes of India, p. 573 (I. auton, 1878).

3. Giinther, A.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, vol. vil,

p. 136 (London, 1868).

4. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and

its bvanches, pp. 303-307 (Edinburgh, 1822).

s. Hora, S. L. and Misra, K. S.—‘Fish of Deolali. Part III. On Two

New Species and Notes on some other forms.’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc., vol. xl, pp. 24-28 (1938).

6. Hora, S. L.—‘The Game Fishes of India. X.—The Mahseers or the

Large-scaled Barbels of India. 3. The Mosal Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) mosal

(Hamilton).’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, pp. 384-394 (1940).

7. McClelland, J.—‘Indian Cyprinidae.’ Asiatic Researches, vol. xix,

PP. 333-8 (1839). . |

8. Spence, R. and Prater, S..H.—‘Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and

the Neighbouring Districts of the Bombay Presidency.’ Journ, Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvi, pp. 29-66, pls. 19 (1932)

9. Sykes, W. H.—On the Fishes of the Deccan’. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

Pt. vi. pp. 157-165 (1838).

10. Sykes, W. H.—‘On the Fishes of the Deccan.’ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

vol. iv, pp. 54-62 (1840).

t1. Sykes, W. H.—‘On the Fishes of the Deccan.’ Trans, Zool, Sac.

London, vol, ii, pp. 349-378, pl. Ix-Ixvii (1841).

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 169

4XPLANATION OF PLATES.

IPE lL,

A colcur sketch of Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes.

The drawing was made from a specimen collected at Poona, while the

colours were taken from a sketch made by Messrs. Van Ingen & Van Ingen

of Mysore of a Bhavani River Mahseer 4 feet g inches in length and go lbs.

in weight.

The general colour is mauvish neutral above and silvery below; each scale

is provided with a black margin and golden line in the middle. The sides

of the head are marked with pale gold or pale greenish gold colours and the

iris is golden silvery. The ventral surface of the head is bright silvery-white.

The pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are pinkish while the dorsal and caudal

fins are pinkish red.

BeArrols

Copies of Sykes’s drawings of Barbus mussullah and B. kolus,

a, Barbus mussullah Sykes; b, Barbus kolus Sykes,

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR

ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

M. SayrEpup-Drn,

Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan.

(IVith three plates).

(Continued from page 818 of Vol. xlii, No. 4).

’ I[X.—NICOTIANA PLUMBAGINIFOLIA VIV.

(Solanaceae).

SYSTEMATIC. DESCRIPTION.

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv., Elench, pl. Hort. Dinegro, 26, t. 5

H.F.B.I., V. iv, 246; Mayuranathan, F!. Madras, City, 201

Sayeedud-Din, Common FI, Pits. Hyd., 67; Kashyap, Lahore Dist.

IIR 1ke2e

An erect annual branched herb attaining a height of about 2 ft.

All parts covered with-sticky glandular hairs. Lower leaves form-

ing a rosette at the base, elliptic -lanceolate with entire margin and

obtuse apex, reaching up to Jo in. in length (in some specimens

these are not present); upper I saves lanceolate, more or less acute,

up to 4 in. long, margin wavy. Flowers in distant racemes at the

end of branches. Onis: shout 4 in. long, segments 5 or more

cleft te more than half the length of the calyx, triangular-lanceolate,

acuminate, Corolla narrow, salver-shaped with a long tube, linear,

light pink, about 14 in, long, lobes 5, lanceolate-oblong. Stamens

5, attached to the ‘corolla-tube ; anthers opening by pores; pollen

grains ellipsoidal. Ovary superior, 2-celled, with axile placentation.

Fruit an ovoid capsule with many seeds (Plates I & II). Flowers

during the rainy season between Aug. & Nov. It flowers from Aug.

to April in Madras, and from Feb. to June in the Punjab.

we we

HABITAT.

This plant was evidently not found in North India when Stewart

(15), Collett (2), and Bamber (1) wrote their floras, nor was it to

be met with in Western India when Dalzell (4), Cooke (3) and Nairne

(11) took up their floras. Hooker (7) records it and mentions that

‘it is the only species of Nicotiana that has established itself in

1 As the galley proof of this paper was being corrected I was reminded of

a reference to this plant by M. B. Raizada who mentions that this plant is

a weed of waste places in Dehra Dun and several other localities within the

AveaN (Jets Baas VCuEKY MeN Onn) MDH mTOR ROO).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLAGE I:

Sayeedud-Din.—Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

For explanation see end of article.

PLATE II.

Sac,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Sayeedud-Din.— Nicotiana plumbagiaifolia Viv.

For explanation see end of article,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc. PLATE FUL.

Sayeedud-Din.—Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

For explanation see end of articie.

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 171

India’. Even Gamble (6) does not record it as growing in the Madras

Presidency, while Mayuranathan (10) in his more recent publication

mentions it as growing along roadsides in Eemore, and remarks that

it has RECS thoroughly established i in the city. The other references

are by Sayeedud-Din (13) and Kashyap (9). The author first found

it In 1934, growing near a gutter, and subsequently it was found in

many moist spots. Kashyap remarks that “it is a common in-

troduced weed. It first came to Benegal but has now spread all over

northern India from Assam to Punjab.’

_ Distribution: A native of Mexico and the West Indies, naturalized

in Bengal, Punjab and South India.

ANATOMICAL NOTES.

Structure of the leaf. Leaves are bifacial. Stomata occur on

both sides of the leaf, but. are more iL Me ROUT on the lower side.

Vhey are surrounded by three or four ordinary epidermal cells, and

develop according to the Cruciferous type (according to Vesque-—-

Solereder, 14)s (Plate Wim iics 3).

Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of crystal sand and solitary

crystals of varied shapes. The occurrence of crystal sand in the

genera Solanum and Lycium has been recorded by Sabnis (12).

The hairy covering consists of ordinary clothing and glandular

hairs which are present both on the leaves and the stem. The ordinary

trichomes are simple, uniseriate, and provided with a pointed ter-

minal cell. The glandular hairs consist of a stalk of varied length

and an ellipsoidal head divided into several (usually 2 to 4) cells

by horizontal walls only. The head Colmes dense contents (Plate

Ill, Figs. 1 & 2).

Structure of the stem (Plate III, Figs. 4 & 5). Stomata occur on

the epidermis and are slireouncded by ordinary eotdermial cells as

in the leaf. In the young stem the cortex contains chlorenchyma

differentiated like palisade tissue, and collenchyma. The presence

of intraxylary phloem i is very characteristic, but it is not accompanied

by sclerenchymatous fibres as in other genera. Isolated groups

of bast fibres are present in the pericycle. The vessels have simple

perforations. The medullary rays are uniseriate and narrow. An en-

dodermis is present. The pith consists of unlignified cells. In the

old stem development of cork has been noticed. It is sub-epidermal!

in origin, and consists of thin-walled cells with wide lumina, and

includes scattered groups of stone-cells. .

Structure of the petiole. The vascular system consists of a bi-

collateral are of xylem and phloem.

Many of the observations tally with those recorded by Solereder

in other species of Nicotiana, and by him and Sabnis in other genera

and species. This shows that many of these features are character-

istic of Solanaceae. .

The following are the chief anatomical features of Nicotiana

plumbaginifolia Viv. :

1. Stomata are surrounded by three or four ordinary epidermal

cells.

2. The development of cork is sub- -epidermal, Cork includes

stone-cells also,

172, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLT

3. The hairy covering consists of ordinary uniseriate trichomes,

and stalked glandular hairs. The latter consist of a stalk and an

ellipsoidal head divided by horizontal walls only.

4. Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of crystal sand and ordinary

solitary crystals. .

5. Inthe stem occurrence of intraxylary soft bast is characteristic.

Besides this, palisade-like chlorenchyma and collenchyma occur in

the cortex. |

6. Petiole contains a bicollateral arc of xylem and phloem.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I am thankful to Mr. Sri Ramloo for the preparation of the

drawings, and to my pupils for preparing the slides.

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

Bamber, Col. C.J.—Plants of the Punjab, p. 311 (1916).

Collet, Col. Sir Henry—Flora Simlensis, p. 341 (1902).

. Cooke, T.—Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, pt. ii, p. 276 (1905).

Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora, pp. 174-176; and Suppl.

pp. 60-63 (1861).

s. Duthie, J. F.—Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain, vol. ii, p. 134 (1911).

6. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, pt. v. p. 932 (1932):

>. Hooker, J.D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, p. 246 (1882).

8. Kanjilal, P. C.—A Forest Flora for Pilibhit, Oudh,. Gorakhpur and

Bundelkhand, p. 270. (1933).

9. Kashyap, S. R.—Lahore District Flora, pp. 182-183 (1936).

ro. Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of Madras City and its

immediate neighbourhood, pp. 201-202 (1929).

‘ir. Nairne, A. K.—The Flowering Plants of Western India, p. 210 (1894).

12. Sabnis, T. S.—The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian

Desert. J. I. B., vol. ii, No. 3, pp. 71-73 (1921).

Ie eae None ene Common Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad

State, their distribution, economic and medicinal importance. [BAPSEB eran Ces

Oy yh INCE. ty fds “yA (08 ; :

14. arene VR A Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Engl. Ed., vol. 1,

Pp. 575-582 (1908).

15. Stewart, J. L.Punjab Plants, p. 157 (1860).

tO) N &

EXPLANATION OF PLaTEs I-ITT.

PuateE I.

Photograph of Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Puate II.

Fig. 1. Black and white drawing of a young plant of Nicotiana plumbaginifolia

Viv., after removing the side branches (Nat. size).

Fig. 2. Corolla opened out (x 1).

Figy 3. Pistil with calyx attached (Seis

Asa Se Ovatsya (ietO))

Fig. :

=) .

. Pollen grain (xX 150).

Fig.

Prate III.

Fig. 1. An ordinary trichome (1150):

Fig. 2. A glandular hair (x _150).

Fig. 3. Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata (X 300).

Fig. 4. Stem-epidermis, showing stomata (X 150). , a

IMbety Bo bo ts Stem, showing s, stoma; ¢, chlorenchyma ; coll, collenchyma ; e,

endodermis; p, pericycle; s.b., soft bast; x, xylem portion ; i. ph., intraxylary

phloem ; pi, pith. (X 300),

Sp a

ant at

”

044

Pay eet

a -¢

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

OF “GRANDMOTHERS”. 55 and 75 pounds.

taken at the famous Confluence N. of Myitkyina,

A BRACI

(4a

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER

SPORTING FISH IN INDIA‘AND BURMA.

_ BY

A. St. J. Macpona.p.

(With 1 plate and 2 text-figures).

RAR I

INTRODUCTION.

It is chiefly because I have been pressed by friends, both through

the press and directly, and that the last book published on Indian

fishing is eighteen years old (The Mighty Mahseer by Skene Dhu}

that I am attempting to w rite this account. <A series of articles on

the ‘Game Fishes of India’ by Dr. S. L. Hora is being published

in this Journal. It is written mainly from the scientific aspect

and is directed to provide accurate information about the status

and distribution of Indian Game Fishes. If one is to write about

‘Mahseer’, one should in the first instance know what species of

fish one is writing about. At present we do not know how many

different species of fish are included under the name ‘“Mahseer’

Dr. Hora’s work is directed to unravel these and other problems.

The present work deals with the subject, purely from the fisherman’s

point of view. It has been my intention to write chiefly for the

young angler, and for those with less experience than my own,

and to provide all the information required without having to pur-

chase for a start the other books published on fishing in India.

For this reason I have included much that would appear unneces-

sary to the possessor of the Rod in India, or other works. 1

have tried, further, to include here information which has not

been dealt with previously, but which will be of interest to anglers

in general.

I have refrained from giving long narratives of fights with fish,

or large bags made; these are beside my object. I wish to see

ten rods fish in the place of one, and to encourage the study of

the mahseer.

I will ask the reader to bear in mind these aims. What I have

written is written by an angler for the angler. . I offer little to the

experienced, merely the point of view of the individual. My aim

is to help some to catch more fish than they already have done,

and to others to start at the beginning. This work does not

presume to have any literary value, or any interest outside the

subject to which it is devoted. Tt is an endeavour to impart

knowledge of the subject, to those prepared to accept my simple

expression. based on experience, of the best ways to master she

many aspects of angling in India and Burma.

T offer my advice for what it is. worth, so that it may he a

guide and help in starting you off on an angling carter to obtain

sport as good as any in the world: for a fish that takes two to

fot

£ JOURNAL, BOMBAY] NAITO RATE SELSTAsS OC UEMpVemViol exe IL

three minutes per pound to kill, on fly rod and light tackle, cannot

be despised by any angler. I refer of course to the mahseer, to

which this book is chiefly devoted.

Eighteen years is a long period of time to cover. From the

angler’s point of view, much of the water that was good has been

spoilt either by canal systems or development; but there is. still

plenty of scope for the keen angler, and sport is as good. I have

perhaps neither the qualifications nor the experience of many others

in the country today, but I have waited 18 long years for a lead

and to all of you whose experience outweighs my own, this 1s my

answer !

Nine years ago I was approached, as I have Salas said, to

write a book on fishing; after much correspondence and trouble |

got it compiled. I derived a great deal of pleasure in doing so,

but the publishers fought shy, as the expense of publication would

not, in their opinion, be covered by the demand for such a book in

India and Burma. It was full of maps, sketches, and photographs,

but not any more than a book by a plant hunter or big. game

writer. Why big game in India can stand so much _ publication

(almost a bock or two a year), and fishing not one in 18 years I

fail to understand. Especially as there is almost a boring’ repeti-

tion of facts appearing in recently written shikar books; nor can

it be that for every man keen on big game less than one in eighteen

is an angler! However, the fact remains that the book was not

published. Now, to meet the still pressing demand, I have cut

down maps, sketches and photographs to a minimum; and to keep

within the limits of publication, and publishers fears, I have con-

densed the original book into 250 pages of twelve chapters.

The chapter on practical Natural History, which is in a strict

sense not about natural history as the ‘giants’ know it, but a simple

and straightforward way of studying fish for purposes of identifi-

cation, should not deter the reader who need have no fears of being

bored by long lists of Latin names and technical definitions. There »

is nothing in this chapter with which a good angler should not be

familiar.

I am indebted to Dr. Sunder -Lal Hora, Director of Fisheries,

Bengal, and Dr. T. J. Job for kindly going through and rearranging

the chapter, and to Dr. Hora’s artist for the excellent labelled

drawings of the Putitor Mahseer.

I have also dealt with the scientific aspects of angling not

hitherto touched on by any of the writers on Indian fishing; in fact

there is much in contradiction to their interpretation of the senses

of fish, and their reaction to artificial lures. In order to elucidate

the practical interpretation of the senses of a fish it has in the

first place been necessary to quote freely from the world authority,

Norman, and others, so as to acquaint the reader with facts about

fishes not generally understood, and which do not ordinarily come

his way. The practical application of the senses as applied to

angling are of course my own, based on individual experience.

Only a practical test will convince the angler whether my inter-

pretation is right or wrong.

Hints to the Novice on the subject of tackle, with aids to its

selection from confusing price lists and catalogues; a few general

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER i

bas EY

remarks on casting with fly and spinning rod; the points to remember

while playing a fish; where to look for fish; with a few suggestions

on kit and the conditions likely to be met with on a fishing trip have

been included. Most of these are dealt with again, and in more

detail.

The subject of ‘Tackle for Mahseer’ has» been subdivided for

purposes of convenience into heavy, light, and medium fishing. More

detail has been given in dealing with the selection of tackle, the

tying of traces, knots, mounting spoons, etc.; and there is a list

of a few tackle dealers in India.

‘Fishing for Mahseer’, covers a fairly wide field, embodying al!

the many aspects and considerations likely to influence the angler

and fish; with a sketch map of a stretch of river, ‘lettered’ to

assist in recognising good water. Most of the chapter is devoted

to spinning for mahseer; but gram, paste, and dead bait fishing

are also discussed. | propose to include a short account dealing

with the “Other Sporting Fish’ and how to circumvent them. It

has plates of most of the commoner fish likely to be taken. I have

devoted some attention to Burma, giving full page illustrations

of six forms of mahseer I caught, with details of the colouring,

which should be found interesting; also full notes of bags and

sizes of fish taken around Myitkyina. The account of fishing in

Assam, is a reproduction of letters and notes kindly sent me by

the many sportsmen and anglers with whom I got in touch, through

the curators of the Bombay and Darjeeling Natural History Societies.

The plates of the teeth of mahseer and carp, are most interesting

and instructive.

“Tank angling’, is dealt with briefly, and has two valuable notes

on Cutla fishing.

‘Sea and estuary lishing’, gives sufficient reference to guide

those interested to good sport.

in ‘Scraps trom my Note Book’, will be found general informa-

tion necessary and useful to all fishermen.

If this series of articles justifies my conviction that there are

more anglers in India than publishers imagine, a full and up-to-date

book might follow.

I think, myself, that this is an unsuitable time to publish a

book, but it has compensations for those of us who have had ‘cold

water’ thrown on all our efforts to join the Forces, and to the

many civilians and soldiers whose lot it is to stick it out in admini-

strative posts which have to be held in times such as these.

In conclusion, I take the opportunity of thanking all those

anglers, who nine years ago so readily responded to my requests

for notes, and went to the trouble of making maps and sending

photographs. I hope that at no great distant date these will prove

useful in a book on Localities.

To the tackie dealers I tender my apologies should I have unduly

criticised goods; it is with no intention of disparagement but solely

to illustrate my point, and: to improve tackle generally.

Momthemenitic len hist 1s) a beginning ; yours is the last word!

_ The substance of these articles is based on good bags and results; if

‘you can offer better, I shall be the more pleased.

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLitt

I. MAHSEER FISHING AS COMPARED TO OTHER SPORT.

Children angle for minnows with bent pin and cotton thread,

big game sea fish are captured by their parents with specially

devised rods and appliances. Each in its own way provides the

sport that is sought.

As Iam dealing with mahseer chiefly, and other fishing generally,

it will suffice for the present to write a. few words as to what

mahseer fishing really means. .

The mahseer is essentially a fish of the rocks, the rapids, and

the hills. In his quest for this fine fish the angler is taken into

wild surroundings amidst some of the tinest of nature’s scenery.

It may be that he will find his sport in the Himalayas, where is

the grandest scenery in the world, and where the turbulent river

winas 1ts way through dark gorges clad in tir groves and rhododen-

drons, with perhaps a glimpse at the head ot. the valley of the

Eternal Snows—'the stainless ramps of huge Himala’s wall’,

where the snow-fed torrent has its sources; or perhaps he will

be wielding his trout rod amid the charming scenery ot the valleys

of Kulu or Kashmir. .

The scene, again, may be along the banks of rivers in Garhwal

or Kumaon, where the aeep gorges are most oppressively hot, or

in the lakes of Kumaon in a lovely climate. Then perhaps

his efforts may lie in southern India, the yet secure home

of elephant anda bison, where unknown and almost impenetrable

forests rise like a wall from the banks of the stream, and in which

even people of the aboriginal tribes can become lost amid the tangle

of mountains and vegetation; or it may be that he is wandering

along the many streams of the Western Ghats, in enjoyment ot

the marvellous scenery peculiar to the favoured climate of Mysore.

A few days in a ship or train, and the fisherman can be in

Burma or Assam, in pursuit of that monster mahseer of his dreams,

which he will perchance find at the ‘Confluence’, or in one of the

tributaries of the mighty Brahmaputra. In those lands the waters

beloved of the noble mahseer are fringed by giant bamboos waving

their graceful fronds over the placid depths, or by splendid trees

whose immense serpentine roots are washed by the roaring rapids.

There will be the dense retreats of the wild elephant, the secure

cover for bison and. other game, the last barrier put up by long-

suffering nature against the ever destroying hand of man.

In the upper story of forest trees, growing straight and _ tall,

their branches wrapped in mosses and orchids and fringed with

ferns, the gibbons sport and play. Often will their far-sounding

cries be heard, but seldom will the animals be seen; so with the

birds which call and twitter in the jungle thickets, and so with

the peacock, pheasant, jungle fowl and all the life in those teem-

ing evergreen forests. In the few open spaces and at the crossings

of the streams, will be those swarms of fluttering butterflies of

gorgeous hues which congregate at such places; and strange little

lowers peep timidly from amongst the vegetation which smothers

all the land.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 147

Shooting, fishing, painting, photography, are all in abundance

for those who will venture into the wild places where pursuit of

the mahseer will lure them. The thrill of a big mahseer, hooked

in heavy water, hurling himself down the rapid with express speed

to the tune of a fast emptying reel, has an electric joy apart from

any other sport. ‘There is nothing quite like it; and once experienced

it is imprinted for ever on the tablets of memory. Many a sports-

man has truly said that he would rather catch a big mahseer than

shoot a tiger. :

I have been fortunate in enjoying many of the varied kinds of

sport obtainable in India; and, were I given to comparison, would

place mahseer fishing second only to pig-sticking. The days availa-

ble to the votary of the spear are all too short, for, with the passing

of the years age must give way to youth; but at least we can

fish while health and eyesight last.

It is not perhaps tair to make comparisons. The whirr of a

rising partridge, the swoop of a flighting duck, the call of the

Koklas pheasant, or the gorgeous Monal as he hurtles through the

pines; the mad gallop with the bobbery pack in pursuit of fox

or jackal, the yet more reckless pursuit of the great grey boar;

is each in its own place akin to that heart-beat when the driven

tiger approaches the waiting sportsman, with that moment when

at last one closes into action with the elephant or bison tracked

since dawn. At all such times one is spellbound by the intense

enjoyment of the moment; but the instant of contact with a heavy

mahseer, he of the two or three score pounds, in the racing rapids

of a river, is a thrill unsurpassed in any other sport.

The varied joys and excitements of a fishing trip in wild places

are a panacea tor all worldly cares and troubles. ‘he quest of the

mahseer will take the young soldier, or civilian, or those many

others who are entering into various walks of life in the East,

among wild places and peoples where will be gained that self

reliance and poise of character which is the outcome of responsibility.

In close contact of the many varied people of the land will much

knowledge be gained which can be acquired in no other way.

Fishing is a sport which can meet many tastes and pursuits.

The painter, the hunter of big game, the entomologist, the botanist,

the ethnologist, in fact all the ologists will find interest and refresh-

ment apart from the actual fishing; there, also, will be found that

solitude in communion with Nature which is the Mecca of all lovers

of wild life.

It is to Burma in particular that my love is given. The wild

scenery, the giant trees, the multi-coloured orchids, the birds and

butterflies of brilliant hues, and above all the pleasing and cheer-

ful people—the Burmese and Shans, the Chins and Kachins, attract

me in a way apart from the fascinations of other countries in the

Kast.

Have I dwelt too long upon the joys and attractions in the

quest of the mahseer? In what better way can a holiday be spent

than in pursuit of the elusive Barbus tor? It has been my endea-

vour in the following chapters to provide the answer.

i78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiit

Il. SIMPLE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAHSEER.

In this chapter I am merely endeavouring to put before the

anglér certain tacts that will come within his ken, and aid the

making of notes by which he can do much service to Ichthyolog‘y

and a greatly neglected subject, the study of one ot the most sport-

ing fishes in the world, the Mahseer ot {ndia and the East. The

ummortal Thomas, in 1873, 1881 and again in 1897, published the

classic ‘Rod in India’, and other lesser books have followed in its

wake. They, however, have been written almost solely with the

object of showing the way to sport rather than of combining with

fishing the study of the htsh that provides that sport.

This much have I aimed at: “10 show in simple form how to

recognize the many varieties of the fish that has afforded such

grand sport ever since the British came to India, and of which

we still know comparatively very little; and to make notes of

interesting points, which often catch the eye of the Angler, but

which, alas, seldom receive the attention and publicity which they

deserve.

The Angler's part in Natural History.—The Angler can be the

best. friend of Ichthyologist. Simple notes such as are suggested

in this chapter will enable the ‘Pundits’ to arrive at scientific

results; we anglers can be their field naturalists. Observations

made intelligently and with that enthusiasm in the subject I am

asking fishermen to attain, will be of the greatest value, and most

gratefully appreciated by the staff of the Bombay Natural History

Society. It takes but a matter of five or ten minutes to note down the

necessary details as to any unusual fish (data required will be

found later on), and the preservation of a specimen in formalin

is most simple. So to all anglers reading what I have written I make

an appeal for help in elucidating all that has to be learnt about the

Mahseer. Some may say, ‘What does it matter whether a fish

is a Black, Red or a Green Mahseer? I am out only for the sport,

and so long as I get that, I am satisfied’. The answer to that

is that to fish for sport only, without a thought to the aid of Science

in learning all that there is to know of the fish, becomes mere

body-snatching ; no.true sportsman, once enlightened in the matter,

can for long retain that attitude of mind; and should these articles

of mine make even a few converts, and result in but a few spect-

mens and notes being sent in to the Society, I would feel it sufficient

reward for my labours.

A good deal of what follows I owe to the works of the late

H. S. Vhomas (1897), of Sir Reginald Spence and Mr. S. H. Prater

(1932), of Professor Neilson (1934), of Mr. J. R. Norman (1931)

and of Dr. S. L. Hora (1939 —).

Most of the fishes of any importance to the angler belong to

two families—the Cyprinidae or Carps, and the Siluridae or Cat-

fishes. ‘The Mahseer belongs to the Carp family. But he is very

different in size, flavour, strength, activity, and so forth, to his

renoble namesake in England. Hence you had better call him a

Barbel. The status of the Mahseer is very much disputed. <A

number of species seem to inhabit the waters of the Indian Empire.

Thomas (p. 27) writes, “Further experience has confirmed me in

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER i179

the view advanced in 1873, that there are more Mahscers than have

been named, and that if it were possible that as much accurate

attention could be given to the Mahseer as has been devoted to

the Salmonidae of Great Britain, of Europe, and of America, it

would be found that the Mahseers of India would likewise grow

in numbers’.

Thomas’s prophesy has come true, for, in his recent series of

articles on the ‘Game Fishes of India’, Hora has shown that at

least 4 to 5 kinds of Large-scaled Barbels are found in the Himalayan

waters..

Popular names.

Mahseer are known by numerous vernacular appellations in

different parts of India and Ceylon, such as Putitor (Goalpara) ;

Tor (Rangpur); Sahdra and Turiyd (Purneah); Mdsal (Kosi R.);

Kajra (Datdnagar, Sone R.); Burapatra, Junga Peetia (Assam) ;

Naharam (Hindi); Kukhiah (Punjab); Kurreah (Sind); Kendi, Bom-

min (Tamil); Peruval, Harale-minu (Canarese); Hallaminu (Mysore

Canarese) ; Meruval (Malayalam); Heragdlu, Peruval (Tulu); Kadchi,

Barsa Masla (Marathi); Kuriah, Lela (Sinhalese). Fishes through-

out the world appear to have more local names given to them than

any other animal. Various opinions have been expressed about

the etymology of Mahseer. Lacy and Cretin (1905, p. 2) observe,

‘The derivation of Mahseer from — maha sir—big head—may be

merely an attempt to give a meaning to the word. ‘The derivation

trom maha sher—big tiger—is fanciful, although the natives some-

times pronounce the word ‘Mahseer’; it is merely the soft equivalent

of the word. A third and a good derivation is from Massulah,

Mahasalka—big-scaled. The natives often call the fish Mahsol.

The Mahseer has got bigger scales than any other fresh-water fish

in India. Its big scales form one of its most distinctive characters.

A big Mahseer has got scales as big as the palm of one’s hand,

which make the use of the gaff unsafe. The scales are used as

playing’ cards in some parts of India. A fourth, and a likely,

derivation is from Matsya, which is the Sanskrit word for ‘fish’,

and is used in the Vedas. As the Mahseer is a sacred fish, preserved

near many Hindu temples, it is probable that the Brahmans called

it ‘Fish’ par excellence, pronouncing the word ‘Mahsia’. More

recently Hora has dealt with this point exhaustively and is of the

opinion that Mahseer is very likely a colloquial form of Mah@Sivasha

or MahdSiras, the bigness referring to the front part of the fish and

not merely to its head or snout. —

I propose to describe below how fishes are identified and to

give the general features of the Golden or the Common Himalayan

or the Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton); pointing

out the peculiarities of the other species so far recorded from North

Indian and Burmese waters with their geographical distribution.

As with other classes of the Animal Kingdom, Fishes are divided

into various sub-classes, orders, sub-orders, families, sub-families,

genera, sub-genera and species, the classification being based on

resemblances or differences in structure. The cartilaginous fishes,

such as sharks, skates and rays, differ so obviously and funda-

mentally from the bony fishes, that the former are grouped together

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

in a separate sub-class. But in spite of certain structural resem-

blances they differ among themselves in certain characters so that

this sub-class is sub-divided into an order to include all the sharks,

and another to include all the skates and rays. The family is a

group of fishes within an order or sub-order, possessing certain

general features in common. Different members of a family, in

-accordance with particular affinities, are grouped into separate

genera. The members of a genus or even of a sub-genus are

themselves distinguished from one another by specific differences,

usually indicated in the nature of the teeth and fins, in the number

and arrangement of the scales, and other anatomical details. Thus

we come ultimately to the species. It has to be remembered that

even among the members of a species no two individuals are ever

perfectly alike, and minor individual variations are bound to be

met with. These, however, are hardly of any specific significance.

In scientific nomenclature a fish gets a double name, the first word

representing the genus, and the second the species. The name of

the author who first described the -species usually follows. In

certain cases another name is included between the generic and

the specific name to signify a sub-genus. Thus the common

Himalayan Mahseer is scientifically known as Barbus (Tor) putitora |

(Hamilton), where Barbus is the generic name, (Yor) is the name

of the sub-genus, putitora is the specific name, and the fish was

first described by Francis Hamilton. From the foregoing account

it will be seen that the classification and identification of fishes is

based on resemblances or differences in their anatomy. An attempt

is made here to explain with special reference to the Mahseers the

main external characters on which the differences are based, and

some of the terms and abbreviations commonly used in scientific

descriptions of fishes.

Form of body.—lishes are usually boat-shaped, being longer

than broad or deep, and adapted for swift movement in water.

Variations from this typical form, however, are not rare. The body

of a Carp is said to be compressed, i.e., flattened from side to side;

while that of a Catfish is said to be depressed, i.e., flattened verti-

Fig. 1.—The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus [Tor] putitora (Hamilton).

(For explanation see page 188).

cally. The Putitor Mahseer (fig. 1) is an oblong, somewhat com-

pressed, streamlined, trout-like fish in which both the profiles are

vently and gracefully arched. The head is broadly pointed anteriorly

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 1S]

and behind the anal fin the tail becomes considerably narrow. The

gape of the mouth does not extend to below the eyes; it is horizontal

with the opening obliquely directed upwards.

The lips are fleshy and continuous at the angles of the mouth; the

lower lip (Fig. 2 6) is produced into a median lobe and the post-

i Hes it ro LA

(eae cin iseenny

HH i Hi a ‘2 2, sai HH iw

thee ah

ni Re GH

Fig. 2.—Oral features of Mahseers.

(For explanation see page 188).

labial groove (p. 1. g.) is continuous. The condition of the lips

varies ereatly in individuals of different sizes and in those collected

from different localities. It is highly desirable that anglers may

kindly note the condition of the lips of the Mahseers Cent by

them and also make a detailed note of the length.

Body proportions. —Hishies, as a rule, Conta) to grow as long

little significance in its em taesont But the se Jengths of

the different parts of a fish remain constant. The body.proportions

may vary in young specimens, and therefore the measurements. of

fairly adult specimens are reckoned. The total length of a-fish

(fig. 1 ah) is measured from the tip of the snout to the end of. the

tail fin. The length of body or standurd length (ag) is the distance

from the tip of the snout to the origin of the tail fin. The length

of head (ad) is the length from the tip of the snout to the hind

margin of the bony part of the gill cover. The depth is the vertical

distance between the dorsal and ventral surfaces at the deepest part.

The diameter of the eye (bc), the interorbital distance; length of

snout (ab), t.e., the portion of the head in front of the eye; the

length of caudal peduncle (fg), 1.€., the distance between the last

ray of the anal fin and the origin of the tail fin; the least height

of caudal peduncle, ete. are also measured. The girth of the fish

is the measure round the stoutest part. The tail (eg) in the scienti-

fic sense is the portion of the body behind the anus, though in the

popular sense the tail may include the tail fin also.

In a scientific description of B. (Tor) putitora, one reads as

follows :—The length of head is contained from 3 to 3.6 times in

the standard length. Depth of body is contained from 1.1 to TA

times in the length of head. The diameter of the eye “is contained

is2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

from 2.8 to 5.3 times in the length of head, from 0.8 to 1.7 times

in the length of snout, and from o.7 to 1.4 times in the iterorbital

distance. The least height of the caudal peduncle is contained

from 1.4 to 1.8 times in its length.

Fins. —According to the position the fins of fishes come under

two categories: the paired fins and the vertical fins. The paired

fins consist of a pair in the fore part of the body, one on each

side, called the pectorals (P) and a second pair below the pectorals,

on the lower surface of the fish, called the ventrals (V) or pelvics.

In some fishes either or both of these may be absent. The fish

uses the paired fins mainly for balancing itself in water. The

vertical fins are the dorsal (D) on the middle line of the back, the

caudal (C) or tail fin and the anal (A) in the middle line of the

belly. The tail and its fin constitute the chief swimming organ

of the fish. The bony rays which support a fin may be either simple

or branched and articulated (composed of numerous branched joints

which render the fin flexible). Simple rays are called spines (s),

while the others are described as soft rays (7). Some spines may

be soft and flexible, but they are distinguishable from true soft

rays by their plain unbranched nature.

Thus the fin formula of the specimen of the Himalayan Mahseer

figured here as:—D. 4/9; A. 8; P. 17-18; V. 10; C. 19 indicates

that the dorsal fin has 13 rays of which 4 are spines and g soft rays;

the anal has eight rays; the pectoral has 17 to 18 rays; the ventral

has 10 rays; and the caudal has 19 rays, all soft. In the Himalayan

Mahseer ‘the commencement of the dorsal fin is opposite to that

of the pelyics, and is almost midway between the tip of the snout

and the base of the caudal fin. The last spine is very strong

and bony; it is generally shorter than the depth of the body below

it, but in some individuals it is equal to the body height. In a

specimen from Murree, however, it is considerably longer than the

depth of the body. The pectoral fins are low, considerably shorter

than the head and sharp above. The pelvic fins do not reach the

anal opening. The anal fin does not extend to the base of the

caudal fin. The caudal fin is sharply divided, with the lower lobe

somewhat more pointed’ (Hora, 1939, p. 278).

Scales.—The skin of fishes is either covered with scales or naked.

Some parts like the head and fins are more often naked than scaly.

Scales of fishes are horny elements developed in grooves or pockets

of the skin like hairs, nails or feathers of the higher vertebrates.

Scales as those of carps, with an entire hind margin and a con-

centric striation are described as cycloid. The number of scales

along the lateral line, as also the number of rows of scales above

and below the lateral line, are often of specific significance.

Lateral line (L.1) is the line of perforated scales running along

each flank of the fish. Beneath each pore is a group of sensory

cells which perceive the slightest pressure changes in the surround-

ing water. ‘The lateral line has nerves connected with the ear of

the fish. The scale-counts in relation to the lateral line of B. (Tor)

putitora are represented as follows:—L. 1. 25-28; L. tr. 43/24.

This signifies that there may be from 25 to 28 scales along the

lateral. line; -L. tr. represents the number of transverse rows of

scales “between .the. middle line of the back and the ventral fin, and

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 183

in this case there are 44 rows above (up to the base of the dorsal

fin) and 2} rows below (up to the base of the pelvic fin) the lateral

line. The numbers of scales between certain other landmarks of

the body also are sometimes taken into account. Thus in the Putitor

Mahseer there are 9 scales before the dorsal fin (up to the head)

and 12 round the caudal peduncle, and there is a well developed

scaly appendage in the axil of the pelvic fin.

Barbels.—In some fishes as in carps skinny appendages called

barbels or feelers occur on the jaws. According to their position

they are described as nasal from the region of the nostril, rostral

from the snout, maxillary from the upper jaw, usually at the corner

of the mouth, mandibular associated with the lower jaw and labial

associated with the lips. The Putitor Mahseer has two pairs of

barbels, one rostral (7, b.) and the other maxillary (m. b.), which

are more or less of equal length.

Age.—The condition of the scales and otoliths is said to indicate

the age of a fish. Definite growth rings have been detected in the

scales of European fishes like the salmon. But the technique is

still undeveloped in the case of Indian Carps. To be able to say

anything definite, it is desirable that large numbers of fish of differ-

ent species in diverse waters be examined in detail and systematic

observations made on their scales to elucidate the significance of

the rings. The ear sacs containing the otoliths are situated on

the sides of the base of the skull. The ototlith is a bony concretion

and increases in size during the entire life of the fish, each year

adding two layers, a light one formed in summer and a dark one

in autumn and winter. The number of pairs of layers represent

the age of the fish. Here again, variations may occur, and the

technique has yet to be perfected in the case of Indian fishes.

Sex.—Fleshy protuberances and hypertrophied lips (fig. 2a) have

been suggested to have a sexual significance; but those characters

are not reliable, and the crucial test is an examination of the gonads.

But if it is difficult to be sure whether it is an ovary or a testis,

the same may be preserved and sent, with other particulars, to the

Bombay Natural History Society for further study.

The gonads occur as a pair of elongated, light-coloured, strap-

shaped bodies lying one on each side of the intestines, and lodged

in the groove between the air-bladder and the abdominal wall.

Each gonad appears as a quill-like bag, which in the female shows

little rounded dots of eggs which are absent in the male.

Colour.—There is a variety of colours among the different Mah-

seers, and even in the same species the colours vary considerably

according to the nature of the waters inhabited by the fish. Here

is Hora’s description (1939, pp. 278, 279) of a nine-inch long

specimen of B. (Tor) putitora freshly collected from the Tista river

near Washabari Bazaar in the Eastern Duars :—

‘The dorsal surface of the head and a small anterior portion

of the body were found to be of a Lincoln green colour while the

ground colour of the remaining portion of the dorsal surface of

the body was warm buff which faded into light pink at the sides

and silvery white on the ventral surface. On the sides, between

the upper angles of the gill-openings and the base of the caudal

fin, there were broad bands of light mineral gray. Each scale was

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

anteriorly marked with a gray blotch. The portion ‘of the tail in

front of the caudal fin was marked with an irregular, broad, vertical

band of amber yellow. The operculum and the sides of the snout

were of gray colour while patches of orange and yellow colour

were present on other parts of the head. The dorsal fin was light

yellow in colour while its rays were conspicuously yellowish gray.

The fin was provided with a broad band of mineral gray across

the rays. The pectoral fins were pink at their bases and citron

yellow distally. The pelvic fins were yellowish with a tinge of

pink at their bases and extremities. The anal fin was likewise

citron yellow with pink extremity. The caudal fin was also citron

yellow ‘with. its rays of mineral gray colour; it was edged with pink

and gray.’

‘He further describes a 34 feet long specimen of the same species

collected from another region of the Tista river and kept in a kachha

tank at the Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate, Darjeeling District, as

follows :— :

‘The back was reddish sap green and along the sides above the.

lateral line there was a broad band with a purplish shadow through-

out. Below the lateral line the body was light orange which faded

into silvery white on the belly. The head below the level of the

eyes was light buff yellow which was replaced ventrally by a light

neutral tint. The iris was light green while the pupil was. dark

blue. The scales in the upper half of the body were marked

anteriorly by reddish sap green colour while in the centre they

were brilliantly orange, their posterior edges were peacock green

in colour with shades of light and deep sap green anteriorly. The

pectoral, pelvic, anal and caudal fins were peacock green in colour ;

the distal tip of the anal was marked with a patch of reddish orange,

while the posterior border of the caudal fin was marked with reddish

green. The tubes on the lateral line were greenish silvery.’

The best way to paint or draw a Mahseer would be to keep

by one’s side three or four sketches of the Mahseer in outline,

keep the fish alive in the water beside you, and as the colours of

the fish are noted down, put it back for a breather. In this way

the most accurate notes can be made. If you put him on the bank

alive, he will start changing colour almost noticeably, and by the

time you have worked back to your first notes, the colour will have

changed.

The resplendent hues of living fish are inimitable; you can almost

see the changing hues and sheen-like colouring fade with the life

of the expiring: fish.

Notes, even though rough, and the colours approximately close

to those of the living fish, are always valuable. Time in carrying

out this difficult task is never wasted. As per Formula below.

Formula for Field Notes on Mahseer Catches.

I. Locality, date and time of catch with notes on the habitat.

If. Colour notes with special reference to the colour of the

back, sides, belly,. tail, cheeks, fins.

Ill. Body form and other general features, such as condition

of lips, barbels, etc,

CIRCUMVENTING, THE MAHSEER 185

IV. Body proportions and weight :

Total length, Length without tail fin, Length of head,

Depth, Girth.

V. Scale count:

Along lateral line, Above lateral line to beginning of

dorsal fin, Below lateral line to beginning of pelvic fin.

VI. Sex; Condition of gonads: immature, fairly mature, full

or spent.

VII. Food:

Gut-contents, items and their approximate proportions,

such as ‘insects 60%, molluscs 25%, aquatic plants

10%, indistinguishable, digested matter 5%’.

BIONOMICS.

~.. Food and feeding habits. —The Mahseer is noted to be an inter-

mittent feeder. Green filamentous algae and other water plants,

slimy matter encrusting rocks, insect larvae, etc. have been recorded

from the stomach-contents of the Putitor Mahseer. Thomas, dis-

cussing the food of the Mahseer, observes :—

‘Aquatic weeds of all sorts, some taken intentionally, some when

erabbing at the insects that live on them; seeds of the Vateria indica

or Dhup of the West Coast, which are about the size of a pigeon’s

egg; the seeds of many other trees also which hang over the river

where it is forest-clad; bamboo seeds; rice thrown in by man; and

unhusked rice, or paddy as it is washed from the fields; crabs... .,

small fish, earthworms, water beetles, grasshoppers, small flies of

sorts, water or stone crickets, shrimps, and molluscs or fresh-water

snails are also found there, the latter shell and all, and smashed

to pieces like the crabs.

‘Of all this category the easiest food for the fisherman to present

in a natural form is a small fish, or imitation fish.

‘It will also be observed that the food taken on the surface of

the water is little in comparison with that taken under it, and at.

the very bottom. The fish, beetles, crickets, shrimps are all found

well under water; the crabs, worms, molluscs, quite at the bottom;

and from the proportionate quantity found in them, the crabs,

molluscs and fish seem to be their favourite food. :

‘This is what Paley would call ‘‘internal evidence’. But we

have also external evidence to the same eftect . .. The four fine

feelers hanging down, two on each side of the mouth, which give

him the scientific name of Barbus or bearded (from the Latin

barba, a beard), are indications of a bottom feeder.

‘The upper lip is capable of being extended beyond the lower

lip, and brought down to the same level, so as to form a cup on

the bottom of the stream, and cover any small body, such for in-

stance as the aforesaid molluscs detached from their hold by their

upper lip, and being washed rolling down the bottom of the stream.

The molluscs being thus detached and covered, are readily drawn

up into the mouth by.suction.’. The .suctorial mouth may also be

used for adhesive purposes against the swift torrents.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Whereas in the younger stages Mahseers feed on algae, insects,

small fish, etc., middle sized specimens and older ones prefer crabs,

molluscs and other hard objects which can be easily tackled by the

crushing and grinding pharyngeal teeth, often prized as trophies

by the angler, especially as these provide fairly reliable evidence of

the size of the specimen caught. These teeth are borne on the

pharyngeal bone, which is the well developed fifth gill arch. As

the pharyngeal teeth lie in the throat of the fish they are not used

in catching or holding the prey, but are employed for tearing and

masticating purposes. As the fish grows the teeth are shed indi-

vidually as they become worn and replaced by fresh teeth that

may be found growing in the adjoining mucous membrane.

Examination of the gut-contents of a large number of specimens

will reveal the feeding habits of the fish in different waters. The

digestive tract of the fish enlarges into an elongated thin-walled

bag-like stomach which leads into a long narrow tubular intestine

coiled into several loops and opening out at the anus. The liver

and other digestive glands are associated with the tract. For pur-

poses of food analysis the gut may be severed at the throat and

at the anus, and after making a tiny incision on the stomach the

whole, with the contents intact, may be preserved in 5% formalin

and sent to the Society. —

Migration and spawning.—During the floods the Mahseer ascends

considerable heights to gain the upper reaches of the river travelling

long distances for fresh feeding grounds and for the purpose of

spawning. There they linger till the diminishing stream warns them

to be moving downwards. There they lay their eggs in sheltered

rock pools, not in the manner of the salmon, all at one time, but

a batch of eggs at a time, repeating the process several times in

a season. The Putitor Mahseer is said to spawn three times in

the year. In the Punjab the three spawning seasons are (i) January

and February, (ii) May and June (snow melts) and (ii) July to

September (monsoon months).

Other Himalayan Mahseers.—The following key of Hora will

be helpful to distinguish specimens over 9 inches of the various

Mahseers of established status:

I. Labial groove interrupted in the middle; lips comparatively

thin and never hypertrophied; cheeks covered with tuber-

cles.

Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland. The

Katli of the Nepalese and Bokar of the Assamese. The

Chocolate, Olive, Black or Red Mahseer of Burma.

II. Labial groove continuous; lips thick and well formed, some-

times produced into adipose flaps; cheeks smooth.

A. Length of head considerably greater than depth of body.

Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton).

The Golden or the Common Himalayan Mahseer in-

cluding Greyhound and Thick-lipped varieties.

B. Leneth of the head considerably shorter than or more or

less equal to depth of body.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 187

1. Length of head considerably shorter than depth of body.

Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton).

The Deep-bodied Mahseer.

2. Length of head more or less equal to depth of body.

Barbus (Tor) mosal (Hamilton).

The Copper Mahseer.

Size and distribution of the Mahseers.—The Putitor Mahseer has

been recorded by Hamilton to grow up tog feet. It occurs all along

the Himalayas and probably extends to China. The Lissochilus

Mahseer is said to grow over 2 feet in length (a 21 Ib. Katli has been

reported by Holt, 1940). It is the commonest large-scaled barbe!

of Assam and of the Eastern Himalayas. The Tor Mahseer grows °

to about 4 feet. It seems to be widely distributed along the foot

hills of the Himalayas. It also occurs in the rivers of Assam and

the Central Provinces. The Mosal Mahseer may attain a length of

5 feet and appears to be more common in Burma than in the Hima-

layan streams.

The Black Mahseer.—The Black Mahseer is a case of melanism

or unusually dense pigmentation. It cannot be regarded as a

distinct variety since melanic specimens belonging to different species

have been described or figured as Black Mahseer. Several cases

of melanism in diverse types of fishes are on record and it is believed

to be due to genetic or pathogenical causes. How far environ-

mental factors such as the influences of light, temperature, climate,

food, etc. are responsible for melanism is yet to be determined.

To those interested in this subject, and who wish to study it

further, I can do no better than introduce them to Shaw and

Shebbeare’s “The Fishes of Northern Bengal’ and Dr. Sunder La!

Hora’s series of articles on ‘The Game Fishes of India’ appearing

in The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (from

Volume xxxix, part II of 15 April 1937 onwards). The first is already

available in book form excellently arranged with drawings and

photographs of most of the fishes to be found in India, with clear

and simple notes, and is easy to follow. Dr. Hora needs no intro-

duction. He is the leading authority on Fish in India, and his

articles are of immense value to all lovers of the sport. I look

forward to the day when this series will have been completed and

published in book form—the fishes illustrated in colour—to take its

place by those excellent volumes published by the Society, The

Game Birds of India etc.

REFERENCES.

Hora, S. L., 1939.—The Game Fishes of India, viii. The Mahseers or

the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 1. The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (Lor)

putitora (Hamilton). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 272-

285.

aie. G. H. and Cretin, E., 1905.—The Angler’s Handbook for India,

4th edn., pp. 2, 3 (Calcutta). :

Neilson, J. E.. 1934.—Angling has Scientific Angles. Scientific American,

WO, BEM, IN@s Te fos Boy Alte

Norman, J. R., 1931.—The History of Fishes (London).

Shaw, G. E. and Shebbeare, FE. O., 1937.—The Fishes of Northern Bengal.

Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Science, vol. 3, pp. 1-137.

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Spence, R. and Prater, S. H., 1932.—Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan

and the neighbouring districts of the Bombay Presidency. Journ. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvi, pp. 29-66.

Thomas, H. S., 1897. Rod in India (London).

EXPLANATION OF ‘TEXT-FIGURES.

Figure 1. Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton).

(1) a-d. Length. of Head.-(contained 3 to 3.6 times in standard length. ag).

(2) b-c. Diameter of eye. (contained 2.8 to 5.3 in length of head. ad).

(3) a-g. Length of body. (standard length).

(4) a-h. Totai length of fish.

(5) e. Anus.

(6) a-b. Length of snout.

(7) f-g. Caudal peduncle (the least height of caudal peduncle is contained

from 1.4 to 1.8 times in its own length).

(8) L. 1. Lateral Line. (25 to 28 scales. 26 in Plate).

(9) L. tr. Lateral traverse. 44/23. This represents the number of transverse

rows of scales between the middle line of the back and the ventralfin. Here

there are 45 rows above (up to the base of the dorsal fin) and 23 rows below,

(up to the base of the ventral or pelvic fin, counting in each case to the lateral

line). :

(10) Barbels. m. b. maxillary (from the upper jaw).

r. b. rostral (from the snout).

(11) Paired Fins. P. Pectoral.

V. Ventrals or Pelvics.

Vertical Fins. D. Dorsal.

C. Caudal or tail fin.

A.. Anal.

(12) Fin JRays. (s) Simple or’ spine.

(r) Soft or branched.

(13) The depth of the body is the vertical distance between the dorsal and

ventral surfaces at the deepest part.

(14) The girth is the measure round the stoutest part.

(15) Fin formula of Figure .1 D..4/9. A. 8. B. 17-18. V. 10. €. 19.

Figure 2. Oral features of Mahseers.

(a) Side view of head and fore part of body of a true Mahseer of the Tor

type, Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton), showing hypertrophied lips extended. For

purposes of drawing, the lips were drawn out to their fullest extent. In nature

the enlarged lips, however, remain compressed and neatly folded, ‘and conforming

with the general contour of the head.

(b) Ventral view of head and fore part of body of B. (Tor) tor (Hamilton)

showing the continuous post-Jabial groove and the enlarging lips with the

median lobe of the lower lip.

Mahseer, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis (McClelland). Note the interrupted

post-labial groove and the normal lips.

p.l.g.=Post-labial groove.

EXPLANATION OF PRINCIPAL TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SIGNS USED

IN THE DESCRIPTION OF FISH.

D=Dorsal (fin) ‘fin’ omitted when the meaning is clear.

P= Pectorals. ‘Paired’ fins.

V=Pelvis (or Ventrals).

A=Anal.

C=Caudal or tail fin.

The Adipose dorsal or Adipose fin has no rays. It is present in many of

the Cat-fishes (also in trout and Salmon), Represented by (0) Formulae for

fins. Figures refer to the number of rays. Two figures separated by a hyphen

(-) denote the limits between which the number may vary.

An oblique stroke (/) separates two types of rays in one fin, such as un-

divided or entire from divided or branched rays.

A vertical stroke (|) separates different fins, such as the Dorsal from the

Adipose dorsal on Cat-fishes, or the Spiny from the Articulated dorsal in

Perches, sey

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 189

The Lateral Line (L. 1) is a row of perforated scales running from the

angle of the gill-opening to the base of the Caudal in most scaled fishes. It

may be absent, incomplete or interrupted.

Scales. These are ordinarily counted along the lateral line, where there is

one, the number being shown by a figure following the letters L.1. Where

there is no lateral line they are counted along the lateral row of the scales

where the lateral line would ordinarily be and shown after the letters L. r.

Lateral traverse (l.tr). Another count that is sometimes made is the number

of transverse rows of scales between back and belly. It is counted from the

base of the Dorsal to the Jateral line and again from the lateral line to the point

of insertion of the Pelvics. The number is shown after the letters L. tr.

Barbels. These are named after the part from which they spring :—

Nasal from the region of the nostrils.

Rostral from the snout.

Moxillary from the upper jaw.

Mandibular from the lower jaw.

(To be continued)

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE HILL.

ABDUL HAMEED, M.SC.,

Lecturer in Biology, Lawrence College, Ghora Gali, Punjab.

(With eight plates).

The following notes are not intended to be exhaustive. Further

information on the species described herein can be obtained from

‘Liverworts of the Western Himalayas and the Punjab Plain’,

Parts I and IJ, published by the Punjab University at Lahore.

This important Monograph contains reference to only two species

of Liverworts from Murree, namely, Pellia calycina and Frullania

gracillima. The area appears to be rich in Liverworts and as

many as 24 species have been collected by the Author.

The author is greatly indebted to Mrs. Pushong for her kind-

ness in sketching the specimens, and to Mr. Ram Saran Chopra,

of the Botany Department, Government College, Lahore, for his

generous help in identification.

The plants have been collected from a small area only. This

area forms a small part of the uncultivated mountainous wedge

of the Outer Himalayas. Murree, the most important military

hill station, and summer resort of Northern India, is situated on the

top of this wedge. The three important European schools of the

Punjab, namely, The Lawrence College, The Convent of Jesus and

Mary, and St. Denys’ School are also situated on this wedge.

It varies in height from 5,459 ft. (Murree Brewery), to 7,413 ft.

(Kashmir Point) above sea-level. The area is two-faced as regards

the distribution of vegetation. The eastern face is dry, with

scanty undergrowth, but the western face is shady, dampish, with

dense undergrowth.

The trees in this area show an altitudinal zonation in their

distribution. From Murree Brewery (5,459 ft.) to Pindi Point

(7,242 ft.) the commonest trees are ‘Chil’ pine (Pinus longifolia)

and the blue pine (Pinus excelsa). In the Murree area (7,237 ft.

to 7,134 ft.) one meets with typically English trees such as Horse

Chestnuts, Willows, Maples, Poplars and Elms, etc. Further on

to Kashmir Point (7,413 ft.) the tall Spruces (Picea morinda) form

a distinguishing landmark. The Liverworts also exhibit a similar

altitudinal zonation in their distribution in this area. For example,

though some of the species such as, Anthoceros himalayensis,

Marchantia nepalensis, Reboulia hemispherica, Plagiochasma arti-

culatum, P. appendiculatum, Pellia calycina, Frullania muscicola,

F. gracillima, and Chiloscyphus himalayensis are generally met with

all over this area, the other species are, as a rule confined to special

altitudinal zones. The following species are commonly found be-

tween the Murree Brewery and the Pindi Point, namely, Stephen-

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE HILL 191

soniella brevipedunculata, Fimbriaria angusta, F. mussuriensis, I.

reticulata, Athalamia pinguis, Fossombronia himalayensis, and

Madotheca decurrens. ‘The following species as a rule occur between

Pindi Point and the Kashmir Point, namely, Conocephalum conicum,

Cyathodium tuberosum, Targionia hypophylla, Fimbriaria Blumeana,

Athalamia pusilla, Radula complanata, Lophocolea minor and

Plagiochila mundaliensts.

The Liverworts are not generally known to a layman. They

are related to the Mosses, and together constitute a very important

division of the Plant Kingdom called the Bryophyta. They are

small, moisture-loving plants. They grow in shady places along

the banks of streams and moist slopes in the hills. Some species

grow on rocks, or on the bark of trees. They occur in two forms:

the Thallous Form, and the Leafy Form. In the thallous forms

the plant body consists of a simple, flat, undifferentiated, green

structure called a thallus (Plate 1). The undersurface of the

thallus bears scales, and simple root-like structures called rhizoids.

The reproductive organs are the archegonia, or female sexual

organs, and the antheridia, or male sexual organs. These may

develop on stalked receptacles, or on the thallus itself. In some

species the male and the female sexual organs are developed on

the same plant (monoecious), while in other species they are

developed on different plants (dioecious).

In the leafy forms (Plate VI) the vegetative portion of the

plant is differentiated into the stem and the leaves. The leaves

are developed laterally, and in two rows generally. The upper

leaves—the antical leaves or lobes, are as a rule, bigger, and the

lower leaves—the postical leaves or lobules, are smaller. In some

species a third row of leaves is also developed on the undersurface

of the stem. These are called the amphigastria. The sexual

organs are not developed on stalked receptacles. The archegonia,

when developed, are terminal, and the antheridia lateral in position.

The egg after fertilisation develops into a structure called the

sporogonium, which generally consists of a foot, a stalk and a

spherical capsule. The capsule contains within it a large number

of small bodies called the spores. It also contains thread-like

sterile bodies called the elaters. The spores when they fall to

the ground germinate into a new plant. Apart from this sexual

mode of reproduction, some species bear special structures called

the gemmae, which develop either within small cup-like outgrowths

on the thallus, or grow freely along the edges of the leaves. These

structures can also grow into new plants. Some species produce

tubers at the end of the rainy season. These tubers remain buried

underground during winter, and when spring comes germinate into

new plants.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

1, Dioecious. Thallus with Nostoc colo-

nies embedded in it. The thin pod-

like capsule growing out of the |

involucre ar «. Anthoceros himalayensts

2. Dioecious. Plants large. Gemma

cups lobed and toothed ... Marchantia nepalensis

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

3. Dioecious. Plants large. Dorsal

surface bears distinct pores ... Conocephalum conicum.

4, Dioecious. Plants small. Female

receptacle on short, thick stalk.

Apical tubers present .. olephensoniella brevipedunculat c.

5. Dioecious. Plants small and delicate.

Tuber surrounded by hair-like

structures Bye ey yathodium tuberosum.

6. Monoecious or dioecious. Plants

generally simple. Under surface

dark purple oh .. Largionia hypophylla.

7. Monoecious. Plantssimple. Female

receptacle, terminal on the main

shoot, bears small projections on

its upper surface oor .. Fimbriaria Bluineana.

8. Monoecious. Male receptacle on

small ventro-lateral shoots. Female

receptacle on ventral shoot .. Himbriaria mussuriensis.

9. Monoecious. Female receptacle ter-

minal on main shoot. Male recep-

tacle on lateral shoot ... .. Limbriaria reticulata.

10. Dioecious. Antheridia lie scattered

about. Tubers present... .. Fimbriaria angusta.

11. Monoecious or dioecious. Male re-

ceptacle sessile, disc-like, and

apical. Female receptacle terminal

and lobed Bee .. Rebrulia hemispherica.

12. Monoecious. Piants large. Male

receptacle sessile, V shaped or

horse-shoe shaped wah .. Plagiochasma appendiculatu-n.

13. Monoecious. Plants distinctly arti-

culated. Male receptacle sessile... Plagiochas1 articulatum.

14. Monoecious. Plants small and deli-

cate. Antheridia few and sunken

on the upper surface ... .. Athalamia pusilla,

15. Monoecious. Plants thick with edges

lifted up from ground. Antheridia

many and sunken, Scales whitish. Athalamia pinguis.

16. Dioecious. Antheridia sunken along

the mid-dorsal Jine. Archegonia

protected by involucre .. Pellia calycina.

17. Lobes large and rounded. Lobules

small. Amphigastria bigger than

the lobules 600 .. Frullania muscicola.

18, Lobes small. Lobules helmet shaped.

Amphigastria not pigee than the

lobules ae .. Lrullania gracillima.

19. Lobes broadly ovate. Lobules lie

flat along the stem. oe essere

bigger than the lobules .- Madotheca decurrens,

20. Lobes entire, overlapping and bear

multicellular gemmae. Lobules

small and bear rhizoids. Amphi-

gastria absent ar .- Ladiula complanata.

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE HILL 193

21. Lobes large. Antheridia near the

base of the lobes. Archegonia

borne on the lateral shoot — wee Chiloscyphus himalayensis.

22. Plants small. Leaves slightly bilobed,

and bear clusters of unicellular

gemmae. Amphigastria bear

rhizoids oad ees ... Lophocolea minor.

23. Plants generally semi-erect and

sterile. Amphigastria absent ... Plagiochila mundaliensis.

24. Plants small and delicate. Leaf

margin wavy. Antheridia orange-

yellow in colour. Apical tubers

present wo ee .- Lossombronia himalayensts.

1. Anthoceres himalayensis Kashyap.

(Riater ies unesmn ands 2):

It is a very common plant, and grows in small patches on the moist,

shady slopes. The green thallus lies flat on the ground, and bears colourless

rhizoids and no scales. It varies in shape considerably, and has invariably

bluish-green colonies of Nostoc associated with it.

The plant is dioecious. The antheridia are. not developed on_ stalked

receptacles, but arise in small cavities below the surface of the thallus. When

these cavities burst, the antheridia can be easily seen. The archegonia when

young are sunk in the upper surface of the thallus. After fertilisation they

are gradually covered over by a wall-like structure developed from the neigh-

bouring tissue. The sporogonium when developed passes through it. In fully

grown plants it can be seen as a tube at the base of the capsule. The sporo-

gonium has no stalk, and the capsule is long and pod-like. It is green at

first, but later on begins to ripen from above downwards.

2. Marchantia nepalensis L. et L.

(CHIBUE. Tio JeGRUTRES BO Ig)

It commonly grows on moist rocks in streams, or on shady moist slopes.

The thallus is comparatively big and dichotomously divided. Its under surface

bears colourless rhizoids and a few brownish scales.

The plant is dioecious, The archegonia are developed on the under surface

of the slightly lobed, stalked receptacles. They are developed first about

the middle of April... The receptacles bearing antheridia are bigger and have

short stalks. Later on in the year the plants develop gemma cups and increase

in size.

3. Conocephalum conicum (L.) Necker.

. (Plate II. Figures 1 and 2).

It is the largest Liverwort found in this area. It is quite common, and

is found growing on moist rocks or shady slopes round about Kashmir Point.

The plants grow in large, dense, and light-green patches of overlapping

individuals. The thallus is dichotomously divided, and bears long rhizoids and

violet coloured scales on the under surface. The upper surface bears minute

pores which can be seen with the naked eye. The margin of the thallus is

undulating.

The plant is dioecious. The antheridia which grow on thick, dise-like

receptacles are surrounded by cup-shaped depressions. The stall of the recep-

tacle is very small, and its upper surface bears small projections. The

archegonia appear later in cup-shaped depressions, which are surrounded by

small scales.

4, Stephensonietla brevipedunculata, Kashyap.

(Plate II. Figures 3 and 4).

It is a rare plant, and is found growing on sunny rocks below Pindi Point.

The thallus is generally simple, though sometimes divided. The ventral surface

i94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLUI

is greenish, and bears rhizoids and a few colourless scales. Adventitious

shoots. are developed in some cases from the ventral surface of the thallus.

They separate and form new plants. |

The plant is dioecious. The antheridia grow in clusters on the upper

surface of the thallus. The archegonia are developed on thick, short-stalked

receptacles. The plants generally produce tubers at the end of the rainy

season.

5. Cyathodium tuberosum Kashyap.

(Plate II. Figures 5, 6, 7).

It is a rare plant. It grows on rocks in shady and dark corners, along

the forest road below St. Denys’ School. The plants grow in small, isolated

yellowish-green patches. The thallus is thin, delicate, and variable in shape.

Tubers are commonly developed, and each tuber is surrounded by forwardly

directed hair-like structures.

The plant is dioecious. The receptacles bearing antheridia vary in shape.

The stalk when present is very short. The archegonia lie scattered about

on the thallus, and are well protected by structures called the involucres. &

6. Targionia hypophylla L.

(Plate II. Figures 8 and 9).

This- plant is very common round about Kashmir Point, especially along

the shady, moist slopes. It grows in patches of overlapping individuals.

Each plant is attached to the ground by its base. The thallus is generally

simple, rarely divided. The under surface is dark purple, and is provided with

scales. The apex bears a thick, scale-covered shoot. Plants growing in shady

corners. are bluish in colour.

The plants are monoecious, or dioecious. The antheridia vary in their posi-

tion on the thallus.

7. Fimbriaria Blumeana Nees.

(Plate III. Figure 1.)

This plant grows among weeds along shady, moist slopes round Kashmir

Point. The thallus is generally simple, rarely divided, and is of a yellowish

green colour. The ventral surface bears a few purple scales and _ rhizoids.

The plant is monoecious. The antheridia are situated behind the stalk of the

female receptacle, and they grow together to form a cushion-like structure. The

archegonia are developed on a long-stalked, lobed receptacle, whose upper surface

bears small projections.

8. Fimbriaria mussuriensis Kashyap.

(Plate III. Figure 2.)

The plant grows on moist, shady slopes along the west road near the stream.

The thallus is generally simple, and of a yellowish-green colour. The plants

grow in isolated patches of overlapping individuals. The ventral surface bears

a few rhizoids, and some reddish and colourless scales. :

The plant is monoecious. The antheridia are developed on ventro-lateral

shoots, and grow together into a cushion-like structure. The archegonia are

developed on stalled receptacles, which grow on side shoots.

9. Fimbriaria reticulata Kashyap.

(Plate I1I. Figure 3.)

This plant is very rare. Only a few specimens have been collected from the

shady, moist slopes along the west road near the stream. The thallus is generally

simple, rarely divided, and yellowish-green in colour. The plants do not grow in

large patches. Purple scales are present.

The plant is monoecious. The antheridia grow on lateral shoots, and form

a cushion-like structure. The archegonia are developed on stalled receptacles,

which grow terminally on the main thallus. The upper surface of each recep-

tacle bears small projections.

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE HILL 196

lv. Fimbriaria angusta St.

(Plate III. Figures 4 and 5.)

It is a rare plant, and is found growing on sunny rocks along the east road

below Pindi Point. The plants generally grow in patches among weeds. The

thallus is generally simple, rarely divided, and has a wavy margin,

The plant is dioecious. The antheridia are found scattered about on the

upper surface, and form a long cushion-like structure. The male plants turn

white when dry. The archegonia are developed on disc-likke, stalked receptacles.

Some plants produce tubers at the end of the rainy season.

11. Reboulia hemispherica (L.) Raddi.

(Plate [V. Figures 1 and 2.)

It is a very common plant, and is found along the -shady, moist slopes

throughout this area. The plants are generally of bluish-green. colour. ‘Lhe

ventral surface is purple in colour. They grow in dense patches of overlapping

individuals, and show a great variety of form.

The plants may be monoecious or dioecious. The receptacles bearing anche-

ridia are disc-like, sessile and apical in position. They are generally surroundeu

by scales. The archegonia are developed on stalked, terminal, lobed receptacles.

12. Plagiochasma appendiculatum L. et. L.

(Pilate Vers igunesm aman dy).

It is a very common plant, and forms large patches on rocks through-

out this area. The thallus is fairly large, broad, and dichotomously divided

as a rule, though the species shows considerable variation in form. The

ventral surface is purple.

The plant is generally monoecious. The receptacles bearing antheridia

are sessile, and may be V-shaped or horse-shoe shaped. They lie scattered

about on the thallus, and are surrounded by scales. The female receptacles

are lobed, and sessile at first, and lie scattered about.

13. Plagiochasma articulatum Kashyap.

(Plate IV. Figures 5 and 6);

It is a very common plant and is found all over this area, especially on

exposed sunny rocks. The plants grow in dense patches of small, green indi.

viduals. The ventral surface is purple in colour. The thallus is distinctly

articulated.

The plant is generally monoecious. The male receptacles are terminal,

V-shaped, and surrounded by scales.. Apical adventitious shoots generally grow

out from under them. The female receptacles are generally 3-lobed. hey

are sessile at first, but a stalk is developed later on.

14. Athalamia pusilla Kashyap.

(Plate V. Figures 1 and 2).

It is a rare plant. It grows in small patches on shady ground, or between

stones round Kashmir Point. The thallus is small, delicate, and dichotom-

ously divided. The ventral surface is greenish, and bears a few purple scales.

The plants are generally monoecious, though dioecious specimens are also

met with. The antheridia are few, sometimes only one in the middle of

the thallus. The female receptacles are small, stalked and 2 or 3 lobed.

15. Athalamia pinguis Falc.

(Plate V. Figures 3 afid 4).

It is a common plant. It grows. below rocks on sunny slopes below

Pindi Point. The thallus is thick, generally simple, rarely divided. The edges

of the thallus are lifted up from the ground to give it a concave appearance.

The ventral surface is covered with whitish scales. The plants turn white

when dry.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The plant is monoecious. The antheridia are many, and look like small

whitish projections near the base of the stalk. The female receptacles are

sessile at first, but bear thick stalks later on. As many as 3 may be developed

on the same thallus, but all do not mature. Each receptacle is surrounded

by scales.

lo. Pellia calycina (Tayl.) Nees.

(Blaten VE alii suiesies Ourcnchar,)s

It is a very common plant. It grows among weeds in large green patches

all over this area, especially along shady slopes or under stones in running

water. The thallus is dichotomously divided. At the end of the rainy season

the plants grow in size and assume parsley-like appearance. The plant is

dioecious. ‘Lhe antheridia lie scattered about along the mid-dorsal line. The

archegonia grow in clusters, and are provected by a tubular involucre. The

sporogonium has a very long and delicate stalk. The capsule is small, and

darlx brown in colour and splits in March.

17. Fruilania muscicois St.

(Rlatem Velo ei oluine men):

This plant commonly grows in closely applied, brownish patches on the

bark of oaks and pine trees. Plants may be found growing on rocks. The

stem is generally short and slender; may be simple or branched. It bears

3 rows of leaves. Ihe upper leaves (lobes) are bigger, rounded, and grow

out horizontally. The lower leaves (lobules) are small, with their margins

rolied back. the amphigastria are bigger than the lobules. Each has a

notched apex, bears darl brown rhizoids, and lies under the stem.

18. Frullania gracillima St.

(Plate VI. Figure 2).

It commonly grows on the bark of trees, and is generally associated with

I, muscicola. ine upper leaves are smaller and rounded. he lobules are

helmet-shaped. The amphigastria are not bigger than the lobules. They bear

rhizoids, and Jie along the stem. Jhe,apex is notched.

_ 19, Madotheca decurrens St.

(BlatemVary Shisutess):

The plants generally grow in patches on the bark of trees, and on rocks.

The patches are not closely applied. The stem is branched. ‘The upper leaves

are broadly ovate, and their bases overlap. he lobules are flat and run

along the stem.. The amphigastria are bigger than the lobules.

20. Radula complanata (L.) Dum.

(Plates V Ilo igure s 1):

The plants grow in yellowish green or whitish green patches on the bark

of trees or on rocks round Kashmir Point. The stem is closely applied to

the substratum, and is branched. The upper leaves’ are overlapping, and

entire. Their margins bear muiticellular. gemmae. The small lobules are

closely applied to the lobes and bear rhizoids. he amphigastria are absent.

The female reproductive organs are developed at the apex of ihe branch.

21. Chiloscyphus himalavensis St.

(Plate VII. Figure 2).

The plant grows in pale green. patches among weeds along shady moist

slopes all over this area. The stem is branched, and bears large, imbricate

leaves. The rhizoids grow from small amphigastria.

The plants are monoecious or dioecious. The male organs are developed

on the stem near the base of the leaves. ‘The sporogonium has a long hyaline

stalk, and a dark brown capsule. The base of the stalk is surrounded by a

bell-shaped structure called the parienth,

esi a hai pe

a aeaein ni

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE HILL |97

22. Lophocolea minor Nees.

(Blatem Vali shisure 3):

It is a rare plant, and grows in small, dense, yellowish-green patches on

the bark of trees or on the ground. The plants are very small, bear. alternate,

slightly bilobed leaves. The free margins of the leaves always bear clusters

of unicellular gemmae. The rhizoids are long and grow in tufts from the

amphigastria.

23. Plagicchila mundaliensis St.

(Rlatem VAS isurce en):

It is not a common plant. It grows among weeds in shady moist spots

at the foot of the trees below Kashmir Point. The plants are semi-erect,

and branched. Fhe branches bear large, alternate leaves with their upper

margins irregularly dentate. The underground stem is creeping, and bears

rhizoids and a few brownish leaves. The amphigastria are absent. ‘The plant

is generally sterile.

24. Fossombronia himalayensis [ashyap.

(Piate VIII. Figures 2 and 3).

The plants grow in green isolated small patches on rocks, especially during

the latter part of the rainy season. The slender stem bears delicate, oblong,

and overlapping leaves with beautifully wavy margins. The plants are monoe-

cious or dioecious. The antheridia are orange yellow, and are found scattered

about near the bases of the leaves. The sporogonium has a thin erect stalls,

and a small brownish capsule. Tubers are developed at the end of the rainy

season.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Kashyap, S. R.—Liverworts of the Western Himalayas and the Punjab

Plain. Part I. University of the Punjab, Lahore, 1929.

2. Kashyap, S. R.—Liverworts of the Western Himalayas and the Punjab

Plain. Part I. Supplement. University of the Punjab, Lahore, 1932.

3. Kashyap, S. R., and Chopra, R. S.—Liverworts of the Western Hima-

layas and the Punjab Plain. Part II. University of the Punjab, Lahore, 1932.

4. Chopra, R. S.—Notes om the Indian Hepatics. (South India). Pro-

ceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. vii, No. 5, May 1938.

5. Strasburger.—Text-Book of Botany. Macmillan and Co.,..London, 1930.

6. Thody.—Botany for Senior Students. Camb. Uni. Press, 1925.

7. Holman and Robbins.—Text-Book of General Botany. John Wiley &

Sons, New York, 1934.

8. Smith, Overton, Dennistran and Allen.—dA Text-Book. of General Botany.

Macmillan & Co., New York, 1935.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Anthoceros himalayensis.

1. A female plant showing involucre (v) and capsule (c) of the sporogo-

2. A male plant showing antheridia (a).

Marchantia nepalensis.

3.. A plant showing a stalked male receptacle (m). ;

4. A female plant showing 4 stalked female receptacles (f).

5. A plant thallus. (t) showing gemma cups (g) and rhizoids (r).

Plate II.

Conocephalum conicum.

1. A plant showing male receptacles (m).

2. A plant showing female receptacles (f). Note the small pores on thy

upper surface of the thallus.

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Stephensoniella brevipedunculata.

A plant showing antheridia (a) and tubers (t).

plant showing stalked female receptacle (1).

p Go

Cyathodium tuberosum.

A plant showing archegonia surrounded by involucre (v),

plant showing male receptacle (m).

A plant showing tubers (t) surrounded by hair-like structures (m).

“I Din

Targionia’ hypophylla.

A female plant bearing rhizoids (r).

g. A male plant showing a ventral shoot bearing a male cushion.

Plate III.

Fimbriaria Blumeana.

1. A single plant showing stalked female receptacles (f) and antheridia (a).

Fimbriaria mussuriensis.

2. A single plant showing stalked female receptacles (f) and antheridia

(a) on lateral shoots. :

Fimbriaria reticulata.

3. A single plant showing terminal stalked female receptacles (f) and

antheridia on latral shoots (a).

Fimbriaria angusta.

4. A male plant bearing antheridia (a) and tubers (t).

5. A female plant showing stalked receptacle (f).

Plate IV.

Reboulia hemispherica.

A plant showing male receptacles (m) and stalked female receptacles (f).

2. A plant showing only. male receptacles (m).

Plagiochasma appendiculatum.

3. A plant showing male (m) and female (f) receptacle.

4. A plant showing only female receptacles (f).

Plagiochasma articulatum.

Gre

plant showing male receptacles (m).

6. <A plant showing a single stalked female receptacle (f).

Plate V.

Athalamia pusilla.

1. A plant showing antheridia (a) and stalked female receptacle (f).

2. A plant showing only antheridia (a).

Athalamia pinguis.

3. A plant showing a single female receptacle (f) and antheridia (a).

4. A plant showing antheridia (a) and a single stalked female receptacle

(f).

Pellia calycina.

5- A plant showing involucre (v) and stall (k) and capsule (c) of the

sporogonium.

6. A -plant showing involucre (v) only.

7, A plant showing antheridia (a).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 1.

Abdul Hameed.—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation see end of article.

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE If.

Abdul) Hameed.—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation see end of article.

Journ, :Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE. 111.

Abdul Hameed,—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation see end of article,

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. . PLATE IV.

Abdul. Hameed.—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation see end of article,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. . PLATE V.

Abdul Hameed,—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

Ai ae a em For explanation see end of arttcle.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI.

Abdul Hameed,—-Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation see end of article,

PLATE VAT.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Journ.

Abdul Hameed.—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation see end of article.

‘ Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Abdul Hameed:—Liverworts of Murree Hill.

For explanation

see

PLATE VIII.

end of article.

NOTES ON THE LIVERWORTS OF MURREE GAILL 199

Plate VI.

Frullania muscicola.

1. Ventral view of a branch showing amphigastria (p), lobules (1) and

the upper leaves (t).

Frullania gracillima.

2. Ventral view of a branch showing amphigastria (p), lobules (1) and

the upper leaves (t).

Madotheca decurrens.

3. Dorsal view of a branch showing the arrangement of the upper leaves

(t).

Plate VII.

Radula complanata.

1. Ventral view of a branch showing lobules (1) with rhizoids (r) upper .

leaves (t) bearing gemmae (g) and a female reproductive structure (f).

Chiloscyphus himalayensis.

2. Dorsal view of a branch showing the upper leaves (t), antheridia (a),

stalk (lk), and capsule (c) of sporogonium, and parienth (n).

Lophocolea minor.

3. A single plant (dorsal view) showing rhizoids (r) and the upper leaves

bearing gemmae (g).

Plate VIII.

Plagiochila mundaliensis.

1. A plant showing the insertion of the leaves and the creeping under-

ground stem bearing rhizoids (r).

Fossombronia himalayensis.

A plant showing a stalk (Ix) and the capsule (c) of the sporogonium.

A plant showing antheridia (a) and rhizoids (r).

WwW bt

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE NESTING HABITS OF

THE INDIAN COURSER, CURSORIUS COROMANDELICUS

[GMELIN]

WWE ASS PHIRI aCe ae SOnwE

(With 3 plates).

Coursers have always held a great attraction for me. They are

so typical of the wide, open plains and deserts of the East, so

energetic, so full of life and movement—yet so elusive.

It was in Mesopotamia, during the last Great War, that I first

made their acquaintance. Well I remember watching them, with

great interest, while they ran swiftly hither and thither over the

maidan, outside the town and between the trenches, during the siege

of Kut-al-Amara, early in 1916. These were, of course, the Cream-

coloured Coursers (Cursorius cursor cursor) but, with the exception

that they were slightly larger and lighter-coloured birds and lived

in more definitely semi-desert areas, they were very much like our

Indian Courser.

After the war, I encountered this courser again, in small numbers,

when I was shooting sandgrouse on the fringe of the Sind desert.

But it was not until some years after my return to Ceylon that I

met the smaller and darker bird, which is the subject of these obser-

vations.

Along the north-west coast of Ceylon, from the north of

Puttalam to the Jaffna Peninsula, are extensive tracts of slightly

undulating, bare pastures and salty wastes, stretching from the

sea, inland, a mile, two miles or in some places as much as ten

miles, until they are engulfed by the jungle or melt into cultivated

areas. During the rains of the north-east monsoon, these plains

are covered with a short, wiry green grass and a few scattered

low shrubs but, for the greater part of the year, they are parched

and hard-baked and lie shimmering in the heat of the sweltering

sun. Large herds of cattle roam at will, grazing on the sparce

herbage while the struggling bushes of thorny acacias (A. plani-

frons and A. eburneus) are kept in check by the browsing of flocks

of voracious goats.

Although, in most areas, these plains are so vast that they

fade away on the horizon, in some places they are broken by

clumps and spinneys of flat-topped acacias, tall palmyras and

other dry-zone trees and bushes while straggling fences show

where attempts have been made to cultivate patches of paddy

during the wet weather. In some places, the land slopes slightly to

hollows which are shallow pools and water courses during the

rains while in other parts there are dry, sandy hillocks. These

plains are the home of the Indian Courser in Ceylon. They

are ideal for its requirements and consequently the species is found

PLATE I.

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

W. W. A. Phillips

s coromandelicus {Gmelin})

“SOVLU

The Indian Courser (Cw

Photo by

(Incubating her two eggs)

~ NESTING HABITS OF THE INDIAN COURSER 201]

in some numbers distributed throughout the plains in the breeding

seasons or collected into smal! flocks during the rains.

My first contact was made during the Christmas holidays some

years ago. We were shooting Golden Plover (Pluvialis domui-

nicus fulvus) and Pintail Snipe (Capella stenura) in the more

marshy areas, in the vicinity of Mannar, when we put up several

flocks of Coursers.. At this season—that is to say, during the

rains of the north-east monsoon when the plains are wet and

often marshy—all the coursers appear to be gathered into small

flocks of four or five to eight or nine. Probably these flocks are

composed of several family groups that have joined up for mutual

protection or companionship. Although they spend most of the

time on the ground, running rapidly hither and thither in the

typical courser manner, they will readily take wing and, rising

some hundred or so feet into the air, fly to another part of the

plain.

The flight is a rapid flapping of the wings, reminding one

greatly of the flight of the European Green Plover or Lapwing.

In fact, on the wing, in their small flocks, the Indian Coursers

bear a distinct resemblance to small. Green Plovers while, when

they are on the ground, running rapidly with heads down, they

might be mistaken for small members of the partridge family.

Our first effort, to discover the nest of this interesting bird,

was made during the second week in May, 1939—but we were

disappointed for either we were too early or, more probably, their

eggs had already been laid and subsequently destroyed by the

heavy rain-storms that occurred, unusually late, that year. The

following year we were unable to visit the Mannar district at the

appropriate season but, this year (ro4r), during the week-end of

the 30th May/rst June, we made another trip with the special

object of finding and photographing the eggs, and possibly also

the young, of this Courser-——and this time we were not disappoint-

ed. During the early hours of the morning. we arrived at our

usual Camp-site, protected from the wind and sun by a clump of

thorny, flat-topped acacias growing on the frinee of the plain,

and, soon after dawn, we were up eagerly scanning the wastes

through our field-glasses. Many Yellow-wattled Lapwings (Lobi-

pluvia malabarica), a few Little Terns (Sterna albifrons sinensis)

and a single Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus i. indicus) were

brooding their eggs within sight of camp. .In the rays of the

early morning sun, they showed up very distinctly against the

background of close-cropped, sun-scorched g¢rass—but of Coursers

there were none to be seen. |

After an early and hurried breakfast, the car was brought

out and we motored slowly and carefully over the hard-baked

plains, keeping a good look out for the little brown sprinters.

Bird watching from a small closed car, under these circumstances,

has many advantages. One quickly develops the proper tech-

nique for avoiding thorn-scrub, boulders and ruts while, at the

same time, critically examining the country-side for birds, their

nests and their eggs. The advantages of this method are mani-

fold. Much more ground can be covered than on foot; one can

202 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

carry one’s camera, hide, accessories, food, drink, etc., without

effort and without tiring out oneself; one keeps cool, in the blazing

sun, and, above all, one remains concealed and can approach,

comparatively closely, to shy birds without exciting undue sus-

picion.

As long as one sits quietly inside, without too much movement,

if is extraordinary how little notice birds and animals will take

of a slowly moving or stationary car. Many a time, I have

motored slowly up to a Red-wattled or a Yellow-wattled Lapwing

as it has sat brooding its eggs and it has continued to sit until

the car has arrived within a few yards of it; then it has got

up, reluctantly left the eggs, and run a few yards to one side with

an obviously puzzled look in its eyes. Or I have sat in a station-

ary car, with field-glasses focused, and watched an unsuspecting

bird onto its nest-—a bird that, had I been on foot, would have

been miles away before I had ard anywhere in the vicinity of

its treasures.

On this morning, we motored slowly over the haMonEe plain,

avoiding hazards and stopping every now and then to spy out

the land. Several Coursers were seen but all of them appeared

be engaged in feeding and quite innocent of any hidden secrets.

Probably they were males enjoying a bachelor existence. while

their mates incubated their eggs in another area—for the male

does not appear to do his fair share of the domestic duties. Even-

tually, however, a pair were observed that showed a little more

concern at our approach; they continued to run about instead of

taking flight and flying out of sight. .

Stopping the car, we watched them for some time eradually

working further and further away from our vicinity—head down

a short run—stop-—head up—a moment’s look round—then head

down again and another short run, repeated time and again.

Then, after watching for a little while, we realised that they were

being followed by a much smaller object, a well grown young one

which was imitating their movements and occasionally receiving

a morsel of food from one or other of them. A closer approach

and the young one squatted, motionless, while the parents took

wing and flew towards the horizon. The young chick, which was

less than half grown, was of a much lighter hue than its parents

and was spotted and barred on its upper plumage resembling far

more a miniature Spotted Sandgrouse than an adult Indian Courser.

Its colouring was admirably protective ; it was most difficult to

distinguish it as it lay crouched and immovable beside and half

sheltered by a dwarf thorny acacia. Suddenly, however, when

it gealised that it had been discovered by the awesome eye of the

camera, it took to its heels, running at great speed for such a

small chick, and circling and dodging to avoid capture. Having

been caught, with some difficulty, however, it again crouched with-

out movement, while it was photographed and left to its own

devices.

While returning from this successful chase, another Courser

was observed which also seemed to be acting in rather an unusual

JouRN. BomBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. / PrATEMII:

Hatchling of Indian Courser

Photos by Chick of Indian Courser W. W. A. Phillips

NESTING HABITS OF THE INDIAN COURSER 203

manner. Watched from a distance, its activities were seen to be

centered upon a spot some fifty feet from an open fence that

straggled, at this point, across a portion of the plain. Every

now and again its short runs, punctuated by the usual stops for

observation or to pick up some insect, would converge upon the

same spot, where it would stop for a moment, head down, and

then resume the runs in another direction. A closer approach

and more careful observation fixed the spot in our eyes and,

leaving the car, we slowly approached. At first, a careful search

revealed nothing unusual but a_ still closer scrutiny disclosed, in

the end, a minute object, crouched beside a piece of desiccated

cow-dung—a newly hatched Courser! And what a_ delightful

little hatchling it was! <A tiny, mottled ball of down, so like its

surroundings that even though one knew the exact spot where it

lay, it was most difficult to distinguish it. The down was mottled,

irregularly, a rather deep shade of reddish-brown and black, and

this colouring blended in such a remarkable way with the debris

amongst which the hatchling had concealed itself that it was lost

the minute that one took one’s eyes from off it. Evidently it had

been hatched out for only a few hours. It seemed too weak on

its legs to attempt to run and, in size, it was very little larger

than the egg from which it had emerged.

Erecting a hide beside the broken fence that, luckily, lay to

the eastwards and focusing the camera as nearly as possible on

the spot where the chick crouched, the car was sent away and

we watched for the mother’s return. Sooner than we had dared

to hope, she was seen in the offing. She had not been far away

and evidently believed that we had all left in the car. She came

from a little distance, working gradually closer with the usual,

short, aimless-looking runs until she arrived in the close vicinity

of the place where she had left her offspring. Then, while she

appeared to be looking for it. it rose on its weak little legs and

tottered the last few feet to join her—and was fed. But she was

a little worried by the closeness of the hide, which had sprung

up so suddenly and so surprisingly during her absence, for she

began to shepherd her chick, further and further away, enticing

it to join her each time she came to feed it. Of the male there

was no sign; presumably he was away feeding somewhere else,

for he did not put in an appearance during the whole two hours

his mate was under observation.

Although it was after eleven o’clock, the chick was fed fre-

quently. Whenever the mother found a suitable insect, she would

run back to it, not directly or in one long run but with the short

aimless-looking sprints so typical of the Courser family. | She

made no demonstrations when her chick was caught and handled

—nor did the pair in the previous incident. In both cases, they

vanished, leaving the chicks quite alone, evidently trusting that

the remarkable protective colourings would suffice to keep danger

away. In this they were very different from the Plovers which

demonstrated, continually, when we were near their eggs or

young.

In the comparative cool of the late afternoon, we motored to

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

another part of the plain, some six miles distant. Here were

several pairs of Coursers, apparently feeding. One pair was

singled out for close watching and it soon became evident that

these birds were either feeding within their own chosen territory,

which the cock was prepared to defend against others of his own

kind, or that he was jealous of any other Courser approaching

his mate. For he was observed, continually, to chase and drive

off another pair that were attempting to encroach upon what

appeared to be his feeding grounds.

After some fifteen minutes, this pair began to work their way,

right-handed, towards some low, scrub-covered sandhills, which

they reached in due course after much zigzaging. Now, they

changed their direction and started working down the savncs tani,

parallel to the car. For another fifteen or twenty minutes they

continued running backwards and forwards and feeding, one

occasionally running off to some distant objective and then

hastening back to join its mate. Then, quite suddenly, after

nearly three quarters of an hour (by which time we had almost

decided to give up and move elsewhere) one, which turned out

to be the female—left her mate and was seen making a longer

run than usual, straight towards. the car. Closer and closer she

came until, when about fifty yards distant, she stopped and, after

a moment’s hesitation, crouched down—and remained crouching !

As the car drew near she rose hurriedly and ran off again—dis-

closing two handsome eggs, lying side by side on the Bare ground.

Broad, blunt ovals in shape, they were a little over an inch in

length and of a pale yellowish buff ground-colour, densely over-

laid with irregular blotches, smears, lines and speckles of dark

violet-grey and black—a wonderfully protective colouring, most

difficult to distinguish from the bits of desiccated cow-dung and

other debris lying in close proximity to where they were placed.

From the initial behaviour of the birds, it was now obvious

that, when we arrived in their neighbourhood we had, inadvertant-

ly, driven them away from the vicinity of their eggs and that the

hen had then taken a considerable time to make up her mind to

return to them, for the car was parked close to her normal line

of approach. Thus, she had had to make a considerable detour,

round three sides of a square, in order to approach them without

passing too close to the car. This, she had done gradually, with-

out giving away the fact that she was interested in any particular

spot until, at the last moment, she had headed directly for it.

As rapidly as possible, the hide was erected—to the eastwards

of the nest in order to obtain the best light from the morning sun—

anchored against the force of the monsoon winds that were fiercely

sweeping the plain, and disguised as well as circumstances would

permit; we then retired to another area and continued, until dusk,

our search for more nests and eggs. Although no other Courser’s

eggs were discovered, four eggs of the Black-winged Stilt

(Himantopus h. himantopus) in a slight nest on a bank overlooking

a lagoon, three eggs of the Indian Kentish Plover (Leucopolius

alexandrinus seebohmi) lying half-buried by blown-sand in a slight

PLATE III.

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ing nest.

ipproach

in Courser

lé

Ind

“7?

W, W. A. Phillips

Eggs of the Indian Courser

Photos by

NESTING HABITS OF THE INDIAN COURSER 205)

scrape and several nests and eggs of the little Ashy-crowned

Finch-lark (Pyrrhulauda grisea) and the Nilgirt Sky-lark (Alauda

gulgula australis) were located.

Next morning, as soon as the light was fit for photography,

we motored back to the hide—to see the Courser leave her ege's

and run rapidly away at our approach. A quick change from

car to hide, a careful focusing of the eggs and we were ready for

the car to leave and for the bird to return to her duties. Hardly

twelve minutes later she came into sight, sprinting in the usual

fashion and gradually working nearer and nearer to her objective

—and then—she had arrived and was standing over her eggs,

looking a perfect picture in the morning sunlight.

She took no notice of the camera lens or the noisy release of

the shutter. Evidently she was confident that, as she could see

no one on the plain, everything must be quite safe. She sat

close, but alert, with her head held moderately high so that she

could watch for the approach of danger, for apparently her mate

would give her no assistance in this way. Occasionally, she

sifted her position and once or twice, turned her eggs but she

incubated them alone—there was no sign of her mate.

From the incidents just recorded, it would seem probable that

the Indian Courser, in Ceylon, normally lays its eggs during the

latter half of May but, if the weather conditions are favourable,

one or two pairs may lay as early as the beginning of that month;

that the parents do not demonstrate, in any way, when their eggs

or young are approached—they fly away and trust to the effective-

ness of their obliterative colouring to keep them from harm—and

that the female does most, if not all, of the incubation of the

eges and the care of the newly-hatched chick but that the male,

sometimes, assists in the feeding and education of the young when

they are feathered.

‘Apart from the risk of annihilation by the feet of grazing

cattle, jackals, dogs and crows, all of which quarter the ground

seeking for eggs and young of ground-nesting birds, constitute

the chief menace to the Courser, in Ceylon. But as the conceal-

ment, afforded by the protective colouring of both the eggs and

the young, has attained such a high degree of effectiveness, there

would seem to be no reason to fear that the species will be unable

to maintain itself in considerable numbers on our coastal plains.

’

ev LB LULSIMUBUN|Ssye TalOUIUDYANY JUNG Isle, VAIO Tal IIL ILS»

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(One plate and one text-figure)

The Abu Hills are an enormous mass of gneissic rock rising

steeply out of the plain, and standing well apart from the rest of

the Aravalli Range. The highest ‘peak, Guru Sikar (Shunkar),

rises 5650 feet above sea level and is crowned with a .shrine to

Dhuttashri, into the construction of which a conveniently weathered

bolder has been incorporated. From the Oria Dak Bungalow this

edifice appears like a gigantic statue of Buddha. Guru Sikar is

the highest point between the Himalayas and the Nilgiris. The

Abu rocks weather in a most peculiar way, and often assume fantastic

shapes. To wit, the famous Toad Rock which when viewed from

a certain angle looks like a gigantic toad ready to take plunge into

the Naki Lake below. A hill face pitted with hollows is krown

to the school boys as “Spongy’. The hollows of ‘“Spongy’ are

occupied by vultures and swifts.. There are other rocks of note

which also have appropriate names. The hills are clad in deciduous

forest, the vegetation standing out picturesquely against the masses

of grey rock. The plateau, with an average height of nearly

4000 feet, is occupied by the well-known hill station of Mt. Abu—

a small patch of territory leased to the British Government by the

Sirhoi State. This patch is well demarcated by white boundary

pillars standing like sentries on the hills and in the valleys—and

richly ornamented with festoons of ‘red tape’! Nevertheless it is

an ‘oasis’ in the Rajputana desert, and a delightful place for a

holiday. To the naturalist Abu offers a fair range of animal and

plant life; to the archeologist some objects of interest; to the photo-

gerapher and artist some beautiful studies; to the mountginges manv

slippery crags; to the squatter many a hard rock! Such is the

place I selected for a holiday with my little family. My boys are

there at school. But to me Mt. Abu is more than just a place for a

heliday. It was there that I was initiated into the mysteries of

botany, it was the scene of my first botanical tour in May 1916 in

company with my old friends the late Fr. Blatter and Prof.

Hallberge—thus Mt. Abu is a mile stone in my biological career.

At the time of my first visit there was no regular bus service,

the journey up had to be undertaken in tongas. the luegage coming

up in bullock carts. However, on that particular occasion we were

lucky to find a solitary blue (I cannot forget the colour) car at

Abu Road. Though the vehicle definitely looked more fit for the

scrap heap than for a journey up the hills, its enterprisine owner

volunteered to risk it and promised to be up in a couple of hours.

But we had our doubts, grave doubts. As a matter of fact, it took

us twelve hours to cover a distance of fifteen miles, for the car

broke down for good three miles out of Mt, Abu and we had to

A ‘BUSMAN'S*- HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HILLS 207

walk the rest of the journey in the dark! It is the shortest journey

1! have ever done in the maximum of time! By the end of May

Met. Abu’s first set of Oomnibuses was 1n Commission; and now there

is a regular service up the Mount.

fr. Blatter had a special aptitude for teaching a silent, but

forcelul, lesson; and at his school 1 was taught my first botanicai

lesson and first binomial. in my enthusiasm | made a wild yvrab

at a withering plant and brought it to him. Fr. Blatter looked on,

and kept his peace. | had scarcely touched the plant than my hand

began to smart; | scratched it quietly as if there was nothing wrong,

but a little later my fingers were on fire, | experienced a most un-

pleasant sensation. And then very quietly, “This is Girardinia

heterophylla, a nettle,’ said the old man. ‘the fact that it was a

nettle £ had already learnt—nor did I forget the binomial. I was

to find out in course of time that this nettle will penetrate clothing

and is to be given as wide a berth as possible.

On the 7th October (1941) we left Bombay and arrived at Abu

Road on the 8th.afternoon. There was nothing to report en route

except that owing to the vagaries of the monsoon this year, the

crops appeared to be rather poor. Soon after our arrival at Abu

Road we left by bus for the Mount. Everything looked fresh, but

the heat and the draught were already changing the grasses from

green to khaki. At Chippabari the bus stopped for a breather; so

1 decided to stretch my legs. We were already 2000 feet up—a

thousand feet above the plain. The first thing that caught my eye

was my ‘auld acquaintance’, Girardinia, in fine fettle. The sight

of it rushed me back through the years, back to May 1916 and my

first botanical lesson. I became reminiscent for a while. My dear

old companions returned from the grave, and in fancy we werc

again together on these hills, but 1 am the only one left of that

‘trinity’. As I walked down the road and looked into the gully

between the hills | awakened from my reverie to the presence of

clouds of butterflies. The flight seemed abnormal and I stood and

watched a while. The insects all seemed to be going in the same

direction. Was it a migration flight? While I. was making a

mental note of the species involved, the impatience of the bus driver

to continue the journey was audibly expressed on his horn. I cursed

him, but hurried to put an end to the ear-rending honks. I took

my seat, and as we proceeded kept pondering over the flight of

the butterflies. In the gully they were probably taking up their

positions for the night. When we reached the top there were no

signs of them anywhere; it was already late in the afternoon, long

past bed-time in the butterfly world.

After Arna, a police post on the way up, I kept an eye on the

cliffs bordering the road for another old acquaintance, this time a

sedge, Eriophorum comosum Wall. A curious point about this

plant is that it appears to favour the northern and north-eastern faces

of the cliffs, between 3000 and 3300 ft. Its deep green leaves and

cottony inflorescence look pretty against the dark-grey rocks. So

far as I can remember, I have not found this sedge elsewhere on

these hills. A little higher up, below the toll-bar, willows (Salix

tetrasperma Roxb.), growing in the rocky bed of a stream, were

in full bloom,

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XLirt

At the toll-bar my journey ended.. There we found our elder

son, Carl. patiently awaiting our arrival to conduct his mother to

the house where she was to stay. Ihe sun was now steep in the

west, and the vegetation cast long deep shadows. As I threaded

my way to the bungalow where I was to stay, | again found myself

pondering over the flight of butterflies, only to be disturbed by

two mungooses (Herpestes edward sit) fighting on the road, and by the

shrill cait of the Five-striped Squirrel (funambulus pennanti).

Thére are two species of mungooses occurring on these louis, 8-5,

edwardsu which ranges from the plain to the top, and H. smithi sali

is confined to the hilis. The black tail-tip and darker, brownish

coat immediately distinguish this latter species from the Common

Mungoose. Of the two, H. edwardsi definitely appears to be more

predominant. The striped squirrel is extremely common. Passing

over an Irish bridge I noticed that the surface of the stream was

well-stocked with patches of Whirligig Beetles (Dineutes indicus

Aube.). They were lazily drifting in batches on the surface of the

water, like so many black seeds, but my shadow sent them off

girating in all directions, a medley of movement. At length, I

reached the bungalow and settled down to a welcome tea amid old

{riends—all school masters—my hosts. Next day there were to be

the school sports, a big function and that fixed the conversation for

ihe evening. :

Next morning I was left to myself, so | wandered out into the

garden in search of some natural history. At about g a.m. the

Painted Ladies (' Vanessa cardui: Linn.) commenced to arrive and

sail about, like little yachts on the zinnia flowers. Their numbers

increased till they were quite plentiful; but towards 4 p.m. ali

disappeared again to reappear next morning with almost clockword

regularity. Now and again, there was ane deep ta sound

of a brown day-flying Hawk-moth | Macroglossum belis (L.)| or a

Bee-hawk (Cephonodes hylas L.), both very restive cae Of

the two Macroglossum was by far the commoner. It arrived early,

some time between g and 9-30 a.m., and visited throughout the day.

Towards evening it seemed to be more plentiful but to become

much shier as night was setting in. The moths visited the yellow -

florets of the zinnias, the dahlias, the flowers of the cannas, and

a blue acanthaceous plant. Between 9-30 and to a.m. commenced

the flight of pierids, all going in the same direction. At first the

scouts, then larger and larger formations which became exceeding

dense janieea 1-30 and 2 p.m. After this the ranks thinned out

rapidly and by 3-30 p.m. the last stragglers had disappeared. It was

a definite migration. There was a strong gale blowing, and the

insects travelled up wind. Most of them were in a very great

hurry, and few ever settled. This procession brought back to me

the lines of the immortal Omar :—

‘What, without asking, hither hurried Whence?

And, without asking, Whither hurried hence !’

ha LL

' A known migrant.

Garr nwt ne ars te rey a eee em |e ee ry,

Teepe ees

srw

sre, oe

rely:

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

BUTTERFLIES ON MIGRATION.

Row 1: Catopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst. Row 2: 2a C. pyranthe minna ,

2b C. crocale subsp. Row 3: C. florella gnoma F. ; Row 4: IJxias marianne Cr.

Row 5: I. pyrene satadra M. Row 6: 6a, 6b. I. pyrene QQ without orange tip ;

6c, 6d. similar to 6a and 6b but smaller and with less prominent markings on

underside. No. 7: Huphina nerissa evegate Cr. No. 8: Belenois mesentina Cr.

(damaged). No. 9: Catopsilia crocale Cr.

A “‘BUSMAN’S’? HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HILLS 209

I regretted not having brought my net, but I spent much time

catching with my fingers those that settled till I managed to rig

up a net from an old mosquito curtain. At lunch I mentioned the

flight to my companions and was immediately informed that the

9-7 OcT. B-17 Ocr,

DIRECTION OF FLIGHT OF MIGRATING BUTTERFLIES.

present flight was nothing compared with what had gone before.

further enquiries elicited the fact that the migration commenced

on the 5th October, when the insects were travelling in the opposite

direction, in clouds! I watched this migration day after day, the

numbers gradually diminished and after the 17th of the month there

were but a few left behind. These did not seem to be in the same

great hurry. I noted that incidently the wind had also died down.

At a rough estimate from 50-80 butterflies crossed a line of 50 yards

per minute when the flight was at its peak. The elevation at my

point of observation was nearly 4ooo {t. The butterflies climbed

over the hills, they dropped down into the valleys and up again,

but always preserved the direction and never few more than some

40° Or 50 ft. above the ground.

The butterflies. involved in this general migration were in order

of numbers :—

' (1*) Catopsilia pyranthe minna Herbst. very common

2°) Catopsilia florella gnoma F. a very Common.

(3) Huphina nerissa evegate Cr. nes common.

(4) Ixias pyrene satadra Moore tie common

(5) Ixias marianne Cr. pe common

(6°) Catopsilia crocale Cr. o0¢ occasional

(7°) Catopsilia pomona catilla Cr. ee occasionall

(8) Belenois mesentina Cr. ee very occasional

Though the majority of Ixias kept to the general line of advance

some were seen to fly in both the forward and backward directions.

Besides these, *Terias hecabe L. and *T. libythea Fab. seemed

to follow in the line of flight, but were not plentiful. Among the

1 Those marked with an asterisk have been recorded as migrants by

Mr, Williams,

210. fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS’. SOCIETY, Vol, XLII

ixias there were many females without the orange tip on the fore-

wings. aor

Among other butterflies caught during the trip were :—*Papilio

demoleus L.; *Danaus limniace Cr.; D. plexippus, a pigmy form;

‘Precis orithyia L.; Atella phalantha Drury; Huphina phryne F. ;

“Hypolim nas missippus L. 2, 3 seen; and a few Hesperids and

Lycaenids. a

In volume xl, p. 439 of the Journal, Mr. C. B. Williams published

an interesting articie, Lhe Migration of Butterflies im India, in

which he enumerated all the known butterfly migrations in the

country. In table II] of this article, we find that the nearest record-

ed flight to Mt. Abu 1s from Deesa, Palanpur State, and was observ-

ed by Nurse between 25 and 27 August 1901. The direction of the

flight was North-West and the species involved was Catopsilia

pyranthe, a known migrant. The present record is also of C. pyran-

the minna, but accompanied by C. florella gnoma in almost equal

numbers, and other species.

At dusk the flowers were visited by a few hawk-moths, Hippotion

celerio; Nephele didyma; Macroglossum. The first two _ con-

centrated chiefly on the cannas.

While standing on the verandha of the bungalow one afternoon

I saw a pair of Danaus lemniace in copula—nothing extraordinary ;

but there appeared to be something wrong with the couple. As

soon as they settled, I caught them. To my great surprise I dis-

covered that the pendant one, the female, was dead, headless,

bone dry, and the wings folded the reverse way! Judging from

the condition of the corpse and the worn appearance of the living

one, the living insect must have trailed its dead partner about for

days ! J have seen in collections, insects killed while in copulation;

but this is the first time I have come across such an accident in

the natural state. This danaid was more common than D. plexippus

of which | saw a few and caught one—a pigmy.

Atella phalantha Drury seemed to favour Mallotus and was

seen in plenty round the willows (Salix tetrasperma Roxb. in flower)

in company with Pierids and Lycaenids. “Papilio demoleus, as

usual, hovered around lime trees while Huphina and Ixias were

partial to Capparis spp. and Vogelia indica Gibs., this latter only

being in flower. Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. and Hiptage

Madablota Gaertn. were in full bloom and attracted hosts of Pierids,

Lycaenids and the Moth Macroglossum. Kydia calycina Roxb. was

just about to flower.

On the 20th Mr. Gonsalves and I decided on a walk down

the road to Arna. There was nothing new in the lepidopterous line

so I concentrated more on botany. In a well along the road’ I

found a species of Lemna (Duckweed). It covered the entire surface

of the water and to my luck found it in flower. This was a good

find as I much needed this plant from this area. Eriophorum

conosum Wall., the sedge, I referred to above, was there in flower

and fruit and I was glad to get some fresh material. On _ the

—

' Those marked with an asterisk have been recorded as migrants by

Mr. Williams.

A ‘BUSMAN’S’ HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HILLS 211

return journey I heard langurs swearing, and turning to my com-

panion | said ‘There is a tiger or panther about’. Barely were

the words out of my mouth when we heard a headsman shouting

that a bhag (a name for either feline) had killed one of his animals.

The tollowing day we set out along the old road which once led

down to the plains. On the way we passed a shikar party return-

ing home, after an unsuccessful wip. Off the road lay the body otf

a young buttalo which had been killed during the night by a tiger.

The buttalo had been put out as bait. While on the subject of

game, it is interesting to note that tigers and panthers are on

the increase. The reason is obvious: tigers are preserved as

‘Royal Game’. ‘This increase is not, however, without its reper-

cussions. in years gone by pig and sambhar were fairly plentiful,

particularly the former. ‘Today both animals are scarce and in

consequence cattle lifting is on the increase to the detriment of the

people who must drive their herds into the hills in search of grazing.

{he felines have become so bold that they will kill in broad day-

light. Occasionally a herder is mauled. As there is little other

game in these hills the pig and sambhar form the main source of

the food supply for these great felines, apart from domestic

animals. With the disappearance of the natural food supply these

great cats will turn their attention to wholesale slaughter of domestic

animals unless steps are taken to thin out their numbers. The

sloth bear is also a member of the fauna. This clumsy ‘sack of

black hair’ is well able to hold his own in these hills. There are

plenty of retreats and it 1s a good climber. |

Turning from big game to smaller denizens of the-wilds, I noticed

a remarkable difference in. the numbers of the grey jungle fowl

(Gallus sonneratu Temm.).. Formerly these birds were very numer-

eus and they could be heard on all sides heralding the day and

keeping up a diurnal concert, but today their familiar note is scarce.

To my mind, this decrease is not entirely due to shooting, but to the

increase in the mungoose population—a serious menace to ground-

breeding birds. In spite of the fact that mungooses keep the reptile

fraternity in check, under the circumstances, I would suggest the

thinning out of their numbers if the ground-breeding feathered

game are to survive. The spur fowl (Galloperdix s. caurina Blant.)

though still more numerous than the jungle fowl, appears to be

fewer in numbers and is likely to share the same fate as its relative.

Hares (Lepus sp.) are still plentiful. In a restricted area, like

the Abu Hills, too strict a preservation must eventually lead to a

depopulation of certain types of its fauna, as the food supply is

naturally limited. I am afraid I may be treading on somebody’s

corns, but this is merely my honest opinion as a casual visitor to

these hills for many years. As a naturalist I should like to see

the fauna of this island in the desert preserved in its proper balance.

Among mammals I must not forget the common. langur

(Semnopithecus entellus) which is much in evidence and occasion-

ally a nuisance. In the heart of the station there is a fairly large

colony of flying-fexes (Pteropus giganteus) distributed on_ silver

oaks (Grevillea robusta) and eucalyptus trees. I was informed

that during the cold weather the bats left the hills for a warmer

clime. Observations by interested residents on the time of departure

vi2 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

and return of these bats to the hills would be welcome. Hyaenas

(f1yadena lyaena) were occasionally heard but jackals (Canis indica)

are absent, though common enough on the plain below. Jungle

cats (elis affunis) are occasionally seen. Civet cats are not un-

common. Like ail other places Mt. Abu has its fair complement

of small rodents and bats.

to return to the walk along the old road; we wandered on

past the kill til we came to a stream. Here on some almost

vertical rocks 1 spotted a Begonia (near B. trichocarpa Dalz.) in

fruit, which 1! do not remember having seen before. This was

the prize ol the day. Just above the Begonia was the nest of the

house swift (Micropus affinis affims L.) in a pocket in the rock.

The bottom of the pocket was built across, and formed the floor of the

nest. Internally it was lined with feathers but externally it was

composed of pellets of mud. ‘Lhe nest contained a nearly fully

fledged young and the male parent. According to the Launa

(2nd Ed.): ‘they breed from lebruary to September in the Plains

and have two or more broods, but in the Hills breed from March

to June.’ Proceeding from here we passed through plenty of Spear-

grass (Heleropogon contortus RK. & §.) and tufts of Lemon grass

(Cymbopogon Martini Stapf). In places dense growths of Stro-

bilanthes callosus Nees bordered the narrow path which now formed

the road—the forest was reclaiming its own. Tired of picking out

spear-grass trom our clothes we decided to return home.

On the 22nd 1 set out on my last walk with my companion.

This time we visited a small artificial lake not far from the school.

On our way we saw a young monitor lizard (Varanus monitor)

which quickly disappeared down a crevice between two rocks.

Bloodsuckers |Calotes versicolor (Daudin)| were plentiful. On

arrival at the dam of the lake a mungoose (H. smithi) beat a hasty

retreat. On examining the shores of the lake I found that they

were teeming with the streaked-frog (Rana lemnocharis Wiegm.)

particularly where a little vegetation was coming down to the

water’s edge. Among some debris left behind by the receding

water I found a small frog very beautifully camouflaged. This

turned out to be the black-throated frog (Mucrohyla ornata

Boulenger). Close examination showed it to be fairly plentiful

among the debris, but less common at other points of the lake.

This record, 1 think, is new for this area. The skipper (ana

cyanophlictis Schneider) floated leisurely on the surface. In the

water were green sponges attached to the rocks, frequently shelter-_

ing a crab (Paratelphusa) which was frequent in the lake. On

the western and north-western shores there were dense growths of

Limnophylla sp. So dense was the growth in parts that it almost

excluded all else. It was in flower, and attracted crowds of butter-

flies, chiefly Pierids. The Limnophylia sheltered hundreds of the

streaked-frog. Lastly there appeared the common skink (Mabuya

cavinata) which attempted to keep out of my way, but soon found

itself in my collecting bag.

Mt. Abu has its full share of avian fauna, but < will only mention

some of its outstanding birds. The first large bird the visitor

meets as he enters the station, is Pharaoh’s chicken [Neophron p.

ginginianus (Lath.)| to give it its polite name, in its various stages

A ‘BUSMAN’S’ HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HILLS 213

of plumage; from the brown juvenile dress with a bluish beak

to the white adult plumage with a yellow bill. Going into the

station 1s like entering by the back door. The first points of

interest the visitor passes by are the rubbish heaps and incinerators,

hence the presence of Pharaoh’s chicks. On the roads most vehicular .

tratiic 1s strictly banned, but as with all bans there is a privileged

class exempt. Generally speaking they are the “upper ten’ but in

this case it is the ‘lower thousand’! The privileged class is the

ungainiy, wopbly aight sou carts that are the favoured ones—all

wending their way in slow, leisurely procession to their decanting

station. heir approach is a signa: to the wayfarers to hold their

noses, and a spitting competition by the locais! The ‘monsters’

are still more offensive to the nostrils than ungainly to the eye.

the pariah kie (Milvus govinda) 1s common and is seen in com-

pany with Pharaoh’s chickens. Ihe fulvous vulture (Gyps fulvus

rlume) 1S a Common bird and is often seen near the refuse dumps.

lt breeds commonly in the numerous pockets in the crags. ‘The

jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchus Wagn.) is.in ample evidence

and replaces on these hills his next of kin, the common crow (C.

_splendens), though the latter is plentiful in the plains and on the

lower slopes.

Carrion teeders are not the only birds in Mt. Abu, there are

many more ot deughttul plumage and delicate taste. the common

bulbul |Molpastes cafer (L.)| 1s yery numerous and at the tinic

was engaged on parental duues. I saw numerous fledged young

following their parents. The red-whiskered bulbuls (Ulocompsu

jocosa) were tewer. Three kingfishers, the white-breasted | Halcyon

smyrnensis fusca (Bodd.)|, the pied (Ceryle rudis Leucomelanura

Rech.) and the little kingfisher |Alcedo atihis (L.)| haunted the

streams. The hoopoe, 1 did not see. I mention this fact because

I have seen it during the winter. The jungle babbler (Turdoides

somervillei sindianus Vicehurst) noisily hunted in the bushes and

undergrowth. Bush Robins strutted about the grass or perched

.on rocks. In winter there is a general influx of birds of prey and

other migrants.

I must now make a few observations on the flora. I have

already remarked on the type of vegetation. The currunda (Carissa

carandas Linn.) seems to predominate, and in the season its swect-

scented flowers give the air a delightful aroma. A plant which,

I think, is becoming “a serious pest, is a thorny straggling shrub,

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. It is definitely gaining ground. The

fohage is beautiful enough, and the lemon-coloured flowers lend a

touch of colour, but the ugly recurved thorns are a nuisance. it

is easily distinguished by its boat-shaped pods which often persist

for a considerable time on the bushes. Another plant which

appears to be threatening the station is a Composite, Xanthium

strumarium L. I do not remember having seen it here in such

abundance as this year. The area round the rubbish heaps. and the

gutters along the roadside in certain places are overrun with it.

It is common enough in the plain and is spreading far and wide

along the railway track. This same plant has entered Salsette

Island and I first saw it along the railway track at Santa Cruz

Where I feel sure it was introduced by the railway! Since its first

b14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLUi

introduction into Salsette, it is spreading rapidly. The fruits form

dense clusters and are armed with numerous hooks which make them

suitable for animal or human dispersal. The nettle, Girardina

heterophylla Dalz., already referred to, 1s a hideous pest. Certain

gullies and damp places in the hills are filled with a tough grass,

Peninsetum Alopecuros Nees, which is used locally to make rope.

Cattle do not seem to touch it. Perhaps with a little care this

grass could be put to a greater use than at present.

The tallest trees in the area are Australian, Eucalyptus and silver

oak (Grevillea robusta). A few peepal (Ficus religiosa L.) and

Banyan (f£. bengalensis L.) have also attained great size. Some

specimens at Chippabari are fine examples of the latter. A

Bauhinia (B. purpurea L.) makes a fine show when in flower not

far below the toll-bar. Erythrina spp. with their scarlet flowers are

also attractive in the season and lend a touch of colour to the hills.

{ must not omit mentioning the Euphorbia bushes (often erroneously

referred to as cactus bushes—true Cactus is purely American. On

the plain and the lowest slopes the round stemmed -Kuphorbia

nerifola Linn, is the only one seen, but at the top the angular

stemmed E. ligularia Roxb. is in sole possession! Why _ there

should be this difference is yet to be disclosed. Altitude is not the

explanation as the second species also occurs at sea level. Another

question is—How did it get to the mount when it is surrounded

on all sides by the round stemmed species?

Garden escapes are not uncommon. The beautiful potato creeper

(Solanum) is now running wild in certain places. The dispersal

of this plant I lay at the door of the common bulbul (Molpastes

cafer) which eats the ripe berries. An Ageratum with fluffy, pale

blue flowers, an introduction, is slowly gaining ground in damp

places. Zinnia and an orange-yellow cosmos-like plant are aiso

seen as escapes.

Lastly, mention is to be made of the mango (Mangifera indica)

species of Anogeissus and the Jambul (Eugenia Jambolana Lam.)

which here and there form a goodly percentage of the shade trees.

On the 23rd evening we bundled into a bus after saying farewell

to our kind hosts and our two boys, as we had decided on a day’s

stay at Abu Road. Nothing of note occurred en route except that

about six miles out of Abu Road we saw a panther sitting on the

parapet wall of the road. It was dark when we arrived. That

night I noticed a number of toads entering ‘the house. Being so

plentiful, I at first took them to be the common toad (Bufo melano-

stictus Schneider), but they did not look as warty as usual. My

interest in these creatures amused my friends, but when I com-

menced collecting them with my hands, my audience was horrified

and then commenced a series of fabulous stories. I smiled, and

tried to explain some of the beliefs, but fiction is more palatable

than truth. The net result of my explanations ended in the com-

ment that I possessed some uncanny power which protected me

from harm! A toad is a harmless creature if handled gently. Only

rough treatment ruptures the warts on the skin which exude a

thick milky secretion with a very powerful acrid smell. At most

it may cause a slight irritation, but if the affected parts are washed

immediately there are no ill effects.

A ‘BUSMAN’S’ HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HILLS 215

This common toad turned out to be Anderson’s toad (Bufo ander-

sont Boulenger), a species widely distributed in Rajputana. Among

the toads I captured were also a couple of the common toad, but

Anderson’s was by far the commoner of the two. During the day

they live in hollow masonry, numbers huddling together in the

~same hollow. At dusk they emerge and make for water or damp

spots. In such places they sit for a considerable time with the

lower surface pressed to the ground, absorbing water all the

time. The skin is soon distended with a quantity of water—the

supply for the next 24 hours. Such specimens when handled are

able to eject a certain amount of the water through the cloaca. The

toads and frogs do this to ‘lighten’ themselves so as to’be able to

jump more effectively. This habit is quite naturally interpreted

by the ‘vulgar’ as urinating, and ‘God help you if you get any of

it'on you!’ So say all of us! This is a common belief. Actually

the water exuded is aqua pura as it was absorbed through the skin

which acts as a _ perfect filter. Dissection indicated that the

genital organs were becoming active. During the cold season these

animals ‘disappear’ to their winter quarters to reappear when the

weather is more favourable. They breed chiefly during the rains.

Anderson’s toad appears to be much more active than the common

toad, and looks less like a ‘contented profiteer’! It does not grow

so large, is far less warty, and is devoid of the strong bony ridges

on the head which give the common toad its “beetling brows’, The

common toad is common on the Mount, but I have not seen

Anderson’s toad up there’.

On the 25th afternoon we left Abu Road for Bombay—Au revoir

Abu, I may come back some day! In conclusion | must express

our best thanks to our hosts up at the Mount and in the plain for

the very pleasant holiday, ‘busman’s holiday’ though it was—that

is the worst of a man with a job and a hobby in the same pro-

fession! Any way, thank God it is so! I am happy-—a naturalist

is never alone in the world; he can always converse with Nature,

where others, less fortunate than himself, are lost.

A LIST OF SOME OF THE ANIMALS NOTED.

MAMMALS :— l

Semnopithecus entellus

Pteropus giganteus A large colony in the station.

Panthera tigris |

Panthera pardus | ' Common—traces everywhere.

Felis chaus _ Common on the plain but less

| frequent on the hills.

Hyaena hyaena | Common on the plain and on

| the hills.

Her pestes edwardsti | Very common. on the plains

| and on the hills,

Herpestes smitthi | Restricted to the forested areas

| on the hills.

Funambulus pennantt _ Very common.

Acanthion leucurus |

Lepus |

‘ | have since taken specimens on the Mount.

' 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY

Paradoxurus niger

Rusa unicolor

Sus cristatus

Melursus urvstinus

Cants indicus

BIRDS :—

Corvus m. nacrorhynchus

Corvus s. splendens

Turdoides somervillet sindianus

Pomatorhinus horst. obscurus

Molpastes cater

Otocompsa jocosa

Halcyon s. fusca

Alcedo atthts

Ceryle vrudis leucomelanura

Micropus a. attinis

Upupa epops

Gyps fulvus fulvescens

Neophron p. ginginianus |

Milvous govinda !

Galloperdix s. caurina |

Gallus sonneratt

Lobivanellus t. indicus

Passer domvesticus

REPTILES :—

Ptyas mucosus

Tropidonotus piscator

ra plumbicolor |

Naia tripudians |

Vipera russellit

Hemidactylus Hlaviviridts

Hemidactylus brooke

Calotes versicolor

Varanus bengalensts

AMPHIBIA :—

Rana ligrina

Rana cyanophlictis

Rana limnocharis

Microhyla ornata

Buto melanostictus

Buto andcrsont

NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Frequent.

Present on the plains but not

on the hills.

Common on the hills.

Common on the plains.

Common.

Not uncommon on the hills.

Very common. Breeding.

Frequent.

; Common.

Commoner on the plains than

on the hills.

Common among the rocks—

breeding.

Apparently a visitor.

A common species breeding in

suitable places on the crags.

Very common—breeding.

Very common.

Quite common.

Less common than formerly.

Common aiong water courses.

Very common.

Quite common.

Very common.

Common-—-somewhat nocturnal.

; Common on the hills.

In houses.

In houses and outside on trees

etc.

Common.

Cominon.

All these either seen or taken

on the hills and on the plain

excepting 7. ornata which

was only taken on the hills—

4,000 ft.

Common on

plain.

Only taken on the plain’.

the hills and

' Since writing taken on the Mount,

A ‘BUSMAN’S’ HOLIDAY IN THE ABU HILLS

INSECTS, Butterflies :—

Papilio demolius

Catopsilia crocale

39 pyranthe minna

A tlorella gnoma

” pomona catilla

Ixtas pyrene satadra

5 marianne

Belenots mesentina

Huphina n. evagete

| LF

Danaus linintace

» plexippus

Vanessa cardut

Pyrects orythia

Hypolimnas missippus

Tertas hecabe

,, libythea

Atella phalantha

Tarucus plintus

MorTHS :—

Actias selene

Hippotton celerio

Nephele didyma

Macroglossum. belis

Cephonodes hylas

Acherontia styx

BEETLES :—

Dineutes indicus

Anatoma stillata

Chiloloba acuta

Cliuterta klug?

Scarabaetdae

~—

Frequenting citrus plants.

Frequenting a Labiate.

Frequenting Mallotus sp. and

Salix tetrasperma in flowers.

; Visiting Cannas.

The commonest day-flying

moth.

Occasional visitor during the

day. :

Feeding on a grass, Cymbo-

pogon Martini Staff at Oria.

Feeding ona grass, Pennisetum

Alopecuros.

Feeding ona grass, Heteropogon

contortus.

Species of this family are

common.

FISH OF POONA.

Part ITI,

S. Es HORA, DSC.) 1PyRIS-E.) OPN. 1. and) Ke See MISRAargniISe:

(Continued from page 91 of this volume).

(With one text-figure).

List OF FISHES WITH THEIR HINDI NAMES AND DISTRIBUTION’.

In the first article of this series, Fraser? gave a general account

of the Poona waterways with descriptions of localities and lists of

fishes collected from each, and here we give a complete systematic

list of the species represented in the material along with their

respective Hindi names and further distribution. Notes on the taxo-

nomic position of certain species are included at the end. In pre-

paring the list we have adopted the classification proposed by Jordan*

and have given Hindi names collected by Mr. Fraser from “Pardeshi

Boies’. It will be seen that different species are sometimes called

by the same name and that one species may sometimes have several

different names. In making collections of fish, therefore, much

reliance cannot be placed on the vernacular names given to various

species. Limits of the distribution of each species are given with

a view to show the geographical relationships of the fauna as a

whole. Most of the species are widely distributed while a few are

restricted to the Western Ghats and the neighbouring hill ranges.

The occurrence of Schizmatorhynchus Bleeker and Mystacoleucus

Gunther is of special significance; besides the Western Ghats, the

former is found only in the Malay Archipelago, while the latter 1s

found in Burma, Siam, Malaya, etc. but nowhere else in India.

These two genera show the Malayan affinities of the fauna of this

part of the Western Ghats. Labeo boggut (Sykes) has also been

recorded from the Malaya, but this requires further confirmation.

' Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Fraser, A. G. L., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xlii, pp. 79-91, (1942),

* Jordan, D, S., Classification of Fishes (Stanford University : California :

1923),

219

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“Tamthee’, Lahhoor, Khandwee, Ghobree, | Ceylon and Peninsular India.

Barbus (Puntius) chola (Ham.)... Dhunsahree, Chulliah, Ghaar,~ Sahkar

Massah, Dagh.

Barbus (Puntius) jerdoni Day. ‘Barsa', Seerahta, Soorookh, Gooroond,

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes, ...

Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) as

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham.

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes.

Cirrhina fulungee (Sykes)

Crossochilus latius (Ham.)

Garra mullya (Sykes)

Labeo boggut (Sykes)

Labeo calbasu ( Ham.) ace

Labeo fimbriata (B1.)

Screntreic NAMES Hinpit NAMES

FURTHER DISTRIBUTION

Subfamily : Cyprininae

Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C.V.) Dangbar, Jhirwah, Bhatarseo, Dhan.

= Barbus dobsoni Day. Khadra, Sufed Puree Khadree, Pahsoor,

arbus pulchellus Day.

= Barbus jerdoni maciyeri Annandale

Kholus, ‘ Khelsa’

Kholus.

Rahoos, Tahrak, Kala

Lall Purree Khadrie, Safed Puree Khadrie,

Shoor, Soorookh, Kangoor, Kharook,

Pahrand, Lall Pahrass, Shaar.

...| Debree, Chatee Debrie, Koondah.

.-|Phirkee, Barsa, Dart.

=Barbus (Puntius) chrysopoma C.V.

= Barbus (Puntius) pinnauratus Day.

..| Lowlee, Powndah, Preeth, Peelah Soorookh,

Peela Kholus, Soorkee, Dheer, Phirkee,

Peelab Shurath, Soor, Ghoree.

Lahoor, Loodeah, Nahmooneah,

Mallia, Mallah, Nakhta Kala

Shurath.

Gohrah, Ghor.

Mallia,

. Cowchee,

. | Tamthee.

Labeo potail (Sykes)

=Labeo porcellus (Heckel) Cowwool, Preeth, Cowchee, Shook, Tooth,

Thawal, Gobrie, Chakta, Tahmoshee,

‘Thamooshee.

Mystacoleucus ogilbii (Sykes)* ... Bakhar Massah.

Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus (Annan. )?

Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day® ..

Rohitee neilli Day

Rohtee vigorsii Sykes

Deotee, Goordee.

Deotee

Goordee.

Schizmatorhynchus (Nukta) nukta (Sykes)*. Dhotowandee.

Family : Conrripar

Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.) ...| Mohra gotia.

Soondeah Garah.

Nemachilichthys ruppelli (Sykes) ’

: x 7 Gotia Garah, Moorah gotia, Mobroogotia.

Nemachilus botia var. aureus Day

Nemachilus dayi Hora® ..| Thaylia, Kala Mooroong.

Order : NEMATOGNATHIL

Family : SILURIDAE

Callichrous bimaculatus ( Bl.) Goongwaree,

Callichrous pabo (Ham.) * Goongwaree ’, Kalie Goongwaree.

Wallagonia attu (Bl.) .._ Pahree.

Family : BAGRIDA

Mystus cayasius (Ham.) | Tengnah, Kala Tengnah, Singhara.

1 Hora, S.L., Rec. Ind. Mus., XXX1X, pp. 311 (1937).

? Hora, S.L., Kec. Ind. Mus., XXVU, p- 457 (1925).

3 Hora, S.L. and Misra, K.S , Rec. Jud. Mus., XLIU, pp. 168-171 (1940).

+ Hora, S.L., Rec. Ind. Mus., XLIV, pp. 1-14 (1942).

5 Hora, S.L., Rec. Ind. Mus., XXXVI, p. 57 (1933).

Ceylon and Peninsular India.

Ceylon, India, Burma, China and Indo-

China.

South Canara and Deccan,

Deolali, Central Provinces, Deccan and

throughout the Kistna and Tungabhadra

and Godaveri rivers.

Ceylon, througout India, Burma and China.

Ceylon, India, Burma and Siam.

Ceylon, Peninsular India, Deccan

Satpura Trend.

Mysore and Deccan.

and

The Ganges and the Brahmaputra s

in Northern India and Peninsular Ind

Kathiawar, Peninsular India and the

pura Trend.

Central and South-west India generally and

also in Malaya.

India, Burma and China.

Sind, Punjab, Southern India at least to

Orissa, probably N. E. Bengal; not

recorded from Malabar and Canara.

Sat-

| Deccan, the Kistna and Godavari rivers.

Satpura Trend as far as Pachmarhi.

Sind, Deccan, Orissa, Assam and Burma.

| Deccan and ‘Travancore. “

| Deccan, Kistna and Godavari rivers to their

| terminations.

| Mysore and rivers of the Deccan. —

Throughout India (except to the south of the

Kistna and along the Malabar coast).

Deccan.

Deccan, Assam, upper portions

Ganges and Jumna rivers.

of the

Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Java, Borneo,

Chusan, Yunnan and Indo-China,

Jumna and Ganges rivers, Burma and

Indo-China.

Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Java, Sumatra

and Western Yunnan.

India, Burma, Siam, China and Indo-China.

0&6

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ScientiFic NAMES Hinpi NAMES FURTHER DISTRIBUTION

= —— t = == —— ~

38. Mystus gulio (Ham.) to .. | Kala Tengnah. | Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Malay Penin- Ss

: : sula, Malay Archipelago and Indo-China. 3

39. Mystus seenghala (Sykes)... :. | Chootkah. India, Burma and China, =

40. Rita hastata ( Val.) ee on Deccan, the Tungabhadra and the Kistna —

rivers.

4). Rita pavimentata ( Val.) ate ... ‘ Googoorah ’. | Deccan, affuents of the Kistna.

Family : StsoriDAE =

42. Gagata itchkeea (Sykes) .* .. ‘ Padhnah ’. | Deolali, Satara and the Cauvery in the =

43. Glyptothorax conirostre var. poonaensis | Coorg State. 4S

Hora.* we a ... Phather Chatoo- | Poona and its environs. =

44. Gilyptothorax jonah (Sykes) ... Go |Deccan, Godaveri river near Nasik and =

j | Bastar State (Central Provinces). eS

Family ; SCHILBEIDAE | 5

45. Proeutropichthys taakree (Sykes) ° .» |Moonia. ! Peninsular India (except Malabar coast), =

| Burma and? Calcutta. 2

Family : PANGASIDAE | =

46. Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes)* —... | Seelundh. Deccan, a

Order: CYPRINODONTES ! 2

Family ; CyPRINODONTIDAE is)

47. Aplochilus lineatus (C.V.)_... ... | Jhir, Konkani Garah. Wesson Peninsular India and Deccan. g

SYNENTOGNATHI =

XENENTODONTIDAE oa

48. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) ... .. Denghwah. Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Malaya and

Indo-China.

Order: LABYRINTHICI

Family : OpHICEPHALIDAE |

49. Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.) -.. | Dhakoo, Murral. Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Ceylon, India,

| Burma, Malay Peninsula, Siam, Malaya,

| | archipelago, Yunnan, Hainan and Indo-

ina.

eri lee

Peninsular India, Deccan, and also said to be

0, hicephalus feucopunctatus (Sykes) of Murral. eee nIcines

Ret, | Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam and China.

51. Ophicephalus marutius (Ham.) 6 | Powndah, Murral.

Order: PERCOMORPHI

Family : AMBASSIDAE

52. Ambassis ranga (Ham.)

| Khardoo Chandwab. India, Burma, Malay and Siam.

Order : GOBIOIDEA ™

Meat (am) | Kharpa East Africa, Sy aa Malay

ss Ss is (Ham.) ..- fc cA | ues Cane ue i

ae ee | are CBiias Wake Island, Austra-

lia and Tahiti.

;. L. and Law, N.C., Kec. Ind. Mus. XLII, pp- 18-20 (1941)

L., Rec. Ind. Mus., XL, pp- 368-370 (1938).

L., Ree. Ind. Mus., XLT, pp- 105-110 (1941).

_L., Rec. Ind. Mys., XU, pp 98-100 (1941).

VNOOd 4O HSI4

eed

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIl

Barbus (Puntius) jerdoni Day.

1870. Barbus Jerdont, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 372.

1870. Barbus pulchellus, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 372.

1876. Barbus Dobsoni, Day, Journ, Linn, Soc. London (Zool.), xii, p. 574.

1919. Barbusegerdoni var. maciveri, Annandale, rec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p. 137.

From a detailed study of the material, including types, of the

above listed three species and one variety in the collection of the

Indian Museum, we find that the descriptions of Barbus jerdoni and

B. dobsoni, characterised by a smooth snout, are based on female

specimens, whereas the other two forms with tubercles on the snout

represent male individuals. An examination of a large series of

specimens has shown that there are no other valid differences between

these species and that the characters on which they have been dis-

Text-fig. 1.-A male specimen of Barbus (Puntius) jerdont Day, showing

patches of tubercles on the snout.

a. Lateral view. x4; b. Lateral view of head and anterior part of body.

x8; c. Ventral view of head and anterior part of body. xX.

tinguished intergrade. Except that the two sexes can be readily

distinguished in the adult condition on the presence or absence of

tubercles on the snout, we have not been able to find any other

character to recognise them specifically.

Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Hamilton).

1822. Cyprinus sarana, Hamilton, lish. Ganges, pp. 307, 388.

1842. Barbus chrysopoma, Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Hat. Poiss., xvi,

()» 1O5,uspl. accolvi,

1865. Puntius pinnauratus, Day, Irish. Malabar, p. 209, pl. xv, fig. 2.

Several authors, including Day, Irish. India, p. 562 (1878), have

commented on the close similarity between Barbus sarana, B. chry-

FISH OF POONA 225

sopomu and B, pinnauratus. After an examination of large series

olf specimens of these three species in the collection of the Indian

Museum from India and Burma, we are definitely of the opinion

that they are synonymous. We have, however, found that the

specimens occurring in northern india possess more scales along the

lateral line (32-34) and in front of the dorsal fin (12) than those

found in southern India and Burma (L. 1. 28-32; predorsal to-12).

This is significant, for a similar reduction in the number of scales

has also been observed in the case of the Burmese and South Indian

specimens of Puntius ticto', Rohtee cotio” and Lissocheilus hexa-

gonolepis”.

Labeo potail (Sykes).

1841. Cyprinus potail, Sykes, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, ii, p. 354.

1844. Tylognathus porcellus, Heckel, Fische Kaschmir, p. 385.

From an examination of a large number specimens of different

sizes, we have found that in the young and half-grown individuals

the rostral barbels, though small, are fairly well-marked. In older

specimens these barbels are reduced or are totally absent. ‘In some

specimens only one rostral barbel is present. The maxillary barbels

are small and are situated in deep groves; on account of their small

size and position, they are likely to be overlooked. Sykes’s des-

cription of Cyprinus potail from the Deccan was based on a specimen

10 inches in length and it is no wonder that he found the barbels

absent. Heckel described his Tylognathus porcellus from Bombay

and characterized it by the presence of barbels; he gives the length

of his species as 7 inches. In view of our detailed observations

as noted above, we are unable to recognise these two species as

distinct merely on the character of the barbels and have accordingly

relegated 7. porcellus to the synonymy of Labelo potail.

weOrae Sele Mistake Sand) Malils, (Go M:) Recs Ind. Mauss;, xii, pp. 263-

279 (1939):

* Hora, S. L. and Misra, KX. S., Rec. Ind. Mus., xlii, pp: 166-171 (1940).

pp- 316, 317 (1941).

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA.

} BY

eek CATUS AIS |aaanR le Ss

The MALVACEAE include 35 genera, and over 700 species distri-

buted chiefly in the warmer regions of both hemispheres. They are

essentially tropical, diminishing rapidly as they recede from the

equator, and they are more numerous in the northern tropics and

in America than in the Old World. All the members agree in

containing mucilage freely, and in possessing. no unwholesome

properties. Some contain free acids, and are employed as refresh-

ing drinks; others yield volatile oils, and are classed among: stimu-

lants. The seeds contain a fixed oil, and their testa is often woolly ;

the bark of many is very tenacious.

Among the products obtained by analysis may be mentioned :—

(1) mucilage; (2) furfurol; (3) glucosidal pigments-—althaein, gossy-

petin, malvin—; (4) glucosides-gossypitrin, isoquercitrin, querci-

meritrin——; (5) iwtrogenous substances—B-asparagin, _ betaine,

choline—; (6) alkaloids—ephedrine, pseudophedrine—.

The medicinal Mallowworts of the world belong to 17 genera:

ABUTILON (tropical and subtropical regions); ALTHAEA (temperate

regions); CIENFUEGOSIA (America, Africa, Australia); (GossyPruM

(tropical and subtropical regions); Hisiscus (tropical and subtropical

regions); Kypia (India); LAvaTERA (Mediterranean, Australia, mid-

Asia); MALACHRA (warm America, West Indies); Marva (northern

temperate regions); MaLvaAsrRum (America, South Africa); MALva-

viscus (warm America); Napaga (North America); PAvonia (tropical

and subtropical regions); SibA (cosmopolitan); SPHAERALCEA (Cape

Colony, America); THESPESIA (warm regions); URENA (tropical and

subtropical regions). aby

The medicinal Mallowworts of India are included in 11 genera:

ABUTILON, ALTHAEA, GossyPiIuM, Hipiscus, Kypta, MALACHRA,

Marva, MatvastrRumM, PAVONIA, SIDA, ‘THESPESIA, URENA.

A. Herbs or shrubs. Ripe carpels separating from the

axis. Styles as many as the carpels.

I. Ovule solitary, ascending.

a. Stigmas linear.

1. Brracteoles 6-9 S60 ANG ... ALTHABA.

2. Bracteoles 3 Sop ake ,. MALva.

b. Stigmas capitate wits 566 ... MALVASTRUM.

Tl, Ovule solitary, penduious.

Carpels convergent at the points or beaked. Sina.

II]. Ovules 2 or more:

Carpels with no false partition ... ABUTILON.

3. Styles or stigmatic branches twice as many as the

carpels. F

I. Carpels opposite the petals.

a. Carpels unarmed oe ine ... MALACHRA.

b. Carpels beset with spines ano .. URENA.

II. Carpels opposite the sepals eat ... PAVONIA.

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 227

C. Herbs or shrubs. Fruit capsular. Sepals leafy.

Staminal tube truncate or 5-toothed at the apex.

I. Stigmas spreading. Seeds reniform. Stamens

numerous. Bracteoles 5 or more ... PE ELIBISCUS:

Il. Stigmas coherent in a club-shaped mass.

a. Bracteoles 3-5, small ao doc .». LHESPESIA.

b. Bracteoles 3, large, cordate ‘Pe ... GOSSYPIUM.

D. Trees. Sepals leathery. Styles connate or free.

Fruit capsular or indehiscent. Leaves simple or

lobed. Bracteoles 4-5... re SA .. KypbIA.

ABUTILON.

The genus numbers 120 species, natives chiefly of the tropical

and subtropical regions of both hemispheres.

The leaves of all the species contain a large quantity of mucilage.

The roots are regarded as cooling, astringent, and tonic. The seeds

are considered antidysenteric.

The following species are used medicinally in China—A. Avicennae

Gaertn.—; in Indo-China—A. Avicennae Gaertn., A. indicum G.

Don—; in Malaya and the Philippine Islands—A. indicum G. Don—;

in Gold Coast—A. asiaticum G. Don, A. mauritianum Sweet—; in

La Reunion—A. exstipulare G. Don, A. glaticum Sw., A. hirtum

G. Don, A. indicum G. Don—; in Somaliland—A. glaucum Sw.—.

Carpels more than 10, usually 15-20.

A. Carpels pointed or with a distinct mucro.

Carpels 8-13 mm. long.

a. Carpels hairy, ultimately glabrate, shining .... 4. indicum.

b. Carpels densely hairy, ultimately shaggy ... A. asiaticum.

B. Carpels obtuse without a mucro.

I. Corolla 5 cm. diam.

a. Fruit globose, densely silky villous cn BOLL UCUTID.

b. Fruit roughly hairy ape ee bon) 2286 NE GOies

Il. Petals hardly exceeding the sepals... .. A. Theophrasti.

1. Abutilon asiaticum G. Don occurs in the Western Penin-

sula and in Ceylon. It is scattered over the tropics of both hemis-

pheres.

In Gold Coast an infusion of the leaves macerated in water along

with spices is drunk for venereal troubles.

In Southern Nigeria the juice of the plant is applied as an

emollient to relieve soreness of the nates in young children.

Arabic: Hambok, Hanbuk—; Bengal: Petari—; Ewe: Kusiti—; Fanti:

Nwarha—-; Ga: Fufuba-tsho—; Hindi: Jhampi, Kangahi, Kanghi—; Krepi:

Didinglome-—; Kuka: Mulu—j; Marathi: Chakrabhenda, Kangori, Petari—;

Sanskrit: Balbija, Walikanghi—; Sinhalese: Anoda—; Songhai: Talca-oura-

gna—; Tamil: Perundutti, Tutti—; Telugu: Botlabenda, Nugubenda, Pedda-

benda, Tutturubenda—; Twi: Apongo, Mmofra forowa—; Uriya: Jhonkapedi—.

2. Abutilon glaucum Sw. is fairly common in India and Ceylon

It extends to Afghanistan, the Mediterranean region, Arabia, Egypt,

tropical Africa, the Cape, and Australia.

* 928 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

At Nasirabad the mucilaginous leaves are considered as a cure

for piles. In La Reunion they are used as a pectoral.

Kachhi: Gidarwar, Tutare—; Las Bela: Bur—; Nasirabad: Giddarwal—;

Somali: Balambal morodi—; Swahili: Balambal morodi—.

3. Abutilon hirtum G. Don occurs in the United Provinces and

the Central Provinces, whence it spreads to South India and Ceylon;

in Sind and Baluchistan, extending to Arabia and tropical Africa.

It is distributed to Malaya and Australia.

The roots, leaves, and seeds are medicinal, and good substitutes

for those of A. indicum. —

Bengal: Barkhangi—; Cawnpore: Barabanghi,. Barkhangi--; Hindi:

' Barkhangi—; Sunderbuns: Bara kanghi, Bar potari—; Tamil: Vadattutti— ;

Telugu: Belabenda—; Uriya: Karpuripotro—.

4. Abutilon indicum Sw. is found throughout the tropics.

A decoction of the bark, leaves, and seeds together has been

long used by the Hindus on account of its mucilaginous and diuretic

properties. :

Boiled milk, whisked with the fibrous twigs, coagulates; the

fluid obtained by decantation is regarded by hakims as efficacious

in hoemorrhoids when given internally.

The infusion of the root is prescribed in fevers as a cooling

medicine, and is considered useful in strangury, haematuria, as also

in leprosy.

The bark is valued as a diuretic.

The leaves are cooked and eaten in bleeding piles. A decoction

is used in bronchitis, in catarrhal bilious diarrhoea, in gonorrhoea

and inflammation of the bladder, and in fevers; it is prescribed

as a mouth-wash in cases of tooth-ache and tender gums.

The root and leaves boiled with raisins and strained, make a

pleasant diluent and demulcent.

The seeds are reckoned aphrodisiac, and are used as a laxative in

piles, and in the treatment of coughs. They are burned on charcoal

and the rectum of children affected with thread-worms is exposed

to the smoke. Infused in hot water they form a cooling drink.

According to the Chinese in Hong-Kong, the seeds are employed

as an emollient and demulcent; the root is used as a diuretic and

pulmonary sedative, and the flowers and leaves as a local application

to boils and ulcers. Porter Smith states that the seeds and the

entire plant are used as ‘demulcent, lenitive, diuretic, laxative and |

discutient remedies. Puerperal diseases, urinary disorders, chronic

dysentery and fevers are treated with the seeds’.

The slightly bitter bark is considered diuretic in the Philippines.

The root, leaves, and flowers are used as an emollient.

Arabic: Deishar, Masht-ul-ghola, Masht-ul-ghoul—; Bengal:

Potari— ;

Bombay; Chakrabenda, Etari, Kangoi, Kangori, Pamaolni—; Brahui: Baibaro,

Gogharo-—; Burma: Bonkhoe, Bonkhoye, Thanurchok--; Canarese: Gidutingi,

Hettukisu, Hettutti, Kisangi, Srimudre, Srimudrigida, Tutti—; Chinese: Kuan

Sha Yuan—; Cutch: Balbij—; Deccan: Chakrabenda, Etari, Kangoi, Kangori.

Pamudni—; Goa: Petari, Tupkadi—; Guam: Malbas, Malva, Matbas—;

Gujervati: Dabali, Kantaki—; Hindi: Jhampi, Kandhi, Kanghani, Kanghi, Potari,

Tepari, Tutri—; Hongkong: Tung K’uci—; Ilocano: Lulupao—; Indo-China:

Coi xay, Dok tok lai-—; Kharwar: Kakhi—; Konkani: Voddlipettari—; Malaya:

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 229

Kwan sa yin—; Malayalam: Katturam, Katturan, Pitik-kapattu, Tutti, Tuvatti,

Uram, Velluram—;,; Marathi: Akakai, Kansuli, Karandi, Madmi, Mudra,

Mudrika, Pidari, Vikankati—; Mauritius: Mauve du pays—; Mundari: Pusi-

katadaru--; Niger: Abeokuta—; Persian: Darakhteshanah, Darakhteshane— ;

Philippines: Malvas, Malvas de Castilla, Tabing—; Porebunder: Bapat—j;

Portuguese: Fruta gargontilha, Malwa— ; Punjab : Pilibuti, Sanbal— ; Rajputana :

Dabi, Jhili, Tarakanchi—; Sanskrit: Atibala, Balika, Balya, aineieten, Ghanta,

Kankati, Rishiprokta, Shita, Shitapushpa, Vikankata, Vatyapushpika, Vrishya-

gandha, Vrishyagandhika—; Santal: Mirubaha-—; Siamese: Klorb tabart—;

Sind: Khapato, Pilibuti, Sunbul—; Sinhalese: Anodagaha—; Sunderbuns :

Kanghi, Potari—; Tagalog: Cuacuacohan, Giliggiligan, Guilingguilingan,

Melbas—; Tamil: Nallatutti, Paniyarattutti, Perundutti, Tutti—; Telugu:

Adavibenda, Botlabenda, Dudi, Muttavashirubenda, Nugubenda, Peddabenda,

Tutirichettu, Tutti, Tutturubenda—; Tulu: Urki—; Twi: Mmofraforowa— ;

Urdu: Kanghi—; Uriya: Nakochono—; Visayan: Dulupang, Malis, Pilis,

Taratacopes, Yampong—.

5. Abutilon Theophrasti Medic. (=A. Avicennae Gaertn.) occurs

in North-Western India, Sind, Kashmir and Bengal. It extends to

Arabia, Egypt, the Mediterranean, and South-Eastern Europe. It

is naturalized in many parts of Asia, Africa and America.

The leaves, seeds, and roots are put to the same uses as those

of 4. indicum.

In Indo-China a decoction of the seed is given in dysentery,

fistulae, and eye sores.

Chinese: Ch’ing Ma—; English: American Jute, Indian Mallow—; French:

Jute de Chine—; Indo China: Manh ma—; Meskwaki: Menakwusk—.

ALTHAEA.

The genus consists of about 30 species, natives of the temperate

regions of the Old World, and rarely found in the tropics.

This genus is well- known for the emollient and resolvent pro-

perties of its members.

The following are commonly used medicinally A.

cannabina Linn., A. hirsuta Linn., A. officinalis Linn., A. pallida

Waldst. u. Kit., 4. rosea Cav.—-in China and Indo-China—A. rosea

) Cave: \ '

1. Stem 15-30 cm. high. Flowers 13-20 mm. diam .. A. Ludwigii.

2. Stem 60-90 cm. . Flowers 2.5-5 cm. diam. .... ... A. officinalis.

3. Stem often exceeds 1.8 m. in height.

Corolla often exceeds 10 cm. across sf pA rosea:

1. Althaea Ludwigii Linn. occurs in Agra, Bundelkhand, the

Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, and the Deccan. It extends to the

Mediterranean, and South Africa.

In Wad the plant is used as an aperient, being for the purpose

pounded and mixed with sugar and water, and strained.

Arabic: Ketmi, Khutmi—; Baluchi: Baharo—; Brahui: Utper—; Kech:

Gwaragpad—; Kohlu: Gardaibutai, Girdaebutae—; Panjgur: |Nampacho,

Pochako—; Wad: Pachko—; Waziristan: Nagamboti—.

Althaea officinalis Linn. is found in Kashmir. It is distri-

Peed over the Mediterranean region and Centr ral Europe as far as

Siberia.

230. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The great demulcent and emollient properties of Marsh Mallow

make it useful in inflammation and irritation of the alimentary canal,

and of the urinary and respiratory organs.

Decoctions of the plant, especially of the root, are very useful

where the natural mucus has been abraded from the coats

of the intestines. They are excellent in painful complaints of the

urinary organs, exerting a relaxing effect upon the passages, as

well as acting curatively. They are also effective in curing bruises,

sprains or any ache in the muscles or sinews.

The powdered root boiled in milk is useful in haemorrhage from

the urinary organs, and in dysentery. The powdered or crushed

fresh roots make a good poultice that will remove the most obstinate

inflammation and prevent mortification; they have proved more

serviceable than the ointment albeit its popular reputation.

Boiled in wine or milk, Marsh Mallow will relieve diseases of

the chest, constituting a popular remedy for coughs, bronchitis,

whooping-cough, etc., generally in combination with other remedies.

It is trequently given in the form of a syrup, which is best adapted

to infants and children.

The fresh leaves, steeped in hot water and applied to the affected

parts as poultices also reduce inflammation, and bruised and rubbed

upon any place stung by wasps or bees take away the pain, in-

flammation and swelling.

In France, the young tops and tender leaves are added to salads,

as stimulating the kidneys healthily.

The flowers, boiled in oil and water, with a little honey and alum,

have proved good as a gargle for sore throats.

Arabic: Bazarulkhatme, Khetmia, Kobbeiza, Medja-el-Abiod, Moudjdjir,

Ouerd-ez-zoual— ;_ Berber: Amejjir, Binesar, Tebencert—; Bombay: Gulkhairo,

Khaira, Khairakajhor, Khitmi, Khitmikajhor—; Catalan: Malvi, Malvins—;

Chinese: Fou loung—; Cutch: Gulkhair—; Danish: Altaea, Ibisk—; Deccan:

Gulkhairo, Khaira, Khairakajhor, Khitmikajar—; Devonshire: Drunkards,

Meshmellish—; Dutch: Heemst—; English: Bread and Cheese, Bulls-eyes,

Marsh Mallow, White Mallow, Wymote—; French: Althée, Althée officinale,

Guimauve, Mauve blanche—; Friuli: Altee—; Genoa: Artea, Arteja, Marva-

iscu, Marvaveste—; German: Adewurzel, Attigkraut, Eibisch, Fliesskrautwurzel,

Flusskrautblume, Gilfwurz, Gimorwurzel, Guimauvewurzel, Heiligkraut, Heilwurz,

Heilwurzblume, Heinisch, Hemisch, Hemstwurzel, Henest, Hibisch, Hilfskraut,

Hilfswurzelp Hustewurzel, Ibisch, Ibischpappel, Ibsche, Ivisch, Kinderbettee,

Wilde Malvenwurzel, Weisse Pappe!, Sammtpappel, Schleimwurzel, Stockwurz-

kraut, Weisse Suessholzwurzel, Wollkraut—; Greek: Altea, Ibiscos—; Gujerat :

Gulkhair, Khaira—; Hindi: Gullshairo, Khaira, Khairakajhor, Khitmikajhar—;

Hungarian: Fejer Malval, Ziliz—; Italian: Altea, Avisch, Bismaiva, Benefischi,

Buonvischio, Davisch, , Malvaccioni, Malvavischio, Malvischio, Marvaiscu— ;

Languedoc: Maoula blanca—; Madagascar: Fiandrilavenombazaha—; Malta:

Marsh Mallow, Altea, Malvaccioni—; Marathi: Khaira, Gulkhair—j; Norway :

Altaea—; Persian: Gulkhairo, Jukhamekhatme, Khaira, Khairakajhor, Khitmi,

Khitmikajhar—; Portuguese: Malvaisco—; Reggio: Bonaves’c—; Romagna:

Maibon—; Roumanian: Nalba mare, Zamosita—j; Russian: Altei, Dikaya roja,

Podswonok, Proskurniak, Prosvirniak—; Sardinia: Narbaonia, Pramacisca,

Rosa’d’ Ispagna—; Somerset: Bull Flower, Pool Flower—; Spanish: Altea,

Hierba cafiamera, Malvavisco—; Swedish: Altea—; Tamil: Simaitutti—;

Turkish: Hatmi—; Tuscany: Erba que fa pisciar i buoi, Ibisco—; Urdu:

Khatme, Khitmi—; Venice: Malvaviscio—.

3. Althaea rosea Cavy., a native of Crete and Greece, is found

planted in Indian gardens. j

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 231

The seeds of this plant are demulcent, diuretic and febrifuge.

The flowers have cooling and diuretic properties. The roots are

supposed to be astringent and demulcent, and are much used in

France to form demulcent drinks.

In the Punjab, the flowers are given in rheumatism, and the root

in dysentery (Stewart). |

The leaves and roots are also used for the same purposes as

those of A. officinalis. |

Bogota: Malvarrosa—; Catalan: Malva doble, Malva vera—; Chinese: Shu

K’uei— ; Dutch: Stokroos—; English: Althea Rose, Hock Herb, Hollyhock,

Round Dock—; French: Alcée, Alcée rose, -Althée, Althée rose, Baton de Saint-

Jacques, Bourdon de Saint-Jacques, Guimauve rose-trémiere, Mauve arborée,

Mauve des jardins, Mauve rose, Passe-rose, Rose alcée, Rose a baton, Rose de

mer, Rose d’outre-mer. Rose papale, Rose trémiére, Rose tréniere—; German:

Augenpappel, Baummalve, Baumrose, Brandrose, Braunrose, Erdntrose, Ehrén-

rose, Felriss, Feuerbluete, Gartenmalve, Glockenpappel, Glockrose, Halsrose,

Herbstrose, Herzleuchte, Hochleuchte, Kohlrose, Roemische Malve, Mundrose,

Nackrose, Rosenpappel, Schwarzmalve, Siegmarsblume, Stangenrose, Stockmalve,

Stockpappelrose, Stock-rose, Ungerblume, Weinrose, Wetterrose, Winterrose— ;

Greek : Altaia, Malachi rodoides—; Hindi: Gulkhairu, Gulkhirri—; Indo-China :

Thuc guy—; Iraq: Ward-al-khathmi—; Italian: Malvarosa, Malvoni—;

Kurdish: Gul hailu—; Malta: Hollyhock, Malvarosa, Malvoni, Rosoni, Bastun

ta San Guisepp—; Punjabi: Gul khaira—; Roumanian: Nalba de gradina—;

Russian : Chernaya rosa, Shtok-rosa—; Spanish : Malva arborea, Malva Doncella,

Malva Isabela, Malva de los jardines, Malva loca, Malva del principe, Malva

real, Malva de la reina, Malvarosa—.

GOSSYPIUM.

The genus consists of 12 tropical and subtropical species.

The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands—

G, arboreum Linn., G. barbadense Linn., G. herbaceum Linn., G.

perenne Linn.—; in Cochinchina and China— G. herbaceum Linn.—;

in North America— G. barbadense Linn., G. herbaceum Linn., G.

hirsutum Linn.—; in Porto Rico—G. racemosum Poir.—; in Peru—

G. peruvianum Cayv.—; in Brazil—G. barbadense Linn.—; in Guinea

—_G. harbadense Linn., G. herbacewm Linn.—; in Guinea— G.

hirsutum Linn.—.

A. Flowers wholly yellow or yellow with purple base.

Involucral bracts laciniate.

I. Cotton adherent to the seeds.

a. Seeds with underlying down ioe ... G. herbaceum.

b. Seeds with firmly adherent downy down under-

lying cotton of the same colour or white ... G. hirsutum,

II. Cotton easily seperable from the seeds ... G. barbadense.

B. Flowers wholly purple or yellow with purple base.

Involucral bracts subentire or toothed, not laciniate G. arboreum.

t. Gossypium arboreum Linn. is grown in gardens and about

temples.

In Bombay, the root is used in the treatment of fever.

In the Konkan, the root, rubbed to a paste with the juice of

patchouli leaves, has a reputation as a promoter of granulation in

wounds; and the juice of the leaves, made into a paste with the

seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica, is applied to eruptions of the

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIi

skin following fever. In Pudukota, the leaves ground and mixed

with milk, are given for strangury.

The petals squeezed and soaked in human or cow’s milk, are

used as a soothing and effective application for conjunctivitis of

infants.

The cotton is a very useful external remedy in burns, scalds,

and some other surgical diseases. The seeds exercise some good

influence over gonorrhoea, gleet, chronic cystitis, consumption and

some catarrhal affections. The fresh young capsules and shoots

have been observed to produce good effects in some cases of dysen-

tery and gonorrhoea. The control of the seeds over gonorrhoea

and gleet is more manifest when combined with some other drugs.

In Southern India an emulsion of the seeds is used as an antidote

for opium poisoning, and in general for poisoning with narcotics;

a decoction of the root is said to be emollient and diuretic.

In Tropical West Africa the leaves, flowers and seeds are used

medicinally. A cold infusion of the leaves in water with lime juice

has been found to give relief in dysentery. The root is believed

to be emmenagogue with an action like that of ergot. As the use

of the root to procure abortion is known amongst American negroes,

but not in the Orient, the knowledge of this property appears

to be indigenous to Africa. The active principle resides in the

root-bark. The leaves and crushed seed-kernels are applied to

sores or as a poultice to bruises and swellings, and the lint as a

dressing to wounds. A paste of the seeds is applied to the fore-

head and temples for headache.

Barranguilla: Algodén pajarito—; Bombay: Deokapas—; Bundelkhand :

Boojali, Nurma—; Burma: Nuwa—; Canarese: Anji, Hanji, Kari arale, Kari-

hatti—; Central Provinces: Deo, Mannua—; Dacca: Borailly—; Egypt:

Gotn—; English: Tree Cotton—; French: Cotonnier arborescent—; Guam:

Algcdon—; Hausa: Abduga, Auduga—; Hindi: Deokapas, Nurma—; Malaya-

lam: Chemparutti—; Marathi: Devakapusa—; Mysore: Deokurpas—; North-

Western Provinces: Manua, Nurma, Radhia—; Pondicherry: Cotonnier— ;

Punjab: Kapas—; Sanskrit: Karpasamu-—; Santal: Bhogakuskom, Budikas-

kom—; Sokoto: Kada—; Spanish: Algodonero, Algodonero arboreo—; Tagalog :

Bulacnabundoc, Bulacnatotoo—; Tamil: Sembarutti—; Telugu: Patti—; Vtsa-

yan: Bulacngabisaya—; Yemen: Odjaz, Oth, Zejt.

2. Gossypium barbadense Linn. is cultivated in India.

The seeds, in the form of an emulsion, are given in dysentery

and are supposed to be pectoral. They yield by expression an oil

which is much used to clear the skin of spots and freckles.

A tea made of the young leaves is recommended in lax habits,

and for preparing a vapour bath for the anus in cases of tenesmus.

Arabic: WLekid—; Betsimisaraka: WHasina, Landihazo—; Canarese: Kari-

hatti, Vilayatihatti—; Egypt: Ashmuny, Gotn, Gotn-esh-sheger-—; English :

Sea-island Cotton—; Gambia: Duléboro—; Guam: Algodon—; La Reunion:

Gros coton—; Malayalam: Chemparutti—; Philippines: Bulac Fernambuco, -

Bulac Pernambuco, Canton, Pernambuco—; Sanskrit: Maghani, Purvam—;.

Tamil: Arattam, Mayiliyam, Sembanja, Sembarutti, Simaipparutti—; Tahiti:

Vavai--; Telugu: Ettappatti, Paidipatti, Pamidipatti—; Uviya: Rongokopa—;

Uruguay : Algodonero—.

3. Gossypium kerbaceum Linn., probably indigenous in Northern

Arabia and Asia Minor, is found cultivated in the North-Western

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 233

Frontier Province and Baluchistan. It is also met with in Afgha-

nistan, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, the Mediterranean

region, and the United States of America.

A hip bath of the young leaves and roots is recommerded in

uterine colic. The Tamil doctors prescribe a decoction of the root

in strangury and gravel.

The juice of the leaves is considered a good remedy in Micycentenya

and the leaves with oil are applied as a plaster to gouty joints.

A syrup of the flowers is prescribed in cases of morbid depression

on account of its stimulating and exhilarant effect; a poultice of

them is applied to burns and scalds.

The seeds are used_as a laxative, expectorant. and aphrodisiac.

Pounded cotton seed, mixed with ginger and water, is applied in

orchitis.

Cotton is used as a moxa. Burnt cotton is applied to sores and

wounds to promote healthy granulation.

In Cambodia every part of the plant is used medicinally. The

whole plant is considered fehrifuge; the flowers and leaves are

said to be pectoral and sudorific.

In Annam the flowers are given in amenorrhoea and dvsmenor-

rhoea; the oil from the seeds is applied to wounds, and used in

scabies and herpes. |

In North America the root bark is used in laree doses as an

abortifacient. The seeds are considered antidysenteric and «alacta-

goeue. The juice of the leaves is administered as an emollient in

diarrhoea and in mild forms of dysentery.

In South America cotton-seeds in the form of decoction are

employed in the treatment of intermittent fevers.

In India the juice of the fresh leaves is considered very efficacious

in the treatment of snake-bite, and the root and leaves are recom-

mended for the treatment of scorpion-stine. But Caius and

Mhaskar have shown experimentally that the leaves are not an

antidote to snake venom, and that neither the root nor the leaves

have any effect in the symptomatic treatment of scorpion-sting.

Annam: Bong se, Bong tau, Cat boi, Cay bong, Cay bong lam vai, Cay

vai bong, Thao Khoang—; Arabic: Fitan. Kotonefezzani. Kurtamussul—;

Bengal: Kapas. Tula—: Bombav: Kapas, Rui—; Bulandshahr: Binaula—;

Burma: Wa, Wah—: Cambodia: Krabas—: Canarese: Ambara, Arale, Arali,

Badari, Dudi, Hatti, Kariharivale, Karpasa, Tula—; Central Provinces : Kanas— ;

Deccan: Kapas—; Egypt: Gotn, Gotn-el-sadjar—: English: Common Cotton,

Indian Cotton—; French: Cotonnier, Cotonnier herbacé, Cotonnier de Malte—;

Greek: Bombaki—: Gujerati: Kapas, Ru—; Hindi: Deokapas, Kupas, Narma,

Rui—; Indo-China: Bong. Fai, Krabas. Mien hoa, Thao mien—; Ivaa: Outn’-

iraai—; Konkani: Kapsini, Kapus—; Malavalam: Badara. Karppas, Karppasi,

Karuparutti, Kuruparatti, Pangni, Paritti, Parutti, Pishu, Tulam, Tundikeri— ;

Malta: Common Cotton, Indian Cotton, Short stapled Cotton, Cotone. Koton

Malti, Koton ta Malta—; Marathi: Kapus, Ru—; Myundayi: Kadsom, Kaksom,

Karsom, Kaskom, Kasom, Katsom—; Pampangan: Balac Castila—; Persian:

Pambah-—; Portuguese: Algoda, Algodoeiro—; Punioab: Broach Kapa, Rui—;

Rajputana: Kapas—; Roumanian: Bumbac—; Russian: Khlopchatnik— ;

Sakalave: Tsiahilika—; Sanskrit: Anagnika, Badara, Chavya, Chhadana, Guda,

Kalakanta, Karpasasarini, Karpasi. Maghani, Marudbhava, Patada, Patahena,

Pichu, Samudranta, Sutrapushpa, Tula, Tundakerika, Tundikeri, Vadara—;

Sind: Vaum—; Sinhalese: Kapus—; Spanish: Algodonero—: Tagalog: Bulac,

Bulag—; Tamil: Wadambarutti, Karbasam, Karppasam, Panji, Pari, Parutti,

Samuttrandam, Taiparutti, Tulam, Tulavam, Uppambarutti, Uttiri, Vanap-

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

parutti— ; Telugu: Badari, Biadarika, Edudi, Karpasamu, Patti, Pinja, Pishulamu,

Pishuvu, Pratti—; Tuareg: Tabdouk—; Tulu: Parti—; Uvraon: Rabji—;

Uriya: Karpaso, Kopa, Korpaso—; Urdu: Rui—; Visayan: Cadaba, Candaba,

Gapas—-.

4. Gossypium hirsutum, Linn. is found cultivated in India.

In Guinea the seeds and the leaves are considered emollient,

the roots emmenagogue.

Fulam: Hotollo—; Malinke: Koroni—; Malta: Koton ta Gallipoli—;

Punjabi: Safed narma—j; Sinaloa: Algodon—; Soussou: Guessefonte—; Zam-

besi: Tonje-manga—.

HIBISCUS.

The genus numbers 160 tropical and subtropical species.

The roots are much used as demulcent. The seeds are con-

sidered stimulant and antispasmodic.

The following are used medicinally in Europe-—H. esculentus

Linn., H. rosa-sinensis Linn., H. syriacus Linn., H. Trionum

Linn.—; in Egypt—H. Atelmoschus Liteva, Jal: syriacus Linn.—; in

Tropical West Africa—H. Abelmoschus Linn., H. asper Hook. f., H.

cannabinus Linn., H. esculentus Linn., H. rostellatus Guill & Perr.,

H. Sabdariffa Linn., H. tiliaceus Linn., H. vitifolius Linn.—; in

South Africa—H. aethiopicus Linn., H. leiospermus Haw., H. alae

cospermus E. Mey., H. pusillus Thunb., H. Trionum Linn., H. surat-

fensis Linn.—-; in East Africa-— H. Sabdariffa Linn.—; in La Re-

union—H. esculentus Linn., H. liliiflorus Cav., H. rosa-sinensis

Linn., H. Sabdariffa Linn.—; in Madagascar—H. diversifolius Jacq.,

IT. phanerandrus Baker, H. tiliaceus Linn.—; in Mauritius—H.

esculentus Linn., H. liliiflorus Cav., H. mutabilis Linn., H. rosa-

sinensis Linn., H. tiliaceus Linn.-—; in the Philippine Islands—

H. Abelmoschus Linn., H. grewiaefolius Hassk., H. Lampas Cav.,

AH. mutabilis Linn., H. rosa-sinensis Linn., H. surattensis Linn.,

H. tiliaceus Linn.—; in Malaya—H. mutabilis Linn., H. rosa-sinensis

Linn., H. syriacus Linn., H. tiliaceus Linn., H. Trionum Linn.—;

in Indo: China—RH. Abelmoschus IDK, g Jal: Manihot Linn., H. muta-

bilis Linn., H. rosa-sinensis Linn., H. syriacus ‘Linn., H. tiliaceus

Linn., H. Trionum Linn.—; in China—H. Manihot Linn., H. muta-

bilis Linn., H. rosa-sinensis Linn., H. syriacus Linn.—; in the West

Indies and South America--H. Abelmoschus Linn.—; in Guiana—-

H, Abelmoschus Linn., H. digitiformis DC., H. esculentus Winamak

H. mutabilis Linn., igh Sabdariffa innae if. tiaceus Linn.—; in

Tahiti—H. rosa- Roasts inne North America—H. califovnicns

Kell., H. esculentus WLinn., H. rosa- sinensis Linn.

A. Style distinctly lobed. Involucre not © caducous.

Calyx terminated by 5 distinct lobes. Capsule woody,

dehiscent, many-seeded oe at Bap oll pleann pas.

B. Capsule 5-celled

I. Calyx membranous, inflated 500 As .. A. Trionum.

(1. Calyx not inflated

a. Involucral bracts distinct, 8-12, forked or pro-

vided with a leafy appendage

1, Stipules semicordate, auricled a leek

2. Stipules lanceolate S016 OAD aeons

suratiensis,

furcatus,

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 235

b. Involucral bracts without appendages. Seeds

cottony.

Leaves broad, ovate, not lobed ... ... HH. micranthus.

c. Involucral bracts without appendages, sometimes

adnate to the calyx-tube. Seeds smooth or hairy,

not cottony.

1. Capsule 5-winged. Seeds tubercled ... Delton LULLITOLUWS®

2. Capsule not winged. Seeds nearly glabrous or

smooth.

a. Sepals with a gland at the back of each H, cannabinus.

8. Sepals not glandular... see .. HH. diversifolius.

d. Involucral bracts adnate to the calyx-tube,

accrescent, thick, ieshy, purple H. Sabdavriffa.

e. Involucral bracts 4, distinct H. Manihot,

f. Involucral bracts more than 5, linear.

1. Involucral bracts shorter than the calyx... H. Abelmoschus.

2. Involucral bracts equalling the calyx | dds esculentus.

C. Capsule with false dissepiments, spuriously 10-celled.

Involucral bracts connate at the base, A tree Pen el. terliaeeuse

D. Cultivated species.

I. Corolla 7.5 cm. diam. red Hog an .. HH. rvosa-sinensis.

II. Corolla 7.5-10 cm. diam. white or pink: ... es ee etabtlise

1. Hibiscus Abelmoschus Linn. is found in cultivation through-

out the hotter parts of India. It is met with in most other tropical

countries. |

Ayurveda and Yunani practitioners recognize the seeds as cold,

dry, tonic and stomachic. The latter recommend a mucilage made

from the root and leaves in gonorrhoea.

The natives of Western Africa use the leaves as an emollient

in inflammations of the eyes, and the pounded seeds as a stomachic

and digestive tonic.

Antsianaka: Sondraranjaza—; Arabic: Habb-ul-mishk, Habb-ul-mushk— ;

Bambura: Suma-diala—; Bengal: Mushakdana—,; Betsimisaraka;: Mana—;

Bombay : Mishkdana, Mushkdana—; Brazil: Guicombo, Guigombo do cheiro— $;

Burma: Baluwa—; Canarese: Kasturibende—-; Ceylon: Vattilaikasturi— ;

Colombia: | Abelmosco, Almizclillo, Majaguito de playa—; Deccan:

Kasturibenda, . Kasturubenda, Mushkbenda—; English: Musk Mallow—;

French : Abelmosc, Ambrette, Gombo musqué, Graine de musc, Guimauve veloutée,

Ketnie odorante—; French Guiana: Ambrette, Calalou musqué—; German:

Ambre, Ambrette, Bisorn—; Gold Coast: Osamankroma, Saman nkuruma-— ;

Gujeratt:; Mushakdana—; Hindi: Kalakasturi, Mushkaana—; Indo-China:

Bong trang nui, Bong vang, Nhan sam, Vong vang—; Italian: Ambretta—;.

Malay: Kapas hantu, Kapas hutan—; Malayalam: Kasturiventa, Kattukasturi— ;

Marathi: Kasturibhenda—; Mende: Feo-bonde, Grabondo, Musukui—; New

Caledonia: Adlivigona-gahako—; Pampangan: Castocastolian—; Persian:

Mushkdana— ; Roumanian: Pesma—; Russian: Dushishtayan ketmia, Mukush-

naya trava—; Sakalave : Tsindraranjaza— ;- Sanskrit ; Latakasturika—-; Sinhalese :

Kapukimissa, Kapuyinessa—; Southern Nigeria: Olxolooin-yelogolo—; Spanish :

Abelmosco, Ambarina—; Susu: Baminkame, Soumari—; Tagalog: Castio,

Castiocastiogan, Sastiogan, Castoli, Castuli, Dalupan, Putucan—; Tamil:

KSasturivendia, Kattukasturi—; Telugu: Karpurabenda, Kasturibenda, Nela-

benda—; Tukulor: Kundialana—; Urdu: Mushkadanah—; Visayan: Ducum,

Marapoto, Maricum, Maropoto, Marucum—.

2. Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. is generally cultivated in most tro-

pical countries, |

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The seeds are used as an external application to pains and

bruises, and are said to be aphrodisiac and fattening.

_ One tola of the juice of the flowers, with sugar and black pepper

Is a popular remedy for biliousness with acidity.

The leaves are purgative. In Northern Nigeria they are

powdered and used as a local application for Guinea-worm sores.

Arabic: Til—; Australia: Okra, Surm-- ; Bakundu: Belokaloke—; Balondo :

Bolokoloko—; Bambara: Da dian, Da fou, Da ian, Da wulu—; Basan:

Inangaé—; Basrah: Gunnab—; Bauchi: Jirin da rani—; Behar: Kudrum—;

Bengal: Ambari, Chandana, Mestapat, Nalita, Nalki, Patsan, Pulu, Pulua—;

Bombay: Ambari—; Bozo: Fo—; Canarese: Holadapundrike, Pundi—;

Central Provinces: Ambari—; Chanda: Ambari—; Chota Nagpur: Kudrum—;

Dagomba: Balaga—; Delhi: Tukhmibhang—; Djenne: Bargin—; Egypt: Til,

Tylbeledy—; English: Ambari Hemp, Ambasi Hemp, Bastard Jute, Bimlipatam

Jute, Bombay Hemp, Deccan Hemp, Hemp Bendy, Flemp-leaved Hibiscus, Indian

Hemp—; Ewe: Abema, Egbepetri—; French: Chanvre de Guinée—; Fulani:

Follere pa’bi. Baji, Gabai, Polle, Polli-—; Gambia: Wild Saur—; Gbari:

Sawung—; Godavari: Gaynara—; Guierati: Bhindiyamboi, Sheria—; Hausa:

Farar rama, Jar rama, Rama—; Hindi: Ambari, Kudrung, Mestapat, Nalita,

Nalki, Patsan, Pulu, Pulua, San, Sankarkra, Sankukra—; Ibo: Odu agu,

Udo ocha—; Ivaq: Jiliil—; Jhelum: Shan—; Jukun: Azvhi—; Kano: Dirin

da rani—; Kanuri: Ngabhai—; Katsina: Karamapnowa, Koka rani—: Kolami:

Ji, Kotle—; Konkomba: Ditoanje, Ditotone—; Kratchi: Niaripari, Riaripari—;

La Reunion: Chanvre de Gombo--; Malayalam: Kanjaru—; Malinke: Da le—;

Mandingo: Da julo, Da sitto—; Marathi: Ambada, Ambadi, Khadbind, Khar

bhendi—; Martinique: Chanvre de Gombo, Gombo—: Mbonge: Belokaloka—;

Mundayi: Kotole, Kotoleara, Kotoleipilara—; North-Western Provinces: Patsan,

Pitrva, Rattiasan—; Persian: Kanabe, Kanaff, Kanaspe. Sujjado—: Puniab:

Patsan, Sankokla, Sankokra, Sankukri, Sinjubara—; Rajputana: Ambari—;

Sanskrit: Amla, Ambalika, Ambashtha, Ambika, Balika, Bhurimalli.Chhinnapatri,

Chitrapushpi, Dridhvalka, Gandhapatri. Garnikura, Keshi, Machika, Marvurika.

Mayurvidala, Mukhavachika, Nali, Phalamla,; Prashthika, Rajjudambashtha,

Sahasravatamulika, Shathamba, Shreyasi—; Santal: Darekudrum, Kudrung— ;

Sind: Sujjado—; Sokoto: Kare aiki. Karama mowa—: Songhai: Koro gui-

souma—; South Africa: Wild Stock Rose—; Susu: Forto bamingui—; Tamil:

‘Kachurai, Palungu, Pulichai, Pulicharkirai, Pulimaniai—; Telugu: Gosu,

Gongura, Gonkura. Gulungu, Pundikura—; Tschaudio : Rama—; Tukulor: Polle-

ngagina—; Twi: Ishoho, Ishoho vesen—; Uran: Kudrundora, Tape—-; Uriya:

Bhanga, Kanuriva, Kornniya—; Wolof: Pondori—:; Yoruba: Ida orisha, Oja

ikolo, Yemoro, Yewuru—.

3. Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq. occurs in Burma. It is distri-

buted over tropical Africa and Australia.

Every part of the plant is used as an emollient in Madagascar.

The native physicians of Fiji use the juice of the leaves to procure

abortion. Pe eS OS ales

Betsileo: Tsotsona—; Imerina: Roibevavy—; Madagascar: Roibe—; North

Queensland : Cooreenyan—.

4. Hibiscus esculentus Linn. is found cultivated throughout

India and in all tropical countries.

The plant is a household medicine, and highly esteemed by both

Hindu and Mahommedan practitioners as an emollient and demulcent.

The leaves are used to form emollient poultices. 7

The mucilage from the fruits and seeds is useful in gonorrhoea

and irritation of genito-urinary system.

The immature capsules are employed in the form of a decoction

as an emollient, demulcent, and diuretic in catarrhal affections, ardor

urinae, dysuria, and gonorrhoea,

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 237

In Guinea the fruit and the leaves are used as emollient. In

some parts of West Africa mild aphrodisiac properties are attributed

to the seeds.

In Guiana the plant is very much used as a cooling mucilage;

every part of the plant is considered emollient and employed as such;

the fruit boiled in milk is given for cough.

Arabic: Baeledi, Bamir, Bamiya, Guenaouia, Uaeki—; Ashanti: Nkuruma— >;

Bafo ; Ndando—; Bakossi : Ndando—; Bakundu : Mabune—; Bakwiri : Ndando— ;

Balondo: Mawuni—; Balong: Ndando—; Bambara: Gan, Guan, Guaniala—;

Banda: M’Veke—; Basari: Imo—; Batanga: Mabune—; Bengal: Dhenras,

Dhenrus, Dheras, Ramtorai—; Benin: Ikhiavbo—; Bombay: Bhenda, Chendi— ;

Bota: Ndando—; Brazil: Guiabo, Guimgombo—; Burma: Younpadisi— ;

Canarese: Bendakainaru, Bendekai, Bhende—; Central Porvinces: Bhendi—;

Ceylon: Bandakkai—; Cuba: Quimbombo—; Dagomba: Mana, Manvale—;

Deccan: Bhendi—; #fik: Etighi—; Egypt: Bamia, Belledi, Ueki—; English:

Edible Hibiscus, Gobba, Gumbo, Lady’s Fingers, Ochro, Okra—-; Ewe: Fetri—;

Fanti: Nkuruma—; Fra-Fra: Marna—; French: Bamia, Gombault, Gombeau,

Gombo, Ketmie comestible, Mauve comestible, Okra—; French Guiana: Calalou,

Calou-—; Fufulde : Baskoje, Takkei—; Fulani: Candie, Takaere, Takeyi, Taku— ;

Ga: Engmomi—; Gbari: Okmi—; Gujerati: Bhinda, Bhindu, Binda—;

Gurunshi: Paula—; Hausa: Guro, Ku ’baiwa, Ku ’bewa, Yau ’di—; Hindi:

Bhendi, Bhindi, Bindi, Katavandai, Ramturai, Ranturi—; Jbibto: Etikhe—;

Ibo: Okolo, Okuro, Okworo, Okwulu, Okwuru—; Iraq: Bamia—; Kabura:

Mana—; Kanuri: Gebalgo, Gobasko, Gubaltu, Njita kimé—; Kissi: Gbasa—;

Kolami: Mindijinga—; Konkani: Bendo—; Konkomba: Emoi—; _ Konno:

Bondoi, Gbondui—; Koranko: Bonde—; Krepi: Alokoe, Atise, Bodro, Mesedi— ;

Krobo : Muomi, Pingpesi, Pui—; La Reunion: Lalo—; Lepcha: Hryok kun-tsu— ;

Louisiana: Gobbo, Gumbo—; Losso: Mana, Meni—; Malayalam: Vanta—;

Malinka: Gavu, Gau, Guan—; Mandingo: Kainjo, Kanjo, Nah—; Manjia:

Gona, M’Beyi, Yoga—; Mano: ’Zambe—; Marathi: Bhenda, Bhendi—;

Mauritius: Bhindi, Lalo, Ramtouraye, WVendekaye—; Mbonge: Mabuna— ;

Mende: Bonde, Bondeborndogbamai, Bonde nande, Bonde valiangoi, Bondo—;

Mexico: Chinbombo, Gombo, Quingombo—; Mundari: Mindidiring, Ram-

jhingga— ; Nupe: Kpamfine, Kpanmi—; Panama: Naju—; Peking: Yang Chiao

T’ou—; Persian: Bamiyah—; Porto Rico : Guingambo—; Portuguese: Ouiabo— ;

Portuguese Guinea: Quingombo—-; Punjab: Bhindatori, Bhindi, Bhinditori,

Ramturai—; Sanskrit: Asrapatraka, Bhenda, Bhinda, Bhindatika, Chatupunda,

Chatushpada, Darivka, Gandhamula, Karaparna, Kshatrasambhava, Pichchila,

Sushaka, Tindisa, Vrittabija—; Santal: Ramjinga—; Sarracole: Diakatame— ;

Shanghai: Yang Koh Deu—; Serere: Kandia—; Sherbro: Lonto-le—; Shuwa

Arabic: Bamiya, Daraba gabesco, Daraba umm gurun—; Sind: Bhendi,

Ramturai—; Sinhalese: Bandakai, Bandakka, Okra—: Sobo: Ishavbo—; Sokoto:

Guro—; Songhai: Gombo, Karas, Lahoil—; Spanish: Guimbombo—; Susu:

Sulegni, Sulinyi, Sulunyi—; Tamil: Vendai, Vendi—; Telugu: Benda, Penda,

Venda—; Timne: A-lontho, E-lunto—; Tivi: Ityulugh—; Tschaudjo: Gmana—;

Twi: Nkuruma—; Vai: Gbongbong—; West Africa: Bendi kai, Ochro, Okra—;

West Indies: Bendi kai, Common Okra, Gombeau, Gombo, Guiabo, Long Green

Okra, Ochro, Okra—,; Wolof: Kandia—; Yemen: Bamia—; Yoruba: Ila, Ilasa,

Ilasado, Ilasha—.

5. Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. occurs in the hotter parts of India

and Ceylon. It is distributed over the tropics of the Old World.

An infusion of the roots in water is a good cooling drink for

the hot weather. :

Canarese : Huligowri— ; Malayalam: Naranampuli, Pachapuli, Suriyamani— ;

Sinhalese: Hinnapiritta, Napiritta—; Telugu: Kondagogu, Kondagongura—;

Uriya: Piripirika—.

6. Hibiscus Lampas Cay. occurs in the Himaiaya up to 4,000 feet

Bengal, Burma, Konkan, Kanara, the Western Ghats up to 3,000 feet,

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

the Northern Circars, Deccan and Ceylon. It extends to Java and

Eastern tropical Africa. : f

The root and fruit are used in Chota Nagpur as a remedy in

gonorrhoea and syphilis.

Assam: Bonkapash—; Bengal: Bankapas, Bankapsi, Bankapus—; Canarese :

Adavibende, Turuve—; Central Provinces: Jangli bhendi—; Dehra Dun: Bian

kapasi—; Gujerati: Paruspiplo—; Hindi: Bankapas, Bankapasi, Kakhi,

Kasyapal—; Ho: Reke—; Kolami: Birkatsom—; Lepcha: Ka-fal-muk—;

Malayalam: Daraba, Kattuparatti—; Marathi: Janglibhenda, Ranbhendy— ;

Matheran: Lahanbhendi, Ranbhendi—; Mundari: Birkadsom, Birkaksom,

Birkarsom, Birkaskom,~ Birkasom, Birkatsom—,; Pangasinan: Banaro—;

Porebunder : Adbauporushpiplo, Jangliparushpiplo—; Rammnagar: Bankapasi— ;

Santal: Birkatsom, Bonkapsi—; Tagalog: Banagapula, Bannago—; Telugu:

Adavibende, Adavipratti, Bharadvaji, Kondapatti, Pagadipatti, Pattinga—; Uriya:

Bonokopa—; Visayan: Bannago, Bulacan—.

7. Wibiscus Manihot Linn. is found in Bengal, Mount Abu,

Gujerat, Konkan, the Western Ghats, and along the West Coast

from South Kanara to Travancore.

In Indo-China the bark is considered emmenagogue. It is used

in the form of mucilage.

Chinese: Huang Shu K’uei, Shu Kuei—; Ga: Laga laga—; Indo-China:

Hoang thuc quy—.

8. Hibiscus micranthus Linn. f. is found in the hotter parts

of India from North-Western India eastwards and southwards to

Ceylon. It spreads to Arabia and tropical Africa.

The plant is considered a valuable febrifuge in Ceylon.

Acrur: Ligat atolo, Rigaget elo—; Asmara: Chercurantel—; Baluchi:

Zwangir—; Ceylon: Perumaddi—; Cutch: Darianujhad, Kurudwel—; Ga:

Lagalaga—; Gujerati: Chanakbhindo—; Mensa: Konatal—; Porebunder:

Abaubuporio, Darianujhad—j; Tamil: Sittamutti—; Telugu: Chalabharata,

Tuturubenda—.

g. Hibiscus mutabilis Linn., indigenous in China, is cultivated

in India. : :

In Malaya and China the flowers are an established remedy for

pectoral and pulmonary complaints; they are prescribed as a sti-

mulant. The leaves are applied to swellings.

In Guiana the plant is used as an emollient.

America: Confederate Rose, Cotton Rose—; Bengal: Sphalpadma,

Thulpadma—; Canarese: Nelaolavare, Suryakanti—; Chinese: Fu Jung, Mu Fu,

Jung—-; Colombia: Amistad del dia, Rosa de engafo, Variedad—; English:

Changeable Rose—; French Guiana: Caractére des dames, Rose changeante— ;

Guam: Mapola—; Hindi: Gul-i-ajaib, Shalapara, Sthalkamal—-; Indo-China :

Moc phu dung, Phu dung—; La Reunion: Passe-rose—; Malaya: Foo yoon—;

Malayalam: Chinapparatti, Hinaparutti—; Mauritius: Passe rose, Satoula

padma—; Mexico: Amistad—; Philippines: Mapola—,; Porto Rico : Maravilla—;

Portuguese: Amor inconstante, Rosa mudavel—; Punjab: Gul i ajaib—;

Sanskrit: Padmacharini, Sthalpadma—; Tamil: Irattaivellaichembarattam, Sem-

barattai—; Uriya: Sthalopidmo, Tholopodmo—; Uruguay: Farolito japonés,

Flor de la vida, Rosa de mayo—.

10. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis — Linn. is found cultivated in gardens

throughout India,

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 239

The flowers are considered emollient, and an infusion of the petals

is given as a demulcent. Fried in ghee they are administered for

checking excessive menstruation. In La Reunion they are reputed

to be emmenagogue.

The flowers are a household remedy in the Philippine Islands.

_ Externally they are used in all kinds of inflammation; internally

they are prescribed in the form of decoction in bronchial catarrh as a

bechic and sudorific.

The root is mucilaginous and demulcent, valuable in coughs. In

the Konkan the powdered root is used in menorrhagia, and the juice

of the fresh root is given for gonorrhoea.

The bark is said to act as an emmenagogue.

The leaves are emollient and aperient. In China they are used

in paralysis and dysmenorrhea.

Arabic: Angara-e-hindi—; Bengal: Jaba, Japa, Jiwa, Joba, Juwa, Oru,

Patkili— ; Bombay: Jasavanda—; Burma: Kaungyan, Koungyan—; Canarese :

Dasanihu, Dasavala, Dasavana, Kempupundrika, Nadeya—; Cantonese: Ch

’uen Kan—; Chinese: Ch ’uan Chin, Fu Sang, Houng Hoa—; Colombia:

' Alsaciana, Astromelia, Cayena, Escandalosa, Islefia, Resucitado, Roja—; Deccan:

Gudel, Jasum, Jasum, Jasut, Kudhal—; English: Scarlet Rose-mallow, Shoe

Klower—; French: Ketmie , de Cochinchine,; Rose de Chine—; Guam:

Gumamela—; Gujerati: Jasuva—; Hindi: Jasum, Jasun, Jasut—; Ilocano:

Cayanga— ; Indo-China: Dam but, Dok mai, Hong can, Phu tang—; Konkani:

Doxini— ;_ Malaya: Choon kin—; Malayalam: Ayamparutti, Jampa, Japa,

Shemparatti— ; Marathi: Desindachaphula, Jasavanda, Jasavandi—; Mauritius :

Djassoun, Foulsapate, Sapatoucheddi—; Nasirabad: Badshapashand—; North

America: China Rose, Chinese Hibiscus, Chinese Rose—; Pampangan: Cayanga,

Gomamila, Tapolanga, Tapuranga, Tarocanga—; Persian: Angara-e-hindi— ;

Philippines : Cayaga, Gumamela, Tapulanga, Tapuranga—; Portuguese: Flor de

sapato—; Rarotonga: Kaute—; Samoa: Aute—; Sanskrit: Arkapriya, Aruna,

Harivallabha, Japapushpa, Java, Joba, Odhrapushpa, Ondrakhya, Pratiko,

Raktapushpi, Rogapushpi, Rudrapushpa, Trisandhya—; Sinhalese: Sapatthumal,

Wadamal—; Spanish: Rosa de China—; Tagalog: Antolangan, Aroganan,

Cayanga, Gomamila, Tapolanga, Tarocanga—; Tamil: Arattam, Irattai-

chegappuchembarattam, _—_Irattaimanjajembarattam, Mandaram, Sapattuppu,

Sembarattai, Sevarattai, Sivandavesai—; Telugu: Dasanamu, Dasani, Japa-

pushpamu—; Tulu: Dasanapu—; Uriya: Mondaro, Odophulo, Onghribollika— ;

Uruguay: Flor de obispo, Rosa de China—; Visayan: Antolangan, Aroganam,

Cayanga, Gomamila, Tapolanga, Tapurangay Tarocanga—.

11. Hibiscus Sabdariffa Linn. is generally cultivated in the hotter

parts of India and Ceylon. It is distributed through the tropics

of the Old World. : ;

The leaves are emollient. They are much used in Guinea as a

diuretic, sedative, and refrigerant.

The leaves, seeds, and ripe calyces possess diuretic and anti-

scorbutic properties.

The succulent calyx, after the flower fades, is used for the

preparation of jelly, chutney, curries, etc.; also as a_ refreshing

drink or made into a wine or syrup. In bilious conditions, a diet

drink is prepared by boiling it with water and adding a little salt,

pepper, asafoetida and molasses.

East of Chad an infusion of the calyces, ‘‘Sudan Tea’’, is taken

to relieve symptoms of plethora, for bronchitis and cough, and is

also used as a_ vehicle for various native medicines..- Externally the

leaves, flamed to cause the sap to exude, are applied to assist the

healing of sand-cracks of the feet, and a lotion is used for sores.

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

In Hausa the oil from the seeds is used as a substitute for

castor oil and applied to camel sores.

Antsianaka: Voamahombazaha—; Arabic: Karkade, Karkangi—; Basari:

Injangbam—; Bengal : Lalmista, Mesta, Patwa—; Bombay : Lalambari, Patwa—;

Burma; Chinbaung, Chinpoungni—; Canarese: Kempupundrike, Pulachakiri,

Pundibija—; Ceylon: Pulinchakira—; Dagomba: Dibemre, Digbemre— ; Deccan:

Lalambari, Patwa—; Egypt: Kerkadepes Engitsh : Indian Sorrel, Jamaica

Sorrel, Red Sorrel, Rosella, Rozelle, Rozelle Hemp—; Ewe: Abema—; Fra-

Fra: Bito—; French Guiana: Oseille-de-Guinée rouge—; Ifufulde: Fulle—;

Fulani: Follere, Follere ba’di, Follere boleyo, Hologo, Hoyoro—; Ga: Sakpa—;

Gbart : Amma— ; Guinea : Oseille de Guinée— ; Gujerati : Lalsheria— ; Gurunshi :

Nangana— ; Hausac Sure, Yakuwa—; ind: Lalambari, Patwa—; Ho: Arhai-

pila—; Honduras: Sorrel—; Hova: Divay—; Ibo: Ojo, Okworo-ozo—; Kon-

komba: Tingyanbam—; Konno: Sandoi—; Kratchi: Riaripari—; La Reunion:

Groseille—; Limba: Bu-santor—; Malayalam: Polechi—; Malinke: Da—-;

Mandingo: Kucha—; Marathi: Lal ambadi, Patva, Tambadi ambadi—; Mende :

Satoi, Satui—; Mundari: Arharjorjora, Jengaipillara, Jojoara, Telengaipilara— =;

Nupe: Emagi—; Portuguese: Rosela—; Santal: Arakkudrum, Togotarak—;

Sierra Leone : Crincrin, Sour-sour— ; Sind: Lalambari—; Sinhalese : Ratabilincha

——; Sokoto: Sure—; Susu: Santon-belli, Santui—; Tamil: Simaikkasuru,

Sivappukkasuru—; Telugu: Ettagomgura, Ettagongaka, Ettagonguru, Shimo-

gonguru—; Timne: A-santor, Ka-santor, Koe-santoor—, Tivi: Aishwe, Ashwe— ;

T'schaudjo: Dibemre, Digbemre—; Uran: Kudrung—; West Indies: Red Sorrel,

Rozelle—; Wolof: Bissab—; Yoruba: Amukai, Isepa—.

12. Hibiscus surattensis Linn. occurs in the hotter parts of

India, from Bengal to Penang, and Ceylon. It extends to tropical

Asia, Africa, and Australia.

The mucilaginous flowers are much used as an emollient and

pectoral in La Reunion.

- The Zulus use a lotion of the leaves and stem for the treatment of

penile irritation of any sort, including venereal sores and urethritis.

It is sometimes applied as an ointment for the same purposes. An

infusion is also used as an injection into the urethra and vagina for

gonorrhoea and other inflammations.

Benin: Akenye—; Betsimisaraka: Sirangabalala—; Bombay: Ranbhendy— ;

Burma: Welmachinpoung—; Ibo: Ile ago—; Lagos: Wongo—; La Reunion:

Oseille malabare—; Malay: Asam) susor—; Mende: Koli-nei—; Popo: Pode—;

Sinhalese: Hinnapiritta, Naapiritta—; Tamil : Kashlikirai—; Telugu: Mulu-

gogu—; Timne: Da-mirakanka, Damirasip, Ramirasip—; Visayan: Labog—;

Yoruba: Awon-ekun, Wonjo—; Zulu: inCathucathu—.

13. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. occurs in all tropical regions, es-

pecially near the coast. It is particularly plentiful in the Sundarbans,

and on the river banks in Burma.

The root is said to be febrifuge, and employed in the preparation

of embrocations (Irvine).

The bark yields a dark hairy fibre which is used as an absorbent |

in Malaya.

In the Philippines the powdered bark is given as an emetic; an

infusion of the leaves is employed to wash ulcers and wounds; the

flowers, boiled in milk, are used in the treatment of earache.

In Gold Coast the yellow juice from the young fruits is rubbed

on the skin to cure weakness.

In Indo-China tie leaves are considered laxative and resolvent.

Jn Madagascar the plant is used as an emollient.

THE MEDICINAL MALLOWWORTS OF INDIA 241

Australia: Cotton Tree, Lalwalpin—; Bengal: Bala, Bhola, Bola, Chelwa— ;

Betsimisaraka: Baro—; Bombay: Bellipata—; Burma: Thengben, Thinban— >;

knglish: Corkwood, Lime-tree-leaved Hibiscus—; Fiji: Kau—; Irench: Bois

de mot, Bois de hege, Grand Mahot, Varo—; Wrench Guiana: Grand Mahe,

Maho—; Ga: Fet—; Guam: Pago—; Hawaii: Hau—; Hindi: Bola—;

tonduras ; Mahoe—; Hova: Varo—; Indo-China: Huu nap, Lua tam chieu— ;

Java: Waru—; Konkani: Bellipata—; La Reunion: Foulsapate--; Luabo:

mulola—; Malay: Ambaru, Baru, Baru laut, Dedap laut—; Malayalam: Nir-

parutti, Lalipparutti—; Manamgo: burfando—; Mauritius: Vaur—; Mende

Bpome-kowei— ; Mexico: Mahagua, Masagua, Masahua—; Mortlocks : Gili-tau— ;

New Caiedonia: Boraoc, Borao de marais, Borao rouge, Bourao, Eemi, Kimi,

He, Ven—; Nzima: Nwotwea—; Pampangan: Balibago, Raguindi—; Panama:

Majagua—; Philippines: Malabayo—; Ponape: Kalahau, Kalau—; Porto Rico:

kmajagua—; Rarotonga: Au—; Sakaluve:; Masaizano—-; Samoa: Fau—;

Sanskrit: Bala-—; Seychelles: Bois var—j; Sherbro;: Papam—; Sinhalese: Bele-

patta, Beligobel, Belipatta, Bellipatta—; Swahili: Mtakawa—; TJagalog:

Balibago— ; Lahiti: Fau—; Tamil: Nirpparutti—; Telugu: Ettagogu—; Unya:

Baniah, Baniya, Bariya, Kurubeli—; Visayan: Balabago, Malabago—; West

Inaves: Mahagua, Mahoe—; Yap: Kal—; Zulu: umLoio, umLolwa—.

14. Hibiscus Trionum Linn. occurs in the Western Himalaya,

Kashmir, Simla, Bengal, Sind, KKonkan. It is distributed over

Southern Europe and the tropics of the Old World.

in China and Maiaya an infusion of the flowers is taken for

itching and painful skin diseases, and as a diuretic. The dried

leaves are held to be stomachic.

Brahui: Lasura, Pihupulli—; Cantonese: We Sheung T’au—; Chinese: Ho

Shang T’ou—; Kgypt: Aimbaggara, Shebbet, Til-shiiami—;; frag: Jiljil—;

Malaya: Woh seong tow—; Spanish: Aurora, Malva vejigosa, Malva vesicaria—.

15. Hibiscus vitifolius Linn. is a common, herbaceous bush, in

the jungles and brushwoods of the hotter parts of India, from the

North-West Provinces to Ceylon. It extends to tropical Africa and

Australia.

The plant is mucilaginous. The roots provide a_ preparation

used by Gold Coast women to kill head-lice.

Bengal: Bankapas—; Fanti: Ekyi, Nkyetan—; Sanskrit ; Bharadvaji, Vana

karpasa— ; Telugu: Karupatti—; Yoruba: Ofo odan, Okun agutan—.

(To be continued).

OBITUARY

H. H. SHRI KHENGARJI

MAHARAO OF CUTCH

1886-1942.

His Highness Maharajadhiraj Mirza Maharao_ Shri Khengarji

Savai Bahadur was born in 1886 and succeeded to the ancient padi

of Cutch at the early age of 10. For close on 60 years, he ruled

his State with beneficence and wisdom.

He was a scholar. His extensive reading, his close study of

current events, and his coolly critical mind made him a just and

liberal judge of men and affairs, whose opinion was listened to

with deference and respect in the councils of the Nation. He re-

presented India and his Princely Order. at the Imperial Conference

(1921). He was a delegate to the League of Nations. For many

years, he filled with distinction the honoured position of Vice-

Chancellor of the Chamber of Princes. He was one of the represent-

atives of the Indian Princes at the Round Table Conferences which

preceded the passing of the Government of India Act of 1935. in

all these councils his wisdom and prescience were an asset to national

politics.

But it is not in the peronmemee of these high functions that one

remembers Maharao Shri Khengarji. One remembers him not as a

Prince and .Elder Statesman, but rather as a man, simple, gentle,

kindly, fair-mimded, and considerate. He loved no ostentation or

display. But his stately courtesy and charm of manner invested him

with a natural dignity which impelled respect. As a man of many

parts, he had many interests to compensate the cares of office, but

he found his dearest solace in Nature. His association with the

Natural History Society goes back almost to the year of its found-

ation. His name ts included in the list of members, published with

the second volume of the Journal in the year 1887: and through the

years, he maintained his interest in the Society’s affairs. He was

elected its Vice-President in the year 1921 and became a Vice-Patron

in 1924: In an early number of the Journal, published in 1893, there

is printed a letter from the Maharao in which he records the taking

of the eggs and young of the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) in

his State. His Highness was the first to discover that the

Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum) breeds in India. Later

he followed up the notice of his original discovery with a note on the

‘Breeding of the Flamingo in the Rann of Cutch’ (Vol. xv, 706).

The data provided in his note enabled the Society 43 years later, to

send an expedition to Cutch State. Thanks to the generous assist-

ance received from the present Maharao, the Society was able to

place on exhibition in the Prince of Wales Museum a magnificent

group, illustrating the breeding of Flamingoes in the Rann of Cutch.

The group, now associated with His Highness’ name, is a memorial

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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OBITUARY 943

to his discovery and to the consistent interest which he took in the

work of the Society and the Museum. Both the Society and the

Prince of Wales Museum have to acknowledge with gratitude his

many generous benefactions.

His Highness was a great hunter. In a tribute published in

The Times of India, on the 21st January 1942, Sir Geoffrey Archer,

his companion in many hunting trips, wrote: “His over-riding

interest was sport; and not only did he blaze the trail in the matter

of big game hunting and adventure in Africa for the younger

generation to follow in his footsteps, but he travelled widely through-

out Central Europe in pursuit of his favourite pastime. Because

of his exceptional skill and knowledge as a hunter, coupled with a

genial nature and his interest in everything -around him, he was

accepted wherever he went as a brother sportsman, as an aristocrat

among aristocrats. Meanwhile, he himself was equally happy

whether staying as a guest in a Polish castle or tucked away in

a wooden hut among the snows and forests of the Carpathians and

attended only by his tracker. With long experience as an African

big game hunter, I can truthfully say that I have never known

another case of such unrivalled enthusiasm for the chase (combined

with a rare distinction in the choice of his trophies) retained to the

very end of a long life. Moreover, he was observant and a good

field-naturalist !’

The Society pays this tribute to the memory of a patron and

friend, a sportsman and a great gentleman.

Sts Ps

REVIEWS

I—COURTSHIP AND DISPLAY AMONG BIRDS by C. R. Stonor, xv

+140 pp. 57 plates (Country Life Ltd., London, 1940) Price 8/6 nett.

Exigencies of the times are responsible for the delay in the coming to our

notice of this useful and absorbing book. ‘The courtship and display behaviour

of birds is one of the most fascinating branches of the study of ornithology.

Increasing attention has been paid within recent years to the breeding biology

of birds by field naturalists as well as by laboratory workers, and a mass of

information has accumulated as a result of their investigations. A stream of

observations continues to pour into ornithological journals, but it is seldom

possible for the non-specialist, or for one interested in natural history in a

general way, to keep track of all these records and to follow the progress and

development of the study closely. The general reader has neither the time

nor the facility for wading through the spate of current ornithological literature ;

thus he has good reason to be thankful to the author for the service he has

done in bringing together all the most important information and_ presenting

it in this readable non-technical form.

Darwin’s theory of Sexual. Selection was to the effect that the ornamental

plumes and growths employed by male birds in their courtship displays were

for the purpose of impressing the female before whom they were performed,

and that these adornments were themselves the result of the selection practised

by the female. Those males that possessed the most showy appendages and

indulged in the most perfect display were chosen by the females, while their

less showy and tardier rivals were rejected. Thus the responsibility for the

continuance of further generations rested with the most resplendent and virile

males who were enabled to hand down the desirable genes to their des-

cendants. As the study of sexual behaviour progressed and became more

intensive and critical, objections to the Sexual Selection theory—which had

early made their appearance—began to multiply and grow. It soon became

clear that the real significance of adornment and display was far less easy to

explain than that theory implied. It is well known, for instance, that very

often the female, far from consciously exercising her choice of a partner from

among several displaying candidates, will take no interest whatsoever in their

amorous antics. Indeed, not infrequently the male indulges in his display with.

undiminished ardour when actually no female is present. Or he performs ia

front of an inanimate object which, through some form of association, has

excited his emotion. Again, in birds that pair for life such as storks, parrots

and eagles, the Sexual Selection theory failed to explain why a fresh display

ritual was necessary at the commencement of each successive breeding season

since the mates were already chosen.

The social behaviour of birds that live in flocks during the several months

of the year when they are not breeding, becomes so profoundly altered at nesting

time that it seems natural to suppose that some sort of internal ‘press button’

must be necessary to switch on the birds’ activities from the normal routine

of flock-life to the ‘specialised reactions of the mated pair. Experiments show

that a number of extraneous factors such as increasing day-length in Spring

(in the temperate regions of the earth) and the rainy season (in the tropics)—

the abundance of food supply and the high bodily metabolism they denote——

activate the endocrine or ductless glands in the bird’s body. These glands

secrete chemical substances known as hormones which pour into the blood

stream and produce a magical stirring-up of the internal activities in the organism,

both physiological and psychological. One of these glands in particular—the Pituit-

ary, situated deep in the skull above the palate—is mainly responsible for the deve-

lopment of the gonads or sex organs, and controls all the specialised behaviour

connected with the breeding cycle. Thus it is these hormones that are responsible

for the courtship displays among birds. In species which are not sexually

dimorphic, both male and female indulge in the displays to a more or less

equal extent.

There seems no doubt that the biological function of courtship display——

whether aided by form, colour or voice, or ‘mechanical’ (as the drumming of

a woodpecker)—is the emotional stimulation of the opposite sex, normally the

REVIEWS 945

female. It serves to arouse the necessary physiological urge, and to keep it

at the pitch that will ensure fruitful copulation. This is the vital purpose of

life—-to perpetuate the species.

The multifarious types of courtship display range in different birds from

the sublime to the ridiculous. They make fascinating reading. The special

adornments of resplendent plumes possessed by the male Birds of Paradise and

the effect with which they are displayed before their drab-hued mates are some

of the most elaborate and spectacular—and even bizarre—performances in nature.

It is in the fitness of things that an important place should have been allotted

to them in the book. Mutual displays, practised by both sexes simultaneously,

as the familiar bill-clattering of storks, form the subject of another chapter.

These displays are also seen in Herons, Grebes and Albatrosses. Follows on

absorbing section on Communal Display which has been closely studied in Gulls

recently. Here the display and courtship ritual of one member of a_ breeding

colony, who happens to be physiologically more ripe than the others, has an

infectious stimulating effect upon the rest. It serves to rally the dalliants and to

hasten the egg laying and other activities within the colony. Thus by shortening

the total length of the breeding period these mutual displays help towards

successful reproduction in a number of ways.

Other subjects, such as the yet imperfectly understood courtship displays or

‘hilling’ of Ruffs, the scrupulously clean display grounds and courtship behaviour

of the Central American Mannakins (small birds of the size of wrens) and the

elaborate and gaudily decorated bowers of the Australian Bower-Birds are dis-

cussed. The carefully selected and beautiful photographs that illustrate the

volume add considerably to its charm and interest.

Sp dlc

Il.—POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Hugh Whistler,

M.B.O.U., F.Z.S. Third edition. Illustrated. Gurney & Jackson, London (1942).

Price 18/6 nett.

Whistler has become a household name with bird-lovers in India. | Since the

first edition of the Popular Handbook appeared in 1928, it has gained increasingly

in well-deserved popularity. This third edition is still further revised and

enlarged. It describes at. length 300 species as against 275 in the second edition

(reviewed on p. 171 of vol, xxxviii). Some more paragraphs mentioning other

species have been added so that in all 550 species are now brought to the

reader’s notice. All the advances in our knowledge as regards taxonomy and

distribution made principally by the recent bird surveys in various parts of

India have been incorporated, bringing the work fully up to date.

The format of the book remains unchanged except that now it is fatter with

the number of pages increased from 513 to 549. Apart from the letterpress

there is one additional coloured plate (4 figures) and g extra figures in the text.

All the features, debit and credit, commented on in the review of the second

edition have been retained, including (unfortunately—we think) the size of the

birds in inches, and the use of fractions of the inch, rather than millimeters,

in describing eggs. This chronic conservatism must doubtless carry some hidden

_ Virtue in it, but which the reviewer has consistently failed to appreciate. Some of

the curious illusions produced by giving the sizes of birds in inches can be seen,

when, for example, the following are compared; Black-winged Stilt, length 15

inches; Common Teal, length 15 inches. White Ibis, length 30 inches; Bar-

headed Goose, length 30 inches; Paradise Flycatcher, length g inches (excluding

tail ribbons); Common Myna, length 8’—and these illusions cannot make things

easy for the tyro and the layman.

P. 53: The song of the Spotted Babbler in the breeding season as ‘of 5 notes

repeated several times’ is not a correct or happy description since it conveys

nothing of the percussive, whistling and rambling nature of the performance up

and down the scale.

P. 54: Quaker Babbler. ‘The short song of 7 or 8 notes is an

inaccurate description, at least in so far as concerns the races poioicephala and

brucei with which the reviewer is intimately familiar. In these forms the song

is of 4 quavering whistling notes of the tone-quality of the Magpie-Robin’s

effort. It is repeated every few seconds as the birds move about the foliage.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. XLItt

_P. 63: Chloropsis. Strangely enough no mention at all was made of the

mimicking powers of the Chlorpses in the second edition. And as this is such

a characteristic feature of the calls of these ‘Bulbuls’, we are glad to see due

prominence given to the trait now.

_ P. 98: The song of the Plumbeous Redstart, it may be mentioned, is an

‘identical twin’ of that uttered by the Fantail Flycatcher Leucocirca albicollis.

The reviewer has been taken in on more occasions than one in localities where

the flyeatcher was absent.

Frequently where short mention of a species is made, insufficient clues are

given for its identification or for differentiation from allied birds, e.g. Crag Martin

(p. 231) and Nilgiri Swallow (p. 234).

_ On pages 267 and 268 we find that ‘Habits’ of Tickell’s and the Thick-billed

Flowerpeckers have been greatly embellished. The language and matter seem

oddly familiar, and indeed almost word for word is what we have seen published

elsewhere! Yet no recognition of the source or the authorship appears. When

the original work of others is quoted in extenso, it seems unfair that it should

not be properly acknowledged, although we have no doubt that in the present

case the omission is purely inadvertant.

P. 416.—The new race of Bush-Quail—sdlimalii—recently obtained on red

laterite soil in Mysore State is surely of the species P. argoondah and not P.

astatica, as stated.

Apart from these, and a few other minor criticisms, we have nothing but

praise for the book. In its present form it is all that one could wish for for

getting acquainted with our birds and for use as a stepping stone to a deeper

study of the ornithology of this country. We wish it all the success its pre-

decessors had.

S. A.

Hil. THE MAMMALS OF INDIA. The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. (Published under the patronage of the Secretary of State

for India). Edited by Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, Mammalia, vol. ii;

Carnivora, continued from Vol. i, Sub-Orders Aeluroidea (part) and Arctoidea.

By R. I. Pocock, pp. xii+504-+-12 Plates (London Taylor and Francis, Ltd.,

1041). 35S.

Mr. Pocock’s second Volume on Indian Mammais commences with the

Mungooses (Hesperidae) and includes the Hyaenas (Hyaenidae), Wolves, Jackals,

Foxes, Wild Dogs (Canidae), Bears (Ursidae), and that heterogenous collection

of smaller mammals the Pandas, Otters, Weasels, Martens, Stoats, etc. grouped

by naturalists in diverse combinations, but here assigned to the Ailuropodidae,

Ailuridae and Muste:idae.

The system followed is similar to that adopted in the previous Volume.

Descriptions of Families, Sub-families and Genera are followed by descriptions

of the species and of races, based on descriptions of individual specimens.

Keys are provided based on external and also on cranial characters. To

one accustomed to Blanford’s work the wealth of detail in description is

perhaps confusing. But Bilanford’s Mammalia was written mainly on_ the

pre-Darwinian lines on which the earlier naturalists in India worked. Their

observations were limited to describing the salient characters by which one.

species could be differentiated from another. Blanford’s work as such was limited

mainly to generalised descriptions of the distinctive characters of each species.

But today it is considered equally, if not more important, not only to classify

species, but systematically to record such variations as may be exhibited by

them. These differences, even if they are trivial, provided they are constant,

furnish data for the investigation of problems related to the evolution, variation

and distribution of species. In the present Volume, the author provides in

almost meticulous detail not only full descriptions of geographical races wher-

ever these have been established, but also records of ‘seasonal and individual

variation. This is the outstanding character of Pocock’s work and its dis-

tinction from the older publication on Indian Mammals. Equally important is

the systematic part of the work, The author’s ‘evision has been directed to

the clarification of the status and nomenclature of numerous forms and species of

{Indian Mammals, described by various authorities. The confusing plethora of

names adopted by them and, frequently, the vagueness of descriptions has made

guch revision a most difficult task. Mr, Pocock’s great knowledge and experience

REVIEWS | 247

as a systematist, that thoroughness and precision which is characteristic of his

work has enabled its accomplishment. The author had the advantage of being

able to study far larger collections than any of the older naturalists. The most

important were the extensive collections of Indian mammals brought together

by the Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey. The new Fauna

is essentially a product of this Survey and is a memorial to the Society’s

enterprise. The author’s exhaustive study of these and other collections incor-

porated in the present work has meant a considerable clearing of the confusion

which hitherto hampered the systematic study of Indian mammals. The new

Fauna is an index to the present day knowledge of the subject, and provides

a sound foundation upon which future knowledge may be built up.

We pass now to a brief review of some of the changes noticed in the systematic

part of the work. Pocock’s revision of the Hesperidae (Mungooses) has resulted in

a reduction of the number of British Indian species from 8 to 6. The Brown Mun-

goose of Ceylon (Herpestes fulvescens), hitherto. regarded as a distinct species, is

now considered a racial form of the Brown Mungoose (H. fuscus) of the South

Indian hill ranges. The Small Burmese Mungoose (H. burmanicus) also loses

specific rank and becomes a racial form of the small Mungoose which ranges

from Persia, eastwards through North India and Burma. A reduction is also

made in the number of hitherto recognised sub-species. Wroughton, Thomas

and Miss Riley differentiated and described in our Journal a number of races

based on distinctions in colour and coat, which examination of more material

has proved to be purely seasonal and without racial significance.

Coming to the Canidae, the Indian Hyaena, so far recognised as a distinct

species, now becomes a racial form of the Hyaena which ranges from, Africa through

South-West Asia to India. The wolf of the Indian plains, also recognised by Blan-

ford, as a distinct species, becomes a racial form of the European Wolf (Canis

lupus), which is represented in Kashmir and the Himalayas by a second form the

Wooly Wolf (C. lupus chanco). This Himalayan race absorbs the numerous so-

called species and forms described from Kashmir, Central Asia and China on

characters ascribed by Pocock to seasonal and individual variation. The Indian

Jackal, like the Wolf and the Hyaena, also loses its specific status and is re-

garded merely as a race of the Asiatic Jackal, (Canis aureus), which ranges from

South East Europe through South West Asia, India and Ceylon to Siam. Four

racial forms of this Jackal are now recognised from Indian limits. Like the

European Wolf, the European Fox (Vulpes vulpes) extends its range into our limits.

Tt is represented by a Himalayan race, Vulpes vulpes montana, a more westerly

form from Afghanistan, V. v. griffithi, and by a desert form, V. v. pusilla.

The last, Blanford recognised as a distinct species under the name V. leucopus.

Even our Wild Dog (C. dukhunensis) and the Malay Wild Dog (C. rutilans), which

so long enjoyed the dignity of distinct species, become races of a Wild Dog

(C. alpinus), generally, distributed in Central Asia and the Oriental region.

Thus of all the dog tribe India proper can now claim a single indigenous species—

the Bengal Fox (V. bengalensis).

The Brown Bears of the Tian Shan Mountains, the Pamirs, Afghanistan

Waziristan and the North West Himalayas, separated by naturalists in the

past into numerous races and species, are now grouped within the compass of

a single race of the European Brown Bear (Ursus arctos). Distinctions in the

size and shape of the cranium and the teeth, hitherto used by scientists, to

differentiate them have proved, on the examination of more ample material,

to be nothing more than instances of individual variation. Does a Brown

Bear occur in the Shan States? Thomas described the so-called Burmese Brown

Bear (Ursus arctos shanorum) from a specimen alleged to have been obtained in

the Shan States. It was sent to the British Museum by the Indian Museum

and was originally received from a dealer in wild animals. Pocock doubts

the correctness of its origin as no Brown Bear has hitherto been recorded from

any locality near the Shan States. Another question which yet remains to be

cleared up is the existence of a form of the European Brown Bear in Baluchistan.

Blanford described one from Gadwar on the Mekran Coast under the name of

Ursus gedrosianus, but later he considered it to be a ‘brown’ example of the

Himalayan Black Bear (U. torquatus). In the present Volume, it appears as a

race of this bear. The existence of a ‘brown’ bear in the hills of South

Persia, in a terrain similar to the arid hills of the Mekran, has since been

noted, but whether this bear is a racial form of the European Brown Bear

or Himalayan Black Bear remains to be discovered. That the Himalayan Black

Bear may have a coat brown enough to be mistaken for a brown bear is

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOOT, Woll, IXILIUE

evidenced in the example killed in Kashmir and mentioned in the present

Veopietiale: Another specimen of the ‘brown’ type was recently shot in the Nepal

Valley and recorded in the Journal. Our Sloth Bear may also exhibit a brown

or cinnamon phase of colouring. The Maharana of Dewas (Senior) has a large

‘brown’ sloth bear now alive in his Zoo. The Himalayan Bear, the Malay Bear

and the Sloth Bear are now grouped by Pocock in three separate genera.

The new Fauna devotes 10 pages to the Giant Panda to which Blanford made

brief reference at the tail end of his chapter on Bears. Systematists are not

agreed as to whether the Giant Panda is a Bear or a type of Racoon. It has

something of both, and is yet neither the one nor the other. Pocock places it

in a family by itself—the Ailuropodidae—, between the Bears and the Pandas.

The Giant Panda is not found within Indian limits. Pocock suggests that it

may turn up in the near future in the mountains of Upper Burma. If they

are there let us hope they remain undiscovered. Since the introduction of these

interesting animals into European and American Zoos they have become ‘cele-

brities’ and as such have been subjected to intensive hunting which may well

have led to their extermination. The skull of a giant Panda discovered in a

cave in the Ruby Mines District, reveals the one time existence of a Giant Panda

in Burma which, the author regards as a distinct species, exterminated in

comparatively recent times.

Pocock’s revision of the Mustellidae has resulted in the creation

of six as against three sub-divisions of the family with which

Blanford was content. The Ferret Badgers, the Badgers and the Ratels are

now placed in three separate sub-families. The Otters, a distinctive branch of

the Mustellidae have received the treatment necessary to unravel the confusion

of forms and species, under which their exact identity lay buried. The three

Indian species included in Blandford’s work under the single genus Lutra are

now separated in three separate genera. An interesting point connected with. the

distribution of Indian Otters has been brought to light as a result of Pocock’s

study of the specimens collected by the Mammal Survey. The Common Otter (Lutra

lutra) and the Clawless Otter (Amblyonyx) appear to have the same discontinuous

distribution as the Tahr and the Pine Marten, being found in the Himalayas and

nowhere else in India except in the hill ranges of the south. <A similar pheno-

menon characterises the distribution of the Indian Yellow-throated Marten

(Charonia). But why this Marten which lives under most varied con-

ditions in the northern portions of its range is absent from the | whole

of Central India is a riddle which remains yet unanswered. The

Indian Martens placed by Blanford in the same genus as the European

Marten (Martes) are now placed in a separate genus, for which Pocock has

resuscitated Gray’s sub-generic name Charonia. The exact status of our Weasels,

Polecates, Minks and Stoats is as yet unsettled. The British Indian species are

grouped by Pocock in three genera: Mustella to include the Stoats and Weasels,

Putorius for the Polecats, and Vormela for the Marbled or Tiger Pole Cat which

is now admitted, on all hands, to represent a distinct genus. The Ferret

Badgers (Helictis) which have been classified in many genera and species are now

once again grouped in a single genus. Equally confusing have been the varying

conclusions regarding the status of the Hogbadgers, (Arctonyx) of which so many

forms and species have been described. Pocock, accepting the verdict of recent

American authorities, recognizes but a single species represented in the various

areas of its wide range by racial forms, two of which occur within Indian limits.

The Volume ends with the Ratels Melivora. - Here again Pocock sweeps aside

the many so-called species and regards them all as racial forms of a single

species ranging from Africa through Southern Asia to India. ,

For that part of the book dealing with the habits of Indian animals, Pocock

has relied on the writings of various hunters and field naturalists. One misses

the fervour and individuality which Blanford’s experience of the Indian forests

gave to his writings. Nevertheless what has been selected by Pocock for

inclusion in the present Volume, epitomises the essentials of what is known

today. about the habits of Indian Mammals. Much of this knowledge has been

taken from contributions made by members of the Society to the pages of our

Journal, The book is illustrated by a number of plates, many of them the worlx of

the author.

Mr. Pocock is to be congratulated on this outstanding contribution

to the progress of Indian Systematic Mammalogy. His work provides a solid

framework on which students may build. It removes many of the obstacles

REVIEWS 249

which handicapped this study, but a perusal of the work will show that many

problems relative to the status and distribution of Indian Mammals remain to

be cleared up. The desirability of further collections by private individuals has

not been lessened but increased. Series of specimens with records of date and

locality in which they are collected are still required particularly if collected

at different seasons of the year. The collections of the Mammal Survey upon

which the new fauna is largely based, were in any given area, mostly made at

one season of the year and many areas have been left untouched. The private

collector has still before him a wide field for his efforts.

So Fay 12,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—ADAPTIVE COLOURATION. OF DESERT ANIMALS

In a recent paper (Birds of Bahawalptr—Punjab) which was

published in this Journal in December, 1941 (vol. xlii, No. 4,

page 706) the author, Mr. Salim Ali, has written a section on

desert colouration, which is rather misleading and leaves out the

more recent work on adaptive colouration. —

In the struggle for existence which is for ever going on in

Nature, the primary needs of an animal are sustenance and secu-

iity. To achieve these needs Nature has used many methods

varying from the evolution of speed to the chemical warfare in

which some insects are adepts. Of these colouration, adapted to

the needs of the animal, is an important factor, whether it is used

for concealment, warning or as a disguise.

In the desert the main type is concealing or ‘effacing’ coloura-

tion. It has long been a criticism that immobility is necessary

for effective concealment, and as one of the properties of animal

life is movement, how can any colouration be effective? There

can be no doubt that immobility is a very important factor, as it

is known that many animals react almost exclusively to visual

stimuli in the form of movements by their prey, but it is equally

certain that cryptic colouration is not valueless during movement.

It is a principle which is made use of, in a reverse manner, at

every cricket match to make the ball more visible to the batsman.

If white side-screens were not provided the ball would tend to melt

into the background and may even apparently disappear. With a

white background, however, the red ball is perfectly clear for the

whole distance after leaving the bowler’s hand. There are numerous

other practical applications especially at the present time in war-

time camouflage. The modern camouflaged soldier is much less

readily discernible than his scarlet uniformed predecessor, whether

moving or not. Biologically it is best illustrated in the snow-

lands where a small dog is visible when it is chasing the white

arctic hare at distance from which it is impossible for the on-

lookers to see the hare. Of course, at close range, the hare is

visible; even its concealing colouration cannot hide it. But once

the hare gets well ahead of the dog, the latter immediately loses

sight of him, although the hare is still moving.

To summarize, it appears that the vision is attracted to any

colour not in harmony with the background and by movement.

To be perfectly concealed the animal must be immobile and

harmoniously coloured in ‘relation to its surroundings. But it is

equally obvious that, whether. at rest or in motion, an animal

exhibiting concealing or cryptic colouration will obviously be more

difficult to see than one out of harmony with its surroundings,

and this is more obvious at a distance,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES geil

Consequently it is fair to conclude that far from only ‘giving

protection from chance predators’ concealing colouration does give

the animal a good deal of protection. What cannot be overstressed

is that it does not give the animal complete protection, but quite

obviously those with it have an advantage over those without it,

and the latter are eliminated in the ruthless struggle for existence.

The associated subject of colour-perception in animals has

unfortunately been insufficiently explored to make any generalisa-

tions as to the visual effect of protective desert colouration to

animals other than Man. It can be said, however, that our range

of vision shows us a really remarkable adaptiveness to the colour

of their surroundings in several groups of animals. To animals

with a less range of colour vision, the colours that they cannot

perceive will be replaced equa!ly in the colouration of the animal

and of the background, by the next most intense colour compon-

ent of the light, or if the colour is pure by black.

With regard to the origin of this colouration it 1s possible to

speak with more authority. Although I have not seen the original

paper by Col. R. Meinertzhagen’s, from Mr. Salim Ali’s paper

I understand it to claim that the lght pigmentation of desert

animals is due to the large amount of ultra violet radiation which

gets through. Neither this nor any other atmospheric condition,

can account for the cases quoted below, more details of which

can be found in Capt. H. B. Cott’s book. Adaptive Colouration

in Animals. (London, 1940).

On an island in Dublin Bay, Ireland, there is a pale-coloured

form of the house mouse found on the sandhills. The narrow

stretch of water separating the island from the mainland has

prevented any addition to the colony from the mainland, where the

house mouse is of the normal dark colour, and it has now become

colour-adapted to its new habitat.

An even more striking example is found in the Tularosa

Basin, New Mexico. Here dark forms of rodents can be found

jiving on the black larval beds, which are a feature of that locality,

put in the surrounding desert the rodents are light-coloured, and

of the typical desert colouration.

In neither of these cases is it a case of atmospheric conditions,

as both are living under practically the same conditions and yet

are differently coloured. It can only be explained as a direct result

of natural selection eliminating the colour variants unsuitable to

their surroundings, and thus gradually establishing a new colour

race adapted to its environment.

Further any theory of animal colouration should embrace the

whole of the subject, and no atmospheric conditions can account

for the remarkable behaviour of the arctic animals, whereas it

is clearly understood if one considers the needs of the animal for

security and to enable it to obtain its food. Why, for instance,

snould the reindeer remain brown all the year? Why should the

hare change from brown in summer to white in winter? Atmos-

pheric conditions are the same for both, and are the same for

the polar bear which rernain§ white! The reindeer and hare both

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETLI

have a vegetable diet, so the change must be connected with

the security of these animals. And it is so, the reindeer has

no enemies, whereas the unfortunate hare has many, and only

survives with the aid of his concealing colouration. In the case

of the polar bear, the struggle for existence relaxes in summer.

Food is plentiful, but in winter there is famine, and then the

cryptic white colouration assists it immeasurably.

To conclude I must acknowledge my enormous debt to Capt.

H. B. Cott, who first interested me in this subject, and who, if

he were available, is infinitely more competent to deal with this

subject. As far as possible I have followed his new terminology,

but as his book is not available at present, I have been somewhat

handicapped in this respect. Further, I cannot do any _ better

than to refer anyone for a complete account of adaptive colouration

of animals to this work. |

PHILLAUR,

PUNJAB, T. W. BURDON, B.sc.,

Q-1-42. Indian Police

IIl.—THE WOLF (CANIS LUPUS LINN.) IN BALUCHISTAN.

In July 1941 I came across two, wolves at about 11 o'clock

one morning near Anjinai (Kakari Khorasan). I was riding along

a path when they suddenly appeared at a canter, crossed the

path 1oo yards ahead and disappeared into some hills: I followed

on foot but never saw them again. These wolves were about the

size of Alsatians though of leaner and longer proportions. They

were of usual grey colour and markings as far as I could see.

A snowfall occurred in December: three days later two wolf

skins were brought in to Quetta for the usual rewards. One was

of the normal grey colour and measured about 4 ft. 6 ins. length:

the other was a magnificent creamy white one with a faint orange

tinge down the centre of the back and a few black flecks in the

sides and tail. This skin which I have had cured measures 5 ft.

ro ins. in length.

The wolf was one of three which chased an inhabitant of

Jalogir, a village situated 19 miles from Quetta on the Chaman

road, into his house; the man told me that he only just banged

his door in time as the wolves were close on his heels. He then

seized a spade, cautiously opened the door and was confronted

by the white wolf which he knocked on the head with his spade,

whereupon the other two made off.

A heavy fall of snow occurred in January. A few days later

I was informed that three men had been killed and eaten and

one bazaar sweeper badly mauled during the night by a pack

of wolves close to Hindubagh in the Ztiob valley. I have had no

confirmation of this report,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 263

From enquiries made it is apparently very uncommon to find

white wolves in this Province.

The following questions naturally present themselves :—are such

wolves albinos, do some of them turn white in winter or are they

of a different type and distinct from the ordinary wolf? As regards

the first this skin was brought in with the head which had not at

the time been skinned, the eyes did not appear to be pink and

moreover there are black eyebrows over them; the possibility of

its being an albino is therefore precluded. The fact that the skin

of another wolf of the ordinary grey type, size and colour was

brought in on the same day, combined with the fact that white

wolves are so rarely seen in these parts conduces to the _ belief

that the ordinary type does not change to white during the winter.

For want of further information on the subject therefore one is

led provisionally to the conclusion that the large white wolf whose

skin I now have is of a distinct and unusual type to that ordinarily

found in Baluchistan. I should be grateful for any further in-

formation on the characteristics and distribution of such wolves.

24, Lyrron Roap, Io HeSo IMI, TSVAVIEIPY 18

QUETTA, Captain.

January 25, 1942.

[The wolves which inhabit India and Baluchistan are racial forms

of the European Wolf. Within this area two races are recognised :

the Woolly Wolf, Canis lupus chanco, recorded, so far, from the

Western Himalayas, Kashmir and Chitral, and the Small Indian

Wolf, Canis lupus pallipes, distinguished by its smaller size and

its shorter and less luxuriant winter coat. This race occurs in

Baluchistan and the Peninsula of India. Intergradation between

the two races, makes distinction difficult, particularly in an indivi-

dual inhabiting the border lines of the two races. In the winter

coat of the woolly race, the dorsal surface and the tail are, to a

greater or less extent, variegated with black and white or black

and buff contour hairs which are especially profuse on the back

forming a definite ‘saddle’. In the peninsular race the dorsal ‘saddle’

of the winter coat is sandy fawn and heavily blackened by the

black tips of the contour hairs; but the fawn may bleach to grey,

the black be much reduced in extent and intensity. We have

examined the skin sent to us by Capt. Battye which appears to

belong to the smaller race. Its pelage is exceptionally pale, show-

ing a tendency to partial albinism. Eds. |

Iil.—EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE MARBLED

POLE CAT (VORMELA PEREGUSNA GULD.).

I should be very grateful if you could classify the animal

depicted in the 2 enclosed photographs and let me know what it is.

954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

We found it about 3 weeks ago in one garden where presumably

it had been dlasenied by its mother. Its main colouring and

distinguishing marks are :—

1.. Underneath of neck and all down its stomach—jet black

and very velvety fur.

2. Remainder of body including head and tail—black with

cloudy yellow bars.

3. Very pointed upright ears.

4. Small black eyes.

5. Pads and claws rather like a miniature bear. The claws

are definitely not sheathed like the cat tribe’s

It is an excellent climber, is now very tame, answers to its

name and runs all over the garden.

I should say its age is probably now 6 or 7 weeks old, as

its teeth are well through.

It runs with a curious arching of the back motion.

Personally I should say it 1s either a Marten or Weasel. The

local Pathans have a word for it ‘Dalagai’ and say it is fairly

common and lives on rats and snakes.

Parachinar where the animal was found is 6000 feet up and

has a high range behind it which runs up to OWE 15,000 feet

(the Safed Koh).

Kurram Mitta, R. S. JOHNSON,

PaRACHINAR, N.-W.F.P. Major.

May 27, 1942.

[From the photographs submitted, the animal is undoubtedly

a Marbled or Tiger Pole Cat (Vormela peregusna). <A local race

(alpheraky1) is recorded as occurring in within our limits ineAfghani-

stan and Baluchistan. The present record from the N.-W. F. P.

is an extension of its recorded range. Eds. |

=S ON THE PANGOLIN (MANIS

CRASSICAUDATA’).

(With two text figures and a plate).

A female specimen of the Indian Pangolin, Manis crassicaudata,

caught at Mettur was recently (October 1941) received at the

Madras Government Museum. It came to us in a very weak con-

dition, so that it survived in captivity only for a fortnight. The

animal used to produce the characteristic hissing noise. On the

first day when termites were put in the cage, it ate even the clay.

mes a he ; : : : :

Irom the pleistocene deposits of the Karnul caves, fossil relics of a large

species of Manis, M. gigantea, which should have been 4 ft. 6 in. in length,

. . {

have been described by Foote and Lydekker,

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 1.—Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 2

To relieve the congestion in the stomach it was given plantain

fruits, which it ate, but how, we could not observe. Later it

Was given an easing doze of castor oil which had the desired

effect. Even during day time, it lapped up water. When it was

found to languish, on the last two days, it was given minced

mutton, which it ate on the first day, but not on the second.

One night, when an electric torch was flashed into the cage,

the animal was in the act of getting down from a shelf to the

bottom of the cage. The tail was laid flat on the horizontal

plank and as the animal slided down, the tail was bent almost at

a right angle at the edge of the plank. This showed that the

tail can be used as a prehensile organ.

Post-mortem examination showed the cardiac portion of the

stomach to be almost empty except for a few grains of sand

while the pyloric region contained remains of black ants.

The total length of the animal from the tip of the tail to

the snout was 34 ins. and the tail (measured from the anus) was

13 ins. ;

The tongue protruded about g ins. from the mouth. The animal

weighed 84 Ibs.

Another female specimen which was killed by the driver of a

motor lorry at Poyman-malai, twelve miles south of Salem town

was brought to the Museum in a sufficiently good condition for

observations to be made on it (Figs. 1, 2 and 3):

The ear.—In this specimen the scales of the head extend to the

upper border of the ears. The pinna lies vertically across the

space between the margin of the head-scales and the glandular

pad under the neck. The fold of the pinna is 4.5 mm. thick,

quite stiff, and densely covered anteriorly and laterally with downy

hair. This specimen corroborates Pocock’s remark that ‘the ear

of M. crassicaudata is apparently similar to that of M. javanica’.’

In the stuffed specimens, the ear appears to be less prominent.

Claws, etc.—The relative size of the claws of the fore and

hind-feet are respectively 3<4<.2 <1=5, and 3<2<4<1=5.

In the fore-foot, the third and the fourth claws are blunted, and

the fifth has a flat tip. here are two pads on the fore-foot but

these are smooth whitish, in contrast to the dark highly granular

pads of the hind foot. Of the two pads on the fore -foot, the

outer is smaller than the inner one which is 3” x 4”.

Scales of the head, body, limbs, and tail.—There are only

slight variations in the size of the scales in the head, the number

of median scalés varying from ten to twelve.

Only one stuffed specimen in the Presidency College of which the

locality is not known has 15 rows of scales on the body, all the

rest having only 13 rows. A varying number of abdominal scales

are keeled, some having only three scales on each side keeled.

The largest number of keeled abdominal scales, eight on each

side, are found in the Presidency College specimen.

mLKOCuNZ OG len SOC mLO2Anm DOO:

256 JOURNAL,.BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIitt

The lateral scales on the fore-limbs are in continuous lines

with those on the back, while there is a break in continuity

between the latter and the scales on the hind limbs. A number of

scales on the limbs also are keeled, the number of such keeled

scales being as few as four in some, and as many as eight to

ten in others.

The number of median dorsal scales on the body is 14 inches

in one of the specimens and 16 in all the rest. The number of

rows in the broadest part of the tail is 10, except in the Presidency

College specimen which has 12.

The anterior-most ventral scales are not set in a line (I*ig. 2)

and their arrangement is different from that in M. javanica and

M. pentadactyla.

igs. 2, 3 and 4 illustrate the variability of the terminal ventrai

scale of the tail. In fig. 3 the terminal scale and those preceding

it are symmetrically set; they are more symmetrical than in the other

specimens (figs. 2 & 4). The markings on the terminal scale

Fic. 3.—Ventral view of tip of I'ic. 4.—Ventral view of tip of

tail specimen from Mettur tail specimen from Madras

appear to suggest that several scales have been fused together

in its formation. The terminal scale in most specimens shows

evidence of considerable ware.

Of four specimens measured, two have their tails 45% of the

total length, and two about 39%, while the maximum breadth of

the tail is nearly the same in all.. The Presidency College specimen |

has the relatively broadest tail in proportion to its length.

Genilo-anal region (Fig. 2).—The vulva is a slit situated on a

slight eminence enclosed except in front by a puckered ridge,

within which is the anal aperture, immediately behind the genital

eminence. The mammae are pectoral, extremely small, and tipped

dark. senha

The throat gland.—In the specimen from Salem District the

throat gland is very prominent. It is thick, light pink in colour,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 257

and smooth in contrast to the surrounding skin which is dark

brownish and coarse to the touch.

GOVERNMENT Museum, A, AIYAPPAN.

MADRAS,

March 4, 1942.

V.—WHY “RED-BILLED’ BABBLER?

Can any one exp.ain why this attractive little bird bears the

apparently very inappropriate name of the Red-billed Babbler

| Stachyridopsis pyrrhops| (Blyth)? I recorded the soft parts of

several specimens very carefully when in India and although the

iris 1S marked as crimson in the male and red in the female (and

as deep red-brown by my friend Mr. A. E. Jones) I find that the

bill has been noted as ‘dark brown, lower mandible livid’ or variations

on that description.

Jerdon (B. of I. i. p. 21) gives the bill as ‘sordid sanguine’.

Was this a mistake and was the English name based solely on

that mistake? or is it possible that the bill changes colour in the

breeding season? My specimens referred to above were collected

In winter.

(ALDBEC HOUSE, HUGH WHISTLER.

BATTLE,

November 22, 1941.

VIL—EXTENSION OF RANGE OF RUFOUS-NECKED

SCIMITAR BABBLER (POMATORHINUS RUFICOLLIS

HODGS).

It might interest you to know that I came on a small party

of 3 or 4 Rufous-necked Scimitar Babblers (Pomatorhinus ruficollis)

No. 125 of F. B. J. rst edition at a height of 6,900 feet near

Duran Forest Rest House about 18 to 20 miles south-east of

Almora of which I shot one. The rufous feathers on the neck

formed practically a complete collar round the neck. I cannot

find this species as having been recorded west of Nepal before.

Would you let me know if its appearance where I found it, was

unusual. The party of these birds was in thickish undergrowth

about 10 feet from the ground when I came across them and the

one I shot was at the moment hanging upside down at the end of

a branch after the manner of tits.

Gonpa, U.P. | We day Tall IPD,

September 30, 1941. Dist. Traffic Supdt.,

[Bo (8 INg 1% dxtb0p

2&8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

|The range of the Rufous-necked Scimitar Babbler (P. ruficollis

ruficollis) is given in the Fauna (2nd edn.) as “Nepal to Eastern

Assam; north of the Brahmaputra.’ Eds. |

VII.—A VISIT TO MASKAN AND AUHA JSLANDS IN

Tab ePERSTAN GUE ORE SU NVENIE es VU Wee auinmen@ie

I had some days previously consulted one Ibrahim al Fauderi,

the light keeper and fisherman of Maskan, (pronounced Maschan)

as to the best time to pay a visit to Auha Island, as I wanted

to see the birds nesting there. He told me that last year his

sons had visited the island on the 23rd of the Arabic month

(Ra-biuth-thani) and had collected some 150 eggs which they had

sold in the Kuwait market.

‘The Pleiades will set on the 25th of the month,’ he said, ‘and

if you could come about the 21st the weather will be favourable

for the expedition.’

I asked him to come again and see me a few days before it

was time to go to enable me to make final arrangements. He

came and saw me on the morning of May 5th and said that he

had heard that his sons were proposing to go to Auha to

collect eggs, but that he had forbidden them to do so as the ‘Khatun’

wished to go with them. So he advised an early departure.

All plans were made to leave Kuwait on Thursday morning

early, the 7th May. I arranged to take with me our Badawin

servant Salim al Muzeyin, who at one time had been a pearl diver,

and his niece Amsha. A small 30 lb. tent, a camp bed and

bedding, two local made rugs and a couple of cushions was. all

my kit consisted of. As a present to the family, whose guest

I was going to be, I took half a sack of Karachi rice, half a sack

of flour, one wagiyeh of “Dehen’, one wagiyeh of coffee, and a

maund of firewood.

Early Thursday morning the sailing boat came into the harbour

in front of our house in Kuwait, and the tide being high we.

soon loaded up our kit and were off on a_ nice snesitenlly bneeze™

This breeze veered slightly two hours or. so later, and we had

to sail away to the aren west of the island. We _ eventually

arrived at Maskan at 11.30 am. in a very hot steamy atmosphere.

Ibrahim’s home, a collection of small low stone built huts, stands

on the west sfhveri while close to these is the navigation white

light which is hoisted on a mast every evening at sunset. One

tamarisk tree some 20 yards away provides Shade for his cows

and sheep during the noon-day sun.

The island is about thirty acres in size, and contains two good

cement water tanks which are filled up from the rain water each

year. There is good grazing, and brushwood~ in the Shape of

‘Shinan’ (Anabasis setifera) which cover the island. These bushes

are broken down—not pulled up by the roots—each autumn, when

they are dry, and collected as firewood. Lach spring and summer

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 259

the bushes shoot out again giving a very nice green appearance

to the island. |

Ibrahim’s livelihood. is. fish which he and his sons catch in

their traps and bring to the Kuwait market.

His family were made up of the wife, three grown up married

sons with their wives and small children, his. married daughter

and three small daughters of five, eight, and ten years old. The

ladies had a private sitting out place or ‘arish’, on the edge of

the shore and near their house, rigged up from spare boat masts

and poles, and roofed with the Reed fish trap and Iraqi mats.

I pitched my tent just beyond this, and sat by day under the

shade of the ‘arish’ on a mattress and cushions. Except for an

hour or so before noon there was either a south or west wind

blowing and it was delightfully cool for this time of year. Two

nice Cows came in to be milked at early noon, then rested under

the tree till about 3 p.m. when they were milked again before

wandering off to graze or pick up any odd dried fish which lay

about. At sunset each cow was tied up and given a meal of

date stones or a few dates, which they ate out of the empty shell

of a large turtle. Some eleven sheep and goats also came in at

dusk and were tethered up for the night under the tree.

~The women of the household cooked me a most delicious lunch

of rice, both sweet and plain, a variety of fish cooked in several

different ways, dates cooked in honey, as well as a bowl of leben.

For supper more rice and fish and an omelette of pigeon’s eggs

with butter sauce, and as an aid to digestion a glass of water

flavoured with the pollen of the male date palm.

From midnight onwards a south wind blew and there was a

very heavy dew. It was not possibie to sail to Auha the follow-

ing morning as | had hoped. So another day was spent lazing

about on the island during which |] went bird nesting with the

children, and watched the men make their fish traps out of new

reeds from Iraq, while others beat. out the stems of the fruit of

the date palm for rope to bind them with. This fibre..is known

as ‘Assu’.. These fish traps have to be continually renewed as

storms break them easily. The fish caught were mostly ‘Zobeidi’,

‘Subaity’ Sha’am’, .at the time of my visit, though in the fish traps

were usually as many as a dozen large stinging ray and _ their

young ones. Ibrahim and his sons had at one time or another

all been stung in many places on their legs by these vicious crea-

tures and had been laid up for months at a time. Apparently

the sting of the young ray can poison one as much if not. more

than that of the larger ones.

After dinner on the first and sechud evenings of my visit the

lady of the house sat with Amsha anid myself outside my tent and

told us stories of the desert.

She was originally a Badawin girl, she said, her father being

of the Shammar tribe and her mother an Aniziyeh, and :she was

brought up at the village of Aiyun close to Hail.

| ‘In those troublous times,’ she said, ‘everyone carried rifles

and the men would not think of going to the mosque. to pray

without one. Even girls were all taught to shoot and ride a mare’.

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

‘Round about Hail, it was very hilly country and many deep caves

existed in the hills. There was always a danger to our flocks and

herds as panthers and hyaenas would come out at nights and try

to steal our goats and sheep’.

‘My mother told me the story ‘of how when I was only a tiny

baby of two months I was nearly carried off by a panther. My

father had gone to the mosque to pray at sunset, while she

accompanied by myself, then a tiny child of only two months,

returned home with the flocks. When my father left the house

he had forgotten to fasten the latch and, as we entered our yard,

a panther which was inside made one spring and attempted to

seize me from my mother’s arms. His teeth badly bit my wrists

and fingers but my mother uttered such piercing screams that

the men came rushing out from the mosque, rifles in hand _ pre-

pared to meet raiders or an enemy. When my mother explained

that it was a panther, immediate chase was given, but it was

too late and the animal escaped to the hills. The scars are still

on my hands, in the morning I will shew them to you.’ She

did.

Our hostess also told us that somewhere in the hills, in one

of these caves of her childhood there lived a fierce woman who was

suspected of being a man-eater. Some persons had at different

times mysteriously dissappeared, and there were rumours of a

kind of witch or vampire woman having been seen after dark,

who was out to kill and eat the unwary.

Ibn Rashid of Hail was determined to put an end to these

rumours, and if there was any truth in them, he would set his

guards the task of capturing this woman.

For months and months many of his mounted men were sent

out by night into the hills, and surely one night the report came

that the woman had been seen stealthily emerging from a certain

deep cave. At once a strong guard of armed mounted men was

sent to the spot and the cave duly surrounded.

As this monster creature returned to her hiding place before

dawn, she was set upon and captured, bound and brought before

Ibn Rashid. |

She was a terrible looking woman with large head and wild

tangled hair and fangs like the fangs of an animal.

She spoke in a wild language which the men could hardly

understand, and confessed that on one or two occasions she had

eaten human flesh and blood. She could not say where she had

come from or who she was, but explained that she was half man

half woman—a hermaphrodite.

Before passing the death sentence, Ibn Rashid wished for

evidence of her having killed and eaten human beings, and

ordered her to take his men to her hiding place in the hills. The

armed guards, on reaching the outskirts of the town, killed her

and buried her as per previous arrangement.

A visir TO AUHA ISLAND.

At 3.30 a.m. on Saturday morning, May oth, I was awakened

by Ibrahim calling outside my tent. ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261

‘The wind is from the west, make ready and we will go’.

By 4 a.m. we were all aboard and sailing towards Sa’ad and

Sa’ida the two ancient mounds or shrines on the south-west point

of Falaicha. Our journey to Auha had begun.

Auha Island is a small island with a sandy shelving beach on

its north side.

It is about ten acres in size and lies off the south-east corner

of Falaicha Island where there is a sand spit known as the ‘Dewan’.

‘Kharur Auha’ is the name given to the deep channel, about one

and a half miles in width, which divides Falaicha from Auha.

We reached Auha in our sailing boat—a Balam—and landed

on the sandy side of the island, i.e. the northern most point at

g a.m.

A flock of birds were sitting on the shore, and they rose as

we approached. As far as I could see these were terns and gulls,

though two were of a much larger type of gull, with head and

wings black and a grey back. After these birds got up and gave

the alarm, a large flock of about 100 Crab Plover also got up

from the centre of the island, followed shortly after by another

large flock. They twisted and turned once or twice before flying

out to sea where they broke up into smaller packs of ten or a

dozen birds each.

These smail flocks returned and flew round about at intervals.

Having landed on the shore we found two large eggs close to-

gether and immediately above the high water mark. They were

each in a shallow depression with a few splashes of white drop-

pings round the edge of the nest. The colour of one egg was

pinky buff, streaked with bluey-grey, and blotched and dotted

with dark brown to reddy-brown, measurement 2.58x 1.69. The

colour of the other was creamy white with very faint blue-grey

blotches and .a few brown dots, lines and blotches. Measurement

25 7Xel- 77s ,

The Arabs called them the eggs of ‘Tarachi’, and they pro-

bably belonged to the two large birds we had seen get up from

the shore.

As we walked up on to the island and approached the brown

bumpy patch which was the nesting place of the Crab Plover,

single birds would come up out of the holes, run a few yards

with outstretched neck, and fly off. One large white egg was

lying at the entrance to one of the holes, and another, slightly

broken and quite fresh some way off. The sailors then began to

collect the eggs, a tiring and hot task.

The mouth of the holes was about six inches across, and it was

possible for a man’s arm to be put in easily. The egg lay at

the far end of the burrow, which was sometimes as much as

four and half feet long dug obliquely in the ground, others were

slightly shorter. Every burrow did not contain an egg, but roughly

one in three only. The Crab Plover’s egg is very large for the

size of the bird, and white. They vary slightly in size as will be

seen from measuremests taken,—2.57X1.82, 2.62X1.88, 2.64%

1.78, 2.53 1.55. The usual number of eggs laid was one, but

very occasionally two were found in one burrow.

‘

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The Arab name for these birds is ‘Kumairi’ (pronounced Chu-

wairi). They say the bird does not eat fish, but lives on small

worms and tiny crabs which they pick up along the shore. Hence

the eggs have not a fishy taste and are much sought after by

the Arabs. ee

I tried to shoot one of these Plover in order to identify them

exactly but failed. My 16-bore cartridges were old and the heat

made things difficult. I winged one bird which unfortunately fell

into the sea and we could not get it. Its mate at once separated

from the small pack and flew over it and around about it for some

time uttering a plaintive cry, until it swam out to sea.

Ibrahim and I left the three men ‘collecting eggs and wandered

across to the south side of the island. Here we found the nests

of what the Arabs call “Zergi’, “Ab al Khasaif’ and ‘Sultani’.

Each nest was similar, nearly flat built of dry twigs and about

nine or ten inches across. They were perched on the top of low

bushes of ‘Hamdh’ some twelve to fourteen inches from the

ground. The eggs were- bluey-green with an occasional splash

of chalky white. In each of four nests we found one egg, with

three eggs in a fifth one. One nest was placed on the top of some

stones at the foot of a cairn, and another on the top of an old

navigation iron post which lay on the ground, having some years

previously rusted through and fallen, leaving only about ten feet

of upright post standing.

Along this shore on the rocks we saw the owners of the nests,

some appeared to be smallish black herons, and others pure white

herons or egrets of the same size. According to Ibrahim the

white ones were male and female ‘Ab al Khasaif’, and the blackish

ones were called ‘Zergi’. The ones he called ‘Sultani’ had a sort

of crest of long feathers down the head and neck. We found one

broken egg lying on the ground close to a nest, and Ibrahim said

that the birds broke them on purpose if they saw a person coming.

The burrows of the Crab Plover of last year and the previous

year were to be seen in two other spots on the island. Again,

according to Ibrahim, each year the birds dug new burrows some

little way away from the old ones. The old holes were all closed

and appeared to be filled in, probably by wind and weather. No

plants or bushes were growing on them, although round about

were bushes of Hamdh, Tahnia, (Scrophularia) Shinan and a

Mesembryanthemum. :

Altogether seventy-four Crab Plover eggs were collected, be-

sides seven Zergi and the two large Gull’s eggs (Tarachi).

As we moved off to the boat the small packs of Plover began

to return and settle’ on the shore some little way away until a

large flock was collected, when they ran up the beach all together,

then some 100 or so in a body flew to their nests, followed by

more and more. —

Ibrahim described them to me as having black legs about seven .

inches long, body all white except for a black streak on the back

of the head and neck. I noticed also that they had some dark

on their wings when flying, and their legs stretched out behind

them. , ee)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 263

He said that the previous year, he and his sons had taken

seven birds on their nests out of the holes. They were only about

the size of a pigeon, but good eating. One bird had laid an egg

after reaching his house at Maskan. |

The eggs when.cooked were very tasty though the white was

tough. Some of the eggs collected this year were very slightly

incubated. ;

Last year there had been many nests of Terns on the shore

which he called ‘Hamr Mangar’ (the red beaked one) and ‘Hamr

Maraikh’, and the ‘Kuwairi’ were more numerous than this year.

We left the island at about 11-30 a.m. getting back to Maskan

on a strongish south wind at 2-30 p.m.

Small black-headed Terns flew continuously round the boat

diving into the sea after the small fish which scattered away from

the bows. Only some dives were successful and more often. the

birds caught nothing. Suddenly two. Terns overhead were

attacked by a single larger dark speckled bird with pointed tail’,

which appeared to be endeavouring to catch and kill them.’ They

twisted and turned screeching all the while with the larger bird

after them. Suddenly the attacker seemed to take no more inter-

est. and flew quietly: off low down on the water and settled some

way off. Ibrahim then explained that this peculiar bird lived on

the droppings of Terns. It came after them and attacked and

frightened them until out of pure nervousness they did as wanted,

and the larger bird caught this and ate the dropping in mid air

and flew off. Although I witnessed these attacks twice it was

all so quick that it was impossible to see exactly what happened.

Another theory is that the Terns vomited up the small fish they

had just caught and this other bird caught and devoured it in

mid air. -

NOTE.

On Auha Island there were many dead small birds which looked

like Martins—white breast browny-grey upper parts—and a few

swallows.

On Maskan Island) many of the larger species of Bee-eater

with orange and brown colouring were being picked up exhausted

by the children. They were not nesting: there.

The remains of a ‘Hubara’ (Lesser Bustard) and many dead

martins and swallows were also lying about, obviously they had

been overcome with thirst and exhaustion while migrating. I

saw some small Chiff-chatfs drinking the dew from the ‘Shinan’

bushes-in the early morning.

» There was a heavy dew on-each of the three. nights I spent .on

the island. I noticed some other varieties of migrating birds pass-

ing> through on their northern migration, but I was not able to

identify: them. Six Curlew were seen-on the shore.

—_—————

..* Ibrahim said the-bird had a ‘forked tail like a swallow, but I could not

determine this properly.

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIITI

Birps’ NESTS FOUND ON MASKAN ISLAND. (7-5-42).

(a) The Crested Lark, ‘Goba’, were nesting. I found one

small nest under a “Hamdh’ bush with three eggs. The nest

was completely made of dry ‘Samaa’ grass and very neat. I also

found a similar nest under a bush but very small and only about

one and a half inches across, but with no eggs. The larks sang

each morning and evening.

(b) The Green Bee-eater ‘Kadhari’ had some fifteen to

twenty nests all in burrows. One small white almost spherical

ege was picked up at the entrance to one of these tiny burrows.

They are dug obliquely into the ground for quite ten feet.

were usually on the dry hard patches of earth away from the shore,

and were just a circular depression lined with chips of dried mud

and pieces of broken sea shell. I found two nests containing

three eggs and one nest with one egg. One bird was seen run-

ning ahead of us trailing her wing and taking a zigzag shoreward

course. She probably had young, but I could not find them.

_ (d) The small Terns, ‘Juwaida’ were also nesting and flew

over-head screeching. One nest under a ‘Hamdh’ bush contained

one egg slightly more pointed than (c) above was possibly a

Tern’s, though the nest was similar.

Kuwalt, VIOLET DICKSON,

PERSIAN GULF,

May 7, 1942.

VUI.—BLACK MAHSEER.

(With a plate)

With reference to your letter of the 14th January; when I

originally wrote to you on the subject of Black Mahseer which led

to the publication of an article in the Journal (vol. xlii, p. 804 et seq.)

by Dr. Sundar Lal Hora, I did not realize the importance which

was likely to be attached to photographs of these fish. I therefore

only sent a picture of one caught by me. Luckily, however, I had

photographed all four Black Mahseer caught by me and mentioned

by Dr. Hora in his article. A photograph of one was published in

his article and I now enclose those of the other three.

The 113 lb. fish caught at Ukiam on the Umkhri river in Kamrup

District on the 20th December 1937 is illustrated in Plate I, Fig. 1.

This fish was caught in gin clear, almost still, water and came rush-

ing out from behind a rock to take a brass backed and silvery

fronted 2 inch hog backed spoon, mounted with two flying trebles.

In the photograph, the head looks something like a Boka. This is,

however, due to the background and to the tension on the lower

jaw by the spring balance on which the fish was being held at the

time, |

PLATE Tf,

Journ. Bembay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 266

Plate I, Fig. 2 illustrates the 18 lb. Black Mahseer obtained on the

Syom river on the 21st November 1935. The other fish in this

photograph is a Boka of 54 Ibs. caught earlier in the day on the

same river. This black specimen was caught in a still backwater

and, curiously enough, long after the sun had gone off the water,

which was in deep shade at the time in contrast to the conditions

of bright sun usually necessary to catch good fish in those waters.

Plate I, fig. 3 is a photograph of the smallest Black Mahseer I have

so far caught or seen. This fish was obtained at Rongdoi near the

confluence of the Lohit and Brahmaputra rivers on the 29th January

1937 and was hooked in very deep water on a copper backed and

silvery fronted 2 inch hogbacked spoon. Immediately to the right

of the Black Mahseer is a Boka and the other two are also Mahseer,

but of the usual colouration. The contrast in colour is very well

illustrated between the black and the ordinary type. This black

specimen was caught, incidentally, in water where the river bed

consisted of light grey-coloured sand over an area of many miles

and the spot was thirty miles from the point where the Brahmaputra

leaves the Abor Hills for the open plains and similarly over sixty

miles from where the Lohit emerges from the Mishmi Hills. So

any question of protective colouration can safely be ruled out in this

instance, unless the fish was migrating; but this, however, was very

unlikely having regard to the date on which it was caught.

Re Haare AUN SON SRSHORGESSo.

SHILLONG, Indian Police.

ASSAM,

February 17, 1942.

IX.—BLACK MAHSEER.

Owing to destruction by white-ants of most of my fishing diaries

while on leave in 1939, I am afraid that I have very few original

records to which I can refer but speaking from memory, I cannot

think of any occasion upon which I have caught a black mahseer

and in fact, the suggestion is strange to me.

I have, however, fished extensively in certain rivers which flow

through limestonie formations. In such rivers, as is well known,

you get extremely deep pools and clefts which very frequently har-

bour big fish. In such rivers I have often seen, what I took to be,

extremely dark if not black fish, and on quite a number of occasions,

I have seen such fish break the surface of the water, either because

they came up from the depths to seize something or because they

were in shallows. In fact I can remember on one occasion when

a fish about 14 Ibs. in weight was hiding behind a stone and plung-

ing out in pursuit of food. Every time he came out I could see

a big black back. I caught him by trickling’ the spoon past the

rock and after a long fight I got him out; but when I got him in

the sunlight he was not black but a very dark blue.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

For five years I fished in. the upper waters of the Yunzalin

River where the fish were all dark blue in colour. Many of these

from the upper waters were so dark that until you had them in

the bright sunlight you would have said they were black but the

fact remains that, taken out of water, they were all seen to be

various shades of blue. My impression is that as we got higher

up among the limestone gorges the fish became darker and darker

and even the fins’ themselves were deep blue. In no instance did

I ever come across a really black mahseer. As I have said, in the

water the fish do look black. When taken out of water, if seen in

a poor light, they would also be black but seen in strong sunlight,

the blue colour shows up very prominently. In these fish too, the

belly was extremely white. The fins were dark blue sometimes and

at other times, only a powder blue.

I am afraid that, although I have spent nearly 30 years fishing

all over Burma, I cannot throw any particular light on this problem.

As a personal opinion I should say that the black mahseer is a

case of melanism pure and simple. The examples I have quoted

from the limestone rivers seem to show that where you got fish

from these high narrow gorges of the water to which the sun can

only -penetrate for a very few hours out of the 24, the fish are

naturally very dark in colour; but I have certainly never experienced

anything in the nature of definite black strains among mahseer ;

whenever I have taken these dark fish out of water and examined

them in the sunlight I have always found that they were really blue

in colour, I am inclined to be a little sceptical about the existence

of black mahseer. I suppose that one would be liable to get

examples here and there, but anything in the nature.of a wholly

black mahseer, I have never found or even heard of.

I note the description of black mahseer says that: it has little

white belly scales. This was never the case with any of the dark

blue fish from the limestone gorges. The whole of the belly was

absolutely white, and I can. recollect no occasion upon which the

colour was blue all over. I feel sure that if I had ever come across

such a fish I should have remembered such an unusual departure

from the normal. I may add that my record shows that I caught

several hundreds of fish every year from the upper reaches of the

Yunzalin River and I was on it for 5 years; so I saw a good many

blue fish.

RANGOON, M: O. TANNER) ©:8B-E:,

_ September 1941. D.I.G. of Police.

xX —CAN HILSA™ BE -“DAKEN, Wale ROD WANDS Ic liNii:

As is well known the Hilsa (Hilsa ilisha Ham.) which are marketed

all over Bengal and Assam are caught in nets of a somewhat curious

shape and modus operandi. While watching fishermen at work with

these nets I have often wondered if it is possible to catch this fish with

a rod and line, since a Hilsa straight from the river into frying pan

is hard to beat. Can you let me have any information as to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267

whether it can be caught on a rod, please, and if so with what

bait? .

SHILLONG, | Re ey Nin ON Sh baRJEsSen

ASSAM, Indian Police.

Pebruary 3, 1942.

XI.—ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN FISH. IN

TRAVANCORE.

All through the history of civilisation we find mention of Game

fishing. This form of fishing was common even at the time of

the ancient Greeks and Romans and is mentioned in many of their

writings. . Fishes for game purposes have been introduced in al!

countries at all times in history, and in more recent years with

the application of Science to fisheries and their developments, they

have been introduced for commercial and other divers purposes.

The earliest and probably the first acclimatization ever recorded

was that effected by the Romans at the time of Emperor Tiberius,

when Scarus from the Carpathian Sea was introduced into the Ostian

and Campanian shores.*

As early as the eleventh century Carp from Central Asia was

introduced and acclimatized in European countries,” and by the

middle of the nineteenth century acclimatization had become a

common thing in all countries of the world. At one time it was

held that introduction of exotic fish into countries was harmful

to the indigenous species. Years of experience gained in all parts

of the world have proved otherwise. Even inter-zonary acclimati-

zations have been carried out with remarkable success. A well

known instance of acclimatization is the introduction of European

and American Salmonidae into New Zealand in the year 1864.°

This country, in spite of its unique flora and fauna and also its

magnificent system of water ways, had no indigenous fish of

commercial or sporting importance. But now certain rivers and

streams there teem with trout. American fishes have been intro-

duced into the Argentine Republic (1904) and then in European

countries like Italy and Austria,* and even in the United Kingdom.

Gourami, a native fish of the Malay Archipelago, was introduced into

many countries such as Mauritius, Cayenne, Australia (1864), the

" Radcliffe, W. (1926)—‘Fishing from the Earliest Times’, pp. 159-61. (London,

1926). | et

i Wehbe W. O. (1883)—The Fisheries Exhibition Literature, vol. xi,

part iv, pp. 489-97.

* Ayson, L. F. (1908)—Bull. of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. xxviii,

part ii, pp. 968-73.

* Ayson, L. F. (1908)—Bull. of the U. S,. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. xxviii,

part li, Pp. 949-54.

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Philippines (1927) and Ceylon (1908).' These are but a few of the

well known instances from other parts of the world. In India,

too, instances of such introduction are not wanting. Brown trout

and rainbow trout were introduced in the rivers of Punjab (1909)’

and in the Nilghiris in Madras (1866 .* Gourami from the Malay

Archipelago, and Gambusia, a species of Top Minnow from America,

have also been introduced in different parts of India. Attempts

at the introduction of ‘Barbados Miuillions’, however, have not

been successful.*

In Travancore, the importance of game fishing was realised

only by a small percentage of the population, namely Europeans,

mostly resident planters of the high range hills. The Department

of Fisheries, which had until recently been a purely administrative

body was amalgamated with the recent scientific research section

only a couple of years ago. Consequently, all attempts at acclima-

tization hitherto have been undertaken by other agencies such as

the Munnar Game Association and the Department of Public

Health. The resident planters of the State took the initiative by

introducing trout into the country and their attempts are still being

continued with vigour.” Their enterprise has cost a good amount

of money and all the necessary funds have been raised through

private donations.

TROUT.

Acclimatization of foreign fish in this State dates back to

1906, when the introduction of Trout was first attempted by the

Munnar Game Association. The Kannan Devan Hills, at the

north-eastern extremity of Travancore, having an _ altitude

ranging for 4o0oo to 8000 feet above sea level and forming

a part of the main chain of the Western Ghats, were selected for .

this purpose. This part of the country lies roughly between 77°

and 77° 20 East Longitude.and 9° 55/ and 10° 20! North Latitude

and is absolutely mountainous and covered over with evergreen

forests and mountain slopes converted into extensive Tea Planta-

tions. Its numerous valleys are strewn with small rivers, streams,

waterfalls and lakes which are fed by the heavy annual rainfall

ranging from 113 to 153 inches.

Between 1906 and 1916, eggs of Brown Trout (Salmo fario)

were brought down four or five times from Scotland at great

cost, hatched out at Chundavurrai and planted in the iiss. and

streams of Kundale Valley (6118 ft.) and Nymakad (6043 ft.)

* Roxas, H. A. and Umali, A. F. (1937)—The Philippine Journal of Science,

vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 433-82.

2 Report on the Trout cultural operations in the Punjab and Native States

under its control for the period Oct. 1912 to March 1914.’ (Lahore, 1914.)

* Molesworth and Bryant, J. F.—Journ. of Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,

vol. xxvii, pp. 898-910.

“ Prashad B. and Hora, S. L. (1936)—Records of the Malarial Survey of

India, 6, iv, pp. 631-48.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 269

within the Kannan Devan Hill Concessions. In 1916, eggs of

Rainbow Trout (Salmo irideus) were obtained from the Govern-

ment hatchery at Ooty, through the late Mr. H. C. Wilson, Pisci-

cultural Expert to the Government of Madras and planted in the

above streams. Brown Trout were found to thrive with great

difficulty and specimens weighing upto six pounds have been

taken from Munnar stream and the Eraviculam stream in Hamil-

ton’s Plateau (Eravimala).' This latter place which is at an

altitude of about 7800 feet above sea level and has a very low

temperature proved a suitable breeding place for this fish, and

in 1918 some of them were observed to breed.

In order to protect the fish in the above areas from poachers

and other destructive agencies, the Travancore Government at

the request of the High Range Angling Association, closed in

1921, all the streams and lakes within the limits of the aforesaid

Concessions for fishing at all times of the year except under a

licence issued by the Commissioner of Deviculam in consultation

with the Secretary of the said Angling Association.

The attempts at acclimatization of trout between 1906 and

1916 were, however failures, and between the years 1921 and

1932 there was a lull in the attempts. In 1932 on the initiative

of some of the planters, a few hundred Rainbow trout fry were

successfully brought by lorry from the Avalanche hatchery in the

Niighiris and liberated in a number of sluggish ponds at Chitta-

vurrai (7096 ft.). Though these ponds served as _ temporary

abodes for these fish, they. proved in the long run to be quite

unsuitable, owing to the lack of clear running water and enough

moving space. The fry showed a tendency to abnormal increase

in weight and after the first year ceased rising to the fly and

subsequently died. Thus these attempts also proved futile.

In 1933, a hatchery was constructed at Arivikad (6057 ft.),

and between 1933 and 1937, the Deviculam lake and the Loch

Finlay were repeatedly stocked with trout fry. In the former

lake the introduction proved quite a success although there was

no evidence of the trout breeding during that period. Several

good catches of fish were recorded, the heaviest taken being about

4 Ibs. in weight. Unfortunately, owing to unsuitable location

the hatchery proved a failure in spite of the earnest efforts of the

authorities concerned to resuscitate it, and was subsequently closed

down in 1937. The stock fish in the hatchery ponds, about 170

in number, were liberated in the streams of Hamilton's Plateau,

which had by then been definitely proved to be an ideal home

for these fish. i

In December 1940, definite proof of the breeding of trout in

the waters of Hamilton’s Plateau was obtained. As it was

thought that further stocking was necessary, 10,000 eggs (Rain-

bow trout) were purchased from the hatchery at Nuwara Eliya in

Ceylon and were brought by ‘plane to Trichinopoly and thence

There are conflicting views about this in the reports of the Hon. Secretaries

of the High Range Angling Association then and now,

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

by car to Thaliar. From the latter place the chest containing

the ova was brought in slow stages to Hamilton’s Plateau, where

the ova were hatched out by the ‘riverbox’. method, and the 5,000

fry thus obtained planted in the waters of the Plateau. At present

there is ample evidence to show that a mafority of these have

come through to maturity. Again in January 1941, a second

consignment of 5,000 eggs of the same fish was brought by ’plane

from Ceylon. But this time many delays and difficulties in trans-

port resulted in a high percentage of mortality. Nevertheless, the

rest of the lot was hatched out by the same method at Rajamallay

(7738 ft.), and the 1,300 fry obtained were planted at Devikulam

and Chittavurrai. A hatchery which has now been completed

(Nov. 1941) at Rajamallay will begin to function as soon as the

ova ordered from Ceylon have been received.

~ Trout acclimatization in Travancore is still in an experimental

stage and may take some more years before it reaches perfection.

However, the results of past experiments have been encouraging,

and the Associations concerned in this enterprise are optimistic

about their success in the near future. Based on the results of

‘plants’ of fry made in the past couple of years, it is anticipated

that in 1943 the High Range Angling Association will be in a

pesition to take ova from its own stock of fish, with the result

that future importations wil] decrease.

TOP-MINNOW.

In 1937, the Department of Public Health introduced into this

country, a species of American Top-Minnow, named Gambusia

affinis (Baird and Girard) for malaria control work. This’ small

viviparous, cyprinodont fish is a native of the south-eastern Atlantic

coast of the United States of America, extending as far north as

Maryland, and is usually found in great numbers in the shallow

margins of lakes, ponds and streams in the tide water regions,

where there is aquatic or semi-aquatic vegetation, and also in

shallow ditches and surface drains. On account of its high effi-

ciency as a destroyer of mosquito larvae thereby controlling malaria

and yellow fever, it has been introduced into many parts of the

world. In this State, this fish was introduced from Mysore, where

it was brought from Italy in 1928 by Dr. B. A. Rao.

The first consignment of Gambusia was brought to Travancore

in February 1937, but due to the sudden change of temperature

and the imperfect transport arrangements, most of these died soon

after arrival here. Onty about hundred and_ fifty specimens

survived. About 600 to 800 fish, which were brought with -more.

care a second time in July 1938, were introduced into the rearing

ponds of a hatchery constructed at Perungadavila, an important

malarial centre, three miles away from the town of Neyyattinkara.

They have happily acclimatized themselves to the climatic and

other conditions in this country and are at present thriving well

in three specially constructed rearing ponds at the above mentioned

place. The District Health Unit at Neyyattinkara was experiment-

ing on the efficiency. of. this fish as a destroyer of -Anopheline

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 271

larvae under local conditions, and finding its utility in limited

bodies of water free from vegetation, has stocked all the wells

in the malarial districts with a limited number of fish. The Health

Unit is contemplating the extension of this scheme to other malarial

centres as well,

(GOURAMI.

The Department of Marine Biology and Fisheries has now

undertaken to introduce the Giant Gourami, (Osphronemus gourami

Lacépéde), into the State, and the preliminary arrangements such

as the construction of the pond system, etc., are in progress. It

is proposed at present only to experiment on the possibilities of

acclimatizing the fish over here, and later on the basis of these

experiments it is proposed to launch out a commercial project.

This fish, aS mentioned in an earlier part of this note, is a native

of the Malay Archipelago and is essentially vegetarian and therefore

neither predaceous nor cannibalistic. Being a labyrinthine fish, it

is able to carry on aerial respiration as well as to resist considerable

pollution of water. On account of such simple habits and extreme

adaptability, it has earned the name of ‘poor man’s fish’. It was

introduced into Madras in 1886 and there is no reason why it

Should not bé a success here too. Dr. A. W..C. YT. Herre,’ of

Stanford University, California, who had done a lot of work on

this particular fish, was on a visit to this country in January 1941,

and when consulted on this subject remarked that the topographical

and meteorological conditions of this country being almost identical

with that of the Philippines; acclimatization of Gourami is bound to

be a success. If this proves correct, it may enable us, to a

considerable extent, to make such a cheap and nutritious article

of food as fish, accessible even to the poor living in the interior

of the country. ,

In concluding, I have to express my deep indebtedness to Mr.

Paitin skorancitsy of the: Kannan Devan Hills. Produce Ltd, “and

to Mr. W. S. S. Mackay, Hon. Secretary of the High Range

Angting Association for kindly placing at my disposal some valuable

data regarding trout in the High Range, and also to Dr. C. C. John,

Professor of Marine Biology and Fisheries for kindly going

through the manuscript of this note and making necessary

corrections.

UNIVERSITY OF TRAVANCORE, R, GOPINATH, 8.4.;,.™M-Se.

TRIVANDRUM,

TRAVANCORE,

February 20, 1942. °

XTE—ON THE ROLE OF ETROPLUS SURATENSIS (BLOGH)

AND ETROPLUS MACULATUS (BLOCH) IN THE CONTROL

OF MOSQUITOES.

The use of fishes in the control of mosquitoes varies according

to their feeding habits. Certain herbivorous species are helpful in

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

clearing the weeds from the water thus making the place less suitable

for the breeding of mosquitoes, while some carnivorous fishes

destroy the larvae by preying upon them. Stomach contents of

several fishes, which are considered as larvicidal, have often shown

only very low percentage of mosquito larvae. Such. instances have

led different authors to doubt the use of fishes in the biological

control of mosquitoes. It is, however, not enough if attention is

paid only to the amount of larvae that a fish eats, as certain fishes

with snapping habits are also helpful in destroying larvae though

they may not leave any evidence in their gut of their larvicidal

activity.

Most fishes snap at objects of suitable size, possibly to test

their edibility. Those not to the taste of the fish are spat out.

Certain fishes, whether carnivorous or not, have a tendency to snap

at any moving object whether worm, insect larva, or even a floating

fibre. When they see anything moving near, they snap at it, take

it into the mouth and spit it out, doing this several times before

they finally swallow the object or discard it. Perhaps this is done

to discover whether the object snapped at is edible or not and, if

edible, to ensure thorough killing before it is finally swallowed.

This treatment no living larva could survive.

I can illustrate this from observations made on Etroplus suratensis

and Etroplus maculatus.

The Irwin Park, Ernakulam (Capital of Cochin State), is situated

on the eastern shore of the Cochin Backwaters facing the harbour.

At the southern end of this park there are two lotus ponds.

Kach has a diameter of about 20 feet and a depth of 6 feet, and

their sides are plastered with cement. Both ponds are always full

of water, although in the very hot months the water level goes

down sometimes to half its depth. In one of these ponds the

gardener had put in two Etroplus suratensis, which grew to a size

of about 7 inches from snout to tail. These fishes were a special

attraction to the visitors in the park because they were so tame that

they came near anybody who made a splash in the water. They

showed no signs of fear and snapped at everything that was thrown in

the water, such as petals of flowers, grass blades, paper pieces etc.

Several people had the nasty habit of spitting into the water, espe-

cially when chewing pansupari, and the fishes snapped at the

objects that were spat in. They also snapped at one’s fingers

if dipped in the water, and it was possible to lift them partly

above the surface if the finger was raised just at the time of

snapping! In the evenings the pond was surrounded by people,

and it was really interesting to see fishes as familiar with visitors as

monkeys and deer in a zoo.

This was an observation I was able to make in 1938. Since

then the fishes have disappeared from the pond for reasons unknown.

Perhaps, they may have been carried away by somebody, or have

died in the hot months for want of adequate protection from the

sun. There is also the possibility of premature death, as the people

who played with the fishes may have worried them tee much.

From the behaviour described above, it is evident, that EF. sura-

tensis will not spare mosquito larvae appearing before. them.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 273

As it required elaborate arrangements to conduct further experiments

on KE. suratensis, 1 selected E. maculatus for the purpose, because

it is small in size and very commonly met with along the shores

of the brackish water areas. Even though this is a carnivorous

fish, mosquito larvae do not form an important constituent of its

diet. During low tide E. maculatus gets temporarily confined to

pools of water in the small canals adjoining the mudbanks of brackish

water regions. Into such a pool, a fingerbowl of water containing

mosquito larvae was thrown in and carefully watched. <As_ the

larvae wriggled up and down, the fishes became very active and

began to prey upon them, even though the prey was snapped at

and thrown out several times before actual swallowing was done.

Some larvae went down to the bottom without any movement which

was proof enough to show that snapping had the effect of killing.

These observations go to prove that in judging the larvicidal

value of fishes, their snapping propensities should also receive due

consideration, this would throw new light on the utility of many

larvicidal fishes, whose stomach contents show only stray cases of

mosquito larvae, and which now appear seemingly unimportant.

Hence, when mosquitocidal fishes are classified broadly as predatory,

carnivorous, herbivorous etc., it is necessary to include those with

pronounced snapping habits.

There are about twenty E. suratensis now growing in another

tank situated in the centre of the Irwin Park, Ernakulam. This

tank is bigger and deeper with a 2-feet-high masonry wall built

around, so that people have not the chance of touching the water.

These fishes are each about five inches long, and very active in

snapping at objects falling into the water. Visitors to the park

have their usual pastime of throwing in leaves, petals, etc., and it

is interesting to see several of the fishes struggling at one spot

to snap at any object thrown in.’

V. O. SEBASTIAN, M.sc.

MapbrRas,

March 14, 1942.

XII1.—STAG BEETLES (LUCANUS LUNIFER) IN COMBAT.

I was walking along a hill path about 10 a.m. one morning and

as I was passing under on oak tree I heard a loud and irregular sort

of clicking noise. I looked up and located the sound and found it

came from two male stag beetles, which were locked together in fierce

combat on the moss, on the underside of a branch about 12 to 14 feei

from the ground. I watched them for some minutes and found the

loud clicking noise was due to their efforts to get a better and more

powerful grip on each other with their jaws. Eventually I knocked

them off the branch with a long stick on to the ground. When |]

went to pick them up I found a third beetle, obviously a female

of the same species, had fallen off the branch along with the two

males, although I had not perceived her presence until then, as

she must have been hidden in the moss. I can think of no other

274. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

supposition than that they were fighting over the lady. Have these

stag beetles been known to fight over the female before? Another

minor point is that these beetles, judging by their eyes are obviously

nocturnal, yet these two were fighting lustily at ro a.m. in the morn-

ing, although I must admit the weather was very dull and overcast

at the time following heavy rain fall—Altitude about 6,000 feet.

COMA, We 152 Wie aes LIB Walia

September 30, 1941. . Dist. Traffic Supdt.,

Bic Ne WieeRly:

XITV.—EXTENSION OF THE RANGE: OF THE ATLAS

BEETLE (CHALCOSOMA ATLAS).

| picked up the enclosed remains of a beetle shortly before last

Christmas on a forest path in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, close to

the Arakan border. Ants had already completed its dissection into

the three separate pieces comprising the head and horn, thorax, and

body, as you now find them and were finishing off the cleaning out

process. As it is the biggest and most curious beetle I’ve so far

seen, I would like to know something about it. If it happens to

be somewhat rare, it may be of use to you for the Museum.

AHMEDABAD, Re Ss Re BAH Ss

May 24, 1942. Lt.-Col.

| The beetle sent by the writer is the great Atlas Beetle (Chalco-

soma atlas). It is perhaps the largest insect found in the Oriental

Region. Its occurrence in the forests of Chittagong, is an extension

of its known range which is recorded as Nepal, Burma, Arrakan

and the Malay Peninsula.—Eps. |

XV.—ON THE ANATOMY OF SOME OF THE URTICACEAE.

(With one plate).

Very little work has been done on the vegetative anatomy of

the’ Urticaceae in India. The following plants were, therefore,

taken up for anatomical investigation :—

Pilea microphylla Leimb., Pellionia Daveauana Br. and Holo-

ptelea integrifolia Planch.

Stomatal apparatus. In Pilea and Pellionia stomata are accom-

panied by three subsidiary cells, whereas in Holoptelea stomata

are surrounded by ordinary epidermal cells (Fig. 2), thus showing

that there is no uniform type of stomatal apparatus.

Leaf structure:—Two of the plants Pilea and VPellionia are

succulent herbs and contain water storing cells of great height

and wide lumina. It is the lower epidermis in Pilea that serves

this purpose. There is nothing striking in the leaf of Holoptelea

which is bifacial, and stomata occur in greater abundance on the

lower than on the upper surface.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

OR)

3 Ye Tas re; [eye J

SRA

a Os Ne Peay”

es SAB na sts ; j

SO i

2 NEO ee as 4 .

EC PS She inlet) ;

“5 ~ 2

BS :

soo.) pseso ates

wae

ORE

4 y f, { :

pe i S oa See ea

: - PEERS

/ ewe ll EROS: fe

On LT rn RIM

. Ty, Sa ane “stBees sublizen

brark

Sayeedud-Din.—On the Anatomy of some of the Urticaceae.

(For explanation see end of note.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 975

Cystoliths :—Ellipsoidal cystoliths oceur in the leaf in Pilea and

Pellionia. In the epidermis of the leaf of Pellionia, cystoliths are

visible to the naked eye like small linear markings. Besides these,

clustered crystals of calcium oxalate are also found in the mid-rib

of the leaf and stem (Fig. 1}. In Holoptelea cystoliths do not

occur. Clustered crystals of calcium oxalate are, however, present

in large numbers.

Hairy-covering :—Pilea and Pellionia do not possess any cover-

ing. There are peltate glands present in Pellionia (Fig. 2). They

are divided into 4 or more cells. Holoptelea, however, possesses

long simple tapering unicellular hairs, and glandular hairs. The

latter consist of a unicellular stalk and a head composed of two

cells (Fig. 3). Although there are no glandular hairs in Pilea,

there are some secretory canals present from which exudes a

sticky secretion (probably mucilage). The exact nature of the

contents of these cells is, however, not yet investigated.

Structure of the stem :—In Pilea and Pellionia the cortex consists

of thin-walled parenchymatous cells. Poor development of xylem

at four corners, broad medullary rays and cells with sticky contents

are present in Pilea. In Pellionia also xylem is poorly developed

and the vascular bundles are centrally situated, leaving a wide

cortical region. Medullary rays are narrow. In Holoptelea the

primary cortex consists of collenchymatous cells. The cork is

developed sub-epidermaily and large Jenticels are present. The

pericycle contains more or less continuous groups of stone-cells.

Medullary rays are narrow.

Conclusions :—Although no general conclusions can be drawn

from the study of only a few genera and species, the plants investi-

gated reveal that in contrast to the Moraceae, the Urticaceae are

characterized by the absence of laticiferous tubes and the frequent

presence of cystoliths. This supplements the results obtained by

foreign investigators in other genera and species. The stomata

possess three subsidiary cells in Pilea and Pellionia. The hairy

covering consists of simple unicellular hairs, and small glandular

hairs. Pellionia contains small peltate glands which secrete a

mucilaginous substance, and Pilea contains secretory canals. The

cystoliths are ellipsoidal in form in Pelia and Pellionia. Besides

these, clustered crystals of oxalate of lime occur in Pellionia and

Holoptelea. There is nothing noteworthy about the structure of the

stem. These observations on the whole conform to those recorded

by Solereder (1) for other genera and species.

As this article was going to the press, the paper ‘The anatomy

of Cannabis and Corchorus’ by Dr. B. C. Kundu (2) appeared in

the Journal of the Indian Botanical Society. As has been stated

above very little work has been done on the Indian species of

Urticaceae, inciuding the Moraceae. Hence the anatomy of

Cannabis is a welcome addition to our knowledge.

REFERENCES.

i. Solereder, H, (1908).—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl.

Ed. II, pp. 770-78, and p. 1063.

2. Kundu, Balai Chand (1942); The anatomy of two Indian fibre plants,

Wal

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Cannabis and Corchorus, with special reference to fibre distribution and develop-

ments Jour: Ind? Bot. Soc vol. xxi, Nos. 1 and) 2,iipp- 93-128:

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Pellionia—leaf-epidermis (upper), showing ellipsoidal cystoliths. x 30.

Fig. 2. Pellionia—leat-epidermis (lower), showing stomata and peltate glands.

X 30.

lig. 3. Holopielea—leaf-epidermis, showing stomata, ordinary and glandular

hairs.

DEPARTMENT OF Botany, M. SAYEEDUD-DIN,

OsMANIA UNIVERSITY, M. ABDUS SALAM.

HYDERABAD DECCAN.

March 1942.

XVI.—A NOTE ON THE EPIPHYTISM IN HEPTAPLEURUM

VENULOSUM SEEM.

(With one plate)

In the course of the studies of the flowering plants of the Nandi

Hills, Mysore State, some interesting cases of Heptapleurum ven-

ulosum Seem., (Schefflera venulosa Harms.) growing as epiphytes

on other trees were noticed. A short account of the morphological

and anatomical studies undertaken to throw some light on the

adaptations to the epiphytic habit is presented here.

Heptapleurum venulosum Seem., is a member of the Araliaceae.

In habit it is a straggling climber in the early stages, attaining

later the size of a small tree. Gamble (1916) states that it is

sometimes epiphytic. The plant grows in a wild state on the fort

walls in Nandi Hills. In the particular instance where it was

‘found epiphytic (Fig. 1) the plant was growing on the branch of

Eugenia jambolana at nearly 30-35 ft., above the level of the

ground. The plant was closely adpressed to the host by a large

number of aerial roots. In addition, long pendant aerial roots,

measuring 10-15 ft., were profusely developed. Wherever these

aerial roots came in contact with the bark of the host large numbers

of branches were formed and these entered the crevices of the

corrugated surface of the bark (Fig. 5).

Anatomy of the aerial roots showed a large cortex and a central

stele with exarch radial bundles (Fig. 2). The mature root was

protected| by several lamellated layers of cork cells possibly to

prevent desiccation. The cells of the cortex in the young roots are

in a collapsed state in dry weather, but straighten up whenever

provided with moisture, simulating the bellowing action of the

epidermal cells in some xerophytes. The inner cells of the cortex

are thick-walled, the walls being perforated by simple pits (Fig. 3).

This helps in the translocation of water in the radial direction.

The portions of the root ramifying in the crevices of the bark

were carefully teased out and sections of 8 to 1o thickness were

taken. The young root has a piliferous layer from which the root

hairs develop. Unlike normal root hairs, they are thick-walled and

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

pnnsioatcenntiet

Heptaplerum venuiosum Seem.

1.A young plant of ere?

venulosum Showing aerial roots.

2. An enlarged Portion of the aeral

roots benetrat (ng into crevices

of the bark. — x&.

3. Diagrammatic sketch of a

7.5. of aerial root . x10.

4. Cells of the cortex. show-

ing pited walls. x4O0.

5. Root hairs showing the

characteristic — Serrations

x400.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Q77

develop a serrated contour (Fig. 4); they help in anchoring the

plant to the host. They absorb the moisture collected in the

crevices of the bark during the rainy season.

Many of the young plants growing on the rocky surfaces and

fort walls in that area showed a similar type of development, with

this difference, that they became independently rooted plants in a’

shorter time. Heptapleurum venulosum is a hemi-epiphyte as is

the case with Ficus bengalensis (Schimper 1903). The plants are

epiphytic only in the juvenile stages, later on becoming independently

rooted. In this category of hemi-epiphytes Schimper (1903) includes

many of the arborescent types like Clusia, Carludovica, and others.

In conclusion the writers wish to acknowledge their indebtedness

to Dr. M. A. Sampathkumaran, and Dr. L. N. Rao, Central College,

Bangalore, for guidance and encouragement.

LITERATURE CITED.

1. Gamble, J. S., 1916—Flora of the Madras Presidency, p. 570.

2. Schimper, A. FF. W., 1903—Plant Geography, pp. 320-22.

CENTRAL COLLEGE, M. J. THIRUMALACHAR,

BANGALORE, B. G. L. SWAMY,

May 25, 1942. ~ I BAR KH AN,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The Annual General Meeting of the Members of the Bombay

Natural History Society was held on Wednesday evening, the 22nd

July 1942 at 6 p.m. at the B.E.S.T. Lecture Hall, Electric House,

Fort, Bombay. Mr. J. B. Greaves, c.B.E., M.L.A., J.P. presiding.

AGENDA.

1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the

past year.

3. Election of the Committee.

4. Such other business as may be properly brought before the Meeting.

The Honorary Secretary announced the election of 51 new members since

the last meeting held on 25th June 1941.

Mr. J. George, Bombay; Mr. Frank Nicholls, Assam; The Superintendent

of Fisheries, Hyderabad, Deccan; H. E. the Governor. of Orissa, Orissa;

Mr. P. S. Leathart, Dehra Dun; The Curator, Lord Reay Industrial Museum,

Poona; Mrs. J. P.. Bazalgette, Kolhapur; Mr. S» -Moles\"I-C©:s.5 sPindisheb:

The Asst. Commandant, Officers Training School, Bangalore; The Commandant,

Officers Training School, Belgaum; Major A. G. Wheeler, Alwar; Mr. E. Powing

Walsh, Kirkee; Miss K. H. Gulshaw, Medak, Nizam’s Dominions; The Com-

mandant, Officers Training School, Mhow; Mr. E. B. Wikramanayake, Ceylon ;

Mian Saheb Sayed Jawad Ali Shah, Gorakhpur ; Mr. N. F. Frome, Nagpur;

Mr. Habib S. Tyabji, Bombay; The Commandant, Indian Military Academy,

Dehra Dun; Mrs. BY W. Tate, Delhi; Mi. k. ©) D: Ogden, Bombay ; Capt. A. P.

Smith, R.E., Poona; The Commandant, K.G.V.S.O., Bengal S. & M., Roorkee ;

Mr. James C. Brindley, Chauk, Burma; The Senior Conservator of Forests,

Bengal, Darjeeling; Major G. M. K. Young, Fatehgarh; Dr. H. C. Aldrich,

M-D., Nadiad; Mi Po MM: Ismaily 1C@sSs, ‘simlas sMirs Wee burden, LP.,

Phillaur ; Capt. R. K. Saker, Gyantse ; aes R. L. Simpson, Ferozepore ;

Mrs. A. B. B. Moore, Aurangabad; Mrs. M. A. Hughes, Kalimpong; Mr. K, S,

Bane Singhji, M.A., Wadhwan; Mr. D. G. Nae Ooee Darjeeling; Mrs.

J. W. Rowlins, New Delhi; The Principal, St. Mary’s Training College,

Poona:*Mr HH: Go Seward, Ps Allahabad Wt-Colys |e bee boeetlincdmeanslan

Poona Mira eAs Aly Macdonald) le@sSs) ahonre meta ©-me eee atterconnm wer

Ambala; Mr. J. Barling Fisher, Bar.-at-Law, F.R.G.S., Tellicherry ; Major

Bruce Abbott, I.E., Roorkee; Capt. T. A. W. Davis, R-A.S.C., Jullundur:

Major J. A..L. Cowie, R.I.A.S.C., Bombay; The Secretary, Taronga Zoological

Park Trust, Sydney; Lt.-Col. G. “ik Bridge, R.A.M.C., Murree; Mr. H. W.

Witt, Karachi; Mr. T. K. Mirchandani, Diener The Principal, Jat. V. Inter.

Agricultural College, Meerut; Mr. L. W. Slade, ‘Bombay; Mr. A. P. Benthall,

Calcutta; Miss Margaret Douglas, Jalna, Deccan; Mr. F. H. V. Scrimgeour,

Cawnpore; Major Rajkumar C., Desaraj Urs, Bangalore; Mr. George Douglas

Clark, Bengal.

OFFICE BEARERS—i9432.

‘The following gentlemei were elected to serve oh the Managing Cominitiee i

President.—H. E, Sit Roger Lumley, G.c:t.ui, D:L.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 279

Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Father J. F. Caius, s.j., r.t.s.. and Rt. Revd. R. D.

Acland, M.A.

Executive Committee—Mr. Humayun Abdulali; Mr. Farrokh FE. Bharucha ;

Mr. A. Forrington; Mr. J. B. Greaves, c.B.E., M.L.A., J-P.; Mr. M. J. Hackney ;

Mr. R. E. Hawkins; Mr. D. G. Hill, F.r.c.s., j.p.; Dr. M. Sharif, D.sc.,

Ph.D., F.N-I.; Lit.-Col..S. S. Sokhey, 1m.s.; Mr. F. Wadia; Mr. T. E.. Savaides

(Honorary Treasurer) and Rey. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.J., F.L.S. (Honorary Secretary).

Advisory Committee.—Mr. Salim A. Ali; Dr. N. L. Bor, M.a., D.Sc., F.L.s.,

fils 8 Ibtist Coll, IR, AWe TewrAworl, didlo, Newel p Mr. C. H. IDyomalicl, i766 FDIS dR, Mf.

Gravely, p.sc.; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E.M.B. OLUL hE ZaSe May Oi emite C237) Morris;

F-R.G.S., F.Z.S.; Major rr G. Phythian Agana) F.Z.S., 1.A.; Dr. Baini Prashad ;

Mr. H. G. Smith, 1.F.s.; Mr. J. H. Williams.

Mis 96) lel, aeeiae! M.L.A., J-P., C.M.Z.S, (Curator) and. C, McCann, F.L.s.

(Assistant Curator).

Proceedings concluded with an interesting cinema show of ‘Nature Films’,

some in colour taken in India, with the kind co-operation of the Amateur Cine

Society of India.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER, 1941.

ADMINISTRATION.

President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.C.1.E., D.L.

Vice-Presidents —H. H. The Maharao of Cutch,.G.c.s.1., G.c.1.E.; Rev. Fr.

Jo Who CartiS, Solon IelboSs. 8 IR ING IN, JD) Zeller wig:

Executive Committee—Mr. Farrokh FE. Bharucha; Mr. A. Forrington ;

Mr. J. B. Greaves, c.B.E., M.L.A., J.P.; Mr. M. J. Hackney; Mr. R, E. Hawkins ;

Vee Dn CA eee Gus en Pa DiromelVie we Shaitiom ESCs PO Dow iE Nels) lot.-Col.

S. S. Sokhey, 1.M.s.; Lt.-Col. W. C. Spackman, 1.M.s.; Mr. F. Wadia; Mr.

H. M. McGusty (Hon. Secretary); Mr. T. E. Savaides (Hon. Treasurer).

Advisory Committee.—Mr. Salim Ali, Dehra Dun; Dr. C. F. C. Beeson,

D.SC., M.A., I.F.S., Dehra Dun; Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.), Bangalore ;

Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s.; Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Kodaikanal ;

Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E.M.B.0.U., F.Z.S., ‘Darjeeling; Capt. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.s.,

F.Z.S.. Coimbatore; Major E. G. Phythian Adams, F.z.s., 1.a., Nilgiris; Dr.

Baini-Prashad, p.sc., Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, 1.r.s., Maymyo; Lt.-Col,

C. G. Toogood, c.1.£., D.s.o., Dehra Dun; Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore.

Stafi—S. H. Prater, M.L.A., J-P., c.M.Z.S, (Curator); C. McCann, F.L.s,

(Asst. Curator).

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE

VAR STOA Tt:

THE SOCIETY'S JOURNAL.

The forty-second Volume of the Society’s Journal was completed

during the year.

MAMMALS.

Mr. Theodore Hubback contributed an interesting article on the

Malayan Elephant. Lydekker regarded the Malayan elephant as

a distinct race of the typical form inhabiting India. He sought to pro-

vide a basis for such distinction in the shape of the ear and m the

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIT

generally hairy condition of the young, whence he gave the

name hirsutus to his Malayan race. Hubback considers

that these points of distinction have little application. Baby

Malayan elephants are not particularly hairy, while the shape

of the ear in these animals is ordinarily not different from that

of the Indian elephant. Mr. F. N. Chasen (Handlist of Malayasian

Mammals) also disagrees with Lydekker’s deductions and finds, bet-

ween the elephants of India and Malaya, no points of distinction

which could be used to differentiate them racially. Mr. Hubback

discusses the distribution of the elephant in Malaya, and describes

its habits and the conditions under which it lives, illustrating

his notes with many beautiful photographs from his camera. The

blight of war has settled upon these scenes, which the author knew

and loved so well, and from which he gave us so many fine pictures

and pen portraits. All his life, Mr. Hubback struggled to secure sanc-

tuary and protection for the wild life of Malaya. His report of the

Wild Life Commission of Malaya, of which he was chairman, is

one of the most outstanding documents bearing on the whole pro-

blem. Alas, for his hopes and plans; they have vanished, with

many others, in the cataclysm of destruction which has since befallen.

We have not heard from the author for many months. We offer

him our thanks for his many interesting contributions to our Journal,

and for his generosity in providing for the publication of the many

beautiful pictures which accompanied his articles. Wherever he

be, we wish him well.

Mr. McCann continues his observations on the Flying Fox. He

has something new to reveal about these interesting, if not very

attractive, creatures. Readers will remember the author’s discovery

that these great bats, live entirely on the juice of the fruits which

they eat, discarding the masticated pulp. He now reveals that the

claws of newly-born flying foxes, are provided with fine, pointed

cusps, which disappear with growth; their purpose is to enable the

baby bat to secure a firmer hold on the body of the mother. To

the food plants of the flying fox, the author now adds the flowers

of the mango and the cashewnut tree, both profuse in the exudation

of nectar. Nectar given out by the flowers of the mango, may

in fact be so profuse, that it drips on to the leaves and branches,

giving rise to the development of a ‘black’ fungus, which wilts

the flowers and frequently destroys the promise of a bumper crop.

The bats probably assist in the spread of the disease by carrying

the fungus from tree to tree.

_ Brirps.

Mr. Salim Ali’s report on the Birds of Bahawalpur, contains

the results of a survey of the State carried out with the assistance

of H. H. the Nawab’s Government in 1939. Irrigation has converted

much of the arid terrain of Bahawalpur, into fertile cultivated land,

now in process of colonisation by plants and animals, The study

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 281

of the bird life of this area provides interesting data of a stage

in the process. In the course of his paper, the author discusses the

colouring of desert animals. He holds the view that the character-

istic pale tones are the result of physical factors within the

environment—the interaction of light and humidity being the most

important. That an animal derives or does not derive a protective

advantage from its desert colouration, has little influence upon the

development of this particular character. As with all Ali’s papers,

his field notes on the various species observed by him, add to the

merit and value of his work. The extensive ornithological surveys

carried out by the Society have added considerably to the knowledve

of the status and distribution of Indian birds, and have provided

data for a more authoritative account of the avifauna of this country.

But it will be many years before such a work can be undertaken bv

State agency. The knowledge acquired throuch these surveys 1s,

however, already influencine publications on Indian avifauna.

In co-operation with the American Museum of Natural History.

New York. we had planned a survey of the Sunderbans area, yet

virgin territory to the ornithologist, but this project has now to

wait better times, and survey work as a whole has been brought

to an end by conditions imposed by the war.

Other bird papers and notes published during the year seiuded

Major J. K. Stanford’s summary of the ornithological results of the

Vernay-Cutting Expedition of 1938/39 to Northern Burma; a detailed

report of which was published in another journal. We have once

again to thank Mr. Lowther for his notes on Indian birds. Mr.

Lowther’s pictures and writings make a welcome and attractive

feature of the Journal. Mention must also be made of Mr. Phillips’

fine bird pictures, issued with his article on photographing in

Ceylon’s bird sanctuaries. Mr. Phillips has visited the many sanctu-

aries, now provided to give safe harbour to Ceylon’s wild life. He

writes of Giant’s Tank, the largest of them, tucked away far from

the beaten track. Its scenery and abundant bird life make it a

paradise for the camera hunter.

REPTILES AND FISHES.

A new species of burrowing earth snake Rhinophis dorsimaculatus

from Ceylon was described by Mr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala.

Dr. S. L. Hora and Mr. K. S. Misra, continued their serial on

the game fishes of India. Parts XII, XIII and XIV were published

during the year. In these papers, the authors study the “mahseer’

or large-scaled barbels of India. The identity of the “Bokar’ of

the Assamese streams is traced to Barbus (L.) hexagonolepis, which

occurs also in the rivers of Southern China, Siam, Burma and the

Malay Peninsula, where it has been described under many different

names. The identity of another Assamese, ‘mahseer,’ known locally

282° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST, SOCIEDY, Vol) XIII

as the ‘Jungha’ is also investigated. As fresh specimens of this

fish were not available, the conclusions reached are based on such

material as was available in the Indian Museum. An appeal is made

to anglers in Assam, to send Dr. Hora specimens of true ‘Jungha.’

Other mahseer of Assam, which the authors would like to study,

are those known locally as Lohora, Burapetta and Bokar. They

may be cured in’ salt, if large, otherwise preserved in formalin or

spirit. ‘Assistance of this kind would help in fixing the exact status

of these forms or species. The black mahseer is also discussed.

The question was first raised in the Journal by Mr. R. E. Parsons

who enquired whether the black mahseer of the Assam streams was

a distinct species? The answer is that the black mahseer, photo-

eraphed by Mr. Parsons, are indistinguishable from the common

mahseer of Assam (Barbus [Tor] putitora). The black colouring

is due to melanism, the counterpart of albinism. Both conditions

may be seen in all forms of life, though of the two, albinism is

more common. Such melanism has been observed in various species

of mahseer found in the rivers of India and Burma; but its causes

have yet to be investigated. Distinctions in colour, shape of body

and thickness of lip have led people to distinguish various species of

mahseer. But these distinctions are mainly individual in character

and have no racial significance, and very little value in diagnosis.

Dr. Hora also published a report on the fishes collected by the

Vernay-Hopwood Upper Chindwin Expedition in 1935. An inter-

esting account of the expedition and the area covered by it, was

written by Capt. R. C. Morris and published in the Journal in 1936.

Hora’s report deals with the fishes collected in the Upper Chindwin

drainage. Twenty-one species from this area are listed. Among

them is a marine cat-fish whose capacity to ascend rivers so far

above tidal influence is surprising. A new Burmese variety of fish,

Psilorhynchus homaloptera, which was recently discovered in the

Brahmaputra Drainage is described.

Mr. Prater’s paper on the Whale-Shark, is an interesting study

of the movements and wanderings of the greatest of existing fishes.

The author adds a number of new records of the taking of this

giant shark in the waters around India. The occurrence of whale-

sharks mainly on the West Coast of India and Ceylon, between

December and March, is due, it is shown, to the directional move-

ments of surface current in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian

Sea. Coming in with the inflow of water from the Pacific, which

sets in from the Straits of Sumatra on the establishment of the

north-east monsoon, whale sharks following their drifting food,

swim with the north-east monsoon drift, and are carried across

the lower part of the Bay of Bengal to the south of Ceylon, from

whence their journey northwards along the west coast of Ceylon and

India is aided by the coastal current. The direction of the currents

and the concordance of their movements with it, indicate that thesé

sharks come to our shores from the East Indian Archipelago. The

author provides evidence to show that the various archipelagoes. in

the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, where whale-sharks are permanently

resident, are centres from which numbers of these sharks, following

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS: 283

the drift of favourable currents migrate at appropriate seasons into

areas where maximum plankton productivity provides them with

an abundance of food. The archipelagoes, where alone the whale

sharks are known to be permanently resident, are the breeding

grounds to which they return after their wanderings in quest of

food.

A paper of interest to those concerned with pisciculture in India,

deals with the re-appearance of trout food in the waters of the

Kulu Valley. The author, Mr. Hamid Khan, refers to the reduction

in the available food supply of trout in the Kulu streams, caused by

heavy monsoon floods during the months of July and August. Ex-

periments undertaken by the writer show that the rich assemblages

‘of insect larvae, which normally cover the stones of the stream beds,

providing abundant food for trout, though dispersed by floods,

reappear within the very brief period of four days. The food

stoppage is of a temporary nature and the food resources of the

Kulu streams are inexhaustible.

INVERTEBRATES.

Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo continues his notes on the early stages

of Indian Lepidoptera. Parts VI, VII and VIII of his serial were

published during the year. A second contribution by the same

author deals with the food plants of the Indian Agaristidae and

Noctuidae. It is a companion to his previous paper on the food-

plants of the Indian Bombyces published in our Journal in 1940.

Mr. E. P. Wiltshire describes 11 new species and sub-species of

Lepidoptera from S. W. Iran. The author attributes the distinctive-

ness of the wood-land fauna of the Fars mountains to its isolation,

by intervening desert tracts, and suggests that the forests of these

mountains may have provided a refuge for the relicts of the woodland

fauna which once inhabited the now denuded and barren mountains

of the interior of Iran. Mr. Wiltshire’s paper, is an abbreviated

version of a proposed work intended to discuss the Saharan ‘and

other affinities of the Mesopotamian fauna; its completion has been

prevented by the war. Under the term Mesopotamia, the author

includes localities in Syria, Iraq and Iran, which are faunistically

the same. His list is confined to desert species, that is species to

which the desert is a means of distribution and a condition of

existence.

In May 1879, Dr. Niceville caught a butterfly on a forest-clad

road between Chamba and Kujiah, which Moore in his Lepidoptera

Indica, described under the name nicevillei. This species was never

recorded again until 1935, when Col. Bailey secured a number of

these butterflies on the outskirts of the Nepal Valley, some 600

miles from where Niceville captured his single specimen. In all

the intervening area, much of it well known to collectors, this

species has never been seen. Niceville’s specimen, now in the

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Indian Museum, Calcutta, was described by Moore as a male, an

opinion to which the authorities of the Indian Museum adhere,

while experts at the British Museum consider it a female. Bailey

concurring with the latter view, provides the first description of the

male from the large numbers which he caught in Nepal. Whether

the Nepal example represents a distinct race, cannot be decided till

females are secured in Nepal or males in Chamba. The excellent

plate published with the article, will help collectors to look for this

rarity. ;

Caterpillars of the moth Cirphis albistigma are a serious pest of

fodder grasses; a rich bed of grass might quickly be reduced to

mere stumps by these voracious caterpillars. Methods for their

control and an account of their life history was written by Messrs.

M. C. Cherian and K. P. Anantanarayanan of the Agricultural

Research Institute, Coimbatore. Mr. T. Venkatram of the Agri-

culture Research Institute described the life histories of 3 species

of South Indian coccids, one of which is recorded for the first time

from India.

We were able during the year to publish Part VIII of Martin

Moseley’s serial on Indian caddis flies. It contains descriptions if

3 new genera and 8 new species.

The introduction of insect pests from one country to another

or their transport from one area to another by ship or rail has long

been known, and with the advent of air-travel, facilities for such

introduction have increased. Dr. P. Sen of the Bengal Public Health

Department, shows how the range of Anopheles sundaicus, a virulent

carrier of malaria in the amphibious terrain of the Sundarbans, has

been gradually extended to the confines of Calcutta, by transport

in trains and country craft. Besides A. sundaicus, various species

of Anopheles are being transported to the city by these same means.

MOLLUSCS.

Collecting sea-shells, a hobby which Prince Albert made fashiona-

ble in the time of Queen Victoria, has lost its popularity in these less

spacious days: but the interest is always there for those who would

take pleasure in the infinite variety of shells found on our shores.

Mr. D. Crichton, who has, written an account of the Madras shells,

says that the total number of species known from this area, exceeds

700. He writes of the species which may be found on the shore,

in the harbour, or by dredging. Numerous photos add to the use-

fulness of his paper.

BOTANY.

Three parts of the serial on beautiful Indian climbers and shrubs,

by Dr. N. L. Bor and Mr. M. B. Raizada, were published during

the year. This attractive serial when completed will be issued as

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 285:

a companion volume to Beautiful Indian Trees, recently published

by the Society.

Other papers published during the year included Professor

d’Almeida’s study of the biology and physiological anatomy of

Indian marsh plants. Most of the species falling under this cate-

gory are semi-aquatic, and the author’s investigations were directed

particularly to structural characters, induced by growth in water

and air, and to the modifications brought about by periodic environ-

mental changes, particularly profound in a country like India, with

its sharply contrasted dry and wet seasons. Cherian Jacob describes

a new species of Coleus under the specific name vettiveroides. Dr.

Kundu describes two new Nitellas; one from Bengal and the other

from the Murre Hills. Mr. McCann contributed a note on various

aroids, supplementing hitherto incomplete descriptions and adding

a species (Synantherias sylvatica) to the aroids known to occur in

the Bombay Presidency. Mr. Sabnis completes his Flora of the

Punjab: the two concluding parts of which were published during

the year. Three parts of Mr. Sayeedud-Din’s serial on common

Indian herbs were published. Father Caius’s contributions to the

study of Indian medicinal and poisonous plants, covered the Labiates

and the Dipterocarpaceae. A useful and timely contribution to

the Journal was the paper by Col. Sir R. N. Chopra and others on the

insecticidal and piscicidal plants of India. The need of cheap insecti-

cides for the diverse needs of agriculture, destruction of household

pests, and the preventing of vectors of malaria and similar insect-

borne diseases is becoming increasingly imperative, and the supply has

been considerably reduced by conditions imposed by the war. We are

stilldependent for most of our needs on imports from foreign countries.

As the authors point out, India with its great variety of climate

and edaphic conditions is particularly well suited for the cultivation

of almost every plant. Its vegetation abounds in potential insecti-

cides and insect repellents. The authors provide a list of those

already in use, as well as those which have piscicidal properties.

The distribution of such plants in India, their active principles and

properties are also briefly mentioned. In. addition a number of

essential-oil-bearing plants which could be usefully investigated, are

listed. The paper as such provides in compact form information

which is useful to scientists, agriculturists and tradesmen interested

in this essential and promising’ field.

GENERAL.

Col. R. W. Burton has once again contributed to the popular

interest of the Journal, with his reminiscences of sport on the banks

of the Narbada—happy scenes from happier days that seem to be

lost for ever in the horror of our times. Our thanks are also due

to all those who have contributed to the Miscellaneous Notes ; always

a most popular feature of the Journal.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

PUBLICATIONS.

The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali, was published by -

the Society during the year. That it exactly provides the type of

book that most people wanted, is seen in the wide and general

demand for it. The thanks of the Society are due to the author.

NATURE CALENDAR.

The Nature Calendar produced by the Society was very popular.

Our acknowledgments are due to Mr. E. H. N. Lowther, Major

R. S. P. Bates, Mr. W. A. A. Phillips and others who very kindly

gave their fine pictures for use with this Calendar.

REVENUE ACCOUNT.

Our total income for the year was Rs. 24,887-12-5 as compared

with Rs. 29,340-10-6 during the previous year, showing a decrease

of Rs. 4,452-14-1. The decline in revenue is serious and is a reflection

of the critical times through which we are passing: the difficulties

of mantaining contact with members have considerably increased,

resulting in considerable outstandings due to the Society in sub-

scriptions. An appeal is here made to all members to assist and

stand by the Society during these times and help it to continue the

work that it has done so well for over half a century.

MEMBERSHIP.

48 new members joined as against 44 1n the previous year. 25

resigned in 1940 as against 24 in 10941. After deductions made

owing to death or non-payment of subscription, the total member-

ship including life members was 992, as compared with 996 in 1940.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

The Society has once more to express its indebtedness: to Mr.

W. S. Millard who has continued to attend to the Society’s affairs

in London. Insurance of the Society’s stocks against war risks, and

other matters required considerable correspondence and attention;

all of which Mr. Millard gave freely, maintaining his long and

cherished association with us.

We had to bid good-bye to Mr. H. M. McGusty, our popular

Honorary Secretary, who has joined His Majesty’s Forces. He

carries with him the good wishes of the Society and its staff,

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 997

STAFF.

It is customary to close this report with the appreciation of the

services of the staff; but few realise the amount of hard work and

devoted service required of the Curator and his assistants, both

Museum and clerical, to maintain and keep going the work of the

Society in these difficult times.

jo: 7. COANUS,

Hon. Secretary.

usth April 1942.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

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‘ ' tee —s

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIITI

No. 3

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XII.

By N.L. Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada,

M.Sc. (Wzth one coloured plate of Purple Wreath Petrea

volubtlis Linn. and four black and white plates, and three

LER TATLOUVES) reacties seeenisao ses vectess Fob. 0000006 00 GEBEGHG06 POOLED

THE LARGER Dear c OF BRITISH ined. — R. I. Pocock,

TAS | (UV EUR GOGO UP HIS A LOIAAS) ye 000000 0OO0EOO OOS OOOILEOOCO CL

THE Brrps oF Mysore. PartII. By Salim Alli................

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH

IN INDIA AND BurMA. Part II. By A. St. J. Macdonald.

(With one plate and one text-figure)... oe oes

A REVISION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF Se ramecenia AND

TRICHOSANTHES. By B.C. Kundu, M.A., PH.D., F.L.S.

(With four plates)...

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN Bins! VIL__Hornbills, ‘By BE. HL. N.

Lowther, M.B.0.U., F.z.S. (With etght plates)...

THE HIGHLAND MACAQUE oF CEYLON. By W. C. ‘0. “Hill,

M.D. (With one text-figure)...

OBSERVATIONS ON THE hae. SoLeTRENDN ¢ OF URS

(Puntius) kolus) Sykes. By M. Suter, p.sc. (With a

coloured plate)... fox. SGC OHO SCI CON OCCOACIOOOHEE

THE EARLY Senay OF SARA ee ee Part X. By

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. ease ae ea eos

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR Serene Sma IN

THE PUNJAB. By Hamid Khan, M.sc., PH.D., F.A.S.C.

(With five text-figures)... 500.000000 Sone

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ae “By Mrs. M. D, Wright. eae

TERNS AND EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTS AT VENGURLA, WESTERN

InpIA. By Humayun Abdulali... Laas

Fiso OF Poona. PartIII. By A. G. cy peers I.M.D..

ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI FOUND

OVER 3,000 Feet. By H. C. Smith, m.z.o.u., P. F. Garth-

waite, and B. E. Smythies... Be cus POS SECT BECEEOEE

SomE Common INDIAN ete) WITH NaS ON THEIR

ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. X— J. sutfruticosum. By M.

Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates)... .., 10. sesrareseossee eee see

PAGE

291

298

318

342

362

389

402

407

409

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII

SOME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN. By Major-

General A. F. P. Christison, M.C., P.S.C., B.A., M.B.O.U.s. see

Goniozus Inpicus ASH—A NATURAL ENEMY OF THE

SUGARCANE WHITE MoTH Borer (Scirpophaga rhodo-

proctalts). By M. C. Cherian, B.A., B.SC., D.1.c., and P.

Israel, M.A.. Ss Aaee TSR Ee ee

MEDICINAL AND \ .Poidenous Manrowwouns! at Il. By

JAP MAC AIGS STs, SESS EUS, OE SSO, I RA een eerie

OBITUARY :—

Raja oir Durjansalsinohy KiCiwen ies sseecetoneeeecoee teens

REVIEW :—

Cuckoo Problems. By E. C. Stuart Baker.............

AN APPEAL :—

Cuckoo Problems=clx GA7c/di te ene ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Adaptive colouration of Desert animals. By

Salim Ali... 5 a

1UL, “AN ets ebiottation® of the ieeole ast young de Hide

Capped Langur. (TZvachypithecus (eae

(Blyth). By C. McCann... ze

III. On the mating of Flying- roxas Ui gigan-

(CUS). DY Jin Ne DAT B.SC :

IV. Tigers Swimming. By Capt. R. XK. M. Batya.

V. Tiger ‘ Pooking.’ By Major E. G. Phythian-

Adams, I.A.. ae eae

VI. A coin ipdecd ina lmieens ee iy C. ieCanan

VII. Black Panthers. By H. H. the Maharawat of

Partabgarh... ae plaka

VIII. A Wine-bibbing pean Others tay lal, Jel,

the Maharawat of Partabgarh... Laie

TX. Note on the breeding of the Malabar Ginat

Squirrel (Ratufa indica maxima) in Captivity.

IBAA (Cy (Oe latubl iesdyy let Cl@scoccoocascoado0bs

X. Deformed Tusk ina Boar. By H. H. the Mahara-

wat of Partabgarh (With a plate)... 500

XI. Some experiments in Albinism. By H. H. the

Maharawat of Partabgarh (W2th a Plate). ,,,..0.0

PAGE

478

488

494

506

507

509

510

513

514

516

517

518

519

520

521

522

523

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII/

Occurrence of the White-cheeked Bulbul (Jolfas-

tes leucogenys leucotis) in the C. P. ByS.S.

Patwardhan...

The Occurrence oe the comin: uel ( Sevodihecras

melanota) in Mysore State. By R. F. Stoney....

The Birds of a Bombay Garden. By Richard

VK CUACI ANG eer steer cee sere serene foee sneha wie ses

Can Hilsa be taken with Rod and Line? Editors.

“The Monitor Lizard (Varanus monitor). By Capt.

R. K. M. Battye...

The Food of the Blind ‘Suike (D y Piloee: ore

owlenmwers) Biv (Cy IMIG Cainin.s.dée') cbobpbondesanootebe

King Cobra (Vaza hannah) in captivity. By M.

Govindanultutty Menon Mele. seen eeee eee

Notes on the breeding habits of some snakes. By

1B So Sra) (YU AWL Gs U2 oc cee 636 on 0660650 0060860

River pollution and Fish mortality. By F. R. E.

Malden.. 3 : a

Glow-worms La pivob ovis .) Weaine « on

‘molluscs. By C. McCann.. eC Te SOME

The Butterfly Dzagora aap oa By Lieto

mee Vile Baile Van Colo. vescsiiece sagece cae ecaeec ve anes oecves

No. 4

SomE BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XIII.

By N. L. Bor, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., LF.S., and M.B. Raizada,

M.SC.

(With one coloured plate of the Cup and Saucer

Plant Holmskioldia, sanguinea Retz and nine texl-tigures.

THE LARGER DEER oF BRITISH INDIA.

ate Wlap varie Ii.

Pocock, F.R.S. (VGH. SABER. ULE AHOLD), 5.065 00h socce been)

THE BirDS OF MYSORE.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING Bien

Part III. By Salim Ali...

o. P8000

IN INDIA AND Burma. Part III. By A. St. J. Macdonald.

(With one plate and eighteen text-tigures) .. : nee

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC eee aes

By E. P. Wiltshire, F.R.E.s. (With two plates)...

Fish EATING BATS oF INDIA AND BURMA.

By De Ez W.

Gudger. (With one plate and four text-tigures)...

THE RAINS COME TO THE ABU HILLS.

By Charles McCann,

F.L.S. (With one plate)...

Fish SURVEY OF ane eee

“Ey M. peenimullsit

M.SC,, B.ZsSees 0002200056 cee 0090206 F898 290958 008 2552929988 0405 099 2059995 0808

536

REVIEW :—

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII

The Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon.................cesccssececes

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

VII.

Vill.

XIII,

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIIL.

Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons.

By Major R. C. Morris..

Tiger claw marks on trees. By ‘Nation Rg, C. Morris

Sheep at a salt-lick. By Editors..

Migration of Pied Crested Guekes era jaco-

binus (Boddaert) |. By N. G. Pillai.................

On the occurrence of the Green-breasted Pitta

(Pitta cucullata Hartl) at Simla. By A.E.

JONCSescdstetiess wa vik seat neena tt coe ae

Local movements ai the Painted Barteidee Gam.

colinus, pictus (Jard & ee round Bombay.

By Humayun Abdulali... BERG CCOCCEEE oes

The Great Indian Basel Gus te eee

(Vigors) |]. By Maharao Vijayarajji of Kutch...

Early arrivai of the Spotted Sandgrouse [Pterocles

senegallus Sie )] in Kutch. By Maharao

Vijayarajji... Alecia nana eee

On the occurrence oy; Woodeoee (Satipis ist

cola Linn.) in Kutch. By Maharao Vijayarajji ...

Occurrence of the Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola

Payk)in Sind. By N. H. Menesse, 1.s.z......

Unusual occurrence of the Dabchick [Podiceps ruft-

collzs (Vroeg.) ] at Simla. By A. E. Jones... ......

On the number of young produced by the Russell’s

Viper (Vipera russelliz). By Editors...,...

Record Mahseer. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Bron ( With

two plates)... . aeere

Additions to the Cone lastee oe Bone and

neighbouring Districts. By Dr. M. Suter,

D.SC.. 400 900 00006

On the ie Alaestronine) habit a Tnipphee SUura-

lénsis (Bloch) By k Gopinath --.--ssesseneee seer:

Sources of fish supply to Calcutta markets. By

Dr.«S.Qk Hora eD:SCr eas nee eee eee

Note on Curvetis species at Kallar. By M. A.

Wynter—Blyth... Rae

Additions to the list oe Simla uttertics pubiiened

in Vol. XLI, No. 4. By M. Av Wynter-Blyth...

658

660

661

662

663

664

665 |

671

672

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII

XIX. Notes on two Major caterpillar pests of Augenia

jambos (Rose apple) By K. 5. Padmanabha

Ayer, DSC: (W722 @ plate). .:..b.ccscccogsgessentveces

XX. A note on the egg-laying habits of the Indian

Gtow-Worm (Lamprophorus tenebrosus 1k.)

By J. Samuel Raj (With a plate)...

XXI. The morphology of the spines of irene

spinosa T. Anders. By Dr. .B. C. Kundu

(With a plate)... ...0ce..0e.

Vil

PAGE

673

675

678

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XLIII

Nos. 3 and 4

ABDULALI, HuMAyuN; Terns

and Edible-nest Swifts of

Vengurla, Western India

; Local

movements of the Painted

Partridge (Fvrancolinus

pictus Jard Selby) round

Bombay

ACLAND, RICHARD Drea The

Birds of a Bombay Garden a

AIVAR, K. S. PADMANABHA,

p.sc.; Notes on two major

caterpillar pests of Hugenia

jambos (Rose Apple). (With

a plate)

ALI, SALIM; The

Mysore, Part II 600

; Adaptive Colou-

ration of Deen Animals

; The Birds

eee eat III

BAILEY, Lt.-Col. F.M., C.1.E.

The Butterfly Diarra re

villet - wes

BATE Vre nO a ptm ele he

Tigers swimming

eee -

Birds of

Mer:

ood

The Monitor Lizard (Varanus

monitor ) , aa See

BHATT. J. Rk, B.SC. Onw the

mating of Flying-Foxes

(Pteropus giganteus)

BORN. L., MA. D.SC.,hrla.Ss,

I.F.S., AND RAIZADA, M.B.,

m.sc. ; Some Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs. Part

XII (With one coloured and

four black and white plates,

and three text-figures)

Part XII1. (With one coloured

plate and nine text-figures) ...

PAGE

446

658

525

573

537

516

530

514

291

539

BuRTON, Lt.-Col.

Record Mahseer.

plates) ee oy ae

Caius, J. F., S.3., F.L.S. ; Medi-

cinal and Poi conous Mister

worts. Part II see

CHERIAN, M.C., B.A., B.Sc.,

D.1.C., AND ISRAEL, P., M.A. ;

Goniozus indicus Ash.—A

Natural Enemy of the Sugar-

cane White Moth Borer

Rea. Wet:

(With two

(Scirpophaga rhodoproctalis).

CHRISTISON, Major-General

FNe olen IEC, BESKRoy Boog

M.B.D.U.; Some Additional

Notes on the Distribution of

the Avifauna of Northern

Baluchistan

DURJANSALSINGH, on Sm,

K. C. 1. E.; Obituary 60

EDITORS: Can Hilsa be aren

with Rod and Line? 6

———— ; Sheep ata salt lick...

; On the number of

young produced by the Rus-

sell’s Viper (Vipera russellit).

FRASER, A.G.L., 1.M.D.; Fish

of Poona Part III

GARTHWAITE, P, F.;

SMITH, H. C., M.B.0.U.

GoPINATH, K.; On the weed-

destroying habit of Atroplus

suvatensts (Bloch)

see

PAGE

662

494

488

478

506

530

656

662

452

664

GUDGER, Dr. E. W.; Mbisneencne

Bats of India and Burma.

(With one plate and tour text-

figures) 5 sus 500

Jel, Jal, Abisas MOPAR OF

PARTABGARH ; A Wine-bib-

bing Panther and Others

Black Panthers

635

520

519

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

H. H. THe MAHARAWAT OF

PARTABGARH; Deformed Tusk

ina Boar. (With a ae)

Some experiments in Albi-

m (With a plate) ...

Jalnitit, Wo Go Qo, Witsinys 8 “ANawe

Highland Macaque of Ceylon.

(With one text-figure)

—

_ ; Note

on the Breeding of the Mala-

bar Giant Squirrel (Ratufa

indica maxima) in captivity...

Hora, Dr. S. L.; Sources of

Fish supply to Calcutta

markets

ISRAEL, P.M.A.; See Cama,

IMEC e BeAr BEES DhlnGe

JonseS, A. E.; On the occur-

rence of the Green-breasted

Pitta (Putta cucullata HSS

at Simla ‘

-——— —— ORR occur-

ence of the Dabchick | Podi-

ceps ruficollis (Vroeg.)] at

Simla ‘itt hi

KHAN, HAMID, M.Sc., LL.B.,

Ph.D., F.A.S.c. ; Spawning of

Carp and their Spawning

Grounds in the Pun jab. (With

five text-figures)

IKGUIND UR eu Cr Ml. A, shed.

F.L.S.; A Revision of the

Indian Species of Hodgsonia

and Tyichosanthes. (With

four plates) ee Sit

———— ——-——-; The

Morphology of the Spines of

Hygrophila spinosa'T. Anders

(With a plate)

LOWTHER, E. N. H., M.B.O.U.,

F,Z.S.; Notes on some Indian

Birds, VII.—Hornbills. (Wzth

eight plates) ... ae o3

McCann, C., F.LS.; The

Colouration of the Newly-born

Young of the Capped Langur

[Trachypithecus pileatus

(Blyth) ]

————; A Coin

lodged in a Tiger’s palate

PAGE

922

923

402

52]

665

658

661

416

362

678

389

513

518

MCCANNE Con tEebeSs Whe

. ¢ Food of the Blind Snake

(Typhlops acutus Boulenger).

>; Glow-

——oes

531

Worms (Lamphrophorus sp.) —

feeding on Molluscs

——

—; The

Rains come to the Abu Hills.

(With a plate) Be

MACDONAT Dy Aw OD Jinn Cir=

cumventing the Mahseer and

other Sporting Fish in India

and Burma. Part Il. (With

one plate and one text-figure) .

eebane

Ill. (With one plate and

eighteen text-figures)

MAHARAO VIJAYARAJJI OF

KutcH; The Great Indian

Bustard [Choriotis nigviceps

(Vigors)] -

Early arrival of the nas

Sandgrouse [Pterocles sene-

gallus (Linn.)] in Kutch

[ee

On the occurrence of Wood:

cock [Scolopax ~rusticola

(Linn.)] in Kutch... a0

MALDEN, F. R. E.; River pollu:

tion and Fish mortality

MENESSE, N.H.., I.S.E.; Occur-

rence of the Crab Plover (Dro-

mas ardeola Payk) in Sind ...

Menon, M. GOVINDAN KuTTy,

M.A.; King Cobra (lNaza

hannah) in captivity

Morris, Major R.C.; Rivers

as barriers to the Distribution

of Gibbons

a aonieer Giaw

marks on trees ae es

PATWARDHAN, S. 8. ; Occur-

rence of the White-cheeked

Bulbul (Molpastes leucogenys

leucotis) in the C. P. a

PHYTHIAN-ADAMsS, Major E.G.,

Neeser bookingy cao

PILLAI, N.G.; Migration of

Pied Crested Cuckoo [C/a-

mator jacobinus (Boddaert) ].

536

641

342

596

660

661

534

661

531

656

524

517

589

POCOCK Ae Rela: Z-S-m ie

Larger Deer of British India.

(With eight text-figures)

—_——__ —__ -—_-——_;; Part

II. (With seven text-

figures) Be doris: is

RAHIMULLAH, M., M. SC.,

F.Z.S.; Fish Survey of bay ce

bad State er

Rarizapa, M, B., m.sc.; See

Bor, N.L.. M.A., D.SCc., F.L.S.,

I.F.S.

Ras. J. SAMUEL ; OA nae on Hie

Egg-laying habits of the Indian

Glow-Worm (Lamprophorus

tenebrosus Wlk.) (With a

plate) oe 506 90

SAVEEDUD-DIN, M. Some

Common Indian Seen. with

notes on their Anatomical

Characters X—J. sufftrutico-

sum Ging. (With three plates).

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.ES.

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera. Part X CoC

Simon, E.S.; Notes on the

Breeding Habits of some

Snakes. (With a plate)

SMITH, H.C., M.B.0.U., GARTH-

WAITE, P. F., and SMYTHIES,

B.E.; On the Birds of the

PAGE |

298

553

648

675

475

409

533

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Karen Hills and Karenni

| found over 3,000 feet

SMYTHIES, B. E.; See Smiru,

H.C., M.B.o.u. =

STONEY, R. F.; The occurrence

of the Corti. Duck (Sarci-

diornis snelanota) in Mysore

State

STUART BAKER, E. C, NGueres

Problems (Review) Ses

SUTER, M., D.sc.; Observations

on the Breeding Colouration

of Barbus (Puntius) kolus

Sykes. (With a _ coloured

plate) 66 aa coe

—— ; Additions to

the Game fishes of Bombay

and neighbouring Districts ..,

WILTSHIRE, E. P., E.R.ES.;

Karly Stages of Oriental

Palearctic Lepidoptera—V.

(With two plates)

WriGutT, Mrs. M.D. : Notes ¢ on

the Birds of Berar ie

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A.; Note

en Curetis species at Kallar,,.

, Addi-

tions to the List of Simla

Butterflies published in

Vol. xli, No. 4

——

PAGE

455

525

507

407

663

621

428

671

672

JEMS TO (UE JALIL SS

VOLUME XLII

Nos. 3 and 4

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XII. Purple Wreath (Petrea volubtlis Linn.)

Plate Stachytarpheta mutabilis Vahl

Plate Do. ee

Plate Purple Wreath ( Petvea volubilis Linn.)

Plate Do. do.

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India ane

Burma

Plate The young novice aged 53 years: my son with his

first Mahseer 3} lbs.

‘White Feather’ of water just above ine figure

A Revision of the Indian Species of Hodgsonia and Trichosanthes

Plate I. TZvrichosanthes pachyrrhachis Kundu

Plate Il. 7Zyvichosanthes brevibracteata Kundu

Plate Ill. Tvichosanthes majuscula Kundu

Plate IV. TZvrichosanthes khasiana Kundu

Notes on Some Indian Birds

Plate I, Common Grey Hornbill (Zockus birostris) 60

Plate II, Malabar Pied Hornbill (female). (Hydrocissa mala-

barica malabarica)

Plate III. Malabar Pied Hornbill (niale) feeding his wife

Plate © IV. Malabar Pied Hornbill (female, white ring round the

eye) at the nest hole

Plate V. Common Grey Hornbill (male) feeding his wife

‘ Holding on to the bark by his claws’ vwzde C.

Horne in Hume’s ‘ Nests and Eggs of Indian

Birds ’ wee 500

Plate VI. The Common Grey ‘Hornbill. “The ‘ Olive Branch ’,

The next berry is coming up 500

The berry reaches the tip of the bill

More usually the male fed his wife in this

MANNeTe | ss. 560 0 500

Plate VII. Common Grey Hornbill, The male throws his head

back, then forward, the beak open the while, this

action (except in rare miastances) producing an-

other berfy eee oes

Plate VIII. Common Grey Hornbill atrcine the young to

leave the nest with offerings of food

Observations on the Breeding Colouration of Barbus (Puntius) kolis

Sykes.

Plate Barbus kolus (Sykes) aes cee cee

PAGE

291

292

293

296

297

342

372

373

378

379

389

390

391

393

392

394

395

400

407

xii LIST OF PLATES

Some Common Indian Herbs with Notes on their Anatomical Characters

Plate I. Lonidium suffruticosum Ging.

Plate Il. Do.

Plate IGM Do.

Deformed Tusk in a Boar

Plate Malformed Tushes of Wild Boar

Some Experiments in Albinism

Plate Albino Chital (male) ; Albino Chital fawn (male) ;

Chital doe (normal colouration). In the back-

ground the original albino sire

Notes on the Breeding habits of some Snakes

Plate Python with its eggs; Python brooding over its

clutch © 600 S05 40 200

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XIII. Cup and Saucer Plants (Holmskioldia sanguinea

Retz) we 006 200

Circumventing the Mahseer and anes Sporting Fish in India and

Burma

Plate Bag of eleven fish weighing eighty-seven pounds,

taken on half-inch fly spoon, out of rapid below ...

Typical fly spoon water. Note ‘ White Feathers ’.

Early Stages of Oriental Palearctic Lepidoptera

Plate I. Figs. 1—16 5a Bh see 600

Plate II. Figs. 1—3i

Fish-eating Bats of India and Burma

Plate Flying Foxes in their tree... OC

Plate General view of Mt. Abu from the top of : a hill

Guru Shikar, 5,650 ft., the highest peak of the Abu

Hills (in the Iba leesrorercil —Clouds over the

valley aon aoe cee see

Record Mahseer |

Plate Mahseer, 119 lbs., caught by the late Lt.-Col. J. S.

Rivett-Carnac, on the 28th December 1919 in the

Cauvery River, Mysore State

Plate Mahseer, 110 Ibs., caught by Mr. A. E. Lobb on 22nd

October 1938 in the Kabani River, large ee

of the Cauvery, Mysore State oe

Notes on two Major Caterpillar Pests of Hugenza ambos (Rose Axayeites)

Plate Figs. 1—5. Bombotelia delatrix; Fig.6. Argyro-

pioce mormopa

A note on the egg-laying habits of the Indian ‘Clow ‘Weise eonre

phorus tenebrosus W1k.)

Plate Fig. 1. Normal resting position of female; Fig. 2.

. Egg-laying position of the female; Fig.3. Re-

productive system of female see

The morphology of the spines of Hygrophila spinosa T. Anders

Plate Fig. 1. A portion of the stem; Fig. 2. Ditto;

Fig. 3. Astem-node; Fig. 4. Ditto—of A. spinosa

TT. Anders a cou

eer 4 . 2.00

PAGE

475

476

477

922

524

534

539

612

621

624

638

641

662

663

675

676

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XLII

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE PAGE

Barbus kolus | Hugenia jambos (Rose apple)

Pl, 407 Pir .. 674

Cervus atfinis Fish-eating Bats af Tae Ae

Text-fig. 1 300 Burma

-—-—— hanglu Py or 608 coo Lees)

Text-fig. 7 300 Text-figs. 1-4 636-640

———— thoroldi Flangul antlers

Text-fig. 7 i 310 Text-fig, 5 apes coe ©6308

Text-fig. 8 ese 311 | ————nasal bone

—_—_ wallichii Text-fig. 6 es 309

Textefig. 1 300 | Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz

Circumventing the Waneeen JEN, OOO Go. seo 999

Pl. 342 | Hydrocissa malabarica malaba-

Text-fig. iL 357 vica

———— and other Sporting Fish i, iol as: 390

in India and Burma Pi. Tide ay 391

Text-figs. 1-18 599-618 Pl, IV... a 393

Pl. - 612 | Aygrophila spinosa

Clerodendron fragrans Pl, ee - . 679

Text-fig. 5 547 | Jonidium suttruticosum

— inerme

Text-fig. 3 544 | ran Se Se

prophorus tenebrosus

—_———. infortunatum Pl, i! 676

Text-fig. 6 548 Larger Deer of British India

SES Text-figs. 1-7 955-571

Text-fig. 7 8% ee OU ite :

=o Macaca sinica opisthomelas

——— phlomidis Text-fir. 1 4

Text-fig. 9 DO aa = 05

—_—— — siphonanthus eens 8

Text-fig. 1 549 Text-fig. 1 i? » 405

=- squamatum Malformed Tusks of Wild oer

Textfig, 4 546 Pl. eee ye i590

— ame Petvrea volubilis

Text-fig. 2 543 Pls, 291, 296, 297

—trichotomum Przewalskium albtrostris

Text-fig. 8 551 Text-fig. 7 310

Congea tomentosa Text-fig. 8 311

Text-fig. 3 295 | Python and Eggs

Early Stages of Oriental Pl. tee tee O84

Palearctic Lepidoptera Record Mahseer

Pe : OZ, Eola pl sees. 662

12 eee OZ S ello Wb 9 oe 663

xiv

Shou antlers

Text-fig. 2

Text-fig. 3

———— nasal bone

Text-fig. 4

Some Experiments in Albinism

Pl. 556

Spawning Grounds of Carp

Text-fig. 1

Text-figs. 2 & 3

Text-fig. 4

Text-fig. 5

Stachytarpheta indica

Text-fig. 1

——_—— mutabilis

Pls,

Text-fig. 2

PAGE

303

sce 304

i. 305

524

417

419

420

422

293

292-293

oe. cod

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

The Rains come to the Abu Hills

Pl.

Tockus birostris

Pl. I

Jae WY

PLS Vite

BG \WEOE aa,

JEG NAO occ won

Trichosanthes brevibracteata

Plt ile ee

——— Khasiana

IPM, AY 60

-———— majuscula

Peet

——— pachyrrhachis

Pl. Lae

eee

PAGE

64]

389

392

394

395

400

373

379

378

372

ERRATA

VOL. XLITI—Nos. 3 & 4

Page 359—under Lakes, line 29 from top.

“ The correct weight of the fish caught by Major

Corbet is 50 Ibs., not 60 as stated. ” ;

Page 658—under Misc. Note V, last but one line of the note—for

‘Himalayas and Assam ’, etc., etc.

read

‘Himalayas from Nepal, Assam’ etc., etc

OL ERS OR ee

be Reo LER Bay, ¢;

2 ese, s TOs (3. OS Stat Ho stat jabait

=) \( ‘ . wa

| ink ve jdanaa Hah ont io Ure ree 2 sate GDS

baits

~.. Snethte an Otitor Lat OF nb vod Onde

7 4 CURE Oa yee , 4 A *

wi STO SHI TO Sait Piro qickjanh GIG pel sob

: ay j * ;

ee.

ord ‘ i yee pir.

4 \

‘ \

INDEX OF SPECIES

Ablepharus grayanus

Abraxas wehrilii ... 600

Acacia 900 000 900

Accipiter nisus meiamose nistas

————. nisosimilis ...

PAGE

Acer 200 6c ... 626, 629,

Acolus Pechinaans

Acridotheres tristis ae ... 444, 580,

tristis

Acrocephalus agricola ...

——— agricola

—_—__—__— ———_—_ stevensi

—-— dumetorum

——— scirpaceus

——_—— stentoreus

= Beunneecens

Actinodura ramsayi ramsayi ...

Aegithaliscus concinnus pulchellus

Aigithina nigrolutea ... 200

——-—-tiphia ..

—_____——— humei ...

—-tiphia ..

Pe des

Axthiopsar frets mahrattensis

Agrotis (Oxygia) facunda

(Dichagyris) singularis...

Alcedo atthis

pallasia 500

Alcippe fratercula fratercula ...

poioicephala...

brucei

karenni

Alcurus striatus ... ees

Alseonax latirostris aes

— — —-- latirostris

—— muttui muttui

— ruficauda wee

Amandava amandava amandava

Amaryllidacez... PG

Amata (Syntomis) eee

Ambassis nama ...

———-— ranga

Amblypodia alemon airs

Ammomanes phoenicura Wes

481,

456,

482,

651,

646

630

581

484

630

450

646

580

973

480

457

573

480

433

973

463

458

323

430

P23

465

643

580

, 634

438

433

462

430

322

462

466

334

473

334

582

643

409

652

454

673

437

PAGE

Ammomanes phoenicura phoenicura... 588

Anygdalus ne bop | (OZALS 474, (OS), SHI

eburnea ots 630, 633

———— horrida... : OO

spartioides 629, 630

Anas aneustirostris 486

CrECCAes: 444

penelope 5 44

—— —— platyrhyncha ... O06 oe «= AA

——— querquedula ... 444

——-—. strepera nee 444

Anhinga melanogaster... 443

Anonchotenia? globata 587

Anser indicus se 486

Anthipes moniliger exaRaNE 400 «. 473

Anthracoceros albirostris 389

Anthreans fasciatus 449

Anthus campestris griseus OO

——-—— hodgsoni 436, 586

———- culgula sae 437

—— —— rufulus... oes 537

a rufulus... 586

——-— similis similis ... 9586

——-—— thermophilus ... 587

——-—— trivialis swb.'sp. harringtoni 447

— trivialis 586

Aporia crategi ie 621, 633

Appias lalage lalage_ ... 673

Araceze an 643, 644

Arachnothera lonwincsrrs longirostra 590

Ardea cinerea 443

manillensis 0 .. 486

— purpurea » 443, 486

Ardeola grayii we «= 444

Argyacandata ... O00 429

— candata oo, ek)

———— malcolmi 319, 429

—— subrufa see nee 319

Argyroploce mormopa 673, 674

Artamus fuscus 339

Asclepiadaceze .. 644

Aspidoparia morar 651, 652

Asteracantha longifolia... 678

Astur badius 440

xviii

PAGE

Atethmia xerampelina pallida 626, 634

Athene brama 440

Attagenus sf. 449

Aythya ferina 445

—~—— fuligula 445

—-—— rufa ae 445

Bagarius bagarius 453, 651, 652

Barbus kolus aoe . 407, 408

(Puutius) dorsalis 651

( ) jerdoni 452

——--—_———._ ( -) kolus... 407, 651, 653

————— (———-) parrah 652

—__-—_——. ( -) sophore 423,

651, 653

—— (———~) ticto ... 651, 653, 453

sarana oe 417

——_ Spp. 452

ticto tee 651

—— (Tor.) rnareen 492, 651, 653

(——-) neilli 652

Barilius, barila ... 651:

—- barna 651, 652

-— bendelisis 651, 652

Belenois mesentina 647

Blyxia roxburghi 664

Biuterina sp. 326

Bombax Ceioa 451

Bombotelia delatrix 673, 674

-———-- (Eutelia) delatniet 673

Botaurus stellaris stellaris 485

Brachionycha atossa €25, 634

Brachypternus benghalensis 437

--- - puncti-

collis oe Soc 600 one 592

Brachypteryx cruralis w. 468

- leucophrys nipalensis ... 468

——-—— major major 327

Bruchus theobromee 450

Bryonia cucumeroides ... 367

Bubulcus ibis merida

Bufo andersoni ig 644, 645

—— melanostictus nod we 644

Bungarus ceeruleus 534, 645

Butastur teesa ta . 440

Butea frondasa 444, 642, 645

Butorides striatus did

Cacomantis merolinus ... Boo Cha)

Calandrella brachydactyla 437, 587

Calendula : 627

Callichrous piacalattie 651, 664

Calliope calliope ae eee 469

INDEX OF SPECIES

Pack

Calotes versicolor 646

Camponotus 593

Capella gallinago 443

~ solitaria Sc ne 485

Caprimulgus egyptius SOVptILS 483

asiaticus ... ‘ 439

Carassius auratus 423

Carduelis caniceps 482 |

——_——- major 482

——-—— paropanisi 482

——-—— subulata 482

Carissa Carandas 642

Carpodacus erythrinus 445, 481

—-——- ————~— roseatus 582

——- —— kubanensis 481

~ -—— roseatus , coe = 1.

Catla catla 416, 420, 422, 653

Catocala lesbia 628, 634

Celerio euphorbiae mae 621

Celosia 366 ot - 448

Centropus sinensis Bae aot oo. 439%)

Centrorhynchus sp. § 588

Cerasophila thompsoni ... 465 —

Ceratosanthes tuberosa 365

Cercomela fusca dn es 647

Ceropegia ae 644

Certhia discolor chanensic 467

Cerura furcula, spp. 624 |

- pulcherrima | 624 |

- sp. 624, 634

——— » syra 624, 633 |

- turbida ... ; 624, 634 |

Cervus affinis 300, “302, 315, 553 |

- albirostris 2090 310 |

oo ~ cashmeerianus ... 307 |

-—_——- cashmerensis >, 30M

—s cashmirianus ... 307

—_———--——-. cashmiriensis 307 |

————~——-- casperianus ... ... 307 |)

——_—_—_-—_— dimorphe 996 |

—_———-- duvaucelii ane «oe 90

—_—_—.- -———_ dybowskii 500 «3s

. elaphoides Pee 554, 556 |

7 = - eldi 565, 566

———~-———-- —-cornipes .. 566 |

oe clephas ... 313 |

——-- eucladoceros ... oe O07 |

—_—_—__-—— hahrainja 556 |

oe hanglu 300, 306, 312, 553 |

—- Kashmiriensis 307 |

——-~ nariyanus

301.

——

Cervus sellatus

—— - thoroldi

——- tibetanus

— - wallichii

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

313

311, 312, 315

ese 301

298, 301, 553

Ceryle rudis 438, 647

Chaetocnema Sp. 450

Chaimarrhornis jeucocephiala i 469, 479

Chaptia 594

——-— senea TaAlayonels 340

Chara spp. - . 665

Charadrius eechenault: 485

Chela bacaila 651

boopis 452

clupeoides 452, 651-653

phuto soo | OY

phulo 651, 652

Spp. Bs 452

Chelidorynx Re poenatnam 474

Chibia hottentotta londze 340

Chilo zonellus 488, 490

Chlerondendron inerme 447

Chloridea peltigera 621

Chloropsis aurifrons aurifrons 465

— ——--—— frontalis 323

— cochinchinensis cochin-

chinensis : 465

-—— hardwickii Poe ernee 465

_— jerdoni 323, 430

Choriotis nigriceps a 406 660

Chrysocolaptes festivus 593

— guttacristatus 594

——————_—_—— ————- ——- cherso-

nesus een OUS

Chrysomma sinensis 430

—__-—_——_—_ ———- sinensis ... 320, 461

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica 589

~————_. —----——_ brevirostris 482

———— asiaticus 437

a lotenia 589

—————._ minima ae 589, 590

— zeylonica 590

Circus zruginosus 440, 484

macrourus ». 440

Cirrhina mrigala 416, 420,

421, 422

———— reba . 651, 653

Cissa chinensis chinensis 457

Cisticola exilis erythrocephala 574

juncidis 433

—_— — cursitans 974

Clamator jacobinus "439, EL, 658

xix

PAGE

Clamator splendens 641

Clangula hyemalis See) 3SV/

Clarias batrachus ia 651

Clerodendron ... os 291, 292, 540

- fragrans ... 541, 546, 547

oa inerme 541, 544

—— infortunatum ... 541, 548

--———— MUtanSy were 541, 549, 550

——. —— phlomidis ... 941, 551, 552

————-—— siphonanthus ... 541, 542

—_ —---—. squamatum 541, 145, 546

—_—— ---—-- Thomsonee 541, 543

trichotomum 541, 550, 551

Clytie delunaris ee ae ELOZO

-~—--- distincta iranica ... 628, 634

Cochoa purpurea 471

viridis chs 471

Collacolia fuciphaga anicoler 449

Colocasia antiquorum 644

Coluber helena 645

—livia... BHC 44]

Congea : 291, 292

- fonicntoea 295

Copsychus saularis eae ooo 431

———— ——— — ceylonensis 329

—_____—_— ~saularis ... we 469

Coracias bengalensis 438

Corvus corax ruficollis ... 478

- corone orientalis wo» 478

———— - macrorhynchos ees 420

—-—- - subsp. 457

— splendens Ss ae 429

-.-__—_ - ———~ —— insolens 457

-—- protegatus 514

Coturnix coromandelicus 441

——~——. coturnix o. 44]

Crataegus 622, 625,

630, 631

Cremastogaster aa 591, 592

Criniger flaveolus parmenionse 456, 465

Crocopus phoenicopterus 440

Crotalaria sp. 411

Crypsirhina temia 458

Cuculus canorus : AC nop GS)

———~- telephonus felepbonee .. 641

Cucumis integrifolius ... ae 367, 384

——-——. missionis 600 see 372

Culicicapa a3 594

——— ceylonensis .. 431

ne eelloeneg ees 473

—_—_-——- ——_——- ceylonensis w. 334

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidus 335

Curcuma ... 644

Curetis acuta Tenis 671, 672

- bulis 671, 672

- thetis Rtas §71

Cursorius ae omandelicns 600 442

Cutia nipalensis nipalensis 464

Cyanosylvia svecica 431

—-— ———- subsp. 328

Cydnus varians ... adc 450

Cygnus olor 006 sec 486

Cypsiurus batassiensis ... 439

Dafila acuta 444

Danio equipinnatus 452, 647,

651-653

Dasychira mendosa 409

Deilephila nerii ... 412

Dendrocitta formose 456

— —____—- ——-—— subsp. 457

——___ ——- vagabunda 429

—-. ——___-——_ subsp. oe Cy

Dendrocygna javanica ... ve «=. 444

Dendronanthus indicus 585

Derris sp. 447

Dromas ardeola .. aes 661

Drymocataphus tickelli rckel 46 |

Dryobates auriceps 482

—_-——- hardwickii 438, 594

ee ——- cinereigula 592

oo —— hardwickii 992

——_——— mahrattensis Sao G8)

————— —-mahrattensis... 592

—— sindianus O00 482

Dryonastes chinensis propinquus 459

Dryopicus martius 594

Diagora nicevillei 937

Diczeum concolor concolor 590

~- erythrorhynchos erythro-

rhynchos 990

Dicrurus coerulescens 433

— coerulescens 340

-———— longicaudatus 339, 433

————- macrocercus .. 433

——— —_—- peninsularis ... 339

Dinopium javanense malabaricum 593

Dipsas forstenii 645

trigonata 645

Dissemurus paradiseus 433

—- — malabaricus,.. 341

Dissoura episcopus 443

Distira sp. ae 448

Dumetia hyperythra

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis

Duranta Plumieri 500 006

Echis carinata ... we 00

Egretta alba oe 500 500

— garzetta...

Hichhornia... eats Ree

Eleocharis spp.

Elaphria bodenheimeri

Elasmus zehntneri eos “ae

Eleagnus ... 380

Emberiza prunitens 000 a00

———— - buchanani

——_ ——- huttoni

————-- meilanocephala

Enargia abluta

~- badiofasciata ..

Ennomos... 600 :

Epitherina mredonalecel

Eriogaster amyegdali

Erolia minuta

Erymopteryx grisea

—~— grisea

Esacus recurvirostris

Esomus danricus

Ktroplus i

— suratensis

Eucalyptus robusta 500 000

Eudynamis scolopaceus

Kugenia Gardneri

—- jambos

Eulophia ochreata

Eumichtis muscosa

Eumiyas albicaudata

thalassina

— craleseiiee

Euphorbia

Falco esalon isnignis

—- chicquera ...

——_——— jugger 20

———-— peregrinus cutiaas see

—— peregrinus

— subbuteo subbuteo

— tinnunculus

Fevillea cordifolia

Fici 56

Francolinus mice

pondicerianus

Franklinia gracilis

albogularis...

—

fee Hinemenins

PAGE

627,

435,

445,

627,

630,

623,

coe

664,

673,

eoo

626,

333,

440,

430

320

291

645

444

443

665

634

488

622

583

445

583

634

633 —

634

634 —

442

437

588

442

651

650

665

589

439

406

674

643 —

634

333

431

473

623

484

483

527

484

440

484

365

595

658

441

433

575

Fraxinus ...

Fulica atra

Gagata viridescens

Galerida cristata ...

— malabarica ...

Gallinula chloropus

Galloperdix spadicea ... see

’ Gallus sonnerati ...

Gambusia affinis

Gampsorhynchus rufulus

— —-— torquatus

Garra mullya ... wae 600

— stenorhynchus

Garrulax delesserti

— leucolophus

———— belangeri

——_—— moniliger suds.

pectoralis meridionalis

Garrulus leucotis leucotis

Geokichla citrina

— cyanotus

~ sibirica sibirica

davisoni

— wardii...

Glaucion clangula soe

Glossogobius giuris

Gmelina arborea

Gnophos dubitarius

—hoerhammeri ...

—stevenarius ... ae

Gnophosema palumba ...

Goniozus indicus .. 488,

Grancalus javensis

—_——_ — macei

Gracula religiosa intermedia ...

Gymnopetalum cochinchinense

— integrifolium...

Gymnorhis xanthocollis

— xanthocollis

Gyps fulvus

Haliaetus albicilla

Haliastur indus ...

Halcyon smyrnensis

— ——— smyrnensis

Hapalia machaeralis

Harana wallichii

Hemichelidon ferruginea

— sibirica fuliginosa

Hemicircus eae

———— canente cordatus

Hemidactylus brookei ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxi

PAGE PAGE

627, 629, 630 | Hemidactylus flaviviridis 646

441, 484 | Hemiprocne coronata 439

652, 653 | Hemipus picatus picatus 337

588 | Henicurus leschenaulti indicus 469

588 — schistaceus 600 468

441 | Herpornis xantholeuca xantholeuca w- 464

441 | Heterophasia picaoides cana 463

441 | Hicinia fusca .. 448

665 | Hierococcyx varius » 439

459 | Hilsa o00 66 530, 670

461 | Himantopus himantopus vo. 442

453 | Hippolais caligata caligata 575

OS1NGS20 || ia cama) 575

318 | Hirundo daurica Be 436, 647

461 — erythropygia ... 584

459 | -—-—-— nipalensis ... aoe,

460 — flavicola 447

460 — rustica... sae w- 436

458 —— fee AED RNS 355 584

47Q | —-——— — smithii ... 436

331 — filifera ... heee 584

470 | Hodgsonia 500 362-364

470 — capniocarpa 363, 364

330 | ——— heteroclita 363, 364,

486 366, 367

OST 0530 ieee UCT OCA TA mare 363, 364,

292 365, 366

633, 634 | Holmskioldia ... oe scotShh, A, SEY)

633, 634 — sanguinea 540

633 | Holothuria atra .. 448

628, 634 | Homona coffearia 673

490, 491,493 | Huphina n. evagete 647

432 | Hydrilla verticillata 664.

.. 338 | Hydrocissa malabarica ... 389

30 ——— ——— ———— leucogaster 389

366 —— — malabarica 389

367, 384 | Hydrophasianus chirurgus 442

445 | Hygrophila spinosa 678, 680

582 | Hylobates hoolock O06

440 | Hypothymis azurea styani 335, 474

483 | Ischaemum sf. 448

... 440 | Ideocerus atkinsoni e450

AS80475 ee — nivecsparsus ... 450

483 | Iole icterica 325

591 virescens subsp. 467

299 | Jonidium enneaspermum 475

471 | ———— heterophyllum co CYS

471 | ——-—— suffruticosum... we. 475, 476, 477

994 | Indicapus... oes 600 co” 450

593 | Involucraria wallachiana eS OO

449, 646 | Inyx torquilla torquilla 594

Xxii

Irena puella puella

Ismene aedipodea aegina

Ixias pyrene

Ixobrychus minutus SARS Jas

ixOT aS Pee aes wee

Ixos flavala hildebrandi..

—— macclelland: tickelli

Ixulus humilis clarkii

Iynx torquilla... ee

Kedrostris foetidissima ...

Kittacincla malabarica indica...

— ——— subsp....

Kydia calycina ... 500 :

Labeo boggut

calbasu.... cee

fimbriatus

gonius

—-— micropthalmus ...

———— porcellus ..

rohita 0b aes

Lagerstroemia indica

Lalage sy kesi

sykesi

Lamphrophorus nepalensis

—-+ tenebrosus ..

Lanius cristatus ... am eas

- —____——. cristatus

-- excubitor...

- schach

—- caniceps...

ethronotus

- vittatus

Lantana 566

Larus brunniceps

fuscus taimyrensis

rudibundas

Larvivora cyane... 5 ‘

Lates spp. ... bp ne ee

Laubuca laubuca... oa

Leioptila annectans saturata ...

——_——. melanoleuca castanoptera ...

Lemna “i

Lepidocephalus Santen:

Leucocirca aureola

—

pectoralis

Liliaceae

Limosa limosa 50

Lobipluvia malabarica ...

Lobivanellus indicus

-— compressirostris ...

PAGE

577

672

647

486

394

466

464

vee ed38

365

469

329

.. 494

651, 652

420, 652

651, 652

417, 418

417

652

416, 417, 420,

422

411

432

338

536

675

432, 447

336

432

646

336

432

336, 432

292, 582

447

485

447

468

667

652

463

665

651, 652

432

336

432

643

485

442

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Lobivanellus indicus aigneri 485

Locustella neevia straminea ... as FSA

Lonicera persica ... 622, 627

Loranthus... : 589, 590, 591

Luscinia megarhyncha golzii ... ade 48

Lycodon aulicus ... 534, 645

Lymantria amabilis 622, 634

—- ampla a we we 410

Macaca radiata 405

— sinica th «ss 402

———- —- aurifrons... 402, 404

———~ ——- sinica . 402, 403, 405, 406

——-- (Zati) sinica opisthomelas ... 402,

403, 404, 405.

Machlolophus _... -. O04

-- —- Suilonatnn eaewimale we = 498

-~xanthogenys .. 429, 647

’ Macropicus javensis hodgsoni... 594

Malachra capitata 494

318

Malacocercus affinis pS

623, 634

Malacosma castrensis kirghisica

Malva crispa 00 hie 504 co. ORS

—— alcea ae os se eee. 495

——— althaeoides es S00 a CS:

hispanica... see ees 495

_ moschata ... 495

nicaeensis... 495

———— parviflora... sot 495

rotundifolia 495

sylvestris .. 495, 496

onthe rorianel w. 495

—— —— verticilliata 495, 497

Malvastrum coccineum 497

——— coromandelianum 497

——— peruvianum 497

Mansonia (Mansonioides) annulifera. 665

-— ( -——) indiana 665

-——— ( -—) uniformis. 665

Martula urbica urbica ss) O83

Mastacembalus armatus 651-653

———— pancalus 652

Megaderma lyra 636, 637

Meganephria renalis crassi-

cornis ies 625, 634

Megalornis grus ak 485

lilfordi 485

Melanargia hylata f. irantica 622

——- larissa 621, 622, 633

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea 458

Melophus lathami 436

——-—— melanicterus are 647

PAGE

Merganser merganser orientalis 487

Mergus serrator 487

Merops orientalis as 438

- ——-—— beludshicus 483

~- superciliosus <6 438 |

Mesia argentauris argentauris 465

Metanistria hyrtaca 673

Microhyla ornata 645

Micropternus brachyurus ferioni 592

Micropus affinis 900 438

Microscelis psaroides concolor 465

—— ——-— ganeesa noo BES

Microtarsus atriceps 327, 467

—- poiocephalus Soo AD)

Milvus migrans .. 440

Minia ignotincta ‘enone 465

Mirafra affinis affinis 587

———--- erythroptera ae 437

ee erythroptera 587

— javanica cautillans 587

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla 321

- rubricapilla sulphurea 462

Mocis (Cauninda) undata ip 0 Calls}

Modecea bracteata 366, 379

Monticola cinclorhyncha 331

—— rufiventris 470

—-—— solitaria ey ek

—--——- —— —— pandoo 331, 470

Molpastes cafer ... - 430, 642

—_-— ——_- cafer ee ood

——-—— ——~ nigripileus 457, 466

-——-—— chrysorrhoides klossi 466

—-—__ -——___—_ ——_ burmanicus. 466

——-—— leucogenys leucotis 524

Motacilla alba... ee 436

—--——- —— dukhunensis 584

—--——- —— _ personata 585

——-~-—— cinerea 436

——-—. - caspica c00 |e)

—-— citreola | 436, 482

—_—--— flava we wo» 436

——-—— -—— beema ... ee OGD

——-—— —— thunbergi 585

———-— /, maderaspatanensis 646

——~—— maderaspatensis 436 585

——-—— werali doc w- «= 482

Mugil spp. Wie 000 000 cdo L8Y/

Munia malacca ... 50 580

Musicapa parva Asie, 500 moet 471

—— --——. parva 00 LS

——-—— strophiata eroemarel cog G/N

INDEX OF SPECIES

Musicapa tickelliae Aa

Musicapula banyumas whitei ...

-—— hodgsoni

————- ~— hyperythra

———-- -——— melanoleuca asta woe:

———-—— pallipes pallipes ...

———. -—— _rubeculoides dialilaema ...

rubeculoides.

_—_—_— -—___

—- —-—— sapphira

-— supercilliaris ational

tickellize

-— ——— tickellie...

————— tricolor cerviniventris

——-——- unicolor unicolor

-—— vivida oatesi

Myiomela leucura

Myophoneus coeruleus Conor

— eugenei

Myophenus horsfieldii

Mystus aor

——— armatus

—-— bleekeri

—-—- gulio

> Wee}

vittatus

Naia hannah ...

Napothera brevicaudata vena

-— exul bakeri

Nemachilichthys ruppelli

Nemachilus botius

-~—— denisonii

Neophron percnopterus

Nerodia piscator

Netta rufina

Nettapus Boremandelianus

Niltava grandis grandis

- macgrigoriae

- sundara sundara

Nitella spp. ,

Notopterus notopterus ...

Nucifraga multipunctata

Numenius arquata lineatus

Nychiodes

— ~--—— admirabilis

——~—— divergaria

-——— - —— farinosa

- leviata

——-—— subfusca Jee tee

Nychiodes variabilis

Nycticorax nycticorax ...

superciliaris.

652, 653

XXiii

PAGE

647

473

471

472

332

472

333

472

332

330, 431

333

472

469

471

332

651-653

651

652, 653

667

651

531

461

462

453

652

440

533

445

444

473

. 665

452, 651

479

eun4ss

625, 630

632, 634

631, 634

632, 634

631

631, 634

630, 634

444, 486

xxiv INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Ochromela nigrorufa ... 1G see ROO

Ocinara varians Bo 506 ye lal

Ocneria audeoudi at ee 622, 634

——-—— insolita He doc npg. | OYA

Oenanthe alboniger ... ia ... 480

-——_-——- capistrata ... eee ... 480

——-—— deserti atrogularis ... .. 479

——- oreophila ... son ae)

—-—_——-finschi barnesi sate team C479

——-—— isabellina 600 e3: ao CN)

—-— leucomela ... te .. 480

—— -—— opistholeuca ... aes .. 480

——-—— _ picata ... Se 500 oa CMY)

rostrata ... wie we. 480

xanthoprymma Snmmaanye vice AID

Cinopopelia tranquebarica ... we = AAT

Oncocnemis idioglypha 000 626, 634

Ophicephalus gachua ... oe sto) (454

marulius ... -e 454, 651

——_—\—— — punctatus ... BE 651, 652

— — spp. Sa coe w. «=—454

Ophioglossum oes 506 . 644

Ophiusa 600 ee O28

Oreocincla aun Anais wee tt 470

-————--— - ——--- nilgiriensis 5 FeSO

— - dixoni ies af vec hLO

Oriolus chinensis aiftie ue ee ie HOTS

-oriolus .. AY De w. 444

— -kundoo ... eat OLS

—- Xanthornus ... - «444

——- —_--- — madenacnatenee 578

Orthotomus sutorius ... wae ii fo)

—---——- guzurata ... stn wo. O74

Otellia alismoides as ad 7M 604

Otis tarda Roe oe aun. Gets)

Otocompsa Faricontly nariventeiey w. 467

—— -——— jocosa tos .. 430

————_—_—__ -—__. Fuscicatcren LR OLD

-—— peguensis ... .. 466

Otolithus ac ese “ss 50 | (LOy/

Oxyspirura sp. ... B00 Mate 500. ley

Oxyura leucocephala ... bide . 486

Pachypasa otus ... eee 506 eeOZo

Palamneeus sp. ... eee aes .. 449

Pandanus Ae ads i. 406 « -Steil)

Pandesma ate Son 0 ono. (6483

—— -—— anysa aa? OLS

Panolia ... We 600 554, 555, 563, 564

- eldi rp See 563-565, 572

———- — eldi se DOO MOO/ OOO OAL

Panolia eldi platyceros ... ann POS), GYAN, SA

PAGE

Panolia eldi thamin see ae 561, 564

568, 569, 571

Papilio machaon asiatica Bes 09 OZ

Parasa hilaris a 000 a2

Pardoxornis eateticolls Boe ww. 4058

Parus major 560 000 .. 429

—- ——-~ commixtus wee oe 4498

Passer domesticus sue ees we. ©. 44

—-—--——_ jndicus a 500 aheY

rutilans ... Ses or ee ky/

Pastor roseus _... ee see 444, 579

Pavo cristatus ... see is .. = 441

Pavonia Bojeri... ae 400 woe 497

——-- columella <a ao we 497

—- duretica oe ats ves, 249%,

-- hirsuta des cs cas ADM,

————--- macrotis wae aes «ose 497

—_——~- odorata se wee 497, 498

——-- propinqua 600 600 497, 498

--urens ... See ive w. 497

— zeylanica ibe aon 497, 498

Pellorneum albiventre cinnamomeum. 461

——- ruficeps ruficeps ... oe eral

—-subochraceum ... .- 461

Perdicula asiatica... ate S wwe AAI

Pericrocotus brevirostris une cos 487

—~- flammeus... oo Oh ane Ste)

—- peregrinus ees RY

—_—__-—-- ——--——_ peregrinus ... 338

——- solaris are TS ose AS

Periplaneta americana ... 500 w. 449

Petrea ae 600 Bo 500 291, 292

volubilis... Be ae a. . 296

Phalacrocorax carbo... A w. 443¢

--niger ... 000 w. «=» 443

Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris ... 328

ochrurus ... S00 Socio}

phoenicurus .. Soon nt EYE

Phragmaticola edon ... c00 eo) OS

Phyllanthus reticulatus BOC soa, 64)

Phylloscopus affinis -... 500 0) O70

collybita ... ws wan 4a

——_——_—_- inornatus... es we «=. 444

——_—_———- magnirostris ... foot OAD

—— occipitalis a 335, 594

—_— —__—_- -——-- occipitalis ... 576

——— ——— sindianus Sic .. «481

-__—. __— tristis acc a ape chet

—— trochiloides cee 433, 594

Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus .... 576

INDEX OF SPECIES XXV

PAGE » PAGE

Phytometra (Plusia) chalcytes .. 414 | Psittiparus gularis gularis eee sea 459

Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster .. O91) Pterocles exustus Nes 600 w. 441

—-squamatus flavirostris ... .. 483 | ———— senegallus vee er ee OOO

——-xanthopygeus ... 500 ee OOIGnELeLODUSE ... 500 506 001 637, 639

Piprisoma rr 5040 ed llisiy sua Woes mises! |e eeOSS

gills apse os and co BEDE — giganteus Sh ee 514, 516

Pistaccia ... » sas mae 622, 623 | Ptsruthius enobarbus intermedius ... 464

Pistachia mention be ... 482, 483 —erythropterus eralatus ... 464

Pistia eae wes 000 Ge pe OOON ea molanotis ... se .. 464

——-stratiota ... mei ne ... 665 | Pycnonotus blanfordi Blantoratt er: fy

Pitta brachyura ... ans see 437, 591 -—— finlaysoni finlaysoni woo > 467

—- cucullata ... See om .. 658 | ————-gularis... oe 50 BB

Platalea leucorodia a aes .. 443 | ————-luteolus... oon ath BS

Ploceus manyar flaviceps 006 soe EO OUM hing ae - luteolus ... So ee

-- philippinus ah ae 45 ———-——_ xantholemus O00 325, 326

= —— eaiopnce ae 580 -~—— xanthorrhous cee 500 467

Pnoepyga albiventris albiventris .... 467 | Pyrrhocoraxgraculus ... ... ... 478

pusilla pusilla 2. en 467 ee DY ctNOCorax Sites Micky 440

Podiceps ruficollis Ses eer 445, 661 | Python molurus ... ae oe 533, 645

Polygonon ae RE aa 65800) Ouercus) -.. eee eee eee ae OeS

Polygonum 500 | 686 60 ... 633 | Rana breviceps... ee a 644, 645

Polynemus spp. om OO cyanophlictis ... me .. 644

Pomatorhinus eitoaye Pner Die 461 tigrina... ae = p44

——- ferruginosus mariz ... 460 | Rasboradaniconius ... y | 452, 651, 653

— horsfieldii -- « 430 | Ratufa indica Rear ans atieecerk i Dell

———_-_______ ______ horsfieldii ... 319 | ——— maxima ... aes a ere!

——- ochraceiceps ochracei- macroura oO cee or Oo

ceps ... O00 .. 460 | Remusatia vivipara... ee ow. 644

ee olivaceus subsp. .. 460 | Rhamnus ie Bere eke)

- schisticeps nuchalis ... 460 | Rhipidura albicollie albicollis w= 474

Populus euphratica ... one .. 624 —— aureola burmanica . 474

Porphyrio poliocephalus ws «e441 | Rhodophila ferrea Rein @c. 1 nr 's sci) 1408

-Porthesia melania Be aie 623, 634 | Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps... Sb ose

Prinia inornata ° ... 600 .. 444 | Rhyacornis fuliginosa fuliginosa ... 469

————franklinii... .. 9/75 | Rhynchosia minima ..._... ~ 414

———_- —— —— inornata «. « 9/77 | Riopa guentheri ane ese ... 449

—— socialis sem atec. ddd Punctataee ie ak tin) ibeay 0646

—_—— - socialis ... ah .. 9/77 | Riparia chinensis a3 Silo gies” « 450

sylvatica sylvatica eee 577. | ———— concolor <p or 436, 583

Proeutropichthys taakree Fale ‘651, 652 | ——-—— rupestris 000 eee sesh) O09

Prunus... ae ... 621, 622, 623, 625, | Rita hastata me Sse 651, 652, 653

626, 630, 631 | —— pavimenta ... 000 600 0) LOO

Przewalskium ... Ss we .. 9310 | Rohtee belangeri Aw ses seatly BOO

- albirostris ..- 310, 313-315 -— cotis var, cunma re 651, 653

Pseudocervus wallichii ... O06 sco | CRY -neilli ... oct Nee woe 652

Pseudogyps bengalensis ay .. 440 - vigorsii acs opt : 652

Pseudominla castaneiceps castanei- Rousettus leschenaulti ... cI EOLO

+ ceps 500 oO .. 463 | Rucervus 560 ee 553, 554, 555, 565:

Psittacula krameri 50 we 439 | — eldiemmrs 00 200 ee. 966

————-- cyanocephala vee .. 439 | ———— thamin ass aes si0 OOS)

'Psittiparus ruficepsbakeri ... .... 459 | ———— ———— brucei we ae 5G

XXVi

PAGE

Rucervus duvaucelii 556, 561, 562, 563

—- ————- branderi 558, 559, 562

ee duvaucelii 556,

561, 562

—- platyceros 570

— -—hainanus ... 572

schombureki 560

Ruellia longifolia 678

Salmo fario 423

Saloadora ... ; 529

————_ persica ... 447

Santalum album ... ay 325

Saponaria officinalis 292

Sarcidiornis melanota ... 525

Sarcogyps calvus w. 440

Sauromatum cee : 643, 644

—_———_—- guttatum ... 643

Saxicola caprata 430

——_——_- ———-- atrata 451

——-_— ———— bicolor 430

<a caprata 327, 468

——_—— torquata 430, 468

— —————- indica 328

Saxicoloides fulicata 431, 646

-_- ptymatura 328

Schizmatorhynchus (Nukta) nukta 453

Schoeniparus dubius dubius ; 462

Scirpophaga rhodoproctalis ... 488

Scolopax rusticola 661

Scolopendra sf. es ae pega fe vike)

Scopula beckeraria 629, 634

Scotophilus kuhli 449

Scylla searata 667

Scythocentropus cyrus 627

Semnopithecus entellus 514

Serranus spZ. 667

Sida acuta ; 498, 499

— cordifolia . 498, 499, 500

—— grewioides ... 499, 501

— linifolia 498

—— longipes 498

— multiflora ... 500 aa 498

——- obliqua iss BOC 200 coo, ESE)

— paniculata 498, 499

— rhombifolia 498, 499, 501

—— spinosa 499, 502

—— veroniczefolia 499, 502

—— viscosa w. = 498

Silonopangasius eiiaren 453, 651,

652, 663

Sinoxylon anale 450

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Siphia parva... os 501 a. 431

Sitta castanea ... es 300 w. 429

—-— neglecta «- 459

—--- frontalis ... 335, 429, 577, 594

-—_— — —— corallina 500 459

—— Kashmiriensis ... sts . 479

——- magna 60 “es ve = 409

—— neumayei cephironots eee hs)

Siva cyanouroptera oatesi_... . 464

——-— Strigala castaneicauda . 463

Somatina wiltshirei ese sc 629

Spatula clypeata oe wae we = 445

Spilornis cheela 500 eae 206 440

Stachyridopsis rufifrons 462

——-—— -——_——- rufifrons 462

Stachyris chrysaea a 458

-——- -——-——- assimilis ... 462

—-mnigriceps davisoni ... woe 462

Stachytarpheta 500 291, 292

—--—_——— indica ... 500 293

——_-——_——_—_ jamaicensis <ac eoS

— — mutabilis 294, 295

Staphidia castaneiceps striata ve = 463

Stenobracon deesae ... SO w. 488

Stephegyne parvifolia ... 327, 593

Sterna anaetheta aoe 448, 449

—— ——-——. antartica 448

aurantia ts w. «= 443

——— bergii a oa 447, 448, 449

dougalli ... a 448, 449

LUSCA CAME * 448, 449

—-—-— melanogaster 443

——— repressa ... 008 448, 449

Streblus asper ... sg oe goo 412

Streptopelia chinensis ... 44)

a orientalis ... 441

————-——_ risoria He 500 44]

———- -— senegalensis we 44]

——- scnegallus Pra one cee 484

—_——- ——— -—— ermanni 484

Strix aluco biddulpi 483

—- ocellatum 66 ees .. 440

Strobilanthes ... ae wee «o8 ga

Stromateus |, ace GOOF

Sturnia ote Tes . 980

- malabarica AOA “90 w. «= 444

——- ———-— blythii 579

Sturnopastor contra... Re wo. 980

Sturnus vulgaris ive a0 «. 444

Suthora poliotis fee... ee aa 408

————=- ruficeps atrosuperciliaris .,. 459

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Suya crinigera striatula 480

Sylvia althoea 576

—-- curruca 433

—— - blythi 576

hortensis ... : 433

- jerdoni ... 575

Tadarida tragata fy 500 we 447

Tadorna tadorna 486

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea foo) SU

Tchitrea paradisi . 432, 457, 473

- leucogaster 335

—__—- — paradisi soo 8)

Tectona grandis 292, 591

- Telfairia “ 365

‘Temenuchus eee ae st Sy Sell)

pagodarum .. 445, 579, 646

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola 305 OI

-- pondicerianus 432

— _——_- —__ —_ —_ -——_ pondi-

cerianus 337

- sylvicola 594

Terdus merula 641

Terias sp. 647

Terminalia arjuna 656

— tomentosa ... 446

Tesia castaneocoronata eaetence:

coronata ... : 468

——- cyaniventer pvariventer 468

Thaocervus 554, 555, “559, 565

———_——. schomburgki 560-563

Thalassodes flavifusata 673

——— veraria 415

Thecia abdominalis gerhardti ... 622, 633

Thereiceryx vividis 595

zeylanicus 438

-——— —— subsp ... 595

Thespesia campylosiphon 503

-—— populnia... 3 . - 803

Thladiantha cordifolia 367

VThreskiornis melanocephalus 443

Timalia pileata intermedia 461 |

Tockus birostris 389, 392, 393, 394,

397, 438

Totanus nebularius w- = 485

Trachypithecus pileatus 513, 514

Trichosanthes anamalayana. 367, 370, 382

——— amara ... 306 we. @ 1365

———_-—— anguina. 365-367, 369, 374

— —— angulata 365, 367

————-— bracteata. 366, 367, 368,

370, 379, 380, 381

XXvVii

PAGE

Trichosanthes bracteata var. pubera 366

— -— var. scotan-

thus 380

-— ————- var, tomen-

tosa 380

——_—— ——-— brevibracteata ...368, 369, 373

pe ee var. longi-

rostrata 373

——_ —_--— var. sublo-

bata 373

—-__—___-——— burmensis. 368, 370,

381, 386

——_—- ——_——_ var. alba 368,

370, 381, 386

——_-——__- — caudata ... 365, 366, 371,

372

——_-—___———- chinensis 366

—__—__——-- cochinchinense... 366, 372

—_—_————- cochinchinensis §

—_——__-———- colubrina 366, 374

— -—cordata .. 366, 367,

370, 376

SS eM SESS

data See S77]

i — coriacea ... 365, 367

ce eS corniculata 365

—__—_-——-- costata 365, 366

—_—_—_——- cucumerina 365-367

369, 372, 374

—_—___——--- cucumeroides ... 366, 367

ae — cuspidata ».309, 366, 369

371, 372

——— - diczlosperma ... 367, 371, 383

—__ —__ —_—- diiceca nee cea! G00

——-dioica... ...307, 371,384

—__—__ ——_- feetidissima 365

—_—_—__——_-. globosa ... : _ 365

--_—___-—~- grandibracteata 367

—_—_—__——_- grandiflora 365

a Mearmiien 383

ee heteroclita 363, 364,

366, 367

— - hexasperma _... 364, 365, 366

——_——-——- himalensis R: 367, 370, 382

——_——_—- —-— var. glab-

rior 382

| —___.-— Hforsfieldii 367

—_—_—_——- integrifolia ...367, 368, 371,

384, 385

——- javanica... cote ehEL/

- Kadam 364, 367

xxviii

PAGE

Trichosanthes khasiana .. 368, 370, 378

—— — lacitiosa... 365-367

—_—_—_—__-——- Lepiniana ...368, 370, 379,

380, 381

— — lobata 366, 369, 373, 374

—_——_-——- longiflora 5 379

——___———-- macrocarpa -_ ...364, 365, 366,

367

—____ -———— macrosciphon ..,. 367

—_—_--——_- majuscula ... 368, 370, 378

—__—_—_-——-- multiloba 367, 368

—-— -—var. majus-

cula re 378

—__—_—__——- ne vifolia .e. 365, 367, 369;

Bly BZ

nilgirrensis 368

— ovata ... 368, 370, 376

eee eee OVvigerae 1309, sal Ss n 3035

386

—_—. ——_— —- —————-_ sar. sikki-

mensis ... 368, 371, 383, 386

ss — ——_-. pachyrrhachis ... 368, 269, 372

= = palmatay.. 366,367,379) 330

= _ -—_ — ‘pedatifolia 367, 372

=> 25— —— — Perrottetianay ...068,.369,3/79

—__— ——.——-- pilosa .-- 369, 367, 372

a erayeri 368, 370,

378, 381, 386

pees See beraiee: 365, 366, 367

—_—_——__-———-~ punctata 365

— ——-——-- quadricirrha ... oe BOY

——_ —-——- reniformis 367, 372

See scapra 365, 367

368, 371, 380, 384

—_.-—__ -——_= sikkimensis 368 -

——_——_ ——- subvelutina ... eee O80

—— ——_-——-- f{amnifolia 366

—__—__-—— - Thwaitesii 367, 368

—_-——__—-- tricuspidata 365, 367

—__—_—_——- tricuspis 367

—_-—_—- —- trifoliata 6c ww. — 865

——__—_-___——- truncata ... 367, 369, 376

——- tuberosa Bs 3, 365

—__—_—__——- villosa fea ss +365

————villosula ... 368, 369, 375

———_—_—__—_—_- — var. nilgir-

rensis 368, 375, 386

———___———— Wallichiana 366, 367,

368, 370, 377

—— —_——- var. majus-

cula “pe 378

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Tringa erythropus ... we 435

glareola Pe oe He. Ma4e2

hypoleucus 000 300 w. = 442

nebularia 442

ochropus ae 442

--—=- stagnatilis AG6 ove w. 442

Triphosa subaudiata 629

taochata eee Ase 629, 634

Trochalcpteron erythrocephalum

ramsayi 460

ripponi 460

Troglodytes troglodytes neglectus ... 481

Tropidonotus piscator zee - 647

Turdoides 000 646

somervillei ... 429

——- —- orientalis 318

——_———- striatus affinis pu . , 318

——_—_ — polioplocamus 318

- terricolor sindianus cee O41

Turdus feae sh 469, 470

— obscurus obscurus 469

—— —- pallidus 459

———- simiilimus Oe. 431, 646

—-—— ——__—_—_- mahrattensis 330

—_—_—~- — simillimus ... gaa 390

———- unicolor 430 one toes ALD

Typhlops ase ey & w. = 645

—-—-~ acutus no ue ho a)!

brahminus ... es we 645

Umbelliferee “ke 560 res O23

Upupa epops 438

Urena lobata 504

-——-- repanda 504, 505.

sinuata ... 504, 505.

Urocissa erythrorhyncha magnirostris 457

Uroloncha kelaarti jerdoni ... 581

————— malabarica 445, 581

———— —— punctulata lineoventer ... 581

—— striata striata 581

Utricularia flexuosa... vee 664

Varanus flavescens Bo oe)

—.—— monitor 530, 646

— salvator ‘ 530

Verbena 506 200 506 coo ecole

———— officinalis... ... aA a6 CRE

Viola stocksti 476.

Vipera russellii ... 662.

Virachola. perse perse nics 673-

Viscum se Sh 591-

Vitex agnus-castus ohe . 292-

—-littoralis .,. 006 wr ye «08

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Vitex peduacularis aoe 600 Pee 202

——- trifolia Kee vee coo Geil

Vivia innominatus avunculorum Ae O94

Wallagonia attu ... acd ne ber 408

Xanthixus flavescens ... meme | *467

————- ——--——- vividus .. 466

Xanthlaoea hemacephala ... ey 430

Xantholoema hzemacephala indica ... 595

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

(P.1.C.. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—1,300 CorprHsS—20-3-47,

xxix

PAGE

Xantholoema rubricapilla malabarica 595

Xenentodoncancila ... ab we = 404

Zoothera marginata ... ee .» 470

Zosterops @ misoxantha oa Pn SI)

—- palpebrosa 437, 457

—— ---- cccidentis ... 989

Zygoptera Bg ere ish ee 40,0,

MADRAS

C3689

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yay) f

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E Vou. XLIll,.No. 3 DECEMBER, 1942. ——~Prrice, Rs. 12 net.

THE

JOURNAL

. Ves

Ss Na i |

OF THE SONA

~Bompay Naruray History Sociery.

EDITED BY

REV. J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F-L.S.

s. H. PRATER. M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., AND C. McCANN, F.L.S.

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

LONDON AGENTS :

| DAVID NUTT. (A. G. BERRY)

; ; 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE,

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“At

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII, No. 3

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XII. By N. L.

Bor, M-A., D-SC., F-L:S., I.F.S:, and M. B. Raizada, M.sc. (With one

coloured, four black and white plates, and three text-figures)

THE LarGer Derr oF BritisH INpia. By R. I. Pocock, F.z.s. (With

eight text-figures)

Tne Birps oF Mysore. Parr II. By Salim Ali —...

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND

Burma. Part II. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With one plate and one

text-figure)

A REVISION OF THE INDIAN SpEcIES OF Hodgsonia and Trichosauthes.

By B. C. Kundu, M.A., ph.p., F.L.s. (With four plates)

Notes ON SOME InpIAN Birps. WVIIl—Hornbills. By E. H. N. Lowther,

M.B.O.U., F.Z.S. (With eight plates)

Tue HiGHranpD MacagurE or Ceryton. By W. C. O. Hill, M.p. (With. one

text-figure)

eee

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING COLOURATION OF Barbus (Puntius) kolus

Sykes. By M. Suter, p.sc. (With a coloured plate)

THE Early STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part X. By D. G. Sevasto-

pulo, F.R.E.S.

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS IN THE Punjan. By

Hamid Khan, M.sc., PH.D., F.A.sc. (With five text-figures)

Notes ON THE Brirps oF Berar. By Mrs. M. D. Wright

TERNS AND EpipLte-Nest SwirTs at VENGURLA, WESTERN Inp1A. By

Humayun Abdulali 3

ish OF Poona: ‘Part Ill. By A. G. L. Fraser, ‘1.m.p.

ON THE BIRDS OF THE KaREN HILLS AND KARENNI FOUND OVER 3,000 FEET.

By H. C. Smith, m.s.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite, and B. E. Smythies

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

X—I. suffruticosum. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates)

Some AnDITIONAL NoTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE AVIFAUNA OF NorRtTH-

ERN BALUCHISTAN. By Major-General A. F. P. Christison, M.c., P.s.c.,

B.A., M.B.O.U.

Goniozus indicus Asu.—A Naturat ENEMY OF THE SUGARCANE Wuitr

Morn Borer (Scirpophaga rhodoproctalis). By M. C. Cherian, B.a.,

BesC., D-1.c. and P. Israel, M.A.

Mrpicivar anp Potsonous MaLLowworrs. Part II. By J. F.

Dolley Imes

Caius,

PaGs

409

416

428

478

488

494

ti (GOUMMTBINTES) (ie Waifs AULLIMG, IN Os. F

OBITUARY :—

Raja Sir Durjansalsingh,. K.C.1.£.

REVIEW :—

Cuckoo Problems by E. C. Stuart Baker

AN APPEAL :—

Cuckoo Problems. Ex ‘Field’

MIS CERLANE OUSENODES = ——

I. Adaptive cclouration of Desert animals. By Salim Ali

lf. The colouration of the newly-born young of the Capped Langur

[Trachypithecus pileatus (Blyth)]. By C. McCann

Ill. On the mating of Flying-Foxes (Pteropus giganteus). By

\gndkee [Bie tete TEESE. he So ahs ae ee

IV. Tigers swimming. By Capt. R. K. M. Battye

V. Tiger ‘Pooking’. By Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.a.

VI. A coin lodged in a tiger’s palate. By C. McCann

VII. Black Panthers. By H. H. the Maharawat of Partabgarh

VIII. A Wine-bibbing Panther—and others. By H. H. the Maharawat

of Partabgarh — ay Bas ANE aoe Je

IX. Note on the breeding of the Malabar Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica

maxima) in captivity. By W. C. O. Hill, m.p., ch.s., etc.

X. Deformed Tush in a Boar. By H. H. the Maharawat of Partab-

garh. (With a plate)

XI. Some experiments in Albinism. By H. H. the Maharawat of

Partabgarh. (With a plate)

XII. Occurrence of the White-cheeked Bulbul (Molpasies leucogenys

leucotis) in the C. P. By S. S. -Patwardhan

XIII. The Occurrence of the Comb-Duck (Sarcidiornis melanota) in

Mysore State. By R. F. Stoney

XIV. The Birds of a Bombay Garden. By Richard Dyke Acland ...

XV. Can Hilsa be taken with Rod and Line? Editors

XVI. The Monitor Lizard (Varanus monitor). By Capt. R. K. M.

Battye ic Bat 906 ole zs

XVII. The Food of the Blind Snake (Typhlops acutus Boulenger). By

C. McCann ; sa Sse 5 55 ae

XVIIT. Wing Cobra (Naia hannah) in captivity. By M. Govindan Kutty

Menon, M.A. 6 ote an 500 os

XIX. Notes on the breeding habits of some snakes. By E. S. Simon

(With a_ plate)

XX: River pollution and Fish mortality. By F. R. E. Malden

XXI. Glow-worms (Lamphrophorus sp.) feeding on Molluscs. By

C. McCann Saath q

XXII. The Butterfly Diagora nicevillei. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey, c.1.£.

JouRN. BomMBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

Purple Wreath

PETREA VOLUBILIS Linn.

(half nat. size )

PLATE XII

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1942. WOE, ILM Now 3:

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

Nie DORM M.AnmDeSC.,) Hall: S., I.F.S.,

| Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RAtIzaDA, M.Sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XII

(Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 2 (1942), p. 129).

(With 1 coloured and four black and white plates and 3 text-figures).

Verbenaceae,

This family takes its name from one of its genera, the well-known

garden plant, Verbena, About 7o genera comprising some~- 800

species are included in the family, which is for the most part con-

fined to the tropics and sub-tropics of south-east Asia and the

Malayan archipelago. Few genera penetrate to the cooler regions

of the earth and the Verbenaceae are poorly represented in Africa.

The family contains all types of plants from tiny herbs up to

giant trees. The ultimate shoots are often quadrangular. The

leaves are usually opposite, compound or simple, rarely whorled or

alternate, exstipulate. The flowers are arranged in panicles or

cymes. The calyx is inferior, bell-shaped, cylindrical or platter-

like, 4-5- rarely 8-cleft, -lobed, or -toothed, occasionally entire.

Corolla gamopetalous, cylindrical, expanded towards the top,

straight or curved, 4-5-lobed, often 2-lipped; lobes imbricate.

Stamens 4, rarely 2, inserted on the corolla; anthers 2-celled; cells

often divergent, opening lengthwise. Ovary superior, seated on

an obscure disk, 2-8-celled, often 4-celled; ovules solitary or paired,

erect or rarely pendulous. Fruit a drupe or berry.

Many genera of this family, Verbena, Clerodendron, Stachy-

tarpheta, Congea, Petrea, and Holmskioldia are favourite garden

plants. Duranta Plumieri is grown everywhere as a hedge. - The

FEB 15 1943

292. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

best known species of the family, however, is Tectona grandis, the

teak, whose timber is famous all over the world. Another tree

is Gnelina arborea, which furnishes a timber of some value as a

furniture wood.

Many species of Verbenuceae contain bitter and astringent

principles and often, also, contain a volatile oil. A decoction of

the root and leaves of Verbena officinalis is a powerful astringent

and is applied to inflamed and bleeding piles. A decoction of the

leaves of several species of Lantana are used as an expectorant.

Vitex agnus-castus, a European species, produces berries which were

supposed to be an aphrodisiac, these when roasted were supplied

to the monasteries in mediaeval times under the delightful name

of “Monk’s pepper’. Vitex peduncularis a tree common in Assam,

contains a light yellow crystalline substance which is identical with

vitexin, the active principle of Saponaria officinalis and Vitex

littoralis. Dr. S. Krishna (Biochemist, Forest Research Institute)

informs us that the mature leaves of Vitex peduncularis lose their

vitexin. In Assam a decoction of the leaves is always used in cases

of black-water fever and many cases are reported to have been

cured by its use. Its reputation is so great that a large quantity

of seed and even seedlings have been sent from Assam to other

provinces.

The corolla of the species is usually tubular and is often brightly

coloured and fragrant. Such an arrangement points to cross-

pollination by insects or birds. In some species of Clerodendron

the corolla tube is up to 6 in. long. In such cases the agents of

cross-fertilisation are honey-birds and long-tongued Lepidoptera.

According to Koorders a species of Clerodendron, endemic in

the Celebes, possesses a calyx which is always full of water, pro-

duced from numerous hydathodes seated upon the inner surface

of the calyx (hydathodes are specialized epidermal cells which

secrete water). The ostensible object of this production of water

is to prevent robber insects from boring through the base of the

corolla to the honey without cross-pollinating the flowers. This

object is also achieved by certain species which develop extra floral

nectaries on the calyx. The nectaries are occupied by ants which

vigorously attack insects which attempt to get honey by. illegiti-

mate .methods. Some Clerodendrons go so far as to allow ants

to take up quarters in their stems in order to attain this object.

An interesting feature in certain genera is the colour-change

which takes place as a flower matures. In one species of Lantana

the change is from orange-yellow to dark crimson. This change

has doubtless some connection between the ripening of the pollen

and the receptivity of the stigma and may act as a guide to insects.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

Flowers in a narrow spike. Bet 506 .. 1. Stachytarpheta.

lowers panicled or cymose.

Flowers clustered in a pink or mauve involucre ...

Flowers not clustered in an involucre.

Congea.

Calyx blue, lobed. ae aie 500 Bo” LHERTAM.

Calyx green, white or red.

Calyx red. sale SHEL mae ... 4. Holmskioldia.

Calyx white or green. .. 5. Clerodendron.

Photo by M. N. Bakshi

Stachytarpheta mutabilis Vahl.

New Forest, Dehra Dun,

TOURA S2/2qvINU PIA Gs4PILGIVIS

gs4ard “NW «q ojoqg

‘90S “LSIE] “LYN Avawog ‘Nunof

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS. AND SHRUBS 293

PARDO

1. Stachytarpheta Vahl.

(The generic name comes from two Greek words which mean

‘spike’ and “thick’ and together give a word-picture of the inflore-

scence).

Hairy or glabrous shrubs and herbs. Leaves opposite or alter-

nate, toothed, exstipulate. Inflorescence a long terminal spike.

Flowers solitary in the axils of bracts, sessile or half immersed in

the rhachis; bracts lanceolate; bracteoles absent. Corolla-tube

slender, cylindric; limb oblique with 5, equal or unequal, flat, spread-

ing lobes. Perfect stamens 2 (the lower pair) included within the

corolla-tube ; staminodes 2, minute or absent; filaments short; anther

cells vertical, divaricate. Ovary 2-celled; ovules solitary in each

cell; style long filiform. Fruit enclosed in the calyx, linear-oblong,

separating into 2, hard, 1-seeded bodies.

IXEY TO THE SPECIES.

Corolla blue. aoe Ae Reg -.. O. tndica.

Corolla crimson or rose. i cise .. 9. nutabilis.

_ Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. (S. jamaicensis (L.) Vahl.).

Description.—A branchy annual herb, 1-3 ft. tall. Branches

almost quadrangular, sparsely f

pubescent. ~ Leaves opposite, ‘i

petiolate, ovate or obovate, i

obtuse or acute at the tip, f

cuneate and long-decurrent at ,

the base, dentate in the upper

two-thirds, chartaceous — or

membranous in texture, glabr-

ous on both surfaces or with a

few hairs below, 1-4 in. long

by 1-3 in. wide; petiole slender,

winged, about .3 in. long.

Inflorescence of terminal

curved, slender, long, spikes,

4-13 in. long; rhachis about

.12 in. broad, excavated at the

insertion of the flowers and

the cavities covered by the

bracts. -Bracts lanceolate-acu-

minate, ciliate, scarious, .2-

.4 in. long; bracteoles absent.

Flowers sessile, blue, .6-.8 in.

long. Calyx cylindrical, nar-

row, glabrous, membranous,

5-nerved, .25 in. long, split |

fowards the rhachis, 4-5- i

toothed; glabrous, curved,

hairy above and within. — .3-

se ; Fig. 1.-—Stachytarpheta indica Vahl... 3.

8 im, long, s-lobed ; ones g achy arpheta indica Vahl... xd.

oblique spreading, rounded, about .4 in. long. Stamens: 2,-inserted

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

above the middle of the tube. Ovary glabrous. Fruit a pear-shaped

long capsule, included in the calyx up to .2 in. long.

Flowers and Fruits. —Rainy season.

Distribution.—Native of tropical America, cultivated and

naturalized in various parts of Asia and Africa.

Gardening.—A herb with deep blue flowers in long spikes.

Propagated by seed.

Medicinal uses.—Said to be used in Malay as an abortifacient.

Stachytarpheta mutabilis Vahl.

(mutabilis is a Latin word meaning changeable or variable, and refers

to the colour of the flower which changes from crimson to rose).

Description.—A herb,

woody at the base,

branches quadrangular ;

covered with a crisped

pubescence. Leaves op-

posite or alternate, when

opposite joined by a

stipular line, petiolate,

ovate, ovate-oblong or

elliptic, acute or acumin-

ate at the tip, cuneate

and long decurrent at

the base, serrate-dentate

on the margins, rather

rough on the upper sur-

face, softly pubescent or

scabrid on the lower sur-

face; petiole up to .5 in.

long, slender, grooved

above, pubescent.

Inflorescence a stout

terminal spike up to 1 ft.

long. Rhachis _ terete,

_ pubescent, excavated at

the insertions of the

sessile flowers; excava-

tions covered by the ob-

long, acuminately-awned

bracts, bracts .3 in. long

without the awn, pubes-

cent, bracteoles absent.

Calyx narrow-tubular, 4-ribbed, 4-toothed, .3-.5 in. long; teeth

short, acute. Corolla tube cylindrical, curved, .4-.5 in. long; limbs

5-lobed; lobes orbicular, irregular in size, .2-.4 in. wide. Flowers

crimson fading to rose. Stamens 2, included in the corolla tube.

Ovary glabrous; style long slender; stigma capitate, exserted.

Flowers and Fruits.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—Native of tropical America, now cultivated in the

plains throughout the country.

Gardening.—A shrub 3-5 ft. high with 4-angled, tomentose- |

villous branches. The flowers are scarlet fading to rose and are

Fig. 2.—Stachytarpheta mutabilis Vahl. x3

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 295

borne in long spikes. To keep it in good shape it is advisable to

trim it after the rainy season. .Easily propagated by seed.

Medicinal uses.—The leaves are powdered and mixed with lime

and applied to wounds and sores. It is also said to be used as an

abortifacient.

2. Congea Roxb.

Climbing shrubs with opposite leaves. Inflorescence of small,

involucral cymes arranged in terminal panicles. Involucre 3-phy!l-

lous, spreading, supporting a sessile 6-9-flowered cyme. Calyx

tubular, widened at the mouth, 5-cleft, persistent. Corolla 2-lipped,

the tube as long as the calyx; limb very unequal, the upper lip

elongate, erect and 2-cleft, the lower spreading and shortly 2-lobed.

Stamens 4, didynamous, inserted in the throat and long exserted;

filaments filiform; anthers dorsifixed, 2-celled. Ovary 2-celled;

ovules 2 in each cell, pendulous; style capillary with a 2-cleft stigma.

Fruit a coriaceous capsule, indehiscent, 1-seeded by abortion.

Congea tomentosa Roxb.

(tomentosa is derived from the Latin word tomentum, the stuff-

ing of a pillow and is usually used to describe a shaggy pubescence).

Description.—A large deci-

duous_ scandant shrub.

Branches and young parts

covered with a soft or rough,

short, shaggy pubescence.

Leaves opposite, exstipulate,

ovate to ovate-oblong in

shape, petiolate, 4-5 in. long,

2-4 in. wide, obtuse or rounded

at the base, acute or acumi-

nate, entire; petiole about

.2-.3 in. long, pubescent ; upper

surface very rough to the

touch; under surface softly

hairy to almost hirsute on

the mid-rib; nerves promin-

ent below.

Inflorescence simulating a

large compound terminal

panicle; main branches pubes-

cent, opposite. On _ the

branches are opposite, pedun-

culate cymes of flowers.

Peduncles supported at the

base by a_ velvety bract,

.25 in. long. Peduncle up to

r in. long, hairy. At the top

of the peduncle is an involucre

of 3 bracteoles connate at the

base, forming a very small

cup; bracteoles elliptic-obtuse,

oblanceolate, obovate in shape, Fig. 3.—Congea tomentosa Roxb. x

wie

296 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

velvety-tomentose on the inner surface, tomentose and veined out-

side, pale purple, pink or whitish in colour, up to 1 in. long. Flowers

in cymes sessile in the involucre. Calyx gamosepalous, covered

with dense hairs. .25-3 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes acute. Corolla

gamopetalous, as long as the calyx tube, tubular, constricted above

the ovary, 2-lipped, glabrous, whitish. Stamens 4, didynamous;

filaments as long as the corolla. Ovary glabrous; style filiform.

ee an. indehiscent capsule.

~ Flomwers.—December-March.

: Distribution.—Native of } Manipur, Ghiteivones Burma and Siam,

Eyam cultivated in gardens in India.

Gardening.—A strong deciduous climber allied to Petrea volubilis,

and conspicuous for the persistent pinkish-mauve bracts which

cover this vine during spring and remain on the plant for a long

time. It is usually propagated by seed as cuttings take root with

difficulty. The plant commonly cultivated in gardens is_ var.

azurea Wall. |

3. Petrea (Petraea) Houst. ex Linn.

(This genus was named in honour of Lord Petre (1713-1743) Thorn-

don, Essex, who in his short life had managed to put together

the finest collection of exotic plants then existing in Europe).

Shrubs, trees, or woody vines. Leaves opposite or whorled,

deciduous, exstipulate, rough. Inflorescence an axillary or ter-

minal, many-flowered raceme. Calyx inferior, gamosepalous; tube

campanulate, usually ribbed, 5-lobed, lobes longer than the tube,

coloured. The rim of the ean: often bears a 5-lobed, calicinal crest.

Corolla gamopetalous, inferior, darker blue or purple than the calyx

or white, slightly irregular, 5-lobed; lobes collected into 2 lips;

one of 2, the other of 3 eine. Stamens 4, didynamous, included

in the corolla tube and inserted on it close together near the middle,

filaments short and slender, anthers oblong. Ovary subglobose,

2-cellled; ovules 1 in each cell. Fruit a drupe enclosed by the

mature calyx.

Petrea volubilis Linn.

PURPLE WREATH.

(volubilis means twining in Latin and refers to the habit of the

plant).

Description.—A woody vine or undershrub with greyish bark

on the old wood. Branches and branchlets slender, prominently

lenticellate, shortly hairy. Leaves opposite, exstipulate, petiolate,

firmly membranous, rather dull- -green above, brighter green beneath,

very rough to the touch, 2-8 in. long by 1-4 in. wide, acute or

shortly acuminate at the apex, cuneate at the base; petiole up to

.5 in. long, densely or sparsely pubescent.

Inflorescence a drooping, many-flowered raceme, solitary in the

axils, up to 12 in. long; rhachis puberulent. Individual flowers

pedicellate; pedicels .3 in. long, obscurely hairy. Calyx gamose-

palous; tube cylindric, about .12 in, long, not ribbed, densely

pubescent outside, 5-lobed; lobes membranous, oblong, .75 in. long

JOURN. BomBAy Nat. Hisr. Soc.

M. N. Bakshi

Photo by

Purple Wreath.

Petrea volubilis, Linn.

Dehra Dun,

ew Forest,

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. SOc.

YUM Mai Mdbiillldd bj

Photo by M. N. Bakshi

Purple Wreath.

Petrea volubilis, Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 297

by .25 in. wide, lilac or blueish in colour, rounded at the apex;

calicinal crest composed of five membranous, triangular-ovate lobes.

Corolla hypocrateriform, .3 in. long deep blue or purple, with an

infundibuliform tube, lower three quarters glabrous, upper quarter

densely pubescent, 5-lobed; lobes broadly elliptic. Inner surface

of the corolla-tube puberulent, densely pilose at the base of. the

stamens. Stamens 4, didynamous, inserted on the tube; filaments

filiform, glabrous; anthers oblong; staminode obsolete. Ovary

oblong-obovoid, glabrous, seated on a conspicuous disk; style

filiform; stigma obliquely capitate. Fruiting calyx up to .17 in.

long, densely pubescent.

Flowers.—March-April. Sométimes with a second flush in

October. It does not fruit in this country.

Distribution.—Native of tropical - America. Now commonly

cultivated throughout the tropics.

Gardening.—The ‘Purple wreath’ is one of the most distinct and

beautiful of cultivated climbers. It bears long spikes of cloudy-

blue star-like flowers which are extremely effective when massed

It can be used not only as a climber but can be trained as a standard.

The flowers begin to open at the base of the spike-like raceme and

the showy 5-pointed star is the calyx, whose sepals are coloured

like petals. The calyx spreads open while the corolla is still like

a bud in the middle and remains long after the corolla) has fallen,

so that the vine, at first glance, appears to bear two kinds of

‘flowers. Propagated by layers and gooties or from suckers which

it frequently sends up.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA.

Rev lp ePOCOCK DEER YS:

(Zoological Department of the British Museum, Natural History).

(With 8 text-figures).

The exceptionally interesting species of Deer (Cervidae) inhabit-

ing British India are so well known to sportsmen and naturalists

and, for the most part, so easily distinguished by their antlers and

other external features that, recently at all events, no special atten-

tion has been paid to the detailed structure of their skulls. In a

series of papers dealing with them, which it is my intention to

publish, an attempt has been made to remedy this defect and

establish the resemblances and differences between the skulls of

the various species.

Of the species contained in this first instalment, two, namely

the Kashmir Barasingh or Hangul and the Shou, are known to

occur within the precincts of British India; but the precise habitat

of the third, Wallich’s Deer, is not yet ascertained, although the

species has been frequently quoted by writers on the Big Game of

the country, has been exported from N. India, and is admittedly

closely allied to the first two. To these has been added Przewalski’s

Deer, an inhabitant of Tibet. The pretexts for its inclusion here are

the record of the importation of a head and antlers to Darjiling, the

realisation of the possibility of the recurrence of that event, and the

difficulty a sportsman or museum curator might have in identifying

such a_ trophy.

The facts recorded in this paper are mainly based on specimens

preserved in the British Museum. It 1s only necessary to add at

present that the four species above referred to are distinguished

from the rest of the British Indian Deer by the short and _ short-

haired tail, the conspicuous pale area on the rump, the comparative

narrowness of the rhinarium below the nostrils in front and by

the antlers. These obvious external characters have been known

for a long time, for the most part.

Cervus wallichii, G. Cuvier.

(Wallich’s Deer).

Cervus wallichii G. Cuvier, Oss. Fossiles, 1812 (according to

Pousargues Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr. 11, p. 195, 1898); id. Oss. Foss.

ed, 3,4; p. 504, 1625) 1deop. cit eds 4alO Mp mCOMmoc ce mh Cunen

and Geoff. St. Hilaire, Hist. Nat. Mamm., 4, No. 356, 1823. The

description and figure published in these works have been cited by

many subsequent authors, including Pocock, Proc. Zool, Soc., 1912,

pp. 559-565 (photograph) and Lydekker Cat. Ung. Brit. Mus., 4,

pp. I41-142, 1915.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 299

Harana wallichi, Hodgson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1, p. 154,

1838.

Pseudocervus wallichti, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc., ro, pt. 2,

p. 914, 1841.

Locality of the type’ and distribution not ascertained.

A comparatively large stag, standing about 51 in., close on

13 hands, at the withers and characterised by the great size of the

white rump-patch, which is very wide above the tail and reaches

the summit of the croup, its median length above the tail a little

surpassing twice the length of that organ. In the size of this area

the species differs from all the known forms of Cervus, except the

Wapiti, but the area differs from that of the Wapiti in being clean

~white instead of buffy and in being narrower below on the back

of the thighs on a level with the apex of the tail, that organ being

also clean white and quite short. The general colour (in March)

is decidedly pale, being a tolerably uniform yellowish or sandy-

brown all over, except on the forehead which is browner, the

cheeks and backs of the ears which are greyer and the muzzle and

chin which are pale fawn. The individual hairs show no dark

and lighter speckling.

This description is abridged from the account I published in

1912 of an adult stag presented to the late King by the Maharajah

of Nepal and exhibited in the Zoological Gardens, London. It was

stated by Col. Manners Smith (The Field, July 31, 1909, p. 239)

to have been captured as a fawn in the upper reaches of the Sanpo

Valley, close to Lake Mansarowar. So far as I am aware this

specimen and the two exhibited in the Barrackpore Menagerie are

the only representatives of C. wallichii that have ever been described

and figured.

The specimen in the Zoological Gardens lived several years

after my account of it was published. A peculiarity of its moult

was the shedding of the old dead hair before the new coat appeared,

leaving the dark skin naked*—no doubt an individual peculiarity— ;

but there was no noticeable seasonal change in tint; and three

years before it reached England, while still in captivity in Nepal,

Col. Manners Smith described its colour as ‘very light’. These

facts suggest that wallichii is throughout the year paler in tint

than the Shou and the Hangul or Kashmir Stag. The colour of

the original specimen is doubtful since it was described from a

coloured sketch and was said to be dark grey-brown or yellowish

grey-brown. It is not clear how it could be both; but yellowish

grey brown suggests a pale hue agreeing tolerably closely with

that of the example I described.

The antlers of the type were quite small and apparently degenerate

with old age, the brow and bez tines being short and the trez absent.

* Cuvier’s description was taken from a figure sent to him by Duvaucel of

one of a pair, according to Blyth, exhibited in the menagerie at Barrackpore

and alleged to have come from Maktinath, north of Dwalagiri in Nepal. Al-

though Hodgson gave two generic names to this stag, he never saw it and

knew it only from Cuvier’s figure.

* Year after year at this period well meaning but misguided correspondents

used to write to me denouncing the conduct of the Society for exhibiting such

a disgracefully mangy animal ! d

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The left antler of the example in the Zoological Gardens, which was

shed on the voyage to England when the stag was about 5 years

old, was normal but small and indistinguishable from the antlers

of some Shou and of the Kashmir Barasingh, as shown by the

photograph in my paper (p. 563). The same applies to a second

pair shed in 1913 and preserved in the British Museum (no.

15.5.11.1). These antlers are only about qo ins. long, their small

size, as in the case of the other pair referred to, being no doubt

due to deficiency of diet in captivity.

The skull is unknown. Probably it will prove to be like that

of the Shou (C, affinis).

I have provisionally regarded Wallich’s Stag as specifically dis-

tinct from the Shou because so far as I am aware there is not any

evidence that the two intergrade in the size of the rump patch.

/ iN

Fig. 1.—A, rump of Wallich’s Deer (Cervus wallichii) copied from Proc-

Zool, Soc., 1912, p. 561, Fig. 67; B, the same of the Shou (Cervus affinis)

drawn from Col. Rennick’s specimen from the Chumbi Valley; C, the same ol

the Hangul (Cervus hanglu) copied from Proc. Zool. Soc., 1912, p. 566, Fig. 70;

I), the same of another Hangul drawn from Major Powell Cotton’s specimen

‘from the Sutlej Valley.

Cervus affinis, Hodgson.

(The Shou).

Cervus a ints, Hodgson, Journ, As. Soc. Beng., 10, pt. 2, p. 721,

pl., 1840; 1d) Op. \cit, 10; p. 466, 1850, hidMiopmicity m2Ompaecso.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 30]

pl. 7, 1851; and of many subsequent writers including Pocock,

noc ZOOls SOC. 1902.) p. 5607, lbydekker,> Cat. Une Brit. (Mus:,

4, p. 142, 1915, (cited as subspecies of wallichit); and Burrard, Big

Game Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet, p. ‘220, 1925 (cited as

wallichit). =,

Cervus tibetanus, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 19, p. 466

1850.

Cervus nariyanus, Hodgson, 20, p. 392, pl., 1851.

Locality of the type unknown; originally stated by Hodgson

to be the Sal forests in the Morung or eastern Tarai of Nepal; but

subsequently in 1850 he withdrew this statement, declaring that the

species 1s not found there and that the trophy must have been

imported.

Disiribution (according to Burrard) :—the Chumbi Valley, which

is a basin of the Ammu River, a tributary of the Raidak, also in

Bhutan in the Valley of the Raidak which flows through that

country.

Resembling C, wallichii in size but distinguished from the two

described examples of the latter by its much smaller white rump-

patch which, above the root of the tail, is considerably narrower

and shorter, extending at most about half way between the root

of that organ and the summit of the croup. Moreover, it is al-

ways marked by a more or less pronounced darkish median line

which is strongest on the upper half of the tail and may extend

to the pigmented hairs on the upper half of the croup. The general

colour too is also apparently considerably darker, at all events at

certain seasons of the year, the pelage is distinctly speckled and

the belly is more sharply contrasted by its blackish hue with the

pale flanks.

This stag was described from a skull with antlers. Ten years

later from ‘abundant supplies’ sent to him, he alleged, from Ding-

cham, N. of Sikkim, Hodgson described the colour of the winter

coat (F ebruary) as ‘earthy brown, more or less lutescent, the head

and neck being concolorous mith the back,’ but the flanks were

conspicuously paler than the back and sharply contrasted with the

black belly; the limbs were paler than the back but darker than

the flanks and earthy brown in front and externally; the caudal

disc was ‘remarkably small’ but sharply contrasted and marked with

-a ‘dark mesial line.’ Presumably this description of the size of

the caudal disc as remarkably small meant in comparison . with

that of C. wallichii, as figured and described by the two Cuviers

and Geoffrey St. Hilaire.

Three flat skins in the British Museum, one presented by Hodgson,

labelled ‘“N. India’ and two presented by Blanford and _ labelled

‘Sikkim (Mandelli)’ show that the dividing line of the small rump-

patch is variable in distinctness, in one case being only just trace-

able, -and that the patch itself may be set off marginally by un-

speckled hairs, darker than those of the rest of the rump; the

general colour is dirty brown or greyish brown, darker than that

of the example of C. wallichii exhibited in the London Zoological

Gardens.

These remarks are an epitome of my description of C. affinis

published in r912. Since then the Museum has received a specimen,

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

mounted in the gallery, from the Chumbi Valley which was presented

by Col. Rennick. Some particulars about this may be interesting.

The length of the head and body over the curves is 87 inches, the

tail is about 34 inches and the standing height at the withers

52 inches, exactly 13 hands and almost the same as in the example

of C. wallichu 1 described. The coat is rough here and there,

suggesting that the moult had started, but it is thick and about

52 mm. long on the body and about 7o on the neck; the general

colour is pale, grey with a slightly brownish tinge, closely recalling

the tint of the example of C. wallichii and most emphatically not

‘earthy brown’ as described by Hodgson; the flanks are a little

lighter than the back but the belly is much darker and the crown,

muzzle and legs are browner than the body; the rump-patch extends

about one-third of the way between the root of the tail and the

summit of the croup, slightly more than the length of the tail and

its median dark line is faint in front, stronger befow and on the

upper half of the tail; the gland on the hind leg is 64 inches below

the hock and 1o inches above the false hoof of the same side.

Antlers. Most of the recent descriptions of the antlers of the

Shou are wrong. They are taken from a skull in the British Museum

belonging to Hume’s collection (Mandelli coll. no. 12.10.31.4).

A front view photograph of this skull and antlers is given in

Rowland Ward’s Records and several of Lydekker’s works. These

antlers have been regarded as typical of the species (C. affinis).

They are, on the contrary, quite abnormal, their essential peculiarity

consisting in the abrupt, nearly rectangular bend of the beam just

above the trez tine when viewed from the front. Not one of many

other pairs I have seen shows such a bend from that aspect, al-

though from the side a similar bend is sometimes exhibited. They

have also been described as bending ‘suddenly forwards at the trez

tine, so that the upper half overhangs the face.’ This alleged

feature has also been regarded as characteristic of the species. It

does not. exist.. When the skull is resting on a flat surface, with the

cranio-facial axis horizontal, the beam of the antler. from the side

shows a slight forward trend below the trez tine; but from that tine

to the tip it is as nearly as possible vertical, without a trace of for-

ward bend, the terminal tines being above the occiput.: The upper

half of the antler can only be made to overhang the face by steeply

tipping the skull so that the muzzle is much lower than the occiput.

It can similarly be made to overhang the position of the withers by

tipping the skull sufficiently the other way. But these statements

are true of many species of Cervidae. In no skull of the Shou that

I have seen does the upper half of the antler overhang the face when

the cranial axis is horizontal.

As stated above, the antlers of the skull in the Hume collection,

above discussed, are unique in ‘the abrupt angulation of the beam

above the trez tine from the anterior aspect. In some other antlers

the axis of the beam above the trez tine is, from this point of view,

evenly curved up to the terminal tines. This is the case in a pair

(Hume and Mandelli, no. 91.8.7.6); in the mounted specimen from

Chumbi (Col. Rennick); in Hodgson’s types of affinis (no. 45.1.8.94)

and of tibetanus (no. 57.12.14.3) and, judging from the figure, in

his type of nariyanus. In others there is a slight, very obtuse

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 303

angulation at the trez tine. This is shown in pairs received from

Blanford (no number); from Hume and Mandelli (no. 91.8.7-7),

Fig. 2.—A, side view of left antler of Hume’s and Mandelli’s historic skull of

the Shou, the beam below the trez tine and the inner terminal tine greatly

foreshortened. This antler has often been described as bending suddenly

forwards at the trez tine so that the upper part overhangs the face!; B, front

view of the same antler showing the abnormal; not characteristic angulation

at the level of the trez tine from this aspect.

from Hodgson (no. 57.12.14.2) and others. In one pair only (Ind.

Mus. no. 79.11.21.47) does the beam from the front aspect show a

somewhat abrupt angulation at the trez tine so that the inner ter-

minal tines are comparatively close together at their points;

but the bend is not so abrupt as in Hume’s first described skull

(no. 12.19.31.4) and occurs higher up the beam, the trez tine rising

closer to the terminal fork than to the bez tine, although the bez tine

itself rises considerably above the brow tine, not close to it as in the

Hume skull.

From the lateral aspect differences in the curvature of the antlers

may be strongly marked. In Hodgson’s type, as shown in his

figure, the beam makes an abrupt nearly rectangular bend below

the trez tine and above the bend runs upwards with a slight back-

ward trend. In his figure of the entire animal sent to him by

Dr. Campbell, the beam presents a similar bend, but in this case

it is apparently at about the level of the trez tine or beyond it.

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

In Hume’s historic skull (no. 12.10.31.4) and in his other one

(no. g1.8.7.6) the antlers are as strongly and similarly angulated.

No two of these antlers are precisely alike, but it is needless to

describe the differences, the only feature of interest being the absence

of the trez tine in the left antler of Hume’s second specimen. — In

most of the other skulls, referred to above, the beam in side view |

Fig. 3.—A, front view of the left antler of Shou (Indian Museum) showing

the abnormal, abrupt inward bending of the beam at the highest trez tine ;

B, front view of the left antler of the Shou from the Chumbi Valley; C, side

view of the same antler the curvature of the antler is much more normal for

the species than the’ antler depicted in fig. 2.

shows a nearly even curvature, with at most, a slight deviation at

the trez tine. From these facts it is clear that the statement that

the antlers of C. affinis are characterised by an abrupt angulation

of the beam is only true of some skulls.

There are still one or two points to notice. Reference was

made above to the absence of the trez tine in the left antler of

Hume’s skull (no. 91.8.7.6). In the type of nariyanus, as figured

by Hodgson, there is only a single tine midway between the brow

tine and the terminal fork; and the same is the case in the right

antler of Blanford’s head (no number). It is not possible to deter-

mine whether this tine represents the bez tine or the trez tine.

But Blanford’s skull is old, the crowns of the incisiform teeth being

worn almost to the root. Hence there seems to me to be no doubt

that: the abnormality of the right antler is due to age-decadence.

Finally it may be added that the variation in the antlers in the

Shou is greater than in any species of deer I can at present recall,

much greater than in the Hangul from whose antlers those of the

Shou are sometimes hardly distinguishable.

Of seven adult skulls in the British Museum not one has .a

trustworthy locality, nearly all being labelled “N. of Bhutan.’ The

THE LARGER

longest, marked ‘Sikkim’

(without further history),

has a total length of

465 mm. (about 18 3/5 in-

ches) and a _ condylobasal

length of 441 mm. (about

17 3/5 inches); the shortest,

Hodgson’s type, (no. 45.1.

8.49) has a total length of

433 mm. (about 17+ inches),

but the occipital condyles

are missing. ‘The total!

length of the rest is be-

tween 440 and 450 mm.

Only one of these is com-

plete with its condyles (Ind.

Mus. Olen 79s UL 2e42)

This has a total length of

444 mm. (about 17 4/5 in-

ches) and a_condylobasal

length of 427 mm. (about

17 inches). Since the seven

skulls have an average total

length of 449 mm., the

average condylobasal

length may be put at about

430 mm.’

Some individual varia-

tions of the skulls in other

particulars are shown in

the table of measurements.

The nasals differ considera-

bly in shape in individual

skulls. In the type they are

very nearly three times as

long as wide at their widest

point between the facial

racuities and they pene-

trate deeply between the

frontal processes forming

an acute angle, the apex of

which surpasses by some

20 mm. the posterior ends

of the vacuities. But in

DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 305

bese “lé 47°

Fig. 4.—A, upper part of left nasal bone,

with the vacuity and inner half of the gland

pit (dotted) of one of Hodgson’s skulls of

a Shou, showing the nearly complete separa-

tion of the vacuity from the nasal bone ;

B, the same of the type of Cervus affinis,

showing more normal extent of contact be-

tween the nasal bone and the vacuity in this

species.

Some years after Ward photographed Hume’s historic skull (no. 12.10.

31.4); it fell from the wall where it was suspended and the entire facial

portion was smashed.

I am unable therefore to give its measurements. But

there is nothing exceptional in its orbital and postorbital widths. It must be

explainedsthat measuring most of the skulls of this species and of the next and

drawing parts of. them have been difficult owing to their being mounted on

wooden blocks and placed high up on the walls or on the tops of exhibition

cases in the Museum gallery. The recorded dimensions may, therefore, be a few

mm. out either way. But such errors as there may be are of no great moment

considering the size of the skulls.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

the skull presented by Blanford the width is a good deal less

than twice and a half times the length and they penetrate less

deeply between the frontals, the tips being nearly rectangular

and about on a level with the posterior ends of the vacuities. At

the anterior end they may end in two processes, but the outer process

may alone persist. The extent to which they surpass in front the

anterior edge of ‘the nasal branch of the premaxillae varies con-

siderably; and their width at that point in Blanford’s skull is less

than half their greatest width, whereas in two of Hume’s and

Mandelli’s skulls it is considerably over, the nasals in the first skull

being exceptionally broad behind and narrow in front, the converse

being the case in the latter two.

The most interesting point connected Sah the nasals of this

species is the general shortness of their free edge where they abut

against the vacuity, this feature being mainly due to the backward

extension of the maxillae between the nasals and the vacuity. The

length of the free edge may vary on the two sides. In Blanford’s

skull, for instance, it is 17 mm, on the left side, 12 on the right,

the first figure being quite exceptionally large. In other skulls

the free edge varies from 14 mm. in the longest skull, 11 mm.

in the type to 8 and 5 in the rest. In one of Hodgson’s skulls

(no. 57.12.14.2) the main space of the vacuity is almost cut off

from the nasal on the left side by a forwards projecting process

from the maxillae which are only 1 mm. apart at their tips. In no

other species of Oriental Deer are the nasals so nearly cut off from

the vacuities. Owing to the backward encroachment of the maxilla

between the nasals and the vacuities, the anterior portion of the

latter in front of the free edge of the nasals is longer, sometimes

considerably longer than the posterior portion behind it.

The gland-pit is smallish, its length being less than the vertical

diameter of the orbit (inside measurement).

I am indebted to Col. F. M. Bailey for the following note on

the distribution of the Shou, based on his own experience :— “‘Shous

used to be fairly common on the ridge east of the Chumbi Valley

between that valley and Bhutan. Last of this there used to be some

in Bhutan. They lived I think in Bhutan but came over the ridge

into the Chumbi Valley in the summer and autumn. About Novem-

ber and December the Chumbi Valley people cut fuel for their winter

supply. Deep snow does not usually come till later. This disturbs

the forest and drives the deer back into Bhutan. In the summer

of 1921 I saw two hinds and a young one above Lingmotang in

the Chumbi Valley. There must have been very few left and |

believe all were exterminated a few years ago, as I am told there |

are none in this part of Bhutan now. I saw a few in the district

of Tsari. Here the Shou will be more or less artificially preserved

for a long time I hope, as the place is very holy and no life may

be taken ‘there.”

Cervus hanglu, Wagener.

(The Hangul, Hanglo or Kashmir Barasingh).

Cervus hanglu, Wagner, Schreber’s Siiug. Suppl. 4, p. 352 (foot- ,

note) 1844; Pocock, Proc, Zool. Soc. 1912, p. 566.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 307

Cervus cashimerensis, Gray, List. Ost. Brit. Mus. p. 65, 1847,

altered on p. 147 to C. cusperianus (nomina nuda).

Cervus casperianus, Gray, Cat. Mamm: Brit. Mus. pt. 3, Ung.

pl. 27, fig. 3 and pl. 28, hg. 1 (skull) 1852.

Cervus cashmeriensis, Adams 1858; cushmeerianus, Falconer

1808, cashnurianus, bitzinger, 1874, cashmiriensis, Lydekker, 1915,

Ausnmirensis, Burrard 1925. (Of these variants of the same name,

the second and third have been most frequently adopted. Lydekker

rejected hanglu because he didn’t like it and used cashmirianus till

1g14 but substituted cashmiriensis in 1915.

Locality of the types of hanglu, casperianus and cashmeriensis :

Ikashmir.

Distribution:—in winter most of the nullahs from west of the

Wular Lake to Kistwar and as far east as the borders of Chamba

State; in summer at higher altitudes in the more lonely forest

farther West (Arbuthnot in Burrard’s book 1925).

Distinguished from the Shou by its smaller size, greater contrast

in colour between the muzzle and the rest of the face owing to

the whiteness of the chin and upper lip and the pale hue ol the

side of the muzzle up to and behind the nostrils; there is also more

white round the eye, and on the throat and belly; there is no record

of a greyish phase in the pelage which ts darkish brown above,

rather paler on the flanks, with a pale speckle in the contour hairs,

as in the Shou, and the legs are darker than the flanks; the pale

area on the rump is. about as extensive as in the Shou except that

above the root of the tail it is divided in the middle line by a much

broader brown band continuous with the colour of the upper part

of the croup and sometimes continued all down the middle of the

tail to its tip.

This diagnosis is abridged from my description published in

1912, when [ resuscitated Wagner’s name hanglu for the species.

in that paper were given the main characters of C. wallichu, C.

affinis and C. hanglu and it was claimed that affinis is in some

respects intermediate between the other two, having the size and

coloration of the face of wallichii, but much more closely resembling

hanglu in the small size of the pale rump-patch.

Kecent comparison between the skulls of affinis and hanglu has

shown that those of the latter are about two inches shorter and

further differ, as explained in some detail below, in the longer free

edge of the nasals where they abut against the facial vacuity. There

is no constant difference between the antlers of the two; but those

of the hanglu never, so far as the heads I have seen are concerned,

show from the front view the abrupt angular bend described in two

specimens of affinis and, on the available evidence, those of the

hanglu are more lable to develop at least one accessory tine at the

tip, which may arise either from the outer or inner of the two

normal terminal tines.

Only one skin of hanglu is at present available for examination.

This is a mounted adult stag from the Sind Valley and received

from Major Powell Cotton. It bears out the description given

above; but a few notes on it may be of interest by way of com-

parison with the mounted specimen of affinis from the Chumbi

Valley, described above, and the mounted specimen of Przewalski’s

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLill

Tibetan Deer, the type of thoroldi, described below; both of which

stand alongside it in the exhibition case.

The length of the head and body over the curves is 7g inches

and the height at the withers 474 inches, both dimensions being

noticeably less than in the Shou. The coat is about 50 mm. long

on the body but on the nape and sides of the neck is about 100 mm.,

considerably longer here than in the Shou. The ear is about

7% inches long trom the notch to the tip in front and nearly 3%

inches at its widest point. The gland on the hind leg is as nearly

as may be the same distance from the hock as from the false

hoof of the same side, namely just over eight inches, but this is

probably due to unequal shrinking of the skin since in the photo-

graph | published in 1912 (op. cit. p. 566) of a living hanglu the

gland is clearly about a couple of inches nearer the hock than

the false hoof. The general colour of the body and head is as

described above; the white of the back of the thighs spreads on

to the inguinal region and hind belly, the belly in front is blackish

and there is some white on each side of the chest. The rump-

patch extends about two inches in front of the root of the tail on

each side, but the median dark dividing line runs backwards down

the tail and expands behind so as to occupy the whole of its tip.

In this respect the rump-patch differs markedly from that of the

photograph of the living example I described in tg12, in which

the dark band dividing the patch on the lower croup, stops short

at the root of the tail, the upper surface of that organ being white

like the buttocks on each side of it.

The antlers vary greatly individually in the curvature of the

beam which may form part of the arc of a circle, as in a head from

Vig. 5.—A, left antler of Hangul or Kashmir Barasingh shot above

Manaspal Lake by Brig. Gen. Gillies; B, the same of one of Hume’s examples

from the Sind Valley; C, upper part of left antler of another of Hume’s

examples from the Sind Valley. (These three figures drawn from skulls, sus-

pended several feet above the observer’s eye).

‘above the Manaspal Lake’ (Brig. Gen. Gillies, no. 39.11) in which

the inner terminal points are only 14$ inches apart, whereas in

OOS 2520.21) elas waa:

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 309

one of Hume’s heads from the Sind Valley the beam is nearly

straight from the burr to the terminal fork, exhibiting only a very

slight deviation at the trez tine, the tips being 334 inches apart

(no. 12.10.31.2).

In another with the same history (no. 12.10.31.1)

the portion of the beam between the bez and trez tines is slightly

curved and the upward bend at the trez tine is more strongly

marked.

Skull.

There are many adult or approximately adult skulls in

the British Museum; but only a few are complete in every respect.

They are very similar to the

skulls of the Shou, but decidedly

smaller. The longest from the

Sind Valley (Hume, no. 12.10.

31.1) has a total length of

404 mm. (about 16 1/5 in.) and

a condylobasal length of 395 mm.

(15 4/5 in.), its total length be-

ing over 2 in. shorter than the

longest skull of the Shou above

recorded, and a little over 1 in.

shorter than the shortest of that

species ;. its condylobasal length

is a little over 1 in. shorter than

that of the only skull of the

Shou, a medium-sized specimen,

in which the condyles are pre-

served. Nearly as long as the

Sind Valley specimen is a skull

from above the Manaspal Lake

(Brice) Gen Gillies, no. 39: 11)

which has a_ total length of

399 mm., but a _ condylobasal

length of only 373 mm.; a skull

from the Lidar Valley (Lydekker

total

length of 397 mm.; another

from the Sind Valley (Hume, no.

12.10.31.2) is nearly the smallest

in the collection, with a total

length of 384 mm. and a con-

dylobasal length of 365 mm., the

former dimension being nearly

one inch less than in Hume’s

longest from the same locality

and the latter dimension over one

inch less. The only other skull

with a special locality is one

from Srinagar (Capt. Phelps,

not registered); this has the

muzzle and occiput broken away,

but its available dimensions show nothing that calls for note.

Fig. 6.—A,

bone with vacuity and inner half of

gland-pit (dotted), of Hume’s Hangul

upper end of left nasal

from the Maharajah of Jsashmir’s

Reserve, showing the longest area of

contact between the nasal and _ the

vacuity observed in the available

skulls; B, the same of a skull from

the Lidar Valley (Lydekker) showing

the shortest area of contact.

The

average total length in six skulls is as nearly as may be two inches

less than in the Shou; and the average condylobasal length of three

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLitl

skulls is 378 mm., nearly two inches less than that of the only Shou

in which that dimension is available.

In other skull-dimensions the two species frequently overlap or

come very close to each other, as shown by the table of measure-

ments. But on the average those of the Hangul are smaller with

one notable exception which supplies the only cranial difference |

can detect between the two species, apart from size. |

The nasals vary in shape to about the same extent as in the

Shou and their posterior angle may penetrate the frontals deeply

enough to surpass considerably the posterior ends of the vacuities

or may fall short of that point; but the free edge of the nasals,

where they abut against the vacuities, is typically considerably

longer than -in the Shou mainly on account of the maxillae not

extending so far posteriorly in contact with the nasals. Hence the

anterior part of the vacuity bounded internally by the maxilla is

generally considerably shorter than the posterior part bounded in-

ternally by the frontal. The length of the free edge of the nasal

varies from about 27 mm. in a skull of Hume’s from the Maharajah’s

Reserve (no. 91.8.7.2) to about 15 mm, in Lydekker’s skull from

the Lidar Valley (no. 88.3.20.1), its average in many skulls being

about twice as great as in the Shou, although the nasals them-

selves are always shorter.

Genus Przewalskium, Flerov.

Przewalskium, Flerov, C. R. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., 1930, p. 115.

Type of the genus:—Cervus albirostris, Przewalsk1.

“ue

“0

Drea?

Fig. 7.—A, orbital region with vacuity and gland-pit of Przewalski’s Deer

(P. albivostris). Drawn from the skull of the type of Cervus thoroldi; B, the

same of a skull of the Hangul (C. hanglu) from Srinagar (Phelps), showing

particularly the shorter, shallower, less well defined gland-pit and larger vacuity

in comparison with A.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 311

Distribution :—Eastern Tibet.

Distinguished from the British Indian species of Cervus by the

exceptional harshness of the coat, its reversal in growth—direction

along the back either from its middle or from the croup (haunches)

to the withers (shoulders) where it forms a well defined mat; by the

narrower, more pointed, relatively longer ears; by the position of

the gland-tuft nearer the false hoof than the hock of the hind

leg; by the relatively shorter, broader hoofs; by the extension of

the white of the upper lip over the muzzle, encircling the rhinarium,

and that of the chin backwards over the whole of the lower jaw

to the upper end of the throat, these white areas being sharply

defined, and by the buff or fawn tint of the rump-patch, tail and

backs of the thighs.

In the skull the gland-pit is much deeper, with more sharply

defined edges, and relatively longer than in Cervus, its length a

Fig. 8.—A, the nasal bones, vacuities and inner half of the gland-pits (dotted)

of Przewalski’s Deer (P. albirostris) for comparison with figs. 4 and 6. | Drawn

from the skull of the type of Cervus thoroldi; B, right ear of the same drawn

from the mounted type of Cervus thoroldi; C, the same of the Shou drawn from

Col. Rennick’s mounted specimen from the Chumbi Valley.

little exceeding the inside vertical diameter of the orbit ; the vacuity,

on the contrary, is much narrower and shorter, this peculiarity

being associated with the immense width of the posterior portion

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

of the nasals which at their widest point between the vacuities are

alout half the total length of those bones and form on each side

a bulging expansion with the convex free edge forming a long

contact with the vacuity and its posterior border abruptly incurved

transversely; the surface of the nasals in front of this expansion

is scarcely appreciably constricted so that this area of the muzzle

is flatter transversely than in Cervus; the anterior nares also are

relatively wider and shorter.

The antlers exhibit an obtusely angular backward bend at the

level of the ‘trez’ tine; the two terminal tines form a longitudinal

not a transverse fork as in C. hanglu and affinis and the ‘bez’ tine

is undeveloped. It is normally of large size in the British Indian

representatives of Cervus but it may be absent as a racial or indi-

vidual peculiarity in the type of the genus C. elaphus.

Most of the characters of this stag have been previously des-

cribed. The generic diagnosis here given is taken from the type

of Cervus thoroldi represented by the mounted skin and the skull

in the British Museum. The differences pointed out seem to justify

the generic rank -given to the species by Flerov. He, however,

enumerated as distinctive of Przewalskium a large number of addi-

tional cranial features. Like myself he appears to have had only

one skull. It is not clear with what skulls of Cervus he compared

it and he gave no measurements. But comparison between the

skull of the type of thoroldi and skulls of Cervus hanglu fails to

substantiate many of the differences he claimed and shows some

noticeable individual differences between the skulls of albirostris

that he and I examined.

Flerov claimed that in his skull:—(1) the width is half the

length; (2) the anterior edge of the mesopterygoid fossa reaches

the line of the last molars, whereas in Cervus it falls far short of

that line; (3) the palate is broad and flat, unlike the concave, roof-

like palate of Cervus; (4) the bulla is comparatively minute and

the external auditory meatus is thin and without the sharply marked

crest seen in Cervus; (5) the teeth are minute (small) as compared

with those of Cervus and the tooth-row is short and flat, whereas

in Cervus it is ‘curved archwise downwards’ that is to say the

crowns of the molars in profile view form a convex curve, the

median teeth being lower than the anterior and posterior of the

series.

In the skull of the type of thoroldi :—(1) the width is much less

than half the length, falling short of it by 4o mm. (over 14 inches) ;

(2) the anterior edge of the mesopterygoid fossa is on a level with

the middle of the last molars; in one skull of Cervus hanglu (Harring-

ton) it overlaps the last molars by about one-third of their length,

in another (Duke of Bedford) it falls short of the line of the molars

by about 2 mm. only; (3) the palate is ‘concave and roof-like’, as

in the two skulls of C. hanglu cited; (4) the bulla is larger than

in the Duke of Bedford’s skull of hanglu, in which it looks shrunken,

and the crest on the meatus forms a definite ridge, although not

so well developed as in that skull of hanglu, which is considerably

older. I attribute the strong crest and shrunken bulla in this

specimen to age; (5) the individual teeth are a trifle smaller for

the most part than in Harrington’s skull of hanglu, the actual length

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA: 313

measurements in mm., with those of the hanglu in brackets, being

as follows:—pm' 15 (17), pm* 15 (17), pm* 15 (15), m’ 20 (21), m?

23 (25), m* 22 (24), total length of the row 107 (112). But in the

Duke of Bedford’s older skull of hanglu, with the teeth worn, the

same measurements are: 17, 16, 14, 16, 19, 22, 100; in Mrs. Abbay’s

skull of hanglu, with the teeth unworn, they are 16, 16, 15, 20,

22%, 21$, tog and in Phelphs’s skull from Srinagar the last four

teeth are 15, 18, 22, 24, the total, including the first two missing

premolars, being 114. Clearly the teeth vary in size individually

in hanglu. They also vary in Cervus elaphus. In a skull from

Coto Donana, Spain, the measurements are 15, 15, 14, 19, 22,

21, 100 and in one from Balmacaan, Scotland, they are 14, 14, 14,

17, 22, 19, 99. In both the teeth are smaller than in the type of

thoroldi.

Przewalskium albirostris, Przewalski.

Cervus albirostris and sellatus, Przewalski, Reise Tibet, pp. 73

and 76, 1884 and Cat. Zool. Coll. p. 16, 1887; Pousargues, Bull.

Mus. Paris, 1897, p. 284 and Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr., 11, p. 215, 18098;

Pocock, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1912, p. 574, Lydekker Cat. Ung. Brit.

Mus., p. 149, fig. 28, 1915 and several of his earlier publications.

Cervus dybowskii, W. L. Sclater, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 58,

pt. 2, p. 186, pl. ir (skull), 1889; Bentham, Cat. Asiatic Horns,

etc. Ind. Mus., p. 64, pl. (skull), t908 (not of Taczanowski 1876).

Cervus thoroldi, Blanford, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1893, p. 444, pl. 34,

text fig.

Przewalskium albivostris, Flerov, C. R. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S.,

NQZON 1p. 157) bocock, Proc, Zoolksoe. $1933: p11395-

Locality of the type of albirostris and sellatus: Nak. Chan (Nan.

Chan) N.-E. Tibet; of thoroldi, N.-W. of Bethany, 200 miles N.-E.

of Lhasa, Tibet.

Distribution: —E. Tibet.

The first Englishman to describe this rare species was W. L.

Sclater who had in the Calcutta: Museum a_head-skin and_ skull

found in the Darjiling bazaar. This with much hesitation and,

as it proved, erroneously, he identified as Cervus dybowskii, one of

the Sika-group inhabiting the Ussuri district of Manchuria. He

pointed out the main peculiarities of the skull, distinguishing it

from those of the larger Indian species of the family and gave

some measurements in English inches which show a few minor

differences from those of the type of thoroldi. The only two which

call for notice are the condylobasal length which is 133 inches,

about 4 inch shorter, and the orbital width which is 74 inches, 2 inch

. . . e 2 4

wider, a surprising difference.’ Blanford’s coloured plate of the

' Sclater’s words were ‘greatest width behind the orbits’ from which I

infer he meant ‘greatest width of the orbits behind’, the orbital width being

the greatest width in the type of thorvoldi, Bentham’s measurements of the

same skull nearly twenty years later are hopelessly at variance with Sclater’s.

The basal length, according to him, is 15+ inches, considerably longer, instead

of shorter than the condylobasal length. No doubt he meant the total length,

since the total length of the skull of the type of thoroldi, is just under 153 inches.

The width, according to Bentham, is 5% inches, about one inch less than in ~

that type.

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

type of thoroldi is a good representation of the specimen, except

that the ears are manifestly much too short; but he also gave a

woodcut of the head of a second specimen shot by Thorold. This

specimen I have not seen; but the ears in the figure of it are much

longer than those depicted in the plate and resemble those of the

actual type. Hence the evidence that the ears in the two known

specimens of thoroldi are longer, narrower and more pointed than

in Wallich’s deer, the Shou and the Kashmir Barasingh is satis-

factory.

Blanford perceived that his specimens of thoroldi were specifi-

cally the same as the stag Sclater had described four years pre-

viously; but it was Pousargues who detected that Przewalski had

previously named the species albirostris.

There is one other point. Blanford discussed at some length

his suspicion that Hodgson in 1851 had described thoroldi as

nariyanus. He finally rejected that name because of its alleged

inappropriateness, without perceiving that Hodgson’s figure of the

antler of nariyanus at once negatives the supposition.

The only available specimen is the type of thoroldi, a mounted

skin collected at Bethany, 200 m. alt. by W. C. Thorold (no.

92.10.11.1).° It is a strongly built stag, the standing height at

the withers being about 48 in. and the length over the curves to

the root of the tail, only 724 in., just over 6 ft., the same height

approximately as a mounted skin of C. hanglu alongside

it, but 7 in. shorter in the length of the head and body. Whether

this difference in length is a genuine character or due to artificial

preparation is doubtful. The coarse hairs on the body are straight

and about 52 mm. (2 in.) long, but on the fore part of the shoulder-

mat they are curved and 73 mm. (about 3 in.) long; those on the

muzzle and cheeks as far back as below the ears are much finer

and smoother. The general colour is darkish brown, with a fulvous

speckle in the pelage; this gradually fades to sandy fawn on the

legs; the white on the head, throat and front of the ears is much

more sharply defined than in the Shou and Hanglu (Kashmir Stag)

and the rump patch and tail are sandy like the legs and_ sharply

defined from the brown of the back and outside of the thighs; the

patch extends about 3 in. in front and at the sides of the tail,

which is about 54 in. long, without the terminal hairs. The notice-

ably pointed ears are 8} in. long from the notch in front, 10 in.

from the base behind and 3 in. wide in the middle of their length;

they are actually longer and narrower than in the mounted speci-

men of the Hanglu. The gland on the hind leg is below the

middle of the shank, its centre being 84 in. below the hock and

7 in. above the outer false-hoof. The main hoofs are about 60 mm.

long down the front edge.

In this account I have followed the general opinion that thoroldi

is a synonym of albirostris. The names admittedly apply to the

same species; but they may symbolise distinct. subspecies. At all

events, according to the descriptions, the types differ in two re- |

spects and were killed at places some 600 miles apart. From Prze-

walski’s description of albirostris, of which Pousargues published

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA | 315

a translation, the hairs along the spine in albirostris are reversed

from the middle of the back and the general colour is “brownish

red’, each hair being brown at the base, red at the tip; and the

under side and the inner sides of the upper half of the limbs are

clearer red. In the type of thoroldi, on the contrary, the spinal

hairs are reversed from the croup and there is no red in the pelage,

the tips of the hairs of the upper side being pale fulvous and the

general colour of the body above and below brown. But the differ-

ence in the spinal hairs may be merely individual and the difference

in colour seasonal, the type of albirostris, with the antlers in velvet,

having been shot in July and that of thoroldi, with the antlers

burnished, in the snow, presumably of winter.

In the following table of measurements the length of the face

is taken from the anterior rim of the orbit to the tip of the muzzle;

the orbital width across the upper half of the orbit behind above

the zygomatic arch; the height of the facial vacuity is taken from

“the middle of the free edge of the nasal to the nearest point of the

lower edge of the vacuity. The exact dimensions of the gland

pit are doubtful owing to the anterior and lower edges being sloping

and ill defined. It must also be explained that the numbers in

the successive. columns do not necessarily apply to the same stage.

They represent the largest and smallest dimensions of the areas

mentioned shown by the series of skulls of the Shou and Hanelu.

This of course does not apply to Przewalski’s stag, of which only

a single skull is available. :

Some dimensions in mm. of the largest and smallest skulls, of parts of a

number of skulls and the averages of the same, of the Shou and Hangul and

of the single example of, Przewalski’s Deer in the British Museum.

| | ; me | |

| ' Aw oO - les wv | i

PIM lela) Gide ey |e

Aldeaeilaien ce We. | oe | oe

pu fy (| Salicaeest | tal cane “eiccy Mae toy we US SS

Pl uy net Bey il ice eels Of ae | ae

S| 2s lesles| $8 S38] se | sé

a Sie || Gee SS Sill toch || Me es bog 9 Soe | ise

ARO ect enemy ees SHE eck Sle ce ROMs eG

Set IP SIRI alee Wk eisai Sei es

1 | |

Shou (C. affi-. | |

nis) | | | |

Largest ...| 460 | 365 | 194 | 88] 57 |188: 73 DP 2020 47 337

Smallest ... | 433 | 240 | 173 75 51 /164 : 55 6 | 58:17 | 43 : 28

Average of. | |

6 ... | 446 | 254 | 188 | 83) 54 |175: 65 Jen O4ee20)) | 45.°°33

Hangul (C. | |

hanglu) |

Largest ... 404 | 237 | 182 77'| 54 |160 : 60 27 37:24 | 46: 32

Smallest ... | 384 | 205 | 160 65 49 |120 : 47 Mae LS. 35-23

Average of | | |

B10 WO 65 | CY GAL 71 51 140: 54 [Steieote 20" |" 38:27

Przewalski’s | | | |

tris) 984) 208 | 17273 | 4g 151: 78| 38 | 40:9 | 51:21

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

SUMMARY.

The distinguishing characters of the four species above described

may be summarisd as follows :—

External characters, apart from the antlers.

a. Ears wider, less pointed; gland-tuft on hind

lee nearer the hock than the false hoof;

coat not so harsh, directed backwards

along the spine without forming a mat

on the withers; muzzle not encircled with

white, under side of lower jaw and summit

of throat not so conspicuously white ;

rump-patch and backs of thighs white ... Cervus

b. Rump-patch extensive, reaching sum-

mit of croup, without median dark

stripe (other characters asin affinis,

but dark -brown colour phase un-

known) hey ae oe: ... wallichit

b.‘ Rump-patch much smaller, narrower

and not extending over one-third of

the distance to the summit of the

croup, always marked with a more

or less distinct median dividing dark

stripe.

c. Size larger, height about 52 in., at

withers, rump-patch with a thin,

sometimes abbreviated median

stripe; general colour varying

from deep brown to fawn grey;

chin and lips fawn, not very

sharply contrasted with the rest

of the face; no white on lower

jaw . affinis

e. Size smaller, about 48 in. at

withers ; rump-patch with a broad

stripe dividing it at least to the

root of the tail but sometimes

extending to the tip of that organ;

general colour apparently deep

brown at all seasons, no pale

phase recorded; chin and lips

white, sides of muzzle pale fawn

rather sharply contrasted with

the rest of the face; some white

on lower jaw and belly ... hanglu

a.’ Fars narrower, more pointed; gland tuft

on hind lege nearer the false hoof than the

hock; coat very harsh, directed forwards

along the whole of the spine or from its

middle to the withers, where it forms a

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

definite mat; white from the upper lip

extending over the muzzle behind the

rhinarium, lower side of the under jaw

and upper end of the throat white and

conspicuously contrasted with the sur-

rounding area; rump-patch, tail and backs |

of thighs fawn’... a se ... Preewalskium

albirostris

Skull characters,thoseof C.wallichti unknown.

a. Median portion of nasals compressed, their

lateral edges gradually expanding posteri-

orly towards the facial vacuities, their

greatest width always less than half

their greatest length; vacuities long and

wide; gland-pit comparatively shallow and

short, their length less than the vertical

diameter of the orbit; anterior nares —

relatively longer and narrower ... Cervus

b. Skull larger, about 2 in. longer, free

edge of nasals abutting against the

vacuities typically very short, averag-

ing about 9 mm. i. 3 ... affinis

b.. Skull smaller; free edge of nasals

abutting against vacuities not so

short, averaging about 18 mm. ... hanglu

a. Median portion of nasals noticeably flatter,

their lateral edges curving abruptly out- -

wards towards the vacuities forming a

wide expansion about half the total

length of the nasals and reducing the size

of the vacuities which are rather short and

particularly narrow; glandpits deeper and

longer, their length slightly exceeding the

vertical diameter of the orbit (inside

measurement); anterior nares relatively

wider and shorter a aes ... Prsewalskium

albirostris

317

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE.

Sum At.

With notes by Hugh Whistler.

Part II.

(Continued from Vol. xlitt, No, 2, p. 147).

Garrulax delesserti (Jerdon) The Wynaad Laughing Thrush.

Specimens collected: 834 3, 835 @ 5-2-40, 850 SG, 851 SG 852 of 8-2-40

Agtumbé (2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

{| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

460 29.5-30.5 107-113.5 99-107 mm.

1 9 31 113 106.5 mm.—H. W.]

This Laughing Thrush was met with only at Agimbé. Flocks of 12 to

15 individuals skulked about squeaking shrilly in dense evergreen undergrowth

with a profusion of cane brakes and palms.

The testes of all the 3 specimens of 8 February were enlarged. They

measured 12X%7, 9X5 and 8X5 m.m. respectively.

No Laughing Thrushes of the genus Trochalopteron were noted in Mysore.

Turdoides somervillei orientalis (Jerdon) The Eastern Ghats Jungle Babbler.

Specimens collected: 163 Q 24-11-39 Maddiir (2,500); 406 Q 21-12-39

Maklidriig (2,800’). Biligirirangan Hills: 40 C$ 10-11-39 (4,000’ Bedaguli) ;

M70(H) @ 10-4-34, M30(H) G 10-5-34 (5,000); M63-64(H) BQ 15-5-34 (4,000°

Shenemenhatia). ;

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Devarbetta Hill, Satnar, Thondébhavi, Nama-

dachilumé, Sakléshpur, Jagar Valley (2,500—Bababuidan -Hills), Settihalli.

Common in deciduous hiotope and partial to bamboo facies. At Bandipitr,

Maddir and Satntr this species was frequently observed inhabiting the same

patch of jungle as T. striatus affinis, and at Namadachilumé once actually in

association with it.

Specimen No. 163 (24 November) was preparing to breed. Its largest ovum

was over 2 mm. in diameter.

Turdoides striatus affinis (Jerdon) (= polioplocamus Oberholser.) The White-

headed Babbler.

Specimens collected: 79 CG 15-11-39 Bandipir (3,300); 374 G 17-12-39

Satnur (2,500'); 548 $ 7-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500). Biligirirangan Fills + M16

(G) ¢ 9-7-34 (3,000° Udahatti, Eastern base).

a Elgewaete noted: Maddtr, Hinstr, Nandidrig, Dodballapair, Kolar Gold

VIEIGS?

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

ARGNG) 20.5-22 105-109.5 97-104 mm.

This is the correct name for the White-headed Babbler which has been

called Turdoides striatus polioplocamus in the previous surveys, as Oberholser’s

name is ante-dated by Malacocercus affinis Jerdon, Ill. Ind. Orn. (1847) pl. 4.

—H. W.|

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 314

Common, Inhabits drier and more open low scrub country than — the

Jungle Babbler, commonly on the outskirts of cultivation: and about human

habitations. The two species are frequently found side by side and sometimes

even in association where their respective preferences overlap.

All the 3 Save specimens had enlarged gonads (11X06, 10X5, 9X6 mm.)

and they wer e either breeding or about to breed.

Argya caudata caudata (Itumont) The Common Babbler.

Specimens collected: 375 G 17-12-39 Satnur (2,500‘); 501 Q 10-1-40 Mari-

lkanivé (2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

Uncommon and patchily distributed in the Maidan. lound in dry, open

serub-and-bush country—practically semi-desert.

Both the specimens appeared to be breeding. The male’s testes measured

14X53; the largest ovarian follicle of the female was 10 mm. in diam. and_ the

oviduct greatly distended.

Argya malcolmi (Sykes) The Large Grey Babbler.

Specimens collected: 315 2, 316 G 13-12-39 Satnur (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Marikanive.

Uncommon and patchy in the Maidan. Its distribution in Mysore State is

more or less coincident with that of the Common Babbler. They are both

birds. of dry, open, sparsely scrubbed country with cultivation interspersed.

Argya subrufa (Jerdon) The Rufous Babbler.

Specimens collected : 233 d, 234 2, 235 do 2-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli io. 500°) ;

264 Q 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500); 637 d 15-1-40 Sakléshptr (3,000’). Biligiri-

rangan Hills : M35-85(H) 3d 13-5-34 (4,000° Anaribetta).

Elsewhere noted: Settihalli.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

6 dod 21-23.5 89-94.5 115-118 mm.

2 22 21-22 gc-9g1 105 mm.—H. W.|

Probably more generally distributed than the above records indicate. Its

preferential habitat is the intermediate zone. Here it affects dense scrub under-

growth and thickets, particularly where intermixed with tall coarse grass and

bamboo brakes. Through the spiky tangles of these (B. arundinacea) the birds

scuttle in and out and up the stems with the agility of a mouse. A shrill con-

tinuous tree..tree..tree whistling is kept up. In timbre and volume it is lilce

the chirping of a large cricket, but broken now and then by one or two tell-tale

harsher squeaks. The whistling is frequently kept up unbroken for quite

10 seconds at a stretch. Its harsh squeaky alarm notes are the typical ‘babbl-

ing’.

The gonads of a male on 2 December were enlarged to 7X5 mm. The

ovaries of females both on that date and on 4 December were conspicuously

granular. Two of the 2 December specimens had distinct incubation patches

and all 3 were undergoing complete moult—body, wings and tail—so presumably

post-nuptial.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi horsfieldi Sykes. Horsfield’s Scimitar Babbler.

Specimens collected: 117 Q 19-11-39, 169 OG 25-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300) ;

132 Q 21-11-39 Gudaltr Ghat (4,500’); 206 dG 30-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500’) ;

607d 13-1-40, 629 dG, 630 ¢G 14-1-40, 652 G 16-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’) ;

685 d 20-1-40 Kemmangundi (5,000—Bababudan, Hills). Biligirivangan Hills ;

M28(H) 2 12-3-34, M50(G) ¢ 30-10-34 (5,000° Honnametti); M54(H) ¢ 14-4-34,

Moo(H) @ 24-4-34, Mior-103(H) 3 QQ 22-5-34 (4,000’ Bellaji); M37(G) ¢

22-9-34 (2,000° Satyamangala); M46(G) @Q 28-10-34 (4,000' Attikan).

Elsewhere noted: Nandidrig, Namadachilumé, Jog.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

11 ood 29-5-33 - 95-5-104. 95-117 mm.

AM OLS, 29-5-33 93-5-96 93-100 min.

29Q (juv.) —- 85-5-89 93-98 mm,

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The question of the races of this Scimitar Babbler first attracted my atten-

tion in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.b.N.H.S., xxxv, pp. 741-742) with the

eventual result that in j/.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, p. 699 1 named a new race P. h.

maderaspatensis from the lower Eastern Ghats. Under the latter reference |

also pointed out that the above series of birds collected by the interest of

Mr. Kk. C. Morris in the Biligirirangan Hills belonged to the typical race,

birds with a long bil and a marked black edge to the plastron. At the time

this identification was made it appeared a somewhat bold one as the Biligiri-

rangans were a long way south of Castle Rock (near Goa), the most southerly

locality from which [ had then seen the typical race, and in this new locality

the typical race appeared to be sandwiched in between P. h. travancoreensis

of the Malabar Coast and P. h. maderaspatensis of the lower Eastern Ghats.

This new series collected by Mr. Salim Ali, however, not only fully confirms

the identification but with its new localities does much to lessen the gap, and

it is clear that in southern India we have the three races with a parallel dis-

tribution in the Western Ghats, central plateau and Eastern Ghats respectively.

Viewed in serics the three races are very distinct. It will be noticed that the

Gudalur Ghat bird is similar to the rest of Mr. Salim Ali’s series though ~

Nilgiri birds generally are accepted as travancoreensis.—H. W.|

The Scimitar Babbler is common in all the well-wooded portions of the

State both in the evergreen and deciduous biotopes and up to the highest hills.

ihe birds were usually met with in pairs calling and answering one another.

All the Survey specimens were more or less sexually mature, and breeding was

certainly in progress between mid-November and mid-January. No nest was

actually found in’ Mysore, but at Hebbale (a tew miles trom Sakleshpur, across

and within the Coorg border) I’. N. Betts tound one at the base of a Lantana

bush on an open deciduous hillside containing one chick and 1 addled egg

(ca. 10 January). The nest was the usual ball of leaves and bast fibres.

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth) The Small White-throated Babbler.

Specimens collected: 108 ¢ 19-11-39 Bandipur (3,300); 363 Q 17-12-39

Satnur (2,500'); 387 Y 19-12-39 Maklidrug (2,800'); 556 Q 7-1-4o Marikanive

(2,500). Biligirirangan Hills: 54 GG 11-11-39 (4,000° Dodsampagi); 0? imm.

30-12-32 (Honnametti 5,000’); M26(H) o? 13-3-34 (4,000° Attikan); Mo2(H)

Jd 15-5-34 (4,000° Shenemenhalla); Mg2-95(H) ¢, of juv., 2d 19-5-34 (4,000

Magoolibetta); M4q(G) Q 17-7-34 (3,000 Udahatti).

Elsewhere noted: Herikeré, Chamundi Hill, Nandidrig, emmangundi

(Bababudans).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

5 6d 13-14.5 50-59-5 O1-62.5 mun.

4 @Q 13-5-14 55-50 59-03 mm.—H. W.|

Common in deciduous scrub jungle with thorn thickets of Zizyphus rugosa

and others, intermixed with tall coarse Andropogon grass. On the Biligirirangans

where dense evergreen sholas in the ravines alternate with open grass and

scrub deciduous patches, this little babbler is strictly confined to the scrub and

thickets on the open hilltops and ridges separating the nullahs. It ventures

into the undergrowth on the fringe of the intermediate zone, but steadfastly

avoids evergreen.

Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gmelin) The Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Specimens collected: 221 G 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500'); 300 G 9-12-39

Hiunsir (2,000); 317 3 13-12-39 Sainir (2,500’); 512 d 31-12-39 Namadachilumeé -

(3,000') Biligirirangan Hills: Mu1o4(G) 30-7-34, Mir2(G) 0? 3-8-34 — (3,000

Udahatti).

Elsewhere noted: Bandipur, Herikeré, Hangala, Gtndlapet, Chamutndi Hill,

Thondébhavi.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

56d 14-14.5 - 67-70 8o.5-88.5 mm,

ip 9) 14.5 67.5 87 mm.—H. W.]

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE , 321

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Irequents — thorn

thickets intermixed with tall coarse grass—very similar facies to that 6f Dumetia.

Major Phythian-Adams has two clutches of 4 eggs each taken on 12 and

13 June near Gundlupet.

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson. The Spotted Babbler.

Specimens collected: 672 ¢ 19-1-40 Bababudan Hills (4,500—Kemmangundi) ;

770 29-1-40, 787 G 31-1-40 Settiballi (2,500’). Biligivirangan Hills: Miz

(G) G 15-9-34 (2000° Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted: Biandipur, ‘sarapur, Antarsanté, Shimsha, Sivasamudram,

Devarbetta Hill, Namadachilume, Sakléshpur.

[ Measurements ;

Bill Wing Tail

3 d6¢ 18.5-19 70-74 66-69 mm.

The Biligirirangan bird has juvenile wings (68.5) and tail (65), so is not

included in the above-—H. W.] -:

Common and generally distributed in the wooded portions of the State,

chiefly in the mixed intermediate zone between the evergreen and deciduous

biotopes. Sporadic bursts of song may be heard at all seasons. During the

Survey (November to March) the bird was mostly silent, and only uttered the

monotonous Prelty-sweet or Beat-you notes. These were heard chiefly up to

about 9.30 in the morning, and then from about 5 onwards until dusk. They

are repeated continuously at intervals of 5 seconds or so for over 15 minutes

at a stretch from up within the thickest bamboo brakes and. clumps. When

approached after infinite struggling through the thickets, the calls suddenly

cease. Sometimes, but not always, a subdued harsh chr-y, chr-y iniimates that

the bird is slinking off, and the aggravating plaint recommences a_ hundred

yards or so further |!

No precise evidence as to the breeding season in Mysore was obtained.

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla (Tickell) The Yellow-breasted Babbler.

Specimens collected: 207 gd, 208 Q 30-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 232

2-12-39 281 [dg] 6-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500’).

Iris yellowish-white.

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill ; Wing Tail

By (ize) 15-5-16 62-63 18-20 mm.

The 2 is in complete moult with a broken bill so no measurements possible.

This is one. of the most interesting discoveries of the Survey as it greatly

extends the known distribution of the species and race. In the Eastern Ghats

Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 747) it was found to be common in the Vizaga-

patam area and this was a slight extension of the known range. southwards

at the time. This further extension was quite unexpected, and even Jerdon

never hinted that the bird might be found in South India. The specimens are

quite indistinguishable from Vizagapatam and Himalayan specimens.—H. W. |

The Yellow-breasted Babbler was met with in a small patch, about 3 mile

square, of deciduous bamboo jungle on the bank of the Kabani river. Though

the specimens are labelled differently as to locality they were all obtained

within this same patch. Antarsanté is about 3 miles distant from Manchgow-

danhalli and a better known village than the latter, which is merely a Forest

Department’s timber depot. ;

Two or three small parties of these birds, each of 3 or 4 individuals, were

observed keeping high up in the bamboo clumps—usually above 15 ft.—clinging

to the foliage upside down and sideways, searching for insects on the under-

surface of the leaves and moving from clump to clump. Their actions were

strongly reminiscent of both the Tora and the Tit. The call—a rich kew-kew-

kew-kew-kew-kew repeated for several minutes with short breaks in between,

is rather like that of the Tailor Bird, but louder and with something of the

richness of a Blackbird’s song. It is a big noise for so small a bird. This

eee calling is occasionally varied- by a sharp chr-r-r as of the Spotted

abbler.

322. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

All the specimens were completing moult—body, rectrices and remiges.

Jheir gonads were quiescent.

Alcippe poioicephala brucei Hume. The Bombay Quaker Babbler.

Specimens collecied: 213° G 30-11-39, 282 Q 6-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli

(Antarsante 2,500); 6073 Y 1g-I-4o, 697 JG 2t-1-g4o Babadudan Hills (4,500

—Kemmangundi); 749 &Y 27-1-40 Settihalli (2,500) Biligirirangan — r11U09 :

7 & 6-11-39, 20 dG 9-11-39 (4,000—Edbuthi); GQ 16-12-32, Q9Y 17-12-32,

Mio(H) og, M28(H) Go juv. 9-5-34, M50(H) of 14-5-34, M30(G) Q 20-10-34

(5,000 —Honnametti); M57(H) Y 19-4-34, M20(G) ¢ 18-10-34 (4,000/—Shene-

menhalla); M78(H) ¢, Muoo(li) Gg, M1o7(H) gd —.5.34 (4,000'—Attikan) ;~

MO1(H) CS 15-5-34 (4,000-—Bellaji).

IkIsewhere noted: Sakleshpur, Jagar Valley, Jog.

| Measurements ;

Bill Wing Dail.

Il og 15-17 08.5-74-.5 O1.5-09 min.

10 YY 15-5-10.5 60-7 1 62-04.5 mm.

Ig. juv. ee 06 65-5 mim.

All the specimens collected by the Survey clearly belong to the race brucei

including the 2 marked from the Biligirirangans (Ikdbuthi). Whether this is a

mere chance of individual variation as regards the 2 latter, or whether they

come from a distinct area is not clear, but the original Biligirirangan series

(M) are all intermediates between pototcephala and brucei, being definitely more

richly coloured than the Survey series.—H. W.|]

A common and abundant resident species of evergreen biotope, extending

across the intermediate zone to the fringe of deciduous, especially the bamboo

facies.

locks, of 6 to 10 birds mostly, were met with amongst undergrowth as

well as in forest canopy. I have nothing to add to its habits as described in

the Travancore report (J.b.N.H.S., xxxvili, 80). Amongst leafy bamboo stems

its actions and appearance are very like Mzxornis. My field’ book records that

the last note in the call of the Antarsante and other Mysore birds was somewhat

different—more prolonged and interrogative than that of the Biligirirangan

birds.

All the Survey specimens except No. 7 showed progressive gonadal develop-

ment. No. 213 (30 November) and 697 (27 January) with testes measuring

8x6 and 8x5 mm. respectively, as well as the females collected round these

dates certainly appeared. to be getiing ready to breed.

Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps (Jerdon) The Black-headed Babbler.

Specimens collected: 284 oo, 285 dg, 286 2 6-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli

(Antarsanté 2,500°); 664 ¢ 17-1-4o Sakléshpur (3,000); 750 Y 27-1-40, 809 ¢

2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500°) Biligirirangan Hills: 1 © 6-11-39, Q 17-12-32,

G 19-12-32, M17(H) 0? 9-5-34, M48-49o(H) oe 12-5-34, M3(G) 0? 9-10-34,

M27(G) 3 19-10-34 (Honnametti, 4-5,000/); Mr14(H) 25-5-34 (Edbuthi,

4,000 ).

Elsewhere noted: Bababudan Hills (Kemmangundi), Jog.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

10 dd 14.5-10 58.5-01 48-52.5 min,

5 29 14.5-16 55-58-5 45-48 mm.—H. W. |

Resident. Common in evergreen biotope. Flocks of 6 to 8 amongst dense

undergrowth of seedlings and Strobilanthes. Particularly fond of cane brakes in

dank ravines. Hopping about amongst the stems and rarely exposing them-

selves. Seldom ascending into forest canopy.

Observed on one occasion in bamboo facies of dry-inter belt.

Two of the specimens of 6 December showed a slight gonadal development.

Tests 4x3 mm.; largest ovum 1.5 mm. It is probable that as in many mem-

bers of this family the breeding season is ill-defined and straggles over most

of the year.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 323

Agithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Iora.

Specimens collected: 84 Q 17-11-39, 100 6 18-11-39, 106 @Q 19-11-39

Bandiptr (3,300’); 344 @Q °15-12-39 Satnur (2,500’); 560 ¢ 7-1-40 Marikanivé

(2,500); 823 dG 4-2-40 Agumbé (2,500’); Biligivirangan Hills: M1-2(G) ¢Q

7-7-34, M4o(G) [3d] (3,000—Udahatti, E. base); M8(G) 6 15-9-34 (2,000°—

Satyamangala); M38(G) ¢ 23-10-34 (3,000—Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted: Hutnsur, Shimsha, Thondebhavi, Namadachilumé, Jégi-

maradi, Sakléshptr, Settihalli, Kolar Gold Fields. /

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

7 OC 16-18 (once 58.5) 64-68 (once 42.5) 47.5-50 mm.

6 Oe 17-18 66-67.5 51-50 mm.

One of the Biligirirangan birds, ¢ 15 Sept. 1934 from Satyamangala (2,000’)

and evidently by the softness of the skull and the narrow tail feathers an im-

mature bird, could not be distinguished from AY. nigrolutea as the central tail

is washed with white. I cannot believe that this is really nigrolutea which

has not been recorded from nearer than northern Khandesh and Sambalpur.

It is evidently an interesting case of individual variation showing how nigrolutea

had its origin.—H. W.]

Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. In localities like Sakléshptr and

Agumbé (in Malnad) where there is an intermingling of the deciduous and

evergreen types of vegetation, the lora was invariably found in the deciduous

facies, keeping to thin jungle and scrub. It was commonly met with as a

member of the localised forest associations or hunting parties of insectivorous

birds.

Courtship was in general progress about the middle of December at which

season males in full breeding plumage were to be seen. Breeding in many cases

appeared to be imminent. No. 344 (15 December) had a conspicuously granular

ovary.

Chloropsis aurifrons frontalis (Pelzeln) The Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Specimens collected: 78 G 15-11-39, 107 @Q 19-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’) ;

865 d, 866 Q 12-2-40 Jog (2,000).

Elsewhere noted: Jarapur.

- [Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Id 24 100 71 mm.

B® 23 88.5-91.5 64-67.5 mm,

noe oN. ar Q1.5 67.5 mm.

On the western side of India there is a gradual transition in size between

the larger bird frontalis and the smaller more southern insularis. In the Eastern

Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 751) it will be remembered that I suggested

that the Palghat Gap might conveniently be fixed as the boundary between the

two forms. These specimens support that suggestion.—H. W.]

Resident. Not uncommon. ‘Typical of deciduous biotope, but rarely also

entering the mixed intermediate zone. Teak plantations constitute a favourite

haunt of this species.

The pair (865 and 866) obtained on 12 February were breeding. Testes of

36 7X4 mm.; largest ovum of Q 4 mm. The oviduct was’ much distended

indicating that eggs had been laid. In this breeding pair the disparity in the

development of the gonads seems noteworthy. I have remarked upon a similar

disparity in the case of a pair of Frogmouths in Travancore (J.B.N.H.S.,

Vol. xxxix, p. 33) and also in Laggar Falcons in the Bahawalpur Survey (ibid,

Vol. xiii, p. 737).

Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth) Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

~ Specimens collected: 157° Q 24-11-39 Bandipur (3,300); 465 do 27-12-39

Dodballapir (2,900’); 499 ¢, 500 Q 29-12-39 Thondébhavi (2,500’). Biligirirangan

Hills: M4(G) S 14-9-34, M7(G) @ Mi1(G) [Q] 15-9-34 (2,000° Satyamangala).

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiii

Elsewhere noted: Bedaguli (Biligirirangans), Devarbetta Hill, Namadachilumé,

Sakléshpur.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3 o¢ 23-24 93-90 74-5-77 mm.

2 OG 22.5-23.5 86-88 68-69.5 mm.

LNG Ve = go 67.5 mm.

The juvenile male has no yellow wash on the forehead and no sign of a

green gular patch or the yellow nimbus to it, but the moustachial patch of

the adult male is partly present and there is a hint of the green shoulder patch.

=, WA :

Resident. Common in deciduous biotope and partial to secondary jungle.

Both the Chloropses feed largely on flower nectar and may be met with

wherever Bombax and Erythrina trees are in bloom. They are important cross-

pollinating agents.

Specimen No. 499 (29 Dec.) had testes measuring 7x3 mm. No. 500 (same

date) was breeding, with the largest ovum over 5 mm. I cannot, however,

vouch for their being a pair.

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa (Sykes) The South Indian Black Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 609 Q 13-1-4o Sakléshptr (3,000); 698 Q 21-1-40

Bababudan Hills (4,500—Kemmangundi). Biligivirangan Hills: 25° 9-11-39

(4,000 —Edbuthi) ; [2 ] 18-12-32, M4(H) ¢, MO(H) @ 27-2-34, Ms5(H) od 7-5-34,

M15(H) ¢ 8-5-34, M31(H) 2, M35(H) oO juv. 10-5-34 (5,000 —Honnametti) ;

Mas(G) ¢ 28-10-34 (4,000—Attikan).

Elsewhere noted: Jog, Agumbé.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

46d 26-27.5 118.5-120 IOI-103.5 mm.

§ 2e 24-26.5 108.5-118.5 g2-102.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common and abundant in evergreen biotope, especially in sholas

above 3,500. Noisy flocks. Feeds largely on flower nectar and is an important

eross-pollinating agent. Regularly observed probing into Erythrina lithosperma

and Grevillea robusta flowers of coffee shade trees. Also into Loranthus blossoms.

Specimens shot off the former two had pollen adhering on throat and forehead

feathers.

Molpastes cafer cafer (Linn.) The Ceylon Red-vented Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 89 ¢, g0 Q 17-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’). Biligirirangan

Hills: 55 CS 11-11-39 (4,000—Dodsampagi); M3(G) Q 7-7-34, Mi9(G) ¢

10-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Chamundi Hill (Mysore City environs), Hunstr, Shimsha,

Devarbetta Hill, Thondébhavi, Namadachilumé, Marikanivé, Jogimaradi, Chital-

drug, Settihalli, Kolar Gold Fields.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3 GS Ig-19.5 94-99 78.5-83 mm.

A QE 18 87-90 79.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. The Red-vented Bulbul is primarily restricted to deciduous biotope.

In the Biligirirangans it is common about Ptnjur (ca, 2,500—deciduous country

at base) but steadily decreases higher up as the biotope gradually alters its

character, till between 4,500’ and 5,500’ elevation, where evergreen sholas pre-

dominate, it disappears completely. At Settihalli, in the intermediate zone,

where evergreen and deciduous patches occur in juxtaposition, this species is

confined to the latter while the former is occupied by the Red-whiskered Bulbul.

The two species are frequently met with in association in the dry-inter belt as

at Bandiptr. At Kemmangindi (4,500’—Bababudans) it is also replaced by

Otocompsa. ‘

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 395

Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata Gould. The Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 143 Q juv. 22-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300); 408 ¢ 21-12-39

Maklidrug (2,800’). Biligirirangan Hills: M36(H) 0? 4-4-34 (4,000—Chiksam-

pagi); Ms56(H) 0? 19-4-34 (4,000—Attikan); M57(H) ¢ 14-5-34, M44(G) 9

28-10-34 (5,000—Honnametti) ; M72-74(H) dd Q 16-5-34 (4,000—Bellaji) ; M23

(G) Q 26-5-34 (3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Antarsanté, Devarbetta, Namadachilumé, Sakléshpir,

Bababudan Hills, Settihalli, Agumbé).

Also 4 specimens from Bangalore (H. G. Walton) 15-20 Jan. 1899 in B.N.H.S.

collection.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Il ood 17.5-20.5 81-88. 5 78-87 mim,

2 970 18.5-19 84-85.5 80-81.5 mm.

2 QQ juv. — 75-78.5 75-79 mm.—H. W.|

Resident. A common species chiefly restricted to evergreen biotope and

more or less completely replacing Molpastes cafer there.

lole icterica (Strickland) The Yellow-browed Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 671 6, 676 @Q 19-1-40 Bababtdan Hills (4,500—

Kemmangindi); 806 ¢ 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills: 3 ¢

6-11-39 (4,000°); [Q] 17-12-32, M27(H) d 28-3-34, M41(H) d 6-4-34, M18(H)

J 9-5-34, M29(H)d 10-5-34, M77(H) 2 17-5-34, Mro8(H) 5 23-5-34 (4,000°-5,000

—Attikan and Honnametti); M1g(G) 3 17-10-34 (4,000 —Edbuthi).

Elsewhere noted: Sakléshptr, Jog.

[Measurements : ,

Bill Wing Tail -

Boo) 20-21 90-97 76-87.5 mm.

ee) 20.5 gI 83 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. More or less restricted to evergreen biotope. Moves

about in parties in the forest canopy as well as lower down, with melodious calls.

The Biligirirangan specimen of 23 May (1934) oO is marked on the label

as ‘feeding young’.

Pycnonotus xaatholemus (Gould) The Yellow-throated Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 496 3, 497 @, 498 OS 29-12-39 Thondébhavi (2,500’) ;

573 2 9-1-40 Jogimaradi (3,400’).

Elsewhere not noted.

[ Measurements ;

Bill Wing Tail

XS (Sh 18 89-92 85-5 mm.

3 ALS 17-17-5 87. 85-86 mm,

_ In the Eastern Ghats Survey (/.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 758) I summarised the

records of this bulbul which is apparently much overlooked because of its

skulking habits and the fact that the region it inhabits has not received much

attention from ornithologists. Since that summary a specimen was _ collected

at Ramandrig on 6 May i919 (?) by Mr. E. H. Pooler and is now in the

Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology. ‘These specimens provide further welcome

evidence of its distribution —H. W. |]

- This bulbul is uncommon and patchily distributed in the deciduous biotope.

It inhabits thin scrub jungle—less wooded facies than that of the White-browed

Bulbul (P. luteolus.) Sparse thorn scrub, interspersed with some large trees

-among broken stony hillocks, formed its typical habitat. Its percussive notes

when taking to wing are unmistakably like those of P. luteolus, but higher

pitched and somewhat softer. Some of its other calls resemble those 01

the Red-vented Bulbul, with which species it was commonly found in association.

The birds kept in pairs and were excessively shy. Their stomachs contained

drupes of Devadaru (Phyllanthus reticulatus?) and Sandal (Santalum album)—

trees on which they were largely observed feeding.

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Like the other bulbuls it is instrumental in the dispersal of sandal seeds.

The gonads of the 2g December specimens showed a slight development :

testes 4X3 and 5X3 mm.; ovary conspicuously granular.

Pycnonotus luteoius luteolus (Lesson) The White-browed Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 122 Q 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’); 161 G@ 24-11-39

Maddtr (2,500’); 339 @ 15-12-39 Satntr (2,500); 418 OG 22-12-39 Maklidrug

(2,800); 549 OG 7-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500). Biligirirangan Hills: M76(G) ¢

23-7-34 (3;000—Udahatti,. E. base).

Iklsewhere noted: Hunsur, Shimsha, Namadachilume.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4dood 18.5-20.5 87-91.5 78.5-860 mm.

Ze O4® 19-20.5 86-90-5 78-81.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. To me this bulbul and JIole icterica have long seemed to be

ecological representatives of each other in dry bush-and-scrub jungle on the

one hand and evergreen forest on the other. In my field diary I have further

remarked upon the fact that in the only two localities where P. xantholaemus

was met, this species was absent. This pointedly suggests that in the same

way P. xantholaemus may replace P. luteolus in the sparser bush-and-scrub

.country that is the characteristic habitat of the former species.

Only in No. 418 (22 Dec.) was there a slight departure in the gonads from

the normal quiescent condition. They measured 4X3 mm.

Irom the body cavity (ruptured intestine?) of a specimen a cestode worm

(Biuterina sp.) was removed.

Pycnonotus gularis (Gould) The Ruby-throated Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 604 ¢, 605 do 13-1-40, 644 G 16-1-40 Sakléshpur

(3,000') ; 826 3 4-2-40, 840 Q 5-2-4o Agumbé (2,500’).

Islsewhere noted: Settihalli.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4d¢ 15-16 7-79 69-74 mm.

I Q 15 73 69 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. What I have said about the habitat of this bulbul in Travancore

(J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 90) applies equally to Mysore. It is partial to scrub-and-

bush jungle in the moist-inter belt, and to abandoned coffee piantations especially

where overgrown with Lantana thickets.

The last two specimens (4 and 5 Tebruary) were definitely breeding. The

testes of No. 826 measured 6X4 mm. 840 contained a soft ovarian egg 11 mm.

in diam. and her distended oviduct indicated that she had_ laid.

Mr. F. N. Betts informed me that he had taken a nest and eggs near

Somwarpet in Coorg (a few miles W of Sakléshptr) in the first week of

January (1940).

Microtarsus poioicephains (Jerdon) The Grey-headed Bulbul.

Specimens collected: 124 @, 125 6 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300); 183 ¢

28-11-39, 202 6 30-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500°); 631 dG 14-1-40, 645 16-1-40

Sakléshptr (3,000'); 758 G 28-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Valley (Bababudan Hills).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

650d 15-15-5 77°5-79°5 74°5-79-5 Mm.

1,2 14 aA 70.5 mm.

Nos. 125 and 631 differ from the others in having the crown and nape, the

earcoverts and the throat the same olive-green as the rest. of the upper parts

instead of bluish-slate as in most specimens. The upper surface of the tail

also has the grey largely replaced by green. This variation is not given in

the usual descriptions and I cannot see that it is a mark of either age or sex.

There are similar specimens in the British Museum. It seems to me to be

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 327

merely a mutation similar to that found in Microtarsus atriceps (vide Ticehurst,

Ibis. 1939, p. 563). Incidentally I may point out that the juvenile of this species

is unknown and the moults are undescribed.—H. W. ]

Resident. While being confined to the humid evergreen biotope of S-W

India, the characteristic habitat of this bulbul appears to be the moist-inter zone.

It is thus found only in the western portions of the State where, however it

is not uncommon. The birds are usually met with in small parties of 3 or 4.

They have a clear, rather tinny whistling call weet...weet and so on, not

unlike that produced by a man to induce his tame partridge to call. The

whistles are punctuated now and again by a harsh chake.

I observed the birds feeding largely on the berries of the plant known in

Canarese as Kaddavé (Stephegyne parvifolia?) and also on the fruits of Dendiga

- or Bejalo. The stomach contents of several of the specimens comprised entirely

‘of these.

Nothing as regards breeding was suggested by the gonads of the specimens.

Brachypteryx major major (Jerdon) The Rufous-bellied Shortwing.

Specimens collected: 711 @ 22-1-40,.729 @, 730 Q 24-1-40 Bababudan Hills

(4,500 —Kemmangindi).

Elsewhere not noted.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

1G 18 Si 63.5 mm.

Zone, 17-18 76.5-77-5 59 im,

No. 729 is evidently in first winter plumage as two or three fulvous spotted

feathers of the juvenile plumage can still be detected at the sides of the nape

and on the throat, and with this clue it is possible to detect faint traces of

a fulvous apical spot on a median wing covert. There is a slight olive-brown

wash on the lower back, rump and breast which may also be a sign of imma.

turity. The plumages and. moults of this species are of course not known

and it seems a pity that observers in the hills of S-W India cannot remedy

the deficiency.

As this race has hitherto only been recorded from the Nilgiris and Brahma-

giris the specimens indicate a considerable extension of range.—H. W.]

Resident. A bird of evergreen biotope, frequenting sholas. Seen singly

hopping in and out of the undergrowth and on to the edge of paths. Silent, shy

and retiring. Frequent, but not common in its accustomed facies.

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea (Hodgs.) The Indian Blue Chat.

Specimens collected: 714 ¢, 715 dG 23-1-40 Bababidan Hills (4,500’—Kem-

mangiindi); 802 d 1-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’); 836 Q 5-2-40 Agimbé (2,s500’);

867 Q 12-2-40 Jog (2,000). Biligirirangan Hills: CG 18-12-32, CG 24-12-32

(5,000’—H onnametti).

Elsewhere noted: Sakléshpir.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

536 5-16 75-5°78.5 45-49.5 mm.

2909 15 73.5-74.5 46 mm.—H. W.]

A fairly common winter visitor; restricted to evergreen biotope. Dank

cardamom ravines, Calamus and Pandanus brakes constitute its favourite

habitat. Here it is usually seen singly flitting amongst the undergrowth, alight-

ing on the ground and hopping about in search of insect food. The tail is

jerked up and expanded from time to time.

Saxicola caprata caprata (Linn.) The South Indian Pied Bush-Chat.

Specimens collected: 74 15-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300’); 308 Q 9-12-39

Hunstr (2,000’); 457 9, 462 Q Dodballaptr (2,900); 7o9 SG 22-1-40, 716 Q

23-1-40 Bababtidan Hills (4, 500’-—Kemmangiindi) ; Biligirivangan Hills:

31-12-32 (5,000—Dodsampagi) ; M2o(H) Q 23-4-34, M81(H) Q 18-5-34, M121-122

328- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

(H) SQ 26-5-34, M6(G) ¢ 10-10-34, M7(G) Q 11-10-34 (4,000’'—Bellaji) ;

M45(H) od 8-4-34, Ms52(H) o 25-4-34 (5,000—Honnametti); M65-66(H) ¢ 9

15-5-34 (4,000-Shenemenhalla); Mg6(H) @Q 19-5-34 (4,000-—Magoolibetta).

Elsewhere noted: Begtr, Kolar Gold Fields.

{Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

8 dd 14-16 72-77 50-62 mm.

9 99 13.5-16.5 68.5-72.5 47.5-51 mm.

No. 457 92 could not be separated from a female of the Northern race

S. c. bicoloy and it may well be a migrant of that form, This series shows—

as one might expect—some intergrading to the large-billed form of the Nilgiris,

Palnis and Travancore ranges (nilgiriensis) which I have recently (Bull. B.O.C.,

Vol. Ix, p. 90 (1940), separated from the true S. c. caprata of Ceylon in conse-

quence of a fresh study of this group in connection with material obtained by

the Ceylon Survey.—H. W.]

Resident. The Pied Bush-Chat is fairly common, but not abundant. Isolated

pairs are met with in grass-covered areas, frequently at the edge of sholas.

The restricted amount of white on the abdomen of this race is conspicuous in

the field.

Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth) The Collared Bush-Chat.

Specimens collected: 73 Q 15-11-39 Bandipir (3,300’); 361 [d] 16-12-39

Satnur (2,500'); 494 Q 28-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’); 717 Q 23-1-40 Bababudan

Hills (4,500’—Kemmangindi).

Elsewhere noted: Mandya.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

ity 6h 13.5 68 47 mm.

Ze 2.2. 14. 66-68.5 46-47.5 mm.—H. W.]

An uncommon winter visitor. Sporadie solos usually met with on fallow

land about cultivation, or amongst bulrushes and reeds on marshy ground.

Occasionally also on grassy hills in the same facies as the Pied Bush-Chat.

Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris (Vieillot.) The Eastern Indian Redstart.

Specimens collected: 216 [9] 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 322 6, 323 6

13-12-39 Satnur (2,500’); 429 ¢o 24-12-39, 452 @ 26-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’) ;

503 Q 29-12-39 Thondébhavi (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Hangala (near Gundltpet).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing : Tail

SHOEG 14.5-15.5 86-88 60-63 mm.

8 2 1465-15 84-86 60-60.5 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Not uncommon in the Maidan, affecting dry, stony sparsely

scrubbed areas. Met with singly. I never found it in evergreen biotope.

Cyanosylvia svyecica subsp.? The Bluethroat.

No specimens.

Noted: Mandya, Kolar Gold Fields.

Winter visitor: decidedly uncommon. Single birds were observed amongst

irrigated standing sugar-cane and paddy crops in the former locality, and

reeds bordering Betmangala tank in the latter.

Saxicoloides fulicata ptymatura (Vicill.) The South Indian Robin.

Specimens collected: 218 @ 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 299 S 8-12-39

Seringapatam (2,000); 443 Co 24-12-39, 489 Q 28-12-39 Dodballapir (2,900’) :-

564 Q 8-1-40 Marikanivé 2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills :. M25(G) 0? 12-7-34

(3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Herikeré (near Gundlipet), Maddir, Begir,

Shimsha, Sivasamtidram, Satnir, Namadachilumé, Bhadrayati, Kolar Gold Fields,

TPES STD) SOR SVMS OR. 329

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

460d 15-16 74-80 62.5-66.5 mm.

A QV 15-16 73-74 62-66 mm.

For my reasons for using the name ptymatura of Vieillot consequent on the

separation of S. Indian birds from those of Ceylon see Travancore Survey Report

(J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, 285)—H. W.]

A resident of deciduous biotope. Common. Preferential habitat: dry, thin

jungle with ant-hills, and scrub-and-bush country.

One or two examples were observed hopping about and feeding amongst

the gloomy-looking dumps of scrap iron—derelict hurricane lanterns, twisted

and distorted motor car wheels and chassis etc.—in the yard of the Mysore

Iron Works at Bhadravati !

By the middle of December males were busy chasing females and _ strutting

and displaying before them. Major Phythian-Adams took a c/3 near Maddix

(Gundlupet) on 14 April (1927).

Copsychus saularis ceylonensis Sclater. The Ceylon Magpie Robin.

Specimens collected: 236 @Q 2-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500/); 440 ¢

24-12-39 491 Q 28-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’). SBiligirirangan Hills: M20(G)

G 19-9-34 (2,000—Satyamangala) ; M18(G) @ 10-7-34, M50(G) ¢ 19-7-34 (3,000

—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Shimsha, Sivasamidram, Namadachilumé,

Sakléshpur, Jagar Valley (Bababudans).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BOL 20-22 103-105 89-91.5 mm.

4 12 20-21.5 . 94-98 81.5-84 mm.

These birds are, as one would expect, slightly intermediate with saularis

saularis, but there is no doubt that they are much closer to ceylonensis, and

should be kept with it.—H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Inhabits deciduous biotope—light jungle,

orchards and wooded compounds. In the Jagar Valley it was once met with

in the bamboo facies of the intermediate zone—in the typical habitat of the

Shama (Kittacincla).

Mostly silent between November and mid-January ; thereafter song increasingly

heard.

Kittacincla malabarica ssp. The Shama.

Specimens collected: 188 @Q 28-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500); 237 Q 2-12-39,

280 ¢ 6-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500’) ; 796 @ 31-1-40, 797 Q 1-2-40 Settihalli

(2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

i 6 19.5 97 184 mm,

4 99 18-20 87-92 113.5-136.5 mm.

There is a noticeable difference between the two females No. 796 and

797 from Settihalli and the other two Nos. 188 and 237 from Antarsanté and

these last agree with No. 880 in the Travancore Survey (as described. in

Journal B.N.H.S., xxxvili, 288). These last are much more richly coloured

birds, blacker above and on the throat and breast and rather deeper chestnut

below i.e. they approach the male plumage in type, thereby affording a_ con-

necting link with the Ceylon race (which I have described elsewhere) in. which

the male and female are virtually indistinguishable. These dark birds are

of course the true malabarica of which the type locality is Mahé on the Malabar

Coast (vide J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 74).

It would seem, therefore, that here again we have a distinction between

a richly coloured Malabar Coast race and a paler form in the centre and east

of the Peninsula. Unfortunately I have not yet been able to verify the point

330° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

fully. Of the 3 females collected by the Eastern Ghats Survey one was albinistic.

Under war conditions I am unable to re-examine the other two, but my memory

is that they were pale birds. The only females from the Peninsula in the

British Museum are 3 of Davidson’s birds from North Kanara.. These are,

as one might expect, intermediate between the two types. If fresh material

comes to hand and verifies the point it will be necessary to name the form with

the pale females——H. W.] |

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope, and within this

partial to bamboo facies. It also enters the intermediate zone to a_ lesser

extent. Song (only occasionally heard during the Survey period) rather like

that of Muscicapula tickelliae but louder, richer and more thrushlike in quality.

Turdus simiflimus mahrattensis Whistler. The Black-capped Blackbird.

Specimens collected: 526 Q- 2-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000’); 606 ¢ 13-1-40,

624 9, 625 G 14-1-40 Sakléshptr (3,000'); 674 Q 19-1-40 Bababtidan Hills

(4,500—Kemmangundi).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Biligirirangan Hills (ca.—5,o000’).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2do¢d 26.5-28.5 132-13658 97-98 mm.

aS 25-26 120.5-123.5 84-92 mm.

Inspite of the fact that the 2 males have a wing formula of 2=7/8 and

the 3 females of 2=6/7 I think they all undoubtedly belong to the same form,

and this after careful comparison at the British Museum I think must be taken

as mahrattensis though there is apparently, as one might expect, some inter-

grading into simillimus.—H. W.]

Not common and rather sporadic in its local distribution which includes

wooded country in both the evergreen and deciduous biotopes. It evidently

moves about a good deal locally with the ripening of the various fruits and

berries on which it feeds. During November, for example, it was completely

absent in the neighbourhood of Bandiptr. This locality was re-visited on 25/26

February when the Banyan and other figs had ripened, and the Blackbird (race?)

was then common and plentiful.

Lantana berries and sandalwood drupes are also extensively eaten and _ their

seeds dispersed. The Black-capped Blackbird is likewise very partial to the

nectar of Erythrina and Bomba flowers.

Before about the 3rd. week of February the birds were mostly silent, only

uttering the familiar, throaty, quick-repeated chuck-chuck-chuck as they flew

about; but thereafter the rich song (or bars of it) were occasionally heard.

The birds were excessively shy at all times.

Turdus simillimus simillimus (Jerdon) The Nilgiri Blackbird.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: Q Q 18-12-32 (5,000—Honnametti).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

oy (SM) 24 12I-123.5 94-99 mm.—H. W.]

As no specimens were collected at Bandipir in February, I am unable to

say whether the birds there belonged to this race or were mahrattensis.

Bandiptr lies at the foot of the Gidalir Ghat over which runs the Mysore-

Nilgiri motor road.

Geokichla wardii (Blyth). The Pied Ground Thrush.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: M39(H) C_ 5-4-34, M44(H)9?

7-4-34 (4,000 —Bellaji).

{[ Measurements :

Thi) Bill Wing Tail

1 9 25 119.5 a=

2 118 275TH. W.]

THE BIRDS’ OF MYSORE 331

These specimens were doubtless on spring passage from their winter quarters

in Ceylon to their Himalayan breeding grounds. The species was not met with

by the Survey between November and March.

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine & Selby). The White-throated Ground

Thrush.

Specimens collected: 620 ¢, 621 OG 14-1-40 Sakléshpir (3,000’) ; 755 3

28-1-40 Settihalli ig 500°). Biligirirangan Hills: M3(H) 92 3-3-34, Ms2(H). 9

10-4-34, Mro(H) 3 9-5-34, M34(H) od 10-5-34 (5,000—Honnametti) ; M38(H)

2 6-4-34 4,000—Bellaji) ; M39(G) 92 26-10-34 (4,000—Attikan).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

TS Si 22-24 10G-112 73-76 mm.

299 21.5-23.5 106.5-111- “72.5-75.mm.—H. W.]

Dank cardamom sholas and coffee plantations never fail to harbour this

species. It spends its time hopping about on the ground, rummaging the mulch

for insects. Betts informs me that it breeds abundantly in Coorg during the

S-W Monsoon, building its open stick nest on the coffee plants.

Oreocincla dauma nilgiriensis Blyth. The Nilgiri Thrush.

Specimen collected: Biligirirangan Hills: M43(H) CO 12-5-34 (5,000—Honna-

metti).

An inhabitant of evergreen biotope, partial to sholas. The Survey did not

come across this species.

_ Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Specimens collected: 668 9, 669 @, 670 @ 19-1-40, 718 ¢, 728 Q 23-1-40,

733. 3 24-1-40 Bababidan Hills (4,000-4,500-—Kemmangiundi); 814 ¢ BOO

Settihalli (2,500’); 825 ¢, 827 Q 4-2-40 Agtimbé (2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills

16 ¢G 8-11-39 (3,000-—Bedaguli); 60 G 11-11-39, M21(H) 6 25-3-34, M12(G)

3, Mr4(G) Q 15-10-34, M23(G) G 21-10-34, M36(G) Q 22-10-34, M43(G) [9 ]

27-10-34 (5,000°-5,500—Honnametti) ; -M25(G) [dd]. 18-10-34 (4,000—Attikan) ;

[dS] 18-12-32, GQ 21-12-32, OG 30+12-32 (4,000—-Dodsampagi).

Elsewhere noted: Sakléshpur, Jog.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

hey 22-25 99-108.5 65-71 mm.

9 2Q 22.5-25 97.5-103 66-71 mm.—H. W,]_

A common and abundant winter visitor. Earliest date 15 October; latest

25 March. Met with singly in coffee and cardamoin plantations and secondary

evergreen jungle. Occasionally also observed in deciduous thorn scrub-and-

grass patches on the edge of evergreen.

Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes) The Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.

Specimens collected: 331 G 13-12-39 Sivasamudram (2,500’); 376 19-12-39

Nandidrig (4,000') ; 412 Q 22-12-39 Maklidrig (2,800’); 541 @ 4-1-40 Namada-

chilumé (3,000’) ; 684 3S 20-1-40 Bababtdan Hills (5,000—Kemmangiindi) ;

Biligirivangan Hills: 59 SG 11-11-39 (5,500—Honnametti).

_ Elsewhere noted: Jog. °

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

466 26.5-29 118.5-123 pow -82.5 mm.

2 ¢Q 25.5-27 113-114 -77 mm.—H. W.]|

Winter visitor. Not uncommon. Solitary birds observed haunting quarries

and- rock scarps. Also seen about the iron mines at Kemmangiundi, on rocks

in the ‘cauldron’ at the bottom of Jég (Gersoppa) Pauls, and on the magnificent

old. temples at Halébid and Belur.

From the body cavity of No. 376 was removed a nematode—Diplotriaena sp.

(Fam. Filariidae).

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Myophonus horsfieldii Vigors. The Malabar Whistling Thrush.

Specimens collected: 667 ¢ 17-1-40 Sakléshpir (3,000); 860 @ 11-2-40 Jog

(2,000') Biligivirangan Hills: 8 G 6-11-39 (4,000); G 18-12-32 (5,000’); M12(H)

d 10-3-34 (4,000); M23(H) og 26-3-34 (4,000—Chiksampagi); M59-60(H) ¢ 9

14-5-34 (5,000). x :

Elsewhere noted: Bababudan Hills (Jagar Valley 2,500; Kemmangundi

4,500), Settihalli.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

TONG) 32-34.5 152-105 112-121 man.

299 31.5 145-149.5 94-108 mm.

I am now of opinion that this form should be admitted to the rank of a

species.—H. W.]

Common on all rocky, and preferably torrential, hill streams in evergreen

biotope and also in the moist-inter belt. One was observed in the ‘cauldron’

at the bottom of the falls at Jog.

Muscicapa parva parva Bechst. The European Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 116: ¢ 19-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300); 353 @Q 15-12-39

Devarbetta Hill (3,000’); 622 Q 14-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’).

Klsewhere noted: Bababudan Hills (Jagar Valley 2,500°; Kemmangindi

4,500').

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing - Tail

it 6h 14 72 51 mm.

2 99 12.5-13.5 64-66 48-50 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Not common. Seen singly or in pairs in wooded com-

pounds and light deciduous forest with 2 sprinkling of large Banyan and other

well foliaged trees.

On 23 January a specimen in perfect red-breasted plumage was observed

near the Staff Quarters at Kemmangindi.

Muscicapula superciliaris superciliaris (Jerdon). The White-browed Blue Fly-

catcher,

Specimen collected; 523 ¢ 2-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000’).

| Measurements : .

Bill Wing Tail

nes 12 63-5 45.5 mm,

This is a great extension of range. The species has not been previously

recorded south of Ahmadnagar (Fairbank, Stray Feathers, iv, 257) and Narsam-

pét in Hyderabad State (Salim: Ali, J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 387)—H. W.]

Winter visitor. This was the only example met with by the Survey—in

light deciduous forest with large Banyans and tamarinds scattered about.

Muscicaputa pallipes pallipes (Jerdon) The White-bellied Blue Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 721 ¢ 23-1-40 Bababtdan Hills (4,000 —Kemmangindi) ;

739 G 26-1-40, 766 S 209-1 -40, 389 Q 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’); 821 ¢ 4-2-40,

848 Q 8-2-40 Agtumbé (2,000’-2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail .

4 303 10-17.5 75-5-81 59-5-63 mm.

2 09 17 72-72.5 5455-5 mm.—H. W.] .

A fairly common. resident of evergreen biotope Usually met with-singly in

sholas &c, in undergrowth of straight thin seedlings or cardamom. plants,

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 333

Muscicapula rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors). The Blue-throated Flycatcher,

Specimens collected: 209 0? 30-11-39, 245 OG 3-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli

_ (Antarsanté, 2,500’); 663 ¢ 17-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’); 765 Q 29-1-40, 782 ¢

30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Bababtdan Hills (Jagar Valley 2,500’).

{ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3° OE 14.5 40-77 50-60 mm.

2 @@ 14-15 72.5-73.5 54 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Bamboo facies of the moist-inter zone is the typical habitat. of this

flycatcher. Occasionally it is also found in the same patch of jungle as Tickell’s

Blue Flycatcher, although on the whole the latter prefers drier facies.

Muscicapula tickellie tickellie (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 98 ¢ 18-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300); 164 [Q] 24-11-39

Maddur (2,500); 279 SG 5-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500); 330 ¢O 13-12-39 Shimsha

(2,500). Biligirirangan Hills: M22(G) 20-9-34 (2,000’—Satyamangala) ;

M23(G) 0? 12-7-34, Mgo(G) 6 25-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Bedagutli, Hunsur, Sivasamtdram, Namadachilumé.

! Measurements :

. Bill Wing Tail

6d6¢ 14-15.5 70-77 56.5-63.5 mim.

I 9 14 72 57 mm.—H. W.]

Resident and common. Typical habitat: Thin deciduous jungle intermixed

with bamboo clumps.

It is also found in dry secondary scrub-and- bush country, often as a member

of the mixed hunting parties of insectivorous birds. At Hunsur it was observed in

ancient trees in the old garrison compounds.

Eumiyas albicaudata (Jerdon) The Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 7or Q 21-1-40, 726 3 23-1-40 Bababudan Hills (4,500°

—Kemmangindi). Biligirirangan Hills: 4 S 6-11-39 (4,000’); 0? 18-12-32, ¢

22-12-32 M63(H) 9 25-4-34, M33(H) @ 10-5-34, M30(H) [od] 11-5-34, M44-45

(H) do _12-5-34, Ms52(H) juv., Ms54-55(H) 9d 14-5-34, M18(G) ¢ 16-10-34

(5,000’—H onnametti) ; M35(H 2, M38(H) CS 4-4-34 (4,000-—Chiksampagi) ;

79(H) of yuv. 17-5734, M104-105(H) @ 5 23-5-34 (4,000—Bellaji); Mr11(H) ¢

24-5-34 (4,000—Edbuthi) ; M47(G) Q 29-10-34 (4,000 —Attikan).

[ Measurements :

: Bill Wing | Tail

I12d¢0¢d 14-15 76-82 61-67.5 mm.

7 99 14-15. 74.5-78.5 59-61 mm.

The Bababidan Hills specimens provide a slight extension of range as this

flycatcher was not previously recorded from north of the Nilgiris—H. W.]

Resident. Typical habitat: Evergreen biotope. Sholas above ca. 3,000’ ele-

vation.

Gonads of the January specimens were maturing (testes 4X3 mm., ovary

granular) and the birds were in song. No. 701, a female, was also singing!

Two of the Biligiri specimens collected in May were juveniles. The nesting

season is evidently between February and May. In the Nilgiris it is said to

breed principally between March and May.

Eumiyas thalassina thalassina (Swainson) The Veriter Flycatcher. |

Specimens. collected: 352 G 15-12-39 Devarbetta Hill (3,000); 518 ¢ -1-1-40

Namadachilumé (3,000); 801 [Q]. 1-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Sakléshpur.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 OC 13 87-8a 69-74. mm.

i 12.5 80 62.5 mm.—H. W.]

3384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Winter visitor. Fairly generally distributed, but mowhere common or

abundant. Affects well-wooded deciduous country and the dry-inter belt. Met

with singly.

Alseonax latirostris (Raffles) The Brown Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 265 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500’); 273 Q 5-12-39 Antar-

santé (2,500’); 340 @ 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 434 @Q 24-12-39 Dodballapur

(2,900'); 713. Q 22-1-40 Bababudan Hills. (4,500—Kemmangindi); 869 6d

12-2-40 Jog (2,000’) Biligirirangan Hills: M41(G) .0? 17-7-34, M65(G) ¢. 20-7-34

(3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

{ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

30d 13.5-14.5 69-73 46-51.5 mm.

Ae. 12.5-14.5 66-72 | 47-50 mm.—H. W.]

Apparently resident. Typical habitat: Deciduous biotope. Thin open forest

(or teak plantations) with bamboo intermixed and undergrowth of grass and

sparse scrub. Also met with sparingly in the intermediate zone and rarely up

to the proximal fringe of evergreen, among shade trees in cardamom plantations.

Alseonax ruficauda (Swainson). The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 817 © 4-2-40, 832 2 5-2-40 Agtimbé (2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 Ono 14.5-15.5 76-77 55-5-58 mm.—H. W.]

Evidently a winter visitor. Uncommon. Met with singly in evergreen

biotope, haunting the canopy of lofty trees.

Alseonax muttui muttui (Layard) Layard’s Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 608 G 13-1-40 Sakléshpir (3,000’); 833 G 5-2-40,

854 3 8-2-40 Agtimbé (2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3d 16-17 72-476 50.5-54 mm.—H. W.]

_ Winter visitor. Met with singly in evergreen biotope. Frequents cardamom

sholas, keeping to low trees and looping liana tangles.

Ochromela nigrorufa (Jerdon) The Black-and-Orange Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: 3 9-12-32, Q 24-12-32, M24-25(H)

3S 9-5-34, M47(H) @ 2-5-34. Mrig-120(H) d‘'Q 26-5-34. (5,000°-5,500'—

Honnametti); M42(H) 92 6-4-34 (4,000’—Sellaji); M23(G) @ 18-10-34 (4,000'

—Attikan).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

533d 13.5-14 60.5-63 47.5-50 mm,

sing 2 12.5-13.5 55-5Q 41-45.6 mm.—H. W.]

This flycatcher which was not uncommon at Honnametti (4-5,000’—Biligiri-

rangans) in the second half of December 1932, was curiously enough not met

with at all in that locality between 5 and 12 November 1939, neither in the

first week of March 1940. It was not noted elsewhere in Mysore State either.

Typical habitat : Evergreen biotope. Sholas above ca. 3,500’ elevation. Under-

growth of thin upright seedlings, eeta facies, cardamom plants and_ rattan

brakes in dank ravines.

Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis (Swainson) The Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 710 @ 22-1-40 Bababtidan Hills (4,500’—Kemmangiindi) ;

Biligirirangan Hills: 23 3 8-11-39 CG 17-12-32, M46(H) CG 12-5-34 (5,000’—

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 335

Honnametti); M24(G) ¢ 18+10-34 (4,o0o0—Attikan) ; M42(G) ¢ 27-10-34 (4,000

—Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Walley (2,500—Bababudans); Settihalli, Jog. At

Sakléshptr and Agittimbé it appeared unaccountably to be absent!

| Measurements :

Biil Wing Tail

Os Ghio) 12-14 58.5-06.5 49-59 mm.

I have recently had the opportunity of examining a fine series of topotypes

of this species in the Ceylon Survey, and after comparison it is clear that

birds. from the Eastern Himalayas and India generally are intermediate bétween

the typical race and C. c. pallidus of the Western Himalayas. I very much

doubt, however, whether it is worth providing a name for these intermediates

and fcr the moment, at any rate, leave the Mysore series under the typical

race.—H. W.]

Resident. Not uncommon in suitable facies.

This flycatcher is found in evergreen biotope and throughout the intermediate

zone; occasionally and in small numbers to the fringe of the deciduous. It is

partial to bamboo facies. The bird is almost invariably met with as a member

of the mixed hunting parties of small insectivorous species of which Sitta

frontalis and Phylloscopus occipitalis (in winter) are, some of the most regular

constituents.

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (Linn) The Paradise Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 193 Q 28-11-39, 197 d, 198 3 29- 11-39 Antarsante

(2,500); 752 &, 753 OG 28-1-40, 771. Sd 29-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’); 831 Q 5-2-40

Agumbé (2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills: 18-11-32, M11(G) 15-10-34 (5,000°

—Honnametti); M17(G) 3, Ma21(G) ¢ 19-9-34 (2,000° Satyamangala).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail Streamers

3 dd (white streamers) 23-24 g1.5-90 106-107 312-364 mm.

2 66 (red streamers) 25.5-26 92-5-95-5 103 287 mm.

B Oe (ike ©) 23-25 88-89 94-5-97 =a

AO’ 22.5-23.5 89-5-92.5 94-103.5 -

The identity of the 3 white g¢ d has of course to be merely presumed.—H. W. ]

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

Specimens collected: 772 9 30-1-40, 810 ¢ 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail Streamers

26:6) 23-24.5 93-5-94-5 IOI-104 2560-286 mm,

Both are red’ and white males with red streamers and parti+coloured red and

white wings.—H. W.]

Elsewhere noted (subspecies?): Bandiptr, Devarbetta Hill, Namadachilumé,

Sakléshptr, Bababtdan Hiils (4,500-—Kemmangundi; 3,500—Dodabbi Fails).

Fairly common. Most partial to the intermediate. zone, especially bamboo

facies, but extending scmewhat sparingly into both extreme biotopes. Chestnut-

plumaged birds formed the majority of those seen.

Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub) The Black-naped Blue Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: 99 [Q] 18-11-39, 115 @ 19-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300);

205 6 30-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500) ; 214 Q 30-11-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500) ;

520 Q 1-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000); 623 @ 14-1-40 Sakléshpir (3,600) ;

800 @ 1-2-40, 808 J 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’) ; 843 Q 7-2-40 Agimbé (2, 500’).

Elsewhere noted: Bedagili (3, ooo’—Biligirirangan Hills), Devarbetta Hili.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

300". 14.5-15 71-72 68-74 mm.

RB QO, 15-16 68-73.5 65-70 mm.—H,. W.]

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiit

Resident. More or less confined to deciduous biotope. Also met with spar-

ingly in the intermediate zone. Partial to bamboo facies. wt

Leucocirca aurecla compressirostris Blyth. The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher

Specimens collected: 85 ¢ 17-11-39 Bandipuir (3,300’); Biligirirangan Hills :

M35(G) 3 14-7-34, M6o(G) S 21-7-34 (3,0007—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Maddur, Hunsur.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail ,

3 OS 14-15 83-85-5 88-88.5—H. W.]

Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope in which it occurs practically in

every facies except stony semi-desert and those bordering on it.

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. The Bay-backed Shrike.

Specimens collected: 83 ¢ 17-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300’); Biligirirangan Hills :

Mii(G) Q 88-34, Mgg(G) SO 27-7-34, M105-106(G) Go? 31-7-34 (3,000—

Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Antarsanté, Karaptr, Hunstr, Namadachilumé, Kolar Gold

Fields.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Bho aah 10-17.5 88 y2.5 mm.

i OQ erel 17 86 — mm.

I gd juv. — 83 84.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident? Not common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. The habitat typical

of this species is midway between the semi-desert preferred by the Grey Shrike

and the better wooded orchard-like country which the Grey-backed Shrike

frequents.

Lanius schach caniceps Blyth. The Grey-backed Shrike.

Specimens collected: 76 Q 15-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 338 [9] 15-12-39

Satnur (2,500); 509 ¢ 31-12-39 Namadachilumé (3,000’). Biligirirangan Hills :

M4-5(G) ¢ juv., ¢ juv. 7-7-34 (3,000° Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Antarsanté, Karapur.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2GiGurads 20-21 89 110,.5-111 mim.

2-66 juv. _ 89-90 105-105.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Its typical habitat has been

indicated above. Breeds .evidently in May and June.

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linn. The Brown Shrike.

Specimens collected: 82 9 17-11-39, 97 Q 18-11-39, 146 ¢ 23-11-39 Bandipur

(3,300’); 215 ¢G 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’). Biligivirangan Hills: 62 Q 12-11-39

(5,500—Honnametti); M51(H) Q 10-4-34 (4,000—Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted: Karapur, Namadachilumé, Settihalli, Kolar Gold Fields.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3 d¢ 19-20.5 &5-87.5 81.5-82.5 mm.

3 99 19-20 88.5 78-89 mm.—H. W.]

The Brown Shrike is a very common and abundant winter visitor to Mysore.

Latest date 10 April. It is found in both evergreen and deciduous biotopes,

but mostly in the latter and in the intermediate zone. It occurs in almost every

facies and invariably singly. Its habits are often crepuscular, and the _ bird

may be seen on the move and hunting till after dusk.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 337

a= Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes) The Black-backed Pied Shrike.

Specimens collected: 180 ¢ 25-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300); 725° Q 23-1-40

Bababudan Hills (4,500—Kemmangundi); 798 9, 799 Q 1-2-40, 813 co 2-2-40

Settihalli (2,500’) Biligivirangan Hills: 19 § 8-11-39 (4,000’—Bedagiuli); ¢ imm.,

Q imm. 30-12-32, M55(H) ¢ 14-4-34, M29(G) ¢ 20-9-34 (5,000—Honnametti) ;

M67(H) © 15-5-34 (4,000’—Shenemenhalla(; Mo1(H) ¢ 19-5-34 (4,000:

Magoolibetta); M5(G) @Q 14-9-34 (2,000’—Satyamangala); Ms?(G) 10-10-34

(4,000 —Bellaji); M8(G) Go 11-11-34 (4,000’—Attikan); M77(G) G 23-7-34,

M86(G) ¢ 25-7-34 (3,000’—Udahatti, E. base).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

OL) 15-16.5 62-65 58-60.5 mm,

3 DE 15-5-17 61-62 56-60 mm,

Some of the specimens are moulting wings and tail hence not measured.

—H. W.]

Resident.. Common. Affects evergreen shade trees in cardamom sholas, Found

throughout the intermediate zone to its extreme deciduous boundary. Its

characteristic posture on a branch is rather hunchbacked with neck telescoped

in and tail depressed.

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola Jerdon. The Malabar Wood-Shrike.

Specimens collected: 241 Q 1-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500’) ; 649 Q 16-1-40

Sakléshpur (3,000); 777 dG 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’). fe

Elsewhere noted: Karapur, Jagar Valley (2,500—Bababtdans), Agumbe,

Jog.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

it eS 27 115 84 mm.

2 99 27 LII.5-121 84-88 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common in evergreen biotope. Usually seen among shade trees

in coffee and cardamom plantations. Also enters the intermediate zone and

sometimes met with even in the dry-inter in old teak plantations and the like.

- From thé eye socket, trachea and pulmonary region of No, 241 were removed

a number of the tissue-inhabiting nematodes of the genus Diplotriaena (Fam.

Filariidae). The bird seemed none the worse for their infestation. As a matter

of fact it was ready to breed (2 Decem.) with largest ovum 2.5 mm, diameter !

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin) The Indian Comnion Wood-

Shrike.

Specimens collected: 159 9, 160 G 24-11-39 Maddtr (2,500’); 403 3, 405 do

21-12-39 Maklidrig (2,800’); 501 @Q 29-12-39 Thondébhavi (2,500’). Biligiri-

rvangan Hills: M4s5(G)' Q 24-9-34 (2,000—Satyamangala); M45 ?(G) ¢ juv.

1r-7 3h M81(G) 0?, M84(G) 3 24-7-34, Mg5-96(G) SS 26-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti,

. base).

Hee ice noted: Bandipur, Hunsur, Shimsha, Sivasamtudram, Namada:-

chilumé.

| Measurements ;

ill Wing Tail

BERGEC) 20-22 88-91 65-67 mm.

3 O) © 20-21 82-89 63-66 mm,

_ The six Biligirirangan specimens which seem intermediate between pondicer-

tanus and affinis i.e, much like Travancore birds, measure as follows (excluding

moult and unsexed and juvenile) :

{Measurements : ‘

Bill Wing Tail

3 20.5-21 88.5-94 64-66 mm.

SiC)

iI Q > Bil 85-5 63 mm.—-H. W.]

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Met with in scrub and ~

secondary jungle, frequently amongst the itinerant mixed hunting parties of

small birds.

Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster) The Orange Minivet.

Specimens collected: 67 dG 15-11-39, 128 6d 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’) ;

634 Q 15-1-40 Sakléshptr (3,000'); 677. Q 19-1-40, 696: g 2I1-1-40, 727 6

23-1-40 Bababudan Hills (4,500—Kemmangundi). Biligirirangan Hills: 11 6

7-11-39, 17 GY 8-11-39, 29 Q gQ-11-39 (3,000-4,000'); CG 22-12-32, Q 30-12-32,

Mi2(H) od 85-34, M22-23(H) 6d 9-5-34, M58(H) 2 14-5-34, M75(H) 9

16-5-34 (4,000-5,000—Honnametti); M32(H) o, M34(H) @ 5.34 (4,000°—

Chiksampagi); M67-68(H) @6 27-4-34 (4,000—Dodsampagi); Mg(G) @

11-11-34, M13(G) Q 15-10-34 (4,000’—Attikan); Mro(G) @ 12-11-34 (4,000 —

Bellaji); M2o(G) 0? 17-10-34 (4,000—Edbtthi).

Elsewhere noted: Devarbetta Hill.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

13606 17.5-20 90-96 88-97 mm.

12:99 17-19.5 89.5-90.5 —86.5-93 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Typical habitat: Intermediate zone up to the outermost.

fringe of both its extremes.

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linn.) The Small Minivet.

Specimens collected: 68 ¢, 69 3d, 7O Q 15-11-39 Bandipur (3,300); 307 @

9-12-39 Hunstr (2,000’); 398 ¢ 20-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’). Biligirirangan

Hills: M1s5(G) o 9-7-34, M31(G) @ 13-7-34, M63(G) od 20-7-34 (3,000 —

Udahatti, E. base); M34(G) CG 22-9-34, M44(G) @Q 24-9-34 (2,000’—Satya-

mangala).

Elsewhere noted: Maddur, Thondébhavi, Namadachilumé.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing - Tail

6d0d 13-14 70-5-72 70-74-5 mm.

3°22 12-13 70-72 71-76.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Not uncommon. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Flocks met

with in light forest as well as in scrub-and-bush country interspersed with small

trees. Frequently in the mixed hunting parties.

In the specimens of g and 20 December a slight development of the gonads

was noticeable: testes 5X3 mm., ovary granular.

Lalage sykesi sykesi Strickland. The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike.

Specimens collected: 262 Q 4-12-39 Karaptr (2,500); 297 6 8-12-39

Seringapatam (2,000'); 397 d 20-12-39, 455 Q 26-12-39 Dodballapir (2,900’) ;

525 d 2-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000’); 846 @ 7-2-40 Agumbé (2, 000’). Biligiri-

rangan oe M41(G) J 23-9-34 (2,000 ‘—Satyamangala) ; M43(G) do juv. 17-7-34,

M8<(G) ¢ 25-7-34, Mg&8(G) 3 27-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Shimsha, Sivasamudram, Sakléshpar, Jagar Valley (Baba-

budans), Settihalli, Kolar Gold Fields.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

656d 18.5-20 102-106.5 78-83 mm.

BOK? 18-19 100.5-103.5 78-79 mm.

Io juv. _- 96 72.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Frequents scrub-

and-bush as well as secondary jungle. This Cuckoo-Shrike has, however, a

very general distribution in the State and is often met with in the deciduous

facies of the evergreen, e.g. Sakléshptr and Agimbé.

Graucalus javensis macei Lesson. The Large Indian Cuckoo-Shrike.

Specimens collected: 179 @ 25-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300); 433 @ 24-12-39,

475 @ . 27-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’). Biligirirangan Hills: M29(G) ¢ 21-9-34

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 339

(2,000’—Satyamangala) ; M61(G) Q 20-7-34, Mr14(G) S 4-8-34 (3,000° Udahatti,

I, base).

Elsewhere noted: Namadachilumé.

Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

256. G) ad. 28.5-29 161 I17.5-120 mm,

29Q ad. 28-29 104.5-107 122-125 mm.

292 imm. 27-28 153-154 119.5-121 mm.—H. W.|

Resident. Tairly common, Kestricted to deciduous biotope. Atfects second-

ary jungle and scrub country interspersed with large trees. Frequently wanders

into the intermediate zone.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

Specimens collected: 7600 ¢, 701 Q 28-1-4o0 Settihalli (2,500’) Biligirirangan

Hills: 36 Q 10-11-39 (3,000—Bedaguli); M8-9(G) ¢ juv. 8-8-34, Ms53-54(G) J

ad., Q juv. 18-7-34 (3,000 —Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 7GiG, ad. 22-23 131-134 54-56 mm.

2 Ono ad. 21-22 135-136 58 mm.

2 66 juv. = 132-1360 58-59 mm.

it Qe qu a 135-5 60 mm.—H. W.]

Uncommon, patchily distributed and sporadic. Confined to deciduous biotope,

but frequently met with in the intermediate zone in forest clearings and young

plantations.

Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst. The Indian Black Drongo.

Specimen collected: 220 Q 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’). Maes

Elsewhere noted: Chamarajanagar, Shimsha, Sivasamtidram, Marikanive,

Kolar Gold Fields.

| Measurements : :

Bill Wing Central tail Outer tail

1 Q ad. 25 142.5 moult 143° mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common in flat open country about cultivation.

There is a local legend which I heard in the Kolar Gold Fields that if a

drongo drinks out of the chatty that has been ceremoniously carried 3 times

round a corpse on the cremation ground, and afterwards alights on the back

of a grazing cow or goat, the animal’s back breaks. Believe it or not, my

informant, the local forester, has with his own eyes seen several catile disabled

in this way! For humanitarian reasons therefore it is customary to smash the

chatty after the rites have been performed.

Dicrurus longicaudatus Jerdon. The Ashy Drongo.

Specimens collected: 712 9 22-1-40 Bababtdan Hills (4,500—Kemmangiindt,

Biligirirangan Hills: 12 3, 13 S 7-11-39 (4,000—Edbuthi); J 17-12-32, ¢

22-12-32, M4o(G) Q 30-10-34 (5,000—Honnametti).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Devarbetta Hill, Namadachilumé, Jagar Valley,

Settihailli.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wiag Central tail Outer tail

BOO Ech 27 139-147 93-97 156.5-187 min.

Py Oh. rhanveav. 20.5-27 133-134.5 89-90.5 138.5-139 mm.

1 Q imm. 20 140 97 158 mm.—H. W.j|{

Resident. Fairly common—away from flat cultivation—in forest, both ever:

green and deciduous, but chiefly in the intermediate zone. It was regularly

observed eating nectar from flowers of the Erythrina and Grevillea shade trees

in. coffee plantations, and also from the white brush-like blossoms of Eucalypius

sp. wherever these trees have been introduced.

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Dicrurus cerulescens caerulescens (Linn.) The White-bellied Drongo.

Specimens collected: 64 ¢, 65 GO 15-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’); 404 G 21-12-39,

419 g 23-12-39 Maklidrug (2,800); 513 oO 31-12-39 Namadachilumé (3,000) ;

Buigiirangan sills: M(G) G juv. 22-9-34. (2,000—Satyamangala); Moo(G) Jd

Juv. 21-7-34, M82(G) ¢ -juv. (3,000—Udahatti, Eastern base).

Elsewuere noted: ohimsha, Sivasamudram, MDevarbetta Hill.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Central tail Outer tail

5 1G 6 sad. 23-5-25 123-127.5 35-838 111.5-120 imim

2K} (oh TEN = 121-123 35-5-39 113.-5-119 mm

sls Ws]

Resident. kairiy common in deciduous biotope. Typical habitat: Bamboo

facies. Usually met with as a member of the roving hunting parties of

insectivorous birds in secondary jungle.

Krom tne body cavity of No. 65 two nematode worms (Diplotriaena sp.) were

removed. : .

Chaptia enea malayensis Blyth. The Southern Bronzed Drongo.

Specimens collected: 109 @Q 19-11-39 Bandipur (3,300/); 192 Q 28-11-39

Antarsanté (2,500); 807 Q 2-2-40 dettihalli (2,500’). biligirirangan Hills: M5

(H) o?—, M7(H) @ 26-3-34 (4,000—Chiksampagi).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Valley (2,500-—Bababudans).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Central tail Outer tail

in Gye ade 24 118.5 = 105 mm.

Aes ONT aGs 21-22.5 115.5-118 87-388.5 105-107.5 mun.

ies THEN — 115-5 — 107 mm.—H. W. |

Resident. Common in the intermediate zone extending across to outer fringe

of the dry-inter. Affects jungle, and usually found with the mixed hunting parties.

Chidia hottentotta londae Koelz. The Malabar Hair-crested Drongo.

Specimens collected: 527 6, 528 6, 529 6, 530 @ 2-1-40, 539 Q 4-1-40

SF . - 7

Namadachilume (3,000’).

kisewhere noted: sSettihalli (2,500—Shimoga District).

[| Measurements :

bill Wing Central tail Outer tail

216} G} 38-39-5 154.5-102 114.5-128.5 130-141.5 mm,

1p © 38 104 i26 135 mm.

There seems no doubt—as hinted by previous writers—that the Hair-crested

Drongo falls into two recognisable races in India differing in size. There

is a large bird in the sub-Himalayan area from Baijnath (in the Kangra Dis-

trict) to our border by the Brahmaputra river and Naga Hills, and a smaller

race along the south-western Ghats from Mahableshwar to Travancore whose

range inland is now considerably extended by the present specimens. Between

these two areas the bird is only found in a belt across. the Chota Nagpur

area from Nagpur to Calcutta, where it is apparently intermediate in size.

Reliably sexed specimens are not numerous and I cannot supplement these

Mysore birds with any adult males from the southern distribution, but these

4 males are definitely smaller than 10 males from the Eastern Nepal—Naga

fills area which measure Bill 40-43, Wing 163-173.5. The only adult male

{ can measure from the Western Himalayas is even larger: Wing 179 mm,

As pointed out in the Lastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 352) there

has been some difficulty over the type locality which was given by Linnaeus

in error as the Cape of Good Hope but later restricted by Mr. Stuart Baker

(Novitates Zool. xxvi (1919) p. 44) to Sikkim, and_ this — restriction, though

rejected by Kloss (Jour. FF. M. S. Mus. Vol. x (1921) p. 222), must certainly

stand. It has. since been accepted by Chasen (Handlist of Malaysian Birds

(1935) p- 304). The larger northern form is therefore the typical race.x—H. W.]

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE z 341

In the draft of his notes Mr. Whistler had proposed a name for this smaller

southern race, but it appears that in the meantime Mr. Walter Koelz had

already named it as above on specimens recently collected by him in the neigh-

bourhood of Londa (near Castle Rock, Goa Frontier). Mr. Koelz’s paper

(Proc. Biol. Soc. of Washington, vol. lii, pp. 61-82 [5 June 1939]) was delayed

from our notice owing to war conditions.

Resident. Not common and apparently of patchy and erratic distribution.

The specimens were obtained from a loose scattered party of 8 or 9 birds feeding

on nectar from the white brush-like flowers of Eucalyptus (robusta?) in a self-

sown grove to which they appeared confined. Their throats and foreheads were

coated with pollen and the bills dripped nectar. Their stomachs contained a

small quantity of insect remains besides. The plumage of all the specimens

emitted a strong musty odour of fermenting honey as from the crop of a

Honey-Buzzard.

The only other example of this Drongo met with in Mysore State (Settihalli,

30-1-49) was also on an Eucalyptus (robusta?) tree in blossom, growing in the

compound of the Forest Lodge.

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham). The Malabar Racket-tailed

Drongo. ;

Specimens collected : [133 ¢ 21-11-39 Gudaltr Ghat (3,000 —Nilgiris)]; 187 ¢

28-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500); 647 Q 16-i-4o Sakiéshpur (3,000); 754 Q 28-1-40

Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Maddtr (near Gundlupet), Jagar Vaiiey (Bababudans).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Central tail Outer tail Racket

2 dod ad. 34-36.5 152)5-150.5,. 133-%41.5 330-405 100-107 mm.

2° OQ ad. 32.5-33.5 148.5-151.5) -127.5-133 313-357 91-97 mm.

These specimens certainly belong to the form called malabaricus, but I have

already pointed out in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 351) that

I find no real differences between malabaricus and the typical race. There

is no doubt that too many races of this species have been described, but the

group is difficult to understand, material is poor, the meaning of differences

in plumage are hard to disentangle for lack of the right specimens and I do

not think any revision of the races should be piecemeal.

The 2 females have the abdomen duller and faintly barred with white, the

under-tail coverts are spotted with white and the spotting on the underwing

coverts is heavier than in the males. These differences (which I have observed

before in other specimens) seem to me to be sexual and not a matter of age.

=, Wel

Resident. Common. Typical habitat: Intermediate zone, primarily the

bamboo facies. :

(To be continued),

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER

SPORTING FiSH IN INDIA AND BURMA:

Jens Sits Ie MACDONALD.

(With one plate and one text-figure).

(Continued. from page 189 of this volume).

IPAIRID JUL

I. THE SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF ANGLING.

A review of the fishes senses (342), Scientific explanations of the

functions of the lateral line (343), Hearing (344), The eye and vision

(345), Lhe chemical senses of smell and taste (345), These views

compared (347), How the Mahseer fits these theories (348), List of

references (348).

Fishing, like all forms of sport, calls for an understanding of

our quarry, and a few general principles should first be considered

before hastening to the water’s edge to wet a line. Judging from

the casual conversations 1n a club or a bar, or from articles written

to the press, there appear to be a great many anglers who know

little or nothing about the senses of fish. It is for this reason

that I think a ‘short chapter on the senses of fishes will be found

instructive and interesting; as quite apart from the method of

approach while fishing, these senses, if understood, will help the

angler in adapting his lure with better understanding, and give him

better results.

The application of sight and hearing, or taste and smell, as we

know them, are too readily applied to a fish, but the environments

and elements effecting or governing these are not sufficiently borne

runt Saavrarsl; Mave angler will’ pay oreat attention to the colour of his

‘lv and its resemblance to the natural insect, but give little or no

attention to the structure of the lure, wherein probably lies more

than half the secret of success or failure. We will see later on in

this chapter that the sight of fish is a secondary sense to feel, much

as a tiger’s scent 1s secondary to his sight and hearing.

Science has proved that the senses of a fish have developed on

very different lines to ours, and that these must be adapted to the

greater density of water might well be imagined. Water being

incompressible, any displac ement sets up pressure waves, which are

quickly registered and detected by specially adapted organs pro-

vided in fish. These are of a highly sensitive nature and contained

in the Lateral Line. How far the detection is minimised, if at all,

in the disturbed and distorted waters of a rapid or fall, or how

far such vibrations travel up-stream, is not clear, but provision

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

“White Feather’ of water just above the figure.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 343

must surely be made in the nervous system of a fish for differentiat-

ing between the natural and unnatural, much as the keen ears of a

sambar do between the rustling leaves in the wind and those dis-

turbed by a footfall.

How vibrations are transmitted or interchanged by the different

elements I am not in a position to say; but a fire by the side of

water certainly registers some form of signal to fish. I have seen

this on the Surju, in Kumaon, when a pyre is lit, and where, |

regret to say, mahseer are master scavengers. At Rewa, also, I

have seen fish collect to be fed near a temple when a huge bell

rung. If you keep in mind the ‘touchiness’ of a fish, and adapt

your methods accordingly, you will not be disappointed.

Neither Thomas, Lacey, nor Skene Dhu, deal with the functions

of the Lateral Line, (which to me is the most important factor

governing all approaches to angling), in fact most of the views

expressed are misleading in their interpretation of the senses of

fish.

I am fortunate in having with me J. R. Norman’s excellent

book The History of Fishes 1931, and J. E. Nielsen’s interesting

article Angling has Scientific Angles published in the ‘Scientific

American’ in July 1934 Vol. 151 No. 1.

Norman’s work is a highly comprehensive and technical survey

of all fish, whereas Nielsen’s article has been written in more

popular language for the angler.

With the aid of these I will now deal with the senses of fish

in order of importance, as applied to angling.

(1) Lateral Line.

‘The lateral line consists of a series of perforated scales running

along each flank in most of the bony fishes. It consists of a canal

or tube sunk into the skin and opening to the exterior by a series

of pores. There is a group of sensory cells beneath each pore, and

these serve to give the fish impressions of minute differences in

the pressure of the currents of water.’ (3. p. 43).

‘The sense organs of the lateral line are served by fine nerves

arising from a special branch of the vagus (tenth) cranial nerve

running parallel to the line itself, and conveying the sensory impres-

sions to the brain. The lateral line system has generally been

regarded as the seat of a sense akin to ‘‘feeling’’, but it would

perhaps be more accurate to describe this sense as combining the

qualities of hearing and touch.’ (1. pp. 200-202).

‘Hearing and feeling are closely related senses, and in the case

of fish there is no definite border line between the two. In addition

to periodic sound waves, there are other wayes—non-periodic

pressure waves, which humans cannot perceive. A worm wriggling

in the water, or an insect falling on the surface will set up waves

of pressure in the water around them: these will instantly be noticed

by the fish. For this purpose it has an extremely suitable organ the

“lateral line’’. As we ourselves do not possess this organ, it is

difficult for us to imagine how its sensations feel, but there is no

question that its sensitiveness is far superior to that of fish vision.

This fact is affirmed by the strong lateral nerve system connected

to it. The best analogy we can give is that of a blind man with

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

his stick, but the fish has long ‘‘sticks’’ in all directions, and every

stick has a sensitivity equal to the tip of your tongue—every stick

is in fact a ‘“‘teletoucher’’. Most fishermen do not pay much attention

to this organ, but it is nevertheless the organ which causes more

bad luck among fishermen than all the other senses combined. With

this organ, fish are able to feel the least ‘‘touchiness’’ in the surround-

ing medium.’ (2. pp. 20-21).

In supporting the theory of the sensitiveness of the lateral line,

and the acute feeling of a fish of anything foreign in the immediate

medium surrounding it, it occurs to me that the Tank Angler may

ask ‘But what of paste bait or dead worms threaded on a hook—

how is their presence registered to a fish?’ 7

Here let me put forward my own theory, giving as an example

the Vulture.

A few years ago, a long series of letters appeared in the press,

on how vultures make contact with carrion. A great deal of con-

troversy took place, and various views were put forward, but in

the end it was generally accepted that sight was the only means

of the vulture finding food. This was systematically led up to: flies

attracting birds, and birds other scavengers, such as crows and

kites, and these in turn attracting nearby vultures and so on.

This is exactly how I reason fish to react to ground bait in

a tank. Small fish and turtles attract the larger fish near at hand,

these in turn attract others within the registering range of them-

selves and so on until the fancied Rehu and Cutla arrives within

the range of its chemical senses, and is so directed to the hook of

paste or worms, the distance of diffusion depending on the flavour

or smell of the bait used. eS

(2) Hearing.

‘A study of the development of the inner ear shows that this

must have been at one time one of the sense organs of the lateral

line, before becoming specially enlarged and modified in order to

adapt it to the perception of delicate sound vibrations, and to the

maintenance of equilibrium.’ (1. p. 201).

‘In fishermen the ear is divided into three parts. The external,

the middle, and the internal ear or the labyrinth. Fish possess only

this latter part. The reason for this difference is clear. The func-

tion of the ear is to collect vibrations of various frequencigs. In

the case of humans the ear is surrounded by air, and the funnel-

shaped external organ is an efficient device for collecting these

vibrations, because the medium in which they are set up has a

density of only one thousand of that of which the ear is built.

Fish on the other hand are surrounded by a medium having the

same density as that of which they are built, and their whole body —

partakes of the vibrations set up in this medium. The labyrinth

is the only organ required to transfer the physical vibrations to the

neryous system. As the receiving nerve centres of a fish are built

much the same as ours, we may assume that its sense of hearing

is similar to ours, possibly better, on account of the high density

of water with which the nerve centres are in direct communication.’

(2. pp. 20-21),

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 3451

(3) The Eye and Vision.

‘In its general form the eye of a ‘Gene is not unlike our own, but

it is necessarily somewhat modified for vision under water.

The lens of a land vertebrate is somewhat flat and convex on both

sides, but in the fish it is a globular body, the extreme convexity

being a necessity under water because the substance of the lens is

not very much denser than the fluid medium in which the fish ‘lives.’

(lo [Bo matey le

‘In the human eye, light rays enter the first lens through the

cornea, which contains a transparent fluid of refractive index the

same as water, namely 1.33. Next it passes through the pupil to

the second lens, which has a refractive index, of about 1.141. From

this it proceeds through almost pure water to the retina, where the

image is picked up by the optic nerve. This device of sight is

highly efficient in air, which has a refractive index of 1.00, but

when immersed in wa ter, which has a refractive index of 1.33 it is

very inefficient. The reason for this is that, as is shown by the

principle of optics, light rays which enter the eye will then not be

refracted by the first lens, but will go through to the second lens

in a straight line, and this will have a relative refractive index of

only I.4I + 1.33 or 1.06, which is too low to make possible a sharp

image on the retina. in order to improve upon the low refractive

power of the eye of a fish, nature has increased the curvature of its

only active lens to the maximum possible, which is the sphere. As

we know from optics, the disadvantage of a spherical lens is that

only the very central rays will give a tolerably clear image. It

exhibits marked spherical aberration. This, combined with the low

refractive index, makes fish very near-sighted animals. They are

able to sense changes in light intensity . . . We may also see that

a flash reflected from a shining spoon or wobbler may auney aoe

the same power as the reflection ‘trom the side of a fish.’ (2. pp. 20-21).

(4) The Chemical Senses, Smell and Taste.

‘...which are separated in fishermen, are combined into one by fish,

As the nature of smell is to perceive odorous matter highly diffused

in air, and as fish are not surrounded by air, there can be no sensa-

tion of smell as it is known in fishermen. There may however, be

a better developed sense of taste, judging from the abundant shoe ibu-

tion of taste buttons in and around the mouth, and on the side of

the head. It is possible that fish can taste matter highly diffused

in water as easily as we can smell it in air. Taste and smell are

quite different sensations. It is only occasionally that an agreeable

smell arouses our desire to eat. Some fine perfumes, for example,

have a definitely disgusting taste. The practice of some fishermen,

of perfuming the bait is useless and unscientific’. (2. pp. 20-21).

In relation to the theory set out on the chemical senses, as inter-

preted by Nielsen, Norman dealing with the olfactory organs

SAU So

..the sense of smell resides in the nasal or olfactory organs, but,

unlike - the higher vertebrates, the nostrils or nasal openings are

never (or scarcely ever) used for breathing purposes. Typically,

each nasal organ consists of a somewhat deep pit lined with special

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

sensitive tissue, and in order to provide the maximum of sensitive

surface, the lining is generally puckered up into a series of ridges

which may be parallel to each other, or arranged in radiating fashion —

like a rosette... In bony fishes both nasal pits are divided into

two separate portions, each with its-own opening to the exterior.

The position of the nostrils varies considerably in different fishes.

In some the anterior nostril is widely separated from the posterior,

in others the two are almost in contact. Occasionally, as in the

Cichlids (Cichlidae) and in certain Wrasses (Labridae), the nasal

organs each have only a single external orifice. In some of the

Eels (Apodes) the anterior nostril is situated on the upper lip (labial

position) and in many of the globe-fishes (Tetrodontidae) there are

no actual apertures but a pair of solid nasal tenticles . . . There

can be little doubt that the sense of smell in fishes is relatively acute,

as has been proved by numerous experiments. The large nasal

organs of sharks are said to enable them to ‘‘Scent actively as well

as passively’’, and it is well known that the smell of flesh or blood

or of a decaying carcase will attract them to it from some distance

away. The Caribe or Piraya (Serrasalmus), the ferocious Characin-

fish of the rivers of South America (cf. p. 130) is irresistibly attracted

by the smell of blood, and woe betide the animal unfortunate enough

to be bitten by one of these pests, for hundreds more will rush to

the spot with incredible rapidity. As long ago as 1653 Izaak Walton

wrote the following in his ‘Compleat Angler’ with reference to the

sense of smell of fishes. “And now I shall tell you that which may

be called a secret. I have been a-fishing with old Oliver Henly,

now with God, a noted fisher for trout and salmon; and have observed

that he would usually take three or four worms out of his bag,

and put them into a little box in his pocket, where he would usually

let them continue half an hour or more before he would bait his

hook with them. I have asked him his reason and he has replied: ‘He

did but pick the best out to be in readiness against he baited his

hook the next time’ but he has been observed, both by others and

myself to catch more fish than I, or any other body that has ever

gone a-fishing with him, could do, and especially salmons. And I

have been told lately, by one of his most intimate and secret friends,

that the box in which he put these worms was anointed with a

drop, or two or three, of the oil of Ivy-berries, made by expression

or infusion; and told that by the worms remaining in the box an

hour, or like time, they had incorporated a kind of smell that was

irresistibly attractive enough to force any fish within the smell of

them to bite’. Mention may be made of a number of careful experi-

ments conducted by Mr. Gregg Wilson at~ Plymouth at the end of

the last century, with a view to ascertaining the respective parts

played by the sense of smell sight, etc., in obtaining food. He

concluded that ‘fish that are not very hungry habitually smell food

before tasting it’, but, when really ravenous, Pollack would bolt

clams that had been saturated with alcohol, turpentine, chloroform

and other unpleasant substances without any hesitation. He also

states that in many cases the fish actually search for the meal by

sight alone, and then test the quality of what they have found by

smelling it. Some blind specimens of Pollack however, were able

to find their food by smell alone, and there are doubtless other forms

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 347

which do this habitually, especially those dwelling in muddy or

foul water, where the eyes would be of little use. The Cod (Gadus)

is generally believed to feed more at night than in the day-time,

and may rely largely on its olfactory sense. Mr. Gregg Wilson

has shown that the Dab (Limanda) is normally a sight feeder, but

under experimental conditions, if a number of worms were placed

in a small wooden box with minute apertures to allow the water

to pass in and out, considerable excitement was immediately pro-

duced, and the fish hunted eagerly in every direction.

‘When water in which many worms had lain for some time was

simply poured into the tank through a tube that had been in position

for several days, and by a person who was out of sight of the dabs,

the result was most marked... Yet there was nothing visible to

stimulate the quest.’ From the above and other sources of evidence

it may be concluded that the sense of smell plays a fairly important

part in the daily life of a fish, and although as a general rule this

is not the only sense upon which it relies to obtain a meal, if the

eyes or ears should in any way fail to function it could probably

be indused to search for its food by smell alone.’ (1. p. 182-185).

From the text of these extracts, it will be seen that agreement

in all the views quoted is evident, except in the chemical senses of

smell and taste, which is by no means conclusive.

From the anglers point of view there is little to distract us from

the theory or methods to be applied or followed, as both these

senses are so closely related, that even were we to follow one theory

or the other in principle, we would still find ourselves proceeding

on much the same lines. For taste or smell acting as a secondary

sense to that of feel, or the functions of the lateral line, would

be applied by the fish to our lure in a similar manner.

It is interesting, however, to compare how these two authorities

approach this subject, and from a purely practical stand point I

think one explains the other.

J. R. Norman dealing with the functions of the nose says,

‘In order to provide the maximum of sensitive surface, the lining

is generally puckered up into a series of ridges, which may be

parallel to each other or arranged in radiating fashion, lke a

rosette.’

He goes on to say that in some fishes the nostril actually com-

municates with the roof of the mouth. Nielsen on the other hand

states:

‘Smell and taste; which are separated in fishermen, are com-

bined into one by fish. As thé nature of smell is to perceive odorous

matter diffused in air, and as fish are not surrounded by air, there

can be no sensation of smell as it is known by fishermen... It

is possible that fish can taste matter highly diffused in water, as

easily as we smell it in air’.

These would indicate from our point of view that whichever is

correct the functions of the nose or taste ‘buds’ or ‘buttons’, in

relation to finding smelly or scented bait, are so closely related that

no difference arises, nor does it call for any change of method for

one or the other.

The tank angler who applies high or smelly hee to his bait

is convinced that it is smell that attracts the fish, whereas if it

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

were to be analysed it might quite easily prove to be taste, and so

also in the experiments as quoted by Norman in connection with

blood, rotten meat and ivy berries. It is too deep a subject for

this little book, and is a monopoly of the ‘pundits’ of Science.

| have taken the liberty to quote freely from these two authorities

(Norman and Nielsen), so as not to leave any doubt in the reader’s

mind about the authenticity of the various functions of the fish’s

senses, and to make available for the average angler facts about

fish that would not ordinarily come his way.

I will conclude by summarising these senses as applied to the

mahseer, to which this book is chiefly devoted.

(1) Lateral Line. ‘The mahseer has larger scales than most fish,

with a bold and well defined lateral line, so that it is reasonable to

presume that it is well developed, and the functions attributed to

it are keen, and that it is probably the chief sense by which this

fish is attracted to a lure.

(2) Hearing. This is closely related to the lateral line, and its

functions are probably absorbed into it, having a specific purpose,

of separating certain vibrations. Its sensitiveness is probably as

keen as the human ear.

(3) The Eye and Vision. The eye of the mahseer is bold and

large, but his choice for rapids and broken water, especially when

feeding, would indicate that his vision must be limited considerably

and subordinated to the more highly developed sense of feel.

experiments have shown that the sense of sight

probably plays the most important part in the search for

food, but at the same time, this is much more limited than that

of a land vertebrate; and, owns, to the general haziness of the

water, due to the presence of organisms and other matters sus-

pended therein, objects must appear of somewhat uncertain outline.

The extreme convexity of the lens of the eye points to the fact,

that a fish is near-sighted, and even in the clearest water it is

doubtful whether the range of vision exceeds about 12 yards, if as

far as this. It is not unlikely that the fish really notices move-

ments or changes in outline rather than in actual objects.’ (1. p. 190).

(4) The Chemical Senses. 1 have already dealt with these, so

far as they concern angling ;

LIst OF REFERENCES.

(1) J. R. Norman F.t.s., F.z.s., ‘A History of Fishes’ 1931. (Assistant

Keeper Department of Zoology (Fishes) British Museum, London.

(2) J. E. Nielsen, p.sc. ‘Angling has Scientific Angles’. From the Scientific

American July 1934, vol. 151.

(3) Sir Reginald- Spence, Kt., M.L.c., F.z.S., and (former Hon. Secretary.,

B.N.H.S.), and S. H. Prater, M-v.c.,c.M.z.s.,- (Curator of the BINVH;S,). “Game

Fishes of Bombay, The Deccan and ‘The Neighbouring Districts of the Bombay

Presidency’. Journal, Bomb. Nat. Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi, pp. 29-66, (With

19 pates).

Il. ELEMENTRY NOTES FOR THE NOVICE.

‘Have you gazed on naked grandeur where there’s nothing else

to gaze on,

Set pieces and drop-curtain scenes galore,

Big mountains heaved to heaven, which the blinding sunsets blazon,

Black canyons where the rapids rip and roar ?

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 349

Have you swept the visioned valley with the green stream streaking

through,

Searched the vastness for a something you have lost?

Have you strung your soul to silence? Then for God’s sake go

: and do it;

Hear the challenge, learn the lesson, pay the cost.’

IMs Sc

Mention of the Mahseer and its Gameness.—We wili set aside

all comparisons of the mahseer’s gameness as compared with the

salmon, sea trout, or any other ‘game fish’. In India, anyway,

pride of place goes to this fish, be it on a light fly rod or a strong

12-foot spinning rod, it affords the chief sport for the angler in India.

I estimate that with reasonably light tackle (that used for trout or

salmon) the masheer gives fight at approximately 2 to 3 minutes

per pound of weight, and this, should the reader wish to make

comparisons, will be a rough Bilide. I have killed a 75 pounder

in 40 minutes, and it has taken me one hour and twenty minutes

to kill one of 23 pounds. But these are isolated cases, and for an

average reckoning with the fly rod, I think my estimate of 2 to 3

minutes per pound of weight will not be found far wrong.

The mahseer is to be found throughout India and Burma, where

rivers are suitable or large lakes fit his environments. Rivers must

rise in the hills, be perennial, with rocks, rapids, and deep pools,

for this fish to thrive. Some of the canals in the Punjab and U.P.

also hold this warrior, especially if there are falls and fish ladders.

An interesting thing about the mahseer is that his fin area is

greater than the total superficial area of the rest of his body. This

makes him a strong and powerful fish, able to live in the big and

heavy waters of Indian rivers, in fact no water is too strong to hold

him. My own experience with both fiy rod and heavy spinning

rod has convinced me that for fly spoon work, 150 yards of line is

necessary, and for heavy work 300 yards. Time and time again

I have needed the extra 50 and too yards, and then had to follow

down stream, sometimes as much as 300 yards to kill my fish.

Anyone who has caught mahseer knows what the first rush means,

but by the novice or beginner this cannot be fully appreciated until

experienced. I have heard it aptly described as terrifying, and it

can be. Your arms are nearly torn out from their sockets, and

all the skill and experience you may have will be needed to keep

up the point of your rod. I refer to heavy fish in heavy water.

On the fly rod the same rush is made when the bait is taken, and

you are left guessing and estimating the size of the fish, but you

will often be disappointed when at the end of the fight you see a

game little chap of 3 pounds in the landing net, that you estimated

at ten. This has been my experience of the mahseer ieee hope nt

will be yours.

Tackle.—I will try to assume for the novice exactly how I feit

when a beginner and pose myself as the instructor, with some

22 years experience. We will start with a well-equipped library of

books and catalogues, a small banking account with both ‘thrift’

and ‘extravagance’ as the brother pupils, and with my own tackle

cutfit on view. For the beginner I think that the light fishing will

hold out far more attraction and bring earlier success than the

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

more skilful and laborious methods required for the heavy fish.

For the two, methods are as unlike as salmon and trout fishing,

and can be compared to the ‘Scatter Gun’ and rifle as to results.

The heavy rod in six or seven hours fishing may only produce

three or four runs, and quite often not one, whereas the fly rod

will generally produce some fish, if not small mahseer then the

sporting little Barilius bola commonly called Indian Trout or one

of his many cousins. I will mention in order of importance what

I consider the essentials and with them my suggestions.

The Reel.—This is the most expensive item, but also the most

important, as cheap reels will be a constant worry, with spring's

snapping, bearings seizing, plates jamming, etc. and lots of fish

and tackle being lost. A good reel will cost, upwards, from Rs. 4o

to Rs. 140. That is one with a good foundation, only to be found

in the higher priced reels. Bearings of gun metal or the,other

improved alloys, the spindle firmly set, the ratchet well fixed, and

the check spring strong in paying out, but free or just engaging

when winding in. If you stipulate these essentials to your tackle

dealer, you will have got as near the perfect reel as possible. I do

not stress a well fitting drum, or the avoidance of prominent nuts,

handles, levers etc., as the manufacturers know well these are to

be avoided for fly reels, as they foul the line and breakages occur.

The check should be adjustable, as it can then serve for both light

and medium .work, but it must be strong enough to nook the fish

without any pressure by hand. You cannot apply hand pressure

on the line for mahseer, as he takes with such a rush that you will

cut or burn your hand or fingers if you try. The size should be

near the correct weight for your rod, but it must be large enough

to take 150 yards of line and baeline, unless of course you are only

likely to fish in very small streams.

I am trying here to fit one reel to the universal use of Indian

rivers, keeping ‘thrift’? ideas in mind. I will not mention. any

special makes of reels, as there are dozens on the market today,

and it is your business to find the most suitable one fitting these

points, at the cheapest price, bearing in mind that cheapness does

not always spell economy. )

I am exclusively equipped with Hardy’s reels, and use a Hardy’s

Silex 34 inch, but even so I have to take the reel down after each

run, to tighten up the four screws fixing the ratchet to the drum.

IT understand however, that this has been partly overcome in the

more recent and improved Silex. Mine are eleven years old!!

The Rod.—This is rather more difficult to advise on as rods

are made in degrees of pliability, and are today reduced to a mathe-

matical fine art though, I am sorry to say, nothing has been put

on the market, to my knowledge, to fit the Indian fishing. Dry

fly rods are generally the most Siitabic: as they are stronger built,

and stand up to fly spoon work better ‘than wet fly rods. I fancy

split cane, but green-heart and steel rods are also good. It has to be

borne in mind, however, that in some of the very hot, moist valleys,

in parts of this vast country, split cane may not be suitable.

The universal fly spoon rod, should be between nine and ten feet

long, in two or three pieces, with a spare top, and with agate or

chromium steel rings at the butt and end, with good strong steel

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 351

intermediate rings. (agate rings should be frequently examined

under a mz gnifying glass, as they are apt to crack.) It must be

capable of throwing a iy spoon up to one inch (2 drachms in weight)

and most important of all, be capable of recovering the spoon in

fast heavy water, as this is when a rod is most severely testediaa lit

must also be light and pliable, so as to give play to a fish of a

pound weight and be capable of standing up to a fish of 20 pounds

in exceptional cases. Do not touch sieel centres, as they are

not suited to the Indian climate. A good rod will cost up to

Rs. 200 but there are lots partly fitting these requirements for

Rs. go or Rs. 50 in green-heart, steel and cane, so that your choice

must be governed by the price you are prepared to pay. I use a

‘Perfection’ two piece double built split cane rod, ro feet in length

built by Hardy’s but it is too light for casting anything over

za drachm in weight. For the heavy fishing a 9 feet 6 inch to

10 feet 6 inch spinning rod, will fit the requirements of all water,

and as long as agate and porcelain rings are fitted and the rod has

a certain amount of give down to the handle, it will cast a large

spoon with a heavy weight, as well as spoons of 14 to 2 inches

and will stand up to any size of fish. Even shorter rods of 7 ft.

with the American casting reels are very popular, and large fish

have been taken. The more pliable the rod the better it is for

striking a fish.

I use a g ft. bamboo rod built by Verona, to my specifications

and is all that is desired, and well within the price of most anglers,

Rs. 30. I have besides an 11 ft. split cane spinning rod by Hardys,

for very big water where fish run over 50 and 60 pounds. The

range in price for these two rods is Rs. 30 to Rs. 250.

The Line.—Braided silk dressed lines are the best value, and last

indefinitely if cared for and dried daily after use. Water-proof and

enamelled lines do not do well in this country, they are besides

expensive and a constant source of worry and trouble, getting

tacky and brittle in our varied climate. Tapered lines are attractive

to use, but with a fly spoon sufficient weight is provided for long

casts, so the ordinary graded line is good enough. ‘Lignum

Vitae’ or ‘Non Pareil’ is what I use with a flax braided line or

‘cutty-hunk’ as backing. Grade ‘H’ with 14 pounds breaking

strain for fly spoon work, and grade ‘E’ or ‘F’ for the heavy fish

with a breaking strain of 24 and 30 pounds, respectively. Backing

should be slightly stronger than the dressed line, so as to provide

a margin of safety should a break occur.

Traces. Natural Gut is the most popular, and what I personally

favour for fly spoon work, but it is expensive and difficult to come

by these days. “Medium Trout’ to ‘Sea Trout’ sizes are strong

enough for fly spoon. A good length of trace is 5 to 6 ft.

Gut Substitute has its supporters, and is both strong and con-

venient to tie into casts or traces, but knots must be very carefully

tied as they have a tendency to slip. Durofix applied to the knot

holds well, also to prevent the knot drawing or slipping, lay a piece

of thin soft copper wire alongside one of the strands of gut substitute,

and tie it in with the knot.

Wire, Killin and other similar makes: of wire make up into

excellent traces and leave nothing to be desired. It is made in

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

5 sizes Ix, 2x, fine, medium, and strong, of 8.12.15.20, and 25 pounds

breaking strain. It is almost invisible in water, when new.

Alasticum is a new elastic steel wire, made in much finer grades

and with a breaking strain down to 5 pounds, which is as fine as

hair and should be excellent for light work. Avoid gimp or twisted

Wire, as-it sets up friction in water, and is liable to kink.

Swivels, —Use the finest sizes, nos. 8 to ro. Three to a trace

of 14 yds. in length in any grade of wire for heavy fishing. Learn

to tie your own traces as it saves both expense and time, wire can

be changed on to the same swivels in a few moments. Knots for

tying gut traces and twisting wire will be discussed elsewhere in-

this book under *Tackle’.

Lures.—Spoons VIS) in shapes, sizes and colour, almost as much

as flies, so that one’s fancy must be largely a matter of local choice

as certain spoons suit certain localities. Remember that it does

not follow that spoons of small size will only catch small fish, and

large spoons large fish. I have caught on a #? inch fly spoon scores

of igh over 20 pounds, and one of 29} pounds, likewise on a 4 inch

spoon fish of only a pound and a half. Shape and spin more than

the size, is the deciding factor. I myself fancy as a _ general

favourite a long narrow spoon shallow in depth, with deep scales

cut into the convex side for the larger sizes as on the Myitkyina

spoon, and just a plain surface for the smaller sizes in fly spoons;

but remember what I have written in Chapter V about spoons in

general.

Hardy makes an excellent semi-hogbacked spoon in three sizes

and for neatness and finish these cannot be surpassed. It is an

excellent example to follow if you mount your own spoons.

For the many other lures such as Halcyon spinners, Phantoms,

Pennell, Devons, fly minnows and insects etc., all take well and

{ recommend a variety to be carried and tried, if spoon fails. These

patent spinners are beautifully turned out and come through the

water in a most natural fashion, and do not tax a rod nearly so

much as a spoon in heavy water, being much easier to recover ;

this also applies to the larger sizes for heavy fish.

Plug Baits.—In recent years these have come very much into

prominence and are now more popular than spoon in a number of

localities. The American makes are the most favoured, and are

made in one or two pieces. The one-piece is favoured for heavy

water, and the jointed two-piece for slower runs. They are beauti-

fully turned out and are very natural in water but the trebles must

be changed, they are only made in the larger sizes Hos big work,

and special mahseer hooks must be fitted.

One great feature in favour of plug bait is that they float, and

do not consequently get hung up nearly so often as spoon in shallow

bouldery rapids if a bad cast is made. They also provide a good

substitute for dead bait when not procurable. The shield set on

in front and below the head takes a remarkable hold of the water,

and keeps the bait well under while fishing. The colours and types

should be suited to local conditions.

Dead or Natural Bait Mounts.—Crocodile and Archer spinners

are the most popular mounts for dead bait, but there are also many

others, the leaded variety are good if spinning is being done in

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 353

_very big water. The best of all mounts however, and the least

visible, is the threaded wire two-piece mount as described by me

elsewhere in this serial.

Leads.—These aremade in a number of shapes and sizes, but

I do not recommend any permanently fixed lead on a line, as more

fish are lost in this way than any other. The type I favour is the

barrel shape, with a hole through the length, so that a strong piece

of silk can be used to fasten it to the swivel of the trace, which

would snap if it was fouled in a snag. The spiral or other types

of lead may be used where rivers are not full of large boulders and

snags. They are easy to attach, and do not foul the line or trace.

The bullet shaped ‘Hillman’ lead, is very quickly attached to

the eye of a swivel, and weights can be speedily changed to suit

varying water. This is especiaily useful when fishing from a boat

or coracle, and changes of lead have to be quickly effected.

Hooks.—Only use the best hooks on which ever line you may

have, as the crushing power of the mahseer is phenominal. I have

avoided any mention of fly or fishing with fly; it is far easier for

the novice to learn how to cast a small spoon than a fly, besides

which I am anxious to get him into a fish as early as possible, and

the chances for this are far greater with spoon. There are dozens

of good books on fly fishing, so that any mention here would be

superfluous. |

Casting with Fly Spoon.—We will assume that you have

assembled your rod correctly, reel put on with right hand wind

(an orderly or servant invariably puts it on the wrong way), the

joint of the red well home, and the line threaded through all rings

(an attendant will often miss one out), the trace correctly tied to

the line. Remember a knot is the weakest part of the line. A

loop made at the end of a line, and passed through the swivel and

over the spoon and trace, then pulled tight, is the surest and

strongest and what I use for both light and heavy fishing. The

figure of eight knot does just as well but is not as strong.

Attaching the spoon to trace.—If you use gut the same attach-

ment as I recommend for attaching the trace to the line will do. Put

the loop through the eye of the swivel on the spoon, then over the

spoon and draw tight, this gives you a double gut lead for a couple

of inches and stands up to the wear and strain of both the fish’s

lips and the spoon spinning. Avoid above all things attaching swivel

to swivel, as all the advantage of fishing light is lost if you have a

chain of swivels leading your spoon. I use the smallest of swivels,

and if fishing with fine wire and fly spoon, attach a small swivel to

the end of the trace, and a split ring on the fly spoon, the spoon

is easily attached or changed, and for fly spoon work split ring's

can be used with safety if kept oiled and free from rust. If solid

brazed rings are preferred a fine attachment link may be used.

Casting the Spoon.—If you have fished for salmon, use the

fly spoon in the same manner as you do a fly, casting across and

slightly below you, while feeling the spoon all the time, allow it

to work across and below you “until it has straightened out the

line, then draw it up through the swirls and eddies formed on the

edge of the fast water. But for the beginner, we must be more

explicit, as the whole casting operation has first to be mastered.

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Grip.—The grip with either hand is the same, find the point of

balance on the handle, with the fingers around and the thumb above

and along the grip raise the rod and take the point back until

the rod has travelled as far as it will go, with the wrist bent,

the elbow close into the side, and the hand in line with the

shoulder, which will bring the hand with the thumb under and along

the grip, and the fingers above and around it. This is at the peak

of the backward movement of the cast; only practice will teach

you the correct time to pause, before the forward movement is

started, which is when the line has completed the arc and has

straightened out behind you.

The forward movement is a combined harmonising of the wrist,

arm, and shoulder, the arm carries the wrist forward in the direc-

tion of the cast, with the shoulder moving slightly forward, and

the wrist straightening out as it moves forward, the weight of the

rod is taken on the first finger, and the thumb free and just clear

of the rod at the end of the cast. This roughly is the action, and

must be the first stage of learning. The beginner finds the timing

difficult, but once the correct pause is made, the rest follows.

There are other important points to be considered. Unlike the

fly, the spoon grips the water, and the first and most important

action before recovering, is to raise the point of the rod slightly,

so as to bring the spoon to the surface before attempting to start

the backward movement, which is a brisk recovery by the wrist,

arm and shoulder, of the rod into the first position described, send-

ing the spoon back and past you, more or less in the same line as

the point of the rod, which should be held in a vertical plane to

the water. When this has been mastered a longer line should be

tried, but here the other hand will come into play, by drawing the

line through the bottom ring while bringing the spoon to the surface,

just before the backward swing. This shortens the lead, and 1s

released when the forward swing is half way through. Important

things to remember are :—

(1) Never point the rod down stream, but keep it as near to

right angles to your line as possible. This is what the rod is for,

to take the sudden strain, and spring the whole action of the gear

into operation, which hooks your fish and reduces the shock on

all the units of the outfit, while keeping a steady pressure on the

fish all the time. As an example: get an attendant to hold your

rod, with it pointed at you, draw a few yards of line off the reel,

then repeat the same thing with the rod at right angles, and see

the difference in tension.

(2) Keep feeling the spoon from the time it touches the water,

until you recover it again; you will miss fish if you do not.

(3) Keep feeling your line to see it has not fouled either

around the tip of your rod, or around the reel-or handle. The best

fishermen experience this, especially if a wind is blowing.

(4) Recover the point of your rod as soon as you strike a fish,

and keep it up, for slack line, even for the fraction of a second,

will lose fish.

(5) Do not try to hurry your fish, or drag him into the net.

Mahseer have very leathery mouths, and the hook is easily torn

out. Remember my estimate of 2 to 3 minutes per pound weight.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 355

(6) Keep your finger and hands clear of the line, or you will

regret it. Strike the fish from the reel, and of all things avoid

braking a fish in its first rush, or you will lose more than you

catch.

(7) If wading or in water, do not move until after you have

recovered line, and after the fish has made its first rush, then

work your way out of the water and play him from below, so as

not to disturb the water above.

(8) When landing a fish, bring it into the net, do not allow

the attendant to bring the net to the fish, this generally ends. in

disaster; if you are fishing with more than one hook, try to shelve

your fish, as quite often a fish is hooked outside the mouth by

only one of the two trebles, and the net may get fastened to the

loose hook, and you will lose your fish.

(9) Kill your fish if possible at once, but it does sometimes

become necessary to keep them alive, if the weather is very hot

and fish are taken early in the day, and you are moving camp. A

cord passed through and around the gills and tied to a boat, will

keep the fish alive and frisky. If you have a good day and have

more fish than you require, the smaller ones can be put back into

the river. 3

The nine points enumerated above, are general to all types of

fishing and item (7) is general to Indian fishing, as few rivers in

India can be commanded from either bank, and wading is necessary

to get out to good water.

So far we have considered what is the common method of

fishing, that with the fly rod, which will also serve us on ‘home

leave’. We will now consider the other point of view, and fit

‘extravagance’ ideas.

Stationary drum reels and outfit.—This is commonly and better

known as ‘Wanless’ or thread line tackle. To all who use it,. it

proves attractive and has the charm of being of the lightest material.

A short casting rod of 5 to 7 ft., a highly mechanical reel, that

has its mechanism revolving around the drum, with a multiple wind

in, and a thread line with a breaking strain of from 9 or 10 pounds

down to one pound. Once you have acquainted yourself thoroughly

with the mechanism and working of the reel, the rest is simple,

as you can make a cast in any manner you wish, flick it out, swing

or cast over your head, without any fear of overrunning, which

is the chief objection against the revolving drum types of reels.

The smallest of baits can be thrown out considerable distances,

and-with practice a high degree of accuracy can be obtained.e There

are a number of good makes on the market, and being fully explained

in the various catalogues, details of manipulation are therefore un-

necessary. I have not myself tried one, so cannot offer comment

one way or the other for either choice or use. A possible dis-

advantage with so fine a line is, that it may snap or cut easily, in

heavy water and snags, there must also be a tendency to kink

as with the Malloch reel, but it has proved itself suitable for large

fish in many parts of India.

Revolving drum reels and outfit.—This is the more’ general

method, and is covered by a large range of rods, reels and baits,

varying from 7 to 12 ft. rods, and reels from 4} inches to 3 inches.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

[ery

The American wide drum reels, with a line guide and a quadruple

multiplying wind, are very popular and used extensively with plug-

bait and the short rod; they are far cheaper than the English

makes and are easy to use. Full instructions are issued with each

reel. For those who prefer the larger reels of British make, and

price 1s not a consideration, there is a large choice and almost every

tackle maker has one or two to offer. The best known are the

‘Silex’ and ‘Easy Cast’, but any reel of the Nottingham type works

well if good material is put in. I use a Silex, so will give a short

description of how to cast and fish with one, but the methods for

casting in general are the same for all reels, provided the correct

adjustments are made, and the makers’ instructions are carefully

followed. Spinning rods are made stiffer and stronger than fly rods,

to suit casting a bait from one to five ounces, with good strong

and wide rings to reduce friction on the line, so we must adapt our

methods accordingly.

This is a double handed operation, calling for good control and

timing throughout the whole movement, and is probably the most

difficult to learn, but once mastered is most fascinating. |

The rod is held in both hands, one behind the reel and one in

front depending on whether you are right or left handed.

For example we will take a right handed cast. The right hand

operates the clutch lever on the Silex with the forefinger pulling

it up as far as it will go, so disengaging the check ratchet, and

leaving the drum to run free. With the lever in this position, a

felt friction pad is brought up against a metal drum connected to

the line drum, and keeps up a pressure to prevent the line drum

overrunning when the bait has touched the water. Correctly used

and adjusted, this stops the line drum, but if the action of the

cast is badly made, there is a tendency to overrun and the line gets

entangled on the drum. F licking the bait out, or putting too much

‘beef’? into the cast will cause this. A smooth easy action from

start to finish, in the form of a good shot at golf, best describes

the action. If correctly made the bait goes out in a straight line,

and leads the lead and trace, and no effort is required. The moment

the drum stops revolving (which should be as the bait hits the

water), the clutch lever should be released, when the check is

automatically engaged, and is ready for any emergency. This

roughly is the operation of the reel, but now we must consider the

cast itself, and how it is done. Here I will quote from Hardy’s

Angler’s Guide and reproduce the diagram.

‘Holding the rod at an angle of 45 degrees, allow a length

of about 14 yards of line or trace to hang from the point to the

bait. In casting, the movement of the body should be the same

as driving in golf, a clean follow through stroke. Jerky casting

makes overruns. Please refer to diagram. The Angler is standing

at-X facing A where: the bait is desired to fall. Turn the body

round, until facing B merely raising the left heel a little. Swing

the bait slowly back pendulum wise to C, D, E or F, accord-

ing to the weight of the bait, and make a cast from any of these

points, pressing lever as the cast is made, and keeping it pressed

until the bait falls on the water. This is all that is required.

fhe bait is merely swung backwards, and at the same moment

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 457

as the cast is made, the lever is pressed quietly home. The move-

ments of the initial stroke of the cast, and the pressing of the lever

should be simultaneous. When using light baits 4 to 6 drachms,

cast from D, E, or F. For baits weighing ? to 14 ozs., from any

point C, to H. Diagram shows how to cast from the right side.

If casting from the left the position is simply reversed’.

B H

The procedure then is much the same as mentioned under fly spoon

fishing, let the bait come across and below you, and wind up through

all likely water, and repeat the cast.

Remember the following points :

(1) Get the reel correctly adjusted to your bait, before making

a cast, and again each time you change your spoon or bait. This

is most important.

(2) Do not release the lever until the drum has stopped revolv-

ing; this is a common fault, and it is frequently used as a check.

The reel will soon wear out if you do.

(3) Be careful to wind the reel evenly with line; if it forms

a ridge, the coils become loose and entangled, trouble follows, and

both temper and fish are lost. This frequently happens when play-

ing a heavy fish, or winding in against strong water.

(4) Before casting, make sure the line is free and not twisted

around the tip of your rod, or you may damage the tip, or hook

yourself or an attendant, especially if fishing with heavy bait and

weight.

(5) A good guide when casting is to point your left shoulder

at the point you wish to drop your spoon, and let your hands and

arms go back as far as they can, making this the limit of the

backward body movement.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Where to look for Mahseer.

Rivers.—We will take for choice a river in the lower Himalayas

or Siwaliks, where for our purpose we will find all the ideal con-

ditions, both for mahseer from a quarter of a pound to five score

or more, and an easy hunting ground for the beginner. Twenty

miles or so after the Indian rivers leave the hills, they start settling

down into a monotonous and easy flow over sand, and from our

point of view have little attraction. We must have the essentials

which mahseer demand, rapids, pools and rocks.

My own choice is water near and about where the river leaves

the last range of hills, especially where large pools are formed and

the stream breaks up into a number of channels. If to these con-

ditions we can add two or three junctions of spring fed tributaries,

we have the ideal river. Most of the rivers of any size in the

north of India .rise in the snows: by ‘spring fed’ rivers I mean

rivers that rise in the lower ranges, which are not subject to

melting snow in the hot months of April and May

Rivers which have their sources in the Western Ghats of India

and the Highlands of Central India are not snow-fed. Of these

the more important are the Narbada, Godavery, Kistna, Bhima,

Tungabadra, Cauvery and Bhavani, all of which hold mahseer, as also

do the many fine artificial lakes in the Bombay Presidency. The

record mahseer 119 lbs., and the next largest 110 Ibs., were both

taken in Mysore rivers, the former in the Cauvery and the latter in

its largest tributary, the Cubbany (Kabani).

I will now generalize on the best places to fish, but I warn the

novice, that this is much more a matter of keen observation and

experience than a rule.

(1) Junctions of rivers, especially if there is a difference in tem-

perature of the water in the two streams, (in May this can vary

as much as 8 degrees), or if the parent river is discoloured by

melting snow, or best of all if the small fish are migrating up or

down stream. If one or two of these desiderata prevail, you can

usually count on a singing reel for most of the day, as under these

conditions it is not unusual to see a black mass of fish collected in

the warmer and clearer water. If the small fish are running, you

need only watch the water to see the little chaps scatter in all

directions as the big fish take their toll.

(2) Rapids will present themselves in many forms, sizes and

depths, but wherever water is fast, and there are backwaters

formed, try the point where the reverse and rapid waters meet, all

the swirls and eddies formed on the edges, and above all never miss

the ‘white feather’ of water formed by a boulder jutting out, or

by a submerged tree, however shallow it may be. In such places

feeding fish will always take up their abode. (See photograph

facing chapter).

Fish the whole length of the rapid, from below for choice, as

you avoid disturbing the water above while playing a fish. Do not |

neglect where the current slows down in the pool and fans out on

either side; it is generally very good.

(3) The water above a rapid, and at the tail of a pool, if conditions

are suitable, is almost the best water of all in the evening. Look

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 359

for a smooth flow of water, about 3 to 4 ft. deep over large boulders

and gaining in velocity above a rapid, with a few stones dotted

about out of the water, and making swirls for fish to lie; here

excellent sport can usually be had with fly spoon, but remember

large fish also lie up in such water.

Pools.—The head and tail of pools provide the best sport for

spinning, but trolling will provide good sport if a bait is worked

along a cliff face by the small bays, past out-crops of rocks, etc.

Dead bait spun deep is the best for this type of fishing and will

often produce the heaviest fish. If you see large fish rising in any

part of the pool it is well worth trolling a dead bait over the spot

while crossing from one bank to the other.

If a Ficus tree in fruit happens to be overhanging the bank,

give the place a trial by throwing in a few berries to see if fish are

interested. . Any broken water in a pool is worth a trial; and, above

all, a few minutes spent watching the water for movements of

fish, while you have a pipe, is very often worth more than hours of

flogging the water.

Lakes.—Here the expert with the fly wiil find his knowledge

tested to the full. Small mahseer will come to bag, but the large

ones are indifferent to almost any bait. I know only the Lakes of

Kumaon where the methods are, to move the boat outside the

willows and weeds, dropping the fly just outside in the clear water

under rocks, trees, bushes etc. In general, black or white flies

take the best, ‘Silver Doctor’, ‘Zulu’, ‘Black Palmer’, “Walkers

Claret’, ‘Yellow Spider’, and ‘Tag of Towel’.

Trolling with dead bait will also sometimes produce fish, but

the largest are generally taken on paste.

In 1940 Major Corbet caught a fish over 60 pounds in the Naini-

Tal Lake, on fly, but this is very exceptional.

Canals.—In the Punjab and U.P., mahseer are to be found in

some of the canals a long way down from the headworks; they are

taken on spinning bait at the falls, or with paste at the various

cattle drinking fords. Fish of 30 and 4o pounds have been taken

at Meerut and Roorkee in the Ganges canal. The lower reaches

have now been spoilt from the angler’s point of view, by the grids

erected across the falls for the U. P. Hydro Electric Scheme, and

no fish ladders being provided.

Gram Fishing.—This form of fishing is almost exclusively

practised in the C. P. rivers, where the fish prefer it to any other

form of bait. Fish of to pounds and under are taken on light

tackle, and offer excellent sport. A fly rod and light gut cast with

small hooks, provides the outfit. The method of fishing is men-

tioned in chapter VI ‘Fishing for Mahseer’. Fishing with paste

is also fully described in the same chapter.

How to play a fish.—I have been frequently asked by the novice,

how is he to know when to reel in while playing a fish? ‘Act,

Resist and Yield’ as the riding master says, answers this question

as well as I know. The ‘Act’ is casting the line, and recovering

it at every possible opportunity.

‘Resist’ by lifting the point of your rod and applying all the

pressure you can from the reel, but through the rod,

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

‘Yield’ to the rush of a fish, when his power outweighs yours

to resist. Substitute your pony’s head for the fish, your reins for

your rod and line, and you yourself be the angler. Carry these

aids into practice with a hooked fish, and you have the answer.

It comes natural after you have been taken once or twice, the rod

itself being an indicator... A fresh and lively fish will frequently pull

the point down in his rush, and the tiring fish come in and allow

the point of the rod to be kept up, and so ease the tension. Here

again is yet another’ approach to explaining when to resist or yield.

Get into your bones the maximum tension you can safely apply

with your tackle, to a fish. When he goes beyond this, you can

only adjust it by giving line, and when he comes within, you can

only maintain it by winding in. An even pressure on the fish all

the while, will kill in the shortest time, but do not hurry matters,

as a mahseer will not give in until thoroughly tired.

General.

I will conclude this chapter with a few remarks which may be

useful to those not acquainted with conditions met with in the fishing

season or on a first trip.

The best season.—In Northern India, the best season is February-

March-April for the large rivers, as they are most likely to be

clear, and the volume of water is at its lowest. Junctions in the

hills are best when one river is discoloured and the other clear, .

but are good at all times. The smaller rivers, that is those which

are not affected by snow water, are best in October and early Nov-

ember; but fever, and very often roads and communications,

present difficulties. Generally speaking the early hot weather is

the best time. In Assam and Burma however the best bags are

made in the cold weather, especially in spring-fed rivers, and at

their junctions with the larger rivers.

In the rivers of Bombay, Central India, Mysore and Madras the

season for mahseer fishing with spinning baits and fly is, generally

speaking, from the time the rivers begin to clear after the monsoon

floods, the best sport being obtained early in the season before the

water has run low, after which the larger fish are mostly in the

deep pools and not easily found. In some parts September-October,

between the two monsoons (the S.E. and the N.E.) is also a good

time: but conditions vary from year to year. All the big fish are

taken by means of ragi paste, bottom fishing, and fish of over 50 lbs.

are seldom taken by spinning.

Kit. Footwear. Footwear is severely tested, and although I

have tried most types of boots, I am of opinion that good thick

soles, with plenty of nails (both in the boots and carried spare),

are the only answer to the slippery stones amongst which one is

forced to wade. Rope soles may suit certain rivers, but nails suit

all. Mumrogan or any other leather dressing should be applied

daily, and spare boots taken. I myself carry three pairs of army

boots, using them in rotation. Avoid rubber soles at all costs.

In October in some rivers the rocks are not nearly so slippery as

in March-April, where in places they are like bars ‘of soap, and

tosses are frequent however much care you take,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 361

A correspondent sends me the following information regarding

footwear. ‘I have tried boots with hob nails (single and treble),

with rope soles with coir (the same as a coir mat) soles, soles with

latitudinal leather bars screwed on (just like a rugger or soccer

boot), and, last but not. least compressed felt soles. For both

non-slip and wearing qualities, these felt soles have no equal, and

I shall never wear anything else. Mine are four years old, and

show very little signs of wear and will see me through many more

years of the hardest fishing. I find I paid 41-13-1 (including

postage). These may be obtained from Messrs. J. A. Hawkes &

Sons, Ltd., 99 High Street, Poole, Dorsetshire, and are a product

of the Gutta-Percha Company. I really believe that you will be

doing a very real service to the fishing fraternity, by recommending

the compressed felt sole, and giving it all the publicity possible’.

Clothing.—Shorts are the best and the most convenient, if your

knees are hardy and can stand sun-burn.

Shirts with long sleeves or short, just whichever suits you. In

Burma and Assam insects are a nuisance, and biting flies, from a

quarter the size of fleas to the large green-eyed horse-fly, descend

on. one ravenously, and make life most unpleasant. They are not

so bad in Northern India.

Jacket.—I have a sleeveless coat with plenty of pockets which

button. This is handy to carry odd pair of pliers, small turn screw,

penknife, small box with spare spoons, hooks, swivels, etc., and

a book with casts and traces. Cigarettes carried in a shaving soap

tin is a useful tip, as they keep dry and are not ruined if you wade

in over the pockets or take a toss. Buttons on the pockets save

losing stuff, if you should fall or get carried down stream.

Spares, such as reels, wire, hooks, weighing machine, camera

and note book, can be kept in a haversack on the bank, by an

orderly or attendant, or in your boat.

Medicine Chest.—Carry all necessities for fever, burns, stings,

cuts, etc., dealt with in detail elsewhere. Chapter XII.

Comforts.—Cheap cigarettes and sweets are very much appreciat-

ed by camp followers and jungle folk. Woolworth trinkets, and

copper pice by the women and children. Where the custom is to

chew tobacco, free gifts of the dried leaf will greatly encourage

willing service by baggage and camp coolies: so a sufficient supply

should be carried (in a special bag, or all your possessions will be

highly odorous).

(To be continued)

In the quarterly, Angling, now a Country Life publication, is a series of

articles by Mr. H. Chapman Pincher, B.sc., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., which are expertly

written, highly informative, and of the greatest interest to anglers. They

are elucidated by text-figures and include Functions of the Swim-bladder in

Fishes; Locomotion; Hearing; Scales and Scale-reading; Colour in Fishes;

Breeding; Vision in Fishes.

Angling is a publication within the reach of all being readily obtainable for

an annual subscription of 5s. 4d. post free.—Editors,

A REVISION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF

HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES.

B. C. KUuNDU, M.A., PH.D., F.L.S.,

Professor of Botany, Presidency College, Calcutta.

we Mr e+

Sec

(With 4 plates)

CONTENTS

PAGE.

I. Introduction as hes Be ... 362

II. Hopcsonta

(i) Historical 2S ne ws 30S

(ii) Description of the genus Je she ... 363

(ili) Key to the species a ih ite ... 364

(iv) Description of the species rod ‘i ... 364

III. TricHosaNTHES

(i) Historical a A ten ... 365

(ii) Description of the genus se iy B50 AOS

(iii) Key to the species we ne SC Soo EW)

(iv) Description of the species ~ we .. ofl

IV. Acknowledgements ce 3 ee 510 (38D

V. Summary S83 i ae ... 386

VI. References so Sy ne ... 386

INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of Hooker’s Flora of British India in

course of the latter part of the nineteenth century, a large number

of new species have been described from India by various workers

and many species supposed to be non-Indian have been recorded

from this country. As the descriptions of new species and new

records from India are scattered in various works which are not

always available to all workers on Systematic Botany, it is desir-

able that they should be collected together in one place. Besides,

the application of the International Rules of Nomenclature neces-

siates a revision of the names of many plants. Thus it is felt by

the workers on Systematic Botany that most of the families of the

Flora of British India should be revised by competent authorities.

The idea of revising the Indian Cueurbitaceae was taken up

by the author while he was in England and had the opportunity

of working at the Kew Herbarium for some time. In the present

paper the Indian species of the genera Hodgsonia and Tricho- |

santhes have been revised. The revision of the species of other

genera will follow in course of time,

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 363

India, as understood in this paper, includes India proper,

Burma, Ceylon and the Andaman islands.

All the sheets in the Herbaria of the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, the British Museum, London, and the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta, have been studied. The specimens

referred to under each species are in the Kew Herbarium except

where otherwise stated; most of such sheets are also-available at

the Calcutta Herbarium; a number of sheets of this Herbarium have

also been referred to particularly in connection with additional

localities and have been marked C. H. All the sheets of the

Buitenzorg Herbarium, Java, and of the Herbarium of the Singa-

pore Botanic Gardens placed at the disposal of the author have

been examined and have proved to be of invaluable help in con-

nection with comparative study. The specimens of the Forest

Herbarium, Shillong, have also been studied.

HoOpGSONIA

HISTORICAL.

Hooker f. and Thomson (1853) founded the genus Hodgsonia on the type

material of Roxburgh’s Trichosanthes heteroclita and named it H. heteroclita.

Blume (1825) had described a species T. macrocarpa amongst others, which

was subsequently found to be the same as Roxburgh’s T. heteroclita. So

Cogniaux (1881) had to rename the H. heteroclita of Hooker f. and Thomson

as H. macrocarpa. Ridley (1920) described a second species H. capniocarpa

from the Malayan Peninsula. Recently the writer (1938) published an amended

description of H. capniocarpa after comparing the available specimens of the

two species.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS.

Hodgsonia Hooker f. et Thomson

in Proc. Linn: Soc. II, 257-259; Hooker f. Illustrations of Himalayan

plants, plates 1-3; Benth. et Hook. f. Gen. Plant., I, 821; Clarke in Hook,

f. F.B.I., I1, 605; Cogn. in DC. Monog., III, 348-349; King Mat. FI.

Malay Penin., No. 10, 25; Prain Beng. Pl. I, 516; Ridley Fl. Malay

Penin. I, 843; Craib FI. Siam, I, 750.

Large climbers. Stem branching, furrowed. Wood of remarkable structure.

Leaves alternate, evergreen, subcoriaceous, 3-5-palmati-lobed ; petiole elongate; in

the axil of the leaf there is a hard conical structure of the nature of a pro-

phyll. Tendrils 2-3-fid. Flowers large; male flowers in racemes, bracteate.

Calyx tube elongate, falling after flowering; petals 5, yellow, gamopetalous,

adnate to the calyx limb, segments obcuneate, spreading, apex truncate, fim-

briate-lobed, lobes longitudinally twisted and pendulous, fringes of the petals

12-15 cm. long. Stamens 3, inserted within the calyx tube, syngenesious,

filaments inconspicuous. Female flowers axillary, solitary. Calyx and corolla

same as in the male flower; ovary unilocular, ovules 12, arranged in pairs

in 3 parietal placentas; style elongate, equalling the calyx tube; stigma 3-lobed,

apex of the lobes bifid. Fruits large, baccate, depressed globose, obscurely

5-furrowed. Seeds closely stuck together in pairs; the smaller one of each

pair is usually abortive. Embryo exalbuminous, cotyledons large, thick and

flat.

Only two species are known, both of which are Malayan, and one is

reported from India.

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLITI

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Leaves glabrous on both surfaces, with conspicuous

depositions of waxy substances in the areolae of the

veins on the lower surface. Calyx tube 7.5-14 cm. long,

dilated at the apex; calyx teeth 2.5-4 mm. long H. macrocarpa.

Veins on the lower surface of the leaves. hairy, ‘

depositions of waxy substances not frequently found;

calyx tube 5-6 cm. long, dilated from the middle up-

wards; calyx teeth very minute oe ... HH, capniocarpa,

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

H. macrocarpa Cogn. in DC. Monograph III, 349.

H. heteroclita Hook. f. and Thomson, Proc. Linn. Soc. II, 257-259:

Hook. f. Illustr. Himal? Pl., Plates 1-3; Clarke. in. Hook. f.:F.B.I. -606;

Prain Beng. Pl. 516. Tvrichosanthes macrocarpa Bl. Bijdr., 935; Seringe

in’ D@. Brodie ll arses Migeaiilaelinds abate lleinmoo-

I’. hexasperma BI. Bijdr., 935 ; Seringe loc. cit. ; Miq. loc. cit., 678; T. hetero-

clita Roxb. FI. Ind. III, 7o5. T. Kadam Mig. FI. Ind. Bat., Suppl. I,

331.

Stem robust, 80-100 ft. long. Leaves 15-25 cm. long and about so much

broad, truncate or cordate at base, glabrous. on both sides with conspicuous

waxy depositions in the areolae of the veins on the under surface; deeply

3-5-lobed, broadly lanceolate, acuminate. Tendrils very robust, terete, glab-

rous, usually bifid. Rachis of the male inflorescence thick, striated, 15-30

cm. long; pedicels short thick, bracts fleshy, oblong-lanceolate, 0.5-1 cm.

long. Calyx. tube yellowish, dilated at the extreme apex, 7.5-14 cm. long,

7-9 mm. broad at the apex; calyx teeth 2.5-4 mm. long. Corolla longitu-

dinally twisted in bud, pendulous; yellow on the outside, white inside; nerves

deep red, corolla lobes 3-nerved, limb about 7 cm. in diameter, fimbriate,

fringes up to 15 cm. long. Fruit large, 7-12 cm. long, 15-25 cm. across,

deep reddish brown, covered with very short tomentum. Seeds 5-7 cm. long,

3 cm. broad, 1-1.5 cm. thick.

East Bengal, Gvriffith. Chittagong, 1862 and 1863, Hooker f. and. Tham-

son; Rangamatti, 1876, J. L. Lister (C.H.); Chittagong Hill Tracts, 1880,

Gamble. .

Sikkim, 1-5,o00 ft., J. D. Hooker. Darjeeling, 2,000 ft. July, 1862,

T. Anderson (C.H.) Aug., 1881, Gamble.

Assam, March, 1899, Dr. Prain’s collector (C.H.); Khasia, 1,000-5,000 ft.,

Hooker f. and Thomson. Khasia and Jaintia Hills, 2,000 ft., 1878, G. Gallat-

lay. (C.H.). Cachar, 1874, Keenan. Lushai. Hills, 6,000 ft., July, 1927; A.

D, Parry. South Lushai Hills, 3,700 ft., April, .1899, A. T. Gage -(C:H.).

Rajah Barrie, 13-4-95, Hooker f. and Thomson. Golaghat, 1891, Dr. King’s

collector (C.H.). Pobomukh, 5. 12. 11, J. H. Burkill (C.H.). Dibrugarh Bazar,

18. 11. 11. J. H. Burkill (C. H.). Sibsagar, 23 April, 1885, C. B. Clarke (C.H.),

Dhikiajuli, April, 1902, Col. A. C. Chatterjee (C.H.). Sylhet, Wall. Cat.

nos. 6684, 6684° B. Goyalpara, Wall. Cat. no. 6684 A.

Burma, Pegu, 3,000 ft., S. Kurz (C.1.). Kachin Hills (N.-E. of Burma).

1,300-2,000 ft., 28.3.97, E. Pottinger (C.H.). Myitlkyina, 1925, Feb., 1926, °C.

EK. Parkinson. Theinkun Chaun banks, South Tenassetim, Feb. 1OZOw Oa Ee

Parkinson.

The following very interesting account is given from the Illustrations of

the Himalayan Plants (Hooker f., 1855).

‘Very common in parts of E. Bengal. It can be found up to 5,000 ft.

in the Sikkim Himalaya. It is probably a native of Java for it agrees toler-

ably with the descriptions of several speciés of Trichosanthes described ‘bv

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 365

Dr. Blume.* Stems are slender lianes, frequently 1oo ft. long. The large

flowers appear in May and are very deciduous; the males falling wholly away

and the females breaking off just above the ovary. The great melon-like

fruit called ‘Kathior-pot’ by the Lepchas ripens in autumn and winter. Its

coarse, hard green pulp exudes a gummy fluid in great abundance, but is

austere and uneatable. The embryo is white, of the texture of an almond

and much esteemed, though it has very little flavour.

Some of the botanical characters of this plant are very remarkable. The

flower ‘in all respects resemble a Tvrichosanthes, but the ovary and fruit wholly

differ from that genus and ally it more to the curious East African genus

Telfairia. The placentae are decidedly marginal and the two collateral ovules,

at the base of each side of the placenta, contract an adhesion, and _ together

form only one seed with two cells, and often with two embryos, though one is

frequently imperfect.’

‘TRICHOSANTHES.

HISTORICAL.

The genus Trichosawthes was first described by Linnaeus in 1737. In the

first edition of the Species Plantarum only 4 species were described, the structural

differences being mainly based on the character of the fruits. The 4 original

species are T. anguina (China), T. nervifolia (India), T. cucumerina (India)

and T. amara (Domingo). The first three Linnean species were later on identified

with certainty, but T. amara is now regarded as a doubtful species.

In the second edition of the Species Plantarum (1763) Linnaeus added one

more species, T. punctata, which was subsequently found to be the same

as Fevillea cordifolia Linn.

In 1768 Burman enumerated 3 of the 4 original Linnean species from

India, T. anguina (originally reported from China), T. nervifolia and T.

cucumerina and also T. punctata.

“ia 1783 Lamarck described 7 species of Trichosanthes including the 4 Lin-

nean ones. The 3 new. species described by him are T. angulata (India),

T. corniculata and T. cuspidata (India). Of these 3 species T. corniculata was

later on identified as quite distinct from Trichosanthes and named by G. F.

Gmelin as Ceratosanthes tuberosa. T. angulata is now regarded as a doubtful

species. Neither C. B. Clarke (1876) nor Cogniaux (1881) have included this

species in their respective works.

In 1790 Loureiro published his Flora Cochinchinensis, wherein he described

5 species from Cochinchina including 3 new ones. These are as follows :—

T. anguina Linn., T. cucumerina Linn., T. pilosa Lour., T. tricuspidata Lour.,

and T. scabra Lour. Of these T. pilosa is now regarded as a doubtful or

imperfectly known _ species.

In 1805, Willdenow enumerated 11 species of Trichosanthes. They are :—-

T. anguina Linn. (China), T. scabra Lour. (Cochin China), T. nervifolia Linn.

(India), T. cucumerina Linn. (India), T. tricuspidata Lour. (Cochin China),

T. amara Linn. (Domingo), T. pilosa Lour. (Cochin China) T. caudata Willd.

(=T. cuspidata Lam.) (India), T. laciniosa Klein in litt. (India) (=T. cucu-

merina Linn.), T. tuberosa Willd. (=T. corniculata Lam. =Ceratosanthes tube-

vosa Gmel.) (India), T. foetidissima Jacq. (Ic. Rar. III) (Guinea) (=Kedrostis

foetidissima Cogn.).

In 1825, Blume described 13 species from Dutch East Indies including

Io new ones. The species are:—T. anguina Linn., T. costata Bl., T. cucu-

mevina Linn., T. villosa Bl., T. grandiflora Bl., T. tricuspidata Lour., T.

hexasperma Bl., T. macrocarpa Bl., T. coriacea Bl., T. pubera BI., T. globosa

Bl. and T. trifoliata Bl. All the new species of Blume are still regarded

1 Trichosanthes hexasperma Bl. and T. macrocarpa Bl. have later on been

identified with Hodgsonia macrocarpa Cogn.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

as good species except three; JT. costata has been identified with a species

of Gymnopetalum, G. cochinchinense Kurz (1871, p. 57); both T. hexasperma

and T. macrocarpa have now become Hodgsonia macrocarpa Cogn.

In the Index Kewensis T. pubera Bl. has been regarded as a synonym of

T. palmata Roxb. and at the same time T. bracteata Roxb. has been mentioned

as a valid species. This anomalous condition of the 3 species should be

clarified. JT. pubera was originally described by Blume from the Dutch East

Indies. It has not been mentioned by Roxburgh (1834), Voigt (1848) and

Clarke (1879) in their respective works. Miquel (1855) has kept it separated

from T. palmata Roxb. as a distinct species. Cogniaux has reduced it to a

variety of T. bracteata Voigt and gave its habit as Java. King’ named all

the sheets of T. bracteata in the Calcutta Herbarium as T. pubera and remarked

on one of the sheets that the correct name of the species would be T. pubera

Bl. and not T. bracteata Voigt. as Blume’s name.was older than that of

Voigt.

The original description of T. pubera by Blume is as follows: ‘Folia exciso

cordata, tricuspidata, denticulata, subtus subtomentosa, flores feminei solitarii,

pepo ovatus acutus.’ These structural characteristics seem to be sufficiently

distinct to regard it as a separate species. Unfortunately there is no specimen

of T. pubera in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the

British Museum, London, and also in the Calcutta Herbarium. In the Buiten-

zorg Herbarium there is only one sheet without fruit, identified by Cogniaux as

T. bracteata var. pubera. The leaves and calyx lobes are different from those

of T. bracteata. The present author thinks that T. pubera Bl. is distinct

from T. bracteata Voigt (=T. palmata Roxb). But even if the 2 species

be identical the correct name would be T. bracteata (Lam.) Voigt and not

T. pubera Bl. (as suggested by King), as the species was originally described

by Lamarck (1796) as Modecca bracteata.

Seringe in the 3rd part of De candolle’s Prodromus (1828) enumerated

24 species. They included the 4 Linnean species, the 3 species of Loureiro,

the 3 species of Lamarck, the 10 species of Blume, T. laciniosa Klein (Spec.

Plant. Willd., 1805), T. colubrina Jacq. f., T. chinensis Ser. and T. tamnifolia

Poir. - T. colubrina Jacq. f. has since been identified with T. anguina Linn.

(Kurz, 1877. p. 98). T. tamnifolia Poir is now regarded as a doubtful species.

T. chinensis Ser. has not yet been properly identified. Cogniaux thinks it may

be the same as T. cucumeroides Maximowicz.

Roxburgh in his Hortus Bengalensis (1814) enumerated 7 species including

5 new ones which were described for the first time in his Flora Indica (1832,

pp. 701-707). The species are:— T. anguina Linn., T. dioeca Roxb., T. cucu-

mevina Linn., T. lobata Roxb., T. cordata Roxb. T. palmata Roxb. and T.

heteroclita Roxb. Of the new species T. palmata was renamed T. bracteata

Voigt; T. heteroclita was transferred by Hooker f. and Thomson (1853) to

the new genus Hodgsonia as H. heteroclita (=H. macrocarpa Cogn.)

Wight and Walker-Arnott in their Prodromus (1834) enumerated 5 species

of Trichosanthes: 7. nervifolia Linn., T. cuspidata Lam., 7. anguina Linn.,

L. cucumerina Linn. and T. palmata Roxb. They consider that the genus

Involucraria Seringe is scarcely distinct from Trichosanthes and regard that

Involucraria Wallichiana Ser. is the same as T. palmata Roxb. Subsequently

Wight (1842) united the genus Involucraria with Trichosanthes and renamed

1. Wallichiana as T. Wallichiana.

In Wight’s Illustrations of Indian Botany (Vol. II, 1850) the following

species of Trichosanthes are enumerated :—T. cucumerina Linn., T. anguina

Linn., 7. Wallichiana Wight and T. palmata Roxb.

All the 7 species mentioned by Roxburgh were enumerated by Voigt (1845)

in his Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis. He found that Modecca bracteata

_* Sir George King, once Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Sibpur, Calcutta, f

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND YRICHOSANTHES — 367

(Fam. Passifloraceae) of Lamarck (1796, p. 210) is the same as Tvrichosanihes

palmata Roxb. and so renamed 7. palmata Roxb. as T. bracteata retaining

the original specific name. Kurz (1877), Cogniaux (1881), Gagnepain (1921)

and Craib (1931) referred to this species as 7. bracteata.

In 1855 Miquel published his Flora of Nederlandsh Indie in which he

enumerated 23 species including 5 new ones. They are: the 10 species olf

’ Blume, TI. dioica Roxb., TIT. renijormis Mig. (later on identified as Ll. cucu-

merina Linn.), JT. angulata Lam., TL. cucumerina Linn., J. laciniosa Islein

(=f. cucumerina Linn.), 7. tricuspidata Lour., 7. Horsfieldii Mig., T. pedati-

folia Mig. (=f. cucumerina Linn.), JZ. anguina Linn., T. javanica Mig.

(=Thladiantha cordifolia Cogn.), JL. pilosa Lour., I. palmaia Roxb. (=1.

bracteata Voigt,) and 7. tricuspis Miq. (=T. pubera Bl.?).

In 1860 Miquel enumerated two more species from the Dutch East Indies,

one of them being a new one: TI. coriacea Bl. and J. Kadam Mig. His

T. Kadam was later on identified as J. heteroclita Roxb. afterwards named

1. macrocarpa Cogn.

During the years 1865-00 Miquel described two new species,. 1. multiloba

and JT. quadriciyrha from Japan. JT. quadricirrha was subsequently named

as I. cucumeroides (=Bryonia cucumeroides Ser.) by Maximowicz (1875).

In the year 1859 Thwaites enumerated 4 species of TJvichosanthes trom

Ceyion. They are: T. cucumerina Linn., 1. nervifola Linn., 7. palmata

Roxb., and a new species T. integrifolia. His species 7. mtegrifoua was

included by Clarke in Hooker’s Flora of British India (Vol. Il, p. 610), but

subsequently this name was revised by Cogniaux. It was at first thought

by Kurz (1871) that Cucumis integrifolius Roxb. was a species of Gymnopetalum

and he then named it Gymnopetalum integrifolium. Later on he considered

that his G. integrifolium was a species ot Jrichosanthes and renamed it T.

integrifolia retaining the original «specific name of Roxburgh. Thus there

were two entirely different species bearing the same name—T’. integrifolia, one

of Kurz and another of Thwaites. So Cogniaux renamed the T. integrifolia

of Thwaites as I. Thwaitesi. (Cogniaux should have renamed the 7. integri-

folia of Kurz as this name was not valid, because at the: time of Kurz’s

publication of this species, there was already another species bearing the

same name). Cogniaux and Harms (1924), however, consider JI. integrifolia

Kurz as Gymnopetalum integrifolium ‘kurz. After a caretul study of the two

species the present author considers that’ 1. integrifolia Kurz is the same

as I’. scabra Lour. as suggested by Craib (1931). So the name 7. integrifolia

Thwaites remains valid.

Beddome in 1866 described a new species of Trichosanthes—T. anamalayana.

This species was not included by Clarke in Hooker’s Flora probably owing

to the type specimen not being found anywhere. Cogniaux (1881), however,

included it in his Monograph repeating Beddome’s descriptions. Gamble (1919)

has also included this species in his Flora of the Madras Presidency..

In 1871, Kurz enumerated TI. renifornmus from the Sikkim Himalayas. His

T. reniformis could never be the TI. veniformis of Miquel, which was _ subse-

quently identified as IT. cucumerina Linn. In structural features it resembles

Ll. dicaelosperma Clarke (1879). As there has already been a JT. reniformis

Miquel, so Kurz’s name can no longer remain valid and is now regarded

as a synonym of T. dicaelosperma. In 1872 Kurz described a further new

species—TI’, macrosciphon, which was subsequently identified with 7. cordata

Roxb.

In 1877 Kurz enumerated g species of Tvichosanthes from Burma including

2 new species—I’. grandibracteata and T. integrifolia (now identified as 7.

scabra Lour.). His T. grandibracteata was later on identified as T. multiloba

by Clarke and subsequently as T. Wallichiana by Cogniaux.

In Hooker’s Flora of British India (Vol. II, part vi, 1879) Clarke enu-

merated 12 species of Tvichosanthes, which included the 3 Linnean species,

the 4 species of Roxburgh (less 7. heteroclita being named Hodgsonia macro-

carpa), T. multiloba (=T. Wallichiana Wight.), T. integrifolia Thwaites and

3 new species—T’. truncata, T. himalensis, and T. dicaelosperma.

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

There appears to be some confusion regarding the occurrence of JT. multi-

loba Mig. in India. The species has up to now been reported from Japan and

Borneo. The plant named T. multiloba by Clarke has now been found to

be identical with YT. Wallichiana Wight. JKanjilal and Das (1938) report a

species under that name from Assam but the characters given by them for

their species are not the same as those given originally by Miquel (1855-56

and 1866-67) or in detail by Cogniaux (1881). The writer examined a_ sheet

from the Forest Herbarium, Shillong, named as T. multiloba and found it to

be T. bracteata only. He also examined the Japanese specimens of T. mullti-

loba Miq. in the Kew Herbarium and found that they markedly differed from

the T. Wallichiana Wight (I. multiloba Clarke) as found in India.

In 1881, Cogniaux enumerated 4o species of Tvichosanthes including 18 from

India. Out of these, 11 were new including 5 from India. They are T. Per-

vottetiana, JT’. villosula, T. ovata, T. Lepiniana and T. Thwaitesu; of these

T. Thwaitesii is no longer valid and becomes T. integrifolia Thwaites and

I. integrifolia Kurz is now identified with T. scabra Lour.

Recently the writer (1939) has described the following new species from

India: JZ. brevibracteata, T. pachyrrhachis, T. khasiana and T. majuscula.

IT. ovigera Blume originally described from Java is a new. record from the

Indian area.

Two new species—T7. Prazeri Kundu and T. burmensis Kundu and_ three

new varieties, JT. villosula Cogn. var. nilgirrensis Kundu, T. ovigera Blume

var. sikkimensis Kundu and T. burmensis Kundu var. alba Kundu have been

described in this paper.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS.

Trichosanthes Linn.

Gen. Pl. 295 (1737); Spec Pl. ed. 1, 1008; ed. II, 1432; Juss. Gen, Ply

396; Burman Fl. Ind., 207; Lamarck Encycl. Methodique I, 189; Lour. FI.

Cochinch., 588; Willd. Spec. Pl. IV, 598; Blume Bijdr., 932; Ser. in DC.

Prodr, 11], 313; Roxb: BI Ind? Ti) Jor; Wisht & Arn: Prodr 340 bnd-

licher Gen. Pl. 939; Wight ‘in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. VIII, 269; Voigt

Hort. Subur: Calcutt.,) 57. Roem" Syn: asc, Ile16;eMiqe. Biss ind = Batamln

i, 674; Naud. in Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 4, XVIII, 188. Benth. Fl. Austral. ITI,

314; Benth and Hook. f. Gen. Pl. I, 821; Thwaites Enum. Pl. Zeyl., 126;

Clarke in Hook. f. F. B. I. Il, 606; Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 351; Cooke

Fl. Bomb. I, 525; Trim. Fil. Ceylon II, 243; King Mat. Fl. Malay Penin.

no. 10,.26;) Duthie Pl. Upp» Gang. Plain 1; 362; Prain Bens. Ela lesi6}

Gamble Fl. Madras I, iii, 528; Haines Bot. Behar & Orissa II, 387; Ridley

Fl. Malay, Penin. I, 843; Merrill Enum. Philip. Fl. Pl. III, 584; Gagnep.

i hel, Il, “woz6% Craiby Bly Sian leon:

Climbing herbs, annual or perennial. Leaves simple, unlobed or palmately

3-9g-lobed, margin usually denticulate; rarely compound, 3-5-foliate. Tendrils

usually .2-5-fid, rarely simple. Flowers dioecious or monoecious, usually

white, rarely red. Male flowers usually in racemes, rarely solitary; in some

cases the male peduncles in axillary pairs, one 1-flowered, caducous, the other

racemose; bracts variable in size or o. Calyx tube elongate, cylindric, fre-

quently dilated. above; teeth 5, short “or long, entire, serrate or laciniate.

Petals 5, connate at the base; lobes usually long fimbriate. Stamens 3, in-

serted in the calyx tube; filaments very short, free, anthers connate (free in

IT. dioica Roxb.), two 2-celled, the third 1-celled, the cells conduplicate.

Female flowers solitary, very rarely in racemes. Calyx and corolla as in the

male. Ovary inferior, ovoid or fusiform, one-celled with 3 parietal placentas;

ovules usually many, generally horizontal, half pendulous; style slender, long ;

stigmas 3, entire or bifid. Fruit fleshly; globose, ovoid or fusiform in shape ;

usually many-seeded, indehiscent, glabrous and smooth. Seeds of various

types, compressed,. oblong, ellipsoid or angulate; frequently marginate.

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND. TRICHOSANTHES

KEY TO THE SPECIES

GENUS. TRICHOSANTHES

SECTION I. EurRICHOSANTHES—Male flowers in racemes.

A. Seeds strongly compressed, not surrounded by

ridges.

B. Bracts minute or absent.

C. Leaves not lobed.

D. Male racemes few-flowered, erect ; eee

teeth very short, triangular : l. nervtfolia.

D. Male racemes many-flowered, wemicniates

calyx teeth elongate, subulate weet 2 CUSPLAQALA.

C. Leaves distinctly lobed or more or less

angular or slightly lobed.

D. Male flowers ebracteate. Leaves usually

large, more or less angular or 3-5-lobed,

suborbicular in outline ues we 3. Cucumerina,

D. Male flowers minutely bracteate.

E. Pedicels of male flowers shorter than

the flowers.

F, Rachis of male raceme robust, succu-

lent, somewhat geniculate and some-

times flowering from near the base ;

fruit small ovate-acute... ... 4. pachyrrhachis.

F, Rachis of male raceme erect, few-

flowered at the apex (rarely genicu-

late and many-flowered as some-

times in 7. anguina, in that case

fruit very long and twisted).

G. Leaves deeply 5-7-lobed, lobes obo-

vate or spathulate ; fruits oblong-

linear, 14-20 cm. long, 2-5 cm.

broad, acute at both ends Sid 110, YUN

G. Leaves angular or 3-5-lobed.

H. Fruits very long, narrow twisted

with many seeds ; leaves deeply

lobed, lobes of the leaves round-

ed, faintly denticulate .. /. anguina.

H. Fruits small, ovate-acute, 3-6 cm.

long, 2-4 cm. ‘broad. Leaves

usually small, very thin, 3-5-

angled or very shortly 5-lobed,

reniform in outline, apex acute,

margin dentate, 3°5-5 cm. long.,

4°5-6 cm. broad ae .. 9. Ovevibracteata.

E. Pedicels of male flowers long, usually

longer than the flowers.

F, Leaves glabrous on both sides, deeply

3-lobed with distant subulate teeth ;

petals rather shortly fimbriate .. 8. Perrottetiana.

F. Leaves densely villose-hirsute beneath,

5-7 lobed with shallow sinuses and

subulate teeth ; petals long fimbriate ;

inflorescence and petiole more or less

villous bo aes w» 9, villosula.

B. Bracts large.

C. Leaves truncate ot attenuate at base.

D. Leaves ovate-oblong; bracts petiolate,

oblong-lanceolate .., eae .. 10. truncata

369

370

D. Leaves broadly ovate, bracts sessile, ovate.

C. Leaves cordate at base.

D. Female flowers solitary, ebracteate.

E. Calyx segments entire.

F. Leaves entire (not lobed), smooth or

slightly hirsute underneath, ovate-

triangular ; bracts absolutely entire...

F. Leaves more or less lobed.

G. Leaves very rough, but not hairy on

the upper surface; smooth or

hairy at the nerves on the under

surface; peduncles of the male

racemes few-flowered at the apex ;

bracts crenate or incised aoe

G., Leaves hairy at the nerves on the

upper surface, lower surface glab-

rous and smooth.

H. Leaves very large, about 25 cm.

~ long, deeply 5-lobed, rachis of

male racemes many-flowered

and flowering from near the

base

H. Leaves smaller, 9-15 cm. long,

deeply 3-lobed, or sub-5-lobed,

peduncle of the male racemes

few-flowered at the apex

E. Calyx segments not entire.

F.- Calyx segments narrow with 2-3 short

subulale incisions.

Leaves pedately 5-6 lobed, tendrils

slender, simple or bifid, flowers red,

corolla lobes fimbrillate .... 0

F. Calyx segments broader, dentate, cerrate

or laciniate

G. Leaves glabrous on both surfaces,

bracts ovate or obovate.

H. Calyx lobes shortly dentate or

serrate, fruits globose

H. Calyx segments deeply divided

into 3-5 subulate lobes, fruit

ovoid dee ae See

G. Leaves densely puberulous, particu-

larly hairy atthe veins on the under

surface ; upper surface glabrous ;

bracts cucullate, subreniform in

outline.

H. Leaves shortly 5-lobed, flowers

red 500

H. Leaves 5-lobed, divided nearly up

to the middle, flowers white

D. Female flowers bracteate, usually race-

mose... as ae “3

Seeds turgid, broader than long, longitudinally

surrounded by one or two very thick ridges.

B. Male recemes bracteate, bracts somewhat

large, narrowed towards the base.

C. Leaves deeply trilobed, seeds unilocular ...

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Vou XLII

1l. ovata.

127.

13.

14,

15.

16,

Le.

18.

1S),

20.

“alk

cordata.

Wallichtanae

majuscula.

khasiana.

Prazeri,

bracteata.

Lepiniana,

bury MenSts .-

buvinNensis

var. alba,

anamalayana,

himalensts.

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 371

C. Leaves not lobed or very shortly trilobed

towards the apex.

D. Fruit ovoid, seeds trilocular, the 2 lateral

loculiempty ... a

D. Fruit ovoid-oblong, seeds unilocular or

the 2 lateral loculi represented by 2

22. ovigera.

minute pores ... 500 ovigera var. Stkkt-

meNSTS .

B. Male racemes ebracteate or with very minute

or subulate bracts ... oes ... 23. dicelosperma.

Section II. PSEUDOTRICHOSANTHES—Male and fe-

male flowers solitary.

A. Leaves cordate at base, margin dentate or denti-

culate, tendrils simple or bifid.

B. Leaves cordate-oblong, fruit oblong ... 24. dioica.

B. Leaves reniform, fruit subglobose wo) 206) SCAOTE.

A. Leaves rounded at base, margin entire, tendrils

simple nee oC 600 ... 26, integrifolia.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

1. T. nervifotia Linn. Spec. Pl. Ed. I, 1008; Ed. 2, 1432; Burman FI. Ind.,

Bose Willd Specisble LVS 599; sen. ix, DC. Prodrs TI; 3143, Wight &

Arnott Prodr., I, 349; Thwaites Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 127; Clarke in Hook. t.

K.B.I. II, 609; Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 356; Cooke Fl. Bomb. I, 526;

Trim. Fl. Ceylon I1, 244; Gamble Fl. Madras I, iii, 529. Toltipira Rheed.

Hort. Malabar. VIII, 33, Plate 17.

Stem slender, elongated, grooved, glabrous. Leaves narrow, thin, not

lobed, ovate-oblong, margin munutely and distantly denticulate, glabrous and

smooth on both. surfaces, 6-10 cm. long, 2.5-6 cm. broad; 3-nerved at the

base, veins thin, prominent on the lower surface; apex acute or acuminate ;

petiole glabrous or slightly puberulous, 1-2 cm. long. Tendrils slender, short,

terete, bifid. Male peduncles usually paired; one 1-flowered and the second

one is a few flowered erect raceme which is usually shorter than the leaves,

ebracteate or sub-bracteate; rachis slender, 2-7 cm. long, 2-7-flowered. Pedicels

0.5-2 cm. long. Calyx tube linear, dilated at the apex, 17-20 mm. long; teeth

erect, short, triangular, o.5-1 mm. long. Staminal filaments very short ;

antheridial head oblong 3 mm. long. Fruit ovoid-oblong, acute at the base

and apex. Seeds hali-ellipsoid, compressed with corrugated margins.

Mount Nilgiri and Kurg, Thomson. Deccan Peninsula, Quilon, Wight.

Ceylon, Thwaites, Hance. WKodat Kanal Ghat, Nov., 1897, Sir A. G. and

Lady Bourne. Belgaum District, Nov., 1899, W. A. Talbot (C. H.)

Kavalay Cochin, 2,000 ft. Nov., 1910, A. Meebold (C.H.).

2. T. cuspidata Lam. Encycl. Meth. Bot., I, 188; Ser. in DC. Prodr.

Lil, 314; Wight and Arnott Prodr. I, 349; Cogn. in DC. Monog. II], 357;

T. caudata Willd. Spec. Pl. IV, 600; Scheru Padavalam Rnheed. Hort.

Malab. VIII, 31, piate 106.

Stem slender. Leaves narrow, thin, not lobed, ovate-oblong, margin

minutely and remotely dentate, shortly acuminate, glabrous and smooth on

both surfaces, 6-10 cm. long, 2.5-5 cm. broad, 3-nerved at the base. Tendrils

slender, bifid. Male flowers in raceme, which are (10-30) many-flowered,

usually geniculate, sub-bracteate, and slightly shorter than or nearly as long

as the leaves; rachis slender, flowering from near the base, 4-7 cm. long.

Pedicels 2-6 mm. long. Calyx tube dilated at the apex, 11-14 mm. long; teeth

erect, 2-2.5 mm. long. Staminal filaments very short. Fruit (from Rheede’s

drawing) 5-7.5 cm. thick, circular in transverse section, about twice as long

as broad, acute.

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Quilon, Oct., 1835, Wight; Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis, (S. India) no.

1135, Herb. Wight (C.H.). Travancore and Malabar, Gamble.

Clarke in Hooker’s Flora of British India reduced 7. cuspidata to

LT. nervifolia Linn. from which it may be separated by its many-flowered

geniculate male racemes which are flowering from near the base and by the

elongate and subulate calyx teeth.

3. TT. cucumerina Linn. Spec. Pl. Ed. I, 1008; Ed. 2, 1432; Lour. Fi.

Cochinch., 588; Burman Fl. Ind., 308; Willd. Spec. Pl. IV, 600; Ser.

in’ DC. Prodr. IIl,: 315;;>-BlumeBijdrs, 93335) (Roxbsa Hilo Iindaael iene o2F

Wight & Arnott Prodr. I, 350; Miq., Fl. Ind. Bat.- I, i, 676; Thwaites

Enum. Pl. Zeyl., 125; Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng., 1877, ii, 98; Clarke

in Hook. F.B.I., Il, 609; Cogn. in DC. Monog. 111, 357; King. Mat. FI.

Malay. Penin. no. 10, 27; Cooke Fl. Bomb. I, 527; rim. Fl. Ceylon II,

245; Duthie Fil~ Upps Gang Riain) 304; Prainy Beng tall ee laeesuor

Gamble Il. Madras 1, ili, 529; Haines Bot. Behar Orissa I], 388; 1241;

Gagnepain in Lecomte in £1]. Indoch. Il, 1040; Merrill Enum. Phutip.

Fie: PR 11,5584; Craib. hls Siam le 752° >

1’. laciniosa Klein in Willd. Spec. Pl. LV, 601; Ser. in DC. Prodr. ILI, 315:

Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. .1, 1,676. T.- rensjormis Miq. Bll. Inds Bat. ys ise7s

(not of Kurz); 7. pedatifolia Mig. loc. cit., 677. T. cochinchinesis Roeme

syn. Fasc. 11, 96; 7. Wightiana Roemer loc. cit. T. olida F. V. Muell

in Trans. Soc. bot. Edin. V1, 491. Padavalam Rheed. Hort. Malab. VIII

29, plate 15.

[T. pilosa Wall. Cat. no. 6691 (not of Loureiro). Cucumis missionis Wall.

Cat. no. 6728]

' Stem slender, profusely branching and densely leafy, more or less pubescent.

Leaves membranous, suborbicular in outline, margin denticulate, base deeply

cordate, upper surface covered. with scattered hairs, lower surface shortly

puberulous ; 7-10 cm. long, 8-12 cm. broad, more or less deepiy 5-lobed, rarely

3-7. lobed, lobes acute or rounded. Tendrils slender, elongate, puberuious,

-2-3-fid. lowers dioecious or monoecious. Male peduncles in pairs, the earlier

1-tlowered, the later racemed; sometimes a female flower is found in place of

the earlier male flower. Racemes few flowered; rachis slender, puberulous,

6-15 cm. Jong, having 6-12 flowers at the apex. LPedicels of flowers short

ebracteate, erect, puberulous, 1-2 cm. long. Calyx tube somewhat dilated at

the apex, 15-10 mm. long. Staminal filaments very slender, 1-1.5 mm. long;

antheridial head oblong, 3 mm. Jong. 1.5 mm. thick. Ovary oblong. Fruit

ovoid-conical, 5-7 cm. long, 3.5-4 cm. thick, with about 7-10 seeds. Seeds

ovate-oblong, compressed, rugulose, margin thick with toothed projections from

both the surfaces; 12 mm. long, 5-6 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick.

It is a very common species and specimens have been collected from

nearly all parts of India including Ceylon and Burma and the Andamans by

various botanists from very early times.

Distribution.—Java (Malaya); North Australia.

4, TT. pachyrrhachis Kundu in Journ. Bot, Ixxvii, 9.

Stem slender, deeply grooved, glabrous or slightly papillose. Leaves mem-

branous, suborbicular or reniform, with a cordate base, densely covered with

short hairs with occasional long ones on the upper surface, lower surface

densely and shortly pubescent, very shortly 3-5-lobed, lobes subacute; margin

denticulate or dentate; 3.5-5 cm. long, 5-6.5 cm. broad, usually 3-nerved at

the base, veins slender. Petiole slender, 2-3 cm. long, striate, sparsely papillose. ,

Tendrils somewhat robust, grooved, puberulous, 3-fid. Flowers monoecious.

Male racemes 10-16-flowered; rachis robust, somewhat geniculate, sometimes

nearly as thick as the stem, succulent, striate or grooved, glabrous, 7-11 cm.

long, usually flowering from near the base. Pedicels terete, robust, erect,

slightly puberulous, 3-6 mm. long. Calyx tube short, dilated at the apex,

about 13-20 mm. long, 4 mm. broad at the apex; teeth spreading, 1 mm. long.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. :!

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INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 373

Petals oblong. Staminal filaments slender, very short, 1 mm, long; anther

head subquadrangular, 2.5-3 mm. long, 2.5 mm. broad. Female flowers not

seen. Fruiting pedicel solitary, 2.5 cm. long. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, attenuate

into an acuminate apex; epicarp thin. Seeds flattened with undulate margins,

truncate at the base, bidentate at the apex, 10-11 mm. long, 7 mm.. broad

2 mm. thick.

.N. W. India, M. P. Edgeworth, 1863. Dehra Dun, Aug., 1869, 1870.

G. King N.-W. Himalaya, P. W. Mackinnon (C. H.).

Burma, Sept. 1902, Shaikh Mokim (C. H.).

N. Bengal. below Dingra Ghat and Purneah, 30-10-68, S$. Aurz. (C. H.)

5. T. brevibracteata Aundu in Journ. Bot. xxvii, to.

Stem very slender, grooved, subglabrous, Leaves membranous, very thin,

3-5-angled or very shortly 5-lobed, teniform, apex acute, base cordate-

emarginate, margin dentate, on the upper surface covered with minute hairs

together with a tew longer ones, on the lower surface pubescent; deep green

on the upper surface, pale green on the lower surface; 3.5-7.5 cm. long, 4.5- -

g cm. broad, 3-5 nerved at the base, veins very thin, prominent on the lower

surface. Petioles slender, striate, 2-4.5 cm. long, papillose-puberulous with

some long hairs. Tendrils very slender, 2-3-fid. Monoecious or (?) dioecious.

Male flowers in racemes. Rachis bearing male flowers slender, striate, pube-

rulous, 5-10.5 cm. long, 5-10-flowered at the apex. Pedicels slender, erect or

spreading, puberulous, 5-15 mm. long. Calyx tubular, attenuate from the

apex towards base, 14-18 mim. long, 3-4 mm. broad at the apex; teeth spread-

‘ing, 1-1.5 mm. long. Petals oblong, 8-10 mm. long, 3 mm. broad. Staminal

filaments slender, about 2 mm. iong; anther head oblong, 2.5 mm. long, 1.25 mm.

broad. Iemale flowers not seen, I ruiting peduncles solitary, 8-10 mm. long.

Fruit ellipsoid, attenuate into a conical apex, 3.5-4.5 cm. long, 1.5-2.5 cm.

thick with about 7-8 seeds. Seeds flattened, oblong, subglabrous on both surtaces,

somewhat undulate at the sides, base and apex truncate, 10 mm. long, 6-6.5 mm.

broad, 2 mm. thick. 7

Karnal, Punjab, 1855-1888, J. &. Drummond, 246069, 24979, 24988, 25000,

25003, 25006, 25010, 25031, 25999.

Ahmedabad, July, 1920, L. J. Sedjwick. N.-W. India, Thomson s. n.

(Herb. Hook. fil. et Thoms.)

Koni, Travancore State, South India, August, 1913, Calder and Narayana-

swam ;

Canara, July, 1883, W. A. Lalbot (C.H.)

Ditribution—Java (Malaya).

var. sublobata Kundu in Journ. Bot. Ixxvii, 11.

Leaves larger, shortly lobed, 7:5-10 cm. long, 9-15 cm. broad; margin

denticulate ; petioles robust, 2-7 cm. long; stem puberulous or somewhat villose.

Tendrils 2-3-fid. Bracts although very short usually thicker than in the

type and somewhat flattened.

Quilon, June, 1836, Wight. Cachar, June, 1874, Keenan, Sanghoa

Jungle, Karnal, Punjab, Sept. 1887, J. R. Drwmmond. Banda, N.-W.P.

Dec., 1902, Mrs. A. S. Bell. Nagpur-Wardha, C.P., Sept., 1912, Haines.

var. longirostrata Itundu in Journ. Bot. 1xxvii, 11.

Stems and petioles villous. Leaves larger, 7.5-8 cm. long, 10 cm. broad;

petiole 5-6 cm. long. Tendrils robust, 3-4-fid. Bracts more conspicuous than

those of the type, up to 2 mm. long. Young fruit 5.5-6 cm. long, with =

long beak.

Burma, 15 August, 1908, J: H. Lace, 6335.

6. T. lobata Roxb. Fl. Ind. III, 7o1; Roemer Syn. Fasc, II, 96; Kurz in

Journ. As. Soc. Beng., xlvi, ii, 98; Clarke in Hooker, F.B.I., Il, 610.

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Stem slender, grooved, puberulous. Leaves membranous, suborbicular in

outline, base broadly cordate, 5-7-lobed, slightly puberulous on both surfaces,

6-g cm. long, hairy. Tendrils 3-5-fid, divided near about the middle. Male

flowers in racemes, ebracteate or minutely bracteate; rachis slender, puberu-

lous, 8-15 cm. long, few flowered at the apex; calyx tube slightly dilated

at the apex, puberulous. Female flowers solitary, axillary. Fruit linear-

oblong, 14-20 cm. long, 2-5 cm. broad, acute at both ends. Seeds compressed,

thick, surface rugulose, margin irregularly tubercled, truncate both at the

apex and at the base, 10 mm. long, 6 mm. broad and 2.5-3 mm. thick.

Common in Bengal. Lucknow, (1854) (C.H.). Wall. Cat. no. 6693.

This plant is called ‘Ban Chichinga’ in Bengali and is fairly common in

hedges. It flowers during the rainy season. I have seen the typical fruits

as described by Roxburgh (smooth, ornamented lengthways, except near the

base with ten white streaks) looking very much like small fruits of 7. anguina

Linn. (hence the Bengali name ‘Ban Chichinga’).

Cogniaux has reduced this species to J. cucumerima Linn. and Gamble in

his Madras Flora has followed him. It is a distinct species which can be

distinguished from the latter by the character of the leaves and structure and

size of the fruit. Prain has not mentioned this species in his Bengal Plants

and has given the Bengali name Ban Chichinga to JT. cucumerina which

never bears elongated fruits like those borne by T. lobata Roxb.

Wight and Walker-Arnott (1834) suggested that this might be a _ variety

of 1. cucumerina; Clarke in the Flora otf British India also thought the same.

Probably this is the wild form of the cultivated 7. angwina Linn. Haines

in the Botany of Behar and Orissa has reduced 7. anguina as a variety of

LT. cucumerina, with which T. lobata has been merged.

7. T.-anguina Linn. Sp. Pl. Ed. I, 1008; Ed. 2, 1432; Burman Fly Inde

207; Lam. Encycl. Meth. Bot. I, 190; Lour. Fl. Cochinch., 588; Willd.

Sp. Pll IV, 598" BlumesBijdrs Tlyso33);5 Seraine) Ca brodr aa llineeanaS

Roxb. Fl.-Ind. HI, 701; Wight and Arnott Prodr. 1, 350; Mig. Fl. Ind.

Bat. 1; i, 6773) Kurz in’ Journ) Ass Soc) (Benge: xlvij wil osh wn Claniemmnna

Hooker F.Bil., Il, 610; Cogn: in DC. Monog. Ill, 359; ‘Cooke ThE

Bomb. 1, 527; Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain I, 364;7Prain Beng: Pio

518; Gamble Fl. Madras, I, ili, 530; Gangnepain in Lecomte Fl. Indoch.

11, 1039; Craib Fl. Siam I, 751. Y. cucumerina Linn. var. anguina

Haines Bot. Behar & Orissa, Il, 388. 7. colubrina Jacq. f. Eclog. plate

128; ser. in) DC. iProdr. Tiara

Stem slender, branching, angular, puberulous. Leaves membranous, sub-

orbicular, margin finely denticulate or undulated, base cordate or emarginate,

“subglabrous on the upper surface, lower surface densely puberulous and rough ;

5-angular or more or less 5-lobed, lobes roundish; 7-15 cm. long, 8-18 cm.

broad; veins slender, usually 3-nerved at the base. Petiole villose, 3.5-10 cm.

long. Tendrils robust, grooved, puberulous, 2-3 fid. Flowers monoecious.

Male raceme usually few-tiowered. Rachis of the male raceme robust, striate,

puberulous, 8-25 cm. long, 8-15-flowered. Pedicels slender, erect, spreading,

minutely bracteate, 0.5-2 cm. long. Calyx tube subcylindrical, slightly dilated

at the apex, puberulous, 2.5-3 cm. long, 4-5 mm. broad at the apex, teeth

short, subulate, reflexed, 2 mm. long. Petals oblong 8-9 mm. long, 3 mm.

broad. Staminal filaments slender, 2 mm. long, antheridial head ovoid, 2.5-

3 mm. long, 2 mm. thick. Kemale flowers solitary, peduncle 0.5-5 cm. long.

Ovary narrowly fusiform, more or less villose. Fruit very long, surface smooth,

cylindric, sometimes contorted. Seeds oblong, finely rugulose, margins undu-

late, 15-20 mm. long, 6-10 mm. broad, 2.5-5/5 mm. thick.

It is a cultivated species and has never been collected in wild condition.

It is allied to 7. cucumerina Linn. and JT. lobata Roxb., the latter seems to

be its nearest relation, of which it may be regarded as a cultivated variety.

Cultivated throughout India, Burma and the Andamans for its very long

and twisted polymorphous fruit which is used as a vegetable. Miquel in his

‘Ilora van Nederlandsch Indie’ p. 677, states that ‘the male flowers possess

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 375

large leafy sheathing bracts; in the Indian specimens, however the bracts

are minute.

Distribution.—China and Malaya.

8. T. Perrottetiana Cogn. in DC. Monograph III, 362; Gamble Fl. Madras

Reeitie 520.

Stems moderately slender, branched, angular, glabrous or slightly puberu-

lous. Leaves subcoriaceous, ovate-suborbicular in outline, margin distantly

subulate-denticulate, very deeply cordate at the base, glabrous and smooth on both

sides, slightly dilated at the base, 12-14 cm. long, 10-12 cm. broad; usually

nearly trilobed up to the middle, lobes oblong-triangular, acuminate, the

middle lobe slightly longer; veins slender, prominent on the upper surface.

Petiole slender, straight, subglabrous, 5-7 cm. long. Tendrils robust, elongat-

ed, deeply grooved, slightly puberulous, 3-fid. Male raceme ‘many-flowered ;

Rachis of the male raceme moderately slender, grooved, glabrous or slightly

puberulous; (10-15)-flowered ; 15-20 cm. long. Pedicels very long with minute

bracts at the base, slender, erect, 5-10 cm. long; bracts subulate, caducous,

3-5 mm. long. Calyx tube very shortly puberulous, subcylindrical, dilated

above, the apex slightly constricted, ro-nerved, 1.5-2 cm. long, at the apex

3 mm. and at the middle 1.5 mm. broad; teeth erect, long and linear, 4-5 mm.

long. Filaments of the stamens, very slender, 2 mm. long; antheridial head

~ oblong, 4 mm. long, 2 mm. thick. Pistillodium 5-6 mm. long. Female flowers

and fruit unknown.—From the description of Cogniaux.

Carnatic at Pondicherry (Perrottet, No. 256 in herb. Bois. and Vindob).

The specimen No. 13445 in the Kew Herbarium and also in the Calcutta

Herbarium collected by Gamble from Sirpara Ghata, Nilgiris district, at

5000 ft. on Nov. 1883 seems to belong to this species. It agrees with the

description of T. Perrottetiana Cogn. except in the number of flowers in the

male raceme, the flowers im the male raceme in this specimen being few in

number.

9, T. villosula Cogn. in DC. Monog. fil, 362; Gamble FI. Madras, I, iii,

529-

Stem. slender, elongate, grooved. sparsely villose.. Leaves 8-13 cm. long

and as much broad, membraneous, suborbicular, margin subcrenulate-denti-

culate, base deeply cordate, upper side shortly puberulous and somewhat

rough; on the lower surface densely villose-hirsute, 5-lobed up to the middle:

lobes ovate oblong, acute or shortly acuminate, occasionally lobulate. Petiole

thinly covered with long weak hairs, 3-6 cm. long. Tendrils robust, elon-

gate, 3-4-fid. Male peduncle in pairs; the earlier 1-flowered; the later racemed ;

racemes many flowered; rachis slender, sparsely villose, (10-20)-flowered, 10-

16 cm. long; pedicels very long, erect-spreading 2-5 cm. long, minutely

bracteate at the base; bracts caducous 1-2 mm. long. Calyx tube subcylin-

dric, dilated above, constricted at the apex, 2-2.5 cm. long, 2 mm. broad in

the middle, 5 mm. broad at the apex; calyx teeth spreading, 5-7 mm. long.

Petals oblong-lanceolate, tri-nerved, acuminate, 12-13. mm. long, 3-4 mm.

broad, fimbriate, 1-1.5 mm. long. Female flowers solitary, axillary. Fruit-

ing peduncle 1.5 cm. long; fruit ovoid, acuminate, 5.5-6 cm. long, 2-5 cm.

broad in the middle.

Mount Nilgiri, 5,000 ft., June 1883, August, 1884 Gamble. Coonoor,

Sept. 1886. Gamble; Herbarium of Sir A. G. and Lady Bourne in Kew.

Upper Pulneys, 6,500 ft., 22-9g-1911. C. E.-C. Fischer (C.H.) Coimbatore,

AO site 13-12-1907." 6. 1G. Wascher (CLE).

var. wilgirrensis var. nov.

A typo sequentibus signis: caulis puberulus, folia 5-7-lobata vel sub-g-

lobata, lobati ad medium lobi oblongi vel spathulati, margo leviter denticu-

latus, apex obtusa vel acuta, supra glabris vel valde minime puberula ad

nervos, infra Jeviter puberula cum sparsis setis, petiolus leviter puberulus

differt, 2

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Distinguished from the type in having the following characters :—Stem

puberulous, leaves 5-7-lobed or sub-g-lobed, lobed up to the middle, lobes

oblong or spathulate, margin shortly denticulate, apex acute or obtuse, upper

surface glabrous or very slightly puberulous at the veins, lower surface

slightly puberulous with occasional long ones; petiole slightly puberulous.

Coonoor, Nilgiris, 6,000 ft., Nov. 1884, no. 15733, J. S. Gamble (Type

in the Calcutta Herbarium).

10. T. truncata Clarke in Hooker f. F.B.I., II, 608; Cogn. in DC. Monog.

Mies 64"

Stem robust, elongate, angular-striate, glabrous, punctate. Leaves coria-

ceous, entire or rarely irregularly tricuspidate, ovate-oblong; apex acuminate,

base round, margin usually entire or rarely distantly and minutely denticu-

late, glabrous on both sides, 13-16 cm. long, 6-8 cm. broad, 3-nerved rarely

5-nerved at base, veins slender, prominent on the lower surface. Petiole

robust, grooved, glabrous, punctate, 4-6 cm. long. Tendrils very slender,

elongate, terete, subglabrous, 2-3-fid. Male raceme 8-20-flowered; rachis stout,

striate, flowering at the apex, 7-15 cm. long; pedicels very slender, puberu-

lous, 1-3 mm. long; bracts ovate, shortly petiolate, apex acuminate, margin

entire or more usually with a few teeth. Calyx tube shortly tomentose,

dilated above, 2-3 cm. long; teeth spreading, linear, 5-7 mm. long, 1-1.5 mm.

broad at the base. Corolla shortly tomentose on the outside. Female flowers

solitary, axillary. Fruiting peduncle short, 8 mm. long. Fruit oblong, 10 cm.

long, 3-4 cm. broad; epicarp tough. Seeds. smooth, oblong-obovate, base

truncate, apex obtuse, 21 mm. long, 12 mm. broad, 3 mm. thick.

Khasia Mts., 4,000 ft. Hook. f. and Thomson; Clarke; Sadiya N.-E. Assam.

~G. K. Deka (Forest Herbarium, Shillong). Sikkim, 1,000 ft. Hooker f.:

1,200 ft. Aug., 1873, Gamble. Darjeeling, 1,500 ft., March, 1871, C. B.

Clarke; 1,800 ft., Gamble.

11. T. ovata Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 365.

Stem slightly robust, elongate, branched, angular-striate, smooth or puberu-

lous, thinly punctate. Leaves membranous, entire, broadly ovate, apex

shortly acuminate, base round or truncate, margin minutely distantly denti-

culate; glabrous on both sides; 14-18 cm. long, 11-14 cm. broad; base tri-

nerved, nerves somewhat slender and thinly reticulate, on the lower surface

slightly prominent. Tendrils 2-3-fid, slender, very elongate, terete, glabrous.

Male raceme sub-capitate, few-flowered; rachis very robust, striate, glabrous,

6-10-flowered at the apex, 10-15 cm. long; pedicels very slender, shortly

villose, 1-2 cm. long; bracts sessile, ovate, acute. round at the base, margin

entire or somewhat undulate, trinerved, 12-15 mm. long, 8-10 mm. broad.

Calyx tube short, tomentose, dilated above; teeth spreading or reflexed, linear,

7-9 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad. Corolla very shortly tomentose. Female

flowers and fruit unknown.—Descriptions from the monograph of Cogniaux.

Sikkim, Thomson in Herb. Hort. Petrop. and Lugduno-Batavia.

12. T. cordata Roxb in Fl. Ind. III, 703; Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng.

XLVI, ii, 99; Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. II, 608; Cogn. in DC. Monog.

III, 367; Duthie in Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. I, 363. T. macrosiphon Kurz

in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. XLI, ii, 308.

Roots tuberous. Stem robust, very long, angulate, grooved, glabrous or

sparsely puberulous. Leaves membranous, entire (unlobed) or rarely angular-

sublobate, broadly ovate-cordate, apex acute or shortly acuminate, margin

minutely denticulate or crenulate-dentate, scatteredly shortly villose-hirsute

on both sides, 9-20 cm. long, 9-16 cm. broad, 3-5-nerved at the base. Petiole

stout, striate, sparsely puberulous, 3.5-10 cm. long. Tendrils robust, elongate,

grooved, puberulous, 2-3-fid. Male raceme few-flowered; rachis stout, striate,

sparsely puberulous, 12-35 cm. long, 6-12 flowered. Pedicels thick very short,

1-2 mm. long; bracts oblong, acuminate, entire, shortly villose-hirsute, 3.5-

4 cm. long, 1-1.5 cm. broad. Calyx tube attenuate from the apex towards

INDIAN. SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 377

base, densely villose, 5 cm. long, 7 mm. broad at the apex, teeth erect, flex-

uose, 1.5 cm. long, 2-5 mm. broad at the base. Staminal filaments very

short, scarcely 1 mm. long; antheridial head 14 mm. long, 3-4 mm. thick.

Female flower solitary; peduncle about 1 cm. Jong. Ovary oblong, slightly

puberulous. Fruiting peduncle robust, 1-2 cm. long. Fruit globose, smooth,

red. Seeds subquadrangular, 10-12 mm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, 2-2.5 mm

thick.

India, Wallich. Wall. Cat. no. 6686 A., 6688 C. & F. (partly). East Bengal

Griffith; Dacca, Sept., 1868, Clarke; Rungpore, Bengal, Dec. 1875, Clarke.

Chodamvaram, Madras, 7-8-14, M. S. Ramaswami (C.H.);. Malabar forest,

9-5-1895, Herb. G. Watt. (C.H.)

Dehradun, July 1882, Duthie (C.H.), G. King. (C.H.). Hardwar, King

(ex Duthie). :

Darjeeling 500 ft. 12 July, 1870 Clarke (C.H.); Sikkim, Kurz. Khasia,

o-4,000 ft., June, 1850, Hooker f. and Thomson; Khasia and Jaintia Hills,

6-6-39, R.N.De (Forest Herbarium, Shillong) no. 19203.

Naga Hills, Oct., 1885, Clarke; July 1886, D. Prain (C.H.) Upper Assam,

1841, Jenkins; Gauhatty, Aug., 1847, Griffith; Nazira, Assam, 23 April, 1885

(No. 37998C, C.H.)

Cachar, Keenan; Kistopore, Cachar. May, 1868, Clarke; Wakhimpore,

25 Aug., 1900, I. H. Burkill (C.H.) The Andaman islands (Ex. Kurz).

Martaban, Burma, Kurz (C. H.); Pegu, Kurs {(C.H.)

var, subpedata. Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I1., II, 608.

Leaves pedately lobed almost to the base. The bracts and indumentum

are exactly as in the type. _

Lackipoor, Cachar, May, 1868, Clarke.

13. TT. Wallichiana Wight. in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., VIII, 270; Cogn.

in DC. Monog. III, 368; King. Mat. Fl. Malay Penin. no. 10, 29;

Ridley Fl. Mal. Penin. I, 845; Gagnepain in Lecomte Fl. Indoch. IT,

1048; Craib FI]. Siam. I, 754. Involucraria Wallichiana Seringe in Mem.

sur la fam. des Cucurbitacees, vlate 5; and in DC. Prodr. III, 318. T.

grandibracteata Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. LXVI, 98-99. T. multi-

loba Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. II, 607 (not of Miquel).

Stem robust, angulate-grooved, glabrous. Leaves sub-coriaceous, suborbi-

cular in outline; on the upper surface glandular punctate and very rough,

on the under surface glabrous or slightly hairy at the nerves; 8-20 cm. long,

7-5-21.5 cm. broad; usually 3-nerved at base; deeply (nearly up to the base)

palmately 3-9-lobed, lobes oblong, elliptical or lanceolate, acute or acuminate,

denticulate or irregularly crenate-dentate. Tendrils robust, elongate, grooved,

puberulous, 2-3 fid. Male raceme few—(6-12)-flowered at the apex; rachis

stout, grooved, puberulous, 15-30 cm. Jong. Bracts broadly ovate, crenulate-

subulate, slightly puberulous, multinerved, 2.5-3 cm. long. Calyx tube slightly

puberulous, 5-5.5 cm. long, 12-14 mm. broad at the apex; teeth spreading,

10-15 mm. long, 5-6 mm. broad at the base. Female flowers solitary axillary :

ovary ovoid-oblong, glabrous. Fruiting peduncle 2-4 cm. long. Fruit ovoid

or oblong-ellipsoid, not globose, with an acute or subacute apex, 5-10 cm.

long, 4-8.5 cm. thick. Seeds truncate at base, much swollen in the middle,

surface smooth, 15-18 mm. long, 7-12 mm. broad, 6-9 mm. thick; cotyledons

thick and oily.

N.-W. India, Royle. Kumaon, June, 1845, Thomson. Simla, 1880, Col-

lett. Bombay, W. H. Talbot.

Sikkim, 2,000-6,000 ft., Griffith; Hooker f., Hooker f. and Thomson;

G. King (C.H.); Phadonchen, 7,000 ft., 20-8-10, W. W.. Smith (C.H.);

Mungpoo, 18-7-14, Indrayni Nepali (C.H.); Tumloong, 5,500 ft. 10-7-92,

G. A. Gammie (C.H.); Darjeeling 4,000-7,000 ft. Aug., 1874 & 1876, July,

1881, Gamble ; Oct., 1870, Aug., 1875, Clarke; Sikkim Terai, S. Kurz (C.H.).

Khasia, 2,000-5,000 ft., Hooker f. & Thomson; Aug. & Oct., 1885, Clarke ;

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

June, 1876, S. Kurz. Shillong, June, 1911, R. K. Das (C.H.); Dunpep,

May, 1911, R. K. Das (C.H.). Lawlyngdoh, Khasia and Jaintia Hills

28-6-38, S. P. Sharma (Forest Herbarium, Shillong, no. 16682). Thaka-

banea Pfutsero, Naga Hills, 7,coo ft., June & July, 1935. N. L. Bor:

Pastelling, 6,500 ft., 1904, Haines; Tingala Bum Jungle, Assam March,

1899, Dr. Prain’s Collector.

Kachin Hills, Upper Burma, Jan., 1898, Shaikh Mokim (C.H.); Mynela

(Yunan Expedition), D. J. Anderson (C.H.); Pahang, H.N.R.

Distribution.—Malaya Peninsula.

14)\ Sal majuscula Kundu in Journ. Bot. Ixxvii, 12.

T. Wailichiana Wight. var. majuscula Clarke, Cogn. in DC. Monog. III,

369; T. multiloba Miq. var. majuscula Clarke in Hook. F.B.I. II, 608.

Stem very stout, elongate, grooved, glabrous. Leaves very large, membranous,

glabrous and smooth on the lower surface, smooth but slightly hairy at the

nerves on the upper surface, deeply palmately 5-lobed, lobes elliptic-obovate,

cuspidate, narrow towards the base, up to 8 cm. broad in the middle, sinus

between lobes obtuse, margin irregularly crenulate, deep green on the upper

surface, pale green on the lower surface, 23 cm. long, 22-25 cm, broad, 3-nerved

at the base. Pretiole very robust, striate, covered with very short hairs, 6-6.5 cm.

long. Tendrils very robust and woody, grooved, very slightly hairy, branched

above at a distance of 11 cm. from base, 3-fid, the middle branch much more

prominent and much longer than the lateral ones. Male flowers in racemes;

rachis very stout and woody, 30 cm. long, (25-30) many-flowered, very much

grooved and puberulous; peduncle 9.5 em. long. Bracts oblong, finely serrate,

multinerved, 3.5-4.5 cm. long. Pedicels very short, thick and woody. Calyx

tube about 6 cm. long, 1 cm. broad at the apex, attenuate from the apex

towards the base; teeth elongate, triangular-lanceolate, spreading, papillose,

margins entire, rt cm. long, 5 mm. broad at the base. Female flowers and

fruit unknown.

Khasia mountains, Assam, 4,000 ft. Hook. f. & Thomson, no. 7.

15. T. khasiana Kundu in Journ. Bot. Ixxvii, 17.

Stem rcbust, elongate, angulate, grooved, glabrous. Leaves membranous,

ovate-suborbicular in outline, slightly hairy at the nerves on the upper surface,

glabrous on the lower surface, deeply palmately 3-lobed near to the base,

sometimes with an additional short lobe on the side of each of the lateral

ones, lobes oblong-lanceolate, apex acuminate, margin distantly denticulate,

deep green on the upper surface, paler on the lower surface, 9-15 cm. long,

8-13 cm. broad, truncate or cordate at the 3-nerved base, veins slender. Petiole

robust, striate, punctate or glabrous, 2.5-5 cm. long. Male raceme loosely

few-flowered at the apex; rachis very robust, sometimes stouter than the

stem, grooved, glabrous, puberulous in the younger regions, 9-15 cm. long.

Bracts glabrous, ovate, subentire or crenulate, multinerved, 2-4.5 cm. long.

Calyx tube attenuate from the apex towards base, puberulous, 4.5-5 cm. long,

8.5-10 mm. broad at the apex. teeth erect-spreading, — triangular-lanceolate,

8-10 mm. long, 5-6 mm. broad at the base. Peduncle of the female flower

1.5-2.5 cm. long. Calyx tube cylindrical; teeth spreading, subulate-dentate.

6-8 mm. long, 1.5-2 mm. broad at the base. Ovary fusiform, glabrous.

Fruit oblong-ellipsoid, subacute at both ends, 11-12.5 cm. long, 3.5-5 cm. thicls.

Seeds irregularly shaped, somewhat ovate-oblong, smooth on both sides, 10-

14 mm. long, 5-8 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick. Cotyledons thin.

Khasia mountains, 2,000-6,000 ft. Hooker and Thomson no. 11.

16. TT. Prazeri sp. nov.

Caulis gracilis striatus punctatus. Folia membrancea tenua ambitu sub-

orbicularia, pedato-5-6-lobata, lobi spathulati. vel oblongi, margo_ irregularis

serratus vel denticulatus, apex obtusa vel obtuso-apiculata, superficies leviter

pube.ulis ad nervos principales, subtus glabris vel glandulo-punctatus ; cirrhis

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ; PLATE ‘HL:

CREAN

tikpy

Li ip

WS.

LS MGB US

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. e PLATE Iv.

vit

ermina

yy Det

Trichosanthes khasiana Kundu. -

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 379

gracilis simplex vel bifidis glabris. Racemis masculis 7-10 floris, flores colore

rubro, intus rosei. Bractei magni oblong-ovati, glabres, profunde serrati, cum

apice obtusa, 2.5 cent. longus, 1.7 cent. latus in medio. Calycis tuba ad

basim attenuata et ad apicem dilatata, dentibus lanceolato-linearibus suinte-

gres vel saepius cum 2-3 brevibus incisionibus, 5-6 mm. longi, 1.5-2 mm. lati

in medio. Corolla fere ad basim divisa, lobata ovata-oblonga, breviter lace-

rata. Flores feminei et fructus ignoti.

Stem slender, grooved, punctate. Leaves membranous, thin, suborbicular

in outline, lobed nearly up to base, 5-6-lobed, lobes oblong or spathulate,

margin irregularly serrate or denticulate, apex obtuse or obtuse-apiculate ;

upper surface very slightly hairy at the main veins, lower surface glabrous or

glandular punctate. Petiole slender, punctate, 2-2.5 cm. long. Tendril slender,

simple or bifid, glabrous. Male flowers in racemes, rachis moderately stout,

grooved, glabrous, 9-15 cm. long, 7-10-flowered; male peduncles occasionally

in pairs, one early 1-flowered and the other racemed. Flowers coloured red,

inside light pink. Bracts large, oblong-ovate, glabrous, margin deeply serrate,

apex obtuse, 2.5 cm. long. 1.7 cm. broad in the middle. Calyx tube 4-5 cm.

long, 6-7 mm. broad at the apex, narrow towards base and dilated above,

glabrous; teeth narrow, lanceolate-linear, subentire or more frequently with

2-3 short subulate incisions, 5-6 mm. long, 1.5-2 mm. broad in the middle.

Corolla divided nearly up to the base; lobes ovate-oblong, shortly lacerate.

Female flowers and fruit unknown.

Khoni, Upper Burma, May, 1888, J. C. Prazer (Type in the Calcutta Herb-

arium).

The species is named after Mr. J. C. Prazer, the collector of the plant.

A slender plant—from its very look appears to be quite distinct and differ-

ent from other species of the group. It is related to T. bracteata Voigt and

T. Lepiniana Cogn. The thin leaves of the plant are quite characteristic and

could be easily separated from the thick, rough and subcoriaceous leaves of

its two near relations. Although in T. bracteata Voigt the leaves are very

variable but nothing like the thin spathulate-lobed leaves of this plant could

be found there. The calyx teeth of the flower of this plant are narrow and

have 2-3 short subulate incisions. They are also much smaller than and differ-

ent from those of T. bracteata and T. Lepiniana. Corolla lobes are not fim-

briate but shortly lacerate. Besides the above characteristics the colour of

the flower as reported by the collector is very interesting.

It is also related to T. longiflora Cogn., a species from New Guinea.

From that species it is distinguished in having oblong or spathulate lobes of

the leaves, large oblong-obovate deeply serrate bracts and in the red colour

of the flowers and in the structure of the calyx tube.

17. T. bracteata (Lam.) Voigt Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensis, 58; Kurz in

Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xlvi, ii, 99; Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 375.; Mer-

pilieenumesehilip: Bi Pi Tie e584.) Gagnepain in’ Lecomte Fl: Indoch.

II, 1041; Craib. Fl. Siam I, 751.

Modecca bracteata Lam. Encycl. Meth. Bot. IV, 210; DC. Prodr.. IIT, 337.

T. palmata Roxb. Fl. Ind. III, 704; Wight and Arnott Prodr. I, 350; Wight

Illustr. pls. 104, 105; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. I, i, 628; Thwaites Enum. PI.

Zeyl. 127; Kurz Report Veget. And. Isl. p. ix; Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I.

II, 606; King Mat. Fl. Malay Penin. no. 10, p. 29; Trim FI. Ceylon IT,

244; Cooke Fl. Bomb. I, 526; Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain I, 363; Prain

Beng. Pl. I, 318; Gamble Fl. Madras I, iii, 529; Haines Bot. Behar Orissa

IT, 387; Ridley Fl. Mal Penin, I, 845.

Stem stout, ‘puberulous and rough. Leaves membranous or sub-coriaceous,

suborbicular in outline, rough and glandular punctate on the upper surface,

glabrous and smooth on the under surface; veins on the under surface have

small punctate glands; subentire or frequently deeply palmately 3-7-lobed,

lobes ovate-oblong, very variable in size, margin entire, dentate, serrate or

somewhat lobulate; apex usually acute. Petiole 2.5-g cm. long. Tendrils

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

robust, 3-fid. Male flowers in racemes; rachis stout, 8-20 cm. long, few-(5-

10)-flowered. Bracts ovate or obovate, deeply incised, many-nerved, 3-4 cm.

long. Calyx tube attenuate from the apex towards the base, shortly villose,

4-5 cm. long, at the apex 10-12 mm. broad; teeth erect, spreading, elongate,

triangular-lanceolate, dentate or serrate, sometimes subpinnatifid, 12-15 mm.

long, 3-4 mm. broad at the base. Staminal filaments 1-2 mm. long. Female

flowers axillary, solitary (according to Roxburgh sometimes racemed). Fruit

globose, bright red with 10 orange streaks. Seeds numerous, immersed in

green pulp, ovate oblong, smooth on both surfaces, 10-12 mm. long, 6 mm.

broad in the middle, 2 mm. thick.

Specimens have been collected from all parts of India from the Himalayas

to Ceylon, Burma and the Andamans; very common and ascending up to

5,000 ft.

Distribution.—Malaya, China, Japan and North Australia.

var. scotanthus Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. II, 607.

Leaves palmately lobed; lobed more than half-way down, nearly up to

the base; Upper surface somewhat scabrid, lower surface glabrous. Tendrils

bifid. Male raceme 9-10 cm. long, 5-6-flowered at the apex. Bracts 1.5 cm.

long, 1 cm. broad in the middle. Calyx teeth broad, lanceolate, nearly entire.

Petals nearly destitute of fimbriations (jagged), (‘especially in the female’-—

Clarke).

Punkabari, Darjeeling, 500 ft. 4th Sept., 1870, C. B. Clarke (C.H.)

There is only cne sheet with male flowers only in the Calcutta Herbarium,

which seems to be the type. There is no sheet in the Kew Herbarium. This

looks very much like a distinct species, but cannot be established as the

specimens are not quite sufficient to raise it to the standard of a’ species.

var. tomentosa Heyne in Herb. Rottler: Clarke in Hook. f. F.B.I. II, 607;

Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 377; Gamble FI. Madras I, iii, 530.

Leaves much less lobed, divided not more than half way down, scarcely

scabrous, tomentose beneath. Bracts and calyx lobes more deeply laciniate.

Western Ghats, in the Mysore Hills; Pulneys and Nilgiris at about 3,000-

6,000 ft. Ceylon, 1847 Gardner.

This, too, seems to be a distinct species; C. B. Clarke also thought like

that and remarked, ‘This looks like a good species, but the fruit and seeds

are as in var. 1. This closely resembles the Australian T. subvelutina Muell.

in Herb. referred to T. palmata by Bentham.’ It, however, differs from T.

subvelutina Muell. subsequently described by Cogniaux in having the calyx

lobes deeply laciniate. Until and unless more specimens are collected, the

plant is kept as a variety of T. bracteata Voigt.

18. TT. Lepiniana Cogn. in DC. Monog., III, 377; Gamble Fl. Madras I,

iii, 530; Gagnepain in Lecomte FI. Indoch. II, 1042; Craib Fl. Siam. I.,

7533; Involucraria Lepiniana Naud. in Huber. Cat., II (1868).

Stem robust, glabrous and smooth. Leaves membranous, suberbicular in

outline, on both surfaces glabrous and smooth or finely punctate or rough;

shortly palmately 3-5-lobed, lobes broadly ovate or triangular, acute or shortly

acuminate, margin distantly subulate-dentate, 3-5 nerved at the base, 10-20 cm.

long and as much broad. Petioles robust, 4-6 cm. long. Tendrils 3-4-fid,

glabrous. Flowers dioecious; male flowers in racemes; rachis stout, smooth,

15-20 cm. long, 5-10 flowered at the apex; bracts obovate, 2+3 cm. long with

subulate incisions, multinerved; pedicels very short, 2-5 mm. long. Calyx

tube shortly puberulous, 5-6 cm. long, attenuate from the apex towards the

base; teeth spreading, elongate, deeply 3-5-lobed, 14-16 mm. long, 5 mm.

broad. Petals obovate, 2-3 cm. long, deeply laciniate, with long fringes.

Female flowers solitary, peduncle 2-4 cm. long. Ovary oblong, glabrous.

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES 381

Fruit ovoid, smooth, red. Seeds black, obscurely marginate, 13-15 mm. long,

6-7 mm. broad, 2.5 mm. thick.

Carnatic at Pondicherry, Lepine; Mt.»Nilgiris and Kurg, no. 14 Thomson;

Sikkim, 1-5,000 ft. Hooker f.; Kolbong, Sikkim, S. Kurz (C.H.). Madras,

Hooker f. and Thomson. Assam, Naga Hills, 4,800 ft.; Nchanramai

Naga ‘Hills, 5,000 ft., May 1935, N. L. Bor

Distribution—Cambodia.

19. T. burmensis sp. nov.

Caulis elongatus, sulcatus, parum puberulus. Folia membranacea, ovato-

suborbicularia, supra punctata, leviter puberula ad nervos principales, subtus

densissime puberula, maxime pilosa ad nervos, breviter 5-lobata, serrata vel

denticulata, apex loborum acuta vel breviter acuminata, 11-15 cent. longa,

aequa lata, basis levita cordata, nervei subtus conspicui, 4-5 nervei ad basim

Cirrhis robusticulus, 3-fidis. Racemes masculi robusti, sulcati, leviter puberuli,

12-25 cent. longi, 4-6 florati ad apicem. Bractei magni, cucullati, subreni-

formes, multinervati, lacerati, apex rotunda, 3 cent. longi, 5 cent. lati, puberuli.

Flores rubri, calycis tuba gradatim ad apicem dilatata, 4 cent. longa, 6-7 mm.

lata ad apicem, tobi subcucullati, ovato-triangulares, apex loborum acuminaia,

lanciniata, latiores in medio, fere tenuis ad basim et gradatim convergens ad

apicem 2-2.2 cent. longi, 1 cent. lati in medio. Corolla divisa fere ad basim,

rubri_ colore, petala profunde laciniata. Flores feminei_ solitarii, axillares

Fructus ovoido-oblongi cum epicarpo firmo, 11 cent. longi., 6 cent. lati. Semina

multa, oblonga, 9-10 mm. longa, 4-5 mm. lata, 1.5 mmm. crassa.

Stem elongate, grooved, slightly puberulous. Leaves membranous, ovate-

suborbicular in outline, upper surface punctate dotted, slightly hairy at the

main veins, lower surface densely puberulos, particularly hairy at the veins,

shortly 5-lobed, margin serrate or denticulate, apex of lobes acute or shortly

acuminate, 11-15 cm. long and as much broad, base slightly cordate, veins

prominent on the lower surface, 4-5-nerved at base. Petiole slender, striate,

slightly puberulous, punctate, 7-8.5 cm. long. Tendrils moderately stout, 3-fid.

Rachis of male raceme stout, grooved, slightly puberulous, 12-25 cm_ long,

4-6-flowered at the apex. Bracts large, cucullate (not flat), subreniform in

outline, multinerved, margin lacerate, apex rounded, 3 cm. long, 5 cm. broad,

puberulous. Flowers red. Calyx tube gradually dilated towards apex, 4 cm.

long, 6-7 mm. broad at the apex, lobes somewhat cucullate, ovate-triangular

in outline, apex of lobes acuminate, margin laciniate, broader in the middle,

somewhat narrow towards base and gradually tapering towards apex, 2-2.2

cm. long, 1 cm. broad in the middle. Corolla divided nearly up to the base,

colour red. Female flowers solitary, axillary. Fruit ovoid-oblong with a

tough epicarp, 11 cm. long, 6 cm. broad. Seeds many oblong, 9-10 mm.

long. 4-5 mm. broad, 1.5 mm. thick.

Upper Burma, Southern Shan State, 1893, Abdul Khalil (Type in the

Calcutta Herbarium); Pegu, S. Kurz. no. 1062 (C.H.).

The species is quite distinct and can be separated from other species of

Trichosanthes in having the following distinguishing features :—Leaves shortly

lobed and densely puberulous on the lower surface, particularly hairy at the

veins, cucullate and subreniform bracts; deeply laciniate calyx lobes and the

red colour of the flowers. From T. bracteata Voigt and T. Lepiniana Cogn.

it is distinguished by the characteristic of its leaves and bracts and by the

colour of the flowers. From T. rubriflos Thorel ex Cayla in which the stem,

petiole, tendril, bracts and flowers are red it is easily separated by the nature

of its leaves, bracts and calyx lobes. From T. Prazert where the flowers are

also red, it is sharply distinguished by the structure of its leaves, tendrils,

bracts calyx and corolla lobes.

var. alba var. nov.

Differt a typo sequentibus signis: folia 5-lobata, divisa fere ad medium

suborbicularia, lobi oblonga vel ovato-oblonga, apex acuta, margo_ serrato-

denticulatus, flores albi.

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. XLIII

Separated from the type in having the following distinguishing features :

leaves 5-lobed, divided nearly up to the middle, suborbicular in outline, lobes

oblong or ovate-oblong, apex acute,,margin serrate-denticulate ; flowers white.

Maymyo, Upper Burma, July, 1888, Badal Khan (Dr. King’s Collector)

no. 130 (Type in the Calcutta Herbarium).

20. T.anamelayana Bedd. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xxv, 217; Cogn. in DC.

Monog. III, 378, Gamble Fl. Madras, I, iii, 530.

Tendrils 2-3-fid. Leaves 3-5-lobed; on the upper surface very scabrous,

on the under surface pubescent; irregularly deeply serrate; 10-12.5 cm. long

and as much broad. Flowers white, males in racemes with the calyx larger

and more laciniate than in the female flower; staminal filaments 3, rarely 4,

free, inserted in the gibbous part of the tube, anthers coherent; corolla very

hirsute within; female flowers axillary, solitary or 2 together with a lanceolate

bract or more often racemose and subtended by large laciniate bracts. Berry

globose.

Anamallay Mountains, up to 4,000 ft.

Although it is not very well known, it seems to be very extraordinary on

account of the female flowers being borne in racemes. Unfortunately Beddome

did not preserve any specimen and up till now no specimen of this remarkable

species has been collected. The description given above is from Beddome’s.

21. T. himalensis Clarke in Hooker F.B.I. II, 608; Cogn. in DC. Monog.

III, 379; Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain, I, 363. Gagnepain in Lecomte

Fie indochw sll ross:

Stem slender, extensively climbing. Leaves slightly rough on the upper

surface, shortly villose and rough on the under surface; deeply palmately

3-lobed or sub-5-lobed, lobes shortly acuminate, margins irregularly serrate.

Petiole shortly villose or subhirsute, 3-6 cm. long. Tendrils stout, 2-3-fid.

Male flowers in racemes; rachis slender, 2-8 cm. long, 4-10 flowered at the

apex. Bracts 5-14 mm. long, lanceolate, with serrate incisions and narrow

base, 2-4 mm. broad in the middle. Calyx: tube narrow, cylindrical, slightly

dilated at the apex, 2.5 cm. long, 3 mm. broad the apex and 1 mm. broad in

the middle; teeth linear, subulate, 6-7 mm. long. (Female flowers not seen).

Fruit 7.5-10 cm. long 2.5-3 cm. thick, attenuate at both ends, nearly circular

in cross section, Seeds 6-7 mm. long 7-9 mm. broad, 4-5 mm. thick, very

turgid, ploymorphous.

India, Wallich, Wall. Cat. no. 6686 B. Sikkim, Darjeeling, Aug. 1869,

Sept., 1875, Hooker f.; Oct. 1875, Clarke; 4,o00 ft., Sept., 1881, Gamble

(C.H.); Sikkim, 2,500 ft., 3-9-75, King (C.H.); Pankabari, 1,000

ft. Aug., 1875, Gamble (C.H.); Kalimpong, 4-5,o00 ft., Sept., 1914, Thom-

son Ripley (C.H.). Khasia Hills, Aug. 1880 no. 9. Hooker f. and Thomson ;

22-11-32, S. R. Sharma (Forest Herbarium Shillong). Jotsoma, Naga Hills,

5,000 ft. Aug., 1935, N. L. Bor. Chittagong, o-1,000 ft. 1851, Hooker f.

and Thomson. ‘Khari Dist. in N. Oudh (ex Duthie).

var. glabrior Clarke in Hooker F.B.I. IT, 608; Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 379.

Leaves glabrous or somewhat hirsute at the nerves on the under surface.

Khasia, 4,000 ft., Hooker f. and Thomson.

22. T. ovigera Blume, Bijdr., 934; Ser. in DC.) Prodr. Ill,2314;) Roemer

Syn. Fasc: II, 95; Mig. Filo ind: Bat. I 15.674; Cogns in Des. Monos:

III, 380. T. Hearnit King. in Mat. Fl. Malay Penin. no. 10; p. 28.

Stem slender, grooved, glabrous; Leaves membranous, broadly ovate, apex

acute or acuminate, base deeply cordate, margin distantly denticulate or dentate ;

unlobed or sometimes remotely shortly lobed; under surface glabrous, lower

surface minutely pubescent; 3-nerved at the base; 10-16 cm. long, 9-15 cm.

broad, Petiole 2.5-5 cm, long, shortly villose. Tendril puberulous, slender,

2-fid,

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES 333

Male flowers in axillary racemes; sometimes the racemes are tound in

pairs; occasionally the two racemes are borne on a common peduncle. Bracts

linear oblong, entire, 5-8 mm. long, 2 mm. broad in the middle, acute at

both ends, pubescent. Calyx tube subcylindrical, puberulous, somewhat dilated

at the mouth, 3-3.5 cm. long, 3-4 mm. broad at the mouth; teeth narrow,

acute. Female flowers solitary, axillary, Fruit ovoid, 4-5 cm. long. Seeds

broader than long, subquadrangular, longitudinally surrounded by 2 thick ridges,

surface somewhat rough, apex truncate; 8 mm. long, 8-9 mm. broad, 5 mm.

_thick near the middle; trilocular with the 2 lateral toculi empty. (Description

of female flowers and fruit from the Javanese specimens.)

Andamans, 4-10-90, King’s collector (C.H.); Kurz (Ex. King).

The specimens referred to here were collected at first by Iurz and then

by King’s collector from the Andaman Islands. They consist of male inflor-

escences without any female flower or fruit. The specimens were sent to C.

B. Clarke who thought that they might be 7. Hearnit and so these were

doubtfully described as T. Hearn by ‘King in his Materials for the Flora ot

the Malayan Peninsula.

I have had the opportunity of examining the sheets of I. ovigera Blume

from the Buitenzorg Herbarium. After comparing the sheets in the Calcutta

Herbarium bearing the name 7. Hearn (?) with the Javanese specimens of

T. ovigera, I find that the former agree with 7. ovigera Blume in practically

all the details. So I refer these specimens to TI. ovigera Blume.

7. Hearnii was named by Baron von Muller in Herbarium; an impertect

description of this species was first given by Bentham in his Australian Flora

(Vol, III, p. 314). Female flowers and fruits were never collected ever since.

If fruits and particularly seeds had been collected I believe this species would

have been found to be the same as T. ovigera Blume.

var. Sikkimensis var. nov.

Folia integra vel breviter triloba ad apicem, margines denticulati, supra

glabra vel sparso-puberula, infra pubescens, 8.5-15 cent. longa, 6.5-16.5 cent.

lata. Rachis masculis racemis gracilis, 4-6 floribus ad apicem; bractei berviter

lanceolati, breviter denticulati, apex acuminata, 7-10 cent. longa, 2 cent. lata

ad medium, glabris. Flores feminei solitarii axillares. Fructus ovoido-oblongus,

acutus utrisque extremis, 9-10 cent. longus, 3-5 cent. latus ad medium.

Semina subquadrangularia, circumdata duobus zonis. Unilocularia vel duobus

lateralibus loculis representibus duobus minutis poris.

Leaves unlobed or very shortly trilobed towards the apex, margin denti-

culate; upper surface glabrous or very shortly puberulous, lower surface pube-

scent, 8.5-16 cm. long, 6.5-16.5 cm. broad. Rachis of male raceme slender,

3-5 cm. long, 4-6 flowered at the apex. Bracts shortly lanceolate, shortly

dentate, apex acuminate, 7-10 mm. long, 2 mm. broad near about the middle,

glabrous. Female flowers solitary. Fruit ovoid oblong, acute at both ends,

g-l0 cm. long, 3.5 cm. broad in the middle. Seeds subquadrangular, longi.

tudinally surrounded by two thick ridges, unilocular or with the two lateral

loculi represented by 2 minute pores.

Distinguished from the type in having the leaves very slightly puberulous

on the upper surface and in the structure of the fruit and seeds.

Rungtung, Sikkim, Dec., 1876, A.B. (King’s Collector); Sikkim, 5,000 ft.,

23-9-75, G. King.; Runjeet, Darjeeling, Sept., 1884, Clarke; Selim, Sik-

kim, 1,000 ft. Oct., 1884, Clarke (Type); Kurseong.

Kobo, Abor Expedition, Assam no. 37420, Dec., 1911, J. H. Burkill.

(All the sheets in the Calcutta Herbarium).

23. TT. dicaelosperma Clarke in Hooker F.B.I. II, 609; Cogn. in DC.

Monog. III, 381; Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain, I, 364; T. reinformis

Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xl, part ii, 57 and in Flora, 1871, 294

(not of Miquel).

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Stem slender, puberulous. Leaves membranous, cordate-ovate, apex acute

or shortly acuminate, margin sparsely minutely denticulate, shortly pubescent

on both sides, 10-15 cm. long, 6-11 cm. broad; petiole shortly villose, 3-8 cm.

long. Tendrils 2-fid. Flowers dioecious. Male peduncles paired, one early

1-flowered, the other 2-7 cm. long, racemed; 7-10-flowered at the apex; flowers

ebracteate or very minutely bracteate. Calyx-tube narrow, dilated at the

extreme apex, 2-2.5 cm. long, at the apex 3-4 mm. broad and in the middle

only 1 mm. broad; teeth very short, spreading. Female flower axillary,

solitary ; peduncle subfiliform, 2-3 cm. long. Ovary oblong. Fruit pubescent, -

globose with 10 pale vertical bands, 3-5 cm. thick. Seeds slightly rugulose,

compressed subquadrangular, 3-chambered, the two lateral ones are empty,

7-8 mim. long, 8-g mm. broad, 3 mm. thick.

Sikkim, 2,000-5,000 ft. Hooker f., Hooker f. and Thomson; 1,800 ft.,

Sept., 1875, King; Kurz (C.H.)

Darjeeling, 3,000 ft. Aug., 1881. Gamble (ex Duthie).

Khasia Mts., 4,000 ft., Hooker f. and Thomson.

24. -T.. dioica “Roxbo-in Bl sind: IT, Jor; eMigq= eh) eind-bateenl mmo 7G

Clarke in Hook. £.. P:B:I. “Il, 609; Cogn. in) D@2 Monogs Tih sscr

Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain I, 364; Prain Beng. Pl. I, 517; Haines

Bot. Behar and Orissa II, 388.

Stem slender, shortly villose and scabrous; leaves cordate, ovate-oblong,

apex acute, margin sinuate-dentate but not angled or lobed, pale green and

rough on both surfaces, 7-10 cm. long, 4-8 cm. broad. Petiole 1-3 cm. long,

shortiy villose hirsute. ‘Tendrils slender, simple or more frequently 2-fid from

near the base. Male peduncles paired, both of them 1-flowered, the first one

is up to 7 cm. long, the other one is usually short. Calyx tube dilated at

the apex, 2-5 cm. long, 4-6 mm. broad at the apex, and 1-2 mm. broad in

the middle; teeth erect, linear, 4-5 mm. long. Petals oblong, fimbriate.

Stamens 3, free, filaments very short. Female flowers solitary; peduncles

2-4 mm. long. Fruit oblong, glabrous and smooth. 5-12 cm. long, 2-6 cm.

broad. Seeds subglobose, 6-7 cm. long, 5-6 cm. broad, and 4 mm. thick.

Throughout the plains of North India from thé Punjab to Assam and

Bengal; also from Coromandel. (Mace in herb. Mus. Paris); common in

the area.

It is extensively cultivated for the unripe fruits and young shoots which

are much eaten both by Europeans and Indians in their curries and are

reckoned exceedingly wholesome. The plants are perennials and for cultiva-

tion root cuttings are mainly used. The fruits when ripe are of a deep

orange colour.

25. T.scabra Lour. FI. Cochinch., 589; ed. Willd. 723; Seringe in DC:

Prodr. III, 314; Roemer Syn. Fasc. II, 97. Gagnepain in Lecomte FI.

Indoch. Il, 1047 Cucumis integrifolius Roxb. Fl. Ind. II, Gymnopeta-

lum integrifolium Kurz in Journ. As. Soc. Beng., xli, ii, 58; Clarke in

Hooker f. F.B.I. II, 612; Cogn. and Harms in Englers Pflanzenreich—

Cucurbitaceae—Cucumerineae, 179. T. integrifolia Kurz in Journ. As.

Soc. Beng. xlvi, ii, 99; Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 386; Craib. Fl. Siam.

I, 752+

Stem grooved, scabrid. Leaves subentire, suborbicular or more or less

reniform in outline, apex obtuse, margin denticulate or undulate; upper surface

very rough, provided with punctate glands, lower surface villose-hirsute,

2.5-6 cm. long, 4-9 cm. broad, 3-nerved at base; petiole 1.5 to 5 cm., some-

times up to 7 cm. long, villose-hirsute, rough. Tendrils simple or 2-fid (in

Roxburgh’s drawing). Monoecious; male and female flowers solitary, axillary,

ebracteate ; peduncle of the male flower 3-5 cm. long; calyx tube elongate,

dilated at the apex, hairy, 19-20 cm. long in the open flower, 5 mm. broad at

the apex, teeth lanceolate, 7 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad. Petals obovate,

lobes entire or lacerate. Female flowers—peduncle short; calyx teeth cylin-

drical, not much dilated at the apex, corolla lobes fimbriate. Iruit orange-

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES — 385

red (from Roxburgh), subglobose, small, smooth, 3-3.5 cm. long, 2.5-3 cm. broad.

Seeds many with smooth surface, 7 mm. long, 3-4 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick.

Bengal, Roxburgh, Wall. Cat. no. 6730.

Burma, Wallich; Griffith; Herbarium of the East India Company, no.

(2541; Pegu, Irrawady and Sittang Valley, no. 1875.

S. Kurz (C.H.); Banks of the Sittang, S. Kurz (C.H.).

Distribution—Indo-China, Malay Peninsula.

There has been some difference of opinion regarding the systematic posi-

tion of this plant. It has been discussed in the Historical Account. Craib

(1931) remarks in connection with this species, ‘Dr. Kerr notes in the field

‘ that the corolla lobes are fimbriate. As this has been confirmed for other

collections the plant has been enumerated as Wvichosanthes.’ In the male

flowers on the sheet no. 1875 collected by Kurz from Pegu, Irrawady and

Sittang valley, I do not see any fringe in the petals. But in the female

flowers on Wall. Cat. no. 6730 the petals are distinctly fimbriate. I, there-

fore place the plant under Trichosanthes.

26. 7. integrifolia Thwaites Enum. Pl. Zeyl., 127; Clarke in Hook. f.

Pool, Il, One Use IN (Cewlom, I aA jbo edie

T. Thwaitesii Cogn. in DC. Monog. III, 387.

Stem slender, angular, grooved, glabrous. Leaves oblong or ovate-oblong,

apex acuminate, base round, margin entire, glabrous and smooth but finely

punctate on both surfaces, 3-nerved at the base, 8-13 cm. long, 3-6 cm. broad,

petiole slender, glabrous, about 1 cm. long. Tendrils slender, long, simple.

Male and female flowers both rather large, solitary, axillary; pedicel 2-2.5

cm. long. Fruits red, spherical, shortly apiculate, 5 cm. thick. Seeds

numerous, crowded, blackish green, smooth, oblong, oblique, truncate at the

base, bidentate at the apex, 12-14 mm. long; each enclosed in an envelope

of deep green pulp.

There are no specimens in the Kew Herbarium or in the Calcutta Her-

barium. There is only one young female flower on the specimen of the

Herbarium of the British Museum, so the complete description of the flower

could not be given. C. B. Clarke who has not seen any specimen and has

given the description of the species from Thwaites’s, mentions that the flowers

are somewhat large and solitary. Cogniaux who has given the description

from the specimens of the British Museum and the herbarium of the Paris

Museum, also has not seen flowers. Trimen has only mentioned that the

male and female flowers are rather large and solitary and axillary, but has not

given any description of the floral parts.

Endemic in Ceylon.

Ceylon, 2,000-4,000 ft., no. 1629 Thwaites in the Herbarium of the British

Museum.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This investigation has been mainly carried out in the Herbarium of the

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.. The author wishes to express his sincere

thanks to the late Sir Arthur Hill for permitting him to work in the Herba-

rium and to Mr. A. D. Cotton, Dr. T. A. Sprague and Mr. C. E. C. Fischer

for occasional help.

His thanks are also due to Dr. K. Biswas, Superintendent and Dr. S.

K. Mukherjee, Curator of the Herbarium Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur,.

Calcutta for giving him every facility in working in the Herbarium where

a part of the work has been done.

He is grateful to the Curator of the Buitenzorg’ Herbarium, Java and _ to

the Director, Singapore Botanic Gardens, Straits Settlements for kindly placing

at his disposal all the specimens of Hodgsonia and Trichosanthes of their

respective Herbaria. He also thanks Mr. R. N. De of the Indian Forest

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. XLIII

Service for kindly lending the sheets of the species of Hodgsonia and Tvricho-

santhes from the Forest Herbarium, Shillong.

SUMMARY.

In this paper a general historical account of the Indian species of the

genera Hodgsonia and Trichosanthes has been given. One species of Hodg-

sonia and altogether 26 species of Trichosanthes (excluding varieties) have been

described from the Indian area, and the general distribution of these species

in this country and outside has been given. Two new spécies—T. Prazerit and

LT. burmensis, and three new varieties T. villosula Cogn. var. nirgirrensis,

T. ovigera Bil., var. sikkimensis and T, burmensis Kundu var. alba have been

described. 7. ovigera Bl. originally described by Blume from Java has been

recorded for the first time from the Indian. area.

REFERENCES.

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Anamallay Mountains in Southern India with descriptions of ‘ine new species.

Trans. Linn (SOC. XXV, (Paa2 ly.

2. Bentham, George (18606).—Flora Australiensis, vol. ili, pp. 314-15.

London.

3. Bentham, G. & Hooker, J. D. (1867).—Genera Plantarum, London.

4. Blume, Carl Ludwig (1825). —bidragen tot de flora van Netherlandsh

Indie. Batavia. Vol. ii (ix-xvil), pp. 932-936.

5. Burman, N. L. (1768).—Jllora Indica, pp. 207-8. Lugduni Batavorum.

6. Cayla, M. V. (1908).—Sur une nouvelle espece asiatique du _ genre

Trichosanthes. Bulletin du museum national d’ histoire naturelle, vol. xiv,

p. 170. Paris. °

7. Ciarke, C. B. (1879).—in Hooker f. Flora of British India, ii, part vi,

pp. 606-610; p. 612, London.

8. Cogniaux, A. (1881).—in DeCandolle’s Monographie Phanerogamerum,

ili, pp. 348-349; 351-387. Parisis. -

g. Cogniaux, A. & Harms, H. (1924).—in Engler’s ~Pflanzenretch—Cucur-

bitaceae—Cucumerineae, pp. 179-80. Leipzig.

10. Cooke, Theodore (1903).—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay,

vol. i, pp. 525-27. London.

11. Craib, W. G. ie ere Siamensis Enumeratio, vol. 1, pp. 750-

755. Bangkok.

12. Duthie, J. F. (1903).—Klora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of adja-

cent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan tracts, vol. i, pp. 362-365. Calcutta.

13. Gagnepain, I. (1921).—in Lecomte’s Flore générale de VlIndochine,

vol. ii, fasc. 8, pp. 1034-1048. Paris.

14. Gamble, J. S. (1919).—Fiora of Madyvas, vol. i, part ili, pp. 528-530.

London.

15. Haines, H. H. (1921).—The Botany of Behar and Ontssa. Part ii,

pp. 387-388; p. 1241. London.

16. Hassib, Mohammed (1938).—Cucurbitaceae in Egypt. The Fouad

University, Faculty of Science, Publication No. 3.

17. Hooker, J. D. (1855).-—Ilustration of Himalayan plants, plates 1-3.

18. Hooker, J. D. & Thomson, T. (1853).—On Hodgsonia, Hook. fil. et

Thoms., a new and remarkable genus of Cucurbitaceae. Proc. Linn. Soc.,

li, Pp. 257-259.

19. Index Kewensis.—(1895-1935).

INDIAN SPECIES OF HODGSONIA AND TRICHOSANTHES 38%

- 20. Jacquin, “J. FF. Baron (1844).—EKclogae Plantarum Rariorum, vol. ii,

p. 6, plate 128. Vindobonae.

21. WKangilal, U. N., Kanjilal, P. C., & Das, A. (1938).—Flora of Assam,

vol. li, pp. 326-329. Shillong.

22. Wing, G. (1898).—Materials of the Flora of the Malayan Peninsula,

Calyciflorae. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Part’ II, vol. Ixvii,

PP- 24-31.

23. Kundu, B. C. (1938).—A note on LHodgsonia capniocarpa Ridley.

Journ, Bot., Ixxvi, pp. 364-360.

2 IKKundu, B. C. (1939).—New species and varieties of Trichosanthes trom

India. Journ. Bot., Ixxvii, pp. 9-14.

25. INurz, S. (1870).—Report on the vegetation of the Andaman Islands,

p. ix. Calcutta.

26. Kurz, S. (1871).—On some imperfectly Known Indian plants:

Journ.

Ass Soc. Bengal, vol. xl, Part 2, pp. 57-58.

PI NUGZ eS (157/2))s

Ibi, LHD, OR Sets

28.

New, Barmese plants. Journ, As. Soc. Bengal, vol.

Kurz, S. (1877).—Contributions towards a knowledge of Burmese Flora.

Ibid, vol. xlvi, Part 2, pp. 97-99.

2g. Lamarck, de M, Je Chevalier (1783). —lEncyclopédie méthodique, vol. i.

pp. 189-191.

30. Lamarck, de M. le Chevalier (1796).—Eneyelopédie méthodique, vol. i,

Pp. 210. -

31. Linnaeus, C. (1737).—Genera Plantarwm, Ed. I, no. 735, p. 295. Lug-

duni Batavorum.

32. Linnaeus, C. (1753).—Species Plantarum, Ed. 1, pp. 1008, 1013.

Holmiae.

’

33. Linnaeus, C. (1763).—Species Plantarum, Ed. 2, p. 1432. Holmiae.

34. Loureiro, Joannis de (1790).—Flora Cochinchinensis, pp. 588-589.

Ulyssipone.

35. Loureiro, Joannis de (1793).—Flora Cochinchinensis, Edition by Will-

denow, C. L., pp. 722-723. ~Berolini.

36. Maximowicz, C. J. (1875).—in “Franchet, A. and Savatier, L.—Enume-

ratio Plantarum in Japonia sponte crescentium ete., voli i, p. 172. Parisis.

37. Merrill, E. D. (1918).—New and noteworthy Philippine Plants. Philip.

WS Cla VOle SI11, 9). OA"

38. Merrill, E. D. (1923).—Enumeration of Philippine Plants, vol. 111,

39. Miquel, I. A. G. (1855).—Llora von Nederlandsh Indie, pp. 674-079

Amstelaedami.

yo. Miqucl, I. A. G. (1860).—Supplement, Flora von Netherlandsh Indie,

i, pp. 331-332. Amsterdam.

41. Miquel, KF. A. G. (1865-60).—-Annales Musei Botanict, ii, p. 82. Am-

stelodami.

42. Miquel, F. A. G. (1866-67).—Prolusio Florae Japonicae, p, 14. Am-

stelodami.

43. Pax, F. & Muller, E. (1899).—Cucurbitaceae in Engler and Prantl—

Die Naturlichen Pflanzerifamilien, vol. iv, Part 4. Leipzig.

44. Prain, D. (1903).—Bengal Plants, vol. i, pp. 516-518. Calcutta.

45. Rheede tot Drakenstein, H. van (1687).—Horlus malabaricus, vol. viii;

Pp. 29, 33, plates 15-17.

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIiil

40. Ridley, H. N. (1920).—New and rare plants from the Malaya Penin-

sula. Journ. if. M. S. Museums, x, pp. 135-136.

47- Ridley, H. N. (1922).—I’lora of the Malaya Peninsula, vol. i, pp. 843-45.

48. Roxburgh, W. (1814).—Hortus Bengalensis, p. 70. Serampore.

49. Roxburgh, W. (1832).—Flora Indica, vol. iii, pp. 7o1-707. Serampore.

50. Seringe, N. Charles (1825).—Mémoire sur la famille des Cucurbitacées,

pp. 1-40, plate 5. Geneva.

51. Seringe, N. Charles (1828).—in DeCandolle’s Prodromus Systematts

Naturalis, vol. vili, pp. 313-316. Parisis.

52. Thwaites, G. H. KK. (1859).—Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylantae, pp.

126-127. London.

53: Trimen, Henry (1894).—A Hand Book of the Flora of Ceylon, Part 2,

pp. 243-240.

54. Voigt, J. O. (1845).—Hortus Suburbanus Calcuttensts, pp. 57-58. Cal-

cutta. .

55. Wight, R. (1842).—Remarks on the fruit of the N. O. Cucurbitaceae.

Ann. Mag. Nat. History, vol. viii, p. 270.

56. Wight, R. (1850).—IJllustrations of Indian Botany, vol. ii, pp. 25, 27,

31, 32; plates 104-105. Madras.

57. Wight, R. & Walker-Arnott, G. A. (1834).—Prodromus Florae Penin-

sulae Indae Orientalis, vol. i, pp. 349-350. London.

58. Willdenow, C. L. (1805).—Species Plantarum, Part iv, pp. 598-601.

Berolini.

IEEXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

1.—Trichosanthes pachyrrhachis Kundu. The type material from N.-W.

India.

2.—Tnchosanthes brevibracteata Kundu. The type material from Jhinjhari

jungle, Karnal, Punjab.

3.—Trichosanthes majuscula Kundu. The type from the Khasia Mountains.

4.—Trichosanthes khasiana Kundu. The type from the Khasia Mountains.

I divig ‘90S “LSIE| “LYN AVaWwog “NyNof

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS.

E. H. N. LOWTHER, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

VII.—Hornsi.ts.

(With 8 plates from photographs by the author).

(Continued from page 795 of Vol. XLII, No. 4).

The New Fauna recognises sixteen species of hornbills as occur-

ring within’ Indian limits, including Burma and Ceylon. This is

one more than the number described in Blanford’s Fauna. The

addition is not due to a new species having been discovered but

because the Indo-Burmese pied hornbill of the Old Fauna, Anthra-

coceros albirostris, is now separated into two races, Hydrocissa

malabarica malabarica Gmelin., the large Indian pied hornbill, and

H,. m.. leucogaster’ Blyth, the Burmese pied hornbill. Only

two of the total will be dealt with here in any detail, for the simple

reason that I have no knowledge in the field of more than this

number. ‘The two species referred to are the northern (or common)

grey hornbill, Tockus birostris (Scopoli) and the Malabar pied

hornbill (H. malabarica). Both are widely distributed, the New

Fauna stating that the common grey hornbill is to be met with

‘from the base of the Himalayas throughout the better-wooded parts of the

Indian Peninsula, except on ‘the Malabar and Travancore Coasts; it does not

occur in Sind, the Punjab and the greater part of Rajputana, but has been

found on Mount Abu; it extends to Western Bengal and Bihar, but not to

Eastern Bengal or Assam.’

Actually the grey hornbill has an even wider distribution as I have

seen it near Ambala, and Dewar quotes several instances of the

bird nesting at Lahore and elsewhere in the Punjab. In addition,

Whistler records the species as being absent from the northern

and western Punjab, from which we may, perhaps, be justified in

inferring that the grey hornbill occurs more or less regularly, even

if uncommonly, in the southern and eastern parts of that province.

The Malabar pied hornbill, we are told, is to be found in

‘Ceylon, Travancore, Bombay Presidency, Ratnagiri, Orissa, Bihar, and

Central Provinces ... It also occurs in Chota Nagpore and Western Bengal.’

Chota Nagpore is one of the divisions of Bihar and its mention

in this manner shows once again that the author of the New Fauna

was at times hazy as to geography. As in the case of the grey

hornbill, the Malabar pied hornbill occurs more widely than the

official account would have us believe—it is certainly met with in the

south-eastern corner of the United Provinces where the Allahabad

district borders on Rewa State, and in the southern area of the

Mirzapur district, whence a skin was recently sent me with the

een that the bird is not uncommon in suitable parts of the

sillah.

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The common grey hornbill is about two feet in length, and as

its name implies, mostly grey in colour. The crown is dark grey,

almost brown, with light grey bordering, most noticeable at close

quarters. The wings too are brownish, as is the tail, which is long

and graduated and tipped with white, with a dark brown sub-

terminal band. The under parts:are light grey, becoming almost

white on the abdomen, the thighs, and under the tail. The bill

and casque are blackish. This species differs from the majority

of others of the genus in that it occurs not in deep forest but in

open plains country, in lopes and avenues, and even in well-timbered

compounds and round about villages. Indeed, as I remarked else-

where’, I found a grey hornbill’s nest in a tree in Hume’s old

garden at Etawah, and knew of another in a hole of a nim tree in

the very centre of a considerable busti in the Cawnpore district,

a cavity which | was informed by the residents had been occupied:

by the birds for breeding purposes for several years.

The Malabar pied hornbill is a big bird—quite three feet in

length. The head, neck, back, and wings, are black; so too are

the two central tail feathers. The black is everywhere glossed

with green. The remainder of the plumage is a pure white includ-

ing the tips of the primaries and secondaries. There is a bare

yellowish patch on the chin, and in the female a bare white ring’

round the eye. The bill is a waxy yellow, as is the base of the

casque for one-third of its length. The remainder of the casque,

which has a total length of eight inches, is black. Unlike the

other larger representatives of the Family, this pied hornbill is not

a denizen of deep, moist, ever-green jungles, but of deciduous forest,

in hilly country. In many parts of Chota Nagpur it is by no means

uncommon. There, during the winter onthe when in camp in a

suitable district, one can be almost sure of meeting with at least

one party of Malabar pied hornbills every day. They may be feed-

ing on a banyan or pipal tree, or we may be privileged to see them

fly, one after the other, from one tree to another; and a beautiful

picture the bird presents in its pied plumage as it makes its winged

way with alternate flappings and glidings. The parties consist of

from six to a dozen individuals and are most in evidence during the

early morning and again in the evening.

‘As a family hornbills possess several peculiarities. All have

eyelashes, an unusual feature in a bird’s make-up. Most of them

have the soft feathers absent under the wings, which makes. their

flight noisy. They nearly all have a casque or ‘helmet’. In the

larger species this is huge—I have already said that that of the

Malabar pied hornbill is eight inches in length. ‘What the use is

of the casque is still a matter of conjecture; it is certainly not for

the purpose of cracking nuts, as has been suggested, because there

is nothing in the casque in which a nut could be cracked. Examina-

fion of a hornbill’s head, however, shows that the casque is very

light in weight; that only the outside is horn, the interior parts

consisting of numerous fine bone-like sections with an even larger

Humber of open cells in between. One obtains the impression that

“~

' Journal, vol. XL, 409.

2 «I

PLATI

MALABAR PIED HORNBILL (female)

Hydrocissa malaharica malabarica.

isi SOC:

NAT

JOURN, BOMB

Il] dLV1d

AAL/AY Sift UGINDTOSRa4

wieesy Litainaquri Gaia

avyavivyv

‘90S “LSI “LYN AVaNOg

“NUNOf

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN -BIRDS 391

the casque is a shock-absorber, though what shock it can take off

the ‘brain is not so clear. Hornbills do not chisel out holes in trees

for nesting purposes; therefore there is no shock from = such: an

Operation for the casque to take up. Whether hornbills habitually

prise open the hard stones of the fruit they cat, and if they do,

whether this is done by holding the stone at the tip of the inandibles

and cracking it, or by employing the heavy beak as a_ pickaxe,

to break it, I am not competent to say. If the latter, then the

necessity for a shock-absorber at once becomes apparent. My own

observations, made from a female grey -hornbill’s faeces under a

nest cavity, go to show that the stone of the jamun fruit is regularly

thrown out unopened. These stones did not appear to have. been

voided. I never saw an opened stone. Hornbills, however, are

most particular about cleaning their bills after they have fed the

female inside the nest-hole. This they do by banging and scraping

the bill against the side of a branch, repeatedly, and in what appears

an unnecessarily rough manner. This banging might, in my view,

cause injury to the brain but for the presence of the casque.. But

it is with regard to their nesting arrangements that hornbills differ

from all other birds, thereby proving beyond all doubt that they

are ‘queer customers’. Speaking in general terms, the female

hornbill, when the time comes for her to nest, enters: a natural

cavity in the trunk or a large branch of some tree, and_ there,

without any further attempt at nest construction, proceeds to lay

her egg or eggs. Her first egg laid, or even earlier, she sets about

enclosing herself in the chamber by applying her droppings to the

sides of the entrance hole until only a narrow vertical slit is left,

through which the male feeds his wife regularly and devotedly

until sometime after the young have hatched, “whereafter she breaks

down the side walls, these in the meanwhile having become so

very hard that,no natural enemy such as a monkey or cat can have

access to her inside. During her self-imposed incarceration the

female hornbill undergoes a moult of at least her wing and - tail

feathers, and is said to be in plump and excellent condition when

she lets herself out, while the great effort of feeding first his mate

and then his offspring over a period of weeks, reduces the male

hornbill to a skeleton, to a shadow of his former self. After she

has re-gained her liberty the female joins with her husband in

feeding the young. |

Here we might with advantage examine more critically the

general statements made in the preceding paragraph. First, when

does the female enter the nest-hole, and once she has commenced

to lay, does she leave the nest before the eggs have hatched ?

. As with so many other questions which at once oécur, there

is not a great deal of evidence forthcoming, to settle the issue.

Stuart Baker, writing of the Indian great hornbill, states that, as

a rule, once the first egg is laid, the female does not make her

exit until the young are well advanced. But, he adds, sometimes

she continues to come out until the full clutch is laid. (The full

clutch is one or two, and very rarely as many as three, but great

irregularity occurs in laying). Dewar observes that the female

common grey hornbill enters the nest before the eggs are laid and

then leaves one to infer that she does not vacate it until after the

392. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

young have made their appearance. Horne (one of Hume’s cor-

respondents), writing of the same species, says of a female which

he kept under observation that after she entered the nest-cavity on

2gth April she did not leave it till 7th May, when he opened out the

hole to take the eggs. My observations, made at three different

nests of T. birostris, show that once the female enters the nest she

does not leave it until after the eggs have hatched.

Weighing the evidence it may be that there is some variation

regarding the matter among the different species.

Next, we ask ourselves, is it the female that encloses herself?

or is this the work of the male? Or are both sexes responsible

for the locking in of the female?

The Old Fauna states that the female, usually with the aid of

the male, encloses herself, but adds that in some cases, e.g. T.

birostris, the process of enclosure is performed by the female.

Horne tells us he ‘observed the female (common grey _ hornbill)

working hard at enclosing the orifice with her own ordure’. Stuart

Baker, describing the nesting habits of the Indian great hornbill,

observes that the work of filling up the entrance is performed by

the female, assisted sometimes, but not always by the male bird;

and of the Assam brown-backed hornbill the same authority states

that the work of plastering up the entrance hole is carried out

principally by the female though at odd times the male adds a little

to the plaster. Writing of hornbills generally, Whistler remarks

that the female is believed to build up the plastering herself. Else-

where, describing the nidification of the common grey hornbill,

he states that the female spends the first two or three days in the

nest-eavity in plastering up the entrance to the hole. Salim Ali

tells us that the female grey hornbill imprisons herself. He adds

that it is doubtful if the male assists her at all in this work. Writ-

ing of the same species, Dewar remarks that both the male and

female work at enclosing the latter. I can only speak from per-

sonal knowledge of the common grey hornbill. In all three in-

stances that came under my observation it was the female, and the

female alone, who enclosed herself in the nest-cavity.

Here again, opinions or statements differ, but in the case of

the common grey hornbill the bulk of the evidence indicates that

the female alone is responsible for incarcerating: herself.

What is the material employed for building in the female

hornbill ?

The Old Fauna, speaking generally of hornbills, says that the

material employed is earth mixed with the bird’s own droppings, but

that in some cases, as with the common grey hornbill, the droppings

alone are used. Horne watched a female of the same species enclose

herself with her own ordure. Stuart Baker, referring to the nidifi-

cation of the Indian great hornbill, observes that the dropping's of

the female are used, the seeds of fruit, and rotten wood, etc., which

adhere to the droppings, being mixed with these. He adds that the

male sometimes bring’s fresh clay-mud and his own droppings, though

he considered this exceptional. Bingham, writing. of D. bicornis,

said that the material used for plastering up the nest-entrance was

earth, leaf mould, and the bird’s own droppings. Prater, discus-

sing in litt. the wall from a nest of the same species sent to the

JOURN. BomBaAy Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

Common Grey Hornbill (male) feeding his wife. ‘holding on to the bark

by his claws’ vide C. Horne in Hume’s ‘‘Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds”

PVATE IVs

Gey IpbGue, Sore.

BOMBAY

JOUR?

it the nest hole.

ye) ¢

‘ound the ey

ite ring tf

ile, wh

ed Hornbill (fem

ilabar Pi

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 393

Society, states ‘it appeared to be made from chippings of bark,

dung and some resinous matter.’ Whistler, speaking in general

terms, states that the material used is apparently the female’s

excrement, but in writing of the common grey hornbill says it is the

female’s own ordure, which is what Salim Ali also states is the

case, though he qualifies this by saying that it is uncertain whether

any material besides the female’s excreta is used, and if this is

so, how it is conveyed to the site. Dewar, describing the nest-

construction of JT’. birostris, remarks that horse droppings, grass

and the droppings of the birds themselves are used. Finally, there

is the chemical analysis undertaken many decades since at Hume’s

instigation, of the plastering’ removed from the entrance to a nest-

cavity of the rufous-necked hornbill. This showed that it con-

sisted of nothing but the bird’s own ordure, there being no evidence

of the presence of clay or mineral matter of any kind.

From a distance of only ten feet I have watched from a machan

a female common grey hornbill applying. material to the entrance

walls of her nest. At the time I was convinced that this was the

bird’s droppings. Now, however, I am not so certain. In every

instance the material employed was brought from the floor of the

nest and in appearance was similar to the excreta thrown out

below the nest. The beak was used as a trowel when applying

the stuff to the entrance walls, much laying of the plaster taking

place before the bird was satisfied with her handiwork. This done

she spent some time cleaning her beak thoroughly, judging by the

manner in which she banged and scraped it against the interior of

the chamber. I now understand it is not possible to distinguish

in the plastering between a hornbill’s ‘cast’ and the bird’s dung

unless a proper chemical examination is made. This being the case,

the possibility cannot at present be ruled out that what I took to

be droppings were in fact ‘casts’. Some plastering which I

recently removed from the entrance to the nest of a T. birostris and

which I have forwarded to the Society for chemical analysis should

help to elucidate this point’. In the event of this showing that the

plaster was formed from ‘casts’ further research will not improbably

indicate that the binding agent is the female’s saliva. Here it

will not be out of place to mention that only twice during many

days vigil at a hornbill’s nest have I known the female place her

vent against the nest-entrance in order to defecate outside direct.

At all other times the dung was brought from the floor of the nest,

held at the tip of the bill, and then thrown out.

In what form is food supplied by the male hornbill to his im-

prisoned wife? Writing of the small pied hornbill, Bingham, who

watched the process, states that the male fed the female by ‘putting

single berries one after another into the tip of her bill which was

shoved out of the slit; after receipt of each berry she withdrew her

beak, apparently to swallow the food’. It will be observed that

mention is not made of where the food lodged with the male prior

to his parting with it—did he arrive with a number of berries held

in his bill, visible to the naked eye? or were they stowed away in

* See page 4or,

394- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

the crop, to be brought up one at a time? Horne, who watched

a common grey hornbill feed his mate in the nest, observed much

the same thing and is equally helpful in the matter of the stowing

of the food prior to it being given to the female. R. Thompson

(another of Hume’s correspondents), who saw numbers of nests

of D. bicornis, tells us that he often saw the male come with his

throat full of berries to feed the female. Whistler, describing the

nesting habits of T. birostris, observes that the male brings the

food held in his beak. Salim Ali, unexpectedly, begs the question

by being content to remark that the male common grey hornbill

takes hic mate ‘banyan and pipal figs varied occasionally by a

lizard or some other tit-bit’. Humayun Abdulali, who watched a

Malabar grey hornbill feeding the imprisoned female, tells us this

was done by regurgitating berries, a slow and apparently somewhat

difficult process. On another occasion the same bird brought a

dragon fly. This was held in the beak but owing to the bird taking

fright was not made over to the female. On the male being shot

about twenty-five berries of Ixora sp. were found in the gullet, ten

more having spilled out as the bird fell. In the stomach were the

remains and seeds of forty more berries. Humayun Abdulali goes

on to say that ‘there was no trace of any covering to form packets

of seeds, as has been suggested by other observers’, and quotes

Br. Navarro as stating that the male when taking food ‘taps at

the entrance and awaits patiently the female’s consent to be fed.

Considerable waits are involved, but the tapping continues’. — -

I have spent many hours at a number of nests watching the

common grey hornbill feed his mate. In not one single instance

was food, intended for the female, visible in the beak; not even

when this took the form of a bloodsucker lizard (girgit) or a dove’s

egg. Always the food was brought up from the gullet, one fig

or berry at a time, which, held at the tip of the bill, was made

over to the female whose bill-point protruded through the narrow

vertical slit to receive the food. As she received the fig or berry

(or other tit-bit) she invariably gave a squeal of delight and with-

drew her beak into the nest-hole. Having delivered one berry,

the male threw his head back and then forward, the beak open

the while, this action (except in rare instances) producing another

berry which was caught and held at the tip of the bill and delivered

in the same way as before to his wife, who never, in my experience,

delayed in at once taking whatever was passed over to her. I have

seen as many as twenty-four pipal figs and a crumpled up green

leaf made over in this manner to the female at one ‘sitting’. Another

IT’. birostris gave his wife twenty-two nim berries during one visit

to the nest. The diet is sometimes varied with meat and I remem-

ber this same bird (I photographed him at the nest during four

successive years) bringing up from his crop a young nestling, very

pot-bellied, which was received with loud acclamation by his Other

Half. Another day he twice gave her a bloodsucker lizard, and

during a locust plague presented her with seven locusts, all brought

up, one after the other, from the gullet. Many of their feet, and

in some cases the wings, were missing. This: male grey hornbill

was a bird of parts and once, after an absence of nez arly three hours

PLATE VI

JourN. Bombay Nar. Hist. Soc.

is coming up.

The next berry

The ‘Olive Branch’.

ife

S W

Manner,

ore usually the male fed h

ll.

f the b

The berry reaches the tip o

HORNBILL

GREY

THE COMMON

PLATE VII

Hist. Soc.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT

YY, VY

rd, the beak open the

) producing another berry.

in rare instances

The male throws his head back, then forw

while, this action (except

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 39)

from the nest, what time the female frequently gave tongue, sud-

denly produced a small twig from his maw—the olive branch, as a

friend has suggested it was. He had nothing else to give his wife

this visit, but even this was gladly accepted. Yet another common

erey hornbill that I watched very recently at the nest (10-5-1942)

first brought up from his internal economy a feather, which the

female apparently had some difficulty in taking over as he had to

present it five times before it was finally disposed of ; then he threw

his head back, and again forward. This he repeated three times

before he was able to regurgitate anything. It turned out to be a

slim green pod, about Three inches one and looked like some

species of bean. Two more such beans were given on the occasion

of this visit. In each instance the bird experienced difficulty in

‘delivering the goods’. When making over the last of these to his

spouse, her beak and the bean did not make proper contact, with

the result that the bean fell down, The male, however, recovered

it before it reached the ground only fifteen feet below—a remarka-

bly agile performance on his part. On another occasion this grey

hornbill gave his wife two large figs and, finally, what I took to be

‘a tamarind pod. Again he had diflic ulty in bringing these up. At

this nest too the female tendered her thanks by uttering a short,

happy squeal each time she received something from her husband.

— During a fourteen-hour watch which IT and my shikari kept over

a common grey hornbill’s nest one day the male fed his wife on

twelve occasions. There were then small young in the nest. Be-

tween 5 a.m. and 9 a.m. he fed her approximately every hour.

Thereafter, till mid-day, he visited the nest but twice. Followed

an absence for two hours; then he fed the female at, 3-15, 4-25,

5-15 and 6-5 p.m. &

At this point it may be of advantage to return to the subject of

‘casts’ and ‘seeds in packets’. A cast, as the term is generally

understood, is a ball or pellet of bones, fruit-stones and other such

matter which a bird has failed to defecate, and which it has voided

via the beak. I can find no reference to Indian hornbill casts in

the literature at my disposal. I have also never come across a

hornbill’s cast in a nest, nor seen one on the ground amongst the

birds’ droppings, in spite of constant search; nor has anybody whom

I have consulted in the matter. Why then, it may well be asked,

am I so insistent on discussing the matter Of hornbill casts? The

answer is because I have stated I am not now certain that the

material employed in walling up the entrance to a common grey

hornbill’s nest, or for that matter the nest of any others of the

Family, may not, on chemical analysis, in part at least, prove to

be composed of material cast by the bird or birds. This possibility

I have put forward on the evidence recorded by Moreau on the

breeding habits of African hornbills. He reports that in the case

of a pair of trumpeter hornbills which attempted to breed in the

Zoological Gardens in London the wall-plaster was fabricated from

materials consisting of pellets regurgitated by the male ‘although

each consignment was “‘topped off’* with a lump of moist clay carried

in his bill’. He further reports that the masonry at the nest of

another species of hornbill—a perfectly wild pair in this instance—

396° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

was elaborated. from insect remains, probably ‘cast’, and the decay-

ing wood on the inside of the hole.

It may be objected that the first report relates to unnatural con-

ditions of nesting and that the second is only problematical : never-

theless, unless chemical analysis proves it to the contrary, we cannot,

in our present state of knowledge, eliminate the possibility of the

plastering being made from materials ‘cast’ by hornbills, assuming

that in the natural state they throw up such casts; which brings

us to the subject of ‘packets of seeds’.

The first reference to the matter which I can find is by Professor

A. Newton. He records that ‘hornbills at intervals of time, whether

periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the epithelial layer

of their gizzard. The epithelium is ejected in the form of a sack

or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded, and is filled with the

fruit that the bird has been eating’. He added that what Science

then (1896) wanted most to know was whether these castings were

really intended to form the hen bird’s food during her confinement.

This observation, judging by the name with which it is coupled,

appears to refer to hornbills in captivity and therefore not leading

their natural lives. Next, Whistler remarks that ‘this habit (feed-

ine the female through the narrow entrance hole) is perhaps respon-

sible for the curious fact, observed in captivity with reference to

some species of hornbill, and perhaps connected with all, that at

intervals the epithelial layer of the gizzard is cast in the form of a

closed sack containing the seeds of fruit on which the bird has

been feeding’. Finally, Pycraft informs us ‘during her period of

solitary confinement she is assiduously fed by the mate, her daily

rations being passed to her in the form of a bolus, the investing

Coat» being furnished by the inner lining of the gizzard of the male:

at least that is the commonly accepted explanation of the structure

of the capsule though it is probable that it may prove to be formed

by a special glandular secretion. According to other accounts each

meal is divided into from two to four pellets containing fruit seeds,

insects, and portions of reptiles which the devoted cock transfers

into the gazing mouth of his fair prisoner by a series of jerks’.

I cannot help feeling that Pycraft’s account also refers to horn-

bills in captivity. In any case, nowhere can I find that a hornbill

in the wild state, in Indian regions at all events, has been observed

to feed his mate with ‘packets of seeds’. It may be argued that

the common grey hornbill referred to earlier, which I observed make

over three slim, green pods like beans, and what I took to be a

tamarind pod, in fact presented his mate with ‘packets of seeds’

or the food done up in epithelial gland-sacks. Such was definitely

not the case even though I failed (only because I am no botanist)

to identify definitely what the food was.

A matter which can with advantage be introduced here but con-

cerning which there does not appear to be a great deal on record

is the age of young hornbills when the female parent leaves the

nest. The Old Fauna says of the Indian great hornbill that the

female remains in the nest till the young are fledged; the New

Fauna puts it slightly differen tly— until the young are almost ready

to fly’. Nidification gives yet another version and states the female

sometimes leayes the nest when the young’ are but a few days old

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 397

but more often she stays with them until they are almost ready to

fly. Of the Assam brown-backed hornbill Stuart Baker tells us

that the female generally remains in the nest until the young are

almost ready to fly, but adds that this is not always the case. Con-

cerning the common grey hornbill the Old Fauna states that the

female does not leave. the nest until the young are about a week

old, a statement which Whistler repeats; Salim Ali remarks ‘until

they are at least a week old’. Dewar reports that a nest of this

species which he opened out had the female and three young inside;

the eldest young one appeared to be some fourteen days old.

M. Mushtaq Husain saw a female T. birostris emerge from a nest

in which there were three young ‘able to fly’. Another nest of the

same species which he found, “contained young. One young one

was quite fourteen days younger than the others, whose ages,

however, he does not appear to have estimated. Here the female

had already left the nest. In the case of a common grey hornbill’s

nest which I was watching the female broke open the plastering

and left the nest on 6th July ; the young exactly a week later.

Another T. birostris female whose nest I was interested in over

a period of weeks was brooding three young of different ages,

varying (judging by the volume of their calls) from a day or two

old to ‘possibly seven or eight days of age. This was on 11th May.

The female did not leave the nest-hole till 4th June.

There is now yet another species of hornbill concerning which

we have information bearing on the same subject. In 1935 I had

the good fortune to watch from my hiding tent a female Malabar

pied hornbill make good her escape from the nest; in this were two

young ones. These I examined and judged to be from ten to

fourteen days old.

An analysis of these first-hand observations makes it clear that

it would be more correct to state that the female common grey

hornbill does not make her way out until the young are about a

fortnight old and not infrequently until just before they are ready to

leave the nest.

We have seen that the female hornbill is in the main responsible

for enclosing herself inside the nest-chamber though the male bird

has also been known to assist in the operation. Which of the two

is responsible for breaking down the plastering so that the female

can leave the nest? And how is the end achieved? Again, there

is little on record bearing on the subject and that concerning: the

Indian great hornbill only. Stuart Baker, describing the nesting

habits of D. bicornis, states that the plaster when dry is so hard

that it requires a strong knife or small hatchet to cut it away;

therefore (he continues) it must be really hard work for the birds

to remove it sufficiently to permit the female and young to leave

the nest. It is not clear from this whether only one—and if so,

which of the two—or both parents, takes an active part in releasing

the female, or whether we are to understand that both the male

and female knock the walling down to let out the young. D. S.

Kaikini reports that the mother bird breaks the wall of the nest.

I have twice been in my hide when a female hornbill has made

good her escape from the nest; the first time it was a common

grey hornbill and the second a Malabar pied hornbill. In each

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

case it was the female who let herself out—she received no assistance

in the matter from the male. The modus operandi employed in

both instances was exactly the same—hard and constant hammering

with the beak, for the space of roughly two hours, at the ‘cement’

bastions before they gave way. The noise made by the Malabar

pied hornbill when S60 occupied was of such volume that before I

realised who the author was I was under the impression it was

produced by some wood-cutter felling a fair-sized tree higher up

the hill. Here then, perhaps, we have the reason for the hornbill’s

casque—a real and very necessary shock-absorber. This, however,

cannot account for the male possessing such an appendage, unless

further observations show that he sometimes (or even frequently)

helps the female to knock down the stout defences.

What is the condition of the female when she comes out of the

nest-chamber for the first time? One naturally expects to see a

bedraggled-looking bird, thin, and very stiff from her lone con-

finement. This is partly the case. On the two occasions when I

have been present to witness the female’s departure I was impressed

-by certain facts: the very deliberate movements of the bird at the

nest-entrance, accompanied by much calling—chee-ee-chee-ee-chee-ee

in the case of the common grey hornbill, and yapping like a dog

in the case of the Malabar pied hornbill; the stiff and laboured

hop to an opposite branch close at hand ; the subsequent wing

flapping and tail shaking indulged in before the initial flight; the

presence of the male bird in the same tree; her neai appearance,

and finally the female’s remarkably plump condition. On both

occasions the male (who did not demonstrate) flew away with his

wife and it was literally hours before either returned to the nest,

the female in each instance being the first to do so. The contrast

in condition between these two females and a female grey hornbill

caught in the nest-chamber by one of my men, when two of her

eges had hatched very recently and one egg was chipping, was

most marked: she was then still moulting, and very thin. It would

seem, therefore, that it is not due so much to the enforced incarcera-

tion as to the shedding of her wing and tail feathers that must be

attributed the female’s run-down state of health; apparently also

she picks up very quickly as soon as the moult is completed.

After the female has made good her escape from the nest, is the

entrance re-walled, and if so, by whom? It is well known that the

entrance is sometimes blocked up again after the female has left

the nest; nevertheless very few appear to have commented on the

jact, Prater remarking that after she leaves the nest the female

). bicornis rebuilds the wall. D. S. Kaikini makes a similar state-

ment. Whether or not these statements are based on_ personal

observations is not clear. Salim Ali, writing of the common grey

hornbill, and apparently not in a position to report the facts from

first-hand knowledge, is content to remark that ‘the wall is built

up again’.

In my experience, the walls are at times rebuilt but this is by

no means the general rule. IT have now watched five nests of the

common grey hornbill and one of the Malabar pied hornbill during

several weeks, both prior and subsequent to the female leaving the

nest, one of them for four consecutive years and another during

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 7 399 .

two alternate seasons. Only on two occasions was the entrance

re-walled, both times at the one nest. 1 was not present to sce

who was responsible for the building, which in neither instance

was the finished work of art created by the female when confining

herself; on the other hand the work could not be described as

kutcha. The entrance was wider and more irregularly shaped than

the original one, sufficiently small, however, to prevent my hard

going in. The material employed in the construction appeared to be

identical with that used when enclosing the female.

Until recently I have always imagined that to one, or both

parents, is due the credit for walling in the young, they considering

that the young require the same protection until they are able to

ly as was lately given the female. Now, however, it seems pro-

bable that neither parent 1s responsible for the work and that it is

undertaken by the young themselves: this is what reliable observa-.

tions in Africa have recently disclosed. Should this prove to. be

the case with Indian hornbills also, surely there can be no parallel

in precocity to that shown by the infant hornbill as not only has

it learnt at a very early age (not more than three or four weeks old

perhaps), without previous experience or teaching, how to fashion

the material and build the enclosing ramparts, but it apparently

knows even better than the mother bird whether or no it 1s neces-

sary to protect itself in the nest from possible enemies.

It will be interesting to learn whether one or both parents, or

the young, are responsible for breaking down the walling when the

latter are ready to leave the nest. Unfortunately the only occasion

when I have been present to see young hornbills leave the nursery

the entrance had not been re-walled. I think it will be found that

the parents undertake the job as the ‘cement’ work is probably

too hard for the young hornbill beak to tackle.

We have scen that the mother hornbill when in the nest is most

careful with regard to its sanitation, that she either throws the

droppings out or defecates outside the nest. The young, from what

I have seen, are equally punctilious in this important matter, in-

variably defecating through the entrance slit, and with considerable

force. The nest, on being vacated, is, from what I have noted,

left in a sanitary state—no flies, no ants, no smell; in fact on one

occasion I saw a pair of common mynahs take possession of a

common grey hornbills’ nest-hole the very day the latter’s young

vacated it. No spring-cleaning or tidying was necessary before

it could be occupied. Certainly numerous feathers have invariably

remained: which brings us to a matter of the greatest importance

in the life-cycle of the female hornbill—the moulting of the wang

and tail feathers.

As long ago as in Hume’s time it was observed by F. Bourdillon,

to whom was brought a female D. bicornis caught in the nest-

chamber, that she probably could not have flown more than ten

vards until the young feathers, which were just appearing, had

matured. This record is an isolated one and it was apparently

thought for many years that the moult in this instance was purely

fortuitous. General Osborne, however, about thirty-five years ago,

appears to have suspected that the female hornbill ‘regularly aaeees

goes a moult. while confined in the nest, this, in his view, being

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

restricted to the shedding of her quill wing and tail feathers. This

matter has since been confirmed by other observers but nobody

seems to have noted whether the female undergoes a general moult

of the body feathers as well, or how the moult takes place; also

whether all the wing feathers are shed simultaneously, or only some

at a time, and if it is the wing or tail feathers which are lost first.

Humayun Abdulali, however, recently wrote a most interesting and

helpful note on the subject. He says of a female Malabar grey

hornbill taken off three naked young (two much larger than the

third) that “she had completed moulting her wings but the new

quills were too short for use. The tail was also moulting, the new

vectrices being only two inches long while four of the old feathers

remained. There was no body moult’.

I have only once seen a hornbill before it left the nest. This

was a common grey hornbill., Her nest was opened out when it —

contained two young recently hatched, and an egg chipping. Her

new wing quills were about 65% matured. The tail feathers were

approximately three inches long. All the tail feathers had been

shed, and apparently together. This appeared also to have been

the case with the wing feathers. 1 felt that the remiges had been

dropped before the rectrices. There was no body moult. The bird

was quite unable to fly. Other hornbill nests which I have examined

after the female and young have left them, invariably had wing

and tail feathers and a few body feathers inside. These last had

quite likely come out in the course of preening operations.

One other matter remains to be noticed—the condition of the

male when his wife leaves the nest. I have already remarked that

considerable irregularity occurs among the Bucerotidae with regard

to the laying of the eggs. In the majority of cases a week to ten

days probably elapses between the female first going into the nest-

chamber and the complete clutch being laid. Incubation with the

smaller species not improbably takes about twenty-one days, and

assuming that the young are a fortnight old when the female makes

good her escape—we have seen that she sometimes leaves when

they are appreciably older—we find that the female common grey

hornbill is very likely in the nest for at least forty-five days. With

the larger genera the period must be longer still. During the whole

of this time the female is fed by the male who, for part of the

time, has also to fend, unaided, for his children. The prolonged

strain of this devotion to family cares must tell, and by the. time

the female emerges, he is, as my staff say, greatly reduced. Up

to a late stage he retains a smart, jaunty appearance, but subse-

quently, it is my experience, he goes off rapidly. He must be

indeed glad when the female joins him though I have not seen him

show his feelings, unless he does this by calling repeatedly. There-

alter, there is no doubt, he eases off and his wife takes on the

major role of feeding the young.

oe * ok “Ke se

It will be seen that three problems await solution by .the field

naturalist :—

(1) The manner and the order of the female hornbill’s moult.

(2) Who is responsible for walling in the young hornbills after

JourRN. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII

Common Grey Hornbill enticing the young to leave the nest with offerings of food.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 401

the female has made good her escape—is this the work of one or

both parents, or of the young themselves ?

(3) Who breaks down the ‘cement’ walls to let the young out—

the parents or the young?

The first presents some difficulty as it means the periodical

removal of the masonry walls. (It will probably be found that the

female encloses herself again each time the walls are removed).

The operation can best be performed by slicing along the edge of

the nest-entrance with a small knife. If the female hornbill is

handled gently and released again inside the nest-cavity it is my

belief that the birds will not desert. Great care will, however, have

to be exercised lest the hen bird struggle and cause damage to the

eggs. The second and third problems require patient and careful

watching and now that attention has been focussed on the matter

it is to be hoped that some ornithologist will soon fill in the gaps

in our present knowledge.

ANALYSIS OF NEST ‘WALL’ OF COMMON GREY HORNBILL.

Lieut.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, 1.M.s., Director, Haffkine Institute, Bombay, who

very kindly made the analysis, writes :—

‘The pieces sent consist of somewhat hard, greyish earthy material having

a faint odour resembling that of dry cow-dung cakes. The material is brittle

and arranged in layers. Pieces of wood, hay, scales of wasps and seeds of

fruit, as are usually seen in bird droppings, are incorporated in layers of the

brittle earthy material.

Microscopically. A variety of cells possessing organic and inorganic structure

are seen. Some cells resemble the ova of worms like the taenia and ascaris

which infest the human and animal alimentary tract, suggesting presence of

excreta of animal origin. Fibres of vegetable origin are present.

Incineration. On incineration odour, resembling that of burning cow-dung

cakes is omitted. When reduced to carbon-free state the ash amounts to 57.57%

of which 88.4% is acid insoluble and 11.6% acid soluble.

The acid soluble fraction contains mostly iron. The acid insoluble portion

consists probably of clay.

Conclusion. Macroscopic and microscopic examination and the smell of

cow-dung during incernation show that animal excreta is present. The high

percentage of ash, most of which is acid insoluble on the other hand shows

that ordinary earth or clay is present in considerable amounts. The nest wall

therefore is probably made of earth and animal excreta mixed together and

in which organic matter, like pieces of wood and hay, etc., is incorporated.’—Ebs.

THE HIGHLAND MACAQUE OF CEYLON.

W. ©. OsMAN HILL, M.D.

(IVith one texl-figure)

For some years I have felt reasonably certain that the Toque

monkey (Macaca sinica) of the higher altitudes of Ceylon was

sufficiently distinct to warrant description as a separate subspecies

(vide Hill, 1939, p. 144). This statement was based chiefly on

personal observations on living specimens from known sources in

the higher hills, including some that were living in the writer’s

private collection from such localities as the Dolosbage Range. The

museum material available for the necessary closer observations

was, however, insufficient and such as it was appeared to show

no great constancy .of characters, many of the specimens from

neighbouring localities being often intermediate benver) the already

ene n races of the Toaue (M. s. sinica and M. s. aurifrons).

Recently, through the kind co-operation of the Forest Depart-

ment of Ceylon, I have had material collected from the uppermost

of the three geological terraces of which the land structure of the

island is composed, and this proves that the real highland race is

the monkey of this terrace and that those from lower or intermediate

altitudes are merely annectant forms between the highland form and

the lowland races.

I chose an adult male in good coat, collected on the Horton

Plains in December 1941, as the type of the new subspecies, which

is herewith described.

Macaca (Zati) sinica opisthomelas, subsp. nov.

Size large, but not greatly larger than the lowland forms. limbs and_ tail

relatively short and stout compared to the body length (details below); pelage

long and dense ; pileum especially: exaggerated ; general colour of upper parts

dusky or greyish olive with bases of hairs almost black; hinder parts and _ tail

with hairs dark grey, almost black, throughout ; no rufescence on thighs ;

under parts scantily clothed with white hairs; cutaneous pigment greatly exag-

gerated, that in the corium of the ventral skin resulting in a much deeper

blue than in lowland forms; the epidermic pigment elsewhere (lip margins,

eyelid margins, auricles and palms and soles) also being more concentrated.

THE HIGHLAND

MACAQUE OF CEYLON

Some of the above characters need amplification :-—

I. Body proportions.

403

The following are the flesh measurements of. the type me ule and paratype

female of M,. s. opisthome

las.

TABLE I

Flesh measurements of JZacaca sinica opisthomelas

Body weight 300

Crown-rump length

Taillength .

Head length (occiput te

most prominent point

of muzzle) Ay

Max. height of ear sue

Tip of tragus to Darwin’s

tubercle sets

Acromion to olecranon .

Olecranon to wrist

Wrist to dactylion :

Trochanterion to tibiale.

‘Tibiale to heel a

Length of foot eae

Bimammillary breadth ...

Suprasternale-thelion

‘Thelion-omphalion SO

Omphalion-symphysion...

Biocular breadth 560

Interocular breadth :

Nasal breadth a

Somatic Indices of AZ. s. opisthomelas and Lowland ‘Toques

6122°25 gms. =

M.s. opisthomelas

3 2

13% Ibs. 3401°25 gms, =

456 mim, 426 mm,

498 mm, 448 mim.

130 mm. 107°5 nim,

49 min. 36 mm,

39 mm. 25 mm.

131 mim, 132 min,

134 mm, 133 mim.

77 mm. 84 mim,

143 mm. 117 mm,

151 mm. 140 mm.

129 mm, 120 mm.

45 mm. 43 mim.

65 mn. 53 mm,

165 mm, 125 mm.

147 min, 102 mm.

48 mm, 44 mm.

11 mm. 10 mm,

20°5 mm. 13 mm.

TABLE IL

Lowland JZ. sixica

72 lbs,

Index i ;

‘ Av. of 5 | Av. of 2 | Total av.

Typed | Paratype Q a3 of 7

Tail index eco |} ket) 103 = loz, 118 1225:

' Fore limb-trunk index 58°1 62 59°38 66 enolic?

Hind limb-trunk index 64°5 60°2 64:7 67°5 . 65°5

Intermembral index .. 90 96°75 92:3 98 93°9

Humero-radial index | 102 106°5 99°6 96°85 97°4

Tibio-femoral index... | 105°5 UK) 109 109°75 109°2

Foot index (i.e. ratio

of foot length to hind

limb) 43°6 46°75 40°5 43°25 41:3

SST

The linear measurements in table I do not indicate a particularly large

animal compared with lowland specimens,

but by comparing the ratios of the

limbs and tail with the trunk, as in Table II a series of important conclusions

can be drawn.

Similar

In the first place the tail forms but 110% of the crown-rump

length, which for a Toque monkey is definitely short, indices worked

404 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIi

out from the measurements given by Pocock (1939) for other races of M. sinica

show proportionately a much longer tail, especially: in females. I am_ not

aware what measurement is meant by ‘head and body’ in Pocock’s tables, but

it cannot be far different from the one used here (crown-ruimp) so that. the

indices are fairly comparable. Allowing for this, the tail index in four adult

males of M. s. sinica is 125.5, 123, 122 and 107, and in two adult females

131.5 and 131, indicating a longer tail than in the new form, especially in

females. (The single anomalous individual with an index of 107 is suggestive

of the tail having been incomplete). In M. s. aurifrons the average tail index

of three adult males is 124 and of four females 121.5, which denotes a tail of

similar proportions to that of typical s¢nica.

Similar results accrue from a_ statistical study of the other appendages,

especially the limbs. Thus in the type male of M. s. opisthomelas the fore-

limb, without the hand, forms 58.1 per cent of the crown-rump length, and

the hind-limb, without the foot, 64.5 per cent of the same.

In seven lowland Macaques the fore-limb averaged 61.2 per cent. of the

crown-rump length and the hind-limb 65.5 per cent.

There is some variation in the intermembral proportions, but the hind-limb

is almost invariably longer than the fore-limb (in one female lowland animal only

was it less) but in the type of M. s. opisthomelas the fore-limb, without. the

hand, is only go per cent of the length of the hind-limb, whilst in the series

of lowland Macaques examined it forms 93.9 per cent. The difference seems

to be due chiefly to variations in the length of the fore-limb. The tibiofemoral

index, which is remarkably constant in the lowland series (109.2) is much less

in the highland animal (105.5). There is no significant difference in the pro-

portion of the foot length to that of the rest of the hind-limb.

The differences are not confined to the length ratios, but also affect the

girths of the appendages. All are proportionately thicker in M. s. opisthomelas

than in the other races. The body weight indicates a larger animal than

lowland forms, Pocock records 12 Ibs. as the largest male of M. s, sinica,

most of them being smaller; his records of M. s. aurifrons are smaller still.

Ii. Pelage.

i. Length of hairs.

The following measurements indicate the great length of the hairs on the

regions stated.

Type § Paratype 2

Atiteriot qtiadrant of piletm ... Bi Se 75 mm. 69 mm.

Posterior quadrant of pileum 53 a's 75 85

Lateral quadrant of pileum ... ane bon 94 96

Mid-dorsal region oi mn a 75 80

Shoulder + es brid te 70 46

Loins eee Jetnee | 500 ees 50 34°5

Flank a Us aA ab 65 49

Dorsum of base of tail ia ae bbc 32 37

Apex of tail se0 ee a SC 27 12

Lateral aspect of upper arm... we one 45-50 24°5

Lateral aspect of thigh ee ae a 30-36 32

Chest Ae os sie sy 40 41

Abdomen 600 nae dod S50 40 46

2. Colour of Coat.

Pileum. The general surface colour due to the superficial hairs radiating from

the centre of the crown is pale straw colour, but the deeper hairs are darker,

dull olive brown at their roots, but paler towards the tip. No contrasting colour

occurs in the fore part of the pileum in the male, but it is yellow in the female.

Dorsal aspect of trunk, etc. : colour is darkest over lower thoracic and upper

lumbar regions, and the corresponding region of the sides. Here the hairs are

for the most part dull grey, darker at their bases, but paling towards their

THE HIGHLAND MACAQUE Ok CEYLON 405

tips, which present a yellowish tinge, giving a dull olive hue to the area in

question. The nape, interscapular, scapular and the hip regions are brighter

in colour from the greater degree of flavism of the hair tips, but there is no

erythristic tendency in any of these areas. The scapular brightness is continued

on to the extensor surface of the arm for a short distance and is not interrupted

across the mid-line. It is however, demarcated from the nuchal transverse band

by a darker collar on the lower neck. The coxal bright area is sharply separated

from its fellow by a very dark area in the mid-line, but laterally it proceeds

down the thigh as far as the knee. The tail is almost black on its dorsum

and for half its length. It is paler at the sides and in the distal half on the ~

dorsum as well, the flavistic tendency increasing to the tip. The more distal

parts of the limbs are clothed with dark grey hairs with pale yellow tips.

Ventral aspect of the trunk, etc.: the under parts are more scantily haired

with long white hairs. These also clothe the flexor aspects of the limbs. The

white areas are sharply demarcated on the flanks and borders of the limbs from

the parts clothed with pigmented hairs. The under surface of the tail has

brownish white hairs, darker at the base. Hairs on the buttocks and perineum

are very darkly coloured.

Face: this is much more densely haired with downy hairs than in lowland

animals. The brows have short bristly hairs, black with straw-coloured tips,

The nasal region and cheeks have a pale downy growth mixed with short black

bristles. The usual whorl occurs on the preauricular region. It is chiefly com-

posed of pale, almost white, soft hairs, but a few black bristles are mixed with

them. There are some long soft white hairs behind the ear.

Fig. 1. Side view of head of A, typical. Toque monkey (Macaca s. sinica)

(after. Pocock) and B. a highland Toque monkey (Macaca s, opisthomelas)

III. Pigmentation of Skin.

The general colour of the skin, both on the well haired and the relatively

scantily haired regions is blue, due to pigment in the deeper or connective tissue

layer. The blue is much deeper than in typical sinica or in M. radiata. The

scrotum and the skin of the penis are devoid of this pigment and_ therefore

appear pale flesh-colour.

Melanin pigment occurs in the epidermis and gives a blackish colour to the

margins of the lips and eyelids and to the whole of the external ear,, including

the tragus and a few millimetres of the preauricular region. The palms ot

the hands are brownish-black with some irregular unpigmented patches,—four

at the roots of the digits and a fifth on the ulnar ‘heel’. The dorsum of the

hand is darkly pigmented to beyond the wrist. The foot is similar to the hand,

brownish-black on the plantar surface and black on the dorsum, the pigment

extending proximally to just beyond the ankle. The nipples are pale flesh-coloured,

but there are no pale areas in the axilla or groin.

TV. Skull.

The skull does not indicate a head any larger than that of other races of

M. sinica according to the figures published by Pocock. The following are the

measurements of the type skulls.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

TABLE III

Measurements of skull of JZ. s. opisthomelas compared with those of

an old male JV. s. sinica.

M. s. opistho- MM. s. optstho- MM. s. sinica

melas $ melas B old g

Cranial capacity ... 568 105 ce: UPOVKEK 66 ce.

’ Total length, prosthion-inion. 112 mm. 93 mim. 108 mm.

Prosthion-basion One 80 mm. 61 mm. 83 mm.

Glabella-inion eit tnGe) aeeee 81 mm. 71 mm. 79 mm.

Basion-post-nasal spine Soo gt REE aaaven), 30 mm. 33° mm.

Max. cranial breadth -— 98°5 mm. 56 mm. 55 mm.

Basion-bregma_ ... a o4 mm. 49 mm. 50 mm.

Bizygomatic oes 560 78°5 min. 70 im. 79°5 mm.

Palatal length =e meee 50 mm. Saeimmae o2 mim.

Bimaxillary breadth eo 5 OD) nial 36 min. 39° mm.

Upper tooth row (excl. can-

ine): ... aes 28 mm. 27 1mm. * 29°5 mm.

Foramen magnum ‘breadth At WES) yanhany, = 13° mm. 14 mm.

Foramen magnum length ... 15°25 mm. 15 mm. 14 mm.

Condylo-symphyseal length ... 77 mim. 63 mm. 84 mm.

Bicondylar breadth das 60° min. 44 mm. 61-5 mm.

Lower tooth row (excl. can-

ine) ... aes eee 33 mm. 2 O2 asain 37 mm.

Oblique depth of eee

menti 24 iim. 19° min. 729 mm.

Transverse diameter of orbit.. 24 mim. 21 min. 23° mm.

Vertical diameter of orbit... 21 mm. 19° mm. 19° mm,

Nasal opening, height Ne 16°5 mm. 13° mm. 17) mm.

Nasal opening, breadth on 12 mm, 11 mim. 13. mm,

The following qualitative characters of the type skull are of some interest.

The infraorbital foramen is double bilaterally; the supra-orbital nerve occupies

a notch on the right and a notch and foramen on the left. The right notch

is guarded laterally by a very large bony spicule, itself pierced by a small

foramen, The malar foramen is large.

V. Habits.

This monkey inhabits the dense forest of the uppermost terrace which

is a dissected plateau, with islands of forest, rising out of Jower country. Its

range is, therefore, necessarily rather discontinuous.

The type male had its cheek pouches and stomach filled with large round

fruits which have been kindly identified for me by the Forest Department’ as

those of the Dambu (Eugenia Gardneri).

JREFERENCES TO LITERATURE.

Hill, W. ©. O., 1939, Ceylon J: of Sc., xxi, p. 144.

Pocock, R. 1, Fauna of British India, Mammals, vol. i, 1939, pp. 34°42.

Hist. Soc.

BoMBAY NAT

IRN,

Jot

A. K. Mondal del.

BARBUS KOLUS (Sykes)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING COLOURATION OF

BARBUS (PUNTIUS) KOLUS SYKES.

M. SUTER, D.Sc.

(With a coloured plate).

Barbus Rolus Sykes is one of the commonest fishes of the Poona

waterways and was originally described from ‘the Moota-Moola

river, 8 miles east of Poona’. Sykes’ observed that its small scales

are ‘silver-grey’ and the back ‘reddish silvery grey’. The fish is

stated to grow to a ‘length of 18 inches, and weight of 14 seer’.

Day’ extended the range of the species to ‘Central Provinces, Deccan,

and throughout the Kistna, Tamboodra, and Godavery rivers’ and

stated that it attains upwards of a foot in length. According to

Day the colours are ‘silvery, with a tinge of yellow: dorsal, caudal

and anal tipped with gray’.

In 1941, at the request of Dr. S. L. Hora of the Zoological Survey

of India, I made some observations on the species of Barbus found

round about Poona and noticed that during the breeding season,

June to August, the males and females of B. kolus could be readily

distinguished by their respective colouration. During this season

the general colour of the male is very silvery, with mother-of-pearl

reflexes. The scales along the middle of the side and the cheeks

are provided with pale pink reflexes. Very bright green reflexes

occur about the head. The colour gets a little darker towards the

back, which is brownish. The upper part of the head is distinctly

brownish.

In the female, the fins are strongly tinted with pink,

which is very prominent in the caudal and anal, especially along the

rays. According to the local fishermen, these sexual differences in

colouration are mainly confined to the breeding season and are less

marked during the rest of the year.

It may be noted that in 1938, Hora and Misra’ pointed out certain

secondary sexual characters, such as the nature of ‘pearl organs’,

the form of the head and body and the structure of the dorsal and

anal fins, by which the sexes in B. Rolus can be distinguished. The

colour differences noted above can be relied upon during the breed-

ing’ season only.

After examining a large number of specimens, I found that indi-

vidual fish show some variation in colouration, mainly about the

head, which seems to become paler with age and size, and shows

more of the bright green reflexes than is the case in smaller fish. + In

1 Sykes, W. H.—Trans.- Zool. Soc. London, II, p. 357 (1841).

* Day, F.—Fish. India, p. 573 (1878).

* Hora. S. L. and Misra, K. S.—Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., XL, p. 28

(1938).

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

older fish the brown colouration of the back seems to become less

and the scales of the upper parts of the body also show some greenish

reflexes in the general mother-of-pearl scheme. The pink reflexes

extend further from the median line and in the lower parts faint

golden reflexes are noticeable.

In very young fish the brown colour of the upper parts of head

and back is often very reddish.

The males of several species of Carp Minnows of the Puntius

type are known to assume brilliant colours during the breeding

season’ but it is remarkable that in B. kolus it is the female that

puts on gaudy colours to attract the males. In this respect, B. Rolus

is more human. It will certainly be of interest to work out the

proportion of sexes in this species with a view to elucidate the unusual

behaviour with regard to the breeding colouration of the two sexes.

My thanks are due to Dr. S. L. Hora for directing my attention

to the literature cited here and for helpful suggestions.

1 Mookerjee, H. K., Mazumdar, S. R. and Das Gupta, B.—Ind. Journ. Vet.

Sci. Animal Husb., XI, p. 250 (1941).

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

PaRT X.

(Continued from Vol. xlitt, No. r (1942), p. 47).

HETEROCERA.

AMATIDAE (SYNTOMIDAE).

Amata (Syntomis) cyssea Stoll.

Ovum almost spherical, unsculptured. Milky white in colour,

turning grey before hatching. Laid in small batches. Laid 9-11-42.

Hatched 15-11-42. |

Newly hatched larva—Head brownish grey. Body pale grey

with sparse single greyish hairs. Very lightly pigmented, after

feeding the colour of the food is seen clearly in the intestines.

2nd instar—Similar.

3rd instar—Similar but more deeply pigmented.

4th instar—Similar but the skin still more ey pigmented and

the hairing denser.

5th instar—Similar to final.

Final instar—Head deep brown. Colour of body blackish purple,

slightly paler between the somites, and with a dark dorsal line.

1st somite with a dark dorsal plate bearing a few short hairs and a

sublateral hairy wart. 2nd and 3rd somites with a large subdorsal

and a small sublateral hair-bearing wart. 4th to 11th somites with

a small posterior dorsal, a larger anterior subdorsal, a lateral and

a sublateral hair-bearing wart. 12th somite with a subdorsal and

lateral hair-bearing wart. The hairs are short and deep purple

erey in colour. Legs purplish. Prolegs pinkish.

Pupa in a slight web. Pale chestnut brown, the abdominal!

somites with rings of slightly darker brown depressed spots. Thorax

marked subdorsally with darker brown. Spiracles slightly raised.

Food-plant—Dahlia and Cosmos, ‘preferring the flowers.

Described from larvae bred from ova laid by a Calcutta caught

female, one of which pupated 12-11i-42, and a male emerged 21-ili-42.

LYMANTRIIDAE.

Dasychira mendosa Hbn.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x\, 404. 1938.

Ovum spherical, the top flattened. Colour pale cream, the micro-

pvlar area and a ring round the top pale butter vellow. Later the

micropylar area becomes depressed. Immediately before hatchine

the cream colour turns bluish grey and the butter yellow a dingy

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

green. Laid in large regular batches. Laid 5-xii-qg1. Hatched

I 3-X11-4I. |

Newly hatched larva—Head black. Body greyish white with

four transverse maculate black bands on the central and three on

the posterior portion of the body. Clothed with long sparse dark

hair. Venter grey, a yellow spot at the end of the body.

2nd instar—Head black. Body with the dorsum greyish, a

blackish lateral stripe. 31st somite with a subdorsal orange tubercle.

4th to 7th somites with dorsal tufts of short black hair, 11th somite

with a similar tuft. oth to 11th somites blackish dorsally, extremity

of body orange. Sparsely covered with longish black hair.

3rd instar—Similar but only the first three somites grey dorsally

and these with a central black stripe. Rest of the body black, a

subdorsal yellow line and a_ sublateral whitish-grey one. Dorsal

hair tufts slightly more prominent.

4th instar—Similar to final (see above quoted reference) except

that the lateral tufts are composed of simple black hairs only and

the dorsal tufts, with the exception of that on the 7th somite, are

black. 3

5th instar—Similar to final.

The larva of this particular brood were a much darker grey

than normal, in fact some were almost black. In spite of this,

however, none had the bright yellow dorsal tufts mentioned by

Hampson. <A few had the dorsal tufts very pale golden buff in

the 5th instar but these moulted into the form with greyish white

dorsal tufts in the 6th (final) instar.

Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta

caught female.

Lymantria ampla Wk.

Moore, ep. “Ht ie Cohnity 246, tole ne aiiose iy Zaesn oat

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 11, 80, pl. 100, figs. 2a, 2b. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 460. 1802.

Strand, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 323. 1923.

Ovum almost round, slightly flattened above and below, greyish

pink and large for the size of the moth. Laid in a solid mass close

to the cocoon and imbedded in and covered by hairs from the

female’s anal tuft.

Full grown larva—Head dark brown, the clypeus filled in with

whitish and with a whitish streak from apex of clypeus to vertex.

Body brown, varying from a pale café-au-lait to a fairly dark brown.

2nd somite with a blackish dorsal patch. 4th to teth somites with

a transverse black dorsal line posteriorly. A subdorsal black streak

anteriorly on the 8th somite, the 7th and 9th sometimes with traces

of a similar streak. toth and 11th somites with a broad white

irregular subdorsal band almost joining across the dorsum of the

t1th somite, which may be obsolescent or obsolete. 1st somite

with a subdorsal tubercle tufted with longish brown hair.. 2nd to

11th somites with a subdorsal oval purple brown spot from which

spring short brown bristles, and a pair of smaller dorsal spots,

between the subdersal pair on the 2nd and 3rd somites but rather

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 411

anterior to them on the others. 1st to 11th somites with a series

of lateral tubercles tufted with brown hair. 4th to 11th somites

with smaller sublateral tubercles tufted with brown hair. rath

somite with a transverse series of six similar tubercles. Dorsal

glands on 9th and toth somites dark purple brown. 12th somite

with two subdorsal purple brown streaks. Legs brown. Prolegs

brown with a whitish spot. Spiracles black. Venter slightly paler

than the dorsum. The female larva is very much larger than the

male in the last instar.

Pupa in a few netted threads. Brownish black with tufts of

slightly curly hair, those on the head whitish grey, on the thorax

blackish and on the abdomen greyish. Wing cases without tufts

of hair. The tufts on the abdomen arranged in a dorsal, subdorsal,

lateral, sublateral and ventro-lateral series. The female pupa 1s

very materially larger than the male but the wing cases are dis-

proportionately small.

Food-plant—Lagerstroemia indica Linn., Crotalaria sp., Palm,

Mango and Casuarina. Moore states that ihe larva is almost omni-

vorous.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Calcutta,

a male and female of which pupated 24- X1-41 and 25- Xi-41 respect-

ively and emerged 6-xii-41 and 4-x1i-41.

Moore writes in Lepidoptera of Ceylon ‘Larva brown, covered

with short brown hairs, those from anterior and anal segments

long; male with a pale subdorsal line and lower spots, some white

spots along the back and below the pale line; female with blackish

dorsal spots and a white lateral spot on the tenth segment; legs

reddish. Pupa->purplish-brown, slightly tufted with short Baines

The figures of the larvae are ‘anything but lifelike and-those of

the pupae are not hairy enough and too pale in colour. Hampson’s

description, which is copied in Seitz, seems to be based on that of

Moore except that the head and legs are said to be ochreous.

BOMBYCIDAE.

Ocinara varians Wk.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 407. 1938.

Young larva—Head and body grey, a large subdorsal black

spot on the 5th somite. ‘A short fleshy curved horn on the rith

somite.

Full grown larva—Head dull brown. Body dull brown, the

first four somites longitudinally striped with greyish and with trans-

verse yellow lines only visible under a lens. 2nd somite with paired

black dorsal spots. The dorsal area from the 5th somite back-

wards mottled and paler and brighter in colour, the lateral area

from the 5th somite backwards dark chocolate brown. 5th somite

with a double dorsal hump, the hump itself purple brown and edged

in front with a black crescent-shaped mark. 8th somite with a

subdorsal black spot joined to a dorsal purple brown spot and

slightly raised. A short fleshy horn on the 11th somite. Venter,

legs and prolegs dull brown. Some specimens more greyish. Others

were a more uniform grey-brown, without the paler dorsum and

412. JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIT

darker sides from the 5th somite backwards, the dorsal hump on

some of these specimens pale pinkish-buff instead of purple brown.

Cocoon of closely woven white or yellow silk, rather papery.

Boat-shaped and covered with a loose ‘froth’ of silk. Pupa pale

yellow, very thinly chitinised.

Food-plant—Streblus asper Low. (Family, Moraceae) In captivity

ate Peepul but not readily.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found in Calcutta;

one of which pupated 13-xii-41, and a male emerged 20-xii-41.

I have described this larva as O. varians although I am_ not

absolutely satisfied with the determination. The larva is very

similar to that previously described but is considerably smaller

and more knobbed, looking not unlike a small piece of twig. If

my determination is correct, the variation seems to be analogous

to that found in certain British Geometridae with a smooth and

knobbed form of larva depending on the food-plant. I was very

anxious to obtain a pairing and to see whether the resulting larvae,

reared ab ovo on Peepul, would revert to the smooth form. Un-

fortunately the only female in the batch emerged when all the males

were dead or dying. All my Peepul feeding larvae have spun

cocoons of yellow silk, the present batch gave two yellow cocoons

to eight white. :

In my previous description, I described the cocoon as ‘very

closely woven and hard’, the term ‘papery’ would probably convey

my meaning better.

SPHINGIDAE.

Deilephila nerii V..

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 407. 1938.

A number of pupae bred from larvae found in Calcutta in January

1942 differed from the normal in having a subdorsal series of

diffused black spots on the abdominal somites, in some cases the

series was complete, in others reduced to the spots on the oth and

toth somites only. One pupa had broad black bands across the

dorsum and extending laterally almost to the spiracular black spots,

this pupa also had a diffused black latero-ventral stripe. Larvae

and imagines all normal. Bell and Scott (Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths,

v) do not mention any variation in this pupa.

LIMACODIDAE.

Parasa hilaris Westw.

Head pale brown, retractile. Body with a series of ten sub-

lateral scoli, the posterior two blunt and whitish, the others green

and slightly longer. A subdorsal series consisting of a bunch of

green bristles, a moderately lone green scolus tipped with red and

armed with colourless bristles, a longer purplish red scolus armed

with black bristles, five bunches of green bristles, a long purplish

red scolus with black bristles and a shorter oranee red one with

colourless bristles. Ground colour of body green. A broad blue

dorsal stripe with a median rose pink line from 2nd somite to the

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 413

base of the 2nd scolus. The bases of the 2nd pair of scoli con-

nected by a transverse white stripe. A broad blue dorsal stripe

between the 2nd and 3rd scoli, broadening at each end and edged

by a darker blue line, a median rose pink line extending for two

somites posterior to the 2nd and two somites anterior to the 3rd

scolus. Between the 3rd and 4th scoli, the stripe is indicated by

a continuation of the dark blue edging line. The whole stripe

edged on either side by a narrow yellow stripe. A dark indigo

blue subdorsal line, edged above by a yellowish green line. An

olive green line, edged below by a yellowish green stripe, just

above the sublateral series of scoli, and a similar line below. A

yellowish green line dividing the sublateral and ventral areas. Venter

a watery yellow green. :

Cocoon of the usual hard Limacodid type. Oval, somewhat

flattened, and with a surrounding and_ slightly concealing web.

Colour pale olive brown, slightly tinged with golden. Empty

pupa skin pale brown.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 26-xi-41, spun

30-xi-41, and a female emerged 10-11-42.

NOcTUIDAE.

Mocis (Cauninda) undata F. (archesia Cr.)

Moore) hep. Ceyl., ii, Tor, ple 172, fie..3a: 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 526. 1894. —

Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal., xiii, 93. 1913.

Ovum—Very pale silvery green, spherical with numerous ribs

running from micropyle to base. Laid singly. Laid 30-x-41.

Hatched 2-xi-41.

Newly hatched larva—Brown, very long and slender. Very like

a Geometer in its manner of moving and resting. After feeding

becomes green.

Half-grown larva—Head whitish, striped with dark brown.

Body greenish grey with nine longitudinal purple brown lines. A

subdorsal black speck on the 4th somite. Venter with four purple

brown longitudinal lines. rst and 2nd pairs of prolegs obsolete.

3rd and 4th pairs, and also legs, almost black.

Full-grown larva—Head with the clypeus yellowish with an

internal red line and with a red line from apex of clypeus to vertex.

A semicircular blackish patch with three white lines running through

it, the lateral area white with two double red brown lines. Body

with the true ground colour yellowish, becoming a stronger yellow

on the subdorsal and lateral areas, but the colour obscured to a

large extent by the small specks composing the markings so that

the dorsal area appears to be slate grey. Dorsal area with the

following longitudinal lines composed of minute specks, a central

orange brown line, double between the 4th and roth somites, with

five blackish grey lines on either side. Four orange brown sub-

dorsal lines, below them a double line cf mauve dots, a_ solid

orange line and a wider solid canary yellow line. 4th somite with

a subdorsal crescent-shaped white mark enclosing a black dot.

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Venter dark olive brown lined with darker, the lines on the ventro-

lateral area most prominent. A dark elongate median spot on the

7th somite and a smaller one between the claspers of the 8th somite.

Legs bright red. rst and 2nd pairs of prolegs aborted, 3rd and

4th pairs coloured as venter. Anal claspers striped in continuation

of the body stripes. Spiracles black. In some larvae the central

dorsal line is very little different in colour from the others and the

subdorsal orange brown lines are a dull purple brown.

Pupa in a very small cocoon of white silk completely covered

with leaves. Colour dark purple brown, the intersegmental areas

of the abdomen chestnut, and thinly covered with a white bloom.

Cremaster a bunch of six golden brown hooked spines. The apex

of the abdomen longitudinally wrinkled and forming a surrounding

series of blunt teeth.

Food-plant—Rhynchosia minima DC. (Leguminosae).

Described from a number of larvae bred from ova obtained from

a Calcutta caught female, one of which spun 28-xi-41, and a female

emerged 13-xli-41.

Moore’s description is as follows:—‘Larva semi-looped; with

twelve legs; the dorsal and under-surface purplish-brown, minutely

black dotted, the sides yellowish and longitudinally lined with red

and a sublateral row of minute black/dots; head with a brown and

red lateral streak; front legs red, middle and hind legs brown.

Pupa reddish; efflorescent. Feeds on Desmodium.’ His figure is

too short and stout. Both Hampon’s descriptions seemed to be

based on the above, although in the Catalogue he quotes Indian

Museum Notes, v, 159 (1903) as his authority.

Phytometra (Plusia) chalcytes Esp. (eriosoma Dbl.)

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., 111, 70. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, it, 570. 1894.

Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal., xiii, 486. 1913.

Head pale green with a very narrow blackish lateral line and

with three minute black specks on each lobe. Body pale green, a

narrow slightly darker green dorsal stripe edged by a_ slightly

waved white line. Two slightly waved white subdorsal lines. A

straight, and slightly broader, white lateral line edeed above with

darker green and with a minute black dot above it in the middle

of each somite. A few white specks giving rise to short colourless

hairs. Venter pale green sparsely speckled with white. Spiracles

buff. Legs and prolegs pale green, the first two pairs of prolegs

obsolete. Shape narrow in front and broadening to the tith somite,

which is slightly humped dorsally. One larva had the tarsi black.

Pupa in a double cocoon of thin’ white silk. Pupa with the

dorsum pale chestnut with dark patches on the thorax, 1st to ard

and 5th abdominal somites. The colour shades off laterally into

the pale green of the venter. Leg, antenna and wing cases a clear

olive green, the leg’ and antenna cases marked with darker olive,

the wing cases, except for the costal margin, with an underlying

chestnut colouration. Leg and proboscis cases projecting slightly

beyond the edge of the wing cases, |

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA Ald

Food-plant—Garden Hollyhock.

Described from a full fed larva found-in Calcutta 31-1-42, pupated

3-11-42, and a male emerged 13-11-42.

Moore’s description is ‘Larva green, palest along the back; with

indistinct longitudinal lateral and dorsal paler lines. Pupa green

with black dorsal streaks. Feeds on species of [icus.’ Hampson

bases himself on this description in the Fauna but omits the pupa.

In the Catalogue he gives the following references and description : —

‘Kirby, Butt. & Moths Eur., p. 270; Hffm. Raup. p. 134, pl. 35,

fig. 8. Green with numerous waved whitish streaks on dorsal area

and more distinct lateral stripe. Food-plants: Urtica, Salvia,

Echium, Marrubium, in India on Ficus.’

(GEOMETRIDAE.

Thalassodes veraria Guen.

Head bifid, pinkish buff in colour. Body pinkish buff, — the

ventral area tinged with green. ~ Traces of a triple rose-red dorsal

line, the intersegmental areas slightly tinged with rose-red. Anal

flap triangular and ending in a sharp point. Under a lens the dorsum

is sprinkled with minute white dots. ,

‘Pupa formed under litter at the bottom of the box. Colour

pale buff, the thorax smoky brown, the wing cases smoky brown

but paler than the thorax. Thorax with a double dorsal blackish

line, three subdorsal blackish dots and the juncture between the

pro-, mesa- and meta-thorax blackish. Abdomen with a blackish

dorsal stripe and with brown streaks and specks arranged. roughly

in transverse lines. .

Food-plant—Garden Chrysanthemum, eating the flowers.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 17-x1-41, pupated .

23-xi-41, and a female emerged 1-xil-41.

(To be continued).

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING

GROUNDS IN THE PUNJAB.

Hamip KHAN, M.Sc., LL.B. (Punjab), ph.p. (Cantab), F.A.sc.

(With 5 text-figures).

In India, the Carp (Cyprinidae) are the most valuable of the

fresh water tishes, the species most prized being the Rohu, | Ll.abeo

rohita (tHamilton)|, Mirgal, Morakha or Mori | Cirrhina mrigala

(Hamilton) |, and theila or Katla | Catla catla (Hamilton) |. These

fish, though they grow rapidly in tanks and ponds, do not seem to

breed in confined waters (Gupta, 1908), and are said ‘to breed only

in the running water of the river’, (Bull. 2 Dept. Fish, Bengal,

1913). Day (1873, p. 26), however, mentions that ‘in those tanks,

which are always in communication with irrigation works or. large

rivers, many species of non-migratory fish breed, and also a few ol

the migratory ones’. Thomas (1897, p. 341), also describes his

experiment at Vallaum in the Vanjore District, where Labeo fry

were introduced in ‘a rain-fed pond of some three to five acres of

waterspread’, and remarks that, ‘the natives were very positive that

they never-breed in ponds, but needed running water. I thought

they might be induced to try breeding in a pond when they found

it umpossible to get to a river, and the event proved I was right.

After a time, Labeo fry were caught very much smaller and more

numerous than I had put in.’ Dunsford (1911), too, narrates an

incident at Hissar, where after the first heavy fall of rain at the

commencement of the monsoon, large fish, namely, rohu, were seen

rushing about over inundated ground and were either ‘females full

of ripe spawn or males full of milt’. In 1924, the author (Hamid

IKhan, 1924), observed that the Indian Carp could be made to spawn

in tanks and ponds provided that all the conditions of their natura!

spawning grounds were taken into consideration, and that in the

absence of proper facilities the fish become egg bound and_ the

eggs degenerate in the ovaries. Recently, Majumdar (1940) has

pointed out that ‘the statement that the European carps breed in

confined waters, while the bigger types of Bengal do not is not

exactly correct. It has been observed that they also ‘breed well

in confined or semi-confined waters during the monsoon in this

country.’ He, however, admits that owing to unfavourable circum-

stances the carps in confined waters ‘reabsorb their eggs in their

system.’

The spawning behaviour of the Indian Carp is really very peculiar

and requires thorough investigation. Observations on their spawn-

ing have been recorded by the Fisheries Staff from various stretches

of water in the Punjab during the last 18 years and their spawning

grounds have also been surveyed. As a result of these observations,

an attempt has been made in this paper to discuss, firstly, the pro-

bable factors which induce the Carp to spawn under natural con-

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS 4\i

ditions, and secondly, the possibility or otherwise of the spawning

of Carp in confined or semi-confined waters.

A. SPAWNING OF CARP IN RIVERS AND THEIR TRIBUTARIES.

1. River Beas.—Observations on the spawning of Carp were

recorded from River Beas and its tributaries, namely Barnai Cho,

Gural Nala, Narabara, and JWestern Bein,

(i) Barnai Cho, Gural and Karabara streams (Fig. 1). In 1922,

River Beas, which is one mile from Barna: Cho near the village

Mehtabpur, where an observation camp was established, was in

flood on the 15th July, and the next day, due to heavy local rains

the river overflowed and flooded Barnai Cho as well. The same

evening, the fish, weighing 4 to 8 lbs, each, approximately, from

the river and Barnat Cho were observed rushing about over the in-

undated fields, where water was g to 12 inches in depth, were play-

ing together and laying their eggs. The water in many places

was hardly sufficient to cover their backs and the fish could easily

be killed in any number with a lathi blow. Immediately after spawn-

ing the eggs were collected. The eggs were demersal and were

lying on the submerged grass or in shallow pits in heaps, but were

not sticking to each other. Each egg measures 1.5 to 2 mm. in

diameter, but as soon as it falls into the water it swells to 2 to 3

times its size by the absorption of water by its outer membrane,

which gives it a glassy bead like appearance (Hamid Khan, 1924).

This watery sheath acts as a protective covering to the developing

embryo. The eggs do not float, but are often carried by the strong

current of the flood into the main stream where they can be collected

by means of fine meshed nets as is done in Bengal. ©

Buonvan

& ~~

~ nhl

Fig. 1.—Diagrammatic sketch of spawning grounds (S) of the River Beas

and its tributaries.

The temperature of water in the spawning grounds was 85°F.

at 8a.m,, 81°F. at 4 p.m. and 82°F. at 7-30 p,m. The fish netted

from the spawning grounds were Labeo rohita (Hamilton), Labeo

micropthalmus Day, Labeo gonius (Hamilton) and Barbus sarana

(Hamilton). Some of these fish were full of eggs and others were

spent up. The latter were seen returning to the main stream.

Gural stream is hardly two furlongs from Barnai Cho near the

village Mehtabpur, but this stream was not flooded with floods

from the river on the 16th July. Consequently its fish did not spawn

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.: XLII

on that day. It, however, rained heavily on the 29th July and

Gural was flooded on the morning of the 30th, and Karabara on

the same evening. Both the streams overflowed into the surround--

ing fields. On the 31st morning the fish were observed playing

and spawning in the inundated fields where water was 4 to 5 inches

in depth.

The temperature of the water of the stream on the 30th July

was 78°F. at noon and the water in the spawning ground had a

temperature of 80°F. on the 31st morning.

In 1934, Barna: Cho overflowed its banks due to rains in the

up country on the 8th July and its fish spawned on that day. But

the river Beas got flooded on the 16th July and overflowed into

the fields and its fish spawned on the night between the 16th and

the 17th July. Gural had its flood on the 26th July and inundated

the fields at 11 a.m. and at 2 p.m. its fish were seen playing and

splashing in the fields. The temperature of the water in the spawning

grounds remained 87°F. throughout the day. A partly spent up

female of Labeo gonius was netted from the spawning grounds,

stripped and its eggs fertilized successfully. They hatched out on

the 27th July, 1.e., sixteen to seventeen hours after stripping.

(ii) Western Bein. Owing to rains in up country, the Bein stream

was flooded on the 21st July in 1922. On the same evening it over-

flowed into adjoining fields near village Dhirpur, at a distance of

three miles from village Manan Talwandi where an observation

camp had been established. The fish from the Bein responded to

the floods, moved on to the flooded fields along the current of water,

rubbed themselves against the furrows of ploughed up fields, where

depth of water was 2 to 18 inches, and made a noise like boon boon.

The male closely followed the female, rubbed against its mate and

both of them raised their caudal portions just above the water with

their bodies pressed together. They remained in this position for

2 to 3 seconds, and it was thus that the female ejected its eggs

which were immediately fertilized by the male. Due to muddy

water the actual ejection of the eggs could not be seen, but it was

noticed that in the females of Labeo gonius netted from the-spawning

grounds, when pairing, the eggs simply flowed out with slight

pressure and were fertilized with the milt which a male yielded

readily. Immediately the pair separated, they made great splashing

noise. No fish stayed long at one place but wandered about with

its mates. The eggs could-be felt, by hand, lying at the-bottom

on. the grass and were crushed when one- waiked in the water.

When water was stirred the eggs came to the surface and were

collected. Development started immediately after fertilization.

The temperature of the water of the Bein ranged from 84°F.

in the morning to 94°F. in the afternoon. On the spawning grounds

the temperature of the water on the 21st July at 11 p.m. was 85°F.

and on the 22nd July it was 80°F, at 3 a.m.

2. River Sutlej (Fig. 2). Observations on the spawning of Carp

in Budha Nala, a tributary of River Sutle} were carried out in 1929,

1931 and 1935.

In 1929, it rained heavily on the 18th July and flooded the

Budha Nala, which overflowed into the scineoiadliayg fields, where

fish were seen playing on the same day. One ripe female, Barbus

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS 419

savana, netted from the inundated fields, yielded its eggs readily

and these were successfully fertilized by mixing milt from the male.

SOS ININ

Fig. 2.—Diagrammatic ‘sketch of spawning grounds, (S), of Budha Nala, a

tributary of River Sutlej.

In 1931, the spawning in the Budha Nala was observed on the

22nd July, when the stream was flooded not with the local rains but

with the rain at its upper reaches. In 1935, it rained on the 14th

July, but the stream was not sufficiently flooded and the fish did

not spawn. On the 18th July, there was another heavy shower,

the stream overflowed and the fish spawned in the inundated fields.

Recently, the Irrigation Department, with a view to reclaim

land from water-logged areas, have converted the upper reaches

of the Budha Nala into a drain, thus preventing the stream from

overflowing its banks during the rains. The fish, consequently,

have been deprived of their natural spawning grounds.

3. River Ravi.—(i) Jabboki spawning grounds: With floods in

River Ravi during monsoon, the fish of almost all kinds ascend

to the inundated fields near village Jabboki, about 7 miles from

Lahore, play together, lay their eggs and return to the river. When

the floods subside, pools are left in the spawning grounds where

numerous fry get stranded.

(ii) Kiran Nala (Fig. 3), known as Doga in its upper reaches

and Sakki in its lower, is a tributary of River Ravi and joins it

Fig. 3.—Diagrammatic sketch of spawning grounds, (S), of Kiran Nala, a

tributary of River Ravi.

near village Ranian. Spawning grounds of fish extend all along

the stream. Observations on the spawning of Carp were recor ded

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETIT

from one near Dehr gawar (Fig. 3. S). The stream, during monsoon,

overflows into the fields near this village, where fish spawn and

after laying their eggs return to the main stream. ae

Construction of a weir near Shikar Bridge on the Kiran Nala,

for storage of water in its upper reaches for lift irrigation, has, of

recent years, obstructed the passage of fish to their spawning grounds.

It is a matter of regret that no facilities have been provided to

enable the fish to reach their natural spawning grounds.

B. SPAWNING OF CARP IN TANKS WHICH ARE CONNECTED WITH

STREAMS, RIVERS OR WITH ANY OTHER PIECE OF RUNNING WATER

DURING THE MONSOON.

Such tanks and ponds are of two distinct forms, firstly those

which always or nearly always contain water throughout the year,

as for instance tanks at Chhenawan Fish Farm, and secondly, those

which get dry during early summer and get inundated during the

rains, as for example ponds at Khori.

(i) Chhenawan Tanks, (Fig. 4). Near village Chhenawan there

is an old supply channel, extending to a distance of six miles upto

the River Chenab, where a fish culture station, first recommended

LOWER CHENAB CANAL

we 0 me De Oe eg eg ee we —_—

. . . . e ° . . te eee a ee de ek 8 Ce)

Fig. 4.—Diagrammatic sketch of Chhenawan Tanks, showing spawning

grounds (S).

by Dunsford (1911, p. 13), was established in 1923. <A portion of

about two miles in length is utilized for this purpose and is divided

into three parts by construction of earthen bunds. Adult Carp,

such as Labeo rohita, Labeo calbasu, Cirrhina mrigala and Catla

catla have been introduced into the second tank, which during the

monsoon receives rain water through a storm channel and gets

flooded. Its water overflows into the surrounding fields, where

fish coming out of the tank, indulge in sexual play and lay their

eggs.

During the last 18 years the Carp at Chhenawan have spawned

four times only, i.e. once in 1923, then in 1928 and 1929 and again

in 1933. The observations on their spawning recorded during these

years are as under :—

1923.—It rained 2.65 inches on the 9th July and 1.55 inches on

the roth July. All the fields near. the storm channel were under

water and the fish were seen playing and spawning there. At 2 p.m.

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS 421

the fish returned to the tank, as rain had stopped and water in the

fields had gone low. The eggs, which were lying scattered, chiefly

near the ridges of the fields, were collected. They hatched out on

the 11th morning. The temperature of water was:

9-7-1923 Tank ... morning 82°F., noon 84°F., evening 78°F.

10-7-1923 Spawning Fields: morning 76°F., noon 79°F., evening

78°F.

1928.—A heavy storm came on during the eralle of the night

of the 23rd July, and by the morning of the 24th the water from

the fields was coming through the storm channel. About mid-day,

the fish were noticed ascending the channel and there tremendous

splashing took place and the fish were seen laying their eggs near

_ the edges of the channel where water was shallow. A half spent up

female of Cirrhina mrigala, netted from the spawning ground,

yielded its eggs with a slight pressure on its abdomen. The eggs

were fertilized with milt from a male and kept in hatching trays.

They hatched out on the 25th morning, 17 hours after they were

lard yaihe temperature of flood water on the 24th was 75°F. in

the morning, 92°F. to 49°F. in the afternoon.

1929.—It rained 2.3 inches on the morning of the 17th July and

t 2 p.m. the tanks, the channel and the spawning grounds were fully

flooded, but no fish responded to the flood, till the morning of the

18th when they came out in shoals, played on the grassy banks of

the channel and laid their eggs. One female Cirrhina mrigala was

netted, when pairing, and it yielded its eggs readily, which were

fertilized successfully. The temperature of water in the tank and

the spawning grounds was as under :—

17-7-29 Tank, 9.30 a.m. 85°F., Spawning Fields 78°F.

18-7-29 Tank, 9 a.m. 82°F., Spawning Fields 80°F.

1933-—It rained 2.9 inches during the night between the 16th

and 17th July, and the flood water began to flow into the tank at

8 a.m. The fish responded to the flood immediately afterwards and

moved into the channel but did not lay their eggs. The eggs taken

out of a female Cirrhina mrigala, netted from the channel, were

found to be hard and opaque. It was at 5-30 p.m. that the first

pair of Cirrhina mrigala was netted actually in the act of spawning.

The female was half spent up and easily yielded its eggs, which

were soft and translucent and were successfully fertilized when

mixed with milt from a male. The spawning continued during the

night as well, The temperature of the tank water before the flood

on the 17th July was 78°F. and after the flood it was 80°F., while

of the water where the fish actually spawned was 87°F.

During the remaining 14 years, the Carp at Chhenawan refused

to spawn, because in most of the years the rain was either insufficient

to flood the tank and the spawning grounds or not in time. Rain-

fall at Chhenawan during the month of July for the years 1923 to

1940 is given in the Table and the dates on which the fish spawned

are marked with an asterisk. Insufficient floods in June did not

stimulate the fish and the floods caused by rains in August and

September had no effect on the fish at all. In most of the years

during which the Carp did not spawn the*rainfall during the month

of July was discontinuous and thus did not cause sufficient flood to

inundate the spawning grounds. In July 1930, for instance, the

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol.-XLIII

total rainfall for the month of July was quite heavy, but to prevent

a breach in a newly constructed bund the level of the tank had been

kept very low, i.e. 3 feet, and the individual rains did not bring in

sufficient water to fill the tank to its flood level, 7.e. to g feet. The

fish, howevér, refused to lay their eggs in the tank, though the

flood water from the surrounding land, caused by the rains, had

flowed into it, but was not sufficient to flood the tank and inundate

the spawning grounds. In 1938, it rained 3.8 inches on the 24th

July, the channel and the fields were flooded, but the rain had

stopped abruptly, the sun had come out and the temperature of the

shallow water in the fields rose from 76°F. to 96°F. in the evening.

The fish, which had responded to the flood and had entered the

spawning grounds, returned to the main tank without laying their

eggs. It was probably their instinct that warned them of danger

of high temperature that threatened their eggs and fry if they had

spawned in shallow water in the fields. Again, in 1940, the rainfall

on the rath July was quite heavy, but before the tanks could be

flooded the rain had stopped. Subsequent rains in July in that year,

too, were insufficient to flood the tank and the spawning grounds

and the fish did not spawn.

(ii) Khori Ponds (Fig. 5). The fish from Niki Deg, a tributary

of River Ravi, have spawned almost annually during the monsoon

near village Khori. There are two ponds near this village which

dry up in May and June, but get inundated with floods in the Niki

Deg in July and the fish, ascending with the floods, play on the

grassy banks of the pond and the surrounding fields, which are all

under water, lay their eggs and return to the main stream.

WW ese aia Celene a tea eo te watede ts sls sels crs cie'ss wiatsieie

GRAND TRUNK ROAD

Tro LAHORE

Fig. 5.—Diagrammatic sketch of spawning grounds (S), near village Khort.

When the floods subside, the pond is cut off from the main

stream and numerous fry become stranded there. In 1940, more

than 15,000 Carp fry, mostly of Labeo rohita, Cirrhina mrigala

and Catla catla, were netted from this pond and transported to stock

other waters.

C. SPAWNING OF CARP IN TANKS AND PONDS WHICH ARE ALWAYS

UNCONNECTED WITH ANY LARGE PIECE OF RUNNING WATER.

Observations on the spawning of Carp were carried out on such

tanks at Lyallpur and Chhenwan as are always unconnected with

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS , 423

any large piece of running water. The Carp in these tanks grow

splendidly, become ripe in May and June, their ovaries become dis-

tended with eggs, but they refuse to lay them and become egg

bound. Attempts to strip them in July result in hard, opaque eggs,

which come out with great pressure and are often mixed with blood,

and do not fertilize when mixed with milt from the male.

In 1934, and again in 1941, an artificial flood was created in

.a pond at Chhenawan, containing a few pairs of ripe Carp, by

means of a pump. The fish responded to the flood, moved into the

flood channel, but did not indulge in sexual play and returned to

the main pond after a few hours stay in the channel. Apparently

the conditions, which could induce spawning, were not reached.

“ Study of the eggs from ripe female Carp, netted in July and

August from confinéd waters, showed that the eggs were hard and

opaque. <A condition, similar to one obtained at the time of spawn-

ing at Chhenawan and other natural spawning grounds, when the

female readily yielded soft and translucent eggs, could not be

observed at any time of the year in the fish confined in such tanks

and ponds as are always unconnected with any large piece of running

water. As the breeding season advances the eggs in the ovaries

become smaller and smaller in size and are ultimately reabsorbed

by the fish. It has, however, been possible to affect ovulation by

injecting ripe female Carp with Antiturin S, Prolan or the extract

of Anterior Lobe of Pituitary Gland. The injected fish yield eggs

readily, but fertilization of these eggs by mixing them with milt

from the male has not so far been successful (Hamid Khan, 1938).

The Indian Carp, therefore, do not breed in such confined waters

as are always unconnected with any large piece of running water.

In semi-confined waters, as for instance tanks at Chhenawan, these

fish do spawn, provided that the tanks and the spawning grounds

are inundated by timely rains. Their spawning behaviour, thus,

differs from that of the European Carp, which have no hesitation

to breed in confined waters (Hall, 1929), their eggs “being adhesive

become attached to the roots and stems of grass and other aquatic

vegetation or to whatever objects chance to cover the bottom where

they are deposited’, (Gupta, 1938, p. 98). The behaviour of European

Carp in this respect is similar to that observed in the case of smaller

varieties of the Asiatic Carp, such as Gold Fish (Carassius auratus

L.), (Hamid Khan, 1939) or Barbus (Puntius) sophore.’

Such controlled or ‘Test-Tube’ cultivation, as is possible in the

case of Trout (Salmo fario L.), (Hamid Khan, 1940) or in the

Western Carp, is not at present practicable in the Indian Carp. One

has to depend entirely on their natural spawning grounds for the

supply of eggs and fry to stock other waters. At Chhenawan, for

instance, whenever the Carp spawned, the eggs were collected, fry

reared and transported to stock other waters. At Khori, too, the

Carp fry have been utilized for the same purpose. A similar pro-

cedure is adopted in Bengal, where local fishermen collect the eggs

* Barbus (Puntius) sophore, one of the smaller varieties of the Carp, growing

to 3 or 4 inches in length, has been observed to breed freely in confined waters.

such as tanks and ponds, both at Lyallpur and Chhenawan.

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

from the natural spawning grounds, transfer them to hatching pits

and rear the fry for sale for stocking tanks and ponds (Majumdar,

1940}.

D. PROBABLE FACTORS WHICH INDUCE THE CARP TO SPAWN.

The study of the breeding habits of the Carp, seems to indicate

that the probable factors which induce these fish to spawn are the

following :—

1. Rains. The fish become ripe in May and June, and wait for

the monsoon rains. With the first shower of rain in June, the fish

move up the main stream in search of suitable spawning grounds

and wait for the floods. If there are no rains or if the rains do not

cause any flood, the fish do not spawn.

2. Floods. Whether caused by local rains or rains in the hills,

floods constitute a very important feature in the spawning of Carp.

With floods in the river and its tributaries, the fish leave the main

channel and ascend the inundated fields to lay their eggs in shallow

waters, which are quite suitable for the puny strength of the tiny

fry that come out of the eggs within less than 20 hours. It is,

therefore, not surprising that the floods which are insufficient to

inundate the spawning grounds, or are untimely, do not stimulate

the fish to spawn. Instinctively the fish will not lay their eggs

in the main channel, where water is too deep, as the eggs, which

sink to the bottom, will not have much chance to hatch out.

3. Temperature.—Rains and floods may induce the fish to ascend

to their spawning grounds, but they will not spawn if the temperature

is too high. The fish have been observed to leave the spawning

grounds when the temperature rose from 76°F. to 96°F. The tem-

perature in the spawning grounds generally ranges from 75°F. to

Sialic

4. Chemical and Physical Factors.—Analysis of water from the

spawning grounds and from the main stream during the breeding

of the fish did not show much difference either chemically or physi-

cally. Moreover, if it were chemical and physical constituents of

the flood, which were mainly responsible for the spawning, the fish

at Chhenawan would have spawned every year as the flood from

the surrounding fields, caused by the local rains, invariably entered

the tank during the monsoon. But they did not do so. It was

only when the flood inundated the tank, the channel and the spawn-

ing grounds that the fish felt the urge to move out, play together

and then lay their eggs.

5. Endocrine secretion.—It has been observed that when the

fish first enter the inundated fields, their eggs are hard and opaque,

and it is only when they have played together for a period lasting

from 5 to 12 hours that their distended bellies become limp, eggs

leave the follicles, become translucent and flow out of the vent on

slight pressure. It is on such occasions that a female can easily

be stripped, provided that the fish is ready to shed its ova, other-

wise any attempt to press the eggs out results in hard and opaque

bodies, which are often mixed with blood. It is, therefore, reasona-

ble to believe that though rain, flood, temperature and chemical

and physical factors induce the fish to ascend to their spawning

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS 425

grounds and stimulate them to indulge in sexual play, some internal

secretion is responsible for the ovulation and for change in the

eggs that makes them translucent. It has been possible to make

the Carp, kept in captivity, yield its eggs readily on stripping,

by the administration of extract of Anterior Lobe of Pituitary

Gland. This behaviour of the Carp seems to indicate that it is

probably the pituitary sex hormone which is directly responsible

for ovulation. The discharge of such hormone may be a conse-

quence of some meteorological phenomenon as rain, flood or other

chemical or physical environmental factors, (Hamid Khan, 1938).

5. Domestication.—The Indian Carp, it may be argued, is not

yet fully domesticated. Its domestication is a recent event, while

that of the European Carp is a century old. It is true that

the male readily yields its milt and it is only the female that feels

shy to part with its eggs in confined waters. In the years to come

it may, however, be possible to induce these fish to spawn under

control in confined waters when they find it impossible to get an

access to a river or to any other piece of running water.

E. CONCLUSION.

Our inland fisheries have undoubtedly deteriorated due, chiefly,

to untimely slaughter of fish, specially during their breeding time

and destruction of their eggs and fry. Improvement of our. indi-

genous fisheries by introduction of “Test-Tube’ or controlled cultiva-

tion is not a feasible proposition at present, and one has to depend

entirely on the natural spawning grounds for supply of eggs and

fry to stock the depleted waters. It is, therefore, recommended

that deterioration may be prevented by adoption of such suitable

measures as, firstly, proper facilities for the fish to ascend to their

spawning grounds, secondly, protection, by means of legislation, of

fish, of their ova and of their fry during their breeding season from

wholesale destruction; thirdly, establishment of nurseries near the

spawning grounds to ensure the development of eggs and fry and

to lessen the chances of their destruction; and fourthly, salvage of

fry from pools, where they become stranded after floods have sub-

sided, and stocking the depleted waters with them.

F. SUMMARY.

1. Observations on spawning of Carp in the Punjab have been

recorded firstly, from their natural spawning grounds on the Rivers

Beas, Sutlej, Ravi and their tributaries; and secondly, from tanks

at Chhenawan, Khori and Lyallpur.

2. The Carp in the rivers and their tributaries spawn in July

when the streams are flooded by the monsoon rains and overflow

into the surrounding fields. The fish lay their eggs in the inundated

fields. The Carp, confined in tanks at Chhanawan, spawned when

rainfall was heavy and the tanks, together with the spawning grounds,

were flooded. During the years that the rainfall was either untimely

or insufficient to flood the spawning grounds, the fish did not spawn

and the eggs were reabsorbed by the fish. In the pond at Khori,

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

the fish from a tributary of the river Ravi obtained access to it

during July, played on its grassy banks and inundated fields, laid

their eggs and then returned to the main stream. In the tanks at

Lyallpur, which are not connected with any large piece of running

water, the Carp grow splendidly, become ripe in May and June,

but refuse to lay their eggs.

3. Rain, flood, temperature and other environmental factors

induce the fish to ascend to their spawning grounds and stimulate

them to indulge in sexual play, but endocrinal secretion seems to be

responsible for the actual ovulation.

4. The supply of Carp in our rivers and the replenishing of our

depleted waters, at present, depends entirely on natural spawning

of the Carp. To improve our inland fisheries it is, therefore, re-

commended that the fish may be protected from wholesale destruc-

tion during their breeding season and proper facilities afforded to

them to ascend to their natural spawning grounds.

REFERENCES.»

Bulletin No. 2 (of 1913), ‘Fish Culture in Tanks’, Department of Fisheries,

Bengal, Calcutta, 1927.

Day, F., ‘Report on the Fresh Water Fish and Fisheries of India and Burma,’

1873.

PaO ctoed. H. S., ‘Report on the Fish and Fisheries of the Punjab, ro1r.

Gupta, K. G., ‘Reports on the Enquiry into the Fisheries of Bengal, and

into the Fishery matters in Europe and America,’ Calcutta, 1908.

Hall, C. B., ‘The Culture of Fish in Ponds.’ Misc. Pub. 64, Ministry of

Agriculture and Fisheries, London, 1929.

Hamid Khan, ‘Observations on the Breeding Habits of some Fresh Water

Fishes in the Punjab.’ Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xxix, 4, 1924, pp. 958-962.

Hamid Khan, ‘Early Stages in the Development of Gold Fish, (Carassius

auratus L.)’ Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc, xxxili, 3, 1929, pp, 614-617,

Hamid Khan, ‘‘Ovulation in Fish—Effect of Administration of Extract of

Anterior Lobe of Pituitary Gland.’ Current Science, vii, 5, Nov. 1938, pp. 233-234.

Hamid Khan, ‘Punjab Search for ‘‘Test-Tube’’ Trout—Stocking of Kangra and

Kulu Waters.’ Illustrated Weekly, Bombay, Nov. 24th, 1940, pp. 32-34.

Majumdar, C. H. Spawning grounds and Hatcheries in the District of Chitta-

gong, Bengal.’ Science and Culture, V. 12, 1940, pp. 735-738.

Thomas, H. S., ‘The Rod in India,’ London, 1897, pp. 340-342.

TABLE

Showing Rainfall at Chhenawan in July for the years 1923 to 1940

Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall

Date in inches Date in inches Date in inches

1923 1924 1925 :

9-7-1923 Z205"ee| 21-7-1924 0°25 9-7-1925 0°25

* 10—7-1923 IPSS) 27-7~-1924 1°80 10—7-1925 1°80

12 -7-1923 0°50 28-7-1924 0°55 17~—7-1925 1:00

17—7-1923 0°37 ——— | 21-7-1625 0:70

20-—7-1923 0°80 Motall ph: AK? | 24-—7-1925 0°45

23-7-1923 2°65 28-7 -1925 0:10

-—— 31~7-1925 1°10

Potaliaucae. 8°52 —-

NO ta leas 5°40

* The dates on which the fish spawned.

SPAWNING OF CARP AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS = 427

TABLE I—(contd.)

Showing Rainfall at Chhenawan in July for the years 1923 to 1940—(contd.)

Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall

Date in inches Date in inches Date in inches

1926 1931 1936

10-7-1926 0°14 2-7-1931 0°65 4-7-1936 1:10

11-7-1926 0°80 5-7-1931 1:95 6-7-1936 0°60

26-7-1926 NWS 11—7-1931 1°80 7-7-1936 1°40

31 -7-1926 0°50 13—7-1931 0:20 _17-7-1936 0°50

— = 21-7-1931 0°70 28-—7-1936 0°90

Total 2°59 23-7-1931 0°60 29-7-1936 0°30

—- 24—7-1931 0°30 ——

1927 30-7-1931 1°60 Total 4°80

6-7-1927 0°23 es as

7-7-1927 0°85 Total 7°80 1937

9-7-1927 0°55 —— 15—7—1937 135

16—7-1927 0°45 1932 16-—7-1937 0°70

22—7-1927 0°05 12-7-1932 3°00 21—7-1937 0°54

26-7-1927 0°40 15-—7-1932 0°50 22-7-1937 0°35

27-—7-1927 0°30 20-7-1932 0°15 27- 7-1937 0°25

— 24-7-1932 1°50 28-7-1937 0°15

Total 2°83 28-7-1932 0°13 29-7-1937 0°05

—- 30-7-1932 1:00 =

1928 a Total 3°39

1-7-1928 0-67 Total 6°28 ——

21-7-1928 0°60 — 1938

22-—7-1928 0°65 1933 24-7-1938 3°8

*24—7-1928 TESS) 4—7—1933 0°30 a

25-7-1928 0°40 10-7 -1933 0°30 Total 5s)

— 15-7-1933 1:10 —-

Total 3°87 16-—7—1933 0°65 1939

— *77-7-1933 2.90 2-7-1939 0°10

1929 19-—7-1933 1°10 8-7-1939 0°35

3-7-1929 1:00 22-7—)933 0°10 9~7—1939 0:27

6-7-1929 0°30 27-7-1933 0°50 ~a

17-7-1929 2°30 30-7-1933 0°90 Total 0272

*78-7-1929 0:95 31-7-1933 2°10 —

19-—7-1929 0°90 — 1940

24-7-1929 0:20 Total 9°95 2-7-1940 0°50

25-7-1929 0°90 oe 5-7-1940 120

28-7-1929 0°25 1934 12-7-1940 2:20

— 4-7-1934 0:40 18-7 -1940 1°75

‘Total 6°80 7-7-1934 1°70 21-7-1940 0°20

—— 8-7-1934 1:30 22-7-1940 0:90

1930 28-7-1934 0:60 23-—7-1240 0:20

4-7-1930 1°55 29-7-1934 0°40 29-7-1940 1:00

5-7-1930 0°55 30-7-1934 0°36 30—7-1940 0°10

9-7-1930 0:50 31-7-1934 1°70 _——

11-7-1930 1:10 ne Total 8:05

13-7-1930 1:00 Total 6°40 —

14-7-1930 0°75 —

24—7-1930 1°95 1935

25-7-1930 0°30 16-7-1935 0°80

27-7-1930 1:00 18-7-1935 1:20

29-7-1930 0°45 24—7-—1935 0°90

30-7-1930 0°90 25-7-1935 0°16

Total 10°05 Total 3°06

* The dates on which the fish spawned,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR.

Mrs. M. D. Wricut.

Birds began to interest me six years ago and for the first time

since then I was able to spend fourteen consecutive months in one

part of India. During this period-—October ’39 to December ’4o0

my hushand and | toured extensively and very frequently over all.

the districts of Berar. This afforded excellent opportunities for bird

watching for a mere student though much of it had to be done

through the car windows.

D’Abreu’s list of the birds of the Central Provinces, Salim Ali’s

Birds of Central India and Hewetson’s Birds of Betul in the Journal

of the Bombay Natural History Society were of great interest as

they dealt with those parts of Central India just north of Berar.’

It seemed that the birds of the southern part of the C. P. deserved

special mention as quite a number of species dubbed ‘common in

the C.P.’ were not at all so in Berar, I therefore decided to keep

as close a check as possible on bird occurrences, behaviour and

movements just as they appeared to me. I am sure that the identifi-

cations are correct.

Included in Berar is the Mélghat, part of the Satpura range of

hills in places over 3000 feet high. I only spent a few days in these

hills in October, March, and May, but was able to observe enough

to note some local migrations to and from the plains and differences

in the bird life.

The plains of Berar are mostly flat cultivated fields with far

fewer forested areas than the C. P. and high temperatures during

the hot weather. The best tanks for water birds are Karunyja,

Kamgaon, Shegaon and Wadali.

All the identifications have been made from Hugh Whistler’s

Handbook of Indian Birds, that invaluable guide for students of

Indian ornithology whether serious or not. Also a few from the

‘Fauna.’ There has been no murder done, field glasses sufficing

for what the eye cannot see. Notes on breeding are badly lacking

in this list. Opportunities for searching for nests were few, and

bird life seemed strangely scarce during the rains as compared with

other parts of India. A

Races have not been dealt with and there are other’ species

whose identities I could not be certain of and therefore have not

mentioned. There are no new discoveries; but as Hugh Whistler

mentions in the foreword of his book only by reports of those

interested in the bird life of their own localities can the bird life

' See also ‘The Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey’ (J. B. N. H. S.,

Vol. xxxvi, No. 2, et seq.) for birds of the area adjoining Berar on the south.

Eds.

NOTES ON. THE BIRDS OF BERAR 429

of India really be known. In trying to follow out his suggestion

I have spent a most delightful year in Berar.

1. Corvus macrorhynchos. The Jungle Crow.

Common resident. Few and shy in towns and villages, plentiful in wilder

areas. Flocks feeding on fruit in Chikalda in March, and on groundnut crops

in the plains in September. Nests occupied from January to April.

2. Corvus splendens. The House Crow.

Common resident in the plains. Gives place to Jungle Crow in forested

areas and Melghat, though seen in those parts. Large flocks bathe in the

late evening at edges of rivers and tanks in most populated parts before going

to roost. Feeding on heads of juar in November. Many nests built in January,

but breeding began about February.

3. Dendrocitta vagabunda,. The Indian Tree Pie.

Fairly common in the plains in winter, favouring roadside trees, groves, and

forested areas. In the Mélghat in November 1939 it was one of the commonest

species and very noisy; in March they were still abundant in small parties and

pairs, feeding on fruit, quarrelling and courting. In May comparatively scarce

and quiet, and in October 1940 plentiful again.

4, Parus major. The Southern Grey Tit.

In the plains, usually single throughout winter. Sometimes in small parties.

Rather scarce. Absent for hot weather and rains. Common resident in the

Mélghat where they were seen in parties in November, and pairs in March and

May.

5. Machlolophus xanthogenys. Yellow-cheeked Tit.

Uncommon in the plains. Sometimes seen in winter at Akot and Ellichpore

at the foot of the Mélghat and in the wooded tracts of Yeotmal district. Abundant

resident of the Mélghat where in November they were in parties with White

Eyes and Grey Tits and in pairs in May when breeding.

6. Sitta castanea. Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

Distribution very localised. January 31st 1940 Ellichpur a single bird on

a Banyan tree in fruit with. many cther birds in the rest-house compound.

Common resident in Kandala Reserve forest, Yeotmal District; seen here in

January, April, and June. Usually in company with the Indian Pygmy Wood-

pecker, White-browed Fantail Flycatcher, and Minivets. Sitta frontalis never

seen.

7. Turdoides somervillei. Jungle Babbler.

Common resident in all the more wooded parts of the plains, and abundant

in the Mélghat. Absent from open country, cultivation and towns.

8. Argya caudata. Common Babbler.

Resident in localised areas in the plains. Parties were usually seen at

Balapur in scrub country by the river, the bushy surrounds of Khamgaon tank,

and in areas at the foot of the Mélghat. Community trilling at roosting time

seemed a marked characteristic.

9. Argya malcolmi. Large Grey Babbler.

Common resident of the plains. The common babbler of open country and

towns throughout the province. Gives place to the Jungle Babbler in wooded

parts. At Chikalda on May 27th 1940 a party on fairly open ground, there

were none seen here in November and March.

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIT

10. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii. Deccan Scimetar Babbler.

Seen only in the Mélghat. March 21st 1940 just below the Chikalda plateau

a party of two males and three or four females by a stream. May 28th

Chikalda, a pair in lantana bushes.

11. Dumetia hyperythra. Rufous-bellied Babbler.

_ Was not seen in the plains. November 39, March 4o, none in Chikalda;

in May, very common in large parties at edges of forest areas and ravines;

in October a few parties seen, but noticeably fewer.

12. Chrysomma sinensis. Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Not common, several in Amraoti in the long grass of a swampy area in

January, Occasionally seen in most parts of the provinee. Probably resident.

13. Alcippe poioicephala. Quaker Babbler.

Was not seen in the plains. A party probably seen in Chikalda in May;

but I am not certain.

14. Agithina tiphia. Common Iora.

Common resident of the plains and Mélghat. Some seen in Kandala forest

reserve in January appeared to have bright green upper plumage.

15. Chloropsis jerdoni. Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Uncommon ir the plains. In December they were very common round

Nagpur, and at the same time conspicuously scarce in Berar. Common in the

Melghat.

16. Molpastes cafer. Red-vented Bulbul.

Common residents From September to April in cheerful parties round trees

in fruit and flower. Pairing off at the end of May. Many nests in June

and July. One nest was built in a shrub at the edge of Buldana Circuit house.

The parents entered and left the nest when no one was looking. It was im-

mediately above last year’s old nest and the pair are reported to build there

every year. In Chikalda this bulbul occurs with the Red-whiskered bulbul,

both species joining forces. They favoured lantana and cactus.

17. Otocompsa jocosa. Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Not seen in the plains. Common resident all over the higher parts of

the Mélghat. In November in parties with Red-vented Bulbuls. Although

they could be heard all day long, they remained very much within the under-

growth. In pairs in March and May. The White-browed Bulbul was _ not

seen here; though it occurs in Nagpur.

18. Saxicola caprata. Pied Bush Chat.

Resident of the plains and Mélghat in all types of open country. Saxicola

caprata bicolor with the whole abdomen white is a winter visitor, At the

beginning of the hot weather the number of bush chats greatly decreased.

Earliest date seen, October 16th; about this time there were many males with

rusty-coloured abdomens, one was rufous from neck downwards.

19. Saxicola torquata. Stone Chat.

Common winter visitor to the plains. Rather scarce in the Mélghat. Latest

date seen April 1st. Earliest, September 1toth. Those seen on this date and

for about a week after were few and far between and all females. By September

24th they were generally common and there were many males. Full winter

plumage did not appear till January.

at NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR 431

20. Phoenicurus ochrurus. Black Redstart.

Common winter visitor. April jrd the latest date for the majority. On

April 11th a solitary female was seen, no more after this date. September 17th

earliest date: by October 1st generally common, especially in Yeotmal district.

21, Cyanosylvia syecica. Blue Throat.

Fairly common winter visitor to the plains. Seen skulking in damp localities.

None seemed to attain perfect plumage.

22. Saxicoloides fulicata. Indian Robin.

Common resident.

23. Copsychus saularis. Magpie Robin.

Common resident of the Mélghat where at the beginning of May there

was much singing and courting. Breeding by the end of May. In the plains

they were common in winter, and very scarce in the hot weather and rains,

Regions round tanks and roadside avenues were their favourite haunts.

24. Turdus simillimus. Nilgiri Blackbird.

Absent from plains. Common summer visitor to Mélghat; some are pro-

bably resident. Chikalda November 39, none seen, in March a few skulking

very quietly in May in many parts of Mélghat they were abundant

and very conspicuous. They did not appear to be breeding. Pairs would collect

into parties that fed on the ground in shady patches. The usual call a deep

chuck! chuck!; probably bred during the rains. In October, a very small

party was deep among the undergrowth. Another Blackbird occurs in Chikalda

which is probably the Malabar Whistling Thrush. It was not nearly so

common.

25. Monticola solitaria. Blue Rock Thrush.

Winter visitor to the plains. Seen in most parts as a solitary bird usually

perched on buildings or behaving like a flycatcher in wooded areas and road-

side avenues. latest date seen the last week in April at Basim, earliest

October 6th Amraoti. ;

26. Siphia parva. Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Winter visitor to plains and Mélghat. It is common in Chikalda and in

the more wooded localities of the plains. Very few seemed to have much red

on the breast. By May they had disappeared from Chikalda and had returned

in October.

27. Muscicapula tickellia, Vickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

Fairly common as a winter visitor to the plains in wooded parts, September

19th Akot earliest date. Common resident of Mélghat. Its song was the

first to be heard at dawn. Probably breeding in May.

28. Eumyias thalassina. Verditer Flycatcher.

Winter visitor to the plains in wooded parts, only occasionally seen. In the

Mélghat it is a winter visitor. In November 39 it was amazingly common

sometimes being in small parties which I have never seen before. On March

23rd there was a pair in one of their favourite haunts though the rest had

disappeared. , In May I thought I saw a pair but might have been mistaken.

29. Culicicapa ceylonensis. Grey-headed Flycatcher.

An uncommon: winter visitor. January 3rd Ellichpur, solitary with many

other birds about a Banyan tree in fruit in the Dak Bungalow compound. I

probably saw the Brown Flycatcher in Chikalda in October, but have never

seen the Black-naped Flycatcher in Berar.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

30. Tchitrea paradisi., Paradise Flycatcher.

Few and far between in the plains during the winter; about April 3rd

they increased somewhat in the north of the district, very few in full plumage.

31. Leucocirca aureola. White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Common resident of the plains in wooded parts and roadside avenues.

Abundant in Kandala forest area in mixed hunting parties in winter, in pairs

in summer. Never seen in the Mélghat.

32. Leucocirca pectoralis. Spotted Fantail Flycatcher.

Common resident of the Mélghat. Never seen in the plains.

33. Lanius excubitor. Great Grey Shrike.

Resident of the plains, fairly common in very open country. Breeding in

April and May. Two nests had lumps of cotton in the structure. Absent from

the Melghat.

34. Lanius vittatus. Bay-backed Shrike.

The commonest shrike. A local migration takes place between the plains

and Mélghat. All winter and till the end of March when courting began they

were extremely common, then they very noticeably decreased in numbers. On

May the 4th they had greatly increased, in the Mélghat and breeding was in

progress. Comparatively few seemed to breed in the plains. At the beginning

of September they began to return to the plains and by the end of the month

were in full force in all parts. In October there were many in immature

plumage.

35. Lanius schach ethronotus. Iufous-backed Shrike.

Rather less common than the Great Grey Shrike. A winter visitor to the

plains. Probably more common in the Mélghat. L. s. caniceps with less rufous

on the upper parts was quite common round Nagpur in December, but was

not seen in Berar. Absent for hot weather and rains.

36. Lanius cristatus. The Brown Shrike.

An uncommon winter visitor. The Black-headed Shrike was not found.

37. Teyhrodornis pondicerianus. Common Wood Shrike.

Common resident, in wooded parts and roadside avenues. January 19th Kandala

forest a party of about seven were with a hunting association. In March

they were in pairs and whistling very pleasantly.

38. Pericrocotus peregrinus. Little Minivet.

Common resident in fairly well wooded parts. In January, in Kandala

forests abundant in hunting associations. In March always seen in pairs.

March 20th the first small. family party. September in the Mélghat several

family parties were about, the full-grown fledglings still being fed by parents.

I did not see the short-billed or Scarlet Minevets.

39. Lalage sykesi. Biack-headed Cuckoo-Shrike.

Rather uncommon. Usually seen singly. At Chikalda in May. At Amraoti

on October roth when four young birds were perched close together on wire

fencing near the road.

40. Graucalus javensis. Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

Common in the plains and Mélghat. Locally migratory. November 739

Melghat not noticeable. Winter plains—common, in small noisy parties with

other birds round bur and pepul trees. March Mélghat mostly in pairs. A

party of six were hawking insects. May Mélghat in pairs, no parties. Absent

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR 433

during the rains. October 14th Yeotmal seen for the first time since the

end of the hot weather.

41. Dicrurus macrocercus, King Crow.

Common resident of the plains.

In the Mélghat they were commonest

about March.

42. Dicrurus longicaudatus. Indian Grey Drongo.

Absent from the plains. In the Mélghat during winter they were in noisy

parties among the tree tops. In March in pairs and less noticeable.

: Very

scarce in May.

43. Dicrurus cocrulescens. White-bellied Drongo.

Locally migratory. Winter 739 fairly common all over plains usually

solitary in more wooded areas than the King Crow. Absent from the Mélghat.

March ’40 absent from the plains, quite common in the Mélghat from the

lower slopes upwards, still solitary but one or two pairs seen. May. Mélghat,

common in pairs. Sept. Mélghat, still in pairs whistling beautifully and court.

ing. Absent from the plains. October 14th earliest date seen in the plains.

44, Dissemurus paradiseus. Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

Not seen in the plains though there probably were a few in Buldana and

Yeotmal districts. One in the Mélghat in May. Rather scarce.

45. Acrocephalus stentoreus. Indian Great Reed Warbler.

A winter visitor. Seen on two occasions only in December and January

in thick clumps of reeds near Akola and Wadali tank Amraoti. A much smaller

bird looking just like it was in the same patch of reeds and may have been

Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

46. Cisticola juncidis. Fantail Warbler.

In December there were several in long grass bordering Wadali tank; one

mounted into the air in jerks with a clicking sound followed by a headlong

dive down.

47, Orthotomus sutorius. Indian Tailor Bird.

Common resident. There are probably two races. Some seen in the plains

-had very richly-coloured upper. plumage, these were seen at Pusad in January,

Amraoti and Buldana in March. Others at the same time of year retained

their dull plumage, these were in the majority.

48. Franklina gracilis. Franklin’s Wren Warbler.

Common in the plains in winter. None were seen during the rains. Very

common resident in the Melghat. Here they were in large parties throughout

the winter till the end of May when they had paired off. They had complete

dark pectoral bands. Coffee and Lantana bushes were favoured hunting grounds.

In October ’40 Buldana district a small party included a fledgling which was

being fed. They still retained breeding plumage.

49, Sylvia hortensis. Eastern Orphean Warbler.

A winter visitor. In January near Jalgaon a party hunted with Rosy

Pastors among bushes in fruit in open country. March 25th Wadali Tank

Amraoti was the latest date seen.

50. Sylvia curruca. Lesser White Throat.

Winter visitor. Earliest date October 3rd at Yeotmal.

51. Phylloscopus trochiloides. Greenish Willow Wren.

Winter visitor. Seen in Kandala forest reserve in January. Not common.

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

52. Phylloscopus inornatus. Yellow-browed Warbler.

_ Winter visitor. Fairly common in the plains, common in the Melghat.

Earliest date October 3rd Yeotmal. I may be confusing it with another

warbler. It had a pleasant whistle which was uttered usually from within a

bush.

53. Prinia socialis. The Ashy Wren Warbler.

Surprisingly scarce. Only once seen during the hot weather by a stream

near Jalgaon. None seen in the Mélghat. It is reported as being a common

resident in the C.P.

54. Prinia inornata. Indian Wren Warbler.

Common round damp localities and cultivation. Another Warbler very

similar in appearance appeared on September 12th at the edges of Khamgaon

tank; they were in fairly large parties flitting about among grasses and weeds,

sometimes settling together in a bush. After this date they could always be

found there. Several other small Warblers were common all over Berar in

roadside trees, specially Babul: but I am not certain of their identities.

55. Oriolus oriolus. Golden Oriole.

Commen about roadside trees, and trees in fruit. In the plains there was

a marked decrease during the hot weather and rains. In the Mélghat they

were common in March and May.

56. Oriolus xanthornus. Black-Headed Oriole.

None seen in the plains. Fairly common in the Mélghat where they were

in pairs in March. They sometimes joined with pairs of Golden Orioles at

a truity meal. No melodious calls, only those like a crow with a high-pitched

voice.

57. Pastor roseus. Rosy Pastor.

A common winter visitor especially to the plains. From November 30-

January 4o they seemed to keep to the west and north-western districts and

were seen in large and small parties round cultivation often with other mynahs.

Plumage was very obscure and bedragled then. By the end of February

when Butea frondosa was in full bloom their numbers seemed to increase ;

greatly and large parties could be seen and heard all over Berar wherever the

trees were. Plumage was now cleaner and tidier. Latest date March 30th

Yeotmal. They disappeared suddenly. Earliest date September 23rd, Wadali

tank, Amraoti. After this date they were often seen in all parts of Berar.

58. Sturnus vulgaris. Starling.

A solitary bird on December 31st near Wadali tank Amraoti. This may

have been a straggler from a small flock. No other occurrences.

59. Sturnia malabarica. Grey-headed Mynah.

Only once seen October 18th ’40. Quite a large flock which had joined

forces with common and Brahminy Mynahs and Rosy Pastors. They perched

on bare trees having fed on an orchard.

60. Acridotheres tristis. Common Mynah.

Very common resident of the plains. Locally migratory to the Mélghat.

November ’39 Mélghat, Not one to be seen.

March ’4o0 . In large flocks everywhere, the most abundant spe-

cies.

May ’40 _ Still very common but pairing off.

October x None.

During the hot weather and rains the numbers in the plains decreased

slightly only and breeding began in June, in some cases two broods were

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR 43%

raised. By the end of September they had acquired new plumage having looked

very ragged at the beginning of the month.

61. Temenuchus pagodarum. Brahminy Mynah.

Common resident. Searching for nesting sites began in mid-May, breeding

in June. Some pairs used the old nest hole as a home long after the chicks

had gone.

The pied mynah which I noted as being fairly common in localised patches

in and round Nagpur was quite absent from Berar. Neither were the Bank

Mynah or the Jungle Mynah seen.

62. Ploceus philippinus. Baya Weaver Bird.

Common all over the plains during the breeding season, but not noticed at

any other time. There were scattered nest colonies but no weavers tll the

first week of July when a small party of males appeared at an old colony,

and had begun a few nests. Breeding was not in full) swing till August.

They had gone again by the end of September.

63. Uroloncha malabarica. White-throated Munia.

Common resident. February and March was the general breeding time.

By the end of March small family parties were about, after this they were

seldom seen in’ pairs.

64. Carpodacus erythrinus. Common Rose Finch.

Scarce. A small flock near Wadali tank Amraoti at the end of November 1940.

65, Gymnorhis xanthocollis. Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Very common in winter in flocks. They began coming in about November.

From the end of February their numbers greatly decreased. In March, April

and May several pairs were breeding in wooded areas. They were not seen

at all during the rains.

}

66. Passer domesticus. House Sparrow.

As usual in the plains. None seen in the higher parts of the Melghat as

Chikalda. Fer dat

67. Emberiza huttoni. Grey-vecked Bunting.

I identified this bird from the ‘Fauna’; it was the only description that

fitted it exactly. Common winter visitor in parties on dry stony areas and also

near margins of tanks. Latest date April ith. Earliest October 5th when

a small party were on the same bit of stony scrub as they had favoured the

year before. I have seen no bird answering to the description of the White-

capped Bunting.

68. Emberiza melanocephala, Black-headed Bunting.

Common winter visitor in flocks to the plains. Feeding on ripe juar in

December, and wheat in January. The numbers greatly increased from) March

which was probably the spring passage north. By the end of March

most of them had departed. A few remained on till the beginning of April.

Earliest date October 3rd ’40 a small flock in Yeotmal District.

69. Emberiza bruniceps. Red-headed Bunting.

Seen in March only. March 14th with Black-headed Buntings round’ an

enclosure where wheat was being husked and later a small party grazing. by

themselves. at Mekah. None seen after March 26th. They must have been

on passage.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

_° 70. - Melophus lathami, Crested Bunting. ie

Resident. Quite common in North Berar in localised bushy patches. They

were always to be found in a certain area near OU _ Appeared to be very

scarce in the rest of Berar. p SEES ak ves

71. Riparia chinensis. Indian Sand Martin.

All the year round about tanks and rivers. Also at Chikalda over Bir

Palau in March.

72. Riparia concolor. Dusky Crag Martin.

Common about buildings and ruins. At Balapur in February a pair were

busy lining their nest built on a ledge of a ruined shrine with downy white

feathers.

73. Hirundo rustica. Huropean Swallow.

Winter visitor. Quite often seen with other swallows over tanks. |

74. Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow.

Common resident. In parties in winter hawking’ ovér tanks and perched.

on telegraph wires near water. In January the majority had shed . their

wire tails. ; if

75. Hirundo daurica. Red-rumped Swallow.

Common. All winter in the plains they sailed low over -the ‘créps in the

mornings and evenings. In the early mornings they were perched in very

large numbers on telegraph wires. Compared to districts round Poona, swallows

in winter kept much more to their own species when perched on telegraph

wires. Very few collections of mixed swallows’ were séén. “Another swallow

often seen over water specially in winter was probably the Cliff Swallow,

though I am not certain of this.

76. Motacilla alba. White Wagtail.

Common winter visitor. Latest date March 25th. The first Wagtail to

leave. Earliest date October 1oth. They came in suddenly..and. were seen in

ey Patits during the next three or four days.

77. .Motacilla maderaspatensis. Large Pied Wagtail.

Resident of the plains. Breeding in the hot weather.

78. Motacilla cinerea. Grey Wagtail.

‘Fairly common winter visitor. Seen singly about streams. Latest date

April roth. Earliest date October 12th in Buldana district.

79. Motacilla flava. Yellow Wagtail.

Fairly common winter visitor to the plains in flocks small and large.

Latest date, a pair on May and. Earliest date September 25th at Risode, a

party of a dozen in attendance on grazing cattle.’ The next day a Jarge “flock

were bathing in the river at Nandura.

80. Motacilla citreola. Ycllow-headed Wagtail.

A’ frequent winter visitor. Several were always to be seen round the

margins of Karunja tank in winter. At the beginning of March two. or

three pairs arrived at Wadali tank Amraoti for the first time, the males

having the complete head to the nape bright yellow. , Last..date, April 3oth.

81. Anthus hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit.

“Common. winter visitor, At the end of March they had gone from_ the

plains but “parties were common from the lower slopes of the Melghat up

to Chikalda. By -May they had gone.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR 437:

82. Anthus rufulus. Indian Pipit.

Common winter visitor. Flocks and small parties on grass land and

cultivated fields.

There were several other species of Pipits which I was not able to identify

definitely, One is much larger, another has a very heavily strealed breast.

This Pipit was absent throughout the hot weather and rains returning in Septem-

ber. Only one kind remained, a few of these were round Kamgaon tank in May.

83. Alauda gulgula, Little Skylark. ae -

Common. On March 18th a large number were running about the edge

of Wadali tank with Grey-necked Buntings.

84. Calandrella brachydactyla. Short-toed Lark.

Common winter visitor. to the plains, more noticeable in the southern parts

of Berar round Basim and. Risode. Their flights over arid patches of ground

were most fascinating. Earliest date October roth at Basim.

85. Mirafra erythroptera. Red-winged Bush Lark.

Common resident in the plains. All the year round on the same patches

of bare stony ground or perching on fences.

86. Ammomanes phoenicura. Rufous-iailed Lark.

Common in the plains. During the spring and hot weather they were

-one of the most abundant species seen along the roads, mostly in pairs. As

soon as the rains broke they seemed to disappear, very few were seen. On

September z2ceth there were a few roadside parties and by the end of the

month large parties were common. ;

87. Eremopteryx grisea, Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.

Common resident. Small flocks in winter.

88. Zosterops palpebrosa. White Eye.

Common resident of the Melghat. Fairly common in the winter in the

plains in hunting associations about wooded areas and trees in flower and

fruit. None noticed during the hot weather and rains.

89. Cinnyris asiaticus. Purple Sunbird.

Common resident. The only Sunbird seen in Berar. October 26th ’39 at

Amraoti males were just coming in to breeding plumage. In March there

were many nests. By April parties were delightfully active over Siris blossom.

One nest had an egg in May. ‘There were several Flower Peckers,* mostly

in the Mélghat. Among them was probably the Thick-billed and Tickell’s

Flower Peckers.

90. Pitta brachyura. Indian Pitta.

Absent from the plains. In May several skulking in Jantana bushes and

cactus jn Chikalda. They probably bred in the Mélghat. None in the winter.

91. Dryobates mahrattensis. Mahratta Woodpecker.

Fairly common resident, seen singly throughout winter, very often arijiong

Babul trees that fringe the tanks and in wooded areas with hunting associations.

In March in the Kandala forest reserve, they were in pairs.

92. Brachypternus benghalensis. Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Fairly common in wooded areas and roadside avenues. One in the middle

of Amraoti town with a party of grey-headed Barblers. Very few were seen

between April and September.

438: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

93. Dryobates hardwickii, Indian Pygmy Woodpecker.

Fairly common in wooded parts. Usually in company with mixed hunting

parties. In pairs in March.

94, Thereiceryx zeylanicus. Green Barbet.

Absent from the plains. Common resident of the Melghat.

95. Xantholaa hemacephala. Coppersmith.

Common resident. Nesting in March.

96. lynx torquilla, Wryneck. <

Uncommon winter ‘visitor. January 26th at Basim a solitary bird was

chased by a Bay-backed Shrike, it squeaked like a muskrat and wore an air

of embarrassment. December 1oth at Amraoti, also solitary trying to hide in

a bush.

97. Coracias bengalensis. Blue Jay.

Common resident of the plains. Courting in February, the same behaviour

was noted again in November.

98. Merops orientalis. Green Bee-eater.

“Common in the plains and locally migratory. Throughout the winter they

were abundant in parties everywhere. Pairs in the hot weather. At the

beginning of the rains they were missing. In September they began to return

and by November they were as abundant as ever.

99. Merops superciliosus. Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

In localised patches. April 1oth Kamgaon tank a Jarge flock was hawking

red dragonflies, they had not been there either in February or March—after

this they could be seen in every month in the same locality. A few were

noted in April and September at Balapur and Akot.

100. Ceryl rudis. Pied Kingfisher.

Fairly common resident. About rivers and streams, very often in pairs.

101. Alcedo atthis, Common Kingfisher.

Frequent but the least common Mingtisher.

102. Halcyon smyrnensis. White-breasted Kingfisher.

Fairly common resident. Very noisy in March,

103. Tockus birostris. Grey Hornbill.

Common and very. often in parties in winter. None seen during the rains.

104. Upupa epops. Hoopce.

Common, a marked decrease in numbers during the hot weather and rains.

In March there were a few in the Mélghat where I had not noticed any during

the winter.

105. Micropus affinis. Indian Swift.

Common resident; though few in the Mélghat. In flocks over towns and

villages. The Alpine Swift probably occurs in the Mélghat; some were hawking

over a tank in the Fort at. Chikalda in November, but I am not sure of their

identity.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR 439

106. Cypsiurus batassiensis. Palm Swift.

Seen here and there near palm trees.

107. Hemiprocne coronata. Indian Crested Swift.

Common resident in certain localities only.) In Kandala forest reserve Yeotmal

district in a certain valley they could be seen at any time. Sailing overhead

in parties in winter in pairs in March when they were probably breeding as

they spent much of their time perching. In Chikalda small parties hawked

over Bir Talau in March, May and October.

108, Caprimulgus asiaticus. Indian Nightjar.

Common in June. In Kandala Forest Reserve Yeotmal District; two bark-

ing deer dashed straight towards me being fiercely chased by a nightjar, it

froze to a rock on seeing me. This was in broad daylight.

109. Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo.

Fairly common in April and May, Neither heard nor seen at any other

time. of year.

110. Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk Cuckoo.

Common from May till the end of September. Heard for the first time

in Berar on May sth at Ghatang in the Mélghat. Towards the end of July

they were very noisy all through the night, very much quieter in- August and

after a final outburst, silent from mid-September though frequently seen till

about the end of the month.

111. Cacomantis merolinus. Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.

Only once seen and never heard, a solitary bird on November 17th on

the Buldana_ Ghat.

112. Clamator jacobinus. Pied-crested Cuckoo.

Erratic occurrence. Quite common in October till the beginning of Nov-

ember °39 near cultivation. The earliest reappearance was reported by Mr. R.

Hill at Buldana on June 15th when he saw a pair courting. On June a2ist a

pair in the Kandala forest reserve were also courting. Nc more were seen

when I left the province in December.

113. Eudynamis scolopaceus. Koel.

Earliest date February 1st none had been seen or heard from October ’39.

On April 5th ’40 the first call was heard at Amraoti and they were frequently

seen and heard till the end of July. After this there were no more appearanees

or calls except for a pair at Kamgaon in November.

114. Centropus sinensis, Crow Pheasant.

Common resident in the plains. During the hot months of April and

May they spent much time stalking in pairs about muddy edges of tanks.

On September roth at Akot a bird was sitting on its nest.

115. Psittacula krameri. Green Parralxeet.

The most common Parrakeet. Mating in February.

116. Psittacula cyanocephala. Blossom-headed Parrakeet.

Resident and quite common in wooded parts, though not generally round

towns and open country in the plains, Teak and Salai forests are favourite

haunts. In pairs in January.

The large Parraqueet must occur but I have not noticed it. A very small

Paraqueet probably occurs, which I have only caught rapid glimpses of, on one

occasion by the road near Ellichpur and at Khatkali in the Melghat.

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

117. Strix ocellatum. Mottled Wocd Owl.

At Buldana in a wooded area.

118. Athene brama. Spotted Owlet.

. Commoan resident. A pair lived in a tree near our bungalow. They mated

in March and brought up the family in a hole in the tree trunk,

Later the whole family continued to live there amusing us with their

domestic squabbles. Several other owls occur, including one yery large one

with conspicuous ears, but I was not able to identify them.

119, Sarcogyps calyus. King Vulture.

Frequent. A party of four ona roadside carcass and often seen in pairs.

120. Pseudogyps bengalensis. White-backed Vulture.

The most common Vulture.

121. Gyps fulvus. Griffon Vulture.

Quite often with White-backed Vultures.

122. Neophron percnopterus. Scavenger Vulture.

Too common. °

123. Butastur teesa. White-eyed Buzzard. |

. Common, Probably migratory as it was not noticed between April 11th

and early September. Often near tanks.

124. Spilornis cheela. Crested Serpent Eagle.

An immature bird seen at Chikalda. None in the plains.

125. Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite.

Common plains resident round tanks. Only once seen in’-the Mélghat when

two or three were perched on boulders of a forest stream in May

126, Milvus migrans. Common Pariah Kite.

Very common about habitations. Many families reared in © March.

127. Circus eruginosus. Marsh Harrier.

Rather uncommon. In winter, solitary near tanks or streams,

128. Circus macrourus. Pale Harrier. ;

Common winter visitor. Usually single flying low over cultivation. Latest

date April 4th at Basim. Earliest September roth in the same locality.

129, Astur badius. Shikra.

Fairly common.

130, Falco chicquera. Red-headed Merlin.

Has only been noticed on a few occasions.

131. Falco tinnunculus. Kestrel.

Common in winter. Latest date March 17th. .. There were several, other

members of this order which IT was unable to identify with any certainty.

132. Crocopus pheenicopterus. Common Green Pigeon,

Common resident of the Mélghat. In large. flocks at Chikalda and Khatkali.

Rather lacking in the plains, in May a pair were near a tank in Amraoti

District, |

NOTES ON THE BIRDS: OF. BERAR re. 441

133. Columba livia. Blue Rock Pigeon. Sate hicn Ree .

.. €ommon resident round old buildings. A large flock: grazing on a. fallow

field near Ghatang in the Mélghat in November.

134. Streptopelia orientalis. Rufous Turtle Dove...

Appears to be absent from the plains. .November ’39.-Chikalda, none.

March 2ist-25th ’40 abundant on the plateau and nearby slopes in flocks

that fed on the ground and flew up into trees when disturbed, being very shy.

It was the most common species of dove at this time. May ’40 Chikalda, none

October ’40 Chikalda, none.

135. Streptopelia chinensis. Spotted Dove.

Common resident, more so in wooded areas, less in open country.

136. Streptopelia senegalensis. Little Brown Dove.’

Common resident of open country.

137. Streptopetia risoria. Indian Ring Dove.

Common resident of open country.

138. (CEnopopelia tranquebarica. Red Turtle Dove.

The least common of the doves though frequently seen, ‘Selllém noticed

during the rains.

139. Pterocles exustus. Common Sandgrouse.

Resident in the plains. OME 2a Sa Sas ND

140. Pavo cristatus. Common Peafowl.

Frequently seen in the early mornings and late evenings in wooded parts.

bitin PS Ray Bade pad ges .

141, Gallus sonnerati. Grey Jungle Fowl.

Common resident of the Mélghalt. Lantana bushes: were the favourite

cover. In March the cocks crowed to each other from cover to cover all

day long. The Red Jungle Fowl appeared to be absent, but once I. thought

I saw a cock.

sue Boek:

142, Galloperdix spadicea. Ked Spur Fowl.

Common in the Mélghat in March and are probably resident.

C. coromandelicus.

Perdicula asiatica.

143. Coturnix coturnix.

Quails. Pee a

144. Francolinus pondicerianus. Grey Partridge.

Common.

145. Gallinula chloropus. Water Hen.

Occasionally skulking at the edges of tanks and ‘streams: "No +White-

breasted Water-hen were seen. :

146. Porphyrio poliocephalus. Purple Coot.

Uncommon. The only occasion seen was on July .gth vat Kamgaon, tank,

a pair on a sand spit fringed by reeds.

147. Fulica atra. Common Coot. , |

Common in flocks in winter on all the tanks. vmod

No cranes were seen, though the Sarus Crane appeared common in’ Nagpur

District.

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

148. Cursorius coromandelicus. Indian Courser.

Several times during April solitary birds were sipping water at the edges

ef Wadali tank Amraoti.

149. Hydrophasianus chirurgus. Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Fairly common resident on weedy patches of tanks.

The Bronze-winged Jacana which was very common in Nagpur District

did not occur in Berar.

150. Esacus recurvirostris. Great Stone Plover.

Uncommon. On January 19th at Karunja tank a solitary bird was wading

in shallow water near a mud spit with many small waders. No Stone Curlews.

151. Lobivanellus indicus. Red-wattled Lapwing.

Common resident near tanks. In quite large numbers in winter.

152. Lobipluvia malabarica. Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Less common than the Red-wattled. In April and May many pairs on

a rough stony area in Amraoti. They must have been breeding.

153. Charadrius dubius. Little Ring Plover.

Common about tanks and rivers. Comparatively few were noticed during

the hot weather and rains.

154. Leucopolius alexandrinus. Kentish Plover.

A few at Karunja tank during the winter running about the edges with

Little Ring Plovers.

155. Himantopus himantopus. Black-winged Stilt.

Common in winter. Latest date—about the middle of May at Wadali

tank Amraoti. Earliest date October 15th Karunja tank. Between these dates

they were seen on one occasion on June roth when a party of ten were at the

edges of Kamgaon. tank.

156. Tringa hypoleucus. Common Sandpiper.

Common in winter. Usually solitary at the edges of any kind of water.

Latest date May 2nd a pair that had practically lived at a tiny water scoop

ill then had disappeared. Earliest date September ioth.

157. Tringa ochropus. Green Sandpiper.

Common winter visitor.

158. Tringa glareola. Wood Sandpiper.

Common in flocks at the edges of tanks. Latest date April 1st.

159. Erolia minuta. Little Stint.

In flocks at the edges of tanks in winter. I may have confused these last

two Sandpipers.

160. Tringa stagnatilis. Marsh Sandpiper.

At Karunja tank in January.

161. Tringa nebularia, Green Shank.

At Kamgaon tank and one or two other tanks in winter, The Red Shank

was not noticeable though it was probably overlooked. ;

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR AACS

162, Capella gallinago. Common Snipe.

Not very plentiful. Latest date March 27th. On January 5th at Karunja

tank, three birds were wading in water breast deep. They all progressed

in the same direction plunging in the long bill downwards with a curious

bobhing movement. My knowledge of the different snipe being very lacking

these may have been some other kind.

163. Sterna aurantia. Common River Tern.

Some at Karunja and Kamgaon tanks.

164. Sterna melanogaster. Black-hellied Tern.

Only one seen at Karunja tank. No Terns were noticed during the hot

weather or rains.

165. Phalacrocorax niger. [Little Cormorant.

Fairly common in all tanks during the winter and hot weather. Usually

perched with the Common Cormorant.

166. Phalacrocorax carbo. Common Cormorant.

More common than the Little Cormorant, Perched on submerged stumps

and trees. ‘Till the first week in June they were in full force at Kamgaon

tank, the evening flights inland were always punctual. With the break of

the rains the large majority seemed to disappear from all tanks very few

remaining. No nesting colonies on submerged trees were seen. They gradually

returned to the tanks from about September toth.

167. Anhinga melanogaster. Indian Darter.

Common on tanks. Very few during the rains.

168. Threskiornis melanocephalus. White Ibis.

A small party at Karunja tank made their headquarters on a mud _ spit

with storks and herons during January and February. At Kamgaon tank a

party was established on one area at the edge of the tank in May and June.

By July none were to be seen by any of the tanks. The Black Ibis appeared

to be absent.

169. Platalea leucorodia, Spoon-bill.

A small party were : Sarunja tank several oecasions i anuary.

A small party were at Karunja tank on several occasions in January

They had not been there hefore and were not noticed anywhere after.

170. Dissoura episcopus. White-necked Stork.

A resident, often at the margins of tanks in open cultivated country or

soaring high. ~

171. Ardea cinerea. Common Heron.

Resident, but very few seen during the rains. In May two pairs at Wadali

tank Amraoti spent much of their time in trees further inland. In winter

they were common at all the tanks. A very large edition of the Common

Heron was at Karunja tank in December and january.

172. Ardea purpurea. Purple Heron.

At most of the tanks this bird was not a skulker, and was usually seen

standing in the most open parts as other herons. Only once at Shegaon tank

was it flushed from reeds. At Wadali tank Amraoti a solitary bird was

resident from December till the beginning of the rains. None were seen

during the rains. .

173. Egrettga arzetta. Little Egret.

Always solitary about streams, rivers and pools.

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

174. Bubulcus ibis. Cattle Egret. as Te

Very common in winter and the hot weather. In April they were.in close

attendance on villagers dragging the muddy remains of tanks for fish and

almost having to be pushed out of the way. About May they assumed breeding

plumage. At the end of June when the rains set in they disappeared from

all water areas. On September 27th at Kamgaon tank a small party were

making for their usual corner of the tank. By October they were back every-

where in full force. te

175. Egretta alba. Large Egret.

Fairly common, always with cattle egrets at-tanks. [They also disappeared

during the rains.

176. Ardeola grayii. Paddy Bird.

Common.

177. Nycticorax nycticorax. Night Heron.

Occasionally seen flying from bushes overhanging rivers in daylight.

178. Butorides striatus. Little Green Heron.

Sometimes noticed by streams,

” 179. Nettapus coromandelianus. Cotton Teal.

A‘resident in small numbers.

180. Dendrocygna javanica. Whistling Teal.

Not very common and none were observed during the hot weather.

181. Anas platyrhyncha. Mallard.

Winter visitor in small numbers. The majority were seen at a tank near

Chandur Bazar.

182. Anas pecilorhyncha, Indian Spotbill.

A few at Karunja tank in winter. None noted as resident.

183. Anas strepera. Gadwall.

Common winter visitor to most of the tanks.

184. Anas penelope. Widgeon.

= . - . . . . 2 y ,

Winter visitor. Noted on Karunja tank only in January ’4o. In November

‘40 they were on most of the tanks, especially Kamgaon and Shegaon as one

of the commonest duck.

185. Amas crecca. Common Teal.

Common winter visitor.

186. Anas querquedula, Gargany.

Common winter visitor seen in small numbers till about} March: when there

appeared to be a large increase just when other duck were disappearing. A

large flock «appeared at Wadali tank Amraoti on March rith and remained

till May 2nd. Till this date large flocks were seen on nearly all tanks. ;

187, Dafila acuta. Pintail.

Winter visitor in small numbers. In March and early April. At Wadali

tank Amraoti two pairs kept to themselves. On April 21st a ‘solitary male

remained and was not seen again. _.On June 19th at Kamgaon tank a. pair

was with some Cotton Teal and was seen again a fortnight later,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF BERAR 445

188. Spatula clypeata. Shoveller.

Winter visitor. In small scattered numbers on Karunja tank during

winter. In March and April the numbers greatly increased; quite large flocks

appearing on most of the tanks especially Shegaon and Lonar; they were then

in breeding plumage. Latest date April 21st; a solitary bird, the remains of a

small flock at Wadali tank Amraoti.

189, Aythya ferina, Pochard.

Winter visitor in small numbers to most of the tanks, on January 28th

at Chandur Bazar tank was the largest number noted,

190. Netta rufina. Red-crested Pochard.

Uncommon winter visitor, a few pairs were at Karunja tank in October

’

40.

191, Aythya rufa, White-eyed Pochard. }

Winter visitor. In November ’4o there were many on the Chandur Bazar

tank.

192. Aythya fuligula. Tufted Duck.

The only occasion noted was on April 24th a solitary male on Wadali tank.

It remained in the middle of the tank well away from a_ flock of Gargany

that were the only other duck present. May tst was the latest date it was

seen.

193. Podiceps ruficollis. Little Grebe.

Common resident. In May with the departure of duck they bécame much

more noticeable, and large flocks collected on most patches of water,

THE TERNS AND EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTS AT VENGURLA,

WEST COAST, INDIA.

HuMAYUN ABDULALI.

The reports of Mr. Whistler and Dr. Ticehurst on the frag-

ments of eggs and skins picked up at random at the Vengurla

Rocks (J. B.N.H.S. xli., p. 663) indicated possibilities for further field

work and I had been thinking of another trip ever since. While

at Bharatpore with Mr. Salim Ali last year, we planned to go

‘down together and have another look around. Mr. McCann was

then recruited and when we left, we were accompanied by

Fr. Santapau of St. Xavier’s College, and Prof, Bharucha of the

Royal Institute of Science.

In February 1938, we had got to Malwan by ferry, and con-

sidering that few people had motored through the Konkan, we

decided this time to run down to Malwan by car. The maps

indicated a run of 350 odd miles and we hoped to do this distance

in about 12 hours of driving.

We left Bombay late on the night of Tuesday the 4th March,

in two Morris eights, packed with the paraphernalia necessary

to eat and sleep anywhere. The road to Panvel was. bad and

dusty, and buses and trucks were still running. At one in the

morning we pulled up at the Inspection Bungalow, on the banks

of the Patalganga, and slept till seven.

We had expected to reach Malwan by Wednesday evening,

and had asked the Fisheries Department to arrange for the boats

on Thursday morning. (I might here acknowledge. the assist-

ance rendered by the Fisheries Department, and warn future

prospective visitors against the chances of ever reaching the

rocks without official co-operation and bandobast.) “The road con-

tinued to be bad and dusty, and the journey was uneventful,,

except for one burst hosepipe that drained the water from the

tank. The front half of the car heated abnormally and_ the

radiator grill was loosened in its fastenings. An extraordinary

rattle ensued and it was quite a time before we located the source

of the trouble. McCann now rolled up his sleeves, and proceeded

to patch up the tube with what few spares we had, but still the

water had to be refilled every half hour. An odd puncture or

two added to the interest. The road winds tortuously over in-

numerable ghatlets and makes it impossible to travel at any speed.

Most forests have been chopped down and the hills are either

covered with scrub, or bare except for scattered and much

pollarded trees, mostly Terminalia tomentosa. The local culti-

vators cut, stack and burn the foliage as the most easily available

fertilizer. This deplorable practice must of course be controlled

and discouraged, or we are to see the end of our trees and forests

in this area,

THE TERNS & EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTS AT VENGURLA 447

In the Kolaba District we saw several large flocks of the migrant

Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica nipalensis?). Tree pipits

(Anthus trivialis subsp. harringtoni or trivialis) were common in

small parties, all along the road. Near Viral, Salim observed

Lanius cristatus (probably the typical form well known in the south

but unobserved from Bombay). We reached Chiplun, late in the

afternoon and spent an hour replacing the damaged hosepipe

and drinking sugar-cane juice. Further south, Cliff Swallows

(Hirundo fluvicola) were seen on the ghats, and Jater in the evening

‘a loose flock of pied horn-bills some 25 to 30 birds, flew across

the road from one patch of forest to another. Close on midnight,

we stopped near Hathkambe. Another night was slept on the road

under the banyans, still a long way from Malwan.

We started on Thursday morning determined to get to Malwan

non-stop, and to avoid another meal of bully beef and sardines.

It is extraordinary how soon tins pall on one! In broad daylight,

we chased a mangy hyaecna along a ghat road for a couple of

hundred yards, and except for an odd shrew, a stray hare and an

occasional jackal in the headlights, we saw no other mammals on

the trip.

We reached Malwan at noon—a good 18 hours behind schedul-

ed time. Mr. Kalyani of the Fisheries Department, who was

looking after us, had almost given us up for lost, and was medi-

tating wiring Bombay, when we arrived. We camped at a rest

house on the beach, and our immediate concern was a tinless

meal, | .

The wind was against us, and it was useless attempting the

rocks in the afternoon. We sailed out to Karup Kaura (Pigeon

Rock) a rock-islet a couple of miles north. It is a long straggly

islet with pinnacle-like masses at both ends. [Every bit of the

little soil available was covered in wild profusion: by Derris_ sp.,

Chlerondendron inerme, Salvadora persica and a few other maritime

species.

In spite of the name, there was no trace of pigeons, and the

only birds seen were a pair of grey herons, an osprey, a reef egret

and a solitary common sandpiper. Several small parties of gulls

and terns were seen flying south apparently to a common roosting

place. McCann nosing round the crevices in the pinnacle, dis-

lodged a couple of small bats. One shot proved to be Vadarida

tragata, Dobson’s wrinkled-lipped bat. A sand spit on the islet

was littered with the remains of a large sea-urchin.

We left for the Vengurla Rocks late on Friday morning, pre-

pared to camp the night on the rocks. On a_semi-submerged

reef, close to the shore, were flocks of the Large Crested Tern

(Sterna bergtt) which refused to get collected. The journey

towards the Rocks was slow and hot. An occasional gull (Larus

vidibundus or brunniceps) visited the boat, and settled nearby,

apparently expecting something to eat. Several large turtles

basking at the surface, and a few dolphins were noted. We

landed at one of the smaller outlying islands, and pottered about

for a while. The rock was bare to the monsoon, but under: the

Shelter of the larger rocks were remains of the smaller terns and

their eggs. The highest rock was plastered white, apparently. the

448° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiII

regular outpost of a peregrine, the lower rocks being strewn with

the feathers of pigeons. There were also numerous skeletons

of sea-snakes (Distira sp?) the remnants of a sea-eagle’s meal.

The shallow rock pools along the shore line were intriguing.

Small multi-coloured fish darted in and out. Large — sea-slug's

(Holothuria atra Jaeger) were common and one picked up dis-

gorged all its insides, and a tangled mass of silky threads, which

peculiar and weird mode of defence gives it the name of silk-

spinner. A mass of sponge Hicinia fusca clung to a corner and

sea-weeds of sorts were plentiful all around.

Of the three large rocks, the one with the old light-house was

out at sea, and the boatmen ruled it out as_ inaccessible. The

light-house rock is a prohibited area, and we landed on the largest

island which I had previously visited. There was the same dénse

growth of grass (Ischaemum sp.) with some extraordinarily tall

Celosia.

McCann who was in charge of all the troublesome items on

the trip, and who identified most of the miscellaneous material,

built up a kitchen and we rested an hour or two trying to pitch camp

on the rocks. The whole place appeared: to be an interminable

number of shelves, except that they were anything but flat—as

we were to find out later in the night.

An osprey and a_ white- bellied sea-eagle were seen. There

were again numerous remains of terns and their eggs lying: all

over the island, and a fairly representative collection was made.

Salim Ali compared the fragments with specimens in the Society’s

collection and the following is all from his notes. Several entire

wings were obtained together with a few beaks.

‘A series of eight large eggs averaging 60.343 mm. (max.

69X43 and 63X45 mm.; min. 5742.5 and 58X42 mm.) appear

to be those of the Large Crested Tern (Sterna bergit). This merely

confirms the previous record but the absence of specimens prevents

the subspecific identification of the birds.

The smaller terns were of two distinct types—brown-winged

and grey-winged.

Four brown wings, measured 242, 240 and 237 mm. (2). One of

the last was an almost complete skeleton and the beak measured

37 mm. These appear to agree with one form or another of Sterna

anaetheta, which was recorded here by Hume in 1875. Incidentally,

this is quoted under S. a. antartica in the new [fauna but omitted

from Nidification. ?

Two brown wings, however, measure 270 and 294 mm., and

apparently belong to the Sooty Tern (S. fuscata). This is a new

record for Vengurla, the nearest hitherto known breeding place

is in the Laccadives. A beak measuring 40 mm. may support

this identification.

Two grey wings measuring 212 and 217 mm. are too small

for S. repressa, the White-Cheeked Tern, but agree with Sterna

dougalli (fauna 210-226 mm.). The colour pattern of the pri-

maries also agrees with the description in the Fauna. In_ the

Society’s collection are four eggs labelled “Sterna dougalli Vengurla

Rocks’, by W. EF. Sinclair, and seven by N. EF. Jardine. Remains

obtained by us agreed with them. It will be recalled that a

THE TERNS & EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTS AT VENGURLA 449

series in the British Museum labelled dougalli were obtained by

Davidson from the same rocks. The wings in any case appear

to confirm the eggs.’

Other eggs obtained agreed with those of S$. repressa, which

merely confirms the report on my previous lot of eggs and wings.

This rock island during the nesting season must be an extra-

ordinarily mixed colony. To the breeding records of Sterna bergii,

anaetheta and repressa are now added dougalli and fuscata.

Though the island is relatively small, we may quite possibly have

missed.-other fragments. It is difficult to discriminate in a mass

of bleached and broken eggs and skeletal remains. |

Most of our time on the island was taken up in the investiga-

tion of the cave of the Edible-nest swift (Collacolia fuciphaga

unicolor). It will be recalled that the cave runs southward. into

the island for about a hundred yards. Its floor is almost on a

level with the sea, but this approach is inaccessible to a boat.

The 65 ft. walls run parallel some 20 ft. apart. On the inner-

most side, the roof has fallen in, forming a skylight. This appeared

to have grown larger than it was three years ago.

A descent through the sheer skylight was forbidding, and we

reached the entrance at sea-level, climbing down the cliff-face with

the aid of ropes. A few pigeons flew out, but there was no sign

of the swifts. The eastern wall was pock-marked with nests

apparently most numerous in, the darkest corners. The swifts,

we knew, would come in later and we pottered about the cave.

In February, 1938, I had found large scorpions (Pulamnaeus sp.)

and Riopa guenthert very common. This time the scorpions

were missing and the skink much scarcer. The gecko (Hemid-

actylus brookei) which was only guessed at from the fragments of

an egg last time, was exceedingly common. Even island _ po-

pulations, apparently balanced and stable, appear to fluctuate and

vary considerably. Many cockroaches (Periplaneta americana)

were present. A few centipedes (Scolopendra sp.) were observed. We

also examined another smaller cave running into the eastern side of

the island, but saw no trace of animal life, except for a few pigeons.

The tide came right into this cave and there was a sandspit at its

innermost end.

The nests of the swifts were again swarming with bed bugs,

and I might draw attention to a note by A. Kunhikannan, Asst.

Entomologist at Bangalore, recording bugs being found on the

Common Yellow Bat (Scotophilus Ruhli) taken from holes in. coco-

mute palms: aneam hellicherry, (/> BONES. xxi; “p. 1342), Is ‘it

possible to attach any significance to the fact that though in close

contact with them for a considerable period I nor ‘anybody else was

bitten by these bugs? In the same volume (p. 1ogr), Dodsworth

records beetles (Dermestridae) Anthreans fasciatus and Attagenus

sp. obtained from nests of the common swifts. It is there suggested

that they’ feed on old feathers and similar refuse.

McCann had brought a few flash light bulbs and an attempt was

made to photograph the nests. Light coming in through the, sky-

light however, confused matters and the results were disappointing.

Fr. Santapau obtained one picture in which some 250 nests are

visible. We should have waited until it was quite dark, as the

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

birds then started swarming in through the main entrance. We

could see them clinging to the rocks and to their nests, by torch-

light, but our flash bulbs were then exhausted. No birds were

seen entering through the skylight.

The whole cave had a musky, batty smell, and the swifts also

twittered intermittently like a swarm of bats. Clinging in closely

packed groups to the cliff and their nests, they looked extraordin-

arily like bats. (In Nidification, v. 11, p. 466, Stewart refers to nests

of spinetails (Indicapus) in hollow trees in Travancore and _ states

the native could tell their smell from that of bats). No attempt

was made to sit in or across the nest. The birds cling to the

rim of the shallow saucer-like nest with their breasts to the cliff,

and there was often another bird clinging under the nest. We

caught several roosting birds by hand, and large numbers could

be collected with a butterfly net.

A very rough estimate indicated 5,000 birds and over a

thousand nests, in all stages of construction. Are the same nests

used more. than once? Many of them appeared to have been

repaired (replastered with saliva) and fresher than any I had noted

in February 1938. In patches the nests were within two and three

inches of one another. On the way out, I was hauled up by a

rope through the skylight, and looked into at least a hundred nests.

They were all empty. While dangling from the rope, I met a small

mouse, face to face, but was unable to secure it.

The salivary glands of both males and females obtained were

enlarged, but the only noticeable development in the organs was

a male with testes 3X2 mm.

Their stomachs (4) were packed with insect remains (identi-

fied at the Indian Museum, Calcutta), and mango-hoppers (Jassids)

of two species (Ideocerus nivecsparsus and atkinsont comprised

about 80 per cent of the total contents. A small pulse beetle

(Bruchus theobromue) was also prominent and may have amounted

to ro per cent... There were remains and traces of HEMIPTERA,

Lygaedae (Pamera pallicornis), and Pentatomidae (Cydnus varians

—geranium — bugss), COLEOPTERA, Carabidae, — Bostrychidae

(Sinoxylon anale—a wood-borer). Nitidulidae (Scavanger beetles)

Elateridae (Acolus brachmana—click beetle), Coccinellidae (lady

bird beetles), Staphylinaedue (rove beetles), Chrysomelidae (Chue-

tocnema sp. probably basalis—flea beetle of rice), ODbonata,

Zygoptera (remains of two small dragon flies), HyMENOPTERA,

Chrysidue (Cuckoo wasps) formicidae (Myrmicinae) DietrEra

(remains of flies), TRICHOPTERA (traces of caddis flies).

We visited the cave again after midnight, and the birds were

still awake, struggling for possession of the nests, and other

roosting places, twittering all the time. We watched them = for

a while and then returned to camp. At dawn all the birds had

left. I might mention that Barnes in ‘The Birds of the Bombay

Presidency’, states that ‘the edible-nest swiftlet is a hot weather

visitant to the Vengurla Rocks, where it breeds’. I do not know

on what evidence the bird is said to be a migrant, though it would

be interesting to ascertain how it obtains its food in stormy weather.

There was hardly a foot of level ground to stretch ourselves out,

THE TERNS & EDIBLE-NEST SWik1?S AT VENGURLA 454

and when we got up in the morning, we were all agreed that we

had discovered the hardest rocks in the world!

We sailed again at 8 a.m., expecting to reach Malwan by noon,

as some of us had to be in Bombay on Monday morning. This

would have left us thirty-six hours for the return drive: The wind,

however, turned against us, and at noon we were hugging the shore

but nowhere nearer Malwan. Finally we landed at Mobar, a Govy-

ernment fishing yard some nine miles south of Malwan. ‘he heat

was terrific. A flight of sixty-five to sixty-eight flamingos, heading

north far out at sea Was observed, and a large Tale flock of

migrant gulls, including the great Black- headed Gull on a sandspit

at Mobar. A few Caspian terns were also seen. Vitex trifolia

was abundantly in bloom along this shore. ;

- There is no road between Mobar and Malwan, and Salim and

I bicycled nine miles along the sea-shore, to get our cars for the

luggage and the other stranded passengers. The incoming’ tide,

however, held up the cars for a considerable period, and it was

well past midnight, when we reached Malwan.

We left Malwan on Sunday morning, having decided to avoid

the Konkan and return through the Deccan. Some magnificent

Bombax Ceiba were in flower on the Kholapur Ghats. The Pied

Bush-Chat (Saxicola caprata atrata) was common and doubtless pre-

paring to breed. There was little else of interest on the road.

We lunched at Kholapur and had tea at Satara. The two cars

lost each other in Poona, and dinner was delayed till ten. We

decided to sleep the night at MKhandalla and run into Bombay

early on Monday morning. The small. cars had behaved magni-

ficently but a continued attempt to average forty miles proved

too much for one of them. A tew miles out of Thana, the engine-

mounting gave way, and the engine bumped into the radiator

tearing down the hose-pipe again, as also the fan-belt and other

incidentals. We towed this car into Bombay.

At Thana there was an amusing interlude. The excise police

inquired what had happened, and 1 volunteered the information

that the whole engine had dropped off. As an after-thought, some-

body suggested that they open the bonnet and have a look. No-

body did so, but the news spread rapidly, and I am sure I could

produce a lot of police and other witnesses to testify that I lost my

engine on the Ghats ! 7

I might here acknowledge with gratitude on behalf of all the

members of the party, the help and co-operation of Dr. S. B. Setna

and Mr. Kalyani, without whose assistance the trip might never have

materialised.

The trip was strenuous and exacting. Much more time and

energy were expended in getting to Malwan and back, than on the

rocks. The ornithological results, however, I think, were satis-

factory except for the photographs of the swifts. To get more

reliable information, one must make a landing when the terns. are

breeding during the monsoon, an almost hopeless proposition. The

monsoon has hardly broken as yet, but the papers. this morning

(28-5- -41) bore the laconic news that fifteen vessels. had sunk at

Malwan, though no lives were lost! |

FISH OF POONA.

Part III.

(Continued from page 225 of this volume).

Biological Observations on Certain Species.

. Capt. A. G. L. FRASER, 1.M.D.

This part deals with observations made in the field on the ecology

and bionomics of certain species. The notes were taken under the

local names of fishes and I am indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora and

Mr. Kk. S. Misra for supplying me with the corresponding: scientific °

names. The notes have been revised by Dr. Hora and for this my

sincere thanks are due to him.

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).—This species is locally known

as CHALUT and is to be found throughout the year everywhere in

the river, canal and lakes.

Ghela spp.—The Chilwa fish, locally called AMBLI or AMBLEE and

by several other names, is also present at all times of the year.

In certain sections where the current is strong it is the dominant

species. They move about in shoals generally in midstream. The

commonest form is Chela clupeoides (Bl.), while the other two species,

C, boopis Day and C. phulo Ham., are less common, but all of

them prefer the same type of habitat. Two specimens of C. boopis

were caught near the dam at Lake Fife where there is a current of

water rushing through the sluices into the Right Bank Canal. The

presence of the species in the Lake suggests aes it can also live

in still water conditions of the lake.

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland).—This species, locally known

as ‘(HOOK CHATEE, is in evidence everywhere, but appears to be more

numerous in the canal and lakes. Those taken from the canal

were larger and better nourished than others of its kind found

the river and lakes.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).—The Ranjannau of the local people

is found associated with THOOK CHATEE [Danio aequipinnatus

(McClell.)], but is less numerous.

Barbus spp.—There are several species of Barbus in the collection

and among the larger ones some are with two barbels and some

with four. The KHaApREE, Barbus (Puntius) jerdoni Day shows three

colour varieties in respect of the fins, namely, all white, all red and

all yellow, They are present in the river, canal and lakes. The

form with the white fins is more numerous. The Barsa [ Barbus

(Tor) khudree Sykes], with two pairs of barbels, is most often found

FISH OF POONA 453

in the localities where ground species like the MALLan [Gurra niullya

(Sykes) | and the Labeos abound. It shows a preference for sections

of the river where there are beds of rock and the currents are

moderately strong. Lhe DEBRIE | Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. | was

found to be very common in the section of the Mutha-Mula river

near the Infectious Hospital and in the Pashan Lake, but in other

parts of the river and in the canal and lakes it was not so numerous.

Garra mullya(Sykes).—1he MaLitan, MALiia or Nakuta MALLIA

is found abundantly in the rocky sections of the river and canal.

Schizmatorhynchus (Nukta) nukta (Sykes).—In my wanderings

here 1 have often been asked by fishermen whether I had ever seen

a fish locally known to them as Dhotowandee, so called by them

because of a physical peculiarity above the mouth proper which

gives it the presentation that it is possessed of two mouths. In

actual fact there is a slit in between the two nasal apertures which

are placed in it at each end. The upper lip of this depression,

midway, shows a protuberance. The division is patent and does

not communicate with the mouth proper which is placed below it.

The whole of this depression was tinged with red, when the fish

was freshly caught. It is because of this peculiarity, giving it the

semblance of a second mouth, that fishermen, believe that it really

has two mouths. According to fishermen this species is rarely if

ever caught and the man who worked with me was reluctant to

surrender the specimen when he discovered it was a DHOTOWANDEE.

The belief current amongst fishermen is that the fish brings luck

to the household of the man who is fortunate enough to net it.

The fact remains that there is one specimen of this rarity in the

collection. It was caught 43 miles east of Fitzgerald bridge near

KKharadigaon village on roth June 1937.

Nemachilichthys ruppelli(Sykes).—The SoonDEAH GaRAH has a

pretty colour presentation in that it shows a scarlet blotch dorsally

on the head. All the fins are coloured scarlet, except the caudal,

which has a band of scarlet placed nearer to the body attachment

The body is darkly discoloured dorsally and mottled laterally and

the belly is pale. The word SoonbDEAH (needle-like) signifies its

physical character and refers to its somewhat attenuated form. It

_ should be noted that the word GARAH represents the group name

for all loaches (Cobitidae), which are not so common in these waters.

Bagarius bagarius (Ham.).—Though several specimens of the

Goocu were caught in August, 1936, none were sent to Dr, Hora

on account of their large size. It would seem that this species

disappears altogether after the monsoon. It is significant that none

have been caught during the period of the survey from 15-9-1936

to 10-6-1937. Specimens of Wallagonia attu (Bl1.), locally known

as PAHREE, were also not sent to Dr. Hora though several were

secured during August, 1936,—one was a particularly large example

weighing 12 lbs.

Silonopangasius childrenii(Sykes).—Local name SEELUNDH: This

is another species which disappears after the monsoon, Four

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIH

specimens in the collection were caught on 4-10-1936; after which

no examples of this species were caught. During August, 1936,

several large specimens were secured but they were not sent to

Dr. Hora.

Xenentodon cancila (Ham.).—The Denawau has numerous teeth

and the mouth parts are extended forward for one and a half inches

in the Lorm of a beak. The body is rounded like the eel but the tail

is diphycercal. hey were observed to move about in pairs swim-

ming just below the surface film with the beak showing above the

water line. A very young specimen, one and a half inches long,

was seen in a shallow stagnant pocket about 8 inches deep in the

section of the river near the Holkar Bridge on 28-2-1937. The

young fry remained stationary lying flat with the surface film and

moved only when disturbed by my attempts to catch it with a scoop

net. A large amount of algae was present into which it disappeared.

When all was quite again it reappeared and resumed its stationary

position at the surface. The adults were recovered from the river

and canal and show a preference for strong currents. None were

caught in the lakes.

Ophicephalus spp.—The specics locally called DakHoo is identical

with Ophicephalus gachua Ham. It does not appear to be common

in these waters. As regards the fish called MuRRAL, there are two

species. One of these has a well defined ocellus superiorly placed

on the caudal fin and apparently is Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

A single specimen, which was black in colour, showed no ocellus on

the caudal fin. Murrats are easily hooked by Indian anglers who

use hand lines with cockroach as bait. hey are present in fair

numbers and were recovered from weed grown sections where the

depth was 2-3 feet and the current weak. Some large examples

were secured during August, 1936, and sent to Dr. Hora.

Ambassig. ragga (Ham.). —This species is locally known as

CHANDWaH. It is the same transparent fish called Binc by Bhil

fishermen. As in the Deolali waterways, it is found here also

midstream in strong currents and in deep water. It is singularly

absent in the four miles stretch of rocky channels and pools below

Fitzgerald Bridge during the dry season, when the® currents are

weak and the pools are not deep.

ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

FOUND OVER 3,000 FEET. ?

H. C. Smriru, M.B.0.U., P. F. GARTHWAITE, AND

B. E. SMyYTHIES,

Burma Forest Service,

assisted by

the late Dr. C. B. TICEHURST, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U., etc.

Our preliminary reconnaissance of the Nattaung area, the results

of which were published in Vol. xli No. 3 (June 1940) of this journal,

proved so interesting that a second and longer visit was paid in

1940 (Smythies from 26 March to 23 April, Smith and Garthwaite

8-17 April). A number of visits were also paid to Thandaung:

23-25 September 1939 (Smith and Smythies), 15 and 22 October

1939, 1-3 November 1939, 20-23 March rg4o, 24 April to 12 May

1940 (Smythies), 28 April to 9 May and 29 August to 1 September

1941 (Smith), 6-12 October 1941 (Smith and Smythies). |

The specimens collected in 1939 and 1940 were sent home to

Dr. Ticehurst and the identifications verified or corrected by him;

he also, and it must have been shortly before his death, corrected

this paper for publication, and supplied many ‘previous records’,

including all those not followed by a name, from papers not acces-

sible to us; owing to the war he was unable, as was his wont,

to take specimens to the British Museum for comparison, and_ to

write systematic notes on the results of his findings. His death,

besides being a great loss to science, is a sad blow to those of us

who had the pleasure of working for him and benefiting by his

unique knowledge of the birds of Burma and by his constant en-

couragement and enthusiasm.

Scope of the paper. No connected account of the birds of the

Karen Hills and Karenni has ever been written, and this paper is

an attempt to supply the deficiency. To avoid repetition specimens

and field notes recorded in our previous paper have been omitted,

and the two papers are intended to be read together. The writers

have had no opportunity of studying the birds of the vallevs of the

interior, e.g., the Salween valley, and all their collecting has been

confined to the higher hills over 3,000 feet, to which the scope of

this paper has therefore to be restricted. All previous records have

been collated and some birds likely to occur, but not definitely

recorded as yet, have been included in square brackets. In volumes

v and vi of the F.B.I. there are numbers of birds that might con-

ceivably occur, especially among the Falconidae, but there is no

object in listine them all and as far as these two volumes are con-

cerned only birds actually recorded have been included.

Boundaries of the Area. See map included with our previous

paper (the scale of which is actually 1” =8 miles and not 1”=4 miles

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

as printed in error). The Karen Hills and Karenni extend some

distance north, east and south of the area shown on the map.

Karenni extends east of the Salween, but no one has ever collected

there and for this paper the eastern boundary is taken as the Salween

river; the area thus falls within the rectangle defined by Latitudes -

16° 30’ N. and 20° oo! N., and Longitudes 96° 30/ E. and 98°

oo! E., the actual boundaries being the northern boundary of the

Toungoo district and Karenni on the north, the Salween river on

the east, the sea on the south and the Sittang river on the west,

excluding the valleys (land under 3,000 feet).

Description of the Area. The country is mountainous through-

out, the average height of the ridges being 3,000 to 4,000 feet

with higher peaks to 8,607 feet. Over vast areas the original

forest has long since been cleared by the Karens, who practise

shifting cultivation (tawngya) and the ground is covered by regrowth

(ponzo), which is cut and burnt every 10-20 years. Only on the

higher hills does much of the original forest remain, and the signi-

ficance of Nattaung is that, in addition to being the highest moun-

tain in the area, it is covered by what is probably the largest block

of natural forest still remaining.

Collecting was done round two centres, Nattaung (fully described

in our previous paper) and Thandaung.

On Nattaung we pitched our camp near mile 86 of the Mawchi

road, and the headwaters of the Kolo and Kemapyu streams were

well worked; a camp was twice taken to the top of Sosiko

(c. 7,500 feet). The Wrens’ Paradise, which is referred to occa-

sionally, is a small stream rising near the summit and flowing

through marshy ground for nearly a mile, covered over by a dense

growth of moss, ferns, creepers and some cane brake, the whole

forming a habitat much appreciated by Wrens, Shortwing's, Thrushes,

Woodcock, Hill Partridges, etc.

Thandaung is a small hill station, consisting chiefly of a tea

estate, the highest point being a hill known as Thandaung-gyi

4,832 feet. A forest reserve contains a block of evergreen forest

with dense bamboo thickets, and the tea estate attracts birds that

like open conditions, so that Thandaung is an excellent centre. _ It

is 40 miles in an air line N.-W. of Nattaung, which is visible in

clear weather. The pine forests appear to be confined to the

Salween drainage and there are none near Thandaung.

Mt. Byingye (Lat. 20° oo! N., Long. 96° 20! E.) is referred

to once or twice and is, like Thandaunge, a mountain on the scarp

of the Shan plateau rising from the Sittang valley and is on the

borders of the Yamethin district and the Southern Shan States

about 60-70 miles north of Thandaung (it is visible from parts of

the Leiktho path). Kalaw is a hill station north of Byingye.

Much remains to be done in the area, and as a guide to future

workers the following list is given of species that are wanted for

systematic work; in each case a good series in fresh plumage is

needed :

Dendrocitta formosae, to determine whether assimilis is a valid race.

Alcippe potocephala karennt.

Criniger flaveolus burmanicus,

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 457

Molpastes cafer nigripileus, see text.

Pericrocoltus solaris, to determine the race.

Acrocephalus agricola stevensi, to determine the race.

Tchitrea paradisi, to determine the race.

Passer rutilans, to determine the race.

Zosterops palpebrosa, to determine whether Z. a. mesoxantha is a valid race.

Attention should be paid to the Hawks, especially the Buzzards of

the Thandaung tea estate, and an eye should always be kept open

for Frogmouths.

REFERENCES.

Birds of British Burmah, Oates (1883).

Fauna of British India, Birds, 2nd. edition, Stuart Baker.

Notes on the birds of Thandaung, Cook. J.B.N.H.S., xxi.

Notes on the birds of Kalaw, Cook. J.B.N.H.S., xxii.

‘Notes on the birds of Nattaung, Karenni’ by the present authors,

/.BNLILS., xli No. 3. June 1940.

or Go NM

SystrEMATiIc [Ltst.

8. Corvus macrorhynchus subsp. Jungle Crow.

Previous vecords.—-Nothing definite.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Common near Karen villages and isolated huts, at elevations up

to 6,0co feet. It is the common Crow of Thandaung.

[13. Corvus splendens insolens. Burmese House Crow.

Cook recorded this species at Thandaung, ‘round dwellings and camping

grounds only’, but we have seen none. ]

21. Urocissa erythrorhyncha magnirostris. Burmese Red-billed Blue Magpie.

Previous records.—Wardlaw Ramsay found it very common in the Karenni

foothills.

Specimens.—None. ;

Noted.—A pair was seen on the Kolo stream (Nattaung) at 3,500 feet in a

taungya; it is evidently scarce above 3,000 feet.

24. Cissa chinensis chinensis. Green Magpie.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—A party was seen at 6,000 feet on the Kolo stream (Nattaung) ;

it is not uncommon at Thandaung, but restricted to evergreen and wet thickets.

Solitary birds are usually seen, but parties of half a dozen are also met with.

Tt has a harsh raucous swearing alarm-note, usually ending with a higher note.

29. Dendrocitta vagabunda subsp. Burmese Treepie.

Previous records.—Nothing definite.

Specimens.—-None.

_ Noted.—A few birds were seen in Thandaung at the end of the rains, but

it was absent in the hot weather and was not seen on Nattaung.

33. Dendrocitta formose subsp. Burmese Hill Treepie.

Previous rvecords.—-Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1; Thandaung 1, 19.

Noted,=Common round Thandaung, rather less so on Nattaung.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

[36. Crypsirhina temia. Black Racket-tailed Magpie.

Oates writes ‘East of the Sittang, among the hills, it appears to be rare

till Pahpoon (=Papun) is reached. From this place to Mergui it occurs... in

greater or Idss abundance.’ We have only seen it by the Sittang near

Toungoo, and it may be confined to low elevations. |

40. Garrulus leucotis leucotis. Burmese Jay.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1.

Noted.—Several pairs were seen on Nattaung in the pine forests up to

5,500 feet. Not seen at Thandaung.

57. Parus major commixtus. Burmese Great Tit.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1.

Noted.—A few pairs were seen on Nattaung in the more open parts of the

forest up to 6,000 feet. Not seen at Thandaung.

74. Machlolophus spilonotus subviridis. Burmese Black-spotted Yellow Tit.

Previous vecords.—Karenni 3,500’ (Wardlaw Ramsay); Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung lo.

Noted.—See our previous paper. It is a common bird in Thandaung.

79. Aegithaliscus concinnus pulchellus. Shan Red-headed Tit.

Previous vecords.—Karenni 3,000’ (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1. ° :

Noted.—All those observed were in parties of about a dozen birds either in

long grass and secondary growth or working through the top ‘of the undergrowth

and lower canopy in open forest. The black eye-patch and buff crown are

diagnostic and members of a party utter very high-pitched call-notes, like the

squeak of a bat. It was noticed that about half the birds in each party had

black throats and the other half white throats; Dr. Ticehurst writes that he

knows of no forms of this species with white throats and that there may have

been two species in the parties: more specimens are wanted to clear up the

point. The species was not seen at.Thandaung.

[87. Melanochlora sultanea sultanea. Indian Sultan Tit.

Recorded by Wardlaw Ramsay from Karenni, elevation not stated; it is

typically a bird of the foothills and may not ascend over 3,000 feet. We saw

none. | ; :

91. Paradoxornis guttaticollis. Austen’s Parrotbill.

Previous rvecords.—None soyth of the Shan States.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1¢. This record extends the known range of this

species southwards.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. On Nattaung several

parties were seen in ponzo and one in open pine forest; they keep to the under-

growth and are partial to a tall reed-like grass that grows in some places. The

two black patches, round the eye and on the ear-coverts,’ separated by a small

white patch, and the straw-coloured crown are diagnostic. There is a distinctive

harsh peculiar call of 6-7 notes on a monotone.

96. Suthora poliotis fea. Salvadori’s Suthora.

Previous vecords.—Karenni (type locality, Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung 2°.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung, and probably absent; for Nattaung see

our previous paper. Two parties of a dozen birds were seen this year working

through tall grasses at 6,000 feet, one party being associated with Alcippe and

Stachyris chrysaea. The rufous crown, white moustachial streaks and black

chin are diagnostic. Delightful little birds and very confiding, but evidently

rather scarce,

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 459

102. Suthora ruficeps atrosuperciliaris. Black-browed Suthora.

Pyevious records.—None south of Bhamo in North-East Burma.

Specimens.—Thandaung 16.

Noted.—Not seen on Nattaung. The specimen was one of a pair seen in a

bamboo thicket on 24 September, and a party was seen on 3 November associated

with Gampsorhynchus rufulus, also in a bamboo thicket ; Stanford has already

commented (Ibis 1938, p. 86, and elsewhere) on the habitual association of

these two species in bamboo jungle in North-East Burma, and his description

of the note as resembling the twang of a guitar is very apt. A single bird was

seen on 12 November.

105. Psittiparus ruficeps bakeri. Baker’s Parrotbill.

Previous rvecords.—Karenni 2,500’-6,000° (Wardlaw Ramsay); near Papun in

kaing grass (Davison).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—We saw none, though on the watch for it, and it must be scarce

or local.

106. Psittiparus gularis gularis. Grey-headed Parrotbill.

Previous vecords.—Karenni 5,600’ (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung; for Nattaung see our previous paper.

This specimen was one of a pair seen in the undergrowth in evergreen; after

collecting it the other bird of the pair uttered persistently a loud distinctive

call of four notes on a monotone.

112. Sitta castanea neglecta. Burmese Nuthatch.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Walden); Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Seen once at Thandaung. It probably seldom occurs in the higher

hills.

115. Sitta magna. Giant Nuthatch.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—See our previous paper. It is not uncommon in the pine forests

of Nattaung, but is absent from Thandaung. A‘l those seen were solitary or

in pairs. In addition to the harsh corvine trisyllabic call it has a single loud,

but not. harsh, call-note.

119. Sitta frontalis corallina. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.

Previous rvecords.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Very common in parties on Nattaung and at Thandaung.

122. Dryonastes chinensis propinquus. Black-throated Laughing-Thrush.

Previous records.—Papun (Davison).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Seen once on Nattaung near a stream at 3,500 feet, and not un-

common round Thandaung, where it was in pairs and probably breeding in

May. It is partial to bamboo thickets and also frequents the undergrowth in

_ evergreen. A superb songster.

129. Garrulax leucolophus belangeri. Burmese White-crested Laughing-Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Thandaung: (Cook).

Specimens.—Thandaung 1 9 (not examined by Dr. Ticehurst).

Noted.—Not seen on Nattaung, but several parties were noted in Thandaung

in. September, November and May,

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUBAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

133. Garrulax pectoralis meridionalis. Burmese Black-gorgeted Laughing-Thrush.

Previous records.—Wardlaw Ramsay found it very common in Karenni, and

found nestlings in March. Cook found it breeding at Thandaung.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Parties of either this or the next species, or both, were seen in

the undergrowth in evergreen, both on Nattaung and at Thandaung.

135. Garrulax moniliger subsp. Burmese Necklaced Laughing-Thrush.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens in the

British Museum from Karenni are intermediate between moniliger and fuscata.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—See under Garrulax pectoralis.

155. Trochalopteron erythrocephalum ramsayi. Karenni Red-headed Laughing-

Thrush.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Cook, Davison, and Wardlaw

Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, I 0.

Noted.—This bird swarms all over the forests of Nattaung at all elevations.

Cook obtained two at Thandaung, but it does not seem to occur there at the

present time; it is not easy to overlook in the breeding season and we saw

none. One call might be rendered you would believe it, with the accent and the

highest note on the second syllable of believe; the call is often shortened hy

omitting the first note, and there are other variations.

158. Trochalopteron ripponi. Burmese Crimson-winged Laughing-Thrush.

Previous records.—None before 19309.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1 0.

Noted.—On Nattaung several parties were observed both in ponzo and

in the undergrowth in evergreen; the birds converse in low churring notes

and they also have a loud musical double call chi-chweew, chi-chweew. Not

seen at Thandaung, and probably absent.

203. Pomatorhinus schisticeps nuchalis. Tweeddale’s Scimitar Babbler:

Previous rvecords.—Karen te and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung Tei 10: Thandaung 1.

Noted.—This bird is very eee in ponzo and undergrowth in forest, both

on Nattaung and at Thandaung; up to 5,000 feet.

[205. Pomatorhinus olivaceus subsp.

In our previous paper we recorded having seen and heard this frequently

but it now seems likely that the birds seen were P. schisticeps nuchalis; the

two are very hard to differentiate in the field. No-one has so far obtained

olivaceus in our area, though its occurrence in the Southern Shan States on

the one side and Northern Tenasserim on the other suggests that it will

be found some day.]

213. Pomatorbinus ferruginosus marie. Walden’s Scimitar Babbler.

Previous records.—Karen Hills, type locality (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 14, Thandaung 19.

Noted.—A scarce bird. The Nattaung specimen was obtained at 7,500 feet

on Sosiko and the Thandaung one at 4,000 feet in a bamboo thicket beside the

Leiktho mule path. We saw no_ others.

216. Pomatorhinus o. ochraceiceps. Lloyd’s Scimitar Babbler.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1; Thandaung 1.

Noted.—Likewise scarce and solitary. The Nattaung specimen was obtained

at 3,400 feet beside a stream, and another was seen at 5,000 feet; the

Thandaung specimen was obtained at 4,500 feet and one other was seen.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 461

All were in bamboo thickets. It has a single musical call-note unlike that of

most Pomatorhinus, and also low notes.

223. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys imberbis. Salvadori’s Scimitar Babbler.

5 iad records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Yado, type locality (Salva-

dor!). :

Specimens.—Nattaung 19 ; Thandaung 1.

Noted.—Not uncommon and seen in pairs and small parties in ponzo and

bamboo thickets. The call-note is loud and distinctive : callow-creeee, callow-

creeee, with variations. It also utters a distinctive harsh swearing call.

228. Timalia pileata intermedia. Burmese Red-capped Babbler.

Taho (Salvadori).

Previous records,

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Not seen by us, and normally a bird of the plains and foothills.

233, Gampsorhynchus rufulus torquatus. Ring-necked Shrilke-Babbler.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay); Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens.—-Thandaung 1 o.

Noted.—Not seen on Nattaung. The specimen was obtained on 22 October

in a bamboo thicket at 4,500 feet, out of a party making noises rather like

those of Garrulax leucolophus. It appears to be scarce, only one other party

having been observed.

234. Chrysomma s. sinensis. Indian Yellow-eyed Babbler.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay, elevation?).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Not seen by us. It is typically a bird of the plains and foothills,

but Rippon recorded it from Kalaw in 1896-7, so that it may occur in our

area: so far there seem to be no certain records from above 3,000 feet.

241. Pellorneum subochraceum. Malay Spotted Babbler.

Previous records.—Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens.—Nattaung 13.

Noted.—Seen or heard once or twice on Nattaung up to 5,000 feet. Com-

mon and breeding at Thandaung.

248. Pellorneum albiventre cinnamomeum. Rippon’s Babbler.

Previous records.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—None. 4

Noted.—The specimen obtained in 1939 constitutes our only record of this

bird.

252. Drymocataphus t. tickelli. Tickell’s Babbler.

Previous records.—Karenni 2,500 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 1 (breeding), 1 0 (juvenile).

Noted.—The specimens were obtained in bamboo thickets, the juvenile on

24 September. The bird has a loud piercing call-note, pit-you, pit-you, etc.,

uttered fairly rapidly. Unlike P. subochraceum the birds seen were not in

the least shy; it appears to be rather scarce but is a resident.

257. Napothera brevicaudata venningi. Venning’s Wren-Babbler.

Previous records.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, 1

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung. This is typically a bird of rocky stream

beds in evergreen, in which habitat we have noted several pairs from 3,500

to 5,000 feet. It has a chattering alarm-note, possibly, the one given in the

F.B.I. as a prolonged kir-r-r, and also a mournful single note pioy.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

261. Napothera exul bakeri. Baker’s Wren-Babbler.

Previous records.—Recorded by Harington, but no Specimens traceable.

Specimens.—None from our area but one from Mt. Byingye, Southern Shan

States, on 5 November 1938. — ;

Noted.—Not seen by us.

272. Stachyris nigriceps davisoni. Malay Black-throated Babbler.

Previous records.—Thandaung (Harington).

Specimens.—Nattaung 2¢, 19; Thandaung 2.

Noted.—Not uncommon, and keeps mainly to bamboo thickets and under-

growth in evergreen; seen in parties and also singly in association with

Alcippe. The call-note is prrreee ... prrrreeeecee.

275. Stachyris chrysaea assimilis. Burmese Golden-headed Babbler.

Previous vecords.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung 39; Thandaung 20, 19.

Noted.—This bird swarms in bamboo thickets and thick cover, in which

it normally keeps low down but occasionally ascends to a height of 20 feet

when feeding. It has a variety of calls: one is very like the call of Stachyri-

dopsis rufifrons, about half a dozen notes on a monotone, but can be distin-

guished by lower pitch, slower utterance, and a distinct pause after the first

note; another is a wheezy sibilant Franklinia-like call of 3 notes up the scale,

tzu-tsu-tzu; others are low churring notes of alarm. If one keeps still it is

a tame and confiding bird.

979, Stachyridopsis r. rufifrons. Hume’s Red-fronted Babbler.

Previous vecords.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens.—Thandaung 1Q (24 September 1938). ;

Noted.—Scarce. One was collected last year, and one was seen this year

beside the Mawchi road at 4,000 feet. This is another bird of the foothills

that occasionally ascends over 3,000 feet.

284. Mixornis rubricapiila sulphurea. Gyldenstolpe’s Yellow-breasted Babbler.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 29 (24-9-39 and 9-10-41) 1d (2 November).

Noted.—Not seen on Nattaung. Not uncommon at Thandaung, where it

was also seen in May and probably breeds. It swarms in the foothills.

287. Alcippe f.fratercula. Shan States Babbler.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Taho

(Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, 19.

Nolted.—Not seen at Thandaung. It appears to be a strictly high elevation

form, very common on Nattaung over 5,000 feet, but not seen lower. down:

The call-note is quite distinct from that of potocephala.

293. Alcippe poiocephala karenni. Karenni Quaker Babbler.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1%; Thandaung 2% (1939) 19 (24-9-38).

Noted.—Only one party was seen on Nattaung, in ponzo at 3,000 feet

uttering the typical poiocephala call; the specimen was a juvenile and had a

ring of yellow feathers round the eye. This species is common at Thandaung.

297. Schoeniparus d. dubius. Tenasserim Tit-Babbler.

Previous vecords.—Pine forests north of Papun (Davison).

Shecimens.—Nattaung 1%, 29.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung, and probably . ahsent.. There is little to

add to the notes in. our previous paper, except that it seems partial to the

cover on stream banks in dense evergreen, and sometimes ascends the lower

part of a tree like a’ Nuthatch, }

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 163

302. Pseudominla'c, castaneiceps. Chestnut-headed Tit-Babbler.

Previous records.—-Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung, and probably absent. Lor field notes. see

our previous paper. It has a harsh little call-note and at times utters a rattle

of ascending notes. A nest was found on top of Sosiko at 7,500 feet. The

nest was worked into the moss growing on a tree at 5 feet from the ground ;

it was domed and made of moss and bamboo leaves, lined with a few very

line grass. stems and tendrils. The eggs, 3 in number, were whitish in colour,

with minute spots of blackish and brown mainly forming a ring at the larger

end. The bird was flushed from the nest and watched at close quarters.

310. Heterophasia picaoides cana. Long-tailed Sibia.

Previous records.—Karenni 6,000’ (Wardlaw Ramsay); Yaho and Yado

(Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. The call recorded in

our previous paper is that of Lalage and not of this bird, which utters. low

party call-notes and has a distinctive high-pitched, but not loud, sucking note

tsip-tsip-tsip-tstp-tsip. | Not uncommon in small parties, which keep to the

denser parts of the forest.

316. Leioptila melanoleuca castanoptera. l*ea’s Sibia.

Previous records.—lKaren Hills (type locality, Fea),

Specimens.—None this year. See our previous paper.

Noted.—Not seen at ‘thandaung, and probably absent. On Nattaung a

hest containing young was kept under obser vation from 8 to 18 April. It was

built on the upper side of a pine branch about 25 feet from the ground near

the top of a ridge; it was not collected but appeared to be a deep cup made

chiefly of moss. Both parents fed the young at regular intervals’ throughout

the day. A Crow and a Jay were observed to approach dangerously close to

the nest and were driven off by us, the Sibias being powerless. against them.

The calls of this species and the next are similar but distinct; [ea’s Sibia

starts with a very short trill which runs into three short notes on the same

pitch and ends with two longer notes both dropping in pitch, whereas Walden’s

Sibia has a shorter call which only drops in pitch on the last note.

318. Leioptila annectans saturata, Walden’s Sibia.

Previous vecords.—\Karenni (type locality, Walden).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung, and probably absent. It is rather less

common than Fea’s Sibia, but very similar in habits and choice of habitats,

one was observed bathing in a stream in evergreen at about mid-day.

324, Actinodurar.ramsayi, Ramsay’s Barwing.

Previous records.—Karenni (type pee Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—There is nothing to add to our previous notes.

331. Staphidia castaneiceps striata. JVickell’s Staphidia.

Previous records.—Mr. J. M. D. Mackenzie shot two birds off nests con-

taining eggs on 3 and 14 April 1928 at Thandaung.

Specimens.—Nattaung 19; Thandaung 3d, 19.

Noted.—Resident and fairly common in parties, which keep to the lower

canopy and top of the undergrowth.

334, Siva strigula castaneicauda, Hume’s Siva. coat

Previous records.—Nattaung (Wardlaw Ramsay),

Specimens.—Nattaung 16.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. This. bird | appears

to be restricted to the Pine-Rhododendron association on the higher slopes of

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiil

Nattaung, where it is common. The black moustachial stripe, brown crown

and yellowish breast are diagnostic. The call-note is too-sweet-sweet.

338, Siva cyanouroptera oatesi, Oates’s Blue-winged Siva.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, 2@.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. Rather scarce on

Nattaung; parties were seen on two or three occasions only, working through

the canopy like a party of Tits or Staphidias and uttering a cree-cree call-note.

Seen in open forest and roadside trees between 4,500 and 5,500 feet.

349, Ixulus humilis clarkii. Oates’s Ixulus.

Previous records.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—Nattaung 19, 1 0;

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. xcept that the

call-note might be rendered chit-a-wit repeated there is nothing to add to our

previous notes.

350. Herpornis x. xantholeuca. White-bellied Herpornis.

Previous records.—Karen Hills 4,000° (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 19 (24 September).

Noted.—Scarce. One bird was noted bathing in a stream in evergreen

in the middle of the day on Nattaung, and two pairs were seen in undergrowth

on the Leiktho mule path early in May, where they were no doubt breeding.

\ very quiet and unobtrusive bird; the only note heard was a bleating call

of 3 notes.

353. Cutia n. nipalensis, Nepal Cutia.

Previous records.—Yado (Salvadori); Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19.

Noted.—Not uncommon in the pine forests. The field characteristics of

this beautiful bird are the grey head, rufous upper-parts striped with black,

conspicuous light rufous upper tail-coverts, white chin and throat, and flanks

heavily barred white and black. The call, described in our previous paper,

355. Pteruthius erythropterus aeralatus, Vickell’s Shrike-Babbler.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19; Thandaung 19 (24-9-39), 1 Q (304-41).

Nolted.—See our previous paper. Common at Thandaung and noted in

May. ‘The male sometimes utters a pink note like that of a Chaffinch.

The usual call-notes are :—

. Cha-chew-cha-chew.

Chu-wip-chip-chip.

Cha-cha-chip, cha-cha-chip uttered rapidly.

& Hm»

356. Pteruthius molanotis. Chestnut-throated Shrike-Babbler.

Previous records.—None.

Specimens.—Nattaung 2d, 1Q.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung, and probably absent. On Nattaung noted

up to 5,500 feet. The few birds seen resembled Phylloscopi in the way they

worked through the foliage in the tree-tops.

357, Pteruthius aenobarbus intermedius. [{ume’s Shrile-Babbler.

Previous vecords.—'Youngoo’, probably Karen Hills (specimens in British

Museum).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d.

Noted.—Only the one bird was seen. Evidently scarce.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI AGE

362. Aegithina t. tiphia. Common lora.

Previous records.—Yado (Salvadori); Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay),

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Though common enough in Toungoo town we have not come across

it in the hills.

368. Chloropsis a. aurifrons, Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Previous records.—Yado (Salvadori); Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—At Thandaung.

371. Chloropsis hardwickii malayana. Orange-bellied Chloropsis.

Previous records.—Yaho and Yado (Salvadori); Thandaung (Cook); Karenni

3,500 to 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Thandaung and Nattaung.

372. Chloropsis c. cochinchinensis. Burmese Chloropsis.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (specimens in British Museum); IKarenni

1,0000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens,—None,.

Noted.—One bird was noted singing at Thandaung on 23 September. None

of the three species of Chloropsis can be described as common; most of those

observed were in trees beside the road.

376. Mesia a. argentauris, Silver-eared Mesia.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni 1,500-4,000 feet (Wardlaw

Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Very common on Nattaung up to 5,000 feet in ponzo, but com-

paratively scarce at Thandaung. It has a loud cheerful call, we are very well

today boys.

377. Minla i. ignotincta. Red-tailed Minla.

Previous records.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Common down to 5,000 feet on Nattaung; not seen at Thandaung

and probably absent. The black crown with long broad white supercilia on

each side, and the red on the wings and tail are diagnostic.

381. Criniger flaveolus burmanicus. Burmese White-throated Bulbul.

Previous records:x—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Karen

Hills (Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19 ; Thandaung 19°.

Noted.—On Nattaung it was quite common in the Kemapyu drainage

below 3,500 feet but was not observed elsewhere. In handaung it was

not uncommon in March to May and may be a hot weather immigrant to

breed, none having been seen in September, October or November. It has a

curious frog-like call-note.

388. Microscelis psaroides concolor. Burmese Black Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Karen

Hills (Salvadori).

Specimens.—None this year. *

Noted.—Common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung.

390. Cerasophila thompsoni. Bingham’s White-headed Bulbul.

Previous records.—Ranges from Mogok in the Northern Shan States to

the Dawnas and Amherst in Northern Tenasserim, but does not appear to

have been recorded previously from our area.

466 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HisT: SOCIELY, Vol. XLiil

Specimens.—Thandaung 1¢ juv., lo juv. (juvenile hitherto unknown) obtained

on & May.

Noted.—One party was seen on Nattaung and several pairs in Vhandaung

in the hot weather; it may also be an immigrant to breed, and is not the

common bird that it is on Mt. Byingye further north.

_ 393. Ixos flavala hildebrandi, Hiidebrand’s Brown-eared Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay and Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung lo; Thandaung 1¢ (25 September).

‘voted.—The only party seen on Nattaung was in ponzo at 4,000 feet. At

Thandaung we have noted a tew parties along the Leiktho mule. path. It

has loud and pleasant call-notes, one of which is keep, keep on going.

3Y5. Ixos macclellandi tickelli. Tickel!’s Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Salvadori); Karenni 2,500-4,000 feet (Ward-

law Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 10.

Noted.—Common on Naitaung and a few birds. are resident at Thandaung,

but it is restricted to evergreen and temperate forest. It has a loud distinctive

call-note, a sucking sip-sip-sip; also a call of three notes on an ascending scale

and a mewing call.

A. nest was tound in temperate forest at 7,500 feet on Sosiko. It was very

neatly made of moss and dead bamboo leaves, lined with rootlets and sus-

pended by cobwebs trom two horizontal twigs of bamboo at 1o feet from the

ground. The eggs, 2 in number, were typical Bulbul’s eggs, whitish-green in

ground colour with mauve and purple spots over the whole surface.

397. Alcurus striatus. Striated Green Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills.

Spectmens.—None this year. x Pape ty 0ue

Noted.—See our previous paper. Not seen at Thandaung and probably

absent. It is rarely seen outside dense evergreen but is a fine songster. |

401. Molpastes caier nigripiteus. Tenasserim Red-vented Bulbul.

Previous rvecords.—Ixaren Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 1d, 19.

Noted.—Two or three pairs are breeding residents at Thandaung. ‘To solve

the problem of the relationships between WM. c. nignipileus, M. cnrysorrhoides

-klossi, and M. c. burmanicus: a problem that has puzzled ornithologists since

before Oates’s day: a good series of all three is required from diflerent

localities and elevations in the Karen Hills and Karenni. So far’as we know

at present, burmanicus is the common plains bird round Toungoo, nigripucus

is the form at Lhandaung, and klossi is the form on Nattaung, but elsewhere

the distributions of these last two shcw much interlacing, and they are so

similar in appearance that sight records cannot be accepted.

402. Molpastes chrysorrhoides klossi. Siamese ed-vented Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—On Nattaung a pair, probably of this form, was seen at the exact

spot where a specimen was obtained last year.

409. Xantiixus flavescens vividus. Mulayit Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and IXarenni (several authorities).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19; Thandaung 1¢.. is

Noted.—Swarms all over the ponzo and taungyas on Nattaung, and is

equally abundant at Thandaung; not seen over 6,000 feet.

412. Otocompsa jocosa peguensis. Burmese Red-whiskered Bulbul. ~

Previous yecords.—\lkaren Hills and Karenni (several authorities).

Specimens.—Thandaung 16.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 467

Noted.—Fairly common on Nattaung below 4,000 feet in the taungyas and

extremely so in the tea estate at Thandaung. The red whisker is prominent

in the field, but moulting birds in May show none at all and very little red

under the tail.

413. Otocompsa f. flaviventris. Blacix-crested Yellow Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (several authorities).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Seen occasionally both on Nattaung and at Thandaung, not above

4,500 feet.

421. lole virescens subsp. Olive Bulbul.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 19.

Noted.—Not seen on Nattaung, but probably occurs at low elevations. It

is not uncommon in the evergreen on the road up to Thandaung, and in

Thandaung itself, and appeared to be breeding in May. Easily recognised by

its bleating call-note.

426. Pycnonotus xanthorrhous, Anderson’s Yellow-vented Bulbul.

Previous rvecords.—Karen Hills and Karenni.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Seen on Nattaung in open country up to 4,500 feet. Distinguished

from Xanthixus flavescens, which it resembles, by absence of white spots in

front of the eyes and by the brighter yellow of the under tail-coverts.

[427. Pycnonotus f. finlaysoni. Finlayson’s Stripe-throated Bulbul.

Pycnonotus b. blanfordi. Blanford’s Olive Bulbul.

Wardlaw Ramsay obtained both species in the Karen Hills (elevation not

stated) according to Oates, but his specimens in the British Museum are labelled

Toungoo. We saw neither species and if they occur at all they are probably

confined to the foothills. P. blanfordi is common in Toungoo town. |

[439. Microtarsus atriceps. Black-headed Bulbul.

Wardlaw Ramsay obtained it in Karenni (elevation not stated) and there

are specimens in the British Museum labelled Karen Hills, but it remains

to be proved: that this species occurs above 3,000 feet; we have only seen it

in the plains. ]

454, Certhia discolor shanensis. Karenni Treecreeper.

Previous vecords.—Karenni 5,000-6,000° (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, 1Q.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. There is nothing

to add to the notes in our previous paper.

[471. Pnoepyga a. aibiventris, Scaly-breasted Wren.

Wardlaw Ramsay recorded this from Karenni and did not record pusilla ;

in his collection in the British Museum there is a specimen of pusiila but

none of albiventris; it seems likely that he confused the two. We saw no

signs of albiventris. |

472. Pnoepyga p. pusilla. Brown Wren.

Previous records.—See under albiventris.

Specimens.—Nattaung Id, 1 0.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung. On Nattaung it is- not. uncommon. wher-

ever flat stretches with a growth of ferns and creepers border streams in

evergreen. The note is a single zip uttered at varying intervals.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIil

475. Tesiac. cyaniventer, Slaty-bellied Wren.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1¢, belonging to the form olivea.

_ Noted.—Quite one of the commonest birds on Nattaung, where every little

moist nullah seems to hold a pair. It has two very distinctive call-notes: one

consists of 3 or 4 hesitant single notes, up and down, followed by what can

only be described as an outburst of noise, with a surprising volume for so

small a bird: the other, chiefly heard in the mornings and evenings, con-

sists of 3 single notes descending in pitch with a marked pause between each

note: three (pause) blind (pause) mice. A few pairs are resident in Thandaung.

476. Tesiac. castaneocoronata. Chestnut-headed Wren.

Previous vecords.—None.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, 1 0.

Noted.—Seen only in the Wrens’ Paradise on Sosiko, 7,000 to 7,500 feet.

The call is a single rather loud note tweet, which attracts attention. In habits

it resembles the preceding species, and both have been seen to ascend trees

to a height of 20 to 30 feet, though this is unusual.

[483. Larvivora cyane. Siberian Blue Chat.

Cook obtained one from the lower hills near Thandaung and Davison found

it common in Tenasserim, not ascending the higher hills. Its occurrence over

3,000 feet in our area remains to be proved. ]

488. Brachypteryx cruralis, White-browed Shortwing. is

Previous rvecords.—Karenni 5,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung Id. ee

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung. The Shortwings keep almost entirely to

tiny streams in evergreen where the cover is very thick. They are very

tame and confiding, and almost invariably greet the intruder with a burst of

song, which is characterised by its compass of high and low notes, with

odd sucking and popping noises thrown in.

489. Brachypteryx leucophrys nipalensis. Nepal Shortwing.

Previous rvecords.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—Nattaung I 0.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung.

492, Saxicola c. caprata. Burmese Stonechat.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay),

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—A breeding immigrant to Thandaung in the hot weather. It breeds

in large numbers all over the tea estate in April and May. On Nattaung

it was seen in Taungyas below 5,000 feet.

496. Saxicola torquata subsp. Bush Chat.

Previous vecords.—Pine forests of the Salween (Ibis 1938 p. 222).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Not seen by us.

502. Rhodophila ferrea Dark Grey Bush Chat.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Common on Nattaung and breeding there; also seen at Thandaung,

but not in the hot weather.

519. Henicurus schistaceus. Slaty-backed Torkxtail.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay),

Specimens.—None this year.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 469

Noted.—Common on Nattaung along shady streams and noted down to

3,000 feet. Probably occurs near Thandaung. Its call is a high-pitched single

note.

521. Henicurus leschenaulti indicus. !eschenault’s Indian Forktail. |

Previous vecords.—Thandaung, breeding (Cook).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Common on Nattaung in pairs and often seen on the same stretch

of stream as the last species. In addition to the usual Forktail note it has

a harsh screech of alarm very like that of Myiophoneus, but not quite so

loud. Also noted at Thandaung.

534. Chaimarrhornis leucocephala, White-capped Redstart.

Previous rvecords.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—A bird was seen on the stream running through the tea estate in

Thandaung, in March but not in April-May, so that it may not breed in

Thandaung itself. For Nattaung see our. previous paper.

~ 535. Rhyacornis f. fuliginosa. Plumbeous Redstart.

Previous records.—None south of the Southern Shan States.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—A bird in female dress was observed for several days at the end

of March on the -Kolo stream, Nattaung, at 4,o00 feet.

542, Calliope calliope. Common Rubythroat.

Previous records.—Karen Hills; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—A male was noted in 1939 on Nattaung, and a male was seen on

24 March 1940 in the tea estate at Thandaung.

554.. Myiomela leucura. White-tailed Blue Robin.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung Id, I 0. ;

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung. The specimens were obtained in a shady

stream between 3,000 and 3,500 feet, and another bird was seen in the Wrens’

Paradise on Sosiko at 7,000 feet.

558. Copsychus s. saularis. Indian Magpie-Robin.

Previous records.—Karen Hills; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

“Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Noted in taungyas on Nattaung up to 4,000 feet, but not seen at

Thandaung, where one would expect to find it.

563. Kittacincla malabarica indica. Indian Shama.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills and Karenni.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Mainly a bird of the foothills, but one was noted near Thandaung

on 2 November.

[576. Turdus pallidus, Pale Thrush. ;

Oates records that Wardlaw Ramsay obtained one in Karenni in January

and Davison another on Mt. Mulayit in Northern Tenasserim; the birds in

question are Turdus feae (Ticehurst, Ibis 1939, p. 350). ]

581. Turdus o. obs¢urus. Dark Thrush.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Salvadori); Thandaung’ (Cool).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—There is nothing to add to our previous’ notes,

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLItI

583. Turdus feae. Fea’s Thrush.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—This was one of the few species previously recorded from our

area that we failed to encounter.

585. Geokichla s. Sibirica. Siberian Ground Thrush.

Previous rvecords.—None?

Specimens.—Nattaung hg CBE

Noted.—Common on Nattaung, either singly or in small parties, along

streams in evergreen; we mistook the female specimens for Oveocincla dixoni.

Not seen at Thandaung.

586. Geokichla sibirica davisoni. Davison’s Ground Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Another bird we did not encounter.

587-8. Geokichla citrina subsp. Orange-headed Ground Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19.

Noted.—Only one bird was seen, at a buffalo wallow also frequented by a

party of 4 Geocichla sibirica; not seen at Thandaung. It is evidently scarce.

595. Oreocincla d. dauma. Small-billed Mountain Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19. _

Noted.—Several birds were noted on Nattaung, always beside paths near

the tops of dry ridges in pine forest, in contrast to the other Thrushes which

were all seen in or near streams. ‘The specimen, with ovary enlarging, was

one of a pair. The race aurea might occur as a winter visitor.

599a. Oreocincla dixoni. Plain-backed Mountain Thrush.

Previous records.—Karenni 5,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—This Thrush also eluded us,

604. Zoothera marginata. Lesser Brown Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—The specimen obtained in 1939 represents our only encounter with

this species.

605. Monticola rufiventris. Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens.—None. :

Noted.—Two pairs were seen on Nattaung in pine forest, at 5,500 feet and

7,000 feet.

608. Monticola solitaria pandoo. Indian Blue Rock Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1 o.

Noted.—Two pairs had arrived in Thandaung when we first went up on

23 September; they were still there in March but had left by 24 April. As

the Nattaung specimen was obtained on g April the return migration must

take place about the middle of April.

It is a typical bird of the enormous granite boulders of the tea estate, and

of the stone ‘culverts along the Thandaung road; one bird is nearly always

to be seen on the roof of the Circuit House.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 471

614. My ophoneus coeruleus temminckii. Himalayan Whistling Thrush.

615. My ophoneus coeruleus eugenei. Burmese Whistling Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay, both races).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—There is often a bird beside the road up to Thandaung. Common

along rocky streams in Karenni.

617. Cochoa purpurea. Purple Thrush.

Previous vecords.—Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—We saw none.

618. Cochoa viridis. Green Thrush.

Previous rvecords.—Hopwood’s record of a bird breeding at Thandaung in

1905 is the only previous record for the whole of Burma.

Specimens.—Nattaung 1d, 19.

Noted.—The specimens were obtained out of a party of 4 birds flying about

in the tops of tall trees in evergreen at 5,000 feet; the understorey was not

dense, and the birds were flying freely from tree to tree, occasionally coming

down to a tree in the understorey. No notes were heard.

~ 632. Hemichelidon sibirica fuliginosa. Sooty Flycatcher.

Previous records.—lKaren Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 19 (24 September).

Noted.—Although this species had not left Thandaung by 12 May it showed

no signs of breeding and was absent later in the rains; it appears to be a

winter visitor that arrives early and leaves late.

635. Hemichelidon ferruginea. Ferruginous Flycatcher.

Previous rvecords.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—Thandaung 1 0 (24 September).

Noted.—The specimen was obtained in oak forest beside the Leiktho mule »

path. On Nattaung it is very common along small streams running through

evergreen. No evidence of breeding was obtained.

636. Muscicapa s. strophiata. Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Mt. Byingye and Mt. Mulayit.

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Not seen by us; though there is no record actually from our area it

is certain to occur.

639. Muscicapa parva albicilla. Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19.

Noted.—This species had already arrived at Thandaung on 23 September,

and the Nattaung specimen was obtained on to April, after which no more

were seen. It no doubt winters in the hills.

642. Muscicapula hodgsoni. Rusty-breasted Blue Flycatcher.

Previous rvecords.—Karen Hills 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1.

Noted.—Common on Nattaung and a male was seen in Thandaung in March.

It is a shy bird and keeps much to thick undergrowth and bamboo thickets.

643. Muscicapula h. hyperythra. Rufous-breasted Blue Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—None before 10939.

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—The short white eyebrow of the male is diagnostic. It has a

characteristic little song, almost a wheeze, consisting of four notes; the first,

472, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

second and fourth are of the same pitch, the third being much lower; there

is then a slight pause followed by two notes resembling see-saw, the first note

being much higher than the second. In its choice of habitat it resembles the

Shortwings, preferring dense undergrowth along small streams in evergreen

forest, and like them it is tame and confiding.

646. Muscicapula tricolor cerviniventris, Eastern Slaty-blue Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Salvadori).

Specimens.—Nattaung 19.

Noted.—Not seen at Thandaung. A scarce bird, and from what we saw

of it rather a skulker. A male, either of this or the next species, was seen

at 4,500 feet beside the Mawchi road and the specimen was obtained a fort-

night later close to the same spot, making a noise like the note of Muscicapa

parva whilst skulking in a bush.

648. Muscicapula superclliaris estigma. Little Blue-and-White Flycatcher.

Previous rvecords.—Karenni 2,500 (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—This bird eluded us.

649. Muscicapula’m. meianoleuca. Indian Little Pied Flycatcher.

Previous vecords:—Karen Hills. Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Thandaung 106 (30-4-41).

Noted.—See our previous notes. Its call-note may be heard in the heat

of the day on dry ridge tops when other birds are quiet. It is less common

at Thandaung, but probably breeds there.

651. Muscicapula sapphira. Sapphire-headed Flycatcher.

Previous rvecords.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—Nattaung 10.

Noted.—The specimen was obtained in the understorey in pine forest at

s,o00 feet, and no others were seen. It is evidently scarce and was not seen

at Thandaung. :

652. Muscicapula vivida oatesi. Rufous-bellied Blue Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—None from our area, but has been obtained on Mt. Byingye

and Mt. Mulayit.

Specimens.—Nattaung 19. Le

Noted.—The specimen was one of a pair, both in female plumage, behaving

much like the Large Niltava in the understorey in evergreen at 4,500 feet.

No others were seen and it seems to be rare. Not seen at Thandaung.

655. Muscicapula u. unicolor, Pale Blue Flycatcher.

Previous vecords—Karen Hills (Salvadori).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Not seen by us.

659. Muscicapula rubeculoides dialilaema. Salvadori’s Blue-throated Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Taho (type locality, Salvadori) ; Karenni (Wardlaw

Ramsay). ‘

Specimens.—Nattaung 1¢; Thandaung 20.

Noted.—Common. A pair was kept under observation in Thandaung from

24 April to 12 May. The male sang daily in a small defined territory and

the female only appeared two or three times, and was probably _ sitting.

Numerous other singing males were noted elsewhere in the same period; they

were also heard singing in October. The usual phrase is tchik-tchik and

then a run of 6 notes on the same pitch except for the second, which is

higher; the first tchik-tchik is harsh and the other notes are whistled. There

is also a musical warble by way of variation. The race rubeculoides may

occur as a winter visitor,

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 473

658a. Muscicapula banyumas whitei. Bhamo Blue Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Birds seen at Thandaung with rufous running up to the chin,

_ thought at the time to be dialilaema, were probably this.

665. Eumyias t. thalassina. Verditer Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills; Karenni 700-5,000’ (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Not uncommon on Nattaung and also seen at Thandaung, where

Cook recorded it as common and breeding.

671. Anthipes moniliger leucops. Sharpe’s White-gorgeted Flycatcher.

Previous records.—Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1.

Noted.—It keeps to bamboo thickets or undergrowth in evergreen and is

quiet, unobtrusive, and rather scarce. Seen once at Thandaung.

674. Alseonax |. latirostris. Sumatran Brown Flycatcher.

Previous rvecords.—None.

Specimens.—Thandaung 10.

Noted.—The specimen was obtained on 25 September from a tree beside

the Leiktho mule path at 4,500 feet, and was probably a passage migrant;

we saw no others.

679. Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysaea. Burmese Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Previous records.—Karen Hills; Karenni 3,500’ (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Very common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung; it is partial

to shady streams and several pairs were noted as probably breeding.

682. Niltava g. grandis. Large Niltava.

Previous records.—None before 1939.

Specimens.—Nattaung 3d, 19.

Noted.—It is confined to the densest and shadiest parts of the evergreen,

and is the most markedly characteristic bird of this type of habitat. It does

not occur at Thandaung, but has been obtained on Mt. Byingye.

+> 684, Niltavas.sundara. Indian Rufous-bellied Niltava.

Previous records.—Taho (Salvadori). Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1g, 19.

Noted.—The only birds seen were along a small stream in evergreen at

4,000 feet; both were in the same valley, but about 4 mile apart. The white

throat patch of the female is diagnostic. The male was making sallies from

a perch, but not always returning to the same perch. Not seen at Thandaung.

685. Niltava macgrigoriae. Small Niltava.

Previous records.—Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—Nattaung 1°.

Noted.—Two males and a female were seen along a shady stream at

3,500 feet. The female was observed constructing a nest on the internode

of a bamboo, which had been cut at 5 feet from the ground leaving a stump

standing. When last seen on 16 April the nest was incomplete, and consisted

of a mossy cup.

688. Tchitrea paradisi (indochinensis ?) Paradise Flycatcher.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay),

Specimens,—Nattaung 1.

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Noted.—The specimen was obtained in bushes beside a stream at 3,500 feet;

it was in the chestnut plumage, as was also a bird seen at Thandaung on

7 October 1941.

693.“ Hypothymis azurea styani. Northern Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.

Previous records.—No definite record?

Specimens.—None.

Noted.—Chiefly ‘a bird of the foothills and we have seen it only once on

Nattaung and once at Thandaung, both times below 4,000 feet.

699. Chelidorynx hypoxanthum, Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.

Previous records.—Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Confined to shady evergreen streams over 6,000 feet, and to tem-

perate forest. A number of birds were seen in the Wrens’ Paradise on

Sosiko. The bright yellow forehead, black band through eye, and habit of

frequently fanning the tail, which has some white in it, are diagnostic. It

is tame and confiding.

[701. Rhipidura aureola burmanica. Burmese White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Cook noted this as common at Thandaung but it seems likely that he

confused it with the next species; there- are no other records or specimens

from our area. Oates found it near Toungoo, but it is typically a bird of

dry scrub country in the plains and foothills. ]

703. Rhipidura a. albicollis. White-throated Fantail Flycatcher.

Previous vecords.—Karen Hills (Salvadori); Thandaung (Cook); Karenni

(Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.—None this year.

Noted.—Common on Nattaung and also at Thandaung, at all elevations

wherever shady streams and wet thickets occur; it appears to breed early,

and a juvenile was again seen in mid-April.

(To be continued)

5 Seopa owe mem ast

etry tags Erm hE ea egy

‘

batons regres th acm citer oftartli Yvette Pereyra ete

1 yy i

may u - ri oy

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLALESIG

Sayeedud-Din. —lonidium suffruticosum Ging.

(For explanation see end of article).

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR

: ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS:

M. SAYEEDUD-DIN.

Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan.

(With three plates).

(Continued from page 172 of Vol. xliii, No, 2).

X—IONIDIUM SUFFRUTICOSUM Ging.

(VIOLACEAE),.

SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

Tonidium suffruticosum Ging. in DC. Prodr. i, 311; H.F.B.I.,

Welbends; Gamblesrie. Pres. -Madras,-Pt: I, 49; Wt. Ill. t.. 19; Wet.

Ic. t. 308; Watt Dict. Econ. Prod. I, V. IV, 475. Syn:—lI. enneas-

permum Vent. Jard. Malm. (1803) fol. 27, Kirt. Ind. Med. Plts.,

Ve 212) Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb, F.,- 12: I. heterophyllum_Vent.,

Cooke Fl. Pres. Bomb., Pt. 1, 52; Duthie Fl. Upper Gang. Plain,

We Jl oy

A small suffrutescent perennial herb, with many diffuse or as-

cending branches, glabrous or more or less pubescent. Leaves

lanceolate, subsessile, with serrated margins; stipules gland-tipped,

subulate. Flowers red or. pink, axillary, solitary; bracts small, above

the middle of the pedicel. Sepals 5, lanceolate, very acute, keeled.

Petals 5, unequal, the 2 upper ones oblong, slightly longer than

the sepals, the 2 lateral longer, falcate, the lowest much larger

than the rest, having an orbicular or obovate limb with a long

claw which is curved behind into a short spur. Stamens 5. Anthers

connate or free, 2 or 4 of them gibbous or spurred at the back.

Style clavate, incurved; stigma oblique. Ovary sessile, 1-celled;

ovules many on 3 parietal placentas. Fruit a subglobose capsule.

Seeds ovoid, acute, longitudinally striate, yellowish white. (Plates

I and II). Flowers Oct.-Dec. Root, leaves and tender stalks, and

fruit are medicinal (Kirtikar, 6).

INDIAN NAMES.

Ratanpurus (Hindi); Nilakobari, Purusharatnam, Suriyakantt

(Telugu); Ratanpuras (Marathi); Orelatamara (Malayalam); Orilai-

tamarai (Tamil); Amburuha, Lakshmishreshta, Padma, Pushkarini,

Sarada (Sanskrit).

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Habitat.

A common weed in grassy places, fields, and open forest lands

in many parts of India. Abundant from Bundelkhand and Agra,

to Bengal and Ceylon (Hooker, 5); common in the Southern Concan

(Dalz. & Gibs., 2); not uncommon in the districts of Agra and

Delhi, and in Bundelkhand (Duthie, 3); very common in fields and

waste places (Mayuranathan, 7). Distribution, Tropical Asia,

ANATOMICAL NOTES.

Structure of the leaf. (Plate III, Figs. 1 and 2). The cuticle is

finely but distinctly striated. Epidermal cells are of considerable

size, serving as water-reservoirs. Sabnis (8) found a similar type

of epidermis in Viola Stocksii Boiss. The stomata belong to the

Cruciferous type, being surrounded by three subsidiary cells—two

big and one small. No transition to the Rubiaceous type could be

seen, as 1s recorded by Solereder (10). They are sunk below the

level of the epidermis, and are present on both surfaces, but mostly

on the under surface. Internal secretory organs do not occur.

Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of clinorhombic crystals along

the veins only in the leaf, and in the form of clustered crystals in

the stem. Borodin (Solereder, 10) distinguishes eight types of

crystals in the Violaceae. The solitary oblique crystals occurring

exclusively along the veins in Jonidium spp. belong to the Ionidiwm-

type. The hairy covering consists of simple uniseriate straight hairs

in the stem, and of similar and curved hairs in the leaf (Plate ITI,

Figs. 2 and 3). Glandular hairs do not occur.

Structure of the axis. The cuticle is striated. The epidermal

cells are of considerable size as in the leaf, their outer walls being

muriculate. The primary cortex consists of collenchyma and chloren-

chyma. Scattered stone-cells are present in the region of the peri-

cycle. The vessels possess simple and scalariform perforations. The

pith consists of thin-walled cells.

CONCLUSIONS.

The anatomical study of Ionidium suffruticosum Ging. reveals

the following characteristic features :—

1. Stomata are of the Cruciferous type.

2. Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of clinorhombic crystals

along the veins only in the leaf, and in the form of clustered crystals

in the stem.

3. The hairy covering consists of simple uniseriate, straight

and bent hairs. No glandular hairs occur.

4. The absence of internal secretory organs either in the axis

or leaf is also important.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

As before my thanks are due to Mr. Sriramloo for the photograph

and the drawings which were prepared under my supervision, and

to some of my students for the preparation of the slides,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE If,

Sayeedud-Din. —lonidium suffeuticosum Ging.

(For explanation see end of article).

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III.

i 7 y q g f

eexee

Org,

y, ‘ ) EE = ¢ .

AQ TSS

LESS IL

oSe Som. =.

wai)

J j :

iF \ ve <4 <: a

id iw e: : oh

a ‘

Pe, Ji

a a

Sayeedud-Din.—-lonidium suffruticosum Ging.

(For explanation see end of article).

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 477

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

. Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, Part I, p. 52 (1901).

. Dalzel, N. A., and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora, p. 12 (1861).

. Duthie, J. F.—Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain, vol. I, p. 56 (1905).

. Gamble, J. S..-Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Part I, p. 49 (19158).

. Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. I, p. 185 (1873).

. Kirtikar, Lt.-Col. K. R. and Basu, Major B. D.—Indian Medicinal

Plants, 2nd Edition, vol. I, p. 212 (1933).

7. Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of Madras City and its

immediate neighbourhood, p. 30 (1929).

8. Sabnis, T. S.—The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian

Desert.’ J. I. B., vol. I, No. 3, pp. 70-71 (1919).

g. Sayeedud-Din, M.—Catalogue of Plants cultivated in the Botanic Garden,

Osmania University, Hyderabad Dn., p. 5 (1938).

10. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl. Ed., vol. I,

pp. 82-85 (1908).

11. Watt, G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vol. IV, p. 475

(1890). .

12. Wight, R.—Icones Plantarum, t. 308.

13. Wight, R.—Illustrations of Indian Botany, vol. I, t. 19 (18s0).

OW bo NH

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. .

Tonidium suffruticosum Ging.

PuaTe I.

Photograph of Ionidium suffruticosum Ging.

Prate ITI.

Fig. 1. Black and White drawing of Ionidium suffruticosum Ging. (Nat. size).

Fig. 2. Single flower (x 10).

Fig. 3. Flower opened out, showing androecium and gynaeceum. (X_ Io).

Fig. 4. T. S. Ovary, showing ovules arranged on three parietal placentas.

(34 1)

Fig. 5. Pollen grain. (X 600).

Piate III.

Fig. 1. Leaf-epidermis, showing the Cruciferous type of. stomata. (X 300).

Fig. 2. Leaf-epidermis, showing a bent trichome.

Fig. 3. T. S. Stem, showing, ep. large epidermal cells; col. collenchyma ;

chil. Chlorenchyma; c.c. clustered crystals of oxalate of lime; st. c. stone-cells.

(X 300).

SOME ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION

OF THE AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN.,

Major GENERAL A. F. P. CHRISTISON, M:C., P.S.C., B.A., M.B.O.U.,

ASSISTED BY

THE LATE Dr. C..B. TICEHURST,, M.A., M.R-C.S., M.B-O.U2, eReRaGuSe

Since the series of articles written by Dr. Ticehurst in the Journal

in 1926-7, little has appeared in print concerning the avifauna of

Northern Baluchistan.

For four years I have made a close study of the Political Districts

of Zhob, Loralai, Quetta-Pishin, Chagai, Kalat, and the Northern

mountainous part of Sibi. I have been in regular correspondence

with the Society and with Dr. Ticehurst, and have collected a

series of specimens in all doubtful cases, and checked many of

them at the British Museum and Royal Scottish Museum, while

others have been checked by the Bombay Natural History Society

and by Dr. Ticehurst. .

There is still a great deal of research to be done in Northern

Baluchistan, and this article 1s written in the hope that it may

provide a basis for future study for ornithologists who may ~be

stationed there.

I shall only deal with new records, and with species about which

there has been controversy regarding race.

1. Corvus corax ruficollis.

This raven is definitely scarce. Purely a winter visitor, I have seen it half

a dozen times only, on Quetta golf course, in company with laurencei, rooks

and choughs, in hard weather from 15 December to 12 March. It is resident

in Mekran, but from where these winter visitors come to us is not clear.

There are not many places where laurencei and ruficollis overlap.

2. Corvus corone orientalis.

I obtained this crow on Shinghar, where it is resident in small numbers

in the chilghoza pine forests. as well as on the Takht-i-Suleiman. It lives at

about 8,500 ft. and nests in April about 30 ft. up in a fork of a pine. Five

eggs averaged 42X29 mm. It is not found anywhere else.

3. Pyrrhocorax graculus.,

The Alpine or Yellow-billed Chough is purely a bird of the great cliffs in

the high mountains, and except when breeding is seen in small flocks of ten

to fifteen. They do not descend to the valleys in winter like Pyrrhocorax

pyrrhocorax. I have seen them on Murdar, Chiltan, Zarghun, Takatu, and

Khalifat, mostly at about 10,800-11,200 ft. Nests are usually in holes in

inaccessible cliffs, but one I reached on Khalifat in May 1938 had four very

pale yellowish grey eggs with a few bright brown spots. They averaged

40X28 mm,

DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN 479

4. Nucifraga multipunctata,

General Norton tells me he found this Slender-billed Nutcracker on the

Takht-i-Suleiman in winter, and natives say it visits Shinghar also in winter.

I have not been able to get there in winter to confirm this, but I saw a

Nutcracker of undetermined species on Shinghar on 14th July 1940. Which

nutcracker is found in our area still wants working out.

5. Sitta kashmiriensis.

Brook’s Nuthatch is common in the chilghoza pine forests of the Takht and

on Shinghar. I have found it overlapping Siltta neumayei tephronota, and in

1940 found nests of both species within 80 yards of each other, the one in a

chilghoza pine, and the other in the cleft of a rock inside the usual clay cone.

6. Turdus unicolor.

Tickell’s Thrush is a regular winter visitor to Fort Sandeman, Loralai, and

Quetta gardens. I had several in my garden in the winter of 1940-41. They

became very tame in hard weather.

7. Phoenicurus phoenicurus.

Dr. Ticehurst identified a specimen I sent him from Robat on 18th April

1939 as the European Redstart.

8. Chaimarrhornis leucocephela.

I obtained the White-capped Redstart near Hanna Lake, Quetta, on 6th March

and 19th November, 1939. The earliest record is 2nd March, and Meinertzhagen

reported it from Baleli on that date and on 14th April and 14th November.

When it occurs it probably winters, and this must be about the S.-W. limit of

its range.

9. Oenanthe.

The distribution of the eleven species of Wheatear which have been reported

from Northern Baluchistan has taken a lot of working out, and much more

research is still needed. According to old records and the indications given by

specimens collected by me, the distribution seems to work out as follows :—

O. picata is a very common summer visitor, and passage migrant. It winters

in the areas below about 4,o00 ft., but I have seen odd ones quite happy

among the big rocks at 9,oo0 ft. in deep snow in mid-January. Much more a

bird of the rocks, it is found far higher than any of the others.

QO. isabellina is common on passage, and is resident in small numbers locally,

while others are summer visitors. It breeds in old rat holes, and nests are

easy to find.

O. finschi barnest is a passage migrant in small numbers. Odd pairs remain

to nest or come here from further South. I got a nest on 29th April in the

hills N.-E. of Nushki, and found one nest, and a family party North of Quetta.

The bird was shot in each case to make sure. The nest is a flat saucer of

camelthorn, lined with grassy fibres and goats’ hair. The five eggs were a

deeper blue than the usual chat type. There was a zone of rusty spots at

the thick end, and a few odd spots elsewhere. Average 20.5X15.5 mm.

— QO. deserti atrogularis is common, but only as a winter visitor and.on passage.

It has, however, been reported as nesting round Quetta. This may be so,

but I think only an odd pair nests. The Messrs. Williams found a nest on

15th May near Quetta.

I have seen a family party on 12th July and obtained an adult male.

O. xanthoprymma chrysopygia. The Red-tailed Wheatear is quite common on

passage, (earliest Quetta 24th January); the Kacha range in W. Chagai is full

of them in March and April. It winters in S. Melsran, and many nest in the

Hindu Kush.. A few nest in the Amran Khwajah and along the Barshor hills.

It is not a desert-loving bird, but frequents the small rocky perennial streams.

It is one of the most interesting birds to watch. The nuptial display is very

marked, and once I saw a cock bird going through the whole performance in

mid-September for fifty minutes, although I could find no trace of any hen.

It arrives in April. and is very tame and confiding. The nest itself is unusual.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiil

It is placed in small hollows quite low down in a rock face above water. ‘The

hollow is lined with tiny flat stones from the stream, and the cup in the middle

is a deep one, and is. made of grasses with a fine lining of root and grass

fibres. Four to five eggs are laid, usually above 7,oooft. They are pale blue

with only a few rusty spots. In one nest the eggs had no spots. Average of

fourteen eggs 20.7X16 mm.

O. opistholeuca. Strickland’s Chat is a scarce passage migrant. I have only

obtained it between the end of February and mid-April, and once in September.

Meinertzhagen obtained it near Quetta on 24th February and 21st October.

There was a specimen in Old Quetta Museum from Baleli 18th March, and

Dr. Ticehurst obtained one there on 11th August.

O. capistrata. Gould’s Chat is also a scarce passage migrant, but a few are

seen every year between mid-February and April, and in late August and

September. Latest record in October.

O. deserti oveophila. The Tibetan Desert Wheatear winters in Mekran and

Iranian Baluchistan in some numbers, but what route it takes I have not been

able to discover. I have never seen it in the Chagai desert, though I obtained’

one near Nushki, and another at Robat, both in April. Dr. Ticehurst obtained

it near Quetta on 28th February and 3rd March.

O. leucomela, rostrata, alboniger.

The Siberian; the pale race of Common Wheatear; and Hume’s Chat; are

I think, only stragglers on passage. Of leucomela, there are old, doubtful

records by St. John from Pishin in March, and by Blanford from Quetta.

Dr. Ticehurst got it at Ziarat on 5th October, and I obtained one near Nushki

in March.

O. rostrata is reported to pass through Quetta between 17th March and

18th October, and I obtained one near Nushki on 14th November.

The only record for alboniger is one by Murray from Chaman in April;

probably a mistake.

10. Suya crinigera striatula.!

The Brown Hill Warbler is only found in Loralai and N.-E. Zhob. It

extends just into the more open parts of the pine forests on Shinghar up to

7,400 ft. It nests in May and June according to altitude about 4 ft. up in

sage or wild almond bushes, or sometimes in a buddleia.

11. Acrocephalus agricola agricola.

Jerdon’s Reed Warbler has always been considered only a passage migranit.

Many winter in the Sibi-Jacobabad plain and pass through in March and

April, returning from August to early October. However all do not pass

through, as I found a regular breeding colony in the Malezai Lora each year.

[ have found 25 nests.

The nest is a deep cup woven round three or four reed stalks 18 in. to 3 ft.

above water. It is made of fine reed stems lined with reed fibres, wool, goats’

hair, feathers, and the seed-down of reeds. Of the 25 nests 18 had 5 eggs

and 7 had 4. Colours varied from whitish to stone, and a few were greenish

stone. They were blotched, streaked and spotted with dark olive, brown, dark

grey, and even black, the markings being thicker at the blunt end where they

tended to form a zone and sometimes a Cap.

Largest 17.2X13.1 mm.; smallest 16.4X12.8 mm.; average 16.8X1I2.9 mm.

Lt.-Colonel Darcy, R.A., was with me on one visit, and kindly checked the

measurements for me. I know of no other breeding place in Baluchistan, though

I have searched every likely spot.

12. Acrocephalus scirpaceus.

I thought 1 found the Reed Warbler nesting in the Malezai Lora in 1939,

and 1940. I shot a bird from the nest and sent it and the eggs to Dr. Ticehurst.

Owing to the war the eggs did not arrive, and the bird was so battered that

Dr. Ticehurst could only say that he thought it was scirpaceus. I also sent

a clutch of eggs to Stuart Baker, which did not arrive. The Malezai reed

beds would well repay close study.

DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN 481

13. Phylloscopus collybita.

I have obtained both tristis and sindianus on passage. The common one

however, is tristis, the Siberian Chiffchaff. . It has a faint tinge of green in

the upper plumage, which is dark brown. Underparts are pale butf, and both

wings and tail are edged with olive-yellow. It breeds in N. Asia, and passes

through to the Sibi plain and Sind from 21st February to 15th April, and

later birds give song. Going South it passes through from 25th September to

mid-November, but many spend the winter in pairs or singly in cantonment

gardens. :

P. sindianus breeds in Central Asia and Ladakh, and winters in Sind, N.-W,

F.P., Punjab, U. P., and Rajputana. The wing formula is the same, but this race

has no green tinge on the upper parts. It passes through farther East, and

I have only obtained it twice, both in N.-E. Baluchistan in November.

A specimen obtained at Quetta by Meinertzhagen on 28th July could not

be separated by Dr. Ticehurst from the typical race. It was much greener

above, and had some yellow on the breast. It had at that early date com-

pleted its moult, and Dr. Ticehurst thinks it was probably a vagrant that had

tailed to breed.

14. Luscinia megarhyncha golzii,

I obtained the Eastern Nightingale at Kacha and Robat on the Iran frontier

in April 1939. Natives say it does not sing or nest there.

15. Troglodytes troglodytes neglectus.

The Wren is very local and has not been previously recorded. I heard it

in. 1938 and 1939 in a secluded tangi near Ziarat, and in 1940 found it there

and in two other tangis. In all I found four families of half-fledged young in

June, and found one nest. It was placed in a crevice underneath a rock,

and consisted of juniper bark strips tightly bound round fibres of bark and

grassy roots. The lining was of finer root fibres, and some fine bark fibres

with a few feathers. Eggs must have been laid in the last fortnight of May,

and cocks sang up till 15th July. I obtained one but could not separate it

from neglectus.

16. Acridotheres tristis tristis.

The Common Mynah I have only seen round the Staff College in Quetta

where half a dozen pairs are resident at 5,800 ft. and nest regularly.

17, Carpodacus erythrinus.

I have cleared up the question of the distribution of the Rosefinches. Most

are only passage migrants, but the intermediate race, kubanensis, is a summer

visitor to the chilghoza forests, the juniper forests, and to those higher hills

over 7,500 ft. where there are a few junipers, thorny scrub and wild briars.

There it nests in wild briars, the nest being a grassy cup lined with fine juniper

bark fibres or fine grass roots, and usually containing three and sometimes

four eggs, of a-clear blue blotched very sparsely with browns and_ blacks.

Average size 19.8X15 mm. .

Its clear calls of ‘twee-twee-tweeou’ and ‘twee-tweeou’, with accent on the

second syllable, is one of the characteristic sounds of the forests. Of a large

series of males obtained in summer, all were unmistakably of this race. They

had throat and chest splashed with dark crimson, and a pale suffusion of pink

on the abdomen.

Of the passage migrants I have identified the pale typical race and the

dark race roseatus. The former is fairly common on passage from Sind

and Mekran, where it winters, and I have obtained specimens from Chagai

in October and March, the Kaisar Jungle near Nushki in September and

March, and on Takatu, near Quetta, and Pishin, also in March. Males of

this race are much paler all over, and only the chin, throat, and breast are

rosy. roseatus I have not seen except in N.-E. Baluchistan, and have obtained

only two specimens, in March and September. Males of this race have the

throat, chest and abdomen splashed with dark crimson.

482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

18. Carduelis caniceps.

Some doubt existed as to the races of the Goldfinch found in Baluchistan.

It is mainly a winter visitor, and all birds 1 have obtained have been the

typical race, wing 83 mm. It is very common in cantonments, and sings away

all winter.

Dr. Ticehurst identified three obtained in winter as the Far Eastern race

paropamisi, and Meinertzhagen got the Eastern race major in Quetta on

27th February, 1913. Possibly the large flocks seen contain birds of all three

races.

subulata, a larger central Asian race, wing 88 mm., is a summer visitor

very locally to some of the higher hills, and no doubt breeds there. I have

only found one pair nesting. This was on Takatu near Quetta at 7,500 ft.,

but I have seen family parties of subulata feeding on sunflowers in cantonments

in Quetta in late July. The nest I found on Takatu was made of wool and

goats’ hair, lined with finer hairs and grassy fibres. Very inconspicuous, it

was 15 ft. up in a fork of an old country aprioct in a deserted patch of

cultivation opposite the Marichak Tangi. Four young hatched out on 2nd May

1938, and I saw a family party of six on 12th July, watering within half a

mile of the nest. I found another family party in Zhob, June 1942.

1S. Amandava amandava amandava.

From September to early December, small flocks of Red Munnias appear

regularly in Quetta gardens. A purely plains species, its occurrence is strange.

I have seen it at this time in Chaman, Pishin, and the Barshor Valley, and

in April at Baleli and Killa Abdulla. Possibly it moves down from Afghanistan

in winter to the Sibi plain and Sind.

20. Cinnyris asiatica brevirostris.

There was a Purple Sunbird in the Church compound in Quetta from

April till June, 1939.

21. Motacilla citreola.

There is some doubt as to the race of Yellow-headed Wagtail which is very

common, and passes through in March and April. Dr. ‘Ticehurst considers

that they belong to the smaller race werali, described by Buterlin (Orn,

monatsb. 1909, p. 197); the type locality being Simbirsk, White Sea, East of

the Urals. Most W. Indian birds belong to this race.

Seven specimens obtained by me in March varied very considerably.

No. 1, male, Malezai, Wing 82 mm.

No. 2, male Malezai, Wing 84 mm.

No. 3, male, Barshor, Wing 80 mm.

No. 4, male, Kacha, (Iran frontier), Wing 82 mm.

Nos. 5 & 6, female, Malezai, Wing 82 mm.

No. 7, female, Kacha, Iran Frontier, Wing 87 mm.

So possibly the typical race is the one of Western Chagai.:

22. Dryobates auriceps.

Dryobates sindianus.

D. auriceps must reach the S.-W. limit of its distribution on the Takht and

Shingar, where it is common and resident. It nests in May and June in the

underside of the branch of a chilghoza pine, from 15-25 ft. up. I have found

it from 7,400 to nearly 10,000 ft. A nest had four eggs on 5th June, and

they measured 21X16 mm.

I saw a pied woodpecker near Chautair, 16 miles East of Ziarat, on 2nd July

1940. It flew across the valley and settled in a juniper but I was unable to

get a close view and cannot say if it was auriceps or the next named.

D. sindianus is now very local and is a bird of tamarisk and old Pistachia

cabulica rather than of junipers and pines. It is found in Kalat, and in

January 1941 there were still a few pairs in the scanty remains of the old

Pistachia cabulica forest at Shelabagh, the Khojak and Chaman, between

4,400 and 6,600 It.

This species nests much nearer the ground than auriceps, holes being rarely

higher than 6-7 ft. from the ground.

DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN 483 -

23. Picus squamatus flavirostris.

The distribution and variations of this Green Woodpecker are interesting. I

have found it resident from the Takht and Shinghar, through the Juniper forests,

in the valleys where there is tamarisk and a few willows, down to the Kaisar

tamarisk jungle near Nushki, and south into Kalat.

Birds from the N.-E. have the lower parts fairly heavily scaled, while

specimens from Nushki. are not only much paler generally, but have no scaling

on the underparts. Birds from North of Quetta are intermediate. I have found

nests from 4,000-9,000 ft: in Pistachia cabulica, willow, apricot, chilghoza,

juniper, mountain ash, mulberry, and even in tamarisk scrub. In the Kaisar

Jungle where there are no trees, only tamarisk scrub, the nest was in the

root of a tamarisk 5 ft. below ground level, where the root was exposed in the

side of a muddy nala bank, and 7 ft. above the water.

In July 1938 on Chiltan, I watched a bird watering from a hole in an old

tree where water had been caught. The nearest water was four miles away.

24, Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis.

A White-breasted Kingfisher visited the Residency at Ziarat, 8,200 ft., on

the 23rd and 24th June, 1938, and Sir Arthur Parsons kindly invited me to

come and see it.

25. Alcedo atthis pailasii.

The Central Asian Kingfisher is common on passage on all the perennial

streams. I was surprised to find that an odd pair sometimes stay to nest. In

May 1938 I found a nest hole in the Karak Lora near Quetta, the site being

given away by the mass of small bones and guano outside the hole. I found

a similar nest hole in the mud bank of the Kaisar River. near Nushki in

April 1939. Both holes went in 3 ft. and the chamber measured 5”x4”, and

contained fish bones. In each case there were five eggs, averaging 23.4 X20.3 mm.

26. Merops orientalis beludshicus.

This race of Little Green Bee-eater is sometimes seen at Chaman. I have

not seen it anywhere else.

27. Caprimulgus aegyptius aegyptius.

The range of this Nightjar extends from the Sudan in winter to Seistan

and Turkestan in summer. It is very light in colour, and has no white spots

on the uppet. surface of the wings or tail. I obtained it at Robat on the

Afghan-Iran-Baluchistan frontier on 12th April 1939, and saw another. Natives

know it well and say it comes to nest there, but I could find no-one who had

seen its eggs. My specimen, a male, had wing 208 mm.

28. Strix aluco biddulphi. 9

I obtained a half-fledged Scully’s Wood Owl in July 1940, but in spite of

advice as to its feeding from Karachi Zoo, it only lived ten days. It was

then three months old. Colonel Venning obtained an adult on 1oth January

some years ago, which is now in the Bombay Museum. No other records.

Probably resident; tribesmen say it is the common owl of the eeeea forests

there, and that it nests under a large boulder.

29. Haliaetus aibicilla,

A very fine female frequented a Quetta rubbish dump a mile from canton-

ments for some days in the very cold february of 1940. It was very tame, and

allowed one to approach within 10 yds. on horseback on several occasions.

There was also a female at Kushdil Khan on 1oth June 1940. No other

records, though it has been reported occasionally from the coast.

30. Falco peregrinus calidus.

Lt.-Colonel O’Carrol Scott, M.p.o.u., a keen falconer, saw a Siberian Pere-

grine at Kushdil Khan on rith February, 1940. I went there with him,

and we tried to catch her, without success.

484 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

351. Falco subbuteo subbuteo.

I saw a pair at Ziarat on 20th July, 1939, and watched them for three

days. Meinertzhagen recorded one there on 24th July 1913. Major Bedi,

P. A. Loralai, a very knowledgeable falconer, saw one near Loralai in October,

1940.

32. Falco jugger.

The Lugger Falcon, a plains species, is very rare in N. Baluchistan. One

pair nests regularly in the mud cliffs of the Malezai Lora, near Pishin. The

nest is ina hole 20 ft. up, and in 1939 four eggs were laid on sticks in April.

In 1940 the nest was moved to another hole a few yards away, and no sticks

were used, the four eggs being deposited on the sand. From the opposite side

of a small nala the eggs could be seen, and the young hatched successfully

each year.

33. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus.

The Asiatic race tinnunculus is a passage migrant through Chagai and the

S.-W., and also a summer visitor in small numbers and breeds in the higher

hills. A few over winter.

In April 1939 I was lucky enough to see a migration of Kestrels through

Chagai. I followed them tor 130 miles. They flew along the ground, now

and again settling on small bushes, and then pushing on again. I counted between

50 and 60, and shot one, which proved to be the typical race. I also obtained

it on the Iran border in March.

34, Falco aesalon insignis.

The Merlin is a scarce winter visitor mostly to the open parts of Loralai

District. Falco chicquera does not occur.

35. Accipiter nisus melanoschistus.

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis.

The Himalayan race of Sparrow Hawk melanoschistus is darker and nearly

an inch shorter than the Asiatic race nisosimuits. The former is a summer

visitor, and breeds in the juniper forests in June, in small numbers. The latter

is purely a scarce winter visitor.

36. Circus aeruginosus.

A winter visitor to Malezai and Zangi Nawar. Natives told me it bred in

both places occasionally, and at Zangi Nawar showed me two old nests in dense

patches of reeds. In 1940 a pair nested successfully in a dense reed bed at

Malezai. Single non-breeding birds sometimes remain all summer.

37. Streptopelia senegallus cambayensis.

Streptopelia senegallus ermanni.

Two races of the Little Brown Dove occur; cambayensis is the common bird

of Zhob, Loralai, Quetta-Pishin, Sibi and Kalat, its numbers being augmented

both by passage migrants and summer visitors. It is smaller and darker than

eymanni, and males have wings 125-132 mm. and females 121-129 mm. Ermanni

is the race of Western Chagai, and I obtained it at Kacha and Robat on the

Iran border. Wings of male 135-140 mm., females 130-140 mm.

38. Fulica atra.

In 1939 .a Coot nested on Kushdil in a small reed patch and hatched out

five young in the last week in June. <A second brood of three was hatched

from the same nest on 18th August. The only breeding record for Baluchistan.

DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN 485

39. Megalornis grus.

The typical race is recorded by Dr. Ticehurst as a passage migrant over

Quetta, Kalat, and Mekran. M. g. lilfordi which nests in. Eastern Siberia and

winters in Northern and N.-W. India, winters at Zangi Nawar, where there

is annually a flock of about fifteen, one of which I shot in 1939 to make sure.

40. Otis tarda.

In 1937 natives brought in alive a pair of Greater Bustards to the Political

Agent at Nushki. These became very tame, and walked about the compound

like turkeys. Unfortunately in 1938 they were killed by dogs. One was shot

in the Zhob on 2nd April, 1940.

4]. Charadrius leschenaulti.

I saw a small flock of six Geoffroy’s Sand Plovers in March 1938, West

of Quetta near the Afghan frontier, and five in the North Chagai desert on

21st April 1939, obtaining a bird in each case. Finn reports this species when

on the Afghan Boundary Commission, 1896.

42. Totanus nebularius.

I saw a Greenshank that had been shot at Kushdil on 22nd June, 1939,

and obtained one at. Zangi Nawar on 25th February 1940. I saw what I took

to be a small flock at Kushdil on March 17th 1938, but did not obtain one.

43. Numenius arquata lineatus.

In April one occasionally hears a Curlew’s cry as it passes over Quetta.

I have only seen three on the ground, one on 16th April 1939 at Burj Aziz

Khan, near the Afghan frontier West of Quetta, one at Zangi Nawar on

23rd October 1939, and one at Kushdil on 6th October 1940, which I shot.

44, Limosa limosa.

All specimens of the Black-tailed Godwit obtained on passage are very

large. Otherwise they are not distinguishable from the typical race. Eight

birds shot in September and October measured as follows :—

3 males, Wing 206-212 mm.; Bill 105-110 mm.

5 females, Wing 230-250 mm.; Bill 116-126 mm.

45. Lobivanellus indicus aigneri.

I have seen small flocks of the Red-wattled Lapwing near Quetta on passage,

and they winter regularly at Zangi Nawar. An odd pair is resident.

46. Tringa erythropus. |

The Spotted or Dusky Redshank is a scarce but regular passage migrant

through Kushdil Khan and Zangi Nawar. I have obtained it only in September

and October.

* . D}

47, Capella solitaria.

One Snipe was shot by me at Zangi Nawar on 23rd October 1938. Another

near Quetta on 15th October 1939 and Pishin 1940. A very large race, wing

average 166 mm.

48. Larus fuscus taimyrensis.

I saw a [Lesser Black-backed Gull at Kushdil on April 17th 1938, July 18th

1938, and a small flock of a dozen on August 20th 1940. At Zangi Nawar 1

saw one on October 16th and rgth, 1940.

49, Botaurus stellaris 'stelilaris.

The Bittern is a regular winter visitor to Zangi Nawar and Malezai; an odd

pair must stay to breed, as on 8th June 1939 I put up two young ones hardly

able to fly, from the Karak Lora near Quetta, and they bred at Malezai in

Ig14 and 1938.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIl

50. Ixobrychus minutus minutus.

The Little Bittern is a common summer visitor to Malezai, where it breeds

in some numbers. It arrives in April and leaves in August. Nests are in the

reeds in 2-4 ft. of water, and 18 in. to 2 ft. above it, the nest itself being

cup-shaped and made of dead reed stems plaited into standing ones, and g in.

in diameter. It is built up solid from the water level. Five to seven eggs are

laid, and incubation must start as each egg is laid, as the young are seen

in various stages of growth. It also breeds near Nushki.

51. Nycticorax nycticorax.

The Night Heron breeds regularly in a colony in the Chenar avenue in

Lytton Road, Quetta. I have not seen it anywhere else. They arrive in March

and leave fn July. The nests are only rough platforms of sticks, unlined, and

high up. 3-5 eggs are laid in April, average 50X34.5 mm. The whole colony

is very messy, and numbers of young birds fall out of the nests onto the road.

As dusk falls the birds may be seen flying off to the adjacent loras to feed,

but I have seen them fishing by day when young are being fed.

52. Ardea purpurea.

Both the European race purpurea and the Asiatic manillensis visit us spas-

modically. Meinertzhagen reports records from Quetta and Nushki in March.

I got purpurea in the Karak Lora, sear Quetta, on 12th March, 1938, and at

Zangi Nawar on 17th October 1940.

53. Cygnus olor.

Mute Swans visited Kushdil Khan in November 1933, and January and

February 1935 (Quetta Shooting Club Records). I saw five at Zangi Nawar

on 23rd October 1939. Four were shot near Bostan 20 miles North of Quetta

in 1900 by a platelayer, and Meinertzhagen records them at Kushdil in February

1911 and November 1913.

54. Anser indicus.

There were three Bar-headed Geese at Zangi Nawar on 5th October, 1938.

No other record.

55. Oxyura leucocephala.

The Stiff-tailed Duck is a rare but regular winter visitor to “Kushdil and

Zangi Nawar. One has been shot at each place in December 1938, 1939, and

1940. All birds of the year.

56. Tadorna tadorna.

In 19357 a pair of Shelducks bred in a hole opposite the island on Kushdil,

and hatched out eleven, which the parents took over to the island. Seven were

shot in September and October. In 1939 a pair nested at the N.-E. end and

young birds were shot on 15th October and 12th November. An adult male was

shot on 23rd November 1940, and I saw one shot at Zangi Nawar on 4th

November 1939.

57. Anas angustirostris. }

I have tried to get evidence of the Marbled Duck nesting at Zangi Nawar.

Natives are positive it breeds there in small numbers, and they take the eggs.

The terrific heat in May and June prevented me from finding a nest when I

went there for that purpose. There is no reason why it should not breed

there.

58. Glaucion clangula.

The Golden-eye is one of the rarest of the ducks seen in Baluchistan. The

only one I have seen was shot at Kushdil on 12th December, 1940. Two

specimens obtained at Zangi Nawar in January 1916 were in the Old Quetta

Museum.

DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA OF NORTHERN BALUCHISTAN | 487

59. Clangula hyemailis.

A female Long-tailed Duck was shot at. Kushdil in January 1938, and identified

by the Society. The only record.

60. Merganser merganser orientalis.

The Eastern Goosander is a very irregular winter visitor to Kushdil and

Zangi Nawar. I saw one shot at Kushdil in November 1938 and myself shot

one at Zangi Nawar on znd December 1939. Both were birds of the year.

No other records. ;

-61. Mergus serrator.

Red-breasted Mergansers were shot at Kushdil on 17th February 1934 and

19th November 1939. Both were birds of the year. There is an old record

on 3rd April rgoz.

ADDENDUM.

Pericrocotus brevirostris.

On 27th June 1942 I found a family party of Short-billed Minivets on Shinghar

the first record for Baluchistan.

GONIOZUS INDICUS ASH.—A NATURAL ENEMY OF THE

SUGARCANE WHITE MOTH BORER (SCIRPOPHAGA

RHODOPROCTALIS).

M. C. CHERIAN, B.A., B.SC., D.I.C., AND P. ISRAEL, M.A.

Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore.

INTRODUCTION,

During the course of investigations on Scirpophaga, seven

larval parasites have been noted by the authors. The results of

the studies of four of them, viz., Elasmus gehntnert Ferr., Steno-

bracon mnicevillei Bingh., Rhaconotus scirpophagae Whk., and

Stenobracon deesae Cam., have already been published (Cherian

and Israel, 1937, 1938). Goniozus indicus which forms the subject

matter of the present paper belongs to the family Bethylidae. The

parasite was observed by the authors for the first time in South

India in March 1936 in Scirpophaga attacked sugarcane stems and,

later on, it was also collected on Chilo zonellus Swinh. in Sorghum.

LirE History OF THE MoTH Borer.

A brief account of the nature of damage caused by the moth borer and its

habits is given here so that the relationship between the host and the parasite

can be better understood. The damage caused by the moth borer both to the

young and grown up canes is serious. The characteristic buff-coloured egg mass

of the moth is generally laid on the undersurface of the leaves and the larvae

on hatching find their way into the leaf roll and tunnel downwards and destroy

the growing point of the plant. When full grown, it makes a short tunnel to

the outside, at right angles to the original tunnel, the exit hole being closed

with a thin film of the outermost leaf sheath. As it withdraws itself into the

tunnel, it spins partitions of silk, one behind the other and pupates in the

tunnel. It takes 2-24 months for the pest to complete its life cycle.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PARASITE.

The description of the parasite as given by Ashmead (1903) is:

‘Female—length 2.5 to 3 mm. Black and shining, the head with some

small, sparse, scattered punctures, the pronotum very delicately and micros-

copically shagreened, the parapsidal furrows not indicated, the metathorax

feebly reticulate with irregular microscopic lines at the sides, the antennae

and the legs, except the coxae, anterior femora above and the middle and

hind femora except at tips, honey-yellow, the anterior femora above and the

middle and hind femora being embrowned or black; the extreme apex of the

dorsal abdominal segments 2 to 4 are usually more or less jointly testaceous,

while the wings are hyaline, the veins more or less yellowish, the stigma and

parastigma being brown.’ :

Muesebeck (1940) has subsequently described the species in greater detail

under the impression that Ashmead’s description was still in manuscript,

GONIOZUS INDICUS ASH. 489

Hasits OF THE Wasp.

The adult parasite crawls out by cutting a small hole in its cocoon and

when the exit to the outside is found closed by the lid constructed by the

host on the outermost leaf sheath, it cuts a hole in this lid and escapes through

it. Table I gives the number of parasites reared out from host larvae collected

from the field. It is seen from the table that out of 300 adults which emerged

from 15 cocoon spindles the number of females was 267, the percentage being

89. In the rearings at the Insectary also, the proportion of females was about

the same (81%). On an average, about 20 adults emerged from each host

larva, the maximum and minimum being 32 and 9g respectively.

The adult avoids light, and immediately after emergence seeks hiding places.

When supplied with a sugarcane stem with a host larva, it commences to prod

with extended antennae and finally locates the lid made from the outermost

leaf sheath. It easily perforates this lid and enters the larval tunnel. It then

crawls about on the larva and paralyses it. When the larva is completely

paralysed the parasite begins to lay its eggs. The eggs are laid on the dorsal,

ventral and lateral sides of the body but oftener on the ventral and lateral sides.

They are laid singly one after the other at an interval of 2-5 minutes and

generally laid in the folds of the intersegmental groove while the eggs lie

parallel to the groove itself. The eggs are laid along with a slimy fluid,

which later on hardens, making the egg stick firmly to the body of the

host. When all the eggs are laid the parasite retreats amidst the frass which fills

the tunnel and there it lives the rest of the time and then dies. If the host larva

happens to be young and has not constructed any external lid the parasite

enters through the leaf spindle from the top and reaches the host making its

way through the tunnel packed with frass. The passage through the frass is

by no means easy and the parasite often dies on its way to the host. Generally,

9-40 eggs are laid on each host. A study of Table II reveals that the parasite

has not the habit of distributing its eggs. When once it enters a_ larval

tunnel and deposits its eggs on the larva, it never seeks another host, even if

it be near by. But, in the laboratory, it has been found that if the parasite

after laying its eggs on a host, is removed and given another host, it may

lay more eggs on it.

As a result of a series of experiments it has been found that (1) eggs are

laid by a parasite only on one host even if more are supplied, (2) if one host

alone is supplied to a number of parasites they attack the host simultaneously

and lay eggs on it, (3) if different species of borers are given to a_ single

parasite it prefers the one in which the host is easily accessible, (4) the parasite

breeds parthenogenetically, the progeny in such cases being males, and (5) the

parasite never attacks the host pupa.

Lire History.

The egg is glistening white in colour, transluscent, elongate cylindrical and

rounded off at the two extremities and measures 1 mm. The egg period ranges

- from 2-3 days.

The newly hatched grub measures 1x} mm. After hatching, the grub does

not change its position but sticks to the body of the host and begins to suck

its juices on account of which it acquires the color of the host. When the

larva is completely eviscerated, small, circular, black dots are seen on, the

larval skin which indicate the places of punctures made by the parasite grubs

to draw the internal contents of the host. In 3-5 days the grub reaches its

maximum size of 5X3 mm. At this stage, it spins a brown cocoon which

measures 8 mm. within which it pupates. These cigar-shaped cocoons are

attached to one another and the cocoon spindle runs throughout the tunnel.

The larval period ranges from 3-5 days. -

3-6 days after the formation of the cocoon, the grub inside pupates. The

pupa, when fresh, is white, but in about two days it turns black. It measures

5x2 mm. The pupal period ranges from 4-7 days.

DURATION OF THE LIFE CYCLE.

The total life cycle of the parasite ranges from 14-19 days, the average

for 30 cases being 16 days. Table III gives the detailed life history records of

the parasites. .

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

LONGEVITY OF THE ADULT WASPS.

The maximum longevity for a female was 48 days and. for a male 4 days,

the average being 20 and 2 days respectively. Table IV gives the longevity records

of 7 males and 17 females.

SEASONAL AND REGIONAL PREVALENCE.

Field observations on the incidence of the parasite show that the attack of

the parasite on Scirpophaga is noticed in large numbers from February te

April. In May and June, there is only a slight attack. But the parasite

breeds continuously throughout the year on Chilo zonellus Swinh, in Sorghum.

EFFICACY OF Goniozus indicus AS A PARASITE.

The short life cycle of the parasite when compared with that of the pest

and the ease with which it can be bred in the laboratory are points in its

favour. The fact that. the parasite attacks only one host in its life time is

however a drawback. Further it is not a specific parasite in that it also attacks

Chilo zonellus Swinh.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The authors’ thanks are due to Mr. C. F. W. Muesebeck of the Bureau

Entomology, Washington, for his help in identifying the specimen.

-h

REFERENCES.

. Ashmead, W. H. (1903) Indian Museum Notes, Vol. I, no. 6, p. 2.

Cherian, M. C. and Israel, P. (1937), Madras Agric. J. 25, p. 273.

Cherian, M. C. and Israel, P. (1938), Bull. Ent. Res. 29, p. 99.

. Cherian, M. C. and Israel, P. (1938), Madras Agric. J. 26, p. 127.

. Cherian, M. C. and Israel, P. (1938), Madras Agric. J. 26, p. 207.

Rs Bsr tases C. F. W., (1940), Proc. Ent. Soc., Washington, Vol. 42,

o. 6.

DANur & & Now

TABLE I

Statement showing the number of parasites-emerged from each

host larva collected from the field

: 1 No. off No. of o. of

Serial No. poate Sah pe ee | Date of Emergence

1 19 18 1 13-4-36

2 17 16 | 1 27-4-36

8) 32 28 | 4 1-5-3

4 28 25 3 2-5--36

5 20 18 2 10-5-36

6 24 20 | 1 28-5~36

7 17 15 | 2 10-7-36

8 18 15 3 3-4-37

9 22 20 2 3-4-37

10 22 19 3 26-4-37

Ay at 10 i 14-5-37

12 9 8 1 7-6-37

13 19 16 3 25-6-37

14 28 26 2 25-6-37

15 14 13 1h 26~6-37

(EN TE ES A LES TT

Serial

No.

CAN DMN FP wD LY

So rm YO HS HY WH LH wH LW KN WB HB HS ee we pe pe pp

GONIOZUS INDICUS ASH.

TABLE II

Oviposition records of Goniozus indicus

Emerged |———

26-3-36

11-4-36

2-5-36

5-5-36

5~5-36

20-6-36

10-7- 36

12-3-37

3-4-37

34-37

26-4-37

16--5-37

16-5-37

7-6-37

29-6-37

1st Batch

: No. of

Laid on egos |

28-3-36 10

12-4-36 9

22-4-36 22

16-—4-36 39

15-4-36 21

16—4-36 37

19-4-36 17

19-4-36 4]

20-4-36 13

6-5-36 20

7-5-36 29

25-5-36 27

23-85-36 28

19-7-36 21

20-3-37 2)

20-3-37 18

20-3-37 36

20-3-37 28

11-4--37 38

8-4-37 40

13-4—-37 21

8-4—37 30

11-4-37 26

30-4-37 23

30-4-37 19

23-5-37 24

29-5-37 33

10-6-37 24

13-6-37 28

4~7-37 16

491

2nd Batch

Total No.

Died on of

Laid on ee &88s

29-3-36 3 15-4-36 13

15-4-36 | 28 | 21-4-36 37

24-4-36 |. 11 30-4-36 33

19-4-36 39

17-4-36 21

22-4-36 15 29-4-36 ByZ

20-4-36 18 30-4-36 35

23-4-36 41

22-4—36 13

13-5-36 20

14-—5-36 9 20-5-36 38

30-5-36 ila 4-6-36 38

| 25~6-36 28

23-7-36 18 23-7-36 39

31-3-37 21

21-3-36 Q s\n 27-3237 27

30-3-37 36

31-3-37 28

12-4-37 38

9-4-—37 40

18-4—37 21

. 15-4-37 30

14-4-37 14 16-4-37 40

1-5-37 23

6-5-37 13 8-537 32

28-5-37 24.

31-5-37 33

14-6-37 9 19-6-37 33

20-6-37 28

6-7-37 16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

492

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GONIOZUS INDICUS ASH.

TABLE 1V

Longevity of Goniozus indicus

493

mary a TE

S. No.

Emerged on

OM ONM MNF NH

26-2-36

11-4-36

2-5-36

5-95-36

5-5-36

11-5-36

5-8-36

12-3-37

12~3-37

12-3-37

3-4-37

3-4-37 |

3--4-37

3-4-37

11-4-37

26-4-—37

26-4-37

26-437

26-4-—37

Died on

15-4-36

26-4-36

19~4-36

29-4-36

13-5-36

20-5-36

6-5-36

12-5-36

10-8-36

14—3-37

15-3-35

21-3-37

30-3-37

8-4-37

9- 4-37

12-4-37

18-4-37

15-4-37

16-4~-37

14-4—37

8-5-37

1-5-37

30-41-37

27-4-37

No. of days

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FPN WWMM

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MALLOWWORTS.

fexl8s (QAMOS SY Selo. WollaS.

Parr II.

(Continued from page 241 of this volume),

KypIA

The genus consists of 2 species, both Indian.

Kydia calycina Roxb. is common in the forests of the sub-tropical

regions of India and Burma, except the arid tracts.

Among the Santals, the leaves are pounded and made into a

paste and applied to the body for pains. They are also chewed,

when there is a deficiency of saliva (Campbell).

Almora;: Pata—; Amraoti: Bhoti—; Assam: Boldabak—; Bhil: Bothi—;

Bihar: Bitagonyer—; Bijnor: Palao, Pattra—; Bombay: Motipotari, Varanga,

Varangada, Varung—; Buldana: Bhoti—; Burma: Bokemaiza, Dwabote, Dwalok,

Myethlwa, Tabo—; Canarese: Belagu, Bellaka, Bende, Bendenaru, Bendi, Billul-

hendi, Kadubende, Kolibnde, Nayibende—; Central Provinces: Baranga, Bargha,

Bhotti— ; Garhwal: Pillu, Pulao—; Garo: Boldobak—; Gond: Bosha, Burkapa,

Buruk, Kunji—; Gujerati: Mhotihirwani Nihotiliwani— ; Hasada: Bitabororo—;

Hindi: Baranga Choupultea, Pasha, Pola, Potari, Pula, Puli, Pulipasha, Pulu—;

Kharwar: Derki—; Khond: Wala—; Kolami: Bitagoinr, Bittia, Gonyer, Pata-

dhamin—; Konkani: Varang—; Lambadi: Charpili—; Lepcha: Sedangtaglar,

Ta-gla kung hlosa—; Malayalam: Velukku, Venta—; Marathi: Bhendi, Bhoti,

Iliya, Potari, Varung—-; Matheran: Bhoti, Potasi, Warung—; Mechi: Mahow,

Moshungon—; Melghat: Bhoti—; Nepal: Kubinde—; Nimar: Safed dhaman— ;

North-Western Provinces: Puta, Puttiya—; Oudh: Kakahi—; Porebunder:

Mhotihirwani— ; Punjab: Pola, Pula, Pulli—; Ramnagarv: Pula—; Sadani:

Biaranga, Bicra, Jhari—; Santal: Poshkaolat, Poskaolat—; Saora: Erukutada,

Pulan—; Shan: Dwabok—; Sinhalese: Pule—; Tamil: Vendai—; Telugu:

Kondapotari, Pachabotuka, Pandiki, Peddakunji, Peddapotari, Potari—; Tharu:

Patar—; Uriya: Bankopasia, Bharimo, Khopashya—.

MALACHRA.

The genus consists of 6 species, natives of the warmer regions

of America, and of the West Indies. Two of them are naturalized

in Asia and Africa.

Malachra capitata Linn., a native of tropical America, is found

throughout the hotter parts of India where it has become naturalized.

In La Reunion the plant is used as an emollient and pectoral.

It is a popular cough remedy in Mauritius.

Bombay: Ranbhendi—; Marathi: Ranbhendi, Vilayatibhendi—; Mauritius:

Mauve a fleurs jaunes— ; Porebunder ; Pardeshibhindo— ; Sunderbuns : Bian bhindi,

Bandheras—.

- MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MALLOWWORTS 495:

MALVA

The genus numbers 30 species inhabiting temperate Europe and

Asia, and North Africa.

All species are remarkable for their mucilaginous and cooling

properties.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—M. Alcea Linn.,

M. althaeoides Cav., M. hispanica Linn., M. moschata Linn.., M.

nicaeensis All., M. " parviflora Linn., M. rotundifolia Linn., M.

sylvestris Linn., M. Tournefortiana Linn.—; in China—M. verti- .

cillata Linn.—; in Indo-China—; M. sylvestris Linn., M. verticil-

lata Linn.—; in North America and the West Indice moschata

Linn., M. parviflora Linn., M. rotundifolia Linn., M. sylvestris

Linn.—; in Colombia—M. sylvestris Linn.—; in Madagascar—M.

crispa Linn.-—; in La Reunion—M. parviflora Linn., M. sylvestris

Linn.—; in Southern Africa—M. parviflora Linn., M. rotundifolia

Linn.—-.

1. Carpels 10-12 enclosed within the acerescent calyx,

prominently ribbed at the back. wee ... M. verticillata.

he Carpels 13-16 not reticulated on the pas, the

margins of the back rounded. sit : ... M. rotundifolia.

3. Carpels about 10-12, 2-keeled on the back o» M. sylvestris.

4. Carpels 10, reticulated on the back, the 2 margins

of the back keeled. sas aye seh .. M. parviflora.

1. Malva parviflora Linn. occurs in Bengal, the United Pro-

vinces, Kashmir, the Punjab, Baluchistan, Sind, the Bombay Deccan,

Mysore and Madura. It is distributed through Afghanistan, Persia,

the Mediterranean region, Arabia, Nubia.

The seeds are used as a demulcent in coughs, and ulcers in the

bladder.

In La Reunion the plant is used as an emollient and pectoral.

In South Africa Europeans drink an infusion of the leaf as a

nerve tonic, and apply the leaf as a hot poultice to wounds and

swellings. The Xosas have a similar use to the latter, and often

use a decoction as a lotion.

The Sutos use the decoction of the leaf as a remedy for tape-

worm and for profuse menstruation. They also make a lotion for

bruised limbs from the plant.

Afrikaans: Kasieblaar, Kiesieblaar—; Arabic: Bekoul—; Egypt: Esh-shey-

taniyeh, Khobbeyze, Khobbeyzeh—; Ivaq: Khubbaz—; Wurdish: Tulakah—;

Kuwait: Khubaiz—; Makran: Guragpad—; Mexico: Malva—; North America:

Mallow—; Punjab: Gogisag, Nanna, Narr, Panirak, Sonchal, Supra—; Sinaloa:

Malva castilla—; South Africa: Mallow—; Spanish: Chica malva de flor,

Pequena malva de flor—; Suto: Mosalasuping, Qena, Thibapitsa, Tilamotse— ;

Turkish: Tulah—; Xosa: aNomolwana—; Waziri: Ngankai, Tikalai—.

2. Malva rotundifolia Linn. occurs in Sind, Baluchistan,

‘Waziristan, Kumaon, ascending to 10,000 feet, and in the plains of

Northern India. It is distributed through the Oriental regions,

Europe, and North Africa.

The leaves are mucilaginous and emollient, employed externally

in scurvy, and reckoned useful in piles (Honigbergér).

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The seeds possess demulcent properties; they are prescribed in

bronchitis, cough, inflammation of the bladder, and haemorrhoids;

the seeds are also externally applied in skin diseases.

At Hindubagh, in Baluchistan, the plant is used as a cooling

drug. At Kalat the plant is ground up, soaked in water, mixed with

Sweetmeat, and drunk to relieve retention of urine.

In the Transvaal, Europeans apply a poultice of the leaf in inflam-

mations of the breast.

The leaf has been used in Europe and America, in the form of

an infusion or a decoction, for catarrh, dysenteries, and nephritis.

As decoction, fomentation, or poultice, it is given in sore throat and

ophthalmia, or for maturing abscesses.

Afrikaans: Kiesieblaar—; Arabic: Gobhaiz, Honzebey, Khobeiz, Khubbaizi,

Roboueis—; Baluchi: Gwaragpad, Pochako—; Brahui: Utper—; Canarese:

Kadukadalegida— ; Catalan: Malva de fulla petita, Malva petita de fulla rodona—;

Danish: Lille Katost—; Dutch: Rundbladige maluwe—; English: Cheese Calxe

Flower, Dwarf Mallow—; French: Fromageon, Fromagére, Herbe de Simon,

Mauve a feuilles rondes, Mauve ronde, Menthe de cimetiére, Petite mauve—;

German : Kaesepappel--; Harboi Hills : Fochako—; Hindi: Khubasi, Sonchala—;

Hindubagh: Sarkukar—; Italian: Malva comune, Malva minore—; Kalat:

Uthpar—; Kkharan. Pachko—; Languedoc: Malbré—; Portuguese: Malva—;

Pushtu: Kukerai—; Roumanian: Casui popei, Nalba marunta, Nalba mica—;

Sind: Chandiri, Khabazi—; South Africa: Dwarf Mallow, Mallow—; Spanish :

Malva de hoja redonda—; Telugu: Trikalamalli—; Wasziri: Naghankai, Nahan-

kai, Wahankai—.

3. Malva sylvestris Linn. is found in the West temperate

Himalaya from the Punjab to Kumaon, at an altitude of 2,000—-

8,ooo feet. It is met with as a weed of cultivation in Bombay,

Mysore and Madras. It is distributed to Siberia, the Caucasus,

Europe, and North Africa.

The plant is a popular demulcent and emollient with Muhammadan

physicians. It is used for coughs and colds, and in affections of

the urinary bladder.

In Teheran the drug—flowers with the small rotate carpels of

the fruit in an immature state—is used for whooping cough,

Afghanistan: Gulikhadmi—; Arabic: Bekoul, Khitimi, Khubaji Kobbeiza,

Moudjdjir, Ouerd-ez-zoual—; Bombay: Khubasi—; Canarese: Sannabindigegi-

da—; Catalan: Malva de cementiri, Malva comuna, Malva major—; Colombia :

Malva, Malva azul—; Danish: Katost—; Deccan: Vilayati kangoie—; Dutch:

Kaasieskruid, Maluwe, Malve-—; Egvpt: Khobbeyze frengiye—; English: Blue

Mallow, Bread-and-Cheese, Cheese-cake, Cheese Log, Cheese-flower, Chock-cheese,

Chucky-cheese, Common Mallow, Country Mallow, Custard Cheeses, Dock, Frog-

cheese, Ground Dock, High Mallow, Loaves-of-Bread, Mallow, Marsh Mallow,

Maul, Maws, Pancake Plant, Pick Cheese—; French: Beuret, Beurrat, Fouassier,

Fromagelet, Fromageon, Fromageot, Herbe a fromage, Herbe a lacher, Herbe

Saint-Simon, Maule, Mauve, Grande mauve, Mauve officinale, Mauve sauvage,

Mauve verte, Mauve de ville, Meule—; German: Baerwinde, Blaugloeckel, Blau-

malve, Feldmalve, Feldpappel, Feldriss, Feldwinde, Fuenfaderkraut, Gaense-

laetsche, Gaensepappel, Hanfpappel, Hanfwurzel, Kaselskraut, Katzenkaese,

Katzentee, Kesselkraut, Kornwinde, Malve, Milzkraut, Papelle, Papellkraut,

Pappelkaese, Pferdepappel, Rossmalve, Rosspappel, Schwelkraut, Schwollkraut,

Siegmarskraut, Tocppel, Waldmalve, Wewinne, Blaue Winde, Ziegerli, Zwischen-

kraut—; Greek; Malachi—; Hindi: Gulkhair, Kunzi, Vilayatikangai—; Hunga-

vian: Malyva, Papsajt—; Indo-China: Cam quy—; Italian: Malva, Malvone— ;

La Reunion: Mauve—; Malta: Common Mallow, Malva, Hobbeiza—; Mauritius :

Mauve de France—; North America: Common Mallow, Doll-cheeses, Dutch-

cheese, Fairy-cheeses, Low Mallow, Mallow—; North-Western Provinces: Kanji,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MALLOWWORTS 497

Tilchuni—; Patna: Khatmi—; Persian: Khib-bazi, Khitmiiluchak, Khubazi,

Nanakillagah, Nanikulagh, Penirek, Towdrie—; Polish : Slaz ziele—; Portuguese :

Malva, Malva ordinaria—; Roumanian: Nalba—; Russian: Lyesnaia malva,

Prosvirka—; Sind: Khabaji—; Spanish: Malva, Malva comun, Malva_ lisa,

Malva silvestre, Malva yedra—; Sussex : Maller—; Swedish: Katost—; Teheran:

Pasurak—; Turki: Hamam komandji—; Turkish: Ebegumeci—; Urdu: Khu-

baji—; Waziristan: Chota gul kharru—.

4. Malva verticillata Linn. occurs in the temperate Himalaya

up to 12,000 feet. It is distributed to Northern Asia, Northern

Africa, and Europe.

In Indo-China the root is used to produce vomiting in whooping-

cough. The leaves and young stems are considered digestive and

they are given to women in the advanced stage of pregnancy. The

ash of the dried leaves is employed in the preparation of a drink

which is given in scabies.

Assam: Laffa—; Chinese: K’uei—; Indo-China: Dong quy—.

MALVASTRUM

The genus consists of about 60 American and South African

species, two of them cosmopolitan in the tropics.

M. coromandelianum Garcke is used medicinally in the West

Indies, M. spicatum A. Gray in French Guiana, M. coccineum A.

Gray in North America, M. peruvianum A. Gray in Colombia.

Malvastrum coromandelianum Garcke is found in the Madras

and Bombay Presidencies, the Punjab and the United Provinces,

Orissa and Bengal.

In the West Indies the plant is considered emollient, resolvent,

and bechic. The leaves are applied to inflamed sores and wounds

as a cooling and healing salve. The flowers are given as a pectoral

and diaphoretic.

French Guiana : Ouadé-ouadé—; Mauritius: Herbe a-balais, Mauve sauvage—.

PAVONIA

The genus numbers 70 species inhabiting tropical and subtropical ~

regions.

The following species are used medicinally in Gambia—P.

gzeylanica Cav.—; in La Reunion—P. columella Cav., P. wrens

Cav.—-; in Madagascar—P. Bojeri Baker, P. macrotis Baker—; in

Brazil-— P. diuretica St. Hil.—; in West Tropical Africa—P. hirsuta

Guill and Perr.—; in Somaliland—P. propinqua Garcke—.

Involucral bracts 8-14, subulate.

1. Ripe carpels unarmed wingless. Leaves slightly

lobed od : : meee eee OU OTOL.

2. Ripe carpels glabrous, narrowly mineed Leaves

deeply lobed 900 Sho ... P. zeylanica.

3. Ripe carpels with 2 short iiélcled! Leaves oblong

creneate S60 60 .. P. propinqua.

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiti

1. Pavonia odorata,Willd. is found in North-West India, Bundel-

khand, Sind, Baluchistan, West Rajputana, Bengal, Konkan,

Southern Maratha Country, North Circars, Deccan, Carnatic, Ceylon.

It extends to East tropical Africa.

The fragrant root is esteemed by Ayurveda practitioners, who

consider it aromatic, cooling, and stomachic. It is much used, in

combination with other drugs, as a remedy for fever, inflammation,

and haemorrhage from internal organs. It is a well-known South-

Indian febrifuge. In Bombay it is prescribed as an astringent and

tonic in cases of dysentery.

In Las Bela the plant is used as a cure for rheumatism.

Bombay: Walavala—; Canarese: Balarakikasigida, Mudivala—; Gujerati:

Kalowalo—; Hindi: - Sugandhabala—; Jodhpur: Chirikenahl—; Las Bela:

Zordar—; Malayalam: Wuruntotti—; Marathi: Kalavala, Sughandabala— ;

Sanskrit: Ambunamaka, Bala, Barhishtha, MHaribera, MHrivela, Kachamoda,

Keshanama, Keshanamaka, Keshya, Kuntala, Kuntaloshira, Lalanapriya, Toya,

Udichya, Vajra, Vala, Valaka, Varapinga, Vari, Varida, Varinamaka—; Sin-

halese : Pushpa-bevila—; Tamil: Avibattam, Peramutti, Suvesagam—; Telugu:

Chittibenda, Ettakuti, Muttavapulagamu, ‘igebenda--.

2. Pavonia propinqua Garcke is found in Sind and Baluchistan ;

it is distributed to Abyssinia and Somaliland.

In Somaliland a decoction of the leaves and branchlets is used

as a wash, in the form of either a bath or a douche, to prevent

abortion in syphilitic women.

Somali: Brumd—.

3. Pavonia zeylanica Cav. is found in Northern India, West

Rajputana, Sind, the Western Peninsula, the Circars, Carnatic, and

Ceylon. It is distributed to tropical Africa, and Mauritius.

The plant is a South Indian febrifuge.

In Gambia the plant is used as a vermifuge and a piece by

the Mandingo natives.

Canarese: Antutogari, Bialarakshasi, Chittamutti—; Mandingo: Ratach—;

Sinhalese : Gasbeuila—; Tamil: Kurundotti, Mammatti, Sevagan, Sittamutti— ;

Telugu: Chinnamutavapulagamu, Chinnamutennu, Karubenda, Peramutti—.

SIDA.

This genus includes 120 cosmopolitan species.

The roots of the different species’ are regarded as cooling,

astringent, and tonic.

The following are used medicinally in the Canary Islands—S.

rhombifolia Linn.-—-; in West Tropical Africa—S. acuta Burm., S.

cordifolia Linn., S. linifolia Cav., S. rhombifolia Linn.—; in oe

Reunion—S. acuta Burm., S$. cordifolia Linn., S. rhombifolia

Linn.—; in Madagascar—S. rhombifolia Linn.—; in Southern

Africa-—S. cordifolia Linn., S. longipes E. Mey.—; in Indo-China—

S. acuta Burm.—; in the Philippine Islands—S. acuta BUrENS

S. rhombifolia Linn.—; in Australia—sS. rhombifolia Linn.— in

Central and South America—sS. paniculata Linn., S. viscosa ees

in Brazil—S. acuta Burm., S.. multiflora Cayv., S. rkombifolia

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MALLOWWORTS 499

Linn.—; in North America—S. obliqua Nutt., S. paniculata Linn.,

S. rhombifolia Linn.

A. Prostrate trailing herb wae 5b eS: 2 oS. veronicacfolia

B, Erect or suberect, herbs or undershrubs. Stellately hairy

1. Petiole spiny at the base a aa oe ws We SPinosa.

z. Petiole not spiny at the base

a. Awns exceeding the calyx fe ae w» S. cordifolia.

b. Awns short.

i. Leaves linear lanceoiate, glabrous or nearly so S. acuta.

ii. Leaves rhomboid-lanceolate or obovate, hoary

beneath he ae Sb .. 9. rhombifolia.

— iii, Leaves oblong-ovate obtuse, downy on both

surfaces 504 bi .. S. grewioides,

Sida acuta Burm. is generally distributed throughout the

hotter parts of India. It is found all over the tropics.

The root is regarded as cooling, astringent, tonic and useful

in nervous and urinary diseases, and also in disorders of the blood

and bile. It is intensely bitter, and is prescribed in infusion, and

in conjunction with ginger, in cases of intermittent fever. It is

considered by the Hindu practitioners as a valuable stomachic and

useful remedy in chronic bowel complaints; the dose, a small tea-

cupful, twice daily.

The authors of the Bengal Dispensatory, after a trial of the

roots, were unable to satisfy themselves as to its febrifuge action,

but it was found to promote perspiration, to increase the appetite,

and to act as a useful bitter tonic. In Goa, the Portuguese value

it as a diuretic, especially in rheumatic affections. They also use

it as a demulcent in gonorrhoea, and Muhammadans believe this

to have aphrodisiac properties.

In the Konkan, the root is applied with sparrow’s dung to

mature boils.

In Southern India the leaves, made warm and moistened with

a little gingelly oil, are employed to hasten suppuration. In the

\Xonkan they are applied with other cooling leaves in ophthalmia.

In Bengal, the expressed juice is used in the form of an electuary

in the treatment of intestinal worms.

In West Tropical Africa the leaves are sometimes an ingredient

in prescriptions for intestinal worms in horses. They are used

frequently by native witch doctors to procure abortion.

A cold infusion of the leaves is a common Yoruba remedy for

gonorrhoea, and they are sometimes taken medicinally cooked with

rice or other food. Rubbed up with water, they are used to scrub

the body and as a wash for dogs, goats, etc., for scab and parasitic

skin diseases. The bitter bark in infusion is taken as an appetiser

and stomachic tonic.

In Gold Coast the plant is used to cure venereal disease. The

leaves when bruised are slimy-and are put on the hands of mid-

wives when they are about to remove dead children from the womb;

they are mashed in water and the liquid used as an enema for

paralysed children to help them to walk; they are frequently used

to cause abortion. |

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Sanskrit writers. recommend the plant in combination with other

drugs for the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-sting. But Caius

and Mhaskar have proved experimentally that the plant ts not an

antidote to either snake or -scorpion venom.

Andamans: Sirivadibdbila—; Ashanti: Sowa—; Awuna: Xa-gbe—;

Bengal: Bonmeshi, Pilabarelashikar, Shvetberelakoreta—; bombay: Bala, Jang-

limeshi— ; Brazil: Malva, Vassoura—; Burma: tsatsaynai, Pyendangnalen— ;

Canarese: Bhimankaddi, Vishakaddi—; Ceylon: Malaitanki, Vaddatiruppi,

Vishapati— ; Deccan: Isarbadi, Isbadi—; Hwe: Ademe-ademe, Afidemii-—; Ga;

Shwuoblo—; Goa: Cha de India—; Guwjerati: bala, Jangiimethi—; s1indi:

Bariara, Kareta, Kharenti; Paharibariara—; Indo-China: Bai choi, Vai choi—;

Kolami: I\pirpijon—; Krepi: Didinglome—; La Reunion: Grosse herbe dure,

Herbe a balais—; Malay: Iiselulut putih, Ketumbar hutan, Poko lidah ular,

Sada turi, Telor belangkas—; Malayalam: Malatanni, Shiruparuva—; Marathi:

Chikana, Pata, Tukau, Tupkaria—; Mauritius: Herbe panier, Herbe a panier

a fleurs roses, Mauve du pays—; Mende: Helui—; Mundari: Ipirpichig, Marci-

baear, Marcijono— ; New Hebrides: Herbe a balais—; Pampangan: Higotbalato,

Pamalis— ; Porebunder: Bala, Dungraubal—; Sanskrit: bala, Brihannagabala,

Pata, Pila, Pitberela, Rajbala—j; Santal: Bir miru baha—; Susu: Fankuma-

‘duma—; Jagalog: Escobaghaba, Higotbalato, Pamalis—; Tamil: Arivalmanaip-

pundu, Arivalmukkan, Kayappundu, Malaidangi, Malaikkurundaii, Mayirmaniik-

kam, Ponmusuttai, Vattatiruppi—; Janna: ‘Veranmatin—; Jelugu: Chittimu,

Gayapaku, Muttavapulagamu, Nelabenda, Sahadevi, Visaboddi—-; Jimne:

Ekboentomoer, a-tanta, Koe-tanta, Makboentomoer—; Lupin: ‘Tupitcha—;

Twi: Apono, Obranetuata, Petekuku, Siwabiri, Sowa—j; Uriya: Ancharna,

Siobola, Sunakhodilka-—; Visayan: Higotbalato, Pamalis, Silhigon—; Yoruba:

Oshepotu, Oshepotufunfua—.

2. Sida cordifolia Linn. occurs in the tropical and subtropical

regions of both hemispheres. it is generally distributed in moist

places.

A decoction of the root with ginger is given by Hindu physicians,

in intermittent fever. It is also administered in fever accompanied

by shivering fits and strong heat of body. The powder of the

root-bark is given with milk and sugar for the reliei of frequent

micturition and leucorrhoea. In diseases of the nervous system the

root is used alone, or in combination with other medicines.

The bark of the root with sesamum oil and milk is very etlica-

cious in curing cases of facial paralysis and sciatica when caused

by the inflammation of the nerves concerned (lkoman). .

In Cambodia the root is considered diuretic and depurative; it

is given in the treatment of gonorrhoea and ringworm.

The Thongas of Portuguese East Africa use the plant as a

children’s medicine.

The leaves, mixed with rice, are given to alleviate the bloody

flux.

In the Konkan, the leaves, with other cooling leaves are applied

in ophthalmia; the root-juice is used to promote the healing of

wounds, and the juice of the whole plant pounded with a little water

is given in + seer doses for spermatorrhoea. lee ;

The seeds are reckoned aphrodisiac, and are administered in

gonorrhoea. They are also given for colic and tenesmus.

Bengal: Bala, Barila, Brela, Svetberela—; Cambodia : Kantrang bai sa—};

Canarese: Chittuharalu, Hettutti—; Ewe: Didinglome—-; Fanti: Kumpa— ;

Gujerati: Baladana, Khareti—; Hausa: Varar hankufa, Farin garmani, Garmani,

K?ardafi, Mai-k’alo—; Hindi: Barial, Bariala, Bariar, Kharenti, WKhoroeti,

Kungyi—; Katagum: WKardafi—; Konkan: Wobirsirbhaji, Muttava—; La Ke-

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MALLOWWORTS EOL

union: Mauve—; Malay: WKelulut putih—-; Malayalam: Katturam—; Marathi:

Chikana, hiranti—; Mauritius: Herbe dure, Herbe panier, Herbe a panier,

Mauve a teuilles veloutées, Arivamouc, Barjala, Barriar—; Mundarn: Huring-

mindilata—; Porebunder: Bal, Bala, Baldana, Balnochotvo—; Punjab:

IKharenti— ; Sanskrit: Badiyaiaka, Bala, Baladhya, Balini, Bhadra, Bhadrabala,

Bhadrodani, rela, Jayanti, Kalyanini, Kanaka, Kathorayashtika, Kharakakash-

tika, Kharayashtika Krura, Motapati, Nilaya, Odanavha, Odani, Odanika, Phani-

jivaka, Prahasa, Raktatandula, Samanga, Samansha, Shitapaki, Suvarna, Svetbe-

rela, Variga, Vataghni, Vatyalaka, Vatyali, Vatyapushpi, Vilala—; Sid: Bur-

rayra— ; Sokolo: Garamani, Faringaramani— ; Tamil: Arivalmanaippundu, Nila-

tutti—; Jelugu: Antisa, Chirubenda, Muttavapulagamu, Suvarnamu, Tellagorra,

Tellantisa—; Thonga:; Sitjhesinyana santlhaba—; Timne: Malkboentomoer— ;

Uriya: Badiananla, Bisookopari—; Yemen: Ren—.

3. Sida; grewioides Guill. and Perr. occurs in the North-West

Provinces and Sind. It is distributed to Arabia and tropical Africa.

In Jodhpur and jaisalmer the seeds, ground and mixed with

goor, are used as a cure for lumbago.

Rajputana: Ball, Dabi—.

4. Sida rhombifolia Linn, is found as a weed of waste places,

throughout the tropics of both hemispheres.

~The root is held in great repute in the treatment of rheumatism.

The Mundas apply the pounded leaves on swellings.

In Lakhimpur (Assam) the roots are taken internally to help

childbirth. The herb is also tied round the abdomen for the same

purpose (Carter).

The stems abound in mucilage, and are employed as demuicents

and emollients both for external and internal use.

In Europe the plant has been regarded as a valuable remedy

in pulmonary tuberculosis and rheumatism. Conflicting reports of

its efcacy as a tuberculosis remedy have been published.

In Madagascar the plant is mostly used as ‘an emollient; an

infusion of the root is given in dysentery; the leaves are pounded

and applied to tumours, or chewed and applied to boils.

Sanskrit authors recommend the use of the plant in combination

with other drugs for the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-sting.

But Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that no part

of the plant is an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom.

Afrikaans : Pretoria-bossie, Taaiman—; Australia: Common Sida Weed, Jelly

Leaf, Native Lucerne, Queensland Hemp—; Bambara: Balan-balan—; Bengal :

Lal berela, Pitabala, Pithala, Svetbarela—; Benin: Aramahi—; Betsileo: Kisin-

dahorina—; Canarese: Bennegaragu, Gubethadegida, Kallangadale—; Central

America: Escoba—; Ceylon: Atipalacheddu, Chittamadi—; Cuba: Malva de

cochino—; English : Paddy’s Lucerne, Queensland Hemp, Sida Hemp—; Espiritu

Santo: Niveding irin irin—; French: Herbe a balais, Fausse guimauve, Guimauve

des Indes—; Fulani: Gogil—; Guam: Escobilla—; Gujerati: Baladana—;

Hausa: Faskara saiwo, Miyar tsanya, Namijim hankufa—; Hawaii: [lima—;

Hindi: Bariara, Bhiunli, Kharenti, Pitabala, Sahadebi, Sahadeva, Swetbarela— ;

Hova: Tsindahoro—; Ibo: Azu uzo mbo, Udo agheregha—; Indo-China: Choi

duc, Ke dong tien, Ke hoa vang—; Katsina: Miyatsanya—; Kolami: Ipirpijon— ;

Kovambo: Sose, Susi—; La Reunion: Faux thé, Herbe dure—; Malay: Bunga

padang, Poko lidah ular, Seliguri guri padang, Senda guri padang—-; Malayalam :

Anakkuruntotti, Totti, Valanguruntotti, Vatturam—; Malinke: Mali- sobo—;

Marathi: Chikna, Sadeda, Sahadevi—; Mauritius: Herbe halais, Herbe a balais,

Thé batard, Kareti, Vattatirippi--; Mundari: Ipiripiung, Pipirpiung—; Mende :

Helui—; New South Wales: Paddy Lucerne—; Nimar: Bariari—; North

America; Canary-island Tea-plant, Jelly Leaf, Paddy’s Lucerne, Queensland

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIiI

Hemp, Sida Hemp, Tea Plant—; Nyasaland: Denji—; Owerri: Azu uzo mbo,

Udo agheregho—; Panama: Iscobilla—; Pampangan: Escobanghabo—; Pore-

bunder : Betraubal, Betraubaldana—; Samoa: Mantofu—; Sanskrit: Ahikhanda,

Atibala, Bala, Barela, Brihadagala, Devaarha, Devabala, Devasaha, Gandha-

vallari, Gandhavalli, Jyeshthabala, Jkarambhara, MKesarika, eshawardhini,

Keshruha, Lalbarila, Mahabala, Mahagalarthaprasadini, Mahagandha, Mriga,

Mrigadini, Mrigarasa, Pitapushpa, Pitapushpi, Prasadini, -Sahadeva, Sahadevi,

Samanga, Sarini, Varshapushpa, Varshpushpi, Vataghni, Vatya, Vatyayani—-,

Sema: Chopfu-ga-bo—; Sinaloa: Malva colorada-—; Sinhalese : Kotikanbevila— ,

Sokoto: Miyatsanya—; South Africa: Queensland Hemp——; Tagalog: L:scobang-

haba—; Vahiti: Burume—; Tamil. Anaikurundotti, Kurundetti, Tenacham— ;

Telugu: Atibala, Gubatada, Mayilumanikyamu, Muttavapulagamu—; Tigrinia;:

Deche-dabro—; Lulu: MWKadiru—; Uriya: Dholabadeanla, Nalobadianla—;

Uruguay: Afata, Malvavisco, Mata alfalfa, Tipicha—; Venezuela: Kscoba—;

Visayan: Basengbaseng, Escobanghaba—; Wolf: Ndetalmnor, Ndetinor—;

Yoruba: Ewe ifin—; Zulu: iVavana—.

5. Sida spinosa. Linn. occurs throughout the hotter parts of

India from the North-West to Ceylon. It is distributed over the

tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres.

The leaves are demulcent and refrigerant, and are useful in

cases of gonorrhoea, gleet and scalding urine. They are bruised

in water, strained through cloth, and administered in the form of -

a draught.

The decoction of the root-bark and root is used as a demulcent

in irritability of the bladder and in gonorrhoea.

The root acts as a gentle tonic and diaphoretic, and is employed

in mild cases of debility and fever. They are useful also in the

treatment of some forms of cattle disease.

Arabic: Julbahebarri—; Bengal: Bonmethi, Gorakchaulia, Pilabarela—;

Canarese: Kadumenthya—; Deccan: Janglimethi—; Kgypi: Agul, Melulxhiyet

iblis—j; Gujerati: Kantalobal—; Hindi: Bariar, Bariara, Gangeran, Gulsakari,

Janglimethi, Khareti—; La Reunion: Herbe dure—; Malayalam : Kattaventiyam,

Mayirmanikkam-— ; Marathi: Gandedhaman, Gangeti, Kanteritukati— ; Mundari ;

Mindilat, Mindilate—; Persian : Shambalidebarri, Shamlithedashti— ; Porebunder :

Balnansavenan, Kantalobal—; Sanskrit: Avishta, Bhadrandani, , Chatupala,

Devadanda, Gangeruki, Ghanta, Gorakshatandula, Urisvagavedhuka, Jhasha,

Kharagandha, Wharagandhini, ISharavallika, Mharyashthika, Mahagandha,

Mahapatra, Mahaphala, Mahashakha, Mahodaya, Nagabala, Pila, Pitberela,

Vishvadeva, Vishvadevi— ; Sinhalese: Girivedi-bevila, Kotikambabila, Manmani-

kam—; Yamil: Arivalmanaippundu, Mayirmanikkam—; Jelugu : Chinnamuttamu,

Chinnamuttavapulagmu, Mayilumanikyam, Muttavapulagamu, Ternallabenda,

Virinelabenda— ; Uruguay : Malvavisco—.

6. Sida veronicaefolia Lam. is distributed throughout the hotter

parts of India, and throughout the tropical and subtropical regions

of the world.

The flowers and unripe fruit are given together with sugar for

burning sensation in micturition.

Among the Santals the leaves are pounded and used as a local

application to cuts and bruises. They are also given in the diarrhoea

of pregnancy. In the Coimbatore District, they are ground up

with cummin seeds, onions, and the succulent portion of aloe leaves,

mixed with buffalo butter-milk, and given to cattle suffering from

rinderpest.

Bengal: Junka—; Ceylon: Palampadu—; Gujerat: Bhoyabala—-; Hindi:

Bananiyar, Bhiunli, Kharenti—; Nolami: Bariar—; Marathi: Bhoybal, Bhui-

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MALLOWWORTS 508

chikna— ; Mundari : Jangki, Mindilat, Mindilatanari—; Sanskrit : Bhumibala— ;

Santal; Bariar, Bir, Jokhasakan, Tandi—; Sinhalese: Bevila-—; Tamil: Palam-

pasi—j; Telugu: Gayapuwaku, Nellabenda—.

- THESPESIA.

The genus consists of 5 species inhabiting warm regions.

T. populnea Corr. is used medicinally in Indo-China, the Malay

Archipelago, the Society Islands, Mauritius, Mozambique, and

Upper Guinea; T. campylosiphon Rolf. is used in the Philippine

Islands.

Thespesia populnea Soland. occurs in the coast forests of India

and Burma. It is largely grown as a.roadside tree in tropical

regions.

In the Central Provinces, the root is taken as a tonic.

In the Konkan, the flowers are employed in the cure of itch;

and the leaves are employed as a local application to inflamed and

swollen joints.

The fruit yields a yellow, viscid juice, which forms a valuable

local application in scabies and other cutaneous diseases. The

affected parts of the body are daily washed with a decoction of the

bark.

A decoction of the bark is given internally as an alternative.

The bark is astringent and is prescribed in the Philippines for

the treatment of dysentery in the form of a decoction. The fruit,

leaves, and root are applied externally in scabies and other skin

affections.

In Tahiti, the fresh capsules, bruised and applied to the fore-

head are said to cure migraine; the yellow sap exuding from. the

peduncles is considered a cure for the bites of insects, especially

of the centipede; it is also useful in sprains, bruises, and all cutane-

ous affections. In Mauritius, the bark is described as depurative,

and used in dysentery, haemorrhoids; the juice of the fruits being

applied to warts.

In Madagascar a decoction of the bark is commonly used in

chronic dysentery and cutaneous diseases; the sap is applied

externally for herpes.

Rumphius speaks highly of the value of the heartwood as a

remedy for bilious attacks and colic, and in a kind of pleurodynia

from which the Malays often suffer.

Waring tried the bark in scabies and other cutaneous diseases

in some cases, it exercised a favourable influence, but in the

majority it was productive of little or no benefit.

The leaves are ground into a paste and applied externally. in

children’s eczema; so also an oil prepared by boiling the ground

hark in cocoanut oil is applied externally in psoriasis and scabies.

The contents of the fruit which is a capsule are applied externally

to ringworm. <A decoction of the bark is given internally in skin

diseases. The ground leaves and contents of the capsule applied

externally in eczema and ringworm respectively were found to be

useful. A compound oil of the bark and capsule was given in cases

of urethritis and gonorrhoea with beneficial results (Koman),

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIt

Ahanta: Tamsi—; Bengal: Dumbla, Gajashundi, Palaspipal, Parash,_Pares,

Paresh, Parespipal, Porash Prash—; Bombay: Bhendi, Bhindi, Palaspiplo,

Parsipu—; Bougainville Straits: Kaikaia—; Canarese: Arasi, Asha, Bangali,

Bugari, Gandarali, Hurvashi, Huvarasi, Jogiyarale, Kandasola—; Central Pro-

vinces: Ranbhendi—; Ceylon: Karavachu, Suriyagas—; Cuba: Majagua de

Florida—-; Deccan: Paraspippal, Paris—; English: Bhendi Tree, Portia Tree,

Tulip Tree, Umbrella Tree—; Eve : Bobosenya—; Fanti: Adomba, Fref, Frefi—;

Fiji: Mulo—; French: Porcher—; Ga: Adengkra, Fetsho, Fez, Foz—; Gilbert

Islands: Bengibeng—; Guam: Kilulu, Quilulu—; Gujerat: Bendi, Bhindi,

Parasapiplo— ; Hawaii: Milo—; Hindi: Bhendi, Gajadanda, Gajhand, Parashaj-

had, Paraspipal, Parispipul, Parsipu, Pipal, Pippul, Porush—; Honduras: Cork

Tree— ; Hova: Valo—; Indo-China: Chrey sramol, Tra bo de, Tra bua, Tra

lam vo—; Konkani: Benddy, Maner—-; La Reunion: Porcher—; Malay: Baru,

Buah keras laut—; Malayalam: Chandamaram, Chilanti, Kallal, Pupparutti,

Puvarasu, Puvvarasha—; Marathi: Bendi, Bhenda, Bhendi, Paraspipar, Parsa--

chajjhada, Ranbheudi—; Mauritius: Porché, Porcher, Valou, Poursong have

marom, Paraspipal— ; New Caledonia: Bois de rose, Daleni, Kabaoui—; Nzima:

Eijan, Tamsi—; Ponape: Pana, Pena, Pona—; Porebunder : Paraspiplo—; Porto

Rico: Palo de jagueca—; Portuguese: Pau rosa, Pau de rosa—-; Punjab:

Paharipipal, Paraspipal—; Rarotonga: Miro—; Sakalave: Valomena—; Samoa:

Milo—; Sanskrit: Gardabhanda, Kamandalu, Kandarala, Kapichuta, Kapitana,

Kuberaksha, Kundah, Nandi, Parisha, Phalisha, Suparshvaka—; Sefwi.: Eijan— ;

Sinhalese: Gansurigaha, Suriya, Suriyagaha—; Sunderbunds: Dumbla, Paras,

Paraspipal—; Tagalog: Baboigubat, Babuy, Banalo, Boboigubat, Bubuygubat,

Malasantol, Malibago—; Tahiti: Milo—; Tamil: Kallal, Piram, Pupparutti,

Puvarasu—; Telugu: Gangaravi, Gangareni, Munigangaravi—; Tonga: Milo—;

Tulu: Jogi, Jogiyattasa—; Twi: Ayedru, Benorsenye—; Uriya: Gunjausto,

Habali, Porosopippoli—; Visayan: Bulacan—; Yap: Bonabeng—.

URENA.

The genus consists of 3 species inhabiting the warmer regions

of both hemispheres.

The root is considered cooling and is used as a resolvent; the

leaves are emollient; the flowers mucilaginous and bechic.

The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands

and Indo-China—U. sinuata Linn.—; in South America—U. lobata

Linn., U. sinuata Linn.—; in West Africa and La Reunion—U.

lobata Linn.—.

A. Carpels armed with bristles.

I. Leaves not divided below the middle he oer lobata.

II. Leaves divided below the middle i | peeUpasinuatas

B. Carpels smooth, unarmed $2: ie ... U. repanda.

t. Urena lobata Linn. is a weed of waste places, forest-clearing's

and roadsides, occurring in all tropical countries. It is very common

in the bamboo and mango clumps of Bengal.

The root is a very, popular diuretic in Lakhimpur. In Chota

Nagpur it is employed as an external remedy for rheumatism.

In West Africa the plant is used medicinally as a mucilage.

In La Reunion and Mauritius the leaves and roots are made into

poultices and used as an emollient; the flowers are considered

pectoral.

In Guiana an infusion of the flowers is used as a garele for

aphthae and sore throat,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS: MALLOW WORTS 505

A decoction of the root and stem is used in Brazil as a remedy

in windy colic; the flowers as an expectorant in dry and inveterate

coughs.

Akim: Sowa—; Akwapim: Petekuku—; Bakwiri: Sofo—; Bambara: So-

so—; Basari: Mangemboleba, Tingmile—; Bengal: Benochra—; Benin: Oron:

hon—; Betsileo: Paka, Pampaho, Pampana, Pampano—; -Brazil: Aramina,

Carrapicho, Guaxima, Malvaisco, Malvisco, Uaixyma—j; Burma; . Katsaenai,

Whetkhyaepanai—; Canarese: Otte—; Dehra Dun: Unga—; Espiritu. Santo:

Neapsara—; Fanti: Alkxyeng, Finina—; Florida: Caesar .Weed—; Ga:

Asofotoro— ; Gambia: Bubobubo, Toja—; Huusa: Bak’in garmani, Igiyar rafi,

Jan tsu, Ka-fitrama, Ramaniya, . Ramarama, Ramo-ramo, Uwarmaganni— ;

Hindi: Bachata, Bachit, Bachita, Banokra, Brachta—; Ibo: Udo agheregha,

Udo azuro—; Kabure: Kaluka—; Katsina: Ramaniya—; Konkan: Villiah—;

Kovanko: Sose, Susi—; Lagos: Toja—; La Reunion: Hérisson rouge—; Losso:

Mitti, Mondondo, Tangmuid—; Malay: Pepulut, Perpulut, Poko kelulut, Pulut-

pulut—; Malayalam: Udiram, Uram, Uran, Vatto—; Malinke: Susu—;

Mandingo: Bubo bubo, Da ba julo, Da julo—; Mano: Gbho su—; Marathi:

Rantupkada, Rantupkuda—; Mauritius: Herbe panier, Herbe panier a feuilles

incisées— ; Mende: Sogbei, Subwe, Tsobwe, Tsogbei—; Mundari: Mindilat,

Mindilata—; North Western Provinces: Bachita—; Nzima: Meteku—:; Pore-

bunder: Wagdaubhindi—; Sakalave: Kirijy, WKiriza, Kisilenjo, Tsikilenza—;

Sanskrit : Vanabhenda—; Santal: Bhidijanetet—; Sierra Leone: Horse Whip—;

Sinhalese: Patta apele, Pattu epala, Valta epala—; Sokoto: Ramaniya—; Susu:

Nore, Nure—; Tamil: Ottatti, Ottuttutri—; Telugu: Peddabenda—; Timne :

Dafen, Defenfen, Ekboentomoer, Ka-fenfen, Ma-denfen, Nafenfen—; Tivi:

Ishoho—; Tschaudjo: Kadjangbea—; Tupin: Guaxima—; Twi: Petekuku—;

Umu Ahia: Udo agheregha, Udo azuzo—; Uriya: Bilokopasia, Jotyaholo—;

Wassaw: Nsa-ne-nsa--; Wolof: Padat, Paddet, Pundere—-; Yoruba: Ake-iri,

Akeri, Ake-riri, Bolo-bolo, Hlasaagbonrin, Ylasa-omode, Ilasa-oyibo—.

2. Urena repanda Roxb. is found in the Punjab, Dehra Dun,

the Central Provinces, the Northern Circars, the sal forests of

Ganjam, and Ava.

The root and bark are believed by the Santals to be a cure for

hydrophobia.

Santal: Sikuar—; Uriya: Jotofotia, Sikhini—.

3. Urena sinuata Linn. is found throughout the hotter parts

of India. It is distributed over the tropics of both hemispheres.

In Chota Nagpur the root is used as an external application

for lumbago.

In the Philippines the root is considered emollient, refrigerant,

and maturant; the leaves are prescribed in inflammation of the

intestines and the bladder.

The plant is considered emollient in Brazil and a decoction is

siven in colic; an infusion of the flowers is used in bronchitis.

Bengal: Kunjia—; Bombay: Tapgote—; Brazil: Carapicho, Carapicu, Uru-

curano—; Chota Nagpur: Berilat—; Fulani: Uwarbaganeji— ; Guam : Dadangsi,

Dadanse—; Hausa: Ramaniya, Uwar maganni—; Hindi: Kunguya, Kunjuya,

Lotloti— ;_ Indo-China: Bay, Ke dau nguo, Phu thien hoa, Vai—; Japan:

Bondenkiva—; Malayalam: Uram—; Marathi: Lichi, Ramkapasi—; Matheran :

Lichi, Rankapshi—; Mundari: Mindilat, Mindilata—; Nupe: Rama— ; Pam-

pangan: Colotan, Colotcolotan, Dalupan, Molopolo—; Philippines: Culutan— ;

Porebunder : Wagdaubhindo—; Porto Rico: Cadillo pata-de-perro—; Samoa:

Mautofa—; Santal: Mothabedijanetet—; Sinhalese: Hinappele, Hinepala—;

Tagalog: Colotan, Colotcolotan, Dalupan, Dalupang, Molopolo—; Tamil:

Ottatti, . Ottuttutti—; Telugu: Nallabenda, Padanikada, Piliyamankena— ;

Visayan: Colotan, Colotcolotan, Culuculutan, Dalupan, Dalupang, Molopolo—,

OBITUARY

RAJA SIR DURJANSALSINGH, k.c.LE.

The popular and progressive Ruler of Khilchipur State, Rajah Sir

Durjansalsingh, K.C.I.E., passed away on the night of 8th September

1942 at the age of 46 years. His sad and premature demise is widely

mourned even outside his State. He was born on 26th August

1897, and assumed his powers as Ruler on 23rd February 1918.

During his regime of 244 years he introduced many social and legis-

lative reforms in the State. He was a Ruler with a very broad

outlook and progressive views and was always anxious for the

wellbeing of his people. He was for many years a life member of

the Society and took an active interest in its work,

REVIEW

_ I.—CUCKOO PROBLEMS by E. C. Stuart Baker, M.B.O.U., H.F.A.O.U., etc.,

with 8 coloured and 4 monochrome plates, xvi--207 pp. H.F. & G. Witherby Ltd.,

London (1942). Price 25/ nett.

Here at last we have the book that Mr. Stuart Baker promised us in his

Appeal published in this Journal a few years ago for information concerning

parasitic cuckoos. Bird lovers in general, and students of breeding parasitism

and cuckoo-lore in particular, will welcome its advent.

Mr. Stuart Baker’s fame as an oologist is great and his interest in cuckoo

problems well known. His experience and opportunities have been vaster than

vouchsafed to most, extending as they do to some 7o years of diligent field work,

the greater part of it in a province of India where parasitic cuckoos are exception-

ally abundant. This knowledge has been supplemented by cuckoo studies in

England and many parts of Europe as well. He was assisted in his work in

Assam ‘by a number of local collectors trained by himself and by the veteran Alan

Hume, and in whose observations and reports he sees reason to place the greatest

confidence.

It is doubtful if at the present time there is another ornithologist better

qualified than Mr. Baker to give us more authentic factual data of the many

cuckoo problems that confront the enquirer. His dicta are based chiefly upon

his own magnificent collection of some 6000 parasitic cuckoo eggs from all parts

of the world, the largest proportion of which have been either collected by him-

self or by collectors on whose data he can place complete reliance. Others have

“been obtained in exchange from collectors of repute. All this puts the brand

of authority upon his findings and conclusions which are therefore deserving

of the greatest respect. Obviously there are a great many points still remaining

to be cleared up, but this book certainly represents a definite milestone in our

journey towards the goal.

A general idea of the wealth of material contained in the book can be

gained from some of the subjects dealt with. They are: Elimination of unlike

eggs by desertion or ejection, Experiments showing that birds can discriminate

between like and unlike eggs, Adaptation in colour and size of eggs of Indian

and European cuckoos, How adaptation has been attained, The various methods

by which the cuckoo lays its egg in the nest of the fosterer, How cuckoos’

eggs can be distinguished from like eggs of fosterers, Territories occupied by

cuciocs for Jaying, How many eggs a single cuckoo lays, and so on.

The book ends with 7 Appendices covering no less than 26 closely printed

pages and giving details of eggs of cuckoos of various species and subspecies

in the author’s collection or to which he has had access, the various fosterers

in whose nests they were taken, the comparative weights and measurements

of the two, and other useful data—all of which confirms the reader’s impression

of the careful and painstaking work involved in its preparation, to say nothing

of the life-time spent in collecting, sorting out and sifting the material.

The author has first of all. attempted to show why it was necessary for

cuckoo eggs to resemble those of its fosterers, and how this resemblance has

been brought about and perfected by environmental selection. He proves that

birds can discriminate between their own egg and another in their nest which

is strikingly different in size and/or colouring. ‘They either desert the nest on

discovery of an intruder or eject the strange egg. Naturally therefore, the

greater the resemblance of a cuckoo’s egg to that of its fosterer, the greater

the chance of its being adopted and hatched. This sort of selection working

through countless generations of the cuckoo has evolved an egg which in some

cases is so like the fosterer’s in every way that it can often be distinguished

from it only by weighment. This, he tells us, is on the whole the only reliable

method of differentiating between the two eggs. The cuckoo egg is consistently

heavier—in some cases considerably ’so—than that of its normal fosterer,

irrespective of the species or subspecies of cuckoo.

Even among cuckoos of the same species or subspecies, and frequently in

a circumscribed locality, there are different strains or gens. For example one

may be, say, a Pipit-Cuckoo which habitually lays in nests of pipits; another

908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

a Pied Wagtail-Cuckoo in the same way, and so on. The inference is—indeed

it has been ascertained, and may now be taken as generally proven—that

cuckoos hatched in pipits’ nests return for laying, generation after generation,

to pipits’ nests only, and in the course of this their eggs develop greater and

greater resemblance to those of the fosterer.

The methods by which a cuckoo lays its egg in a fosterer’s nest are fully

discussed. It is suggested, admittedly on slight (but none the less convincing)

circumstantial evidence that in addition to the two accepted methods viz. laying

direct into an open nest, and projecting the egg into nests in inaccessible holes

or under stones (such as a stonechat’s) there is the third method which has

been alternately affirmed and denied in the past. That method is the depositing

by the cuckoo with its bill of an egg it has laid elsewhere, into a nest wherein

deposition by the other two methods is completely impossible, due either to the

situation or the construction of the nest. Further field observation in the light

of the evidence adduced by the author will no doubt help to end the controversy.

He himself considers it highly probable that this method is frequently employed

since there seems no other alternative possible.

The eggs laid by one individual cuckoo are all so alike that it is

evidently possible to place them as such with certainty. Making use of this

fact, and by examining the ovaries of laying birds, added to the knowledge

that the larger cuckoos lay at: intervals of 48 hours, i.e. every alternate day

(some of the smaller ‘species lay at 24 hour periods), it has been possible to -

ascertain with some accuracy that a single female of the genus Cuculus lays

from 14 to 20 eggs in a season.

Among the author’s conclusions which remain to be fully proved are that

the colouration and character of the cuckoo’s egg are inherited from mother to

daughter, and that the male cuckoo cannot influence these. As is well known,

the female cuckoo is polyandrous (or rather, promiscuous) in her habits. It

was suggested by Chance in his ‘Cuckoo’s Secret’ and is now confirmed. by

the present author, that the female cuckoo selects a territory for her layings

and protects it against all comers. But Mr. Stuart Baker is able to show

that 2 or more cuckoos of different gens (parasitic on different fosters) have

no objection to sharing the same area of ground. Mr. Baker believes that facts

are against the theory that the male cuckoo in any way, by heredity or other-

wise, affects the colour of the egg. But if it be accepted that one gens of

female cuckoo can rigidly cuckold a given fosterer generation after generation,

we can see no insuperable obstacle against allowing that only that particular

gens of male cuckoo mates with the same gens of female cuckoo (albeit pro-

miscuously) and that some degree of influence may thus be exerted by him

through heredity upon the colour and character of the egg produced by his

progeny. It seems to us that this is a problem whose solution can only be

found by a well-planned system of marking cuckoos with coloured rings which

would enable the recognition of individual birds in the field.

Many other matters of interest concerning the breeding biology of parasitic

cuckoos are dealt with. This is perhaps the most complete, up-to-date and

thorough-going work on the subject and the appendices are invaluable for

reference. Its simple and non-technical style will appeal to the general reader,

while the 8 coloured plates of cuckoo and fosterer eggs help to illustrate many

of the truths in a graphic way. 4 ;

But, the thing which every serious reader and worker will miss is an index.

The omission is indeed unfortunate, as it must make ready reference to the

wealth of material the book contains, a tedious business.

The author is to be congratulated upon sharing with the public the results

of his long experience and study of this fascinating subject in such a useful

and_ pleasant form.

AMIN JAIPARIBANIE,,

CUCKOO PROBLEMS.

Ex. Field, May 30, 1942.

Sir,—There are many problems connected with the life history of the cuckoo

which can only be solved by dissection of the female cuckoo. May I appeal

through your columns for help in this matter, by asking those who can obtain

breeding specimens of the female cuckoo to be so kind as to send them to the

following address: D. S. Ellis, Esq., University College, Oxford.

He has very kindly undertaken to carry out the dissections, make the slides

and give me notes on the results of his examination.

Among the questions which dissection may assist in proving are enumerated

here:

(1) How many eggs does a cuckoo lay, at what intervals, and is there a

definite break in the laying?

(2) Has the female cuckoo any muscular provision enabling her to project

eggs into concealed or domed nests?

(3) Does the gullet and gape of the cuckoo differ constructionally from that

of’ other Pico-Passerine birds?

(4) How is the colour deposited on cuckoo eggs, prior to their being laid?

(5) What are the chemical pigments so produced ?

(6) What sources are they derived from?

Some of these questions have been answered in part already by Schonwetter,

Rey, Chance, Makatsch and others, but scientific confirmation is still needed,

as I have found out when writing my book on Cuckoo Problems. I have

far too often had to write ‘I believe’ instead of ‘We know.’

The easiest way to send the birds to Mr. Ellis would be to pack them in

a small wooden box (to prevent crushing) having cut open the abdomen and

inserted a wad of cotton wool steeped in formalin (one part formalin to 10 parts

of water).

Female cuckoos do not call cuckoo but the bubbling note uttered by ‘this

sex is now generally known.

I shall be most grateful for any help given.

6, Harold Road, Yours faithfully,

Upper Norwood, S.E. 109. E. C. Stuart BAKER.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

IL.—ADAPTIVE: COLOURATION OF DESERT ANIMALS

From Mr. Burdon’s note on page 250 of the August issue of the

Journal, I gather that we are both agreed on the main points, though

he maintains that desert colouration is wholly protective by itself

and that immobility is not essential for it to be effective. He objects

to any other explanation of the pale sandy colouration of desert

animals except by the time-honoured, one and only panacea

Natural Selection.

The peculiar -type of pale colouration commonly seen in deserts

is so constant wherever deserts occur, in every part of the world,

and applies to such divers animals and of so many different Orders—

ranging from mammals to insects, diurnal as well as nocturnal,

and including both hunters and hunted—that it seems impossible

to believe that, in the first instance, it is not some outside physical

factor that brings it about. It seems impossible, for instance, to

believe that the pale colouration of such desert animals as bats and

falcons, whose habits and biological associations are well known,

can have developed solely through a stringent weeding out of un-

suitable colour variants. But no field naturalist will deny that a

desert-coloured animal is less visible in its sandy environment than

one which is, say, bright scarlet; or that a scarlet-coloured animal

scampering across the distant desert sand would be more conspicuous

than a desert-coloured one. What I maintain is that to give com-

plete protection to an animal from its natural or accustomed pre-

dators, the pale colour alone will not suffice. That animal will,

in addition, have to remain perfectly immobile if it is to stand any

chance of escape. On the whole it stands a greater likelihood of

escaping from chance predators than from those who hunt. it

regularly.

We must remember that the desert predator is born and bred to

desert conditions. Its eyes and senses are trained from infancy. in

what to look for, and this being so even immobility will not always

save its desert- coloured quarry at close quarters. At a distance,

however, sandy colouring plus immobility may help to protect it.

But I submit that what the desert predator actually seeks, as it

quarters the ground in search of prey, is not for every suspicious

looking stone or mound in the hope that upon prodding it it may

turn out to be its prey only shamming, but for any slight movement

in the near distance that may catch a corner of its eye. In other

words when the predator hunts it does not go about ‘turning over

every stone’, so to say. But it is of the utmost importance that

any movement to be taken notice of by the predator must be within

a reasonable distance, 1.e., a distance at which prey normally becomes

interesting to its predator, and at which the latter stands a reasonable:

chance of circumventing the quarry either by cunning or by speed.

| submit that prey at long range is of no practical interest to a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 541

predator, such as it might perhaps be to a man with a high velocity

rifle and telescopic sight. As prey is normally sought only at such

‘reasonable’ distance, it matters little to the predator whether at

long range its prey is conspicuously coloured and visible, or obliter-

ated against its background by virtue of its ‘protective’ colouration.

To take Mr. Burdon’s own example of the dog chasing the white

arctic hare on snow. It is the visibility of the hare to the dog

that really counts, and not to the distant onlooker of the chase.

Mr. Burdon admits that at close range even its concealing coloura-

tion cannot hide him. As long as the hare remains visible to the

dog, the dog will be interested in it. But as soon as the hare

becomes invisible—which may be on account of ‘its getting well

ahead’ or even by the intervention of some physical obstacle such

as a bush, the dog will either lose interest and give up the chase,

or he will rely on his sense of smell rather than vision in running

the hare down.

It would be foolish to deny that desert colouration does some-

times protect, and it was never my intention to do so. What I

still maintain, however, is that it is inconceivable that Natural

Selection alone can be entirely, or even largely, responsible for the

general sandy or so-called ‘protective’ colouration of desert animals.

1 feel hat the rdle of Natural Selection in producing such coloura-

tion has been greatly exaggerated. —

Mr. Burdon, I take it, accepts the general axiom that animals

living in deserts are pale coloured, and their counterparts living in

humid forest areas are dark. Presumably he also maintains that

the darkening of animals living in the humid areas is protective,

and Natural Selection alone is responsible for producing it. He

will find this-attitude much more difficult to defend than in the case

of desert colouration, perhaps. In some instances the darkening

is so slight that it requires a series of specimens for comparison to

show its presence. How this insignificant darkening could be of

protective value to its possessor is difficult to understand. Would

Mr. Burdon ascribe the pale colouration of the desert sand itself,

in deserts the world over, also to Natural Selection? If not, what

is the factor or set of factors he holds accountable for its being

consistently pale sandy? If he is prepared to admit that in the

first instance it is not Natural Selection but some purely physical

factors (of which, as Meinertzhagen suggests, the excess of ultra-

violet radiation may be one), why does he find it so difficult to

concede that this same physical factor or factors may as well be

responsible for the pale colouration of the animals that inhabit this

sandy desert environment? The possibility that Natural Selection

may in some cases perfect the original adaptiveness by eliminating

orthogenetic colour mutants which are markedly unsuited to the

environment, and by perfecting others, is not denied. Indeed, the

dark colouration of the rodents Mr. Burdon mentions as living on

black lava beds may quite understandably be explained by this theory.

Many other cases of his sort are known, especially among ground

frequenting birds such as larks and partridges, where dark coloured

races are found living on isolated and restricted ‘oasis’ of dark soil,

while in the surrounding sandy desert pale, apathetically coloured

forms exist.

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SUCIETY, Vol. XLIII

But it must be remembered that the question of the exact relation

of soil colour to the colouration of the animals living upon it, and

of the interaction of physical factors producing the similarity or

‘adaptiveness’, is as yet very imperfectly understood. It seems

rash in the present state of our knowledge to ignore other possibi-

lities, and claim that Natural Selection alone and no other explanation

can be offered for this circumstance. To do so would be to shut one’s

eyes to the various other plausible explanations put forward for

this phenomenon.

As regards the seasonal change of colour in certain arctic animals,

] am not in a position to discuss the question from personal know-

ledge. But I am prepared to concede the possibility (though I am

not sure) that Natural Selection may play a more important part in

the arctic than elsewhere, and that the change from brown in summer

to white in winter may ‘have been brought about in some measure

by the elimination of such individuals as did not acquire a sufficiently

protective colouration at the appropriate season. This does not

exclude the possibility, however, of some purely physical factors

Leing at work which conduce to the changing of the fur and feathers

from one colour to another. For instance, one very important

reason for white colouration in the arctic winter, in mammals as

well as birds, may be that the low temperature (or another factor

connected with the season) may exert some influence on the chemical

economy of the body and suppress the superficial pigment while

at the same time increasing the formation of gas vacuoles to which,

as is well known, the quality of whiteness is mostly due.

I find no difficulty in allowing that one animal may be less sus-

ceptible to the influence of the directing physical action than another.

This is seen in the fact that some animals of the arctic tundra change

colour, while others living under identical conditions seem to fare

no worse for not doing so. White colour may help a predator to

hunt on snow as it may help the prey to escape, just as the normal

dark colour may help them in the same way in summer. But the

significance of the fact—also a very important one—that white fur

or plumage helps to conserve more body heat for the possessor

than any other colour, must not be lost sight of when considering

any other theory. Protection against the elements may be just.

as cogent a reason for white colour as protection from foes. Indeed,

considering its wholesale incidence, it may well be that the former

is the more important reason. ae

Unfortunately, the book mentioned by Mr. Burdon, Adaptive

Colouration in Animals, is not available, and I am therefore unable

to assess the strength of the arguments by which he sets so much

store. In any case | should consider ‘misleading’ a strong word

to use in connection with my remarks in the Bahawalpur bird paper.

] wish it were possible to be as cocksure about the correctness of

one’s views on such admittedly controversial questions as Mr. Burdon

seems to be.

33, Pati Hitt—Banpbra, SALIM ALI.

BOMBAY,’

Seplember 25, 1942.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 513

Il.—THE COLOURATION OF THE NEWLY-BORN YOUNG

OF THE CAPPED LANGUR [TRACHYPITHECUS

PILEATUS (Blyth) ].

Mr. R. 1. Pocock’ based his division of the langurs of the old

genus Pithecus mainly on the colouration of the newly-born young.

In his paper he described the young of 7. pileatus at birth (newly-

born) as ‘a uniform golden or orange all over’. In my _ paper

Observations on some of the Indian Langurs, | disagreed with

Mr. Pocock’s statement and described the newly-born young of this

langur as ‘creamy white all over the body, with a slight ferruginous

tinge along a narrow portion of the back and tail’. I also men-

tioned, that 1 did not notice any ferruginous tinge in the fresh speci-

men. In order to give some idea of the age of my specimen |

mentioned that ‘only two upper and two lower incisors had barely

cut through the gums’. The only sure method to prove the point

would be in captivity. Mr. Pocock evidently had this opportunity

as evidenced. by the fine photograph published with his article, of

a langur which was born in the London Zoo.

However, in spite of this opportunity, Mr. Pocock overlooked

What is perhaps another important detail in the newly-born young

in this species, namely, the colour of the face, hand and feet. This

point I referred to in my paper: ‘Though the adult and yearlings

have the face, ears, the palms of the hands and the soles of the

feet black, these regions in the newly-born are pinkish flesh not

black.’ I was particularly struck by this characteristic on account

of the fact that in the entellus group of langurs the face, etc. of the

newly-born young are brownish or blackish.

Subsequent to the publication of the two papers referred to here,

Mr. Pocock published the revised edition of the Mammalia of India

(1 939). On page 121 of this work I find the following paragraph :—

‘I have seen skins of newly-born young of several ditferent

kinds of Tvachypithecus, ranging from Assam to Java, all of the

colour stated. The only exception to the rule apparently was supplied

by an example of 7. pileatus, recorded by McCann as white. But

the young of this species known to me are typically golden.’

My specimens were obtained in 1930; my notes were published

in 1934 and the new fauna appeared early in 1939. My _ serial

material is in the collection of the Society. If Mr. Pocock doubted

my statement, he could have called for the material and I have

no doubt that the Society would have sent him the lot. He did

not. If I was not perfectly sure of my facts, I would not have

dared to contradict the authority of Mr. Pocock. To make doubly

sure of my facts, I recently examined my specimen again. After

eleven years of preservation my specimen is still creamy-white, but

it is changing in tone as a result of age and the white is becoming

discoloured. Nevertheless, I stick to my statement as I examined it

when still in the flesh. Leaving this point aside, I see that Mr.

Pocock has made no mention of the colouration of the face, etc. in

» [-B.N.H.S., XXxXii (1928) p. 660. * Ibid, xxxvi (1934) p. 626,

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

the newly-born young of this species. ‘This point has been completely

ignored !

While on the subject of S. pileatus I would like to say that I am

glad that it has been generically separated from the entellus group of

langurs as it always struck me that there is a great difference

between the two, when dealing with them in the field. The faciai

characters and expression of the two are very distinct. If we

examine the skulls side by side it immediately becomes clear that

I’. pileatus has less of a muzzle and accordingly a flatter face than

Semnopithecus entellus. The facial angle of the two is totally

different. Apart from these differences there are other minor

differences observable in the field.

BomBAy NATURAL HIsToRy SOCIETY, C. McCANN.

BOMBAY,

August 4, 1941.

I11—ON THE MATING OF FLYING-FOXES

(PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS).

when passing near the Town Hall, Colombo, my attention was

drawn to a colony of flying-foxes (Pteropus giganteus) which was

being attacked by a number of house crows (Corvus splendens

protegatus) that were returning to their roosts. At the time the

sun was still bright and the trees on which the bats were hanging

were scantily clothed with leaves, so every animal could be seen,

easily hanging in its habitual pensile position, amongst the slender

branches, some fifty feet from the ground. Several groups of two

or three crows began to attack by pecking at the claws that held

the flying-foxes suspended from the branches; they did not peck

at cither the body or the head. The bats, on being disturbed

flew off and continued to circle round and round their roosting trees,

while the crows carefully avoiding the powerful flying membranes

of the bats flew above or below them and as they flew attacked their

heads or their ventral surfaces. The former flying stronger than

the crows, avoided them repeatedly and returned after a minute

or two to new roosts, whereupon the crows followed and perched

a few feet away. The bats now wide awake however quickly

recognized the birds that were giving so much annoyance and mov-

ing towards them, boldly attacked in their turn, with deafening

screams and drove the crows away by striking at them with their

strong hooked claws.

There were four colonies within fifty yards and the crows were

actively annoying the bats in all these colonies. The game, if -game

it was, continued for about half-an-hour; the crows then leaving and

flying off in the direction of their own roosts. I have seen a similar

attack by crows at 4-30 p.m. (Indian Standard Time) in Shertally,

Travancore. In this place the annoyance was so great that the

two colonies of bats flew right away in the bright sunlight. These

colonies must have aggregated about three to four hundred bats.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 516

At Colombo, the smaller colony of the four I have mentioned did

not return to their roosts on 4th March, whereas the other three

held their positions till early in April when my observations ceased

owing to my departure from Colombo. In Colombo, the crows

did not continue their annoyance after the third. day.

It was while watching the attacks of crows that I noticed. first

the peculiar behaviour that was taking place between pairs of bats

that were left undisturbed by the crows. In describing this peculiar

behaviour I shall in the following paragraphs refer to the: more

aggressive or the active animal as male and the other the more

passive as female. In the first instance, the male was observed to

move nearer to the female as if to greet her but his advances were

politely repulsed, there being no noise and undue fuss about the

business. These first advances having been met almost with dis-

pleasure, the subsequent ones were received in a more friendly

manner. The male continued to press his courtship and being

repulsed a few more times was then readily accepted by the female

and the two animals were seen in close embrace for a short time.

Then the female separated and moved away first, the male following

her from branch to branch till his advances were again accepted in

a friendly manner and-the pair was seen once more enveloped in

their flying membranes for several short periods. Having come

together on several occasions they now separated’ willingly, the

female remained in her place only a few inches away from the male.

Meetings and separations continued till about 7 p.m. and _ they

separated for the last time and after about ten minutes the female

flew off leaving the male behind. In another fifteen minutes, when

if was quite dark, he also flew away. I counted about thirty pairs

behaving in very similar fashion. The mating pairs were not the

last to leave the colony as many individuals were scen remaining

behind till it was completely dark. The meetings of the pairs were

generally face to face though in the earlier stages ene were seen

one behind the other.

It was strange to see single bats remaining intonteined when

the pairs moved passed them; their attitude appeared to be ‘I do

not care what you do and I shall not interfere in your business—

go on’— these individuals gave way when the amorous pairs passed

ine repassed them.

I had these bat colonies under observation for about three weeks

and the same movements were seen throughout that period. The

only trouble that arose was the increase in the size and the number

of leaves on the tree after a few showers of rain and made accurate

observations more difficult. Eventually the animals were so well

shaded from the heat of. the sun and concealed from observations

from the ground that their movements could not be seen distinctly.

My observations made, at different times of the day, showed

that pairing never takes place before 5-30 p.m. The only other

movements I noticed were round about noon and late in the evening

before the flying-foxes left their roosts. About noon much flapping

of the flying membranes was seen. ‘This was probably due to the

intense heat of the day. The other movement noticed were late

in the evening before they flew off. The flapping increased at. this

time and the arms were stretched as if to get ready for the evening

£16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLItit

flight. Betore it flew off each bat stretched its arms, flapped wings,

suddenly raised its head and threw itself into the air, letting go its

hold on the branch and flying off unconcerned after its companions.

Every animal took its own course and never flew off in company

with any of the others. The general direction of flight was usually

the same but after a few yards the angles diverged and distances

between them increased as they vanished in the evening gloom.

COLOMBO, J. R. BHATT, B.Sc.

July 2, 1942.

|For further accounts of the habits of the flying fox the reader

should refer to ‘Notes on the Flying Fox (Pleropus giganteus)’

published in vol. xxxvii, p. 143 of the Journal and ‘Further observa-

tions on the Flying Fox (P. giganteus) and the Fulvous Fruit-Bat

(Rousettus leschenaultt)’ vol. xlu, p. 587. Eps. |

IV.—TIGERS SWIMMING.

A tiger had killed a ‘boda’ (buffalo calf used as a ‘kill’) close to

the bank of a river, some 50 yards wide, which flows into the

Narbudda. When I arrived in the afternoon to sit up for the

tiger, | found that the carcase of the ‘boda’ was floating in the centre

of the river which in that place formed a large pool, with virtually

no noticeable current. The ‘machan’ had been erected earlier in the

day in a suitable tree, overlooking the spot on the bank where the

carcase was originally lying. It was presumably turtles which had

dragged it into the water and some 4o yards down the middle of the

pool out of sight from the ‘machan’. I had no means of collecting

the carcase from the pool which was deep and probably contained

at least one mugger, and the ‘Korku’ with me preferred to trot

back to camp and bring another live ‘boda’ than venture into the

water. This ‘boda’ was tied up to the same stake to which the

first had been tied, i.e., some 20 paces from the bank to where it

had been later dragged and partly eaten.

At about g p.m. I heard the tiger approaching noisily over dead

leaves, and expected it to attack the live ‘boda’ any minute.

Instead, it walked down to the river bank, splashed into the water,

swam out to the carcase and returned to the bank with it slightly

lower down stream. Here, out of view from my ‘machan’, it made

its meal again on the bank. The marks were later easily distinguish-

able in the mud and soft earth. The tiger left the carcase which

stiJl contained the stomach and intestines during the early hours

of the morning, but when it got light the carcase was again in

mid-stream. The live ‘boda’ was unmolested and I never got a

shot.

On another occasion in February 1940 I had crossed _ the

Subansiri R. at Dulangmukh in N. Lakhimpur in order to search

for tiger and other pug marks in the jungle on the far side. On

returning to the ferry at about 1 p.m. I noticed some tigress’ pug-

marks in the sand leading down to the river some 150 yards up-

stream from the ferry. These pugs had certainly not been there

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 517

when I had come over first at about 9-30 a.m. Some Miris were

sitting waiting for the ferry and J] asked them whether they had

seen any tiger. They replied that about half an hour before one

had come down to the waters’ edge and swum over to.a bare stoney —

island in mid-stream, walked across this and then swum over to

the far bank and disappeared into the jungle. I verified their state-

ment by crossing in the ferry and searching the bank for pug marks.

I did not search for long as they were plainly to be seen wet on

the smooth stones and in the mud between them.

The river at Dulangmukh in February is about 120 yards wide

and the current flows at about 6 knots where the tigress crossed.

QUETTA, ee Gy WIRE svat DAR Nala

BALUCHISTAN, Captain.

July 2, 1942.

V.—TIGER ‘POOLING’.

There has been much controversy as to the exact significance

of the curious call which a tiger makes at times, and which for

want of a better name has been described as ‘pooking’. The general

consensus .of opinion appears to be that it is a mating call, and

the old idea that its intention is to locate a sambur by its answer

and thus allow the animal to be stalked, has been to some extent

discredited.

The latter view, however, is still held by the jungle tribes of

the Nilgiri-Wynaad and finds striking corroboration in V. K.

Arseniev’s book Dersu the Trapper, in which it is stated that the

Siberian tiger is in the habit of calling up ‘wapiti’ with the same

intent. It is stated that the Siberian tiger’s call has a_ slightly

different note from the Wapiti stag’s roar, just as the call of the

Indian tiger differs in tone from the sambur’s bell. So perhaps

the old established idea may be correct after all.

My personal experience of this call is limited to a single instance.

I was sitting up for a tiger over a live bait in the Mudumalai forest

of the Nilgiri Wynaad some years ago and towards sunset heard

what I at first thought to be a sambur call over half a mile away.

My Kurrumba shikari, however, said it was a tiger, and listening

carefully I did notice a slight variation in tone. The call was

answered by a sambur feeding not far from the machan and the duet

continued till I judged the tiger to be within 200 yards. Both

animals then stopped calling and the sambur suddenly bolted past

the machan—I neither saw nor heard anything more of the tiger

but my Kurrumba was positive that it had been stalking the sambur.

BANGALORE, | E.G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

August 21, 1942. Major, I.A.

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

> VIL.—A COIN LODGED IN A TIGER’S PALATE.

Captain Chetwode’s note under the above title published in

volume xli, p. 167 of the Journal has brought forward a suggestion

from Mr. MacDonald (Journ. B.N.H,S, vol. xliil, p. 100) by way

of explanation for this peculiar incident. I had the opportunity of

examining the animal’s skull shortly after it had been shot. For-

tunately the skinner had preserved the soft portion of the palate

and ‘the coin. An examination of the bony palate and the flesh

covering it showed that the pice had been lodged there for a con-

siderable time. Slight bony growths at the spot and the cavity in

the Heshy portion bore this out. The pice was intact and not per-

forated. It only bore slight marks, the result of friction.

There is no reason to suggest that the tiger was a man-eater,

a point recognized by both Capt. Chetwode and Mr. MacDonald.

Nor is there any foundation for the belief that the coin had been

shot from a gun—it would have to be a large bore gun! Mr. Mac-

Donald however suggests that the tiger may have obtained the

coin from an. animal having a necklace of coins in the heat of

excitement when killing its prey. As pointed out already the coin

had no perforation and thus could not have been used in a necklace,

unless it had been stuck to a leather collar as is sometimes done.

To explain how the tiger got the coin, I must go back to how

did the prey, whatever it was, get the coin? There appears to me

to be two possibilities :—

(1) that the coin had been dropped by a villager and the prey

picked it up by licking, and swallowed it—animals frequently lick

metal for some unknown reason.

(2) that the coin had been tied up in a cloth, either by itself

or along with others and that the cloth had been dropped. A hungry

goat, cow or donkey found a ‘wholesome’ rag and swallowed it

with its contents. In time the cloth was digested, and the coin

or coms remained in the alimentary canal.

If the tiger’s victim obtained the coin in either of these two ways,

the passage of the coin from the victim to the tiger is quite an

easy step. The tiger during its meal got the coin into its mouth

and it accidentally lodged behind the soft palate. In this position

it: was separated from the floor of the mouth. Once in this cavity,

any effort on the part of the tiger to dislodge it with its tongue

only pushed the coin further forward, and in time the coin reached

the spot where it was discovered—between the palatine bones and

the tissue covering them. This appear to me to be the solution

to this interesting accident.

Bombay NaruraAL History Society, C. McCANN.

BomBAY,

August 31, 1942.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 519

VIT.—BLACK PANTHERS.

As you will have gathered from another letter I am_ keenly

interested in albinism in birds and animals; but to go to the other

end of the scale I am interested in melanism too, although so far

my experience has been confined to panthers only. |

Black panthers are commonly considered to be freaks, specimens

occurring in normal litters. But I have succeeded in breeding them

‘true to type’ and my experience has been that a pair of black

panthers will always produce black cubs. My first female cub was

obtained from the Straits Settlements, in which parts they are found

more frequently than elsewhere. This cub, like others of its kind,

had a vile temper and tried to scratch a couple of tigers in an

adjoining cage, with the result that the tigers got annoyed and

pulled the panther’s shoulder right out of its socket through the

bars. I put this cub (? grown) out of its misery with a bullet.

TF next got a female from Jamnagar and a full-grown pair (trapped

wild) from Singapore and put the three together invacage.. The

Singapore female was apparently barren; so | got rid of her. The

others two bred as follows :—

(a) 1st litter, 2 cubs, male and female, both black. They came

to a sad end when a few days old, as the mother refused to feed

one and drowned the other in her drinking water through.

(b) 2nd litter, 2 cubs, male and female, both black. T[. still

have them.

killed one by sitting on it and the other is still with me.

The mother and daughter (b) have both been put back to the

sire (Singapore male) and are now in whelp.

The sire is jet black but the mother shows faint rosettes when

in the sunlight. All adults are of good size and more ‘thick set’

in build than the normal panther. A peculiarity about them is that

the fore legs are shorter than the hind legs, which makes them

slope slightly towards the head, like Siamese cats (which small

relative also originated from the regions noted for black panthers).

The cubs are born with a chocolate coloured milk coat with

rather prominent rosettes; these latter gradually fade as the cubs

grow older and the coat becomes blacker. I have noticed that cubs

in succeeding litters appear to have rosettes more faintly marked

than in previous litters.

The temper of both cubs and adults can only be Wescrined as

vile. Panthers are notoriously ‘uncertain’; but black panthers are

real ‘limbs of Satan’: Normal panthers are comparatively docile.

Gestation period is about 14-15 weeks. My records show mating

T5-1-39, cubs born 16-5-39; Mating 2-3-4o cubs, born 20-6-40.

RAM SINGH BAHADUR;:

KeCaSslanr ba ZS.

PaRTABGARH (SOUTH RajpuTana). Maharawat of Partabgarh,

August 19, 1942,

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

VIII.—A WINE-BIBBING PANTHER—AND OTHERS.

My state is ‘stiff with panthers’ and though I now seldom shoot

them myself, finding the game rather monotonous after bagging

185 of them, they provide sport for some of my guests who are on

shikar bent and keen on collecting a spotted coat or two. The

bait consists of a goat tied on top of a platform raised about five

feet off the ground to keep it out of reach of hyenas, and it is

amazing how soon a panther learns where a free dinner is available.

One such panther took to killing regularly in daylight (early

evening) and as the platform was conveniently situated my guests

and I used to watch it from a ‘hide’ a few yards away. After a

time I decided to provide it with free drinks as well as dinner and

placed a stone trough near the platform and filled it with sweetened

water. The Panther lapped a little liquid rather diffidently but

later began to drink regularly and I mixed about 1/6th part of

country (mhowa) liquor with the water. Again, to start with,

the panther was rather suspicious of the new taste and smell but

apparently got used to it and by degrees I increased the proportion

of liquor to half and half.

By this time our friend looked forward to the cup that both

cheered and inebriated, and became indeed a confirmed toper. He

would invariably make first for the booze before tackling his dinner

and frequently lay down after a drink and ‘slept it off’, forgetting

to kill the goat that evening.

After some months he turned up with a mate; his female friend

however was never seen to join him in a drink; she confined her-

self to killing and eating the goat. She was much more wary than

her companion and disappeared at any suspicious sound or move-

ment made by either us or him; in fact she seemed frightened of him

and they never dined together.

This little ‘tamasha’ went on for a long time, and after many

goats had been taken, the male suddenly ceased to appear. I do

not know what became of him. Perhaps he visited a distant bait

and was shot. [I certainly cannot imagine the dope fiend giving

up his haunts and his habits for any ordinary reason. The female

was trapped for my zoo. She was of normal size but had a tail:

only a foot long.

There was another panther that used to kill regularly by the

light of a strong Petromax light suspended just over the bait, while

we watched him from a short distance away. Panthers become

very bold and daring, especially when they live close to human

habitation, as many villagers, and their goats and dogs, know to

their cost. When a panther takes to killing human beings, for-

tunately a rare occurrence, it is an infinitely greater scourge than

a man-eating tiger.

Three of the largest panthers I have had were caught as cubs

when 1o days old. A 6 ft. 6 in. female that was shot in a beat

was found to be in milk; so a search was made and the cubs, 1

male and 2 females, were found, When these grew up they escaped

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 52]

from my zoo and had to be shot. They measured 7 ft. 11 in.

(male) and 6 ft. 7 in., respectively.

RAM SINGH BAHADUR,

aCe Solon. o745.Sic

PARTABGARH (SOUTH Rajputana). Maharawat of Partabgarh.,

August 19, 1942.

IX.—NOTE ON THE BREEDING OF THE MALABAR

GIANT SQUIRREL (RATUFA INDICA MAXIMA)

IN ‘CAPTIVITY.

I have previously (1939) reported upon the birth of Ratufa

macroura in captivity, but there seems to be no record of the breed-

ing of the allied more imposing mainland species R. indica. In

January 1942 I-received in exchange from the Trivandrum Zoological

Gardens an adult pair of R. indica maxima. Both animals had

been some time in captivity in Trivandrum, the male since 4th

July 1939 and the female since 2nd July 1940, before being sent

to me. Prior to this they had been kept as pets by private indivi-

duals. They had not previously bred, nor had there been any record

of the breeding of this form in the Trivandrum Gardens hitherto.

The animals were immediately released into a large open cage

6 ft.x6 ft.x6 ft. with a two-roomed sleeping compartment at the

back, similar to the one in which I had previously succeeded in

breeding R. macroura. No unusual behaviour was noted until 24th

April 1942, a little over four months after their release into this

cage, when the female was observed to spend most of the day in her

sleeping box, not even coming out to feed. The same occurred

on the following day, when naturally I felt something was amiss,

when I discovered that she appeared to be straining severely and

I concluded that she was possibly in labour. This proved to be

the case, for the next day, when she came out for a meal, I observed

a single naked baby inside the box. (The male was removed at

this stage). No pattern was discernable in the baby’s skin, but

in two day’s time it was noticed to be blacker in the anterior half

than posteriorly. By the following day the dark colour had spread

all over the body, and it could be seen to be due to a fine, close-

fitting coat of silky hairs,—approximately at the same age as it

was found in R. macroura. Its eyes were not yet open. These

did not open until some time in the last week of May, when the

animal was about five weeks old, which seems considerably delayed

compared with the condition observed in R. macroura, whose baby

was able to run about at the age of one month. On gard June it

first peeped out of its nest box; and the following day it came out

altogether for the first time.

The peculiar patterning of the coat in R, indica maxima appeared

early. Although on the fourth day the whole body, except the

ventral surface appeared uniformly dark, within a very few days,

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

when the hairs had had time to erupt sufficiently, it could be ob-

served that the ears, nape, and the back and sides of the body were

deep maroon, duller than in the adults; whilst the posterior part

of the back, rump, tail and the upper: portions of the limbs, and

the shoulders and haunches were black. The facial pattern, “how-

ever, was not to be made out with certainty until a week or more

later, when the characteristic pale cheek stripe could be seen. The

ears were small and rounded, adpressed at first, and did not present

any pencils until the age at which it first peeped from the box.

The tail hairs too, are at first closely applied to the tail as in all

young squirrels.

At the age of three months the young one is about one- -third the

size of its parents. It has erupted its incisor teeth, and these are

probably its permanent incisors, since the deciduous predecessors,

which are known to occur in Sciuridae, are always lost very soon

after birth. It has not yet manifested its vocal powers, which are

evident enough in both its parents.

I am indebted to Dr. R. K. Nair of the Trivandrum Garden

for the previous history of the specimens sent to me and to Miss

A. K. Joshua for her co-operation in bringing the Squirrels to

Colombo.

MeEpbIcAL COLLEGE, W. C. OSMAN HILL} m-p:, chop. , ete;

COLOMBO, CEYLON,

August 5, 1942.

REFERENCE.

Hill, W. C. O., 1939.—On the Neonatus in Ratufa and Funambulus, Ceylon

JE Or SSC; <(B)ieexxi spe eros Z

X.—DEFORMED TUSH IN A BOAR.

(With a plate).

A boar I shot in a beat a few days ago appeared to have only one

tush on the right side protruding 34 in. from the gum. It was

later discovered that the left tush was growing a couple of inches

further back than the right one and lay parallel to and inside the

teeth; it was not deeply imbedded in its socket and could be slightly

moved; its: forward end curved downwards. and had made a hole

or rather depression about 4 in. diameter in the lower jaw. The

boar was an exceptionally fat and hefty specimen of a hill boar. I

should be glad to send you the jaw if you would care to have it.

RAM SINGH BAHADUR

Ve OsGellag WaZoS

Maharawat of Partabgarh.

PARTABGARH (SOUTH RAJPUTANA).

August 19, 1942.

| His Highness forwarded the specimen to the society for examina-

tion, It is a most extraordinary form of malformation. The title

of the note is somewhat misleading for what at first sight appears

JouRN. BomMBaAy Nat, HIst. Soc.

Malformed Tushes of Wild Boar.

(vide note)

7, oe ee,

ile ou a.

fs Sen Re aes Joe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 528

to be an abnormal tush is in reality a most curious development

of the second premolar of the left side of the lower jaw. The true

tusk is completely suppressed and a very shallow cavity indicates

its normal position. The bone in the area is somewhat spongy.

The corresponding tusk of the right lower jaw is normal. The

first premolar of the right side is normal. The corresponding: tooth

developed, but possibly due to the interference of the abnormal tooth

was displaced and a shallow cavity, filled with bony tissue, marks

its position. The second premolar. of right side is quite normal.

However, its partner on the left has developed into the form of a

tush. aie base of the tooth is thick; from its now-widened socket

it bends forward and finally enters a somewhat deep cavity (about

3/8 inch deep) which has been worn into the bone between the

last pair of incisors. The tip lies crookedly within the cavity. From

the base of the socket of the tooth, there appears a now-healed-up

suture in the bone, which seems to show the path followed by the

tip of the tooth at an earlier period, till it finally came to rest in

its present position. The tooth was apparently loose in its socket

as the cavity in which it rests is larger than otherwise necessary,

but it cannot be extracted. All the remaining teeth are normal.

The abnormal tooth bears a scar which indicates where the upper

tooth or teeth contacted it when the animal was eating. The lower

jaw viewed from the underside shows no abnormality beyond the

fact that the usual bulge in the bone necessary to accommodate

the tusk (of the left side) 1: Eps. | |

XI.—SOME EXPERIMENTS IN ALBINISM.

(With a plate).

Some of your readers may be interested in my efforts successful

after several attempts, to breed albino chital. The history is briefly

as under:

Abou four years ago I bought a chital stag in Bombay. I

have always been interested in albinism, in any kind of animals or

birds, and hearing that a ‘White deer’ was for sale at Crawford

market, visited the unsavoury quarter where the animal dealers

ply their trade. The dealer said he did not know what kind of

deer it was; but I recognized it as a perfect specimen (except for

the horns, which had no tines) of an albino chital stag and, cutting

down the fabulous price demanded to less than half, secured it for

a reasonable figure. :

I placed this stag in my zoo and matéd it to a normal doe;

result was a normal female, which may be called exhibit (A).

(A) was in due course mated to her albino sire, result a normal

female (B).

iS mated to her albino sire, result normal male.

(B) again mated to her albino sire, result normal female (C).

(D) also put back to albino sire and produc ed a perfect albino

ae (E)-on 23-3-40.

(D) again put back to albino sire and has again prod luced another

albino male (F) on 24-2-41.

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. XLITI

It will be seen that doe (D) which is now apparently breeding

‘true to type’ is the fourth generation. I am hoping that in due

course she will produce an albino female, which, if put back to the

original albino sire, should definitely ‘fix’ the type.

I may add that the albino males (E) and (F) are typical specimens

and have ruby eyes (which are rather intolerant of sunlight) pink

noses, pink ears and light coloured hoofs. The original sire has

horns about 2 feet in length with no tines; they are always in velvet,

of a pink flesh colour, and the ends appear slightly raw. He drops

his horns annually but the new ones grow in the same way. I

enclose a family group photograph of D. E. & F.

As already mentioned, I am keen on albinos and have had perfect

specimens of an albino black buck (from Jaipur jungles) and chinkara

gazelle (from Dhrangadra). These died,, in due course, and have

been beautifully mounted entire by a famous firm of taxidermists ;

but, alas, the effect is somewhat spoilt by their being given normal

black -eyes and noses.

I have at present an albino female of the common-ringed parakeet

(canary yellow, with ruby eyes) and a male blossom headed parakect

(orange, with light pink head and ruby eyes) I am trying to mate

them. I also have an albino crow, just as big a villain as his normal

corvine brother, an albino common mynah and albino ‘moonias’,

also a pair of albino rhesus monkeys (all white with red faces and

pink eyes and nails).

RAM SINGH BAHADUR,

K.C:Sil, #FsZaSt

PARTABGARH (SoutH Rajputana). Maharawat of Partabgarh.

August 19, 1942.

XTT.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-CHEEKED BULBUL

(MOLPASTES LEUCOGENYS LEUCOTIS) IN THE C.P.

On the 15th September 1942 a female White-cheeked Bulbul

(Molpastes leucogenys leucotis) was killed by a_ field-collector

at Nagpur. The specimen has been mounted for display in the

Bird Gallery of the Museum.

As this is a very rare bird in this part, probably the first recorded

from the south of Narbudda, I am reporting the matter in case you

desire this information for record.

S. S. PATWARDHAN,

' Curator.

CENTRAL MUSEUM,

NAGPUR,

September 16, 1942.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 525:

XIHI.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE COMB-DUCK

(SARCIDIORNIS MELANOTA) IN MYSORE STATE.

As being of possibly some interest for your records, I would like

to report that I shot a Comb-Duck (male), on the 3oth November

1941, in the neighbourhood of Gundalpet, Mysore State.

The bird was one of four seen on the tank (probably two pairs).

I understand from Major Phythian-Adams that although he

believes that he has seen these birds in the Mysore State in former

years, he was not aware that one had actually been shot.

A solitary specimen of the Great Indian Bustard was seen the

same day, but efforts to bag it proved unsuccessful.

‘LANSDOWN’, Regelhic: OONE Ye

OQoTACAMUND,

July 11, 1942.

XIV.—THE BIRDS OF A BOMBAY GARDEN.

The war has put an end to the habit of social and duty calls hither-

to practised, ardently or with reluctance, by Bombay Europeans

and some others. But birds know nothing of war activities, and

still less about petrol restrictions, and, with some notable exceptions,

they have been if anything more assiduous than ever in putting

in an appearance on my premises and attracting my-attention- to

their existence and their charms. I am hoping that I may be

allowed to repay their politeness by giving an account of them in

this, I presume, friendly Journal. As several of them have never

been in my garden before, and some have never even been seen

in Bombay island before, I consider that their presence, however

fleeting, deserves to be recorded.

I ought perhaps to begin by saying that I am well placed for

visits from birds. My house, though unfortunately it is not actually

mine, overlooks Back Bay. It has “the hanging eardens immediately

below it, and on one side what used to be the Ladies’ Gymkhana,

now almost entirely derelict, and on another side the flat Phiro-

zeshah Mehta garden, covering a water reservoir, and beyond that

the grounds of the Towers of Silence, which include a large area,

well treed and mostly wild. Besides this, my garden, on both

sides of the house, contains a good many trees, and there are many

more on and across the roads outside. Not far away to the south

are the grounds of Government House, and as most of the houses

and buildings on Malabar Hill have well kept and well timbered

gardens or compounds, the forty or so birds that I have on my

Piling list are probably fewer than might be expected. A human

caller from Delhi treated the number with contempt. In his Delhi

garden his bird acquaintances numbered eighty, he told me.

Politeness, or slowness of wit, prevented my replying that in such

a matter a compact and civilised city might well be expected to

be beaten by a straggling BR country town

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTERY, Vol. Xie iil

Certainly there is nothing very remarkable about my ordinary

residents. If there had not “been some much more distinguished

personages among my recent visitors I should not have ventured on

this article. But “before I speak of these I will list the humbler, but

more constant friends that I really depend on for bird company.

~My constant and unfailing companions are house crows, kites,

mynahs, purple-rumped sunbirds, magpie robins, Mr. and Mrs. Koel,

and a pair of rock-pigeons. Almost equally certain to put in an

appearance, perferably when I can watch them at close quarters

during the half hour that I am generally able to give to tea in the

shadow of the bungalow ana small lawn that overlooks the Bay, are

the coppersmiths (often numerous), iora, spotted fantail-flycatcher,

white-breasted kingfisher, red-vented bulbuls, house sparrows, rose-

ringed parakeets, palm-swifts, and, towards nightfall, Mr. and Mrs.

Spotted Owlet. These, with one most important addition, the white-

browed bulbul, whose cheery, rattling call rings out round the

bungalow all day, make up my regular bird society. If I have

counted them correctly they number nineteen.

Had I made this list two years ago I should have added the

Indian robin and the Indian oriole. We used to see the latter

frequently, and unless my memory deceives me we used to have the

former also, but I certainly have not seen them, since, for now

just about two years, I have taken to watching systematically.

Over and above these faithful nineteen a further nine birds take

an interest either in me or my surroundings sufficient to bring them

here pretty constantly, and to establish a considerable degree of

familiarity between us. These are the bee-eaters, present, often in

numbers, from October to the end of the year, when for some reason

or other they forsake me though remaining in the neighbourhood

until the monsoon. Besides the bee-eaters there are the red-

whiskered bulbul, drongo, grey and white wagtails, Bombay rufous

babbler, white-throated babbler, spotted munias and jungle crows.

I must confess that this season I have only once or twice been

looked up by a grey wagtail and not at all by any white ones. I

‘annot account for this, for both species used to be our constant

tea-time companions. Per contra, the spotted munias. and white-

throated babblers, whose visits, always in little parties, we used

to consider a very special favour, have been here again and again

throughout this last cold- weather, and I often see a party of the

former flying by. Presumably they know when I have anything

worth stopping for, just as the white-throated babblers seem to

have a genius for discovering when my mali has created a suitable

bathing puddled at the foot of an oleander which they treat as a

convenient, and modesty ensuring bathing box. All attempts on

our part to establish a regular bird-bath have failed; it was invariably

taken possession of by crows and kites, and caused a noticeable

reduction in the visits of our smaller friends.

From this list of our residents and visitors there are at least

two notable absentees. Brahminy mynahs undoubtedly inhabit the

gardens and roads of the western, sea-face, side of Malabar Hill,

but they totally ignore us on the eastern, Back» Bay side. Is this

some subtle social distinction that [ am too simple-minded to grasp?

Do they write their names at Goyernment House, I wonder, or is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - . 597

their caste too high even for that? Can it be that they are Con-

gress birds, and Subject in their social relationships to unnatural

inhibitions from afar?

Another notable absentee from the list as so far given is the

rosy pastor. He brings me to my once-or-twicers, the last five

of whom are the real excuse for this article. With a name like his

he might have been expected to be frequently seen at a house called

Bishop’s Lodge. But only once has he paid his duty call, and then

with only a single companion. That was at the end of March last

year, when at Colaba I had seen many of them, and at IXurla, at

sunset, many hundreds. Another bird remiss in its attentions is

the purple sunbird. I think I glimpsed him once, but am uncertain,

whereas from Salim Ali’s book, shortly to be mentioned, they appear

to be not infrequent in the island. Other rare visitors have been

paradise flycatchers and pied crested cuckoos, on all occasions

towards the end of the hot weather, when no doubt they are on the

move up the coast. The fly catchers have always been in the chest-

nut stage of feathering, but the last seen (this year), though still

ehestand clad, had developed the long tail-feathers.

And now for my special and most honoured visitors, considered

to be such on the authority of information derived from Salim Ali’s

Birds of Bombay and Salsette. If only every separate part of

India had authoritative and exhaustive lists like this one, how much |

easier life would be for all who like myself desire to be able to put

names to faces, however occasionally or imperfectly glimpsed. I

will put these special five visitors in a crescendo, or perhaps it

should be a diminuendo, of grateful awe.

First, because they are so small, I put the party of white-eyes

that visited the above-mentioned oleander last January. Salim Ali

gives four references for their appearance on Malabar Hill, but KHA,

our other and older authority for Bombay, confesses to have never

seen them on the island, though he considered them common in the

cold-weather across the harbour.

Next, I had in December a series of late evening visits from a

white-bellied drongo. EHA attributes him to Bombay, but Salim

Ali does not bring him nearer than Tulsi Lake. He did not sit so

still as the ordinary drongo does, but kept pouncing upwards into

the air, uttering a sharp cry each time. He is smaller than the

other drongo. .

January, which brought the white-eyes, brought also an Indian

shikra. He came in the middle of the day, but fortunately perched

where I could see him from the lunch table, and gave me time to

get quite near with a field glass. EHA describes him under the

name Sparrow Hawk, and evidently considered him a common

Bombay island bird, but SA (if I may call him that) has only two

references for him, one in the city and one on Malabar Hill. The

island is much more thickly built on than in EHA’s time, and this

and other birds have become rare; I think my pride in my shikra

is justified.

Still more so is my pride in my Peregrine Falcon; yes, the real

article, as aristocratic as anything could “be, Falco peregrinus pere-

grinus. He was a tea-time visitor and stayed for a quarter of an

hour, and then, when the crows became too impertinent, sailed away

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

with a most beautiful liquid flight, down towards Chaupatti, and

then back to settle, presumably, somewhere further along the hill

out of my sight. The fleckings on his breast resembled large and

numerous drops of gravy. Mr. Prater assures me that these show

that he was a young bird. From the skins I was shown the mark-

ings on the breast evidently vary much in different specimens.

Though not uncommon on the neighbouring mainland coast he is

not recorded to have been seen in the island before.

The final visitors on my ‘list are three large cuckoo. shrikes,

one by itself in January and then two together in March. They are

largish birds, and the first was hunting assiduously through a series

of trees. In Whistler there is no picture, and the one in The Hand-

book of Indian Birds does not show the fine, pale crosslines on the

breast that all three birds displayed. Salim Ali has no references

for Bombay island and considers them uncommon in Salsette, but

FHA says that he had frequently seen them on Malabar Hill.

Though this exhausts the birds that I have so far seen in my

garden the list does not include all that can be seen from it. From

November to March, for instance, there are constantly gulls on

Back Bay, especially when fishing is in progress. The brahminy

kite is constantly about in the monsoon. A pond heron once

flew by at close quarters; our puddle is too insignificant and ephe-

meral for the likes of him. The vultures that belong further down

the hill only occasionally soar into sight. There are two kinds,

and why they are not more often in the sky I cannot imagine, just

as I can form no theory to account for the flittering about of palm-

swifts on some evenings but not on others. Two vultures once

settled in a brab palm in full sight of our verandah, as though

considering its. suitability for a nest or roosting place. I should

not have welcomed them as neighbours, and I am glad to say they

never came again.

Before I end I should like to mention a few more birds seen

recently on Bombay island. Kestrels, though they have abandoned

the Marine Lines reclamation now that it is built over, are still to

be seen at Colaba, where also, pretty frequently I think, the marsh

harrier shows himself. A pair of blue rock-thrushes continue to

inhabit for the present the southern of the two Worli hills. I say

a pair though I have only once seen the hen, and on that occasion

the cock, with his usual lack of sociability, was completely ignoring

her. At the foot of the hill I thought I had this year a desert

wheat-ear, and I still think it was one, as it was larger than the

very similar bush-chat that was there next time I called. On the

fore-shore at the foot of the same hill, I am sorry to say a parti-

cularly noisome piece of fore-shore, owing to the Lovegrove outfall,

I had a year ago, at the end of May, and late in the evening, a

flock of golden plover. SA speaks of these as frequent in the

neighbourhood though never seen by him on the island. EHA,

who must have known that they had been shot at Worli and on the

flats and race-course of those days, seems doubtful whether they

were likely to be seen. Now that the southern hill at Worli is

being dug away for an esplanade and development in terraces,

how. much longer will these three birds be seen?

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 529

In search of waterside birds I visited last November the tidal

pans and flats that lie between Antop and Trombay hills. There

I had my one and only sight of a redshank. SA considers that

it is not abundant in these parts, and has no island references for

it. He is a beautiful bird on the wing, and as we were able to

stalk him we had a good close up view of the curious way in which,

when stationary, he ducks his head as though trying to swallow

or regurgitate some morsel. The action is usually described as a

bobbing of the tail. It is not that, though the tail, what there is

of it, necessarily goes up when the head and forepart of him go

down.

Just beyond the place where this bird was seen runs the tidal

creek that used to connect with the Bandra creek and justify Bombay

being called an island. Beyond the creek, in some small Pilu

(Salvadora) trees, I came upon a party of white-cheeked bulbuls,

crestless, and except for their yellow vents looking more like

much overgrown cock-sparrows than anything else. Only a short

time before, I had seen them, or rather their crested relations, in

similar trees in Cutch, and I was interested to find that Salim Ali

considers that in the neighbourhood of Bombay they are either

escaped cage-birds, or, as I much prefer to think, migrants from

Gujerat. Salvadora is a tree for which they have a special penchant.

It is a waterside tree, often planted by Deccan wells, and very

common in its natural habitat the sea-side of Gujerat and the North

Konkan and on for some distance to the south. It is natural to

suppose that birds would gradually work their way along the line

of a favourite food plant. But Salvadora is supposed to be the

mustard tree which our Lord says grows from the tiniest of all

seeds to be big enough for birds to lodge in its branches. Were

the birds He meant white-cheeked bulbuls, and can Bombay there-

fore claim to have two Bible birds, the other being Worli’s Blue

Rock-thrush, constantly thought, owing to its solitary habit, to

be the bird that in the English translation of the Bible ‘sitteth alone

upon the housetops’? My authorities are inadequate to answer this

question, but it is a highly suitable one with which to end an

article from this particular pen.

RICHARD DYKE ACLAND.

BisHop’s LODGE,

MALABAR HILL, BomBay,

June 12, 1942.

Postscript :—

Once again (for it has happened twice before) a bird has taken

upon itself to upset what I have written, and has done so almost

immediately after the manuscript had left my hands. It is a

Brahminy Mynah that has played me the trick this time, whether

with companions watching his escapade and egging him on from

the background I do not know. He appeared in the garden early

on the morning of June 16th, two days after the monsoon had

started. He soon made off, and while here gave every indication

of being on unfamiliar ground and in an uneasy state of mind or

conscience.

Re EDs. RAY

£30. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

_XV:-—CAN HILSA BE TAKEN WITH ROD AND LINE?

With reference to the enquiry regarding Hilsa in the last number

of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (Vol. xliit,

p. 266). The Hilsa feeds on plankton (microscopic organisms) and

its gill-rakers are setose, acting as a sieve to filter out these minute

particles of food. It will thus be clear, from the nature of its food

and feeding habits, that rod and line cannot be used for catching

this delicious fish. The fishermen of Bengal are very clever and

if Hilsa could be secured on rod and line, they would certainly have

used baited hooks for its fishery long ago and not left it to be

‘caught in nets of a somewhat curious shape and modus operandi’.

EDITORS.

XVI.—THE MONITOR LIZARD (VARANUS MONITOR).

Someone asked mie a few days ago whether monitor lizards could

swim. I said I thought some did and others didn’t basing my

remark on my limited personal experience of these reptiles.

The only two occasions on which I have seen monitors swim

was first while I was fishing for mahseer at Gurmi near Harnat in

the Sibi District. The lizard which was about 3 ft. 6 in. in length

and of a brownish colour on top but light underneath was basking

amongst some stones close to the water. I put down my fly rod

and ran to catch it but it was quicker than I and ran up a mulberry

tree. I climbed up after it but it jumped down from a branch some

8 feet from the ground and made for the water into which it plunged

swimming easily like a crocodile down into some weeds where it

remained submerged for at least 10 minutes, after which I resumed

my fishing, not seeing it again.

The second occasion was while I was making my way up a

small tributary of the Indus near Thor in Chilas. The monitor on

this occasion too was of the same browntsh colour and measured

about 4 feet including its tail with which it lashed me across the

right shoulder when ji caught it. I released it near the stream to

see whether it would swim and it ran into the water remaining close

to the bank but completely submerged.

I mention these two instances because I understand that the

Water Monitor (Varanus salvator) is not found in India outside

Bengal and possibly Assam while the Common Monitor (Varanus

monitor) which is found all over India is alleged to be ‘Terrestrial,

living in holes in dry places’ (fauna). The Yellow Monitor (Varanus

flavescens) which is found in North India too is said to be ‘Terrestrial’

(Fauna). Possibly common monitors (which I think these two were)

only take to water when pursued by an enemy. Nevertheless the

species whatever it may be certainly seems to be amphibious.

QUETTA, R. K. M. BATTYE,

BALUCHISTAN, . Capt.

July 2, 1942.

| The Common Monitor may certainly be referred to as amphibious

as it readily takes to water and can remain submerged for a con-

siderable time. It also hunts crabs in streams and it has been

known to even enter the sea when on islands. Eps. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES E31

XVII.—THE FOOD OF THE BLIND SNAKE

CEPEIEOR STA CUALUTS BOULENGER).

As far as I am aware nothing definite appears to be known

about the diet of the Typhlops in general. Wall (Journ. B.N.H.S.

XXV, p. 375) merely makes a general statement, ‘They live for the

most part beneath the soil, and subsist upon worms, grubs and

insects.’ I’he usual habitat of the various species, at least during

the monsoon months, under stones and in decaying timber has often

led me to the beliet that Typhlops lives principally on the eZ?)

pupae and larvae of ants. Incidentally, such habitats are common to

ants during the same period as they are often swamped out of their

underground nests, and is the best period to collect series of these

Hymenoptera for research work. On September 12 Mr. H. Abdulali

brought in a specimen ot 7’. aculus which on being put into a pre-

servative vomited what it had eaten. An examination of the sub-

stance revealed that it was composed of nothing but the eggs and

pupae of ants. ‘This fact confirms my original belief so far as this

large species is concerned. The question naturally arises as to

how the Lyphlops is able to obtain the eggs and pupae from the

formicid owners which are very often very pugnatious and attack

everything that disturbs their peace.

BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, C. McCANN.

BomBay,

September 16, 1942.

XVIII.—THE KING COBRA (NAIA HANNAH) IN

CAE ARIWVAINYS:

Ditmars in his Snakes of the World’ has given a rather

detailed account of King Cobra (Naia hannah) which is regarded

by him as the star snake of the Indo-Malayan area. Interesting

observations on the feeding habits of this cannibalistic serpent are

also made by Boulenger in the popular book The London Zoo.*

The King cobra has been known to occur in the Cochin State

forests for over 23 years, and the State Zoo at Trichur has always

had one or more specimens in Captivity during this period. The first

specimen was captured from Kanhirapilly in 1919 and lived for

over twelve years -in captivity. It is reported that the authorities

then had great difficulty in feeding this snake as they had no idea

for some months that it lived upon the common rat snake. But,

once the proper prey was discovered, there was no difficulty in keep-

ing the snake in captivity. The King Cobra was also regarded as

very rare in the Cochin forests till 1936, when as many as three

specimens were procured for the Zoo, one from Chalakudy and

one each from Pattikad and Thanikudam, localities not far from

Trichur. Specimens were also collected in the years 1937 and

1938 from other adjacent localities. But none of these lived in the

Zoo for more than a year and their deaths were attributed to

injuries received during capture and in one case probably due to in-

1 New York, The Macmillan Company, 1937.

2 London, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1937.

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

anition caused by complete abstinence from food. This young

snake, unlike others that broke their self-imposed fasts alter some

days or months of captivity, persisted in refusing food until at lasi

even artificial feeding with beaten eggs was of no avail.

The loss of a number of specimens made me bestow careiul

attention on the surviving ones. “ihe dates of feeding were noted

xn each case and daily observations were made to fina out whether

the snakes were showing signs of ill health. While most specimens

resorted to hunger strixe when put under artificral conditions, an

apparently healthy snake, captured trom Vellanikara Estate, after

one year of captivity, during which period there was no dilttficulty

at all in feeding it, developed a strange illness. It» was first

noticed when the snake ceased to shed its skin, the periodical

renewal of which is essential for the health and activity oi- reptiles.

All attempts to induce the snake to cast its skin by making it pass

through the granite locks kept in the cage were without success and

the condition persisted till it ended fatally.

There was only one more specimen left in the Zoo and this ia

its turn began. to show signs of inactivity and long intervals in

shedding its skin after ‘an year of captivity. The snake was also

continuously off its feed for over two months and judging from previ-

ous experience its life was evidently in danger. The only course open

to the Zoo staff was to peel off the dead skin by artificial means.

One of the experienced keepers volunteered to carry out the operation

and curiously enough the snake seemed to like it very much.- The

snake regained its activity when the dead slough was se and

before long captured a live rat snake as usual.

After about six months of normal life the condition again recurred.

This was during the rainy season and the chillness ot the weather

seemed to add to its inactivity. The idea of warming the snake

by some arrangement suggested itself and was carried out with

complete success. The snake appreciated the amenity of artificial

heating of its cage and readily coiled itself near the improvised oven.

After a couple of days the scales began to come off, the snake

started moving about and was evidently in search of food. A small-

sized rat snake kept pressed to the cage by a long stick whetted

its appetite and was readily caught. Larger specimens given during

the succeeding weeks were caught without difhculty and the snake

again became the unique exhibit of the reptile house attracting the

usual crowd on feeding days. The process of removing skin by

artificial means was resorted to a third time during the hottest

part of the year when the snake again became very inactive and

refused its feed.

The experience in keeping King Cobras in the Zoos has thus led

me to think that most of these giant reptiles find it difficult to slough

of their own accord after some months of captivity and that, unless

efforts are made to remove the epidermis artificially, the snakes

become ill, refuse to capture their prey and die.

M. GOVINDAN KUTTY MENON, m.a.,

STATE MUSEUM AND ZOO, Superintendent,

‘PRICHUR,

July 0, 1942.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES E323

XIX.—NOTES.ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF SOME

SNAKES.

(With a plate),

_Five snakes in the Reptiliary of the Zoological Gardens, Trivan-

drum, laid eggs within the last half year. Reference has already

been made on p. 108, vol. xliii of this Journal, about one of these,

the chequered water snake (Nerodia piscator) which as reported

has laid the record number of eggs (g1) observed for the species.

The others that had their breeding season during this period were

two pythons, one wolf snake and one krait. Attempts have been

made to incubate the eggs of all these snakes, but hatchlings were

obtained only in the case of Nerodia. Of the latter it might be

mentioned that Major Wall says in his ‘Popular Treatise on the

Common Indian Snakes’ that all attempts to incubate them have

proved futile (/.B.N.H.S., vol. xvii, p, 864). In case it might be

of interest to the readers, | am giving below, details of observations

made regarding the breeding season, number and size of eggs of

each clutch, period of gestation and period of incubation as far as

has been ascertainable.

The Python (Python molurus).—Vwo individuals of this species

laid eggs, one on Feb. 19, and the other on March 19, 1942. In

both cases the snakes soon after the commencement of the process

of discharging the eggs coiled themselves round them. The number

of eggs in the clutch of the former was 21, and of the latter 22.

An egg measured 34 in. by 24 in. . They were white in colour when

laid, but later on turned brownish white. Though on previous

occasions eggs have hatched out here, this time both the snakes

moved away after nesting over the. brood for a few days. While

one of these was ‘brooding’ a fowl was let into the cage for feeding

another python which was lying about 3 yards away in the same

cage. The ‘brooding’ one at once darted forwards and caught

hold of the fowl and commenced swallowing.. After the feed it

turned away from. the eggs and subsequent attempts to coax it

back to its. clutch failed. The pythons while remaining coiled over

the eggs were found to make jerky movements at regular intervals

of between thirty seconds to one minute.

The Chequered Water Snake (Nerodia piscator).—This snake

was admitted to the Reptiliary on the 24th November 1941, and

has been in captivity since then without a mate. It laid eggs on

the 29th January 1942. The period of gestation therefore cannot

be less than 67 days which have intervened between its capture and

the discharge of eggs. Major Wall mentions 55 days as the period

of gestation for this species as observed by him. It took more than

12 hours for the reptile to void all the eggs (91) after which it

remained inactive for a long time, its tail resting on the brood.

The eggs were removed the next day, counted and placed in a

glass jar over loose earth, covering the eggs with wet earth. The

jar was so placed that for a couple of hours during the day direct

rays of the sun might get access to it through the window of the

Reptiliary. The earth was kept moist by occasionally sprinkling -

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

water on it. In the meanwhile the mother had taken to its regular

feed, shed its skin and to all appearances was quite unconcerned

about the eggs. A few eggs hatched out on the roth of March.

The young ones were very inactive at first, but when put into water

became very active and were swimming about. About 16 young

ones were hatched out by the 12th March. The other eggs had

begun to decay and were therefore removed. Many of these had

fully developed embryos inside. Attempts to rear up these young

ones failed and all of them died one after another during the succéd-

ing few days. A hatchling as it emerged from the egg measured

7.2 ins. The period of incubation for the eggs of this species may

be taken as 41 days.

The Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus).—A snake of this species was

caught in a well on the 2nd June and brought to the zoo. It laid

four eggs on the 3rd. After laying, it crept up to a corner of the

cage and remained inactive for the two succeeding days. Even

though it came down later it was not observed to feed on the small

frogs which had been let into the cage. The snake was found dead

on the roth morning. It measured 19% ins.

The Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)._-A female measuring

3 ft. 4 ins. has been in captivity here since December 15, 1941. It

laid 8 eggs on the 15th February 1942, 63 days having elapsed

since its capture. Its mating must therefore have taken place

in November or early in December. Major Wall has mentioned

that its exact mating season has not been ascertained but he puts

it down as probably during the months of February and March

(vol. xviil, p. 722). Prior to laying, the krait built a sort of hollow

nest in the sand on the floor of the cage and the eggs were voided

into this depression. The eggs were white, glossy and elliptical,

an egg measuring 1.3 ins. in length and 0.6 in. in breadth. The

mother after laying, coiled itself round the eggs, even though the

‘nesting’ was not as compact as in the case of the Python. After

a week it moved away and the eggs on examination were found to

have shrunk considerably. Within the next two days they began

to decay. This might probably be due to unfavourable weather

conditions. According to Major Wall, the female after discharging

her eggs remains coiled up with them at any rate until they are

well advanced towards incubation. In this case none of the eges

which were examined after the mother had moved away, had develop-

ing embryos inside.

TRIVANDRUM, | E. S. SIMON.

June 15, 1942.

XX.—RIVER POLLUTION AND FISH MORTALITY.

During the recent heavy rain in the Rawalpindi District many

of the rivers have come down in flood and it has been a most dis-

tressing sight to see the quantities of fish that have been killed by

the polluted water from the Leh River.

The Leh River as you may know is a small river draining the

Pindi district and having no source in the hills. It joins the Sohan

River a hundred yards below where the Trunk Road crosses both

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

eggs.

ith its

Python w

g over its clutch,

Python broodin

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES B35

rivers about. 4 miles from Rawalpindi. I have seen no dead fish

in the Sohan above the junction with the Leh so it is fair to assume

that pollution must come from this river.

Last week we had a very local storm which brought the Leh

down in flood but which had very little effect on the Sohan. The

result was appalling. From the junction and right on down to

below Morgah Village dead fish were stranded as the water fell.

In one reach alone I counted over thirty large fish of over 1 Ib.

and many more between 4 and 1 |b. The biggest fish was about

5 lbs. It was most noticeable that there were very few small fish

or fry and no really large ones. If this destruction occurs every

time the Leh floods I am afraid it will be the end of the Sohan as

a fishing river.

The cause of the pollution is doubtful; discharge from a Brewery

or a Chemical works would seem to be the cause, but this has not

been proved to my satisfaction.

You will agree that it really is a very great pity and a complete

disaster to myself as I am a very keen angler and with petrol ration-

ing one naturally has to make use of the river nearby for all one’s

sport.

Is there anything that can be done? As a keen member of the

Society I feel that you could advise what authority would take

this up.

I cannot tell you if this has happened before this year but the

local fishermen say that this year they have never seen so many

dead fish so I presume it has happened before but not to this extent.

Any further information will be most gladly fie

RAWALPINDI, F. R. E. MALDEN.

July 23, 1942.

| Dr. Hamid Khan, Game Warden, Punjab to whom we referred

the matter wrote as follows :—

With reference to your letter dated the 31st July, 1942, I have

to intimate you that the river pollution and destruction of fish in the

Rawalpindi area has been under investigation for the last year or

so. It was observed that discharge from the Attock Oil Company’s

refinery was responsible for the heavy mortality of the fish. <A

sample of water collected directly from the nala into which the

waste product of the refinery was discharged was analysed by the

Head of the Chemistry Department of the Gordon College, Rawal-

pindi and it was found that the water contained kerosene oil, excess

of free acid and other injurious constituents harmful to all living

beings including fish. A copy of the analysis is enclosed herewith.

The Manager, Attock Oil Company has been requested to take

necessary steps to remove the source of pollution.

REPORT OF ANALYSIS.

Water sample submitted by Inspector of Fisheries on 5-7-41.

Physical Characters.

Colour — Dirty White.

Suspended Matter — Present (High).

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Taste — Bitter and Offensive. .

Odour — Strong, offensive, smells of kerosine oil.

Reaction — Strongly acidic.

Chemical Characters. Parts per 100,000.

Chlorine — 12.4.

Sodium Chloride — Chlorine < 1.647= 20.47.

Free Acid — 25.

Total Hardness — CaCO, — 76.

Temporary —- Nil. ;

Permanent — 76.

Sulphates -— High.

CaO — Nil.

Free CO, — Nil.

Iron — Very High; Copper — Absent — Lead — Absent.

Nitrates — Nil.

Total Solid Matter dried at 100°C = 160.

Remarks.

The sample is entirely unfit for human consumption and for all

other animals due to the presence of high percentage of Iron, Free

Acids, Kerosine Oil and large percentage of other impurities reported

atove.—Eps. |

XXI.—GLOW-WORMS (LAMPHROPHORUS SP.)

FEEDING ON MOLLUSCS.

In volume sliti, p. 109, Mr. R. E. Parsons records a Glow-worm

(Lamphrophorus nepalensis H.) feeding on a slug. It may be of

interest to record that I have frequently come upon species of

glow-worms feeding on land snails. However, the following: inci-

dent is worthy of note:—

Some years ago the late Fr. Blatter while at Panchgani kept

a large glow-worm in a bottle and fed it regularly on land snails.

The glow-worm would enter the shell and eat out its victim. The

snail would exude a considerable amount of slime till finally the

glow-worm was almost completely enveloped in slime. It did not

seem to mind the coating of slime at all and went on with its meal.

The specimen concerned lived in this way for a little over two years

and looked perfectly healthy. Prior to her death she laid two or

three largish elliptic eggs about 5-6 mm. in length and somewhat

pale pink in colour. .

During the rains several species of glow-worm are fairly common

in the Western Ghats.

Bompay Natura History Soctrety, C. McCANN,

BOMBAY,

May 1, 1942,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES E37

XXII.—THE BUTTERFLY DIAGORA NICEVILLEI.

With reference to my account of Diagora nicevillei in last Decem-

ber’s Journal (xlil, p. 819) where some doubt was thrown on the

sex of the type of this butterfly which is in the Indian Muscum

at Calcutta, I quote the following from a letter received from Dr.

Baini Prashad, the Superintendent of the museum: ‘We have again

examined this specimen in reference to the structure of its leg.

Fortunately the left foreleg is complete, and this resembles exactly

that of a male Nymphalid—the tarsus is distinctly very hairy unlike

that of a female. There can, therefore, be no doubt that it is a

male.’

This being so, the specimen collected by me in Nepal is very

likely a new sub-species.

When it is possible to obtain specimens of the unknown sexes

of both De Niceville’s and of my species, or to make a careful

comparison of the actual specimens available it may be necessary

to assign a new name to the Nepal specimens.

Hitt House, NorTHREpPs, Hoe BAILEY:

CROMER, Lt.-Colonel.

NORFOLK,

May 18, 1942.

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FORT, BOMBAY

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIII, No. 4

Some BerauTirut INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XIII. By N.-L.

Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., ‘1.F.s.. and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one

coloured plate and nine text-figures)

Tue LARGER DEER oF BritisH Inpia. Part II. By R. I. Pocock, F.R.s.

(With seven text-figures)

Tue Birps oF Mysore. Part III. By Salim Ali

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING. Fisu iN INDIA AND

Burma. Part III. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With one plate and

eighteen text-figures) os Bc Be ABE ae

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PaLEaRcTIC. LEPIDOPTERA—V. By E. P.

Wiltshire, F.R.E.S. (With two plates)

Fisu-cATING Bats oF InpIA aND Burma. By Dr. E. W. Gudger. - (With

one plate and four text-figures) ; Be ee

PAGE

539

S53

Ss)

596

621

Tue RaINs cOME TO THE ABU Hits. By Charles McCann, F.u.s. (With

a plate)

FisH SURVEY OF HyDERABAD StaTE. By M. Rahimullah, M.sc., F.z.s.

REVIEW :—

The Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of gibbons. By Major

R. C. Morris ss

ne Tiger claw marks .on trees. By Major R. C. Morris

III. Sheep at a salt lick. By Editors ..

IV. Migration. of Pied Crested Cuckoo [Clamator jacobinus (Bod-

daert)]. By N. G. Pillai 3 see =

V. On the occurrence of the Green-breasted Pitta (Pitta cucullata

Hartl.) at Simla. By A. E. Jones

VI. Local movements of the Painted Partridge (Francolinus pictus

Jard. & Selby) round Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali

VII. The Great Indian Bustard [Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors)]. By

Maharao Vijayarajji of Kutch aS Set oe

VIII. Early arrival of the Spotted Sandgrouse [Pterocles senegallus

(Linn.)] in Kutch. By Maharao Vijayarajji te

IX. On the occurrence of Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola Linn.) in

Kutch. By Maharao Vijayarajji

660

661

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVITI.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

. Unusual occurrence of the

CONTENTS OF Vol. XLII, No. 4

. Occurrence of the Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola Payk.) in Sind.

By N. H. Menesse, 1.S.E.

Dabchick

By A. E. Jones

[Podiceps ruficollis

(Vroeg.)] at Simla.

. On the number of young produced by the Russell’s Viper

(Vipera russellii) Eds.

Record Mahseer. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. (With two plates)

Additions to the game fishes of Bombay and neighbouring

Districts. By Dr. M. Suter, p.sc.

On the weed-destroying habit of Etroplus suratensis (Bloch.)

By K. Gopinath :

Sources of fish supply to Calcutta Markets. By Dr. S. L.

Hora, D.Sc. 500 ee be

Note on Curetis species at Kallar. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth ...

Additions to the list of Simla butterflies published in Vol. xli,

No. 4. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth

Notes on two major caterpillar pests of Eugenia jambos (Rose

Apple). By K. S. Padmanabha Aiyar, p.sc. (With a plate)

A note on the egg-laying habits of the Indian Glow-Worm

(Lamprophorus tenebrosus Wlk.) By J. Samuel Raj. (With

a_ plate) S06 566 560 506 aes

The morphology of the spines of Hygrophila spinosa T. Anders.

By Dr. B. C. Kundu. (With a plate) a

PAGE

661

663

664

665

671

672

673

678

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JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Cup and Saucer Plant

HOLMSKIOLDIA SANGUINEA Retz.

(nat. size ).

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1943. | Vout. XLIII. No. 4.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

INE ese DORs OMuAGy PDsSC.y F.0.S.5, lk Sss

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RalzaDA, M.Sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Tsing, Dehra Dun.

Part XIII

(Continued from Vol. -xliii, No. 3 (1942), p. 297.)

(With 1 coloured plate and g text-figures.)

VERBENACEAE, Part II.

4. Holmskioldia Retz.

(A genus erected in honour of Theodor Holmskiold, 1732-1794,

a Danish scientist).

Scandent shrubs with opposite, exstipulate, simple _ leaves.

Flowers arranged in terminal short panicles or spurious axillary

racemes. Calyx membraneous, usually red, the tube very short,

the limb large, rotate and spreading, entire or nearly so. Corolla

gamopetalous, tubular, the tube elongate, slightly curved, some-

what dilated at the throat, 2-lipped; upper lip 2-cleft with the lobes

erect spreading, the lower 3-cleft with short reflexed lobes. Stamens

4 didynamous, exserted. Ovary 4-celled, with a solitary ovule in

each cell; style filiform. Fruit a 4-3-2-lobed capsule surrounded at

the base by the large flat calyx.

: qe 25 149

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz.

Cup-and-Saucer Plants

(sdnguineus means blood-coloured and refers to usual colour of the

nowers).

Vescription. ge, scrambling shrub; young parts pubescent.

Leaves opposite, 2-4 in. long, ovate or eiuptic-ovate in shape,

1ounaed or truncate at the base but acute at the insertion of the

peuuoic, shallowly crenate serrate on the margin, acuminate at the

up, MeMbranous 1n texture, dark green above, pale beneath, glabr-

ous on the upper surface, minute1y pubescent below when young;

petiole siender, up to 1 in. long.

{niiorescence a terminal, puberulous, little-branched panicle or

reduced to short racemes at the tips of axillary, short shoots. Calyx

gamosepalous, almost orbicular in shape from a very short, basal,

vell-shaped portion, .6-.75 in. in diameter, net veined, reddish or

orange in colour, finally turning brown in fruit. Corolla about

1 m. long, gamopetalous, tubular; tube curved, 2-lipped; upper

2-loped, tower 3-lobed. Stamens 4, didynamous, exserted; anther-

cells parallel. Ovary 4-celled; ovule 1 in each cell; style slender;

stigma bifid. Fruit a drupe, obovoid in shape, deeply 4-lobed at

the apex, separating into 4 seeds.

f'lowers.—October-December.

Distribution.—Native of the sub-tropical Himalayas. Often culti-

vated in gardens throughout India.

Gardening.—A straggly shrub, remarkable for its large subro-

tately-campanulate red calyx reaching an inch in diameter in fruit.

The plant will grow even in poor soil and does best in full sunshine.

{t is advisable to prune it closely after flowering so as to keep it

compact and within bounds. This plant is very popular for cut

flowers for even when the corolla has fallen the calyx is pretty and

very effective. Usually propagated by layers as cuttings are some-

times hard to start.

; A variety with orange flowers has recently been introduced from

Assam where it is wild. It is prettier than the type.

5. Clerodendron Linn.

The name of the genus comes from two Greek words, kleros,

lot, fate, and dendron, tree. The combination may mean ‘tree of

fate’ or ‘tree of chance’. The reason for the application of the name

to the genus is obscure, but it may well come from the fact that

some of the species are considered to have healing properties

while others act in exactly the reverse way. According to Burkill’

‘Clerodendrons are, par excellence, plants of Malay magic’. He

then proceeds to give examples and mentions that C. siphonanthus

is the chief magical species of northern India. The alleged magical

properties of the plant may have also been a reason why the genus

was called ‘tree of fate’.

‘A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS Baal

A large genus, distributed more or less throughout the tropics,

it possesses the following characteristics :—

Trees, shrubs, undershrubs or rarely herbs. Leaves simple,

opposite, rarely verticillate (see C. siphonanthus.) Inflorescence

usually a terminal panicle, less often of axillary cymes, usually lax,

elongate or umbelled or capitate; bracts often foliaceous; flowers

mostly large, white, blue, yellow or red. Calyx cup-shaped, cam-

panulate or funnel-shaped, herbaceous or coloured, truncate or with

3-5-lobes, often enlarged in the fruit. Corolla with a slender tube,

often very long, cylindrical, recurved, 4-5-lobed; lobes spreading,

almost equal. Stamens 4, exserted, inserted in the throat or in

the upper portion of the tube, coiled in the bud; anthers with parallel

cells, opening by longitudinal slits. Ovary incompletely 4-celled ;

ovules 4, pendulous or laterally attached. Style slender, often as

long as the filaments, stigma shortly bifid. Fruit a 4-grooved or

4-lobed drupe.

The Clerodendrons are great favourites in Indian gardens on

account of their showy flowers and often handsome foliage. They

never show to such an advantage as they do in their natural

homes in the gloom of the evergreen forest where they develop

their beautiful panicles to perfection,

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Tube of the corolla 4 in. long. .. Cy, siphonanthus,

Tube of the corolla 2 in. long or less.

Climbing plants. »» C, Thomsonae.

Shrubs or small trees.

Calyx truncate or very shortly toothed, see IC minenmer

Calyx distinctly lobed or dentate.

Flowers red or scarlet. . CC, squamatum.

Flowers white or rose.

Calyx with peltate glands.

Calyx-lobes triangular acute. . G. fragrans.

Calyx-lobes broadly ovate, foliaceous. .. C. infortunatun,

Calyx without peltate glands.

Flowers in a pendulous panicle. .. C, nutans.

Flowers in erect inflorescences.

Flowers in trichotomous panicles; leaves

large, 6 in. long or~more. — ... Cy, trichotomum,

Flowers in dichotomous panicles; leaves

small, 2 in. long or less. we C, phlomidis.

Clerodendron siphonanthus R. Br. (C. indicum O. Ktze),

Turk’s turban; Tube-F lower.

(The specific name is derived from the Greek word, siphon, tube,

and refers to the hollow stems of this plant.)

Description.—An annual shrub reaching 9 ft. in height. Branches

channelled; bark smooth and shining. Leaves verticillate in threes

543 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

or fives, or opposite, sessile, narrowly lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, -

attenuate at. both ends, glabrous on both surfaces, entire with

recurved margins, membranous, 4-8 in. long by .5-1 in. wide.

Fig. 1.—Clerodendron siphonanthus R. Br. x3.

Flowers arranged in a leafy, terminal panicle, 8-10 in. long, made

up of verticelled, few-flowered cymes; bracts linear-lanceolate, up to

.5 in. long; bracteoles subulate; pedicels slightly hairy, up to .75 in.

Jong. Flowers white, turning a cream colour, 4-5 in. long. Calyx

campanulate, hairy, .6 in. long; tube narrow .2 in. long; 5-lobed;

lobes ovate-lanceolate .4 in. long. Corolla glabrous; tube cylindri-

cal, recurved, dilated towards the top, up to 4 in. long, 5-lobed, lobes

spreading obovate or oblong, obtuse, .5 in. long or less. Stamens 4;

filaments long exserted, slender, glabrous; anthers oblong. Ovary

glabrous; style very long, slender; stigma shortly bifid. Fruit a

bluish-black drupe enclosed in the enlarged calyx.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Common in many parts of India and Burma extend-

ing to Malaya, Indo-China and Java. Often cultivated in gardens

for its flowers.

Gardening.—A shrub which grows 4-8 ft. tall in Dehra, with a

slender upright form which makes it attractive when grown against

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 543

a wall. The long, white, tubular flowers hanging bell-like from

an upright stalk make this a very striking plan during the rains.

The flowers are followed by conspicuous dark-blue fruits supported

by the persistent, spreading red calyx. The plant prefers partial

shade and is propagated by seed.

Medicinal uses.—The root is considered useful in the treatment

of asthma, cough and scrophulous affections. Pieces of the wood

are tied round the neck as a charm against various ailments. The

juice expressed from the herbaceous portions mixed with ghee is

used as remedy for skin diseases.

Clerodendron Thomsonae Balfour.

(The specific epithet commemorates the name of the wife of the

Rey. W. C. Thomson, a missionary on the West Coast of Tropical

Africa, from where the plant was introduced into England in 1861).

Fig. 2.—Clerodendron Thomsonae Balfour. x}.

Description.—A climbing shrub. Branches 4-angled, minutely

pubescent. Leaves opposite, broadly ovate, acute at the: tip, sub-

cordate, truncate or abruptly attenuate at the base, minutely and

sparsely pubescent below, entire on the margins, chartaceous, 2-3 in.

long by .5-2 in. wide; petiole up to .6 in. long.

Flower arranged in axillary cymes; peduncles 1.5-2.5 in. long;

bracts foliaceous, pubescent, lanceolate; pedicels bracteolate,

up to .6 in. long; flowers scarlet. Calyx inflated, membran-

ous, white or grey, .75-1.25 in. long by .4-1 in. wide; tube very

short; lobes 5, broadly ovate-lanceolate, acute, glabrous or minutely

pubescent near the margins. Corolla scarlet or red; tube widened

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

at the throat and hairy, 5-lobed; lobes ovate, .2 in. long. Stamens

4; filaments long exserted, slender; anthers oblong. Ovary glabrous ;

style not as long as the filaments.

Flowers.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—Native of west tropical Africa; commonly culti-

vated in gardens in the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world.

Gardening.—A most. ornamental climbing shrub, very showy

during the rains with its scarlet flowers which are in sharp and strik-

ing contrast to the white persistent calyx. Propagated by seed

or by cuttings in sand during the rains.

Clerodendron inerme Gaertn.

(inermis means unarmed in Latin, but to what this refers we are

unable to say, as none of the species of this genus are armed).

Fig. 3.—Clerodendron inerme Gaertn. X&.

Description.—A shrub reaching a height of 6-9 ft. Branches

slender, greyish-brown, lenticellate, glabrous or finely pubescent.

Leaves opposite, elliptic-ovate or ovate-lanceolate, rounded or

shortly and obtusely acuminate at the tip, Cuneate or acute at the

base, entire, coriaceous, rarely membranous, 1.5-5 in. long by .75-

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 545

3 in. wide, when young sparsely pubescent; petiole slender, .3-.75 in.

long.

Inflorescence of umbelled, axillary cymes, each of 3 pedicelled

flowers, seated on a peduncle, .3-1.5 in. long. Flowers on pedicels

1.3-4 in. long, white, supported by small linear bracts. Calyx

cupular, pubescent or glabrous, often glandular without, 5-toothed ;

teeth very small. Corolla glabrous or sparsely pubescent, glandular ;

tube slender, .75-1.5 in. long, villous inside, 5-lobed: lobes ovate,

obtuse, .2-.3 in. long.. Stamens 4; filaments slender, red, long

exserted, inserted in the villous part of the tube; anthers oblong.

Ovary glabrous; style long, slender, equalling the filaments in

length; stigma shortly bifid. Fruit a glabrous, 4-lobed drupe, up

to .5 in. long, enveloped in the striate, enlarged calyx.

Flowers.—Throughout the year but chiefly from July to November

Distribution.—Indigenous to the seacoast of India extending to

Polynesia.

Gardening.—A straggling, almost scandent, evergreen’ shrub

with dark green foliage and white flowers. It is a very hardy

and quick growing shrub and is suitable for covering banks, walls,

etc. If kept nicely trained it will form a pretty fence and is con-

sequently very suitable for hedges. Owing to its rapid growth it

might perhaps as well be useful for afforestation work.

Medicinal uses.—The wood, root and leaves are bitter and are

said toebe of use in treating fevers. It has a reputation as an

alterative and tonic.

Clerodendron squamatum Vahl.

(squamatum means scaly in Latin and refers to the peltate glands

on the under. surface of the leaf).

Description.—A shrub attaining 6 ft. in height. Branches 4-

angled, channelled, glabrous or finely pubescent, furnished at the

nodes with a line of interpetiolar, woolly hairs. Leaves opposite,

ovate-rounded, shortly acuminate at the tip, deeply cordate at the

base, covered with stiff, sparsely arranged hairs, dark green above,

pale and covered with numerous peltate glands below, chartaceous

in texture, toothed on the margin; petiole glabrous, .2-.4 in. long.

Flowers pedicelled, scarlet, sometimes white or rose-coloured,

arranged in pyramidal, terminal, broad, glabrous or pubescent

panicles seated on long peduncles; bracts and brecteoles small;

pedicels short. Calyx glabrous, red, .2-.3 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes

much longer than the very short tube, broadly lanceolate-acute.

Corolla almost glabrous; tube cylindrical .5-.6 in. long, 5-lobed;

lobes spathulate .15-.2 in. long; stamens 4; filaments slender, lone

exserted: anthers oblong; ovary glabrous; style very long, slender ;

stigma shortly bifid. Fruit a blue-black drupe, up to .5 in. broad,

within the accrescent calyx.

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—Native of China, extending to the Himalayas,

Japan to Sumatra, cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical

parts of the globe,

546: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIJ

Gardening.—This is one of the most showy of shrubs, having

great clusters of scarlet flowers which appear during March-April. It

should be cut back after flowering, otherwise it becomes bare and

SESSA

Fig. 4.—Clerodendron squamatum Vahl. X3.

scraggy. The plant prefers partial shade and is often attacked by

insects, especially mealy bugs and scales. It has been in cultivation

in European gardens since 1790.. Propagation is by seed.

~ Medicinal uses.—An infusion of the leaves in vinegar is said to

be used for gonorrhoea, and the chewing of the bract for passing

blood.

Clerodendron fragrans Vent.

Description.—A shrub. Branches terete, somewhat quadran-

gular. towards the tips, pubescent, almost tomentose. Leaves

opposite, broadly ovate, nearly round, shortly acuminate at the tips,

almost cordate, but sometimes truncate, at the base, covered with

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 547

rather sparse, stiff hairs above, pubescent, especially on the nerves

below, glandular near the petiole, membranous, regularly toothed on

the margins; 4-6 in. long and as much wide; petiole pubescent-

tomentose, up to 2 in. long.

Fig. 5.—Clerodendron fragrans Vent. xX}.

Inflorescence of numerous flowers arranged in terminal, compact,

almost sessile panicles; bracts foliaceous, persistent, lanceolate-

oblong, attenuate at both ends, pubescent and bearing on the back

a nectariferous gland. Individual flowers seated on very short

pedicels, white or rose in colour, very fragrant, .75-1.25 in. long.

Calyx conical, narrow, finely puberulent, with nectariferous glands,

up to .5 in. long, 5-toothed; teeth as long as the tube, lanceolate-

subulate, reflexed. Corolla double, glabrous; tube .5-.8 in. long,

5-lobed; lobes obovate, reflexed, .25-.4 in. long. Stamens 4; fila-

ments long exserted, slender; anthers oblong. Ovary glabrous,

truncate; style slender, very long; stigma shortly bifid. Fruit a

drupe, enveloped at the base by the accrescent calyx.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season.

Distribution.—Indigenous to China, cultivated or wild through-

out India and most parts of the tropics.

Gardening.—A vigorous, low growing plant; flowers double,

appearing like little roses, white tinged with pink, fragrant. It

spreads readily, throwing out suckers here and there and trespass-

ing beyond its allotted space. It prefers a moist shady place but

is quite hardy and drought resistant. Easily propagated by suckers

or cuttings. It was brought into cultivation in European gardens

about I50 years ago, gas

(

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Medicinal uses.—According to Burkill it is used medicinally by

the Malays externally, either as a fomentation for rheumatism and

ague, or with other substances in the treatment of skin diseases.

Clerodendron infortunatum Linn.

(infortunatus means unhappy in Latin; but we do not know to what

the epithet refers. Trimen says that this name is due to Hermann

Fig. 6.—Clerodendron infortunatum Linn. X>2.

(Mus. 25, 45) who translates the Sinhalese name ‘pinna kole’ as

‘infortunatus’),

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 549

Description.—A shrub. The quadrangular branches are channell-

ed and covered with a yellowish pubescence. Leaves opposite,

ovate, acuminate at the tip, rounded or cordate at the base, more

or less covered with rough hairs, with small round glands on the

lower surface, toothed on the margins, rarely entire, 4-10 in. long

by 3-8 in. wide; petiole densely pubescent, 1-4 in. long.

Flowers arranged in a broad and long, terminal panicle; panicle-

branches trichotomous each ending in three flowers, covered with

a yellowish pubescence; bracts foliaceous, ovate-lanceolate, falling

early; bracteoles lanceolate; pedicels slender up to .5 in. long.

Flowers white, tinted with red, unpleasantly scented. Calyx silky-

pubescent, covered with peltate glands, up to .4 in. long; calyx

tube very short with acute, erect, lanceolate lobes. Corolla densely

hairy without; tube cylindrical, slender up to .75 in. long, 5-lobed ;

lobes spreading, as long as the tube, the 2 upper spathulate, the

3 lower ovate-oblong, rounded at the top. Stamens 4; filaments

long exserted, slender, glabrous; anthers oblong. Ovary glabrous;

style slender; stigma shortly bifid. Fruit globular, shining, black,

seated upon the enlarged, fleshy, red calyx.

Flowers.—January-April. Fruits.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—Throughout India; often as an undergrowth in sal

forest.

~ Gardening.—A deciduous shrub reaching 12 ft. in height in

favourable situations. It is usually considered to be a ‘weed’ but

attractive during the cold season with its large head of pinkish-

white, sweet-scented flowers. Propagated by seed.

Medicinal uses.—The juice of the leaves is stated to be anthel-

mintic, and is used as a bitter tonic in malarial fevers. The leaves

warmed with ghee are applied to the head for catarrhal colds.

Clerodendron nutans Wall. ex Don.

(nutans means nodding in Latin and refers to the terminal racemose

panicles of this plant).

Description.—A shrub reaching 6 ft. in height. Branches quad-

rangular, glabrous. Leaves opposite or ternate, oblong-obovate or

oblanceolate, shortly acuminate at the tip, long attenuate at the

base, entirely glabrous. entire or distantly toothed on the margins,

membranous, 5-8 in. long, by 1.5-2 in. wide; petiole channelled,

.5-1 in. long.

Flowers arranged in pendulous, slender, terminal panicles.

Individual flowers pedicelled, white; pedicels .75 in. long, with 2

bracteoles near the middle. Calyx ovoid, inflated, purple, glabrous,

up to .5 in. long; tube very short, 5-lobed; lobes ovate-lanceolate,

acute, reddish purple. Corolla glabrous or sparsely and finely pube-

scent; tube narrowed at the throat up to .5 in. long, 5-lobed; lobes

ovate, rounded. Stamens 4, didynamous; filaments slender, long

exserted, inserted in the throat; anthers smal], ovate. Ovary small,

glabrous; style shorter than the filaments. Fruit a globose drupe,

smooth, shinine, seated on the enlarged calyx.

‘Flowers.—September-November,

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Distribution.—Sikkim, Assam, Chittagong and Burma, extend-

ing to the Malay Peninsula.

Fig. 7.—Clerodendron nutans Wall. ex Don. x3.

Gardening.—A _ small, hardy shrub with opposite, dark-green,

elliptic leaves and pure white flowers produced on long drooping

racemes. It is suitable for culture in the ground or in pots, especially

in moist, protected places. Propagated by cuttings or seed.

Clerodendron trichotomum Thunb.

(The specific epithet refers to the trichotomous arrangement of the

flowers).

Description.—A shrub or small tree, sometimes reaching a height

of ro ft. Branches round or the younger quadrangular, soft, glab-

rous, pubescent or covered with a fulvous, crisped tomentum ;. bark

longitudinally fissured. Leaves opposite, petioled, lower very large

and 3-lobed, the upper broadly ovate or orbicular-ovate, 6 in. long by

3 in. broad, rounded or truncate at the base, shortly cuneate at the

petiole, long acuminate at the tip, soft and flaccid, sparsely hairy

on both surfaces, especially on the nervation, entire on the margin;

petiole terete, up to 3 in. long, slender, tomentose,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 551

Calyx .5 in. long, reddish-brown in colour, sparsely hairy; tube

obconical, 5-lobed; lobes triangular or ovate, acute, .25 in. long

or longer. Corolla white; tube more or less exserted, very slender,

up to 1 in. long, slightly curved, 5-lobed; lobes nearly equal .5 in.

Fig. 8.—Clerodendron trichotomum ‘Thunb. x.

long, elliptic, obtuse or subacute, horizontally. spreading. Stamens

4; filaments long exserted, slender; anthers oblong. Ovary glabr-

ous; style slender; stigma shortly bifid. Fruit q-lobed, included

in the scarcely enlarged calyx.

Flowers.—Rainy season.

Distribution.—A native of Japan, now commonly cultivated in the

subtropical parts of the whole world.

Gardening.—A hardy shrub, quite handsome during the rains

when it is in flower. It was introduced into England about 1880

and is propagated by seed.

Clerodendron phlomidis Linn. f. (C. phlomoides Willd.).

Description.—A scandent bush or small tree. Branches pubes-

cent, whitish-grey. Leaves opposite, readily disarticulating, 1-2 in.

long, deltoid-ovate, often broader than long, truncate or subcordate

at the base, obtuse or acute at the tip, coarsely crenate-dentate or

subentire on the margin, glabrous above, more or less puberulous

beneath; petiole .5-1 in. long.

563 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Flowers arranged in small, dichotomous, axillary’ cymes on a

rhachis so as to form a rounded, terminal panicle; bracts small,

leafy, lanceolate, acute. Calyx .4 in. long or more, divided about

half way down, glabrous, not enlarged in the fruit, 5-lobed; lobes

ovate, acutely acuminate, veined. Corolla white or pinkish; tube

Fig. 9.—Clerodendron phlomidis Linn. f. x4,

.7-1 1n. long, slightly pubescent outside, glabrous inside; lobes

nearly equal, 5 in number, .3 in. long, elliptic, obtuse veined.

Stamens 4; filaments much exserted, slender, slightly pubescent.

Ovary glabrous; style slender; stigma bifid. Fruit a drupe, .25 in.

‘long, broadly obovoid in shape, depressed, seated within the per-

sistent calyx-lobes.

Flowers.—November-December and also at other times of the

year.

Distribution.—Throughout the drier parts of India from the

Punjab and Bengal to South India and Ceylon.

Gardening.—A shrub with white or pinkish, fragrant flowers.

It is a common jungle plant and hardly deserves to be grown in a

garden. Propagated by seed.

Medicinal uses.—The leaves of this plant are given to cattle

for diarrhoea and worms.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

R. I. Pocock, F.R.S.,

(Zool. Dept., British Museum, Natural History).

Part II,

(With 7 text-figures).

(Continued from Vol. xlin, No. 3 (1942), p. 317).

In the first part of this paper published in the last issue of this

Journal, it was stated that the skull of Wallich’s Deer (Cervus

wallichit) therein described was not available for examination. It

has since then been tound; and, as was surmised, proves to be

similar to the skull of the Shou (Cervus affinis). With the total and

condylobasal lengths of 468 mm. (about 18% in.) and 441 mm. (about

17 3/5 in.) respectively, it is as large as the largest skull of the

Shou recorded and has, moreover, the free edge of the nasal

abutting against the facial vacuity very short, only 13 mm. long.

The average shortness of this edge was the only character, apart

from its general larger size, distinguishing the skull of the Shou

from that of the Kashmir Barasingh or Hangul (C. hanglu). The

vertical diameter of the orbit is 54, the length of the vacuity is

7o and the length and height of the gland-pit respectively 45 and

25 mm. These measurements agree on the average with those

of the Shou and may be compared with those of the Sambar re-

corded below. The antlers are decadent with age; but the longer

of a pair shed in the Zoological Gardens and found with the skull

is about 42 in. over the curves and has a girth above the burr of

to} in. It is abnormal in carrying near the base of the bez tine

a supplementary branch 7 in. long.

The three above-mentioned species of Deer belong essentially

to a Palaearctic group of the family and must be regarded as the

descendants of trespassers from that region into Kashmir and the

Himalayas.. The remaining species of Indian Deer are members

of the Oriental fauna.

THE SWAMP-DEER, SCHOMBURGK’S DEER AND THE THAMIN.

The Swamp-Deer, which is restricted to India, and the Thamin

or Eld’s Deer, which is widely distributed to the east of the Bay of

Bengal, are usually assigned by recent authors to Rucervus, some-

times given full generic rank, and sometimes subgeneric rank under

Cervus. But close upon a century ago Gray restricted Rucervus

to the Swamp-Deer (duvaucelii) and to Schomburgk’s Deer (schom-

burgki) of Siam and separated from them the Thamin (eldi) as

Panolia. Since I agree with Gray’s views that the Swamp-Deer

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

is generically distinguishable from the Sambar (Rusa) and from

the Swamp-Deer, I adopt both Rucervus and Panolia. But since

also it appears to me that Schomburgk’s Deer has a good claim to

generic distinction, I propose to give it a new name.

The three genera may be briefly diagnosed as follows :—

a. Pedicles of antlers markedly divergent, (Fig.

1, B) the brow tine and bases of the beams

widely separated, upper portion of beams

not abruptly outcurved, first posterior inner

branch of the beam larger, with at least

two tines; nasal penetration of the

frontals deep and acutely angular.

b. Beam of antlers long, longer than the

face and than the main terminal tines

of its two branches, of which the

anterior outer, when fully develop-

ed, is the larger; nasals narrower,

more compressed, their anterior

excision shallow, with short: outer

points oe ne OE LUUC END IES

b.‘Beam of antlers short, shorter than

the face and typically not longer

than the main terminal tines of the

two branches which are subequal;

nasals broader, hardly compressed, =

their anterior excision deep, with

long outer points se ... Lhaocervus

a.’ Pedicles of antlers erect and parallel or

nearly so, (Fig. 1, A) brow tines and bases

of beams close together, upper portion of

beams with strong outward curvature; first

posterior inner branch of beam small,

typically consisting of a simple tine which

may be reduced to one or two _ spikes;

nasal penetration of frontals shallow ... Panolia

Genus Rucervus Hodgson.

(The Swamp-Deer).

Rucervus, Hodgson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1), I, p. 154 and

of most recent authors, misprinted as Iecervus by Gray in 1847,

as Recurvus by Jager and Bessels in 1870 and as Recervus by

Tiouessart in 1808.

Type of the genus ;—Cervus elaphoides Hodgson (=duvaucelii

Cuvier)

Distinguished in its external characters from Cervus principally

by its much longer, bushier tail, larger ears, broader moist area

of the rhinarium below the nostrils in front, the absence of the

rump patch and by the antlers which have a single brow tine and

DHE LARGER DEER OF. BRITISH INDIA 590

the first anterior branch above it, representing the so-called ‘trez’

tine of Cervus, situated at the summit, bearing at least two tines

and never smaller and thinner than the branch behind it but typically

surpassing it in size. In the British Indian species of Cervus there

‘is always a bez tine, often regarded as a duplication of the brow

NOs Te

A, Erect and parallel pedicles and bases of the antlers of a Thamin (Panolia),

the brow tine omitted.

B. Divergent pedicles and bases of the antlers of Schomburgk’s Deer (Thao-

cervus), the same occurring in Rucervus, the brow tine omitted.

tine, but this is a variable feature in the genus, being absent in

some races of the European Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) and very

liable to be’ suppressed under unfavourable conditions, in others

that normally possess it.- A more important difference is the small

size and simple structure of the first anterior branch, above the

brow or bez-tine, namely the ‘trez’ tine which never, in the adult,

constitutes part of the summit of the antler and is always markedly

subordinate in size to the first posterior branch which is as _ thick

as the part below the ‘trez’ tine, constitutes with it the so-called

‘beam’, is elongated and carries at least two tines, the ‘surroyals’,

forming the summit of the antler.

The skull of Rucervus has its facial portion relatively narrower,

the upper portion of the orbits less developed, the anterior nares

554° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XEM

narrower as compared with their length and the auditory bullae

more inflated, wider and higher, so that they project below the

Jevel of the adjoining surface of the basioccipital bone, or above

it if the skull is inverted; and the female, according to Hodgson,

has no supper canine teeth which are present in both sexes of

Cervus. I have only been able to verify this on a single young

adult ° skull, one of Hodgson’s, since sportsmen naturally avoid

shooting hinds.

Rucervus duvaucelii, Cuvier.

Cervus duvaucelii, Cuvier, Ossements Fossiles (3), 4, p. 505,

1825.

for a presumably nearly complete list of bibliographical

references: see Lydekker’s Cat. Ung. Brit. Mus., 4, pp. 93-94,

1915 where the species is cited as Cervus (Rucervus) duvaucelii.

Distribution.—India, north of the Ganges from Kumaun_ to

‘Assam and south of the Ganges, principally in the Central Pro-

vinces.

The characters of this species are contained in the generic

diagnosis given above and in the descriptions of the two sub-

species recorded below.

In his interesting volume Wild Animals in Central India, 1927,

Dunbar Brander, who was acquainted with this deer both in the

United Provinces north of the Ganges and in the Central Provinces

south of that river, pointed out that its habitat differs in the two

districts. In the northern area it is essentially a swamp-deer, well

deserving its name, whereas in the southern area that name is quite

inappropriate, since the species is essentially a grazer in the open

plains, showing no liking for wet ground. He found, moreover,—

as indeed might have been expected—that the feet of the species

in the two districts are adapted to their respective soils and differ

structurally in consequence. He suggested the possibility of the

existence of one or two additional differences between them and

wondered there were not more striking distinctions, considering the

long geographical isolation of the two.

Since from the measurement of skulls in the British Museum

I find evidence that those of the northern Swamp-Deer are larger

than those of the southern, it seems clear that there are two local

races of the species : and since all the synonyms of duvaucelii appear

to have been given to the northern type, the southern requires a

new name. I propose to dedicate it to Mr. Dunbar Brander in

acknowledgment of his detection of the principal difference between

the two races.

Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii, Cuvier.

(Duvaucel’s Swamp Deer).

Cervus duvaucelti,, Cuvier, Foss. Foss., ed. 3, IV, p. 505; 1825;

and of most subsequent authors as Cervus or Rucervus (in part).

Cervus hahrainja, Hodgson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834, p. 99.

Cervus elaphoides, Hodgson, Journ, As. Soc. Beng., 4, p. 648,

1835, and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1), 1,.p. 154, 1838 (Rucervus).

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA | 507

Cervus dimorphe, Hodgson, Journ., As. Soc. Beng., 12, p. 897,

1843.

Cervus eucladoceros, Falconer, Pai. Mem., |, p. 587, 1868.

Locality of the type of duvaucelii, based on sketches of antlers

sent by Duvaucel, not recorded, but no doubt N. India; of bahrainja,

Nepal; of elaphoides, substituted for bahrainja, Nepal; of dimorphe,

the Sal Forests of the Morung, Nepal; of ewcladoceros, Hardwar.

Distribution.—North of the Ganges, at least from Kumaun

(Naini Tal), the Nepal Terai, and the United Provinces to Assam,

and the Sunderbans.

Skull larger than in the Southern race, its total length up to

almost 16 in. and its condylobasal length to 154 in. Feet with the

hoofs ‘spongy’, longer, especially the heels, and with a tendency

‘to splay. Possibly, on the average the colour is lighter.

No skin of this race is available at the moment for description ;

but I suspect the specimen described in 1871 by P. L. Sclater (Trans.

Zool. Soc., 7, p. 347) belonged to it. The colour in the winter,

he said, is dullish brown, in the summer brilliant golden yellow

glossed in the ¢ with purplish black in front. But on pl. 36 a

specimen, alleged to be in summer coat, is decidedly brown, the

body being everywhere overcast with black speckling, with the

lips, chin, interramal area, the belly and the back of the thighs

buffy. Another specimen in the background is redder, it is truc;

but it may be noted that both are carrying cleaned antlers suggestive

of winter. No spots in the summer coat are mentioned in the text

or shown in the figures.

There are seven nearly complete adult male skulls assigned to

this race in the British Museum; two from Nepal (Hodgson,

Nos. 694 a and b), excluding the type of dimorphe which is young ;

two from Kheri, Oudh (Hume, Nos. 12. 10. 31. 6 and 91.8.7.8) ;

two from Gowhati, Assam (Hume, Nos. 12.10.31.5 and 91.8.7.9)

-and one merely labelled Assam (Biddulph, No. 23.10.5.54). The

last is the smallest, with tine total and condylobasal lengths 380 and

305 respectively. The largest is one of Hodgson’s (No. 694 a) with

those dimensions 397 and 384 mm. respectively. But one from

Gowhati, with the occipital crest and condyles missing, had, I esti-

mate, a total length of goo mm., certainly not less than in Hodg‘son’s

skull. The average total length of these seven skulls is as nearly

as may be 15 3/5 in. and the condylobasal length of four of them,

the condyle being missing in the other three, is 14 4/5 in. A third

skull from Kheri, Oudh (Burke, No. 27. 2. 14. 113) has the muzzle

smashed, but its occipito-nasal length is 317 mm., the same as in

one of the skulls from Nepal and one from Gowhati; showing that

it was average for the race.

The nasals, apart from being shorter, do not differ appreciably

from those of the Cervus and are equally variable in width individu-

ally. On the average, however, they penetrate between the frontals

a little more deeply, the angle they form being always acute and

surpassing the level of the ends of the vacuities: The free edge

in contact with the vacuity is very variable in length. and shape,

being long or short, straight, convex or angular. It is longest

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

in three Nepalese skulls, 38 mm. in 694 a, 31 mm. in 694 b and

30 mm. in the young type of dimorphe; in two from Oudh (Burke)

it is 29 and 21 mm.; in the small skull from Assam (Biddulph) it

is 25 mm. and in the large skull from Gowhati (Hume) it is only

21 mm. The vacuity itself, as stated under the generic heading,

is short as compared with Cervus, its length being on the average

a trifle less than the vertical diameter of the orbit, but its width is

greater in proportion to its length.

According to Dunbar Brander the great majority of the deer

of this race he saw in the United Provinces ‘were standing in water

in long grass and they seemed to spend their whole time in localities

of this nature, only emerging at dusk to wade up to their bellies

in deeper water to graze off water weeds’.

Rucervus duvaucelii branderi subsp. nov.

(Brander’s Swamp-deer).

The Swamp-Deer, Dunbar Brander, Wild Animals in Central

India, pp. 193-194, 1927.

Locality of the type:—Mandla, Central Provinces.

Distribution: —South of the Ganges in the Central Provinces and

perhaps Orissa.

Distinguished from the typical form by its smaller size, especially

indicated by the skull, and according to Dunbar Brander, by the

hoof being ‘hard and well knit like that of an animal accustomed

to gallop on hard ground’. He also states that the colour is often

much darker and that the antlers are rougher and not so white as

in typical duvaucelii from the Terai. This impression regarding the

antlers is not, however, substantiated by specimens in the British

Museum. In both races the antlers are typically streaked brown

and yellowish, brown predominating. But one unlocalised skull

(Earl of Derby) of the typical race has antlers like ivory; and in a

young skull from Baraitch they are smooth and yellowish. .

The following description is taken from Brander’s account. The

necks of the stags are maned. The ordinary colour (in winter) is

brown above, often with a darker dorsal line, but without spots;

in ‘master stags’ the tint may be so dark as to appear almost black

at a distance. Females are lighter. ‘As the hot weather advances

stags become reddish brown, the does yellowish brown, and’ the

coat is spotted; the spots are arranged as in the Chital but are

indistinct, their colour being merely somewhat lighter than the

ground colour and they are sometimes only visible when viewed

at an angle. They usually appear after the horns are shed and.are

consequently seldom seen by sportsmen. The spots in the newly-

born fawn are much more distinct, almost whitish.

A good average stag measures 7 ft. 4} in. from nose-tip to

tail-tip and stands 3 ft. 11 in. at the withers. The weight of such

a stag was 376 lbs. An extreme weight of 420 lbs is contrasted by

Brander with Blanford’s record of two stags of typical duvaucelit

from Cooch Behar which weighed 460 Ibs. and 570 lbs. respectively.

This is another item of evidence of the smaller size of stags from

the Central Provinces.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 5a

The only available skin is that of a mounted specimen from

they Central Provinces’ (Nos 5:117.30.1). Apart from its, antlers

it differs from a Sambar, which stands alongside it, in being much

paler, the general colour being reddish or ochreous brown, a little

paler below and on the legs; the head is dark grey with no reddish

tint and the backs of the ears are the same tint as the neck, with

the whitish area on the lower part less sharply defined than in the

Sambar and there is no fuscous patch on the front or inner surface

of the ear. There is also more white on the upper lip and the

fuscous patch on the corner of the mouth extends only up to the

side of the rhinarium, not over the summit of the muzzle, but below

it reaches the middle line of the jaw behind the white chin. Like

the under side of the tail, the inner surfaces of the thighs are

white and this tint is sharply contrasted with that of the backs of

the thighs, not blending. with it as in the Sambar.

There are three adult ¢ skulls in the British Museum. One

from Mandla C.P. (Parsons, No. 30.4.24.7), although the smallest

of the three, has been selected as the type of R.d. branderi because

it has a special locality. It is a ‘twelve pointer’, having five tines

at the summit of each antler. Its total and condylobasal length

are respectively 360 and 350 mm. The other two skulls (Parsons,

No. 30.4.24.11 and Nichols, No. 34.11.12.58) are merely labelled

Central Provinces. Their total and condylobasal lengths are re-

spectively 366, 351 and 372, 357 mm. The averages of these di-

mensions in English inches are as nearly as may be 14 3/5 and 14,

just about 1 inch shorter than the corresponding dimensions in the

skulls of the typical northern race. The smallest skull of the latter

is longer in both dimensions than the largest recorded skull of

R.d. brandert.

In the three skulls of R. d. branderi the nasal contact with the

vacuity is short, ranging from 15 mm. in the type to 23 mm. in

the other skull collected by Parsons. In both of these it forms

an angular projection; but in Nichols’ skull it forms a rounded

bulge and is 16 mm. The contact is relatively smaller on the

average than in the typical form;-but the number of skulls is too

small to justify any conclusion on that point.

About the habitat of this race Dunbar Brander says :—

‘In the Central Provinces the species shows no special addic-

tion to water. Its requirements are large grassy plains or maidans

on which it can graze. It lives on or along the edges of these

plains, only penetrating a short distance into the jungle-clad hills’.

Thaccervus nov.

Distinguished from Rucervus by the presence of a mane of hair,

2 in. long, extending down the front of the fore-leg below the

knee (Brooke); also by some skull-characters and some specialised

features in the antlers making them unlike those of any other species

of deer. In the skull the nasals are flatter and less compressed ;

their anterior ends are much more deeply éxcised, the external

processes being exceptionally long, their tips projecting a long way

in front of the small, spine-like, internal processes; posteriorly they

penetrate more deeply between the frontals and are here narrower

and more pointed; the muzzle is broader, the width across the

premaxillae above the canines surpassing by about + of an inch

(6 mm.) that dimension in the largest measured skull of Rucervus ;

and the posterior end of the premaxilla is separated from the nasal

by. a narrow process from the maxilla; the gland-pit is shallower

and the vacuity smaller. Further particulars about the skull are

entered under the specific description. The peculiarities of the

antlers are well known and consist essentially in the extreme short-

ness of the beam, which is shorter than the facial portion of the

skull, and the equally extreme length of the principal tines of the

two branches into which the beam dhaidles, these tines being typically

longer than the beam. In Rucervus the beam is long, longer than

the te and the terminal tines of its two branches are comparatively

short, much shorter than the beam.

Type of the genus:—Rucervus schomburgki.

Thaocervus. schomburgki, Blyth.

(Schomburgk’s Deer).

Cervus or Rucervus schomburgki, Blyth, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863,

p: 155) and" 1867; p. 1835); Brooke, Proc Zook Soc 1876. sp oor

Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Brit. Mus., 4, p. 97, OS), where other biblio-

graphical references may be omnl

Locality of the type (antlers) believed to be Siam.

Distribution :—N. Siam and, it has been alleged, Yunnan and

Laos; but considered to be now extinct.

According to Brooke the winter coat of an adult stag from Siam,

exhibited in “the Paris Museum, was rather long and coarse. The

general colour was uniform brown, darkest on the nose and the

upper side of the tail, lightest on the cheeks, the lower parts of

the sides and haunches; a decidedly reddish tinge on the limbs,

occiput and upper lip, the lower lip, belly and under side of the tail

being whitish. Brooke also described the presence of the ‘mane’

of long hair down the front of the fore-leg below the knee. This

feature has been entered under the generic diagnosis because in all

the other species of deer known to me the limbs are covered with

uniformly short sleek hair. The height was 41 in.; the tail without

the hair was 4 in. long and the length and breadth of the ear were

respectively 64 and 3? in. The dimensions of a Swamp-Deer entered

by Brooke for comparison were :—height 43 in., tail 5 in. and ear

7 and 34 in., the ear being longer but narrower. These measure-

ments taken from mounted specimens are not very convincing.

They are entered here because it is not likely that any other measure-

ments of Schomburgk’s Deer will be recorded. If, as stated, the

ear is broader in the latter, it may indicate a more forest or jungle

habitat than is affected by the Swamp-Deer; but as regards size,

the skull described below does not bear out the conclusion. that

Schomburgk’s Deer is a smaller species.

The only available skull in the British Museum (Rowland Ward

No. 8.3.17.5) was figured, but not described by Lydekker. With

a total length of 395 mm. (15 4/5 in.) it is a few mm. shorter tha:

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 561

the longest skull of Rucervus duvaucelit, but exceeds the average

length in that species. The condylobasal length is not available;

but in its other dimensions, both in length and breadth, it is for

Rig a2.

A. Side view of orbit, vacuity and gland-pit of Swamp-Deer (Rucervus

duvaucelii duvaucelii) labelled Barainga, native name (Earl of Derby).

B, The same of Schomburgk’s Deer (Thaocervus schomburgki) with vacuity

and gland-pit smaller than in A.

C. The same of Thamin (Panolia eldi thamin) from Pegu (Bruce) showing

the much deeper gland-pit than in A and B.

the most part a little bigger than the average of R. duvaucelii.

The main difference between the skulls of the two, described above

under the generic heading, may be amplified by actual figures, the

average dimensions in the case of R. duvaucelii being taken from

i6 skulls.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The vertical height of the orbit in R. duvaucelii ranges from

43 to 49 mm., the average being 46. In Th. schomburgki it is

BO exe OOO ND

Ricca.

A. Nasals and adjoining parts of the skull of Schomburgk’s Deer (Thaocervus

schomburgki) showing especially the breadth of the nasals, between the vacuities

and the depth of the anterior excision. The gland-pit dotted.

B. and C. Nasals, vacuity and inner part of gland-pit (dotted) of Swamp-

Deer (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii) from Kheri, Oudh (Hume) and of R. d.

branderi from the Central Provinces (Nichols), the difference being individual,

not racial. For comparison with A.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 563

‘

about the same, namely 45. The vacuity in Rk. duvauceli varies in

length from 39 to 56, the average being 47, and its width or height,

measured from the middle of the free edge of the nasal, from

18 to 26, the average being 22; in Th. schomburgki its length and

width are respectively 36 and 17, actually a little less in both di-

mensions than the smallest recorded for kk. duvaucelii and con-

siderably less than the average. The length of the gland-pit in

R. duvauceli varies from 38 to 47, the average being just over

4o; in Th. schomburgki its length is 36, a little less than the

smallest and still shorter than the average in R. duvaucelii; it is

also shallower (Fig. 2).

The free edge of the nasal where it borders the vacuity is

extremely variable in R. duvaucelu, from 15 to 38 mm. long, the

average being 24; in Th. schomburgki it is practically the same

as that average, namely 23. The length of the fronto-nasal

suture indicating the degree of penetration of the nasals between

the frontals ranges in R. duvauceli from 28 to 43, the average

being 37; in Th. schomburgki it is 48, a few mm. longer

than the longest recorded in R. duvaucelii and 11 mm. over the

average of that species. These facts bear out the statements in

the generic definition of Thaocervus that the vacuity and gland-

pit are smaller and the penetration of the nasals is deeper than in

Rucervus (Fig. 3).

A considerable number of antlers is preserved in the British

Museum; and Blyth in 1867 described and figured many showing

a good deal of individual variation. The main differences between

them and the antlers of Rucervus duvaucelii are cited above and

I have seen no intermediates between them in their principal features.

A minor average difference, in my experience, is the apparently

invariably rectangular junction between the brow tine and the beam

in Th. schomburgki. Occasionally the junction is rectangular in

Rucervus duvaucelti; but as a rule it is obtusely angular, the angle

being in rare cases so obtuse that the brow tine and the beam are

almost in the same line where they join. Blyth (op. cit. p. 837,

fig. 5) figured one such antler and pointed out its resemblance in

this respect to the antlers of the Thamin (Panolia eldi); but the

antlers of a Swamp-Deer figured by Lydekker (0p. cit. p. 95, fig. 18)

as of this nature are manifestly not so, the angle between the

brow tine and the beam being obviously and tolerably normally

obtuse.

Panolia Gray.

Panolia, Gray, List. Mamm. Brit. Mus., p. 180, 1843 and Cat.

Ones amma p. 202qre52 = Blyth, Proc: Zool, Soc; 1867, p. 835

and of most subsequent authors, usually as a subgenus of Cervus

or Rucervus.

Type of the genus:—acuticornis Gray (=eldt).

Essentially distinguished by the pedicles of the antlers being

narrowly separated and erect or very nearly so, their inner edges

sometimes slightly divergent or convergent, so that the bases of

the brow tine and beam are close together, in some cases nearly

in contact and subparallel, and the external edge of the pedicle

and of the postorbital area in front of it has its curvature less

strongly concave. In these features the genus differs from. all

the other genera of Cervidae at least of the Old World.

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Nasal bones, vacuity and inner part of gland-pit (dotted) of Thamin (Panolia)

showing individual variation, frequent asymmetry and especially the- shallow

penetration of the frontals by the nasals and their long free edge bordering the

vacuity.

A. P, eldi, type of cornipes, from Manipur.

Bb. P. eldi thamin, type of brucei, from the Ruby Mines, Upper Burma.

C. P. eldi thamin, topotype of brucei, from the Ruby Mines.

D. P. eldi thamin from Tenasserim.

Ek, and F. P. eldi thamin from Pegu.

G. P. eldi thamin from Monzwa, Upper Burma, the tips fractured.

From its nearest ally, Rucervus, which it closely resembles in the

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 585

inflation of the auditory bullae, it further differs in the following siull-

characters: (1) The very variable nasals are more truncated posteri-

orly and penetrate less deeply between the frontals, the naso-frontal

‘suture ranging in length in thirteen skulls from 17 to 30 mm., the

average being 23. (2) The free edge of the nasals bordering the

vacuity is on the average longer, the variation being from 22 to

42 and the average 31. (3) ) Tne vacuity is about the same length,

ranging from 41 to 54, with the average.474; but is on the average

considerably narrower, its width ranging from 11 to 20, with the

average 16. (4) The gland-pit is deeper, with more sharply defined

edges, its average length of 40 being the same as in Jtucervus,

although the skull is smaller, and it more nearly approaches in

length the vertical diameter of the orbit which is on the average

43) “actually smaller than in Rucervus but relatively about the same

size {ig. 4). The corresponding dimensions of ‘these parts of the

skull in Rucervus are entered under the description of Thaocervus.

The total length in twelve skulls ranges from 320 to 346 mm.,

the average being 333° (13+ in.) and the condylobasal length in

eight varies from 301 to 325, the average being 312 (12% in.), the

two being respectively about 14 in, shorter than those dimensions

in the Smaller race of R. duvaucelii:

The antlers, apart from their basal proximity mentioned above

are characteristic, showing no likeness to those of Thaocervus and

differing typically from the antlers of Rucervus in having the junc-

tion of the brow tine and the beam in a straight line or forming

a much more obtusely open angle; and to compensate for their

basal proximity the beams have a much more strongly pronounced

backward and outward curvature. Also the first branch of the

beam is less developed, usually undivided and not uncommonly

reduced to a small snag; the brow tine often carries accessory

upright snags, sometimes as much as eleven inches long, and the

tip of the antler is very variable, usually simply bifid but some-

times palmate with many small snags.

In 1910 (Pro. Zool. Soc., 1910, pp. 244-245) I described and

figured the fore and hind feet of a Thamin belonging to the typical

Burmese race and pointed out that the integument between the

heels of the main hoofs is wider than in other typical Deer, includ-

ing Rucervus, giving greater distensibility to the hoofs and that

the skin immediately surrounding the false hoofs is naked, not

hairy as, for example, in the foot of a Swamp-Deer described at

the same time. But in view of Dunbar Brander’s account of the

difference in the feet between the two races of Swamp-Deer and

Lydekker’s description of the feet in a Thamin from Manipur,

referred to below, it is evident that the feet of additional specimens

-of both species must be examined before any general conclusion

regarding these extremities can be drawn.

Panolia eldi, McClelland.

(The Thamin or Eld’s Deer)

menCeruus eld: McClelland, Gale. Journ. Nats Hist:; 2, p. 417;

1842.

Locality of the type:—Manipur.

566) JOURNAL? PB OMBAW. TNIATRO ReAvie ee ES Uae S OCI E MeV ees (0 pam ole NET

Distribution: Manipur, Burma as far south as Tenasserim and

probably at least the northern parts of the Malay Peninsula; Siam,

Annam and Hainan.

The main characters of the skull and antlers of this species are

given above under the generic heading.

Only one skin is at present available for description. This is

a mounted specimen in the British Museum, the type of Rucervus

thamin Thomas, from Pegu. It has longish hairs on the neck like

the mounted example of Rucervus duvauceliu branderi referred, to

above; but it differs from that Swamp-Deer in having the general

colour fawn, lighter and less red, the whole of the back of the

ear like the back, with no white near its lower rim but a patch of

that tint at the junction of the ear and the neck externally; the

anterior part of the muzzle is lighter than the rest of the face, apart

from a dusky patch on the corner of the mouth, but this patch

does not spread upwards to the nose or on to the lower jaw to

emphasize the whiteness of the upper lip and chin as it does in

the Swamp-Deer.

An example of the same race from British Burma was described

and illustrated in colour by P. L. Sclater (Trans. Zool. Soc., 7,

1872). It showed marked seasonal change in colour which in the

autumn (late summer) coat was bright ochreous red, with a few

faint spots on the hind flank and thigh, the legs below the knees

and hocks duller and paler, the edge of the upper lip, chin, throat,

breast, belly and inner side of the thighs white and the upper side

of the tail brown (pl. 37). In winter the colour was uniformly dark

brown all over the upper side, except the upper lip, chin, interramal

area a patch at the top of the throat which, like the belly, were

buffy. No trace of the spots present in the summer coat were

shown: but the neck, which was smooth in summer, was maned

(pl. 38).

In 1918 Thomas published a revision of the different kinds of

Thamin, which he referred to the genus Rucervus (Journ. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., 25, p: 363). The chief value of this paper lies.

in its correction of the nomenclature adopted by Lydekker in 1915.

I accept Thomas’s conclusions on these points and it is needless

to repeat what he said. It is needless also to repeat the synonymies

he established. But in one or two particulars I find myself unable

to agree with him. The first is his opinion that the Thamin are

referable to three distinct species, eldi from Manipur, thamin from

Burma and platyceros from Siam and Hainan. The second is his

claim that there are two local races of Thamin in Burma. In my

opinion there is only one species of this deer and only one race of

it in Burma. My reasons for dissent on these points are given

below under their appropriate headings.

Panolia eldi eldi, McClelland.

Cervus eldi McClelland, Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist., 2, p. 417, 1842.

Cervus eldi cornipes, Lydekker, Nature, 54, p. 257,

Rucervus eldi, Thomas, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 25, p. 363,

1918 with full synonymy.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 567

Locality of the type:—Manipur.

Distribution :—Manipur.

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A. Lower surface of hind foot of P. eldi eldi, the type of cornipes from the

marshes of Manipur (Cumberland).

B. Side view of the same foot.

Distinguished on the evidence of a single specimen from the

other races of Thamin by the structural adaptation at least of the

hind feet for progression on marshy land. The hoofs and pasterns

are longer and the horny tissue of the heels is continued back-

wards on each side of the pastern half way to the false hoofs, the

skin between and behind these sharply defined horny strands and

over the whole of the rest of the pastern up to and between the

false hoofs thick and coarsely coriaceous, irregularly groved

068 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIT

transversely and provided only with a few very short, erect, scattered

hairs, not ‘strictly speaking naked as stated by Lydekker when he

described this Thamin of the Manipur swamps as cornipes (igzS)):

I provisionally accept Thomas’s restriction of the name eldi to

the Manipurese Thamin with feet as above described; but, it is to be

remembered that since the feet of the actual types of eldi, collected

by Eld, and of one named frontalis collected by Guthrie, are ‘unknown,

the assumption that they were fashioned as in the type of cornipes

is a mere inference. Since the whole of Manipur is not swampy,

one or both of the first mentioned types may have inhabited com-

paratively dry plains. In that case their feet, it may be supposed,

resembled those of the typical Burmese race as described in my

paper in 1910. It seems-to me to be probable, moreover, that in

Manipur there exist, or existed, Thamin frequenting less marshy

districts than those in which the type of cornipes was shot and

having feet intermediate 1 in structure between the two extremes above

mentioned.

There is no evidence of any difference between the skulls of

Manipurese and Burmese Thamin. The antlers of those from Mani-

pur vary considerably in characters claimed by Thomas to be of

sub-specific value. In a fine pair, without skull. (Hume No. 12.

10.31.8) they are coarsely corrugated throughout; the left is 32 in.

long; the beams of the two diverge at a decidedly obtuse angle and

the brow tine is uptilted at an obtuse angle to the beam; the right

brow tine has a large accessory branch near its base 11} in. long,

and a shorter one, 2% in. long, near its middle; on the left brow

tine there is a basal accessory branch 74 in. ‘long; on the beams

the first tines on the inner side are greatly reduced, one more than

the other, so as to form practically functionless vestiges; the ends

of the antlers are cylindrical and very unequally bifid on the two

sides. In the skull of the type of cornipes (Cumberland, No.

1.7.13.1), which has total and condylobasal lengths of 328 and

304 mm. respectively, and is apparently fully adult, the antlers are

very small, only 164 in. long, and smooth throughout except quite

at the base; their beams diverge at a right angle and end in a

bifid tip.

Panolia eldi thamin, Thomas.

Rucervus thamin, Thomas, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 25,

p. 364, 1918.

Ruceryvus thamin brucei, Thomas, op. cit., p. 366.

Locality of the type of thamin Pegu; of brucei Thimbaung Gwin

plain, Ruby Mines.

Distribution :—Upper and Lower Burma including Tenasserim,

also Siam and probably the Malay Peninsula. ~

Distinguished from typical eldi, on the evidence supplied by the

type of cornipes, by the feet being shorter and more compact, with

the skin on the lower surface of the pastern normally soft, thin

and closely covered with hair like the upper side and with no

extension of the horny heels.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 569

In his description of the skull of brucei from the Ruby Mines,

Upper Burma (Bruce, No. 17.7.8.17-18) Thomas claimed that it

differs from typical thamin from Pegu, Lower Burma, in having

the ridge forming the upper edge of the gland-pit poorly developed

and rounded as compared with the sharp-edged ridge in other

Burmese Thamin; also that the brow tines are more bent up, form-

ing with the beams an angle of 130 degrees or 140 degrees, instead

Fig. 6.

Outer side of base of left antler of some Thamin (Panolia) showing differences

inthe alignment of the brow tine, to the left, and the beam, to the right.

A. Panolia eldi eldi, type of cornipes, from Manipur (Cumberiand), the two

branches approximately in line.

B. Panolia eldi eldi from Manipur (Hume), an older antler, with the branches

divergent at an obtuse angle. ;

C. Panolia eldi thamin, type from Pegu, with the junction also cbtuselv

angular.

D. Panolia eldi thanun, type of brucei from the Ruby Mines, Upper Burma,

with the angle only slightly less obtuse than in C.

E. Panolia eldi thamin from Magwe, Upper Burma (Stockley) with the

angle more widely obtuse than in D. and C. |

F. Panolia eldi platyceros from Siam (Schomburgh) with the branches in a

straight line. es

of being nearly in a straight line with the beams. The main portion

of the beams, moreover is more inclined backwards, only slightly

divergent, the angle formed by tangents from their median portions

forming an angle of from 7o to 75 degrees. This diagnosis seems

to have been taken from the type of brucei only. At all events in

a second skull collected by Bruce at the Ruby Mines the edge of

the gland-pit is not quite so rounded on one side as in the type

D105 WOU RNAE SB OMBAVS IN ATu UI RVA ip EIS sims \ OOH ale Vammm {ome Ola AE

and although it is broken on the other side, the part that remains

is quite sharp. Both these skulls, judging from their exceedingly

worn teeth, are old and I believe the roundness of the ridge in

question to be an age character.

As for the antlers, the features relied upon by Thomas are

too variable individually to deserve the systematic importance he

attached to them. The brow tine in Bruce’s second specimen from

the Ruby Mines is less uptilted than in the type of brucei and in

‘the latter the uptilting is only a trifle greater than in the type of

thamin from Pegu and in another skull from the same locality col-

lected by Bruce, in both of which the brow tine and the beam are

by no means in a straight tine. The variations in the divergence

of the beams are even greater. In the type of bruce: the beams

are abnormally asymmetrical, the left being much straighter and

less outwardly divergent than the right; and in the second skull

from the Ruby Mines both antlers are strongly outcurved their

tangents meeting at an angle of almost go degrees. Usually in the

Thamin, as Thomas stated, that angle is considerably greater than

a right angle; but the view he apparently entertained that in Upper

Burmese specimens the brow tine is more uptilted and the angle

between the main beams more acute and much smaller than in

Lower Burmese specimens is demonstrably unsound.

In both the north and the south of Burma the brow-tine and the

beam may diverge at a definite obtuse angle or be in almost if not

quite the same straight line; and in Upper Burma the main beams

may diverge at a widely obtuse angle as in an example from Magwe

District (Stockley) and one from Monzwa District (Gilbert). On

the other hand in a second specimen from Monzwa the angle of

divergence is acute, about the same as in the type of brucet. Like

the two examples from the Ruby Mines, the two from Monzwa

show that the degree of divergence of the beams may vary greatly

in the same locality (Fig. 6).

This question has been dealt with at some length because

Thomas’s verdict that there are two geographical races of Thamin

in Burma has been quoted by E. H. Peacock in ‘A Game Book for

Burma etc.’ 1933 and by H. C. Smith in his “Wild Animals of

Burmar p. 41, 1985.

Panolia eldi platyceros, Gray.

Panolia platyceros, Gray,. List. Mamm. Brit. Mus., p. 181, 1843;

and of subsequent authors including Thomas, Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., 25, p. 364, 1918 where other references and full syn-

onymy are given under the specific name Rucervus platyceros.

Locality of the type :—Siam.

Distribution: —Siam, Annam, Hainan.

Distinguished apparently from the typical Burmese race, thamin,

as figured by Sclater, by the absence of marked seasonal change

in the colour which, according to Lydekker, on unstated authority,

is reddish throughout the year, with spots along each side of the

spinal area and in some cases also on the sides of the body. The

THE LARGER DEER. OF BRITISH INDIA 571

most commonly cited difference however, lies in the antlers which

seem to be always palmated, somewhat as in the Fallow Deer

(Dama), that is to say they are expanded and more or less flattened

at the end, with the posterior edge of this area beset with numerous

small points. :

Upper part of antlers, from the inner side, of various specimens of the

Lnamin (Panolia) showing individual variation and especially the intergrada-

tion between the ordinary and the palmate types.

A. Left antler of P. eldi eldi from Manipur (Hume).

B. Left antler of P. eldi thamin, the type of brucei from the Ruby Mines

(Bruce).

C. Right antler of P. eldi thamin, topotype of brucei from the Ruby Mines

. (Bruce). :

D. Right antler of P. eldt thamin from Pegu (Bruce).

E. Right antler of P. eldi thamin, the type of brucei for comparison with B.

and to show the semipalmate type leading to F and G.

F. Right antler of P. eldi platyceros from Siam (Schomburgk).

G. Right antler of P. eldi platyceros from Nhatrang Annam (Vassall).

Reverting to the antlers of the two skulls of thamin from the

Ruby Mines some additional differences between them have an im-

portant bearing on the status of platyceros. In the topotype (No.

572, JOURNAL BOMBAY NATUTVATE SESE |S OGRE mn Vo] seme Nele ET

17.7.8.18) the antlers are normal, ending in two short tines and

the first tine of the beam is simple and about 3 in. long. In the

type (No. 17.7.8.17) the left antler is normal in shape and sub-

equally bifid at the tip, but the first tine of the beam consists of

two short points arising from a common base. In the right antler

it is similar, but the tip of this antler is unusual in shape for Burmese

Thamin, being expanded, compressed and decidedly semipalmate

with about half a dozen snags behind the very short anterior apical

tine and the back of the posterior portion of the antler above the

. two-pointed tine is two-edged, the inner edge pcan a series of

small spicules.

When: Thomas gave specific value to the palmate structure of

the antlers in platyceros he seems to have overlooked the right

antler of this type of bruce: from the Ruby Mines, which is nearly

intermediate between the normal antlers of the Burmese _ race,

thamin, and of the typically Siamese race platyceros, even: approach-

ing the latter more than the former. Evidence of this is supplied by

the antlers of an example of platyceros from Siam (Schomburgk,

No. 65.11.2.1) which has the first tine of the beam similarly com-

posed of two short spikes and the expanded part of the beam

above it similarly two-edged posteriorly; but it differs in having

the inner edge armed. with two big spikes, one near its middle, the

other at its upper end, and the outer edge armed with five big or

tolerably big spikes; also by the subequality in size of the two

normal terminal tines. Another antler of platyceros from Nhat-

rang, Annam (Vassal, N. 08.11.1.18) differs as much from the antler

from Siam, above described, as the latter differs from the antler

from the Ruby Mines. The first tine of the beam consists, as in

the others, of a pair of spikes, but the part of the beam above it is

more emphatically palmated, being more expanded and flattened,

its posterior surface forming a single compressed edge armed with

a number of mostly lobate, blunt spikes, apart from one near the

middle of the edge which is considerably larger; it resembles the

antler from Siam in having the two terminal tines normally large

and subequal, but differs from it in that the posterior of these tines

shares the palmation and has its hinder edge lobate to the tip

(Fig. 7).

From the above-cited evidence of intergradation between the

normal antlers of the Burmese Thamin and the palmated antlers

of the Siamese form, I agree with G. M. Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist. 22.p: 468, 1906) that platyceros is merely a subspecies

of Panolia eldi. It is to be remembered too that according to

Swinhoe’s observations in Hainan (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 655)

the palmation of the antlers is acquired only when the Thamin is

approaching maturity. It may be added that Thomas judging from

Swinhoe’s ‘antlers, named the Hainan Thamin Rucervus platyceros

hainanus. The evidence that it represents a distinct race is, in my

opinion, quite inadequate.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE.

SAuim ALI.

With notes by Hugh Whistier.

Part III.

(Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 3, p. 341).

Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon) The Great Indian Reed Warbler,

Specimen collected: 493 Q 28-12-39 Dodballaptir (2,900’).

Elsewhere noted: Kabani river bank near Thtmsogé village (Begir), Seringa-

patam, Palahally and other islets in Cauvery River, Marikanivé and islets in

Vanivilas Sagar.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

i @ 25 87 75.5 mm.—H. W.]

Status? Uncommon and sparse.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.

Specimens collected: 72 Q 15-11-39, 104 @ 19-11-39 Bandipur (3,000’); 212 9

30-11-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500’); 301 Q 9-12-39 Hiunstr (2,000’); 329 0?

13-12-39 Shimsha (2,500’); 382 Q 19-12-39 Nandidrug (4,000’); 420 G 23-12-3g

Maklidrig (2,800’); 510 G 31-12-39 Namadachilumé (3,000’). Biligirirangan

Hills: 47 3, 48 3, 49 Q 11-11-39 (4,000° Dodsampagi).

Elsewhere nected: Marikanivé, Jogimaradi (near Chitaldraig town); Kolar

Gold Fields.

{[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4664 16.5-17.5 63-65 53-54 mm. afl.

6 OQ 16-18 61.5-63-5 51-53-5 mm.—H. W.|]

Winter visitor. Common. Met with singly in scrub and bushes, chiefly in

deciduous biotope. Latest date recorded by the Survey 5 March.

Acrocephalus agricola Jerdon. The Paddy-field Warbler.

Specimens collected: 314 ¢ 11-12-39 Krishnarajsagar (2,000’); 582 ¢, 583 do

g-1-40 Hiriyur (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Mandya, Marikanive.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail ;

BGO) 14 58-58.5 54-50 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Common. Seen singly amongst irrigated paddy crops and

reed-beds standing in water. The bird hops from stem to stem just above the

water, clinging on sideways and often picking up tiny insects from the surface. It

constantly utters a harsh chir...chir, etc.

Locustella nevia straminea Seebohm. The Eastern Grasshopper-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: Q 29-12-32 (4,500—Dodsampagi).

Elsewhere noted: Bababudan Hills (4,500—Kemmangundi).

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Winter visitor. Not uncommon in tall grass and sparse date scrub on

hillsides, especially on the edge of sholas. A great skulker and flushed a second

time only with difficulty.

Orthotomus sutorius guzurata (Latham) The Indian Tailor Bird.

Specimens collected, 364 ¢ 17-12-39 Satnur (2,500); 4o1 G 20-12-39, 432 3

24-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’); 543 dG 6-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500’). Biligirirangan

Hills: M23(G) 3 20-9-34 (2,000-—Satyamangala); M30(G) <. 13-7-34 (3,000 —

Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Begtr, Chamundi Hill. Htnsur, Shimsha, Sivasamtdram,

Nandidrug, Bangalore, Thondébhavi, Jogimaradi (Chitaldrug town environs),

Settihalli, Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements : S

Bill Wing Tail

BeGNGuead. 15-17-5 50.5-55 50-68.5 (summer tail)

it oh shagh ol 14.5 47 39 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat:

Scrub-and bush country.

Cisticola exilis erythrocephala Blyth. The Red-headed Fantail Warbler.

Specimens collected: 703 ¢, 704 ¢, 705 @, 706 0? juv., 707 3, 708 ¢ juv.

21-I-40, 723 0? 23-1-40, 734 Q 24-1-40 Bababidan Hills (3,500-5,000’).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

AGS 11-12 46.5-51 48.5-56.5 mm.

By 5) ) Tales 43-45 46.5-54 mm.

2 juv. — 42-47 ; 49-54 mm.

These adults are in nice fresh winter, dress or just finishing the moult to it.

‘The females are perhaps just distinguishable from the males in having the

black markings of the upper plumage a little less heavily defined. The

juveniles are above a mealier edition of the winter dress with the black markings

considerably less in extent and definition. The lower plumage is pale sulphuc

in colour, faintly washed with buff on the flanks. In No. 706 the post-juvenal

moult of the body feathers is well advanced on the lower surface.—H. W. ]

Resident. Common in the Bababudan Hills among tall coarse grass and

low Strobilanthes and bracken scrub on the open slopes and ridges alternating

with sholas.

Cisticula juncidis cursitans (Franklin) The Streaked Fantail Warbler.

Specimens collected : 313 ¢ 10-2-39 Mandya (2,200’); 565 2 8-1-40 Marikanivé

{2,500 ). j

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

i oh II 53 31.5 mm.

Lay 11.5 47 Px) Salata;

Both these specimens appear to be in worn ‘summer’ dress.—H. W.]

I have an old note (19-12-32) of several seen on a grassy hillside at ca.

5,000° elevation in the Biligirirangans. After experience in the Bababtdans

however, I am now inclined to believe that these were more probably C. e.

-erythvrocephala. '

Resident. Not common. Frequents tall grass maidans, reeds standing on

the margin of tanks and the borders of wet paddy fields.

The testes of No. 313 (10 December) were enlarged to 5X3 mm. Major

Phythian-Adams has a c/4 collected near Gundlupet, 25-10-1935.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 57:

Franklinia gracilis albogularis (Walden) The South Indian Franklin’s) Wren-

Warbler.

Specimens collected: 110 0? juv., 111 G, 112 0? 19-11-39 Bandipir (3,300’) ;

371 G 17-12-39 Satnur (2,500); 407 Q 21-12-39, 427 ¢ 23-12-39 Maklidrig

(2,800') ; 759 6 28-1-40 Settihalli (2,500). Biligirirangan Hills: CG 29-12-32

(5,000 —Dodsampagi) ; M7o(H) ¢ 15-5-34 (4,000°-—Shenemenhalla); MS890(H) ¢

18-5-34 (5,000 —Anaribetta) ; M123(H) oS 26-5-34 (4,000°—Bellaji); Mo67(G) ¢

21-7-34, (3,000 —Udahatti, Eastern base).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

8 6d (summer dress) 12-13.5 48-52 45-5-55 mim.

I ¢o (winter dress) 255 48.5 50 mm.

3 juvs. 44.40 47.5-54 mm.

The most recent examination of the races of this species is by Ticehurst

& Whistler (lbis, 1939, pp. 761-763) and Mysore can now be added to the

ascertained range of F. g. albogularis—H. W. |

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Flocks in tall grass.

and secondary jungle.

Two males (19 November, 17 December) had enlarged testes—4x3 and

5X3 mm. respectively. A specimen of the former date was juvenile, evidently

recently out of nest.

This Wren-warbler usually has 2 or 3 filo-plumes projecting behind the

nape as in Pycnonotus luteolus.. I have not seen this particular mentioned in

published descriptions.

Phragmaticola aédon (Pallas) The Thick-billed Warbler.

Specimens collected: 251 Q 3-12-39 Karapur (2,500’); 346 Q 15-12-39 Satnur

00’) 540 ¢ 4-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000); 653 @ 16-1-40 Sakléshpur

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Ae OS® 20 83-85 85-88.5 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Frequent, but not common. Usually seen singly in under-

growth, preferentially in the dry-inter belt.

‘Hippolais caligata caligata Licht. The Tree-Warbler.

Specimens collected: 318 3, 319 ¢ 13-12-39 Satnur (2,500); 423 Q 23-12-39

Maklidrug (2,800’).

{[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BOC 13.5-I4 62.5-63 50-50.5 mm.

1 9 13.5 60.5 51 mm.—H. W.]

Hippolais caligata rama (Sykes). Sykes’s Tree-Warbler.

Specimen collected: 217 Q 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Kolar Gold Fields (subspecies ?).

{Measurements :

Bill . Wing Tail

Winter visitor. Fairly common, in deciduous scrub and bushes. At Satnur

loose scattered ‘flocks’ of 12 to 15 birds were -seen about mid-December.

Sylvia hortensis jerdoni (Blyth) The Orphean Warbler.

No specimen. Two solos were observed among bushes in a dry scrub-

covered ravine at Satnur, 16-12-39.

016. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIl

Sylvia althea Hume. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat.

_ Specimens collected: 229 G 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500'); 365 CG 17-12-39

Satnur (2,500'); 422 @Q 23-12-39 Maklidrig (2,800’); Biligirirangan' Hills :

M31-32(G) dd 21-9-34 (2,000-—Satyamangala).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

LOS C 13.5-14 68.5-74 55-55-5 mm.

Ten, PRG 70 58.5—EL.. We

Fairly common winter visitor. Seen singly in deciduous biotope, in babool

and other scrub. Earliest date 21 September.

Sylvia curruca blythi Ticeh. & Whistler. The Indian Lesser Whitethroat.

Specimen collected: 557 Q 7-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500’).

[ Measurements :

Bill 7 Wing Tail

i, 12.5 65 54-5 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Rare. Frequents dry open sparsely scrubbed country.

Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell). Tickell’s Willow Warbler.

Specimens collected: 381 @ 19-12-39 Nandidrig (4,000’); 385 0? 19-12-39

Maklidrig (2,800’); 683 Q 20-1-40 Bababudan Hills (5,000—Kemmangundi) ;

Biligirirangan Hills: Ms58(H) G 20-4-34 (5,000—Attikan).

| Measurements :

“Bull Wing Tail

6h II 59 44.5 mm.

I Q 12 55 42.5 mm.

This is the first record for Mysore State, a locality not therefore given

in Ticehurst’s monograph.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Not uncommon in deciduous biotope, chiefly in scrub and

small tree jungle. Also sparingly up to the edge of sholas.

Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus Blyth. The Greenish Willow Warbler.

Specimens collected: 275 CG 5-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 302 CG 9-12-39

Hunsur (2,000’); 380 0? 19-12-39 Nantidrug (4,000’). Biligirirangan Hills: 24 3

8-11-39, ¢G 28-12-32 (5,000—Honnametti) ; M21(G) ¢ 17-10-34 (4,000—Edbithi).

Elsewhere noted: Bandipur, Maddur, Settihalli.

| Measurements :

Ball Wing Tail

366 12-13 59-62 44.5-48.5 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Common. Affects wooded country, chiefly deciduous but

also through the intermediate zone up to the edge of sholas. Seen singly in

canopy foliage rather than in bushes. The constantly uttered call note chiwee

is distinctive.

Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth. The Large-billed Willow Warbler.

Specimen collected: 856 <Q 11-2-40 Jog (2,000’).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Io 14.5 67.5 48 mm.

First record for Mysore.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Rare. The specimen was shot in the Raja Shola. It was

a member of a mixed hunting party.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 577

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large Crowned Willow

Warbler. ;

Sakléshpur (3,000’); 853 ¢ 8-2-40 Agumbé (2,000). Biligirirangan Hills: 50 3

TI-11-39, Q 28-12-32 (5,000—Honnametti).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Valley (Bababidans).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Went

BIGuG! 14-15 66-71.5 50-53 mm.

290° 13-14 64-05.5 48-48.5 mm.

These are the first records actually from Mysore State.-—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Common in evergreen biotope and extending throughout the

intermediate zone. It is almost invariably met with in the mixed hunting

parties of which the most regular components, among other species, are Culicicapa

and Sitia frontalis.

Prinia socialis socialis Sykes. The Ashy Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: 421 0? 23-12-39 Maklidrag (2,800’). Biligirirangan

Hills: M7(G) 3S 8-8-34, M2o(G) ¢ 10-7-34 (3,000° Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Seringapatam, Palahally, Begur.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail Tarsus

2 dd (summer plumage) I4-14.5 50-51-5 55750 21 mm.—

lobe \Wod

Resident. Not common. Affects grassland and scrub on the banks of

Streams, in deciduous biotope.

Prinia sylvatica sylvatica Jerdon. The Jungle Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: 368 ¢, 369 Q juv., 370 Q 17-12-39 Satnur (2,500’);

417 Q 22-12-39 Maklidrig (2,800’); 504 0? 29-12-39 Thondebhavi (2,500’); 592 6,

593 2 to0-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Begtr, Jogimaradi (Chitaldrig town environs).

{ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3 OS 15 63-5705 73-79 (winter)

i @ 14 53-5 65 (winter)

I Q juv — 52 61.5

No. 370 Q in worn summer plumage, has tail 53 mm.—H. W.|]

Resident. Common. Affects stony, sparsely scrubbed country in deciduous

‘biotope Call: P’ty...p’ty...p’ty etc.

No. 369 (17 December) was one of 2 juveniles just out of nest with stub

tails and wobbly flight. It was being fed by the parents, the male of which

(No. 368) had testes 5x3 mm. Most birds had evidently finished breeding by

this date and were in an advanced stage of post-nuptial moult (to winter dress).

Prinia inornata inornata Sykes. The Indian Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: 142 CG 22-11-39 Bandipir (3,300); 324 0?, 325 9

Dodballapur (2,900’); 542 Q 6-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500’).

[Most specimens either worn or moulting. No. 142, in heavy moult, might

possibly be P. i. franklinii.—H. W.]

Resident. Common in deciduous biotope. It affects scrub country, as a

tule less dry than that typical of sylvatica and less wet than that ef socialis.

irena puella puella (Latham). The Fairy .Bluebird.

$28 J, 829 2, 830 OG 5-2-40 Agimbé (2,500’).

ar })

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XEIET

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing. Tail

DGC. Bal 28-29 128-129 101-103 mm,

2 GiGi lstenycal; 28.5-29 127-128 100.5-102.5 mim,

if O) 29 125 100.5 mm.

The two ist. year males (Nos. 615 and 828) are quite indistinguishable

from females except for the presence of odd—accidentally moulted—feathers of

the adult plumage. I do not know definitely whether males breed in this.

female-like plumage or not, but it is perhaps significant that both of these

birds have the organs quite undeveloped, whereas in the 2 adult males (Nos..

822 and 830) the ‘testes measure 7X5 and 9X5 mm. respectively.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope and found both in the

‘plains’ or plateau country and up to the highest sholas. A sharp, percussive

Peepit is constantly uttered.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. The Indian Oriole.

Specimens collected: 71 G 15-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300); 446 OG 26-12-39,.

474 2, 482 Q 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’).

Elsewhere noted: Seringapatam, Palahally islet (Cauvery), Sakléshpur, Kolar

Gold Fields, Biligirirangan Hills 3-5,000’.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2366 ad. 32 134-5-143 $2-87.5 mm. z

240°0 31 130.5-139 85-85.5 mm.—H. W.]

Status uncertain. Probably partly resident and partly local migrant. The

Survey found it fairly common in deciduous biotope, extending thence sparingly

through the intermediate zone to the fringe of evergreen.

Oriolus chinensis diffusus Sharpe. The Black-naped Oriole.

Specimen collected: 859 Q 11-2-40 JOg (2,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Agumbé.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail Tarsus

ig Soi 150 92.5 24 mm.—H. W.]

Evidently a sparse winter visitor. Met with in the moist-inter belt. Its

pleasant, melodious calls are like the Indian Oriole’s, but they possess a dis-

tinctive quality, hard to describe, which facilitates differentiation by ear in the

field.

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatensis Franklin. The South Indian Black-headed

Oriole.

Specimens collected: 181 Q 28-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500); 790 dG 3I-I-40

Settihalli (2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills: M1(G)? ¢G 14-9-34, Mo(G)? 15-9-34

(2,000 —Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted : Edbuthi (4,000 —Biligirirangans), Bandipur, Chamindi Hill.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BEIGE 29-5-31 136.5-140 81.5-85.5 mm.

1 Q 29 130 83.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Affects deciduous biotope extending sparingly

into the dry-inter belt.

The intestine of No. 181 was infested with Cestode worms.

Gracula religiosa intermedia (Cuvier) The Southern Grackle.

Specimens collected: 751+ 27-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills:

7 3, 38 2, 39 dS 10-11-39 (4,000'—Bedagili); Q 21-12-32, M18 (H) Q 13-3-34,

M22(H)Q 2-3-34, M64(H) d 25-4-34, M3(H) @ 9-5-34, M8(H) 2 7-5-34 (4,000 -

)

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Kakenhalla, Namadachilumé, Sakléshpur.

[By fe

LAH BIRDS OF MYSORE . 57s

[ Measurements :

Bill- Wing Tail

466 29-32 147.5-154.5 69-71.5 mm. ,

6 2 Q 28-30.5 142-149 65-69 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Noisy flocks. Typical habitat: Intermediate zone,

wandering freely into either extreme near the edge, and up to the highest

sholas,

The @ of 10 November (No. 38) had a fairly mature ovary with the

largest follicle over 2 mm. in diameter. But no other evidence as to the

breeding season was obtained.

Pastor roseus (Linn.) The Rosy Pastor.

Specimens collected: 139 @, 140 OG 22-11-39 Bandiptr (3,000—Hangala

village) ; 388-393 6d d:2 QQ 20-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’).

Elsewhere noted: Seringapatam. (Hume mentions a specimen obtained near

Gundlupet (S. F., x, 4o1).

Winter visitor. Not common by its Deccan standards. Small flocks seen

about cultivation.

Sturnia malabarica blythii (Jerdon) Blyth’s Myna.

Specimens collected: 176 Q, 177 Q, 178 @ 25-11-39 Bandipur (3,000°—

Kakenhalla); 243 Q 2-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500’); 688 3, 689 ¢ 20-1-40

Jagar Valley (2,500—Bababtdan Hills); 762 9 28-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Palahally islet (Cauvery River, near Seringapatam).

{ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BiG 23-24 103-105 63-67 mm.

42° 22-23 97-5-103-5 59-64 mm.

This series has at last settled the question—left in the air in both editions

of the Fauna—as to what the female of this race is like. There are 4 adult

females which differ merely in the amount of white on the forehead and fore-

crown. From them it is now possible to say that the adult Q differs from

the adult ¢ as follows: g

(1) The white on the head is confined to the forehead and forepart of

the crown, the rest of the crown and nape being the same colour as the bacis

but much streaked with pale grey.

(2) The silvery grey on the wings and tail is not so pronounced.

(3) The sides of the head and neck are largely grey instead of white.

(4) The pure white on the underparts is confined to the chin and throat ;

the breast is sullied with grey and merges into the creamy-rufous of the

abdomen and flanks which is very different to the rich rufous of these parts

in the Gj; undertail coverts paler and more fulvous than in the ¢. ;

The adult 9 differs from the adult Q of the typical race as follows:

(1) In the purer more silvery grey (as opposed to more brownish grey)

' of the upper parts,

(2) In the much paler colour of the underparts, pure white on the chin

and throat, white sullied with grey and rufous on the breast, creamy rufous on

the rest of the underparts and flanks, and pale rufous on the undertail coverts.

—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Affects teak and

other forest plantations, and open scrub and secondary jungle.

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin). The Brahminy Myna.

Specimens collected: 342 ¢, 343 CG 15-12-39 Satntr (2,500); 449 ¢ 26-12-30

Dodballaptr (2,900’). Biligivirangan Hills: M27(G) SG 12-7-34 (3,000—Uda-

hatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Bedaguli, Bandipur, Gundlupet, Palahally and _ other

Cauvery islets, Seringapatam, Namadachilumé, Hiriyur, Sakléshpur, Settihalli,

Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements ;

Bill Wing Tail

4606 20-22 104-112 63-74.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common and abundant. Restricted to deciduous biotope. It

affects scrub and secondary jungle in the neighbourhood of human habitations.

Major Phythian-Adams bas a clutch of 5 eggs taken at Gutndlipet, 4-7-1935.

Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linn.) The Common Myna.

Specimen collected: 466 @Q 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900).

Noted: Bandiptir, Namadachilumé, Marilkanivé, Settihalli, Mysore City,

Bangalore, Kolar Gold Fields, and elsewhere.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

IQ broken 144 86 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common and everywhere more or less commensal on Man. _ It

was, however, not met with in evergreen biotope, nor at elevations above ca.

3,500. At Ootacamund in the Nilgiris (7,500’), the Jungle Myna seemed to

have displaced this species completely (March 1940).

ALthiopsar fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes). The Southern Jungle Myna.

Specimens collected: 775 3, 776 2 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’). Biligirirangan

Hills: M20(H) 9 4-3-34 (4,000—Dodsampagi); M65(H) ¢ 26-4-34 (4,000—

Bellaji); M39(G) ¢ 16-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti, E, base).

Elsewhere noted: Bedagtli, Bandiptr, Namadachilumé, Sakléshpur.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 63 6h 26-28 126-134 72.5-79 mm.

24, KORO) 25-27 120.5-130.5 73-78 mm.—H. W.]|

Resident. Common but inexplicably patchy. Its distribution is virtually

restricted to deciduous biotope—secondary jungle—but it is sporadically met

with in the intermediate zone also. Frequently found in association with

Sturnia, Temenuchus and Acridotheres tristis.

[Sturnopastor contra The Pied Myna.

I have a doubtful and unconfirmed sight record from Bandipiir, 15-11-39].

Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linn.). The Baya or Common Weaver Bird.

No specimens.

Noted: Bandipur (old nest colonies only), Seringapatam, Palahally and other

Cauvery islets (old nests only), Marikanivé (old nests; no Bayas), Kolar Gold

Fields (old nest colony at Bétmangala Tank; no Bayas!).

Confined to deciduous biotope; occasionally met with in the dry-inter belt.

A marked local migrant, moving about the country a great deal with the

seasons. The majority of the disused nests were made of paddy leaf. This

crop is grown in many localities during the S.-W. Monsoon only, thus it would

seem that the seasonal movements of this species are controlled in a large

measure by the incidence of paddy cultivation.

Ploceus manyar [flaviceps Lesson]. The Striated Weaver Bird.

Not met with by the Survey. Major Phythian-Adams has 2 clutches of

3 eggs each taken near Gundltpet, 11-9-1927 from nests built in reeds.

Munia malacca (Linn.) The Black-headed Munia.

No. specimens.

Noted: Seringapatam.

Small numbers of this Munia were observed on the tall grass and vegetation

covered islets in the Cauvery River near Palahally island—the newly established

Bird Sanctuary. The birds kept largely to swampy patches with Polygonon,

_ and Pandanus thickets ete.

On 27 November a pair was nest-building in a tussock of tall grass at the

river’s edge.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 581

Uroloncha striata striata (Linn.) The White-backed Munia.

Specimens collected: 292-296 GQ@d¢QG 8-12-39 Seringapatam (2,000) ;

476 0? juv. 478 @ 27-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’). Biligirirangan Hills : M1g9(G)

3 19-9-34 (2,000—Satyamangala) ; M24(G) ¢ 12-7-34 (3,000-—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Shimsha, Sivasamudram, Settihalli.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BOG 12.5-13 51.5-54 38-39 mm.

BO’ 13 53-5°54 37-39 mm.

2 juvs == 53754°5 36-37 mm.

The juveniles are very similar to the adult though the shaft streaks are

less defined on the upper plumage. The black of the throat and breast are

duller, and the feathers of the breast have narrow brown edges which give a

slightly squamated appearance.—H. W. |]

Resident. Not uncommon. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Flocks in

scrub and lightly wooded country about cultivation.

Breeding was evidenily in progress in December. Most of the adult specimens

had mature. gonads: testes 5X4 to 6X5 mm.; largest ovarian follicle (in 295)

7 mm. in diameter (soft egg). The flocks at this period contained many

juveniles lately out of nest.

Uroloncha kelaarti jerdoni (Hume). The Rufous-bellied Munia.

Specimen collected: Biligirivangan Hills: M71(H) @ 16-5-34 (4,000—Bellaji).

Elsewhere not noted.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

a © mm.—H. W.}

U3s5 ' 55

Not. met with by the Survey.

Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.) The White-throated Munia.

Specimens collected: 186 @ 28-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 428 d 23-12-39

Maklidrig (2,800); 437 d 24-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’); 566 0? juv., 567 <6,

568 o? juv. 8-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Karapur, Shimsha, Sivasamiidram, Kolar Gold

Fields.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

SOG 9 = TI-11.5 54-50 44-5-45-5 Mm.

2 juvs. ar 55-50-5 41-44°mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Affects scrub and

light secondary jungle in the neighbourhood of cultivation and human habitations.

Two of the specimens Had gonads enlarged to breeding size. No. 186

{28 November; testes 6X4 mm.) moreover, was one of a pair working on a

half-built nest ca. 6 ft. up in an Acacia tree in open scrub country. Two of the

specimens of 8 January were juveniles lately out of nest.

Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson) The Spotted Munia.

Specimens collected: 87 ¢ 17-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’); 312 Q 10-12-39 Mandya

(2,200). Biligirirangan Hills: M42(G) 0? 17-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Antarsanté, Karaptr, Seringapatam, Palahally Island

{Cauvery), Hiriyur.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

a) TAS 57 39 mm.

Tn) 13 55 34-5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Found in light secondary

jungle with patches of grassland and cultivation.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,- Vol. XLIII

The specimens of November-December were both in the spotted breeding

plumage. Testes 7X5 mm; ovary granular and mature.

Amandava amandava amandava (Linn.) “The Indian Red Munia.

Specimens collected: 415 G 22-12-39, 424 dG 23-12-39 Maklidrag (2,800’) ;

458 ¢ 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’); 601 ¢G 11-1-40 Hiriyir (2,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Mandya, Marikanivé.

[Measurements : |

Bill Wing Tail

4oaco IO-11 48.5-49 35-38 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. In flocks,

among reeds and tall grass by jheels, swamps and sometimes streams.

Three of the specimens (December-January) had testes enlarged to breeding

size or almost (8X4, 7X4, 5X4 mm.).. They were all in the crimson breeding

plumage. On 7 January (Marikanivé) a ¢ was observed carrying floss from a

bulrush head for its nest.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth). The Common Indian Rose-Finch.

Specimens collected: 514 ¢ 31-12-39, 522 ¢ 2-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000’) ;

699 ¢G 21I-I-40, 731 ¢G, 732 SG 24-1-4o Bababtdan Hills (4,000-4,500—Kemman-

gundi). Biligirirangan Hills: M1s5(H) [2], M46(H) ¢ 8-4-34 (5,000—Honna-

metti).

[ Measurements :

—

Bill Wing fail

PC} 14.5-15 $4-80.5 7-59.5 mm.

These birds agree with those coilected in the Eastern Ghats and Travancore-

Cochin Surveys in their rich colouration above and below and the much greater

extent of colour on the lower parts which covers the vent and lower tail

coverts; and they are in marked contrast to the paler, less generally red

typical race procured by the Central India Survey. Fortunately in make of

skin and date of collecting the two forms are perfect for comparison.—H. W. |

Winter visitor. Not common. Affects Lantana scrub and bushes on_ the

edge of coffee plantations and outskirts of sholas, feeding on a large variety

of seeds and berries.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Specimens collected: 185 ¢ 28-11-39, 278 CO 5-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’) ;

431 G 24-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’). Biligirirangan Hills: Ms5o0(G) 0? 18-7-34

(3,000 —Udahatti, Eastern base).

Elsewhere noted: Seringapatam, Namadachilumé, Marikanivé, Sakléshpur,

Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4dccd 14.5-15-5 81-83.5 49-51.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident but marked local migrant. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Found

in light secondary jungle and about cultivation and outlying human habitations.

Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby. The Indian House-Sparrow.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: M7o-71(G) GS 21-7-34 (3,000°

—Udahatti, Eastern base).

Noted: Bandiptir, Mysore, Bangalore, Chamundi Hill, Devarbetta Hiil,.

Satnir, Haleébid, Kolar Gold Fields and elsewhere. Biligirirangans: Poonjur,

Hasantr (not on or about Honnametti or Attikan Estate bungalows or cocly

lines—4,000’-5,000’).

Resident. Ubiquitous in the ‘low’ or plateau country; absent in the hills

above about 3,500’. A confirmed commensal of Man and invariably present

about towns, villages and outlying homesteads.

On 12 January sparrows were observed nesting freely within the magni-

ficent old temples at Halébid and bestrewing the floor with their droppings

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 583

and rubbish. Major Phythian-Adams has several clutches (mostly of 3 eggs)

Emberiza buchanani Blyth. The Grey-necked Bunting.

Specimens collected: 569-572 Q@d Qo 8-1-40, 595 Q 10-1-40 Marikaniva

(2,500’).

Elsewhere not noted.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 ONG) 14-15 85-88. 5 69.5-71-5 mm.

3) 2 @ 14.5-15 81.5-86 67-72 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Fairly common about Marikanivé. Small flocks in open,

stony, sparse scrub country with babool trees—Rock Bush-Quail facies. Its

flight is very like a pipit’s, but while alighting the white outer tail feathers

are more conspicuous.

Emberiza bruniceps Brandt. The Red-headed Bunting.

Specimens collected: 597-600 9990 11-1-40 Hiriytr (2,000’).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill - Wing Tail *

x Ch 16 86.5 69 mm,

3 99 15.5-16 82.5-85 65-67 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. The above was the first and only meeting with this bunting

in Mysore State. Flocks of some hundreds were observed feeding on the

ground among stony castor fields (in deciduous biotope). When settled on the

surrounding babool trees the birds looked like a profusion of yellow blossoms.

Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. The Black-headed Bunting.

No specimens. At least one example was definitely identified amongst the

fiocks of bruniceps at Hiriyur, 11-1-40.

Martula urbica urbica (Linn.) The House-Martin.

Not met with by the Survey. Apparently a rare and sporadic winter visitor

to south-western India. There is a specimen from Shimoga in the Hume Col-

lection dated 27-4-1875. The report of a colony nesting under a large over-

hanging rock in the bed of the Tunga River in Shimoga Dist., quoted by Stuart

Baker (iii, 227) from N. & E., ii, 177 is possibly mistaken. At any rate there

is no evidence now available in support of it.

Riparia rupestris (Scopoli). The Crag Martin.

Specimens collected: 680 0?, 681 Q 20-1-40, 719 Q, 720 0? 23-1-40 Baba-

budan Hills (5,000-—Kemmangiundi); 870 ¢ 12-2-40 Jog (2,000’).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

it 6h TES 129 53 mm. J

2 O09 (1.5-12 127.5-128.5 54-56. mm.—H. W.]

Presumably a winter visitor. At Kemmangtndi 30 or more of these birds

were observed hawking insects in company with R. concolor above a grass

covered hilltop with outcrops of sheet rock. At Jog, small numbers were

seen about and above a forest road clearing. Both the specimens of 23 January

were very fat.

Its larger size, paler underparts and white-spotted rectrices, conspicuous

when the bird wheels in overhead flight, help to differentiate it on the wing

from the Dusky Crag Martin.

Riparia concolor (Sykes). The Dusky Crag Martin.

Specimens collected: 377 G 19-12-39 Nandidrig (4,000). Biligirirangan

Hills: 52 Q 11-11-39 (5,000—above Dodsampagi).

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Elsewhere noted: Bababtidan Hills (4,000’-5,000—Kemmangindi). It was

certainly present in other localities also, but [ seem to have no specific notes.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

i oh 9-5 110 46.5 mm.

I Q 10.5 110 46 mm.—H. W.|

Resident. Patchily distributed and not common. Small numbers usually

observed hawking insects above grassy hilltops with sheet rock and precipices.

Major Phythian-Adams has a c/2 taken at Giundlipet, 21-7-1927.

Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli. The Eastern Swallow.

Specimens collected : 303-306 Q ddd 9-12-39 SLRS (2,000’) ; 441 SG 24-12-39

Dodballaptr (2,900,).

Elsewhere noted: Antarsanté, Begtr, Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wirg Central tail Outer tail

25 G1@ jad. Tle 5ak2 112.5-116.5 27.5-41 83 mm.

1 2 ead: II 110 39 73 mm.

26d juv. TI-11.5 108-110 39-5-43°5 53-61 mm. _

—H. W.}

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Usually seen hawking insects on river

banks and about tanks and irrigation reservoirs.

Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. The Wire-tailed Swallow.

No specimens.

Noted: Gundlapet, Hangala (near Bandiptir), Palahally island (Cauvery

River), Seringapatam, Marikanivé (Vanivilas Sagar); Mysore (Krishnarajsagar),

Kolar Gold Fields.

Resident. Met with in small numbers by tanks and rivers in deciduous

biotope.

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. The Red-rumped Swallow.

Specimens collected: 378 @Q 19-12-39 Nandidrig (4,000’); 7oo dG 21-I-40

Bababidan Hills (4,500—Kemmangindi); Biligirirangan Hills: 53 S 11-11-39

(5,000—Dodsampagi) M6(G) 0? 24-7-34; M83(G) ¢ 8-8-34 (3,o00"—Udahatti,

E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Chamundi Hill (Mysore City environs); Settihalli,

Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Central tail Outer tail

I dad. 10 115 . 44 75-5 mm.

I 9 ad. 10 = ABBR 69 mm.

BASE iNeNe — 108.5-116 S539 59-71 mm.

—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Less attached to the neighbourhood of water than the

two preceding species. Usually seen hawking winged insects over grassy hilltops

and forest clearings, and often in association with Crag Martins and Swifts,

MotaciJla alba dukhunensis Sykes. The White Wagtail.

Specimens collected: 222 d, 223 @ 1-12-39 Antarsanté (bank of Kabani

River near Begur); 492 Q 28-12-39 Dodballapat (2,900’).

Elsewhere noted: Mysore City environs (Brindavan’ Gardens); Agtimbé.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

are! 16 gI 88 mm.

20° 16-16.5 85.5-86 82-86 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Fairly common. By rivers, streams and tanks, and on

flooded lawns etc.

—

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 585

Motacilla alba personata Gould. The Masked Wagtail.

No specimens.

Noted: Mysore City environs (on flooded lawns in Brindavan Gardens, and

elsewhere), Kolar town.

Winter visitor. Apparently uncommon.

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Pied Wagtail.

Specimens collected: 130 ¢, 131 Q 21-11-39 Gudalir Ghat (near Kakenhalla

3,000’) ; 328 df 13-12-39 Shimsha (2,500); 469 ¢, 480 Q 27-12-39, 490 G 28-12-39

Dodballaptr (2,900’).

Elsewhere noted: Seringapatam, Palahally and other islets in Cauvery River,

Marikanivé (Vanivilas Sagar), Kolar Gold Fields.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

8G 20-20.5 100-104 g9-106.5 mm.

ZB QO 18.5-19 95-98 g9-10l mm.

it Ge FROIN — 100 98.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Not common, but frequent at smooth running rocky streams,

tanks, etc. From the state of their gonads (testes 10X6 mm.; ovary granular)

the specimens of 27 December (not a pair!) appeared to be breeding or about

to breed. Courtship was observed in a pair on g January.

Motacilla cinerea caspica S. G. Gmelin. The Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Specimens collected: 126 ¢, 127 Q 20-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300’); Biligivirangan

Hills 0? 19-12-32, M66(H) Q 26-4-34, M1(G) 9-10-34 (4,000'5,000—Honna-

metti); M28(G) ¢ 19-10-34 (4,000 —Bellaji).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

316. G 10-17 83.5-85 92-95 mm.

ay OY) 16 80.5-82 89.5-92 mm.—H. W.|]

Winter visitor. Common. Earliest date g October; latest 26 April. Met

with singly on paths through coffee and cardamom plantations, and at forest

streams and trickles. By the beginning of March (Biligirirangans) some indi-

viduals had already acquired summer plumage.

Motacilia flaya beema (Sykes). The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail.

Specimens collected: [585 @], 586 [¢] 9-1-40 Hiriytr (2,500’).

[Measurements: 1 6 Bill 16, Wing 81, Tail 70 mm.]

Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. The Grey-headed Wagtail.

Specimens collected: 310 ¢ 10-12-39 Mandya (2,200); [400 Q 20-12-39

Dodballaptr (2,900’)|]; 824 G 4-2-40 Agumbé (2,500’).

[Measurements: 2 @ 6 Bill 16-16.5, Wing 84-84.5, Tail 72.5-73.5 mm.

Nos. 400 and 585 are females and the race cannot be stated with certainty.

—H. W.]

Elsewhere noted (subspecies?) : Krishnarajsagar Dam and Brindavan Gardens

(Mysore City environs), Kolar Gold Fields.

Winter visitor. Not common. Met with on flooded lawns, on the wet

grassy margins of tanks, squelchy paddy stubble etc.

Dendronanthus indicus (Gmelin). The Forest Wagtail.

Specimens collected : 242 3 2-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500); 246 Q 3-12-39

Antarsant@ (2,500’); 628 0? 14-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’). Biligirirangan Hills :

M18(G) 92 19-9-34 (2,000’—Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Valley (2,500—Blababudans).

[| Measurements :

pill Wing Tail

it 18 8o 69 mm.

2 99 10 7/ 80-82 68.5-69.5 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Earliest. date 19 September. Usually met with singly on

the ground in mixed bamboo forest, and in coffee and cardamom plantations.

586 JOURNAL, sBOMBAY, NAG UTCATE SEIUSiiesS OOH V0) sexe oie

Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linn.). The Tree-Pipit.

Specimens collected: 347. ¢ 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500); 430 ¢ 24-12-39, 453 @.

454. Q 26-12-39, 470 Q 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’).

Sight records not subspecific.

-{ Measurements :

Bill Wing Mail

26¢ 15 87.5-90 64 mm.

3 Se T4-15 85-87 61-62 mm.

It is ‘very difficult to be sure of the racial identity of Tree-Pipits, but on

the whole—especially judging by the beaks—it seems safest to consider these

the typical race.—H. W.

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Met with in loose flocks feeding on the

ground in chili and tooar fields.

Anthus hodgsoni ssp.? The Indian Tree-Pipit.

Specimens collected: 686 9 20-1-40 Bababidan Hills (4,500—Kemman-

gundi); Biligirirangan Hills: Q17-12-32, Q 21-12-32, Q 28-12-32, Q 29-12-32,

Mr7(G) 0? 19-9-34 (5, ooo —Honnametti).

Sight records omitted.

[| Measurements :

bill Wing Tail

Or? 14-15.5 82.5-84 60.5-62 mm.

These birds are all rather intermediate in character though they seem, if

anything, rather nearer to A. h. berezowskiii—H. W.]

Winter visitor. Earliest date 19 September. Met with in the hills above

a. 3,500 in loose parties of 5 or 6, feeding on the ground in coffee and cardamom

plantations. Unlike A. t. trivialis I do not seem to have come across it out-

side evergreen biotope or in the ‘plains’ or plateau country of the State.

Anthus similis similis Jerdon. The Rufous Rock-Pipit.

Specimens collected: 379 G 19-12-39 Nandidrtg (4,000’). Biligirirangan

Hills: 45 3S 11-11-39 (5, mea —athone Dodsampagi) ; 58 d 11-11-39, 63 o? 12-11-39

(5,500—Honnametti); Mioo(H) 2 24-5-34 (4,000 ‘—Edbtthi).

Elsewhere noted: Bababuadan Hills 5,000’ (above Kemmangiindi).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BGS 19-21 94-95-5 75-5-79 mm.

I juv. — gI 75 m eel W. |]

Resident. Not common, but frequent.- Single birds or scattered pairs

observed on grassy hilltops with rocky outcrops—not below ca. 3,500 elevation *

Anthus rufulus rufulus Vieillot. The Indian Pipit.

Specimens collected: rst 6G, 152 CS 23-11+39 Bandiptr (3,300); 190 ¢

28-11-39, 203 OG 30-11-39, 230 Q 1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500°); 259 6 4-12-39

Karaptr (2,500’); 483 @ 28-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900); 650 3, 651 CG 16-1-40

Sakléshptir (3,000’); 702 <, 21-1-40, 722 CS 23-1-40 Bababidan Hills (4,500’-

5,000—Kemmangindi). Biligivirangan Hills: Mito (H) 0? 8-5-34, M28 (H)

3, M37(H) Bo 11-5-34 (5,000—Honnametti) ; M68-69(H) SQ 15-543- (4,000 —

Shenemenhalla); M80(H) CO 18-5-34 (4,000’—Bellaji); Mrro(H) § 24-5-34,

M117- Edbtthi).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

5 dd 15.5-17.5 80.5-88.5 56-62 mm.

4°99 15-17 78.5-82 54-57 mm.

I have already been into the question of the races of this species at some

length in the Travancore Survey (].B.N.H.S., xxxviii, pp. 765-766). The Mysore

series, though variable and containing one or two dark birds, may certainly be

taken as A. 7. rufulus. The Biligirirangan birds are so worn that it is unsafe

to be positive about their race: they do however seem rather dark, and fresh

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

00)

“I

specimens might show that they would better be grouped with malayensis.

—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Affects open grass and stony country, hill as well as

plain, and fallow cultivation.

A number of males from about the end of December onward showed marked

development in their testes—largest 8X6 mm. (16 January). There are, un-

fortunately, no particulars of the gonads of the Biligiri specimens all collected

an May.

Anthas campestris griseus Nicoll. “Phe Eastern Tawny Pipit.

Specimens collected: 502 Q 29-12-39 Thondébhavi (2,500’).

[ Measurements: 1 Q Bill 17, Wing 88, Tail 68 mm.—H. W.]

Winter visitor. A loose party was met with in open, sparsely scrubbed

stony country. :

From the body cavity (probably ruptured intestine) of the specimen were

removed some cestode worms [Anonchotaenia? globata (Linst., 1879)], and from

the eyesocket (behind eyeball!) a nematode Oxyspirura sp. In spite of these

the bird appeared in good condition.

Anthus thermophilus Jerdon. Blyth’s Pipit.

Specimens collected: 258 Q 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500’); 271 0? 5-12-39 Antar-

‘santé (2,500); 358 2, 359 @ 16-12-39 Satnur (2,500).

[MeasSurements: 3 @Q Bill 16.5-17, Wing 89.5-91.5, Tail 63.5-69 mm.

I do not think the idea that this is a race of campestris can be maintained

any longer.—H. W.|

Winter visitor. Loose flocks in dry cultivation and fallow land.

Calandrella brachydactyla (or acutirostris ?) Short-toed Lark.

No specimens.

A flock of about 30 was observed in open dry cultivation and fallow land

about Hangala village (2,500—below Bandipur) 24-11-39.

Mirafra erythroptera erythroptera Jcrdon. The Red-winged Bush-Lark.

Specimen collected: 594 ¢ 10-1-4o Marikanivé (2,500’).

Sight records not reliable specifically, but besides the localities represented

“by specimens, Mirafra larks were observed at Bandipur and in Kolar Gold Fields.

Resident. Not common. The specimen was the only one seen in this

locality :* it was in dry, stony, sparsely-scrubbed laterite country—Rock Bush-

Quail facies. Testes 5x4 mm.

Mirafra javanica cantillans Blyth. The Singing Bush-Lark.

No specimen procured by the Survey.

I include this in the Mysore list on the authority of Major Phythian-Adams

who -collected a clutch of 3 eggs near Seringapatam on 25-4-1931 and_ shot®

one of the owners. I have not seen the specimen.

Miraira affinis affinis Jerdon. The ‘Madras Bush-Lark.

Specimens collected: 266 Q 4-12-39 Karaptr (2,500); 320 [dG] 13-12-39

Satntr (2,500’); 409 Q 21-12-39 Maklidrag (2,800); 444 ¢ 24-12-39, 477 [do]

27-12-39 Dodballaptr (2,900’); 536 [¢] 4-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,600’); Bili-

girirangan Hills: M73(G) SG 22-7-34, Mu1oo(G) SG 27-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti,

Eastern base).

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

5 iGyG 15.5-17 84-88 45-49 mm.

ee) 16 81.5 44. mm.

I Q juv. — 76 39.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Not common but frequent, in small numbers, in open stony

sparsely scrubbed country. Unfortunately 1 have no special notes concerning

its local distribution, but it is perhaps not without some _ significance that

the only example of erythroptera procured in Mysore was on laterite soil, whereas

all the specimens of affinis were on the normal brownish soil. This point

deserves further observation and scrutiny in the field.

Embedded in the thigh muscles of No. 444 was found a larva of an Acan-

thocephalan worm (?Centrorhynchus sp.).

The testes of this specimen (24 December) measured 5x4 mm.

Specimens collected: 253-257 dood Q 4-12-39 Karaptr (2,500); 679 ¢

20-1-40 Bababtdan Hills (5,000——above Kemmangundi); 737 ¢ 26-1-40 Setti-

halli (2,500’). Biligirirangan Hills: Q 21-12-32, Mi1(H) S 8-5-34 (5,000 —

Honnametti); M1r12(H) 0? juv. 24-5-34 (4,000—Edbtthi); M4(G) ¢ 10-10-34,

31-33 DLS 9-11-39, 42-44 2 Y.Q 10-11-39 (4,000’—Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted: Agtumbé (on denuded grassy patch—old village site ;

deciduous facies of evergreen biotope).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

T2I@uG) 16-18 92-105 49-57-5 mm.

5 29 16-17 QI-94 46-52 mm.

I 0? juv. — 90.5 48.5 mm.—H. W.|

Resident. Fairly common. Met with in small parties and loose scattered

flocks of up to 30 birds or so, on grass-covered hill slopes with outcrops of

sheet rock. Also in the low country about cultivation in forest clearings. Its.

call notes (song) are rather like those of Galerida cristata. Almost all the

Survey specimens had enlarged gonads (testes 4X3 to 6X4 mm.; ovaries granu-

lar) and the pair 255 and 256 (testes 7x5; largest ovum 3 mm.) were certainly

ready to breed (4 December).

Ammomanes phenicura phenicura (Franklin). The Indian Rufous-tailed Finch-

Lark. Prd

Specimens collected: 311 CG 10-12-39 Mandya (2,200’); 410 dG, 411 @

22-12-39 Maklidrig (2,800); 544 9, 545 6G 6-1-40 Marikanivé (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Be 16.5-18 106.5-111.5 60.5-63.5 mm.

2:19.19 15.5-10 102.5-103-5 58-59 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope, Typical habitat :

Open, stony, sparsely scrubbed country—almost semi desert—and about ploughed’

and fallow fields. :

At Mandya, originally country such as its typical habitat but now trans-

formed into a fertile cultivated tract due to irrigation by the Irwin Canal system,

this lark still persists as a relic of pre-canal days.

All the specimens showed gonadal maturity. In No. 545 (6 January) the

testes measured 7X4 mm., and the ovary of its pair (544) was conspicuously

granular. The birds were obviously preparing to breed.

Eremopteryx grisea grisea (Scopoli). The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.

Specimens collected: 224 G, 225 ‘Q 1-12-39 Antarsanté (EiXoroy)) Shines XP),

414 ¢ 22-12-39 Maklidrag (2,800’). pie! elt

“Elsewhere noted: Hangala village (near Bandipir), Begir, Hiriytr, Kolar

Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

266 11-12 77-77-59 422430 WOW

2 29 11-12 74.5-78.5 41-43.5 mm.—H, ||

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat :

Open, dry, sparsely scrubbed country and fallow land. Usually seen in pairs.

or small scattered parties.

Gonads of both the pairs were mature. Testes 6X4 and 5X4 mm.}; ovaries

granular with largest follicles over 2 mm.

Major Phythian-Adams has c/2 and c/2 taken near Gtndltpet, 11-9-27 and

3-3-28.

DHE BIRDS OR (UMYSORED 589

Zosterops paipebrosa occidentis Vicehurst. The White-eye.

Specimens collected : 531 dG 2-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000’); 845 Q 7-2-40

gumbé (2,500). Biligirirangan Hills: 27 Q, 28 GO 9-11-39, M113(H) CG

25-5-34 (4,000—Edbuthi); Q 30-12-32, Ms5o-51(H) QQ 12-5-34, M31(G)

29-9-34 (5,000—Honnametti) ; M88(H) 6 18-5-34, (4,000/—Anaribetta) ; Ma1(G)

G 27-10-34 (4,000’—Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted: Bandiptr, Sakléshpir, Bababidan Hills (Kemmangindi

4,500; Jagar Valley 2,500’), Jog.

[Nos. 845 and 531 certainly cannot be distinguished from Z. p. occidentis

either in colour or size. They measure

Bill Wing Tail

i @ 12.5 57 39 mm,

7 € 13 55 37 mm.

The remainder of this series—ali from the Biligirirangans—can only be

considered as intermediates having the colour of occidentis on the upper parts

but being rather darker on the breast and flanks beolw, i.e. there resembling

nilgiriensis.

Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

560 13 56.5-57-5 39-41.5 mm.

6 OQ 12-13 55°57 37-41 mm.

All are at once distinguished by their larger beaks from sdlimalii of the

Eastern Ghats.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. In small parties and sometimes flocks of over 50

among the foliage and blossoms of trees in both evergreen and deciduous bio-

topes. Loranthus flowers and the white brush-like blooms of Eucalyptus

(robusta?), wherever growing, invariably attract the birds.

The 4 Survey specimens (9g Novem. to 7 Feb.) had fairly well developed

gonads. On the latter date, the largest ovum of No. 845 was over 4 mm, in

diameter and her distended oviduct indicated that eggs had been laid.

Cinnyris lotenia (Linn.) Loten’s Sunbird.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: 22 ¢G 8-11-39 (4,000—Bedagilli) ;

M87(H) o juv. 18-5-34 (4,000’—Anaribetta); M22(G) Q 17-10-34 (4,000°—

Edbuthi) ; M33(G) 3, M36(G) ¢ 22-9-34 (2,000-—Satyamangala).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BCG aol 27-29 56-60.5 36-40 mm.

Not uncommon in wooded country, principally in the intermediate zone,

but completely replaced by C. minima above ca. 4,000’ elevation.

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Lath.). The Indian Purple Sunbird.

Specimens collected: 86 ¢ 17-11-39, 95 d juv. 18-11-39 Bandipur (3,300°) ;

426 6 23-12-39 Maklidrig (2,8c0’); 774 dG 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500). Biligivi-

rangan Hills: M68(G) CG 21-7-34, M7s5(G) o 22-7-34 (3,000° Udahatti,

Eastern base).

Elsewhere noted: Ndmadachilumé, Marikanivé, Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

S@uGr vad 20-22 55-57-59 33-35 mm.

IO juv. = 56.5 33 mm.

The juvenile has the upper parts darker than the few other juveniles I

have seen of the typical race.—H. W soll

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope where it affects second-

ary jungle, wooded cultivated country, gardens and compounds.

No. 774 (30 January) in full breeding dress, had testes 6X4 mm.

590. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Cinnyris minima Sykes. The Small Sunbird.

Specimens collected: 740 ¢ 26-1-40 Settihalli (2,500); Biligirirangan Hills : -

51 d 11-11-39, Ms0(H) ¢ 10-4-34 (4-4,500-—Dodsampagi); 56-d, 57 Q 11-11-39

(5,000-5,500/—Honnametti) ; M86(H) 0? juv. 18-5-34 (4,000 Anaribetta) and

3 others (M) without particulars (2 juveniles, 1 adult).

Elsewhere noted: Sakléshpur, Bababidan Hills (Kemmangundi 4,500 ; Jagar

valley 2,500’), Agumbé, Jog. :

| Measurements :

; Bill : Wing Tail

53a 14.5-17 48-49.5 27.5-31 mm.

i 14.5 46 26

3.66 juv. — 46.5-49 26 mm.—H.W. |

Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope and found up to the

highest sholas.

Cinnyris zeylonica (Linn). The Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Specimens collected: 141 @ 22-11-39 Bandipur (Hangala ca. 2,800’); 219 Q

1-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 416 ¢ 22-12-39 Maklidrig (2,800’).

Elsewhere noted: Sakléshptr (in deciduous facies).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing * Tail

PANS Tike) 58 35-36.5 mm.

1 Q 18 50 35 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope, mostly on the

plateau. Affects scrub and light secondary jungle, also dry cultivated country

with tamarind and babool trees, and cactus hedges and brakes.

The testes of both the @ specimens were enlarged to 5X3 and 3X2 mm.

respectively.

Arachnothera !ongirostra longirostra | (Latham). The Little Spider Hunter.

Specimens collected : 655 dG 17-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’) ; 742 ¢, 743 Q 26-1-40

Settihalli (2,500’).

Klsewhere not noted.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

ZENG 34-37 60.5-07.5 40.5-41.5 mm. .

Resident. Confined to evergreen biotope. Partial to the moist-inter belt.

Blossoming Loranthus clumps within its usual habitat are regularly visited for

the nectar, and I have repeatedly found pollen adhering to the bills of specimens.

The gonads of all the three specimens were mature and the birds were

obviously ready to breed shortly (testes 6X5 and 7X4 mm.; ovary conspicuously

granular).

Diceum concolor concolor Jerdon. The Nilgiri Flowerpecker.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: Q 22-12-32 (4,000-Edbuthi) ;

M2(G) n? 9-10-34, M6-7(H) SQ 7-5-34 (5,000°-—Honnametti).

Not mét with by the Survey.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Id 13 52 — mm.

2 92 13-13-5 49-51.5 25 mm.—H. W.]

Possibly overlooked in the other Mysore hills where, as in the Biligiris, it

doubtless occurs. between 4,000’ and 5,000’ elevation.

Diceum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham). Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

Antarsanté (2,500’); 521 Gg 1-1-40 Namadachilumé (3,000’); Biligirivangan Hills :

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 597

M74(G) ¢ 22-7-34, M78(G) 2 23-7-34 (3,000o/—Udahatti, Eastern (deciduous)

base).

Islsewhere noted: Shimsha, Sivasamtdram, Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

BOG II-12.5 50-52 24-27 mm.

29° 12 48-50 23-25 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope, chiefly in the low country (plateau).

It affects secondary jungle, forest plantations and groves of trees and is narrowly

symbiotic with the tree-parasites Loranthus and Viscum of which it jis un-

doubtedly the most important disseminator.

Piprisoma agile agile (Tickell). The Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

Specimen collected: 773 ¢ 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

-Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements: 1 ¢ Bill 10, Wing 65, Tail 33 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Rare. Settihalli lies in the intermediate zone.

This Flowerpecker also feeds very extensively on Loranthus and Viscum:

berries and is largely responsible for the dissemination of their seeds.

Pitta brachyura (Linn.). The Indian Pitta.

Specimens collected: 332 CG 13-12-39 Shimsha (2,500’); 618 6, 619 C.

14-1-40, 636 ¢ 15-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Namadachilumé, Blandipur, Marikanive.

[Measurements: 4 ¢d¢ Bill 22-25.5, Wing 106-110, Tail 37-40 mm.—H. W. }

Status uncertain. Not uncommon in deciduous biotope in the low or plateau

country. Affects scrub and secondary jungle and is fond of clearings overgrown

with Lantana thickets.

Picus xanthopygeus (Gray). The Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

Specimens collected: 103 ¢ 18-11-39 Bandiptr (3,300’); Biligirirangan Hills -

M46(G) @Q 24-9-34 (2,000—Satyamangala); M62(G) d¢ 20-7-34, M34(G)

14-7-34 (3,000—Udahatti, Eastern base (deciduous) ).

Elsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

Za 32-34-5 123. 5-132 82-86 mm.

ay DO 31-31.5 125.5-126 78-81.5 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects secondary

jungle and forest plantations.

Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster Jerdon. The Small Indian Yellow-naped Wood-

pecker.

Specimens collected: 239 ¢, 240 Q, 2-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500’) ;

277 Q 5-12-39 Antarsanté (2,500’); 616 ¢ 13-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000).

{Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2G GO! 27.5-28 124-127 81-83 mm.

2, O® 26-27.5 125-128 83-84 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Found principally in the intermediate zone from fringe to fringe,

usually in pairs. Preferential habitat : Teal and bamboo forest. ms

Stomachs of 2 specimens contained larvae of Hapalia machaeralis (Pyralidae)

and larvae, pupae and adults of Cremastogaster ants (Formicidae). The former

is an important defoliator of Teak (Tectona grandis) and causes enormous damage

in teak plantations.

The gonads of all except No. 239 were mature, and the birds were evidently

about to breed (testes 117; largest ova 2 mm.).

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCUIING, Wall, XLT

_ Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham). The Southern Yellow-fronted

Pied Woodpecker. ae a

Specimens | collected: 516 ¢, 517 Q 1-1-40, 524 Q 2-1-40 Namadachilumé-

{3,000'); Biligivirangan Hills: Q 29-12-32, 9 31-12-32 (4,000—Dodsampagi) ;

M14(G) 2 9-7-34, M48(G) 2 18-7-34, also 1°Q juv. (3,000—Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted: Bandipur.

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

146 PASTS 101 58 mm.

6 Q 2 21-23.5 98. 5-103 54-61.5 mm.

1 2 juve aa 99 58 mm.—H. W.]

_ Resident. Not uncommon. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects secondary

jungle entering the fringe of the dry-inter belt. Met with singly or in pairs,

frequently as a component of the mixed hunting parties of insectivorous birds.

Gonads of the pair of 1 January were maturing: testes 5x3 mm.; ovary

granular.

Dryobates hardwickii hardwickii (Jerdon). The South Indian Pigmy Woodpecker.

_ Specimens collected: 77 Q 15-11-39; 88 ¢ 17-11-39 Bandipur (3,300); 204 9

30-11-39 Antarsanté (2,500); 351 Q 15-12-39 Devarbetta Hills (3,200’). Bili-

guivangan Hills: [3] 31-12-32 (4,000—Dodsampagi); Ms3(H) So 13-4-34

(4,000/—Bellaji); M16(G) 2 19-9-34 (2,0007—Satyamangala) ; M49(G) 9 18-7-34,

M64(G) ¢ 20-7-34 (3,000-—Udahatti, E. base).

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4d¢ 14.5-15 ail 33-38 mm.

5 ee 14-15.5 75-79 33-5-37-5 mm.

These birds are very distinct from the good specimens of D. h. cinereigula

obtained by the Travancore Survey.—H. W.]

Resident. Not uncommon. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects second-

ary and thin tree and bush jungle. Usually pairs in the mixed hunting parties. |

Micropternus brachyurus jerdoni (Malherbe). The Rufous Woodpecker.

28-11-39, 248 ¢ 3-12-39 Antarsanté (Manchgowdanhalli 2,500’); 784-786 9d 9

31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Bedagili (Biligiris), Maddir (near Gundlipet).

[| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 OS 27-30 124-134 61-65 mm.

429 2'7.5-30 125-127.5 60-64.5 mm.

These birds all exhibit the slightly larger range of measurements which one

finds in this woodpecker in southern India north of the Nilgiris as explained

in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, p. 37) but I have so far

hardly considered it worthwhile separating South Indian birds into two races.

All birds have the chocolate and white squamation on the throat.—H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects secondary

jungle, especially bamboo facies, and teak and other forest plantations. Stomachs

contained 2 species of black ants (Cremastogaster) exclusively.

The gonads of specimens collected on 31 January (Settihalli) were maturing :

testes 4X3 mm.; ovaries granular.

Brachypternus benghalensis puncticollis (Malherbe). The Southern Golden-

backed Woodpecker.

Specimens collected: 123 @ 20-11-39 Bandipir (3,300'); 394 GO 20-12-39,

448 Q 26-12-39 Dodballapir (2,900); 613 Q 13-1-40 Sakléshpur (3,000’). — Bili-

(G) Q 23-7-34 (3,000 Udahatti, Eastern base).

Seminar noted: Antarsanté, Manchgowdanhalli, Maddtr (near Gutndlipet),

Settihalli.

THE: BIRDS OF MYSORE 593

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

466 39-41 143-146 84-88.5 mm.

3 LQ 37-39 140.5-145 83-88.5 mm.

The 2 Udahatti birds seem to show traces of intergrading with B. b. teh-

minae of Travancore.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope, occasionally entering the

dry-inter belt. Affects lightly wooded country, gardens and compounds, and

groves of trees about cultivation. The stomach of a specimen, in addition to

remains of large black ants (Camponotus) and grubs, contained 3 entire ‘kadavé’

berries (Stephegyne parvifolia?).

Dinopium javanense malabaricum Whistler. The Malabar Golden-backed

Three-toed Woodpecker.

Specimens collected: 614 ¢ 13-1-40 Sakléshptr (3,000’); 690 ¢ 20-1-40 Jagar

Valley (2,500-——Bababutdans).

Elsewhere noted: Settihalli.

{ Measurements :

( Bill Wing Tail

DOS Biles 141-142 92-95 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. More or less confined to the intermediate zone, usually

to the evergreen portions of it.

Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert). The Black-backed Woodpecker.

Specimens collected: 447 ¢ 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’); 508 Q 29-12-39

Thondebhavi (2,500’).

Iklsewhere not noted.

| Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

oS 54 151 so mim.

I Q 52-5 155 86 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Met with in dry open deciduous country about cultivation. Testes

of § 7X5 mm.; ovary of Q granular. z

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus chersonesus Kloss. Malherbe’s Golden-backed

‘Woodpecker.

Specimens collected: 763 ¢, 764 Q 29-1-40, 780 ¢G 30-1-40, 811 OG, 812 Q

2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’); 868 dG 12-2-40 Jog (2,000’). Biligirirangan Hills :

Mi4(H) 3, M30(H) Q 1-3-34 (4-5,000'—Honnametti) ; Mg1(H) Q 4-3-34 (4,000/—

Dodsampagi); M2o0(H) @ 9-5-34, Mro6(H) 2 23-5-34 (4,000/—Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted: Agumbé.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

5 3603 " AI.5-51-5 149.5-155-5 77-86 mm.

5 oe 40.5-48 151-155 80-85 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope, particularly to the

mMoist-inter belt.

Gonads of all the Survey specimens were quiescent.

- Hemicircus canente cordatus Jerdon. The Malabar Heart-spotted Woodpecker.

Specimens collected: 778 @ 30-1-40, 815 Q 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Valley (Bababidans, 2,500’); Jog.

{ Measurements :

Bill Wing ‘Tail

Tee) 22 94 32 mm.

Resident. Not uncommon. ‘Typical habitat: intermediate zone, particularly

the bamboo facies of this. Also partial to the neighbourhood of coffee planta-

tions up to about 3,500’ elevation.

Gonads of the specimens were maturing. Testes 4X3 mm.3 ovary granular.

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Macropicus javensis hodgsoni (Jerdon). The Malabar Great Black Woodpecker..

Specimens collected: 692 Q 20-1-40 Jagar Valley (2,500-—Bababtdan Hills) ;

746 Q 27-1-40 Settihalli (2,500’).

Elsewhere noted: Agimbé, Jog.

[ Measurements :

Bil! Wing Tail

139 58 27, 160 mm,

black feathers of the crown lightly tipped with crimson. I do not see why

this bird should not be treated as a race of Dryopicus martius of Europe.

—H. W.]

Resident. Not uncommon. Confined to evergreen biotope. Usually met.

with in separated pairs. Its favourite habitat coincides with that of Chrysoco-

laptes guttacristatus.

Besides the metallic monosyllabic chank, uttered every 2 or 3. seconds three

or four times in succession, it has a harsh short ‘laugh’ of 3 or 4 seconds”

duration rather like that of the Malabar Grey Hornbill.

No. 746 (27 February) with some ovarian follicles 3 mm. in diameter was

ready to breed. F. N. Betts informed me that he had found a nest with a

clutch of 4 eggs in the first week of January near Somwarpet in Coorg (a few

miles across the Mysore border from Sakléshpur or Periyapatna).

Vivia innominatus avunculorum (Hartert). The Nilgiri Speckled Piculet.

Specimen collected: 691 @ 20-1-40 Jagar Valley (2,500-—Bababudan Hills).

Elsewhere noted: Settihalli.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

I Q 1I 59 34 mm.

Here, as in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 297) I only

use the name avunculorum in deference to the emphatically stated opinion of

Hartert (Vog. Pal. Fauna, vol. iii, p. 937) who had presumably seen more

specimens than I have had access to. I cannot personally separate the ‘specimen

from malayorum,—H. W.]

Resident. Perhaps less common than at first sight it appears to be since

it may be quite easily overlooked. Confined to evergreen biotope. Its typical

habitat appears to be identical with those of Macropicus and Chrys. guttacristatus,.

but with a greater sprinkling of bamboo and smaller trees.

This little woodpecker is usually seen in pairs as members of the localised

hunting parties comprising Chaptia, Tephrodornis sylvicola, Machlolophus,

Hemicircus, Culicicapa, Phylloscopus occipitalis and trochiloides, Sitta frontalis

and other small insectivorous birds. This list ought to bring up a complete

picture of its typical habitat to one who is acquainted with the field ornithology

of the evergreen biotope of South-West India. The Piculets are easily .lost

amongst the more numerous Phylloscopi and are apt to be passed over in the

restless activity that prevails. Only a careful scrutiny of the individual members:

of such an association will show them up as rather more broad shouldered’

and of the typical ‘triangular’ woodpecker shape. In general appearance,

colouration and in some of its habits also, it resembles the Thick-billed Flower-

pecker (Piprisoma). Its behaviour and actions are likewise strongly reminiscent

of the Pigmy Woodpecker (Dryobates hardwickii).. It creeps round the thin

horizontal leafy end twigs of moderate sized trees in search of insects, fre-

quently clinging upside down and working round them in the style of a

nuthatch. I did not hear it uttering any note.

The specimen was breeding. It had a soft ovarian egg measuring 7 mm.

in diameter. The greatly distended oviduct indicated that eggs had been laid.

lynx torquilla torquilla Linn. The European Wryneck.

Specimen collected : 362 ¢ 17-12-39 Satnir (2,500’—near Palar River).

Elsewhere not noted.

{Measurements: 1 3 Bill 17, Wing 92, Tail.67.5 mm.

This is the most southerly record of the Wryneck in India since Jerdon’s.

old statement that he obtained it at Nellore and Madras.—H. W.]

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 59

Winter visitor. Rare. The specimen—the only met with in Mysore—was

shot in a scrub-covered ravine among low hummocks and cultivation. Deci-

duous biotope.

Thereiceryx zeylanicus subsp. The Large Green Barbet.

Specimen collected: Biligirirangans : M24(G) 20-9-34 (2,000—Satyamangala)..

Not met with elsewhere in Mysore territory.

- Thereiceryx viridis (Bodd.). The Small Green Barbet..

Specimens collected: 66 2 15-11-39, 92 Q 17-11-39 Bandiptir (3,300’) ; 486 ¢

@).5

487 2 28-12-39 Dodballaptir (2,900’); Biligirirangan Hills :- M2(H) Q 27-2-34

M8(H) ‘9, Mio(H) 3 23-2-34, Mo(H) od 8-5-34, M21(H) @ 9-5-34, M32(G)

Q 20-10-34 (4,500-5,000—Honnametti).

Elsewhere noted: Bedaguli (Biligiris), Karapur, Namadachilumé, Jagar

Valley (Bababidans), Agumbé.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

ZG) 24-26 103-110 65-608.5 mm.

7 O90 24-28.5 1OL.5-113 60-70 mm.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Affects both evergreen and deciduous biotopes, but is

most partial to the intermediate zone. It is invariably present on the various.

Fici in fruit. Does considerable damage to coffee ‘cherries’ and is for that

reason a minor pest in coffee plantations.

The specimens of 28 December had mature gonads and were evidently due

to breed shortly. Testes 7X4 mm.; ovary granular.

Xanthcleema hemacephala indica (Lath.). The Crimson-breasted Barbet.

Specimens collected: 156 G 24-11-39, i170 Q 25-11-39 Bandipur (3,300’) ;

442 Q 24-12-39, 473 SG 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900’); Biligirirangan Fills :

M33(G) S 14-7-34, M51(G) Q 18-7-34 (3,000-—Udahatti); Ms0(G) ¢ 25-9-34

(2,000 —Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted: Karaptr, Chamundi Hill (3,200—Mysore City environs),

Namadachilumé, Kolar Gold Fields.

[ Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 18-18.5 81.5-84 33-5-30 mim.

me) 2 > 2

23, NO, 18-19 82-83 4-36.

The 3 Biligiri birds are in moult so not measured.—H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects wooded

country and groves of trees about towns and villages, and cultivation. Invariably

present on the various figs in fruit. y

Gonads of the specimens of 24 and 27 December were mature (testes 10 6

mm.; ovary granular). On 3 December a bird was observed (Karapur) enter-

ing its nest hole in the snag of a branch ca. 15 ft. up.

Xantholoeema rubricapilla malabarica (Blyth). The Crimson-throated Barbet.

Specimens collected: 610 ¢ 13-1-40, 640 ¢ 15-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000’).

Elsewhere noted: Jagar Valley (Bababudan Hills 2,500’).

[Measurements: 2 ¢¢ Bill 16-17, Wing 82-83.5, Tail 36-36.5 mm.—H. Ww.

Resident. Confined to evergreen biotope where it seems to be the ecological

counterpart of the Crimson-breasted Barbet. Also occurs freely in the moist-

inter belt.

The specimens were either breeding or ready to breed: testes 10X8 and

7X5 respectively. No. 610 was one of a pair with a nest hole in a branch ca.

20 ft. up. The pair attacked and drove off a pair of Mahratta woodpeckers from

its proximity.

(To. be continued)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER

SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

A, St. J. MACDONALD.

Aras lelel

(Continued from Vol. xiii, No. 3 (1942), p. 361).

(With 1 plate and 18 text-figures).

TACKLE FOR MAHSEER.

I]. HEAVY MAHSEER TACKLE—Rods (1), Reels (2), Lines (3),

Splicing -Line (4), Traces (5), Swivels (6), Connecting Links (7),

Attaching Trace to Line (8), Weights (9), Lures (10), Mounts (11),

Split Rings (12), Plugs (13), Spinners (14), Mounting Dead Bait (15),

Legering (16), Weighing Giant Fish (17), Gaff or Spear (18), Bait-

ing Needles (19), Disgorger (20), Repairs to Rod (21), Line Drier (22).

I]. TACKLE FOR SMALLER FISH—Medium Mahseer Fishing (23),

Rods (24), Steel Rods versus Split Cane, Greenheart and Ringal (25),

Thread Line Rods (26), Double-handed Casting Rods (27), Solid

Cane or Ringal Rods (28), Double-handed Fly Rods (29), Rod

Fittings (30), Reels American (31), English Nottingham Reels (32),

Stationary Drum Reels (33), Casting ‘Line (34), Thread Line (35),

Traces (36), Lures, Plug, Spoons, Dead Bait (37)..

III. FLY SPOON AND SINGLE-HANDED FLY ROD—The Rod (38),

Reels (39), Lines (40), Traces (41), Treatment of Gut and how to tie

Traces (42), How to tie a cast (43), Knots for Traces (44), Knots

for attaching gut to swivels (45), Lures (46), List of Tackle Dealers

(47).

A chapter on tackle could fill a tome, were I to go into detail

of past and present, and illustrate the outfit freely. This is quite

unnecessary in view of the excellent Anglers’ Guides now offered by

the many tackle makers, and by dealers, both in this country and at

home.

Get a well-illustrated catalogue from Hardy, Allcock, Farlow,

Albert Smith or with whomever you deal, or better still out here

from Mantons, the Army & Navy or Verona, and you will be equip-

ped to study the various forms of baits, knots, etc. ; besides which

they have a number of instructive notes.

In the first instance ‘Tackle for Mahseer’ is an indeterminate

Heading for this chapter, when it is considered that this fish offers

sport from + of a pound to 5 score or more, and that consequently

tackle must be classified or grouped for “Heavy’, ‘Medium’, and

‘Light’ fishing; so I will subdivide this chapter into three parts.

I. HEAVY MAHSEER TACKLE.

By ‘Heavy’ I mean big water and looking for big fish, that is for

fish 30 pounds upwards. This type of! fishing is almost exclusively

enjoyed in Burma and Assam, it is best done from a boat, as the

CIRCUMVENTING THE.MAHSEER 597

water is too big to command from the banks, and very often the

best places are from islands in the river, or at large junctions. It

is a type of fishing unto itself. To illustrate the type of fishing |

am dealing with I will quote just two such days; one from Assam

and one from Burma from ‘The Angler’s Hand Book’ by Lacey.

Assam.— ‘The river is called the Punateet, and runs out of the

Khasia hills at Laour. To get to it, you have to branch off at

Sonamgunge (on the Soormah) and go by boat to a village called

Elamgao; here you can get Dingies and boatmen to take you up

the gorge, where you must rough it in a grass hut. It is a beastly

unhealthy place. Every time I go there all my servants are knocked

over with fever. I got it once myself, but on that occasion I was

there six weeks. Extract from my diary :—

November 19th got nil, lost 4 fish.

es ZO tiie. + lnelbSsal Om lo Stes:

ry AS ti Ssc: Ce <a oO OO:

te BANC (8; 9 Gk, Olig Cala Ao toy ts

i D3vGic, nic wane eee OU;

6 CA hss 2k ody Oc.

us 25th ,, nil, gave the good poois a rest, and tried

some new water.

Doth Gaaeeed os 58: 55:

¥ D7ine Ge 29) 29. 62:

. 23th mse 1G) 54020. 33.7532. 33, 26:

is Pointe Oe 28, 26:

30thes,

Ke 1, ,, 28. Tried new water again.

December lst ,, l

Of course besides these fish I lost several, of which I kept no

account. I got them all trolling with spoons 4 inches long’.

Burma.—By Lt.-Col. H. D. Keary.

‘Lt.-Col. Taylor, 30th M. I., and myself, fishing from below

the Rocks up to and about the Confluence, between the rst and

21st April, 1903 took sixty-six fish, weighing a total of 696 lbs.,

the biggest fish being 45 lbs., second 434 lbs., and third 35 lbs;

many other large fish were hooked which broke us. I had on

one fish for five hours, and had gone between two and three

miles down stream with him, when he got me hung up in a

sunken tree in sixty feet deep water, where it was impossible

to clear the line, and I was obliged to break; what the weight

of this fish was I don’t know, but at the end of five hours’ very

hard fighting, with no rests or sulking, he appeared pretty

nearly as lively as when first hooked; and to give some idea

of what he might weigh, I may mention that the day before |

‘killed a 434 Ibs. fish, only very lightly hooked through the skin

of the top of his head, in about 14 to 2 hours in exactly the

same place as I first hooked -this big one’.

I have, myself, fished the water mentioned by Keary, and taken

in 28 fishing days, between the 11th April and 8th May 1928, fifty-

three fish weighing 8614 lbs., the five best being 75, 50, 48, 44 and

42 lbs. I also lost a fish, after playing it for over two hours.

598 fOURNAL, BOMBAY (NARURAE EES SO CUETVGe Viola aoe

Heavy Mahseer fishing is the privilege and good fortune of a

select few; indeed, there must be few anglers in India, who would

need more than five fingers to count the fish they have caught over

50 lbs. So that although it does not cover the general needs of

the average angler, it is none the less the cream of sport with this

fish, as a real big fish in big water is awe inspiring, and calls for

extreme skill in handling and playing. The tackle must be good

and strong, and the whole team of boatmen and angler, in full

accord. Perhaps the greatest change during the last 18 years, has

been in the methods, and tackle now generally in use.

1. Rods.—The old idea of long sixteen feet rods, heavy spoons,

and baits, have given place (thanks to the advance made by tackle

makers of strong light and pliable rods) to ten,and twelve feet rods,

now almost universally used for the heaviest fish. Split cane, steel

or green, heart, are all popular; and for the man of limited means.

the ringal or bamboo rod made out here is strong enough to land

any fish.

For this type of fishing we must take into account the heavy

water to be fished, and with it, the large bait and weight that is

necessary to work such water. Rapids may be twenty feet deep

and two hundred yards across, and the volume of water will run

the reel and bend the rod in two while the spoon is spinning, 1

fact a large spoon gives a strain of 24 to 3 lbs. while reeling in, A

fast water (I tested this myself as a matter of interest). The back-

aches after a day of this type of fishing, are a ready reminder of

the strain to which both body and tackle are put. Another matter

to bear in mind is that while playing a heavy fish you will have

out between roo and 200 yards of line for the first half hour or

so, and it is extremely difficult in big water to control a fish with

any but a strong and powerful rod; as an instance of this, just feel

the stresses and strains your line and rod are put to when you get

hung up in big water; this is what the fish is subject to when hooked

and deep down in a rapid. So that a strongly built and stiff rod

becomes pliable under these circumstances, but fish as light and with

as pliable a rod as you can. I personally recommend the two-piece

ringal or bamboo rod, with a spare top, and protected porcelain

rings throughout, built by Verona or Mantons, as fitting all one’s

needs for this type of fishing. Verona will make up a rod to any

specifications, and turn out an excellent job, and one can buy six

of these rods for the price of one of Hardys, or the other better

known makers. If one is to be stationed near big water, and price

is of no consequence, then the other more expensive types can be

purchased.

2. Reels.—A large reel, to take 300 yards of grade E (or 30 lbs.

breaking strain) line is necessary, and here I strongly recommend

the best reel you can afford, as it is in my opinion the most im-

portant part of the outfit; and any reel, except perhaps the sea

fishing types, is called upon to do more than that for which it is

built. JT use Hardy’s extra wide 44 in. silex, which is probably the

most expensive of all casting reels, and frequently I have to go

over the reel to tighten screws, nuts, etc., after running a big fish.

[ had an extra wide Decantelle reel, built specially for me by Hardy’s

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 599

for this fishing, and found it stood up to the heavy work much better

than the silex, and is excellent for casting a heavy weight though

it does not ‘sing’, but, both hand pressure and braking can be applied

if you indulge in this pernicious habit.

3. Lines.—Braided silk lines, ‘Lignum Vitae’ or Non-pareil, (both

American), far surpass anything yet put on the market. They are

strong, reasonably priced, and wear for three or four seasons if

iooked after, and dried daily after use. Dressed and enamelled

lines want a great deal of care and attention out here, and either

go tacky or rot, the enamelled lines get brittle and crack. This has

been my experience. ‘Lignum Vitae’ and ‘“Non-pareil’ are made

in a number of grades, and | recommend a breaking strain of 25/30

pounds, for this type of fishing, depending on whether your reel can

take 300 yards of line or not. This is most important.

Backing, for preference, should be line of flax or hemp, and slight-

ly stronger than the braided line. If a twisted line is preferred,

“Donegal’ Cutty Hunk is finer, relatively, than most other lines, for

its strength, thus enabling you to get more line on to the reel. A

rough calculation for line is to multiply the breaking strain by four,

this gives the weight-in pounds of the fish you should be able to

capture (30X4=120 Ibs).

The weakest part of the line is at the knot, so avoid, if possible,

making knots, by splicing a loop at the end of the line where it

joins on at the trace as in fig. 1.

Rees is

Line can usually be bought in 200 yards lengths, but if backing

is to be attached never join them by a knot, but by a long splice, of

not less than 2$ inches, in the manner described here. This also

applies to a broken line.

4. Splicing Line.—Pick =

the ends of the line, open care- 7 a ——

fully with a needle or other

convenience, as in fig. 2 a, to

one inch or more from _ the b

end, then flick in the manner

of a whip, this opens up the

silk threads. Then wax over

and fork into two points as in

(fig. 2 b) of diagram, close

the forked ends into each other C

as in fig. 2 c of diagram and

lash together with strong

waxed silk (fig. 2 d) and dry.

5. [vraces—Horwoods

Killin wire traces are the best —==—=SS==itenitiaerar——

I have used, and I can thor- d

oughly recommend them as

being the most reliable and the

least conspicuous in’ the water, and as by far the best wire for

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETII

traces on the market to-day. Use strong or medium gauge. If the

wire kinks after the strain of playing a fish, it can quite easily be

rectified by replacing it from a spool of fifty yards carried spare,

which can be obtained for Rs. 3-4-0 from any tackle dealer.

Wire traces are made up in a couple of minutes with the aid

of a pair of pliers and a spool of Killin wire. Cut away the old

wire from the swivels and replace it with similar lengths from the

spool. Care must be taken to twist both wires evenly round each

other for three or four coils, then twist the short end around the main

wire and cut as close as possible. This is best done by passing

the short end through the eye of the swivel, bending it around and

holding it where the wire crosses over, (fig. 3 a).

Hold at cross firmly with Ist. finger and thumb,

‘ with swivel’ held firm and taut.

Higye3 va:

With the ends crossed and made to form as angle of approxi-

mately 45 degrees twist evenly with the swivel held taut and firm,

repeat this for three or four turns, then twist the short end around

the longer end and cut close (fig. 3 b).

Coils evenly made around each other.

SMm=—a¥ gl

Short end of wire bound

around and cut close.

. Fig. 3D.

If the twist does not come evenly, cut away the bent wire and

try again. If the long wire is twisted around the shorter end in

the first coil or so, it is liable to break under strain, so be very

careful to avoid this happening. If the shorter wire is bound around

the longer of the two, without the even twist near the swivel, it is

apt to draw down on to the swivel and pull open. A watchman’s

small vice together with pliers, will tend to quicker and better work.

6. Swivels.—Only use the best, as you can then use the smaller

sizes, 6 or 8, for the heaviest fish. Spare swivels should be carried

in a small bottle in oil, they keep like this indefinitely. Link swivels

for this heavy type of fishing should be specially made and I strong-

ly recommend the type I illustrate with the Myitkyina spoon, these

were specially made by Hardys for me, and I have not had them

fail me once. I give four types of American connecting links which

are both hardy and strong to use, and which are obtainable from

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 601

most tackle dealers out here. (See fig. 4, 1 a@ and b, 2 a and b,

3 and 4).

A A 3 ~

eR Disa eB: 4

at y) Cam.) (Cas

| Rist eaB:

7. Connecting Links.—These make a good substitute if you are

out of link swivels, though they are not, unfortunately, rounded off

or pear-shaped like the attachment I have recommended. above.

8. Attaching Trace, to Line.—The best way to attach your trace

is by a large loop spliced on the line, this can be passed through

the eye of the swivel and over the bait then drawn tight, making

a double loop on the eye of the swivel, apart from strengthening

the join with the trace it also can take up any wear caused by the

weight. (See diagram under ‘Lines’).

g. Weights.—For casting a heavy spoon and getting the full

use from it, weights must be used, there are many handy shapes and

sizes made, as reference to any fishing catalogue will show. ‘Anti

Kink’, ‘Barrel’, ‘Spiral’, etc. If possible, never attach a weight

permanently to your trace, this is the cause of more fish being lost

than any other, as they invariably foul snags and rocks, while play-

ing a fish, besides getting one hung up. Use only leads that can

be attached in a temporary sense, to the trace by a strong piece of

silk, which would snap if fouled and so lose the lead but release —

the line. ‘A barrel-shaped lead with a hole right through to pass

a silk thread for tying, is what I use and recommend. The spiral

type is also good, so long as they are not securely fixed to the

line (fig. 5 Barrel Lead).

— Soeon |

With a four-inch spoon in heavy water use a four-ounce lead

and you may even require one heavier, though four ounces should

be good and heavy enough for most water with a flat spoon. With

the hog-backed spoon a much heavier weight is necessary, as it

takes a greater hold of the water. When fishing for the big fellows

search the bottom with your bait; and even though you lose tackle

you will be rewarded in the end; for then only will you catch the

‘Grandmothers’.

to. Lures.—Spoon has a distinct advantage in big water such as

we are considering for this type of fishing. As I have explained

elsewhere it has greater searching power than the other lures, plug,

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST SE SOCIELY, Vol, XENI

dead bait, etc., in fact it is almost exclusively used in Burma for

this type of fishing, and also in Assam.

This Is the secret of hooking Spoons, like flies, have their

i) high up. fanciers, and it would be folly’ to

eulogise at length on any one parti-

cular kind. I can only suggest that

with certain localities we find some

spoons better than others. This,

more than fancy then, should be our

panies chief study. ie

link swivel There are certain general princi-

wih ekg bles to be kept, while fishing with

spoon. The clearer the water the

duller the spoon; the duller the water

the brighter the spoon; likewise, the

shallower the water the smaller the

spoon; and deeper the water, big-

ger the spoon; the faster the run

the flatter the spoon; (open faced

and narrow). Then for trolling in

a pool with slow water a hog-

backed spoon is most suitable. The

spoon is subjected to many com-

binations of colours, gilt and silver,

most fish. The treble

Spoon eye should

®e high up and wide.

(MYITKYINA, SPOON. 4 inch

4/8 chick Flat or open face. i

| copper and = silver, all silver, all

Mount my method KORY brass. The duller surface is usu-

Fig. 6. ally the larger surface of the spoon,

as made up by tackle makers. It is

a good plan to have a few of each in both sizes and shapes with

the colours reversed. I myself, fancy the Myitkyina type of spoon,

as it gets down deeper than most of the other types, and I believe

a narrow spoon increases the chances of hooking a fish, as his

mouth is able to close further than on the broad hog-backed type,

the scale effect deeply cut into these spoons appears to attract fish

more than the plain types. See fig. 6.

tr. Mounts.—I am, myself, in favour of the flying mount with

two trebles for large spoons (fig. 6). |

A piece of galvanised wire the thickness of a stout spinning line

made up to fit spoons of all sizes, in the following manner. Make

a loop at either end of the wire, each containing a treble the tail

hook to be larger than the top hook. Avoid using very large trebles

as they are quite unnecessary. I would call size 1 in trebles large

enough for any mount in the tail hook, and size 4 for the top hook.

Use only the best, either Hardy’s oval wire or Verona’s treble

brazed; these sizes are for spoons of 3 to 4 inches long. Carry spare

mounts, and spoons separately in suitable boxes, these can then

be threaded on to the pear-shaped link, (as recommended by. me)

in a few moments, when a change is necessary. The correct length

of a flying mount is half the loop and treble clear from the bottom

of the spoon (fig. 6).

| give this form of mounting as it is my own, and is not men-

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 603

tioned elsewhere; other forms are well illustrated in tackle books,

and can easily be followed or copied to one’s own particular fancy.

12. Split Rings.—For large Mahseer fishing I can only repeat

what Thomas said in 1887, Lacey in 1905, and Skene Dhu in 1923,

‘Don’t trust them’. They are the cause of more temper and fish

teing lost than anything else.

Do not be tempted by them under any circumstances, or you

will share the fate of many of us. Strike perhaps only one fish

in the day, and then the split ring goes! I will never forget my

own experience of seeing and stalking a monster fish, and after

the care of every thing being in order, I was left nothing but the

want to use all my Dockyard vocabulary on the maker who made

that ‘Split Ring’. We are guided by experience, and if you. are

wise you will take this advice. Use the link swivel or collar attach-

ment, or attachment link, they are just as convenient and more

reliable.

13. Plugs.—Plug has, in recent years, become very popular, and

has been used with great success both in India and Burma. ‘They

are very attractive in appearance, and are most realistic in fast

water. The jointed types are favoured in slow water, and the one-

piece for fast water. The makers (American) mount them with three

trebles as a rule, but the hooks are too flimsy for Mahseer, and

must be replaced with any of the special trebles made for fishing

in India. They are made in all sizes, and have one great advantage

over spoon in that they are heavy enough to cast without a weight,

if necessary, and by the aid of the inclined plane keep under water,

and do not get hung up in shallow rapids anything like a spoon.

They are offered in a variety of colours and shapes, and stand a lot

of rough use.

14. Spinners.—Devon or any other types of spinners are attrac-

tive and take well in certain localities, but are expensive, when it is

considered that they give very little advantage, if any, over the spoon

or plug. A couple, however, are handy to have by one, to try out,

if other lures fail.

The Crocodile, Archer, or any of the other many makes are all

good for mounting dead bait in a hurry, but none are as effective

as the double mount threaded through a dead bait, as dealt with in

detail, further on in this chapter.

15. Mounting Dead Bait.—If fish are shy, take trouble over

mounting your dead bait, and you will be rewarded. If, on the’

other hand, fish are well on the feed, a Crocodile or Archer Spinner

will be quite effective. The method I use, which is by no means

original, is I think the best for mounting a* dead bait. When

mounting dead bait, it should be borne in mind that the act of the

current helps or retards the rate of spin. A current setting towards

one’s own bank will rotate a bait which has a right-handed spin,

faster than one with a left-handed spin; and vice versa. For differ-

ent types of water the pace has to be different; and as water on the

near bank is often placid the faster spin, obtained as above, is desira-

ble. Different types further need a different spin. If the pace of the

spin is correct the bait is more likely to induce a fish to seize it.

It is the pace that kills—the correct pace. All fins of a dead bait

804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

should be cut off with a pair of scissors—except the anal fin. A bait

whirling round with fins rigid in death, sets up too violent waves

of disturbance in the water. If the bait rotates too slowly it will

not be taken; as already said—the pace it is that kills.

My method requires a reel of silk, a wide eyed needle, trebles

mounted on suitable lengths of wire, a baiting needle and an attach-

ment link. I have a tin with an assortment of mounted trebles, of

varying lengths, in my bag, as getting the correct length of wire

to suit a dead bait, is important. I mount my hooks on twisted

Killin wire, which I coat with solder or ‘Tinol’. These last inde-

finitely and are easy to mount, and do not break up the bait when

drawn through from the vent. The method of-mounting is quite

simple and is done as follows. Get a suitable size of dead bait

(4 to 6 inches is the best) and suit two lengths of wire with the

mounted hooks, to the fish; see fig. 7a and b.

Fig. 7a & b.

‘a’ should be just long enough to pass from the mouth to behind

the gill, and is passed through the gill out through the mouth and

threaded on to Attachment Link on Trace, as shown in fig. 7 c.

Pig. 7. Cs:

‘b> should be threaded to a baiting needle, and run up through the

vent and body to the mouth of the fish, the loop then threaded on

to the Attachment Link. Pass a fine needle threaded with silk

through the head from above, and through both wire loops _ on the

Attachment Link, then through the lower jaw of the fish, run, the

silk through yal then tie in front, and through the Attachment

(fig.. 7 c). One barb of the treble on wire ‘a’ should

Link 7

be fixed into the fish, the hook on wire ‘b’ should be fixed so as

to. give the. dead bait a kink, depending on how much you want

‘it to spin, both hooks should then be threaded in turn with silk

or strong cotton either through the eye of the treble or over the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER #05

shank, and tied around the fish as shown in fig. 7c. The shorter the

gill treble mount the better, and I prefer it to have the larger hook

of the two, but this can be suited to one’s own fancy.

A correspondent sends me the following :—

‘I think the use of twisted Killin wire—which necessitates

tinning or it will rust—would bother a novice. And as there are

rustless steel wires on the market these are preferable. I have

such steel wire—an ‘American product—which is admirable for bait

mounting. It takes solder readily (use broken spirits of salt). It

is absolutely rustless; even under any salt water conditions.’

‘The wire is readily manipulated with pliers. Being so thin

it does not tear the vent: and its glitter does not matter. I use

both this wire and rustless steel twisted wires—for dead bait—rather

than Killin. It is made by Wickwire Spencer Steel Company, New

York City and San Francisco. No. 7 breaking load 73 Ibs. is suita-

ble (this is finer than an ordinary spinning line). It is called Wissco

Leaderwire, polished stainless steel. A heavy coil is obtainable

for Sh. 5/6d. Obtainable from Verona, Dharamtalla Street,

Calcutta.’

Another good mount, and one that I use in fast and heavy water

is a Crocodile mount, but with a diving shield, much the same as

plugs. And I have found this mount more effective than any of

the more elaborately turned out ones as SuKoee by tackle dealers.

See fig. 8. |

Fig. 8.

16. Legering.—Pass the line of the mount, doubled, through

the eye of a single hook, give it three twists around the shank of

Fig. 9 A. Fig. 9 B.

the hook, then fix to end of mount on either side of fish, a small

single or treble hook. (See fig. 9A).

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Fix hook a lightly through the skin of fish in front of dorsal

fin, and the two hooks b one on either side. Pass a rubber band

under fish and over both hooks to keep them flush with the side,

and in position (fig. 9B). :

Another method, is as in fig. gC. c is fixed in the same

manner as in fig. 9B, a with a single treble attached at

end of mount, which lies loose by the side of the fish, with one

barb of treble under and just free of the belly. Active fish may

get the loose treble hung up on the bottom. The first method is

preferable.

Fig. 9 c.

17. Weighing Giant Fish.—lf your fish is heavier than your scale

if you have two spring balances. Tie your fish to a stick, and

with a scale fixed at either end of the stick lift the fish and the sum

of the readings on both scales will be the weight of the fish.

18. Gaff or Spear.—The Mahseer, for his size, has the largest

scales of any other fish in India. On a large fish they are as big, and

sometimes bigger than the palm of the hand, and are very tough.

This makes the use of a gaff difhcult, even to an expert. More-

over, the attendant one has with one on a fishing trip, is usually

a passed master with a spear, and for this reason I advocate the

use of a spear with a barb to it. It is more effective and more

penetrating than a gaff, and is just as handy to carry..

19. Baiting Needles.—kKeep half a dozen baiting needles with you,

they are always handy, and are easily lost.

20. Disgorgery.—Be human, and as soon as you have your fish

shelved, knock him on the head and kill him. A disgorger can then

be used, or a knife or scissors to cut out the hook. I have seldom

found a disgorger necessary, but it is useful at times and is quite

handy stuck into one’s topee.

. 21. Repairs to Rod.—This would only apply to a green-heart or

bamboo rod but is worth mentioning, should any one be fixed in

the unfortunate position of only having the one top to a rod, and

breaking it while on a trip in some remote part. Cut the two broken

portions diagonally across so that they will fit (fig. 10 A.) Then

with Durofix stick them together, and bind over neatly with strong

silk. First of all fix the end of your silk along the splice or groove

of the two sections. Continue past the splice and secure your end

in the following manner. Before finishing the binding, and when

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 607

about eight coils remain, put a loop of silk at the end of the binding,

as shown in fig. ro C. Thread the loop

with the end of the silk and draw

through under the binding. Cut the end

close and varnish over. If the break

is where the wood is thin, towards

the tip of the joint—the splice will be

strengthened by a bird’s quill—halved

lengthways and bound. beneath the

silk wrapping.

22. Line drier.—This is a most im-

portant item in the outfit, as unless the

line is dried daily after use, the lower

coils of line on the drum will remain

saturated and rot.

II. TACKLE FOR SMALLER FISH.

23. Medium Mahseer Fishing.—In

part one I have dealt exclusively with

the tackle for heavy work, and fitted

my remarks to water where the ex-

ception is the small fish, and the rule

the large fellows.

In this second part I will reverse

the order, and consider the tackle 5

which will suit the smaller size of fish. Big.

That is, fish from 30 pounds or so downwards, but be up to taking

the large ones should they come our way.

For choice, this type of fishing is preferable from the point of

view of sport, as it produces more fish, and is as often as not in

water where fly-spoon fishing can be combined, and affords rest from

the otherwise hard labour that the heavy fishing entails. It is a

general condition in most Northern India rivers.

Tackle will cover a wider range in variety and fancy for this type

of fishing, as fish from 10 to 30 pounds can be taken in many ways

if conditions permit.

The angler in the Doon, and in other suitable rivers, will perhaps

use nothing but plug bait, with an American wide drum casting

reel, and short steel or bamboo rod.

In still smaller rivers, or where conditions suit lighter tackle,

the lover of the Wanless or thread line tackle will stake his wits

against the largest fish.

Then there is the more orthodox and perhaps conservative method

with revolving drum and double-handed casting rod. Lastly, the

lover of the fly rod, who would rather cast a one-inch spoon with

double-handed ‘fly rod all day, and take his chances with the big

fellows, than use casting rods and tackle.

24. Rods.—The short single-handed casting rod, of 5 feet or so,

and in case of heavier fish, up to 7 feet in length, are generally

popular. -

25. Steel Rods versus Split Cane, Greenheart and Ringal.—The

makers of the well-known Apollo steel shaft for golf clubs, have

(0) ay 18x) (Oe

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

put on the market a variety of steel tube rods, in varying sizes

and weights comparable with split cane or greenheart. In con-

sidering the merits of the steel rod, and in comparison with the

split cane, I have no hesitation in saying that I prefer the latter,

as it is.more sympathetic with our cause, and reacts with more

smoothness than the steel rod; besides it is lighter. We must,

however, cansider the many other aspects. For instance, the effect

of: the climate on a split cane or steel centre rod does not arise with

the steel rod, nor does it. cost as much, or call for the same care

and attention when in and out of use. Then there is the ringal rod

of 5 to 7 feet, built for this light work, in this country. I have

seen an excellent rod turned out by Verona for this type of fishing—

light, strong and a finished job, and at a moderate price. So [|

would advise, for the extravagant, a Hardy’s ‘Victor’; for the

‘Inquisitive’ a steel rod by Apollo or any other maker, for every-

one else a ringal cane made up out here, by your tackle dealer.

26. Thread Line Rods.—These are made, and carefully calculated

out to give a required tension with a fine line, with breaking strain

of 2 to 8 pounds, by what is known as ‘Test Curve’ or ‘Strain’.

This is roughly speaking, putting a full strain on with the rod,

until the line and tip of the rod are in a continuous curve, and the

angle disappears. Something of this sort is necessary when it is

considered what toy tackle this is, and what the effect of getting

would put more strain on the reel, and in turn, a stiff reel on the

line, (and if the rod is a light one) on the rod too. So that rods

for this type of fishing must be carefully selected, and suited to

both reel and line. Makers generally grade the rod to the strength

of line to be used, so this should receive your careful attention.

The length generally favoured is from 5 to 7 feet.

27. Double Handed Casting Rods.—There is a wide selection

from which to make a choice, as this form of fishing is more gener-

ally in practice than the two foregoing, and is nothing more than a

modified form of part (1), but as the general run of fish will be

smaller, we must have a rod light enough to fit these conditions.

Probably the most popular rod is one of about 9 or ro feet in length,

and about 10 or 12 ounces in weight. If an expensive rod is re-

quired the ‘Wee Murdock’ by Hardy in split cane or greenheart,

or any other. similar rod is all that is desired. The steel rod for

those who prefer it, or the ringal cane built out here.

28. Solid Cane or Ringal Rods.—Verona built me a_nine-foot

ringal rod to my specifications, and is all that is desired. I have

killed several fish over 30 pounds with it, and over 2,000 pounds of

fish all told, it is still as good as new. It cost me Rs. 15. I had to

dix my own handle and rings. For another Rs. 15 or Rs. 20

Verona would fix a cork grip and porcelain rings, and personally

T would use nothing else. No fear of binding cutting or cement

opening, and the chances of repair to a solid ringal if a ferrule gets

slack, or a break on a fishing trip, is so much easier than is the

case with a split cane rod. I am convinced that as the building of

these rods improves in this country, so will we see the exit of the

expensive eight- and nine-guinea rod built in England and elsewhere.

29. Double Handed Fly Rods.—There are quite a few anglers in:

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 603,

India who prefer the Salmon fly rod to anything else, and get as

good sport, but wielding a 12-foot double handed fly rod in an

April sun, is hard work. It is grand sport getting into a big fish,

and if you wish to make comparisons of the fighting qualities of

Salmon and Mahseer, then take on a Mahseer with this tackle,

and compare timings, etc., with your catches of Salmon. — Individu-

ally, you will be satisfied I think. I have kept detailed notes of my

fishing trips, and here are three extracts from my diary.

24th April 1935. (1) Fishing in the Sarju in Kumaon, above

Bageshwar, at top of Balaghat Gorge, with a 1o-foot fly rod, a

medium trout gut trace, and one-inch spoon. Hooked at 6 p.m.

landed at 8-30 p.m., 600 yards below where first hooked and in third

pool down. 294 pounds. (No sulking).

2oth March 1938. (2) Fishing in Nepal in a river about the same

size as the Sarju, 25 pounder hooked in ‘Bootha’ rapid at 9-10 a.m.

(my wife kept the time) at top of run, followed him down bank

600 yards, with too yards of line out, to tail of pool, then up again

half way up rapid and back down into pool. -Killed at 11-20 a.m.

on the same tackle as mentioned above. A black Mahseer.

r2th. October 1940. (3) Ladhya River, Kumaon. 9g$-pound

Mahseer, hooked on to-foot Perfection Rod, medium trout gut cast

and half-inch spoon. Killed in 49 minutes. (Time taken by my

two companions.) ;

These are not isolated cases from the point of view of fight,

though they .are lucky for the size of fish, as the usual run of fish

was ..very much smaller. The charm of this type of fishing is that

you. avoid all the ‘ironmongery’ as used on spoons, plugs and dead

bait, of two and three trebles, but just have the one single hook on

the fly spoon, and so get as near home conditions as possible.

The type of rod.needs no mention here, a fly rod used for heavy

Trout and Salmon, fits these conditions also. hb |

30. Rod Fittings.—Use only the best rings. The. expensive rod

is usually fitted with good rings, but watch the cheaper ones, and

insist on Agate or protected Porcelain rings at the butt and end.

Ferrules,. either ‘lock fast’ or ‘Suction’, if of a good make and wel:

put on, are the best. Winch fittings should be ‘anti-friction’, avoic

the types that fix the reel with a hand nut or screw, and try to get the

screw grip as used by Hardy’s or the sliding ring type, but see

your reel is rigid, or accidents will occur. The grip should be. of

cork, which is universal to all well-made rods. , Agate rings are

easily damaged,.and the fine crack may escape notice. <A_ perfect

rod-ring would be one of rustless: steel.

31. Reels.—American reels, though grotesque looking, with large

winding levers, and wardrobe handles, besides innumerable nuts

and screws .are.none the less popular and cheap. They are the wide

drum types. with a line guide which is very useful, and holds a

distinct advantage over the popular English makes. This is called

‘Level Wind’, and the brake to stop over running ‘anti back lash’.

Most of the reels listed by the Indian dealers (Verona and Manton)

are made by Pfluegar, the name familiar to the plug bait enthusiast.

I have not used these reels so can offer no comment. The line

euide for ‘Level Wind’ appeals to me very much, as it must save

the inevitable ‘Crow’s nest’ caused on. the Silex and other direct

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

wind casting reels. I do not know how the check works, or if it

can be adjusted to put sufficient strain on, to hook a fish direct.

32. English Nottingham Type Reels.—Of these, the Silex is best

known, and even though it is expensive, once got into is a treat

to use. There are ‘Major Silex’, ‘Super Silex’ and ‘Sea Silex’,

and ‘Multiple wind Silex’, so the choice is wide, for those prepared

to pay a big price for a reel. Then there is the ‘Easy Cast’ reel

which is another type, or the ‘Asco’ built by Albert Smith. These

are all on the revolving drum, Nottingham principle, and share the

same features in general. The size should be governed by the

amount of line needed, and the correct size to balance the rod.

I have stressed elsewhere, that 150 yards of line for light fishing

and 300 yards for the heavy work, is what I recommend, if fish

run large.

33. Stationary Drum Reels.—Better known as ‘Thread Line’ or

‘Wanless Tackle’. This type of reel is a highly mechanical device,

enabling the angler to fish with the lightest of tackle. The drum

is stationary except when playing a fish. It is on the ‘Malloch’

principle, the drum being at right angles to the rod, enabling the

line to run off by uncoiling itself off the drum, while casting. A

‘fller arm’ or ‘guide’ picks up the line at the end of a cast for a

multiple wind in. There is an adjustment to the reel to increase

or decrease tension, depending on the other units of the outfit,

that is, the line and rod. A correct ratio of balance and tension

must be carefully made, for this gear to work effectively. There

are many makes, but I regret I am not in a position to make a

recommendation, as I have no experience in this line of fishing.

In concluding my remarks I am firmly convinced that tackle makers

do not fully realise the strain heavy Mahseer fishing puts on the

reel, and I can only suggest that if you are buying your stuff at

Home, and you cannot convince your tackle maker of the strain on

a reel, in the first rush of a Mahseer, hitch your line on to the back

of your car, and run it out as fast as you can for two hundred

yards then hand him back his reel to look over, and tighten up the

loose nuts and screws! but if it has stood this test, and is intact,

buy it.

34. Casting ‘Line.—For medium-sized fish a fine line with a 14- to

18-pound breaking strain, and fine backing, is all that is necessary,

and as to types and makes, the same remarks hold good, as in

part (1) of this chapter.

35. Thread Line.—‘Gut substitute’ or ‘Ja-Gut’ is used, but it is

brittle and apt to stiffen up on the drum, and run off in kinks, rather

like a cork screw, so that the silk lines, specially made for this tackle

are preferable.

36. Traces.—As already mentioned, Killin wire is the best for

traces, fine or medium, made up with three small swivels, on two

18-inch lengths of wire, for spinning, with longer single lengths and

two swivels, for plugs.

For thread line work no trace is required, if the gut substitute

is used; with a silk line, a fine gut trace of three feet or so in

length is all that is necessary.

For the double-handed fly rod, a gut trace of 6 feet in length

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 61]

with three swivels, is ideal, grading the gut to the size of fish

expected. If the river is very rocky and full of snags, the new

‘Alasticum’ wire is excellent. It is made in finer grades than Killin

wire, and down to 5 pounds breaking strain, which is almost invisible

in water, and as fine as hair.

37. Lures.—Plugs 44 inches long either jointed or in one piece,

make an excellent bait for the short single-handed casting rod, or for

rapids where the water is rough and shallow with plenty of “White

Feathers’. They have one great advantage over spoon in this type

of water being made of wood they float, and do not grip the water

till the line is taut, whereas the spoon sinks until felt by the line,

and is consequently frequently hung up in snags.

Spoons.—lI fancy the long narrow type 24 inches long, the back

scaled in brass or copper, and dull silver inside, for the usual clear

waters of most northern rivers in March and April, but I carry an

assortment of 18 or 20 varieties. Follow the general principle of

using spoon, and you will not go far wrong, as mentioned in part

(1) If you buy ready-made traces and mounted spoons, you will

find yourself connecting up in a chain of swivels leading your spoon.

The spoon is sold with a large swivel attached to the eye by a

brazed ring, the ready-made trace is supplied with either one or

two link swivels, to attach to the spoon, so. when your spoon is

mounted to the trace you have this chain of metal leading the spoon

very often longer than the total length of the spoon. Come! Come !!

Tackle makers and anglers alike, this can surely be improved upon

and the insult to the fish removed !

Fish a spoon as I suggest with the ‘Myitkyina” spoon. Thread

the spoon and mount on to the link swivel, and you have a strong

and tidy job. A spot of red on a spoon, has been given to me as

*a tip, by an experienced angler, but I have not really given it a

trial. and here I reproduce, from the Field of 15-8-27, a camou-

IMs Tt

. Vermilion.

Yellow Ochre.

Burnt: Cinnamon.

. Grass Green.

Top

flaged spoon, by the same angler, which may be of interest to

some. ‘Sealing wax of various hues, dissolved in small botttes

(2 oz. ones) with methylated spirits. Paint on with soft brush.

Paint takes some hours to dry, and longer to become hard; use best

English sealing wax. See diagram of camouflaged spoon (fig. 11)

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Dead Bait.—Mount dead bait in the manner outlined in part (1),

or on the lighter Archer Spinner, to suit the conditions of water

and tackle,

III. FLY SPOON AND THE SINGLE-HANDED FLY ROD.

To the majority of anglers this is the essence of sport. It is

a relaxation, whereas the big rod is a labour. The ‘Gentle Sex’,

or elderly, can enjoy it with little discomfort or hardship. In fact

one can safely say that every angler will fish with a single-handed

fly rod, while only a few will set it aside for the big rod, and fewer

still will spend a day wielding the heavy rod, if fly spoon work is

handy. Besides which, abundant water is available throughout

India, to indulge in this form of fishing.

38. The Rod.—The best rod you can buy is no extravagance for

this light fishing, as the qualities required cannot be had in a cheap

one.

If you are stationed near a small river, like the Tochi or Kurram

in the N.-W. F. Province, and only small fish are available, then

the lightest of rods and tackle will be necessary if you wish to have

good sport. A 9-foot rod, suitable for trout, suits this water admira-

bly, because only a small quarter-inch spoon is used, or a large fly;

but if the more general conditions of Northern India are your lot,

and you are within easy distance of the larger rivers, then a rod

will require careful selection. In the chapter for the novice I have

stressed the points to look for in a rod for this type of fishing, and

here I can only repeat that the fly spoon work in a large river

where the general run of fish is 5 to ro pounds, the 15, 20 and even

30 pounder will quite often take a small spoon, and we find ourselves

ill-equipped to deal with these monsters, chiefly because this type

of fishing has never been fully understood by the rod maker, and

he thinks that a rod which is good enough for a large trout, will

more than fit the requirements of the Mahseer. Let us consider the

chief differences.

(1) The water is much bigger and stronger than the average

English trout stream. See photograph opposite.

(2) The spoon fished in this water has a much greater resistance

to offer a rod, than any fly, and both while spinning and at the

time of recovery puts a far greater strain on a rod, than a non-

spinning lure.

(2) The sun temperature in March or April, or in October, 1s

sometimes as high as 110 degrees in the day (Mad dogs and English-

men... .’) dropping at night to 75 or 60 degrees. This affects steel

centre rods more than the others, but a rod in use for 1o hours a

day in this sun temperature is hardly getting the same deal as one

in use on an English summer’s day.

(4) How many trout over 5 pounds are caught by a single rod,

in a season? whereas the average run of mahseer in this type of

fishing, is over this figure. See photograph opposite,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Bag of eleven fish weighing eighty-seven pounds, taken on half-inch fly

spoon, out of rapid below.

Barton opus Prise Be. cohen “!

Moca. |

pp iON Cag

water.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 613-

It would therefore be well to try to convince your tackle dealer of

these conditions. After all, if we pay to guineas or so for a high-

class rod, built for English fishing, it becomes an expensive and

poor investment if it is to be replaced every other year or so.

The ideal rod I recommend is a double built split cane, in two

pieces for preference, 9 to to feet long, as light as it can be made,

to recover a half-inch spoon, without straining the point, from a

water shute! It should take a reel to hold 150 yards of line, with

Agate rings at the end and butt, and with a spare top. But, most

important of all it must be as pliable as possible, to assure accuracy

in casting, as you will frequently be fishing water, where innumerable

boulders will be jutting out, and the spoon must be kept under

perfect control, or you will damage it against a rock or get hung

up, besides which a pliable rod is imperative to hook and hold a

fish with light tackle.

~ I. do not think these simple requirements are beyond the scope

of the modern rod builder, nor do I see why they should ‘not be

turned out, inside the price charged for superior dry fly rods. If

one of the tackle dealers out here would be enterprising enough to

get a rod built on these principles, I am convinced sales would be

assured.

39. Reels.—Any good quality fly reel, free from levers, etc. to foul

the line, with a capacity to take 150 yards of fine line, and with an

adjustable check strong enough to hook a fish off its own, is good

enough. For the lighter fishing any ordinary trout reel will suffice.

40. ‘Lines.—Tapered fly lines may be used with the light tackle,

if a quarter-inch spoon is the lure, but the ordinary braided line men-

tioned in part (2) of this chapter, fits all the requirements for either

large or small fish.

41. Traces.—For small fish 2X gut is good enough. The best

gut is the cheapest in the long run. I have used drawn-gut casts and

traces for three or four seasons, and only discarded them because

they had frayed, as a result of being rubbed against rocks while

playing a fish. Keep gut in flannel when not in use, and in a dark

air-tight box, and it will keep indefinitely. For the heavier type

of fishing use fine, medium, or stout Trout size gut traces. If you

have your traces made up for you, insist on 5 to 6 feet for length,

and the finest swivels you can get.

42. Treatment of gut and how to tie traces.—I give the method 1

use both for soaking gut and tying traces with every confidence. I

have traces still in use that I made 4 years ago, with gut that is

8 years old. If you take the trouble to follow these instructions

you will have the same good results.

It is most important to soak gut that has been lying - for long

periods gradually. Damp a flannel rag 10X10 in. in lukewarm

water, fold it into two and lay the gut strands in it, then fold into

four and leave overnight, cover it over with a finger bowl, this

helps to retain the moisture in dry weather. ‘After the gut has

soaked overnight it can be removed from the damp flannel ‘and put

into a bowl of lukewarm water. It should by this time be soft and

ready to tie,

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

43. How to tie a cast.—(1) Test and grade the strands of gut

(drawn gut is graded), take two strands at a time out of the water and

tie together; put these back into the water, and tie the next two

strands and so on until the jointed lengths are also tied together, or

attached to swivels, cut the ends close and you have the job finished.

Dry the trace gradually in a moist flannel, and you will have eliminat-

ed all risks of the trace letting you down.

44. Knots for traces.—There are several knots used for tying

gut, I will give three of the better known, and in order of my

personal choice.

(1) The Lovers Knot.—Place the two strands together as in

fig. 12 a with the ends lying in opposite directions, make a single

overhand knot at each end, then give each end a double turn through

its own ring and over the gut strand, draw first one end moderately

close, then the other. Each should fall into two neat coils around

the other, bring these coils close together, then pull tight and up

against each other pull the ends and cut away.

Rigen:

(2) Buffer Knot.—This is a simple but serviceable knot, easy to

follow and tie. Make two simple overhand knots, one in each strand,

and pull close leaving enough room to thread a strand of gut through

thread each through the other pull tight and draw the knots together ;

give the short ends a further pull, and cut away (fig. 12 b).

aia A reeePTL Eich th

47 70 OF ficwsnatas = ee : 7

Higa 250:

(3) The Barrel or Blood Knot.—For those who wish to be expert

and who like knots for the fun of tying them, this is the tidy and

finished job, though sometimes tedious. Hold the two strands to-

gether and turn one right handed and the other left handed; with the

same hold thread the ends back through the centre and with the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 6L3

coils and ends held with the lips pull tight the strand and ends.

(fieemn2ic):

45. Knots for attaching gut to swivels.—I always use a simple

loop, threaded through the eye of the swivel, then pass over the other

end and pull tight. This gives extra strength at joins and eliminates

the swivel cutting through the gut, but there are other knots that

can be used. I give three of the most popular though I personally

recommend the simple loop as the most reliable. (See fig. 13 a, 0, Cc).

NS <9) Guise)

1S, Gi OO

(1) Double the end of gut and make a simple knot, pull the loop

and small end tight and cut away (fig. 14 a).

Fig. 14 a.

(2) Another way of making a loop is to tie a single overhand loop

in the gut, turn the shorter end back and thread through the knot.

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLihi

Then make an overhand loop over the strand with the short end,

draw together and pull tight. Cut away ends (fig. 14 b).:

Fig. 14 0b.

(3) Pass the end of the gut through the eye of the swivel, then

bring it back and make an overhead knot, give the end a loop under

the main strand, pull tight and cut close (fig. 14 Cc).

Fig. 14 c.

‘Alasticum’ is finer and stronger, for those who prefer wire.

Gut substitute is also fancied, so that the choice is wide. I person-

ally recommend natural gut, made up oneself, with a large gut loop

at the end to mount the spoon or bait, and with two very small

swivels. One swivel should be at the end of the trace to which the

line is tied, and one in the middle,.i.e. from either end. The fly

spoon provides the third swivel fixed to the loop of the trace (fig. 15).

In making up wire traces follow the same procedure, only instead

of the loop, attach a small Hardy swivel to the end, to thread

on to the fly spoon by split ring (fig. 16).

Fig. 16.

46. Lures.—We have a big assortment of lures from which to

select. Spoons of varied kinds, insects, flies, feather lures of the

Evelyn types, Celluloid Minnows, Heddon Spooks on the plug prin-

ciple, besides the small bait mounts for dead bait, all of which can be

used on the fly rod. I will take these in order or in groups, so as

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 617

not to make this note as confusing as a tackle catalogue; for every

bait therein is advertised as excellent. Let us take for instance the

text below two such baits from Manton’s catalogue.

Bar Spoon,—‘Fished as a fly we know of no more deadly lure

for smali Mahseer’.

Mother-o’-Pearl Spoon.—' Many a sulky fish can be raised to

this spoon that would not raise to anything else’.

The ly Spoon.—Fly spoons vary in size from one inch to a

quarter of that size, and are built heavy, medium and light and

coloured in the usual copper, brass and silver, or a combination of

these colours. The Mother-o’-Pearl spoon is very popular for cloudy

water. The spoons themselves are made with either a flying or

stationary mount, as in the Bar spoon.

Let me draw your attention, first of all, to Manton’s catalogue,

where a large assortment of spoons are excellently illustrated, and I

also call your attention to the method generally used for mounting

spoons. You will see that only in one instance is the swivel lead

small and tidy, this is on Hardy’s fly spoon. On the other makes of

spoons large ugly swivels are mounted. Surely with the gin-clear

water, which is so general with the Indian rivers, we should be parti-

cularly careful to avoid this. I give a simple but effective way of

mounting spoon on to either gut or wire, in part (2) of this chapter,

which will be a great improvement; and which has the better chance

of attracting fish? (fig. 17 a and b)

If you applied the first method to trout at Home, you would be

considered as raving mad, yet quite a few people will put this to a

Mahseer, in water gin clear; quite apart from the appearance of

this swivel chain, think of the vibrations it must set up in opposition

to the true spin of the spoon. All that are required are some Hardy’s

swivels, some good split rings, hooks and spoons.

Split Rings.—Although I deprecate the use of split rings, with

heavy tackle, they are excellent for this type of fishing, where they

are not subjected to heavy strain, and will stand up to the biggest

fish taken on this light tackle, if kept free from rust and well oiled.

In offering advice in the choice of fly spoons, it largely depends

on the rod. First find the best weight of spoon to suit your rod,

then have an assortment made up in the different shapes and colours

to suit your fancy. A flat spoon will tax the rod less while spinning

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLitl

than a hog backed one, so you can increase or decrease the size to

suit the shape. I myself fancy the long narrow type for reasons

already mentioned, and the semi hog backed type like Hardy’s,

with a flying mount, as I think it has a better chance of hooking

and gives better deception than a bar spoon, when the mount is

stationary. I use copper and silver, one as much as the other, de-

pending on the water.

In rivers with dark coloured boulders, I like a spoon with the

copper almost black inside, and silver out. in fairly deep water I

like silver; and in fast shallow runs, and lightly coloured rocks

gold and silver; but there is little choice in any of them. I am not

in favour of trebles for fly spoon as for one thing, if they are

strong enough, they are too heavy, and if light not strong enough.

I am a great believer in a single flying mount as illustrated on the

narrow spoon I recommend. I do not think small trebles are-as

effective or hook as well as a single hook.

The Bar Spoon revolves around the bar through the spoon, and

is preferred by some to the ordinary type, but I cannot say I have

had much success with it. The ‘Lindsay’ spoon sold by Verona is

on this principle. Mother-o’-Pearl is very light and pretty in the

water, and very good in some rivers. I have had success with it

in coloured water.

I produce here four types of fly spoons I fancy. See fig. 18 a, b,c, d.

a b C d

Silver

3 and 4

: Mother-o’—Pearl

1. Kidney Spoon 2. Semi-hog Back Hand ys:

; Mey, 1) Gh 5 Oh OH

No. 1 I like best, and have found most successful in all types of

water.

No. 2 is semi-hog backed.

Nos. 3 and 4 are both made by Hardy, and are excellently

mounted. 7

Remember when selecting spoons to study the mounts. Single

hooks not trebles on fly spoons. Small swivels and small rings.

Hardy’s Mother-o’-Pearl spoon is mounted with a treble, but

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 619

a strong single hook, on so brittle a substance as Mother-o’-Pearl

is apt to chip or crack it while casting.

Coiours.—The best colours are a combination of gold and silver,

‘or copper and silver, or all silver, just whichever suits local condi-

tions best. A tag ot red cotton on the end of a hook is sometimes

effective. , :

Insect Lures (Artificial), made up as spiders, beetles, etc., I regret

to say I have no experience with; but they are attached to a gut

cast and used as a fly. They might be good in lakes or in pools. I

do not think they are as effective in rapids as spoon. ;

Fly or Feathered Lures.—These will take quite well in slow runs,

and give excellent sport where water is slow and running among

large boulders. I have not found either as effective as fly spoon

in runs. .

Celluloid Minnows or Spooks on the ‘plug bait’ principles are

well worth trying if other baits fail, but 1 do not think any of these

baits have the range or attracting powers of the spoon, for the

simple reason that they have not the resistance.

Allcock’s Minnow Mounts.—These are excellent if a small enough

fish can be had, and one that will not break up with switching in

~and out of the water. It is deadly in all water.

i will conclude this chapter with a few general accessories that

should be part of the kit carried while fishing. But do not put all

your eggs in one basket, keep some in camp, some in your bag with

the attendant, and the few spoons, lures, etc. necessary for changes,

On your person.

Spare reel and line.

A small tin box with penknife, a pair of scissors, baiting needle,

silk and wide-eyed sewing needle, and spare attachment links and

swivels, pair of wire cutting pliers, and a spool of Killin wire, for

mounting dead bait. A small watchmaker’s hand vice should also

be included. —

Weights.—Carry some spare in assorted sizes to replace losses.

Spoons and Mounts.—Carry these in one or two suitable sized

tins, to fix to traces as suggested in part (1) of this chapter.

Spinners.—Have two or three spare Crocodile or other fish mounts

handy in different sizes.

Traces.—Carry a book or tin with a couple of spare wire traces,

and gut traces, in case of breaks.

Weighing Machine.—A good scale graduated to 60 pounds will

fit all requirements.

-A note book, pencil and camera are also valuable for recording

good water and fish.

A roll of sticking plaster and an iodine pencil are handy to have

as tosses and cuts frequently occur while wading.

Carry on your person, a turn screw to fit all screws on your

reel and a small tin box to fit conveniently into a pocket with

some spare fly spoons and other lures, so that you can change from

one to another while fishing, if necessary. -

47.—List of tackle dealers.—I give, in conclusion, a list of a

few of the tackle makers and dealers known to me. There are many

others of course, but if you get an Angler’s guide or price list from

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

one or more of those mentioned, you will be able to understand

and follow easily the text of this chapter.

(1) The Army & Navy Stores, Bombay.

(2) A. E. Verona, 153, Dharamtolla Street, Calcutta.

(2) Manton & Co., Old Court House Strret, Calcutta, and New Delhi.

(3) Mrs. Allen, Kilmore, Dehra Dun, U.P.

(4) Oakes & Co., Madras.

(4) Wilson & Co., Chemists, Rawalpindi and Murree.

(5) Barton & Co., Ootacamund.

(6) Watson & Co., Rangoon.

(To be continued)

JouRN. BoMBAY Nat. Hisv.

}

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALAEARCTIC LEPIDOPTERA — V.

(For explanation see end of article),

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC

LEPIDOPTERA—V.

E. P. WILTSHIRE, F.R.E.S.

(With 2 plates).

This paper is the fifth’ of a series whose purpose is to bring to

the notice of the public the biology of species whose early stages

were previously unknown, or new facts concerning the early stages

of species better known. Most of the species here described were

studied in S.-W. Iran. Two new races and a new form are also

here described.

Aporia crataegi L. (Plate I, Figure 1).

The larval form in Fars seems to differ from that in Europe, as described

by Blaschke, Wagner, etc.

The mature larva is pale grey below, blue-grey on the back. On each’ somite

are two patches of short red hairs, bordered on either side and separated from

one another by black patches.» Other hairs, longer, white. Head, black.

Spiracles, black, set in a pale area. Underside, darker grey. Somités 1 and 2

have yellowish lateral hairs. In the figure the dorsal line appears paler, but

this is not always so.

The European larva is said to have a red sublateral line, quite lacking in

this form. In the larva of castrensis-kirghisica (vide sub.) the Fars larval form

differs from the European by a somewhat similar simplification of markings.

Perhaps this is a reaction to intenser light; I have previously remarked that

the larva of Celerio euphorbiae L. reacts individually to a less intense light by

becoming blacker. But that reaction was perhaps more a_ parallel to the

darker pigmentation of certain imagines in captivity or in cooler damper

climates than in free-bred imagines in desert climates (e.g. Chloridea peltigera)

than a parallel to the above lack of coloured markings. Geographical variation

in the markings of larvae is already a well-known phenomenon.

The above larva feeds on Prunus and Amygdalus, attaining full growth in

April or May.

Melanargia larissa Hubn. (Plate I, Figure 2).

The larva is either pale brown or grass-green, and tapers to two short tails.

Dorsal line, darker (brown or green); subdorsal and sublateral lines, paler

(yellowish), the latter interrupted, the former shaded below with darker on

the hinder somites. Spiracles, pale, inconspicuous, lying between the former

and the latter. The tails are paler edged laterally.

Pupa: pale brown, with brown-freckled wing-cases. Cremaster, a_ short

blunt brown cone tipped with about ten short bristles. On shoulders, near

the eyes, and just behind the antennae, is a pair of black excrescent spots.

Dorsal line, vague, grey. Period, 19 days, in May.

The larva feeds at night on grass. The imago flies throughout May in

Fars, but not below 5000 feet. Further north along the Zagros range, it is

found much lower down.

* Previous articles in the series appeared in :—

Ent. Rec., Vol. xlvii (July-Aug. 1935); Ent. Rec., Vol. xlviii (Oct. 1936);

Mitt. Muench. Ent, Ges., e.v. xxix, Jahrgang, 1939, Hft. 1; and Ent. Rec.,

Vol. lii. (June-July 1940.)

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII :

Identification :—I follow Brandt in calling the Fars Melanargia ‘larissa’, but

must mention here that specimens of it sent to Mr. H. J. Turner were identified

by him as M. hylata f. ivantica. In any case, I am not yet satisfied that hylata

is a distinct species from larissa.

Thecla abdominalis Gerh. gerhardti Riley. (Plate I, Figure 3).

Brandt records this species as marcidus Riley, but after studying Riley’s

original descriptions I favour the above determination. The species varies

greatly.

Larva—when young, yellowish green, with deep crimson dorsal markings.

When mature: green, with a reddish purple lower edging on somites g and 10

to the yellow lateral line. The yellow subdorsal lines are interrupted at the

somital joints. Oblique lateral stripes, very faint, darker green, yellow-edged

above. Head, glossy black.

Pupa:—purple brown, hidden low down near ground.

Foodplant :—Prunus and Amygdalus ; also Crataegus, Eleagnus, and occasion-

ally Lonicera persica.

The imago flies in May after a short pupal rest, at 5000 feet and upwards.

Lymantria amabilis Chr. (Plate I, Figure 8).

Larva, dull grey-brown, with dark brown warts, from which spring light

brown hairs. Dorsal line, vaguely indicated by a slight whitening of the

centre of each somite on somites 1-8. Somites g-11 are entirely deep purple

brown dorsally, except in the joints. On somites 4-8 the subdorsal warts are

heavily stained with deep purple brown. On somites 4-10, just above the

dark brown spiracles, is a series of elongated oblique lateral warts, pointing

upwards and forwards, of the same purple brown colour. Head, red-brown,

each lobe being marked with darker brown. A _ series of small brown warts

above the spiracles. Feet, pale, grey-brown. -

The larva grows slowly, and feeds by night on Prunus and Amygdalus,

hiding by day. A young larva found in April was full-grown in June and

produced an imago on July 18th, after a pupal period of sixteen days. There

is a second brood, but I cannot say if this is regular or only partial.

The pupa has a very broad and obtuse thorax, and is coloured deep brown,

paler on the abdominal somital joints, and scantily clothed with pale hairs.

Cocoon, rudimentary.

The imago comes to light in many places in Iran, especially in rough

mountain country.

The second brood imagines taken in the Pir-i-Zan woods, Fars, were

distinguished by traces of an inner dark band on the yellow hindwing, absent in

first brood specimens. For this form I suggest the name autumnalis. The

types are in my collection and were taken on Sept. 1, 1940.

Ocneria insolita Brandt.

Described from a single dwarf second-brood male taken by Fred Brandt, I have

taken both sexes of the larger first brood of this species, to light on the

Muk Pass south of Shiraz on 15-6-41, at 6500 ft. in ‘bann’ (Pistaccia) jungle.

A female laid ova in a neat regular batch in diamond-formation; the eggs

were bun-shaped, glossy, pale cinnamon grey, and hatched after a week.

The young larvae, grey with black heads, fed on cultivated pistaccia, but

I failed to rear them. past the first instar.

Ocneria audeoudi Brandt. (Plate I, Figures 6, 14, 15).

Ova, laid in diamond-formation, in batches, with one or two in an upper

layer. The eggs were almost spherical, dull pearly grey, glossy. They hatched

after eight days.

Larva, when full-grown, greenish grey, paler on somite 3, with long

brownish hairs springing from brownish warts. Dorsal line, vague, pale, with

a darker edging, and with two yellowish spots on somites 8 and g. Under

a lenz these spots prove to be wart-like processes not to be found on _ other

somites. Subdorsal lines, vague, pale, with a heavy black upper edging; in

the penultimate instar, instead of such an edging, the subdorsal warts are

merely blackish on somites 1, 2, 4-7, and 9-11 inclusive. The black edging

in the last instar however is only on the abdominal somites. Above each

lateral wart, and placed on the subdorsal line, is a pink spot on each somite.

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC LIPIDOPTERA 623

Spiracles, black, almost hidden by the hairs from the lateral warts. Head

in last instar, glossy blackish brown with a yellowish inverted V-mark. The

greenish ground colour is apparently due to internal colouring, for it disappears

when the larva is blown.

Foodplant :—Pistaccia. The larvae fed up readily on the cultivated kind.

Larval habit :—by day hides gregariously low down, in crevices; if disturbed,

runs, but retains a tenacious foothold. By night, after a very rapid climb to

the foliage where it feeds, it often rests quite motionless for long periods,

but if disturbed jumps and drops immediately. When full-grown (mid-August),

the larva makes a transparent cocoon and there pupates. The pupa is yellow-

brown, glossy, and darker brown at the somital joints and on. the thorax and

wing-cases ; the hairs, chiefly on the back of the abdominal somites, are yellow-

brown. The second generation emerges in the second half of September.

The imago of the first brood comes to light in June in ‘bann’ jungle, in

Fars.

Porthesia melania Stgr. (Piate I, Figure 11).

Larva, black, with dense white bristles and tufts of hair.. Head and

claspers, brown. Somites 4 and 5 each bear a short thick tuft of black

hair. The abdominal somites are particularly black dorsally. Foodplant :—

Quercus and Prunus.

Cocoon, closely woven, thin, flabby; among leaves and litter.

The larva is full-grown in the second half of May in the high woodland

of Fars, and produces imagines in June, during which month the males come

to light. So far I have only obtained females by breeding. This species

occurs in the Zagros woods from Fars’ all the way to Anatolia.

Eriogaster amygdali Wilts. (Plate I, Figure 12).

I described the early stages of this species in my original description (Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., August 1941) so I refrain from repeating it here, but

simply give an illustration of the mature larva.

I might add that I have seen egg-clusters, presumably of this species, as

low as Soo feet, in February on the Filfil Pass near Dalaki, Fars. The eggs

however were empty, and must have been laid two winters earlier, for there

were no traces of larvae on the bush of spiny almond. At this height no

doubt the quick-growing larva must grow up very early in the season, and

the pupal period be proportionately longer. Evidently the species is widely

distributed along the Zagros range, and is probably the same as the species I

recorded without naming from Iraqi Kurdistan, though I have not yet been

able to compare the specimens. :

Malacosma castrensis L. kirghisica Stgr. (Plate I, Figure 7).

I have seen old eggs of this species on thin thorn twigs. They are similar

to those of the better known congeners.

The larva in Fars is a beautiful and distinctive beast, and differs from

that of European castrensis. It is blue, powdered with big and small black

dots; the spiracles are black. Dorsal line, double, black, with a bluish centre

on the thoracic somites; thereafter it becomes broken up into black lines, its

general colour here being purple. Along its whole length it is broadly edged

on both sides with brick-red, the whole forming a conspicuous red-brown

dorsal stripe. Head, grey-blue. The fine soft long hairs are whitish brown.

Underside, creamy; ventral line, black broadening on each somite conspicuously.

A paler lilac-grey spiracular stripe is ill-defined.

Foodplants :—Euwphorbia and Umbelliferae.

At 6-7000 feet in Fars the larva is full-grown in early May; at thé same

season at 9000 feet (as on the Barm-i-Firuz mountain near Ardekan, Fars)

the larvae are scarcely half-grown. They are gregarious, especially when

young.

The imago flies at the end of May in Fars at 6-7000 feet., in July at

higher elevations in Fars and the Elburz range. It comes to light commonly,

and can occasionally be found by day on vegetation. ‘

Pachypasa otus Drury.

For this well-known larva I am able to announce a new foodplant :—

Pistaccia. (One larva, at 8000 ft., Kuh Sabz Pushan, near Shiraz. This larva

produced an imago on July 31st.)

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Cerura turbida Brandt. (Plate I, Figures 5, 10).

Larva, blue-green, with a few faint whitish lateral freckles. Spiracles,

yellowish, with blackish-brown rings; below them, some scanty brown speckles.

The brown dorsal markings are edged broadly with greenish white, and consist

of a triangle on somites 1 and 2, pointing backwards, nothing on somite 3,

a fine spear-head on 4, a purple red-brown-edged shaft on 5, a broader,

similarly coloured ‘tulip’ on 6; somite 7 begins with the base of a similarly

coloured parallelogram which narrows until the posterior edge of somite 8;

the red-brown and white edging are absent from the parallelogram along the

anterior edge of somite 7 which coincides with this figure’s base, and this is

the only part of the dorsal markings without such an edging. On somite 9

the red-brown edged purple shaft widens slightly; on io it is slightly wider ;

but it narrows towards the posterior end of this somite. On 11 it is very

narrow, on 12 and 13, broader. Tails, yellowish, faintly banded with brown.

All feet, orange brown. Face, light brown. Underside, on ss. 10-13, with

a purplish ventral line edged with paler.

Foodplant :—Populus euphratica.

The larva spun up on 20-iv-41; the imago hatched on 16-v-41. The cocoon

was typical of the genus.

The above larva, which appears in the plate, was obtained at Shapur in

Fars, a little higher up the ‘same river as Brandt’s type-locality. I have also

bred this larva and found imagines at Bagdad; these imagines were identi-

fied for me as turbida by Herr Daniel of Munich. They were far less suffused

with smoky grey than the Fars examples, and this pale, whiter race from

Iraq seems to deserve a name; I suggest: clarior subsp. n. The types are in

my collection and were found on trunks of Populus euphratica at Bagdad in

June. The above dates presumably represent a second generation. The species

appears to be the only representative, in hot desert oases, of the interrupta

group.

Cerura syra Gr.-Gsh. (Plate I, Figures, 4, 9).

Larva, green, laterally speckled with orange-brown. The dorsal chain is

chocolate coloured and interrupted, in the last instar, behind the hump on

somite 2, but, as the figure shows, the interruption is less than that in turbida.

The white edging to the dorsal markings sometimes suffuses the whole dorsal

area, as shewn in figure 9. The dorsal line is double, fine, chocolate-coloured,

and interrupted at the somital joints. Around this dorsal line and close to the

edges of the dorsal chain, the chocolate colour is deepest, but in between it is

paler. The broad section of this chain on somite 11 in shape and pattern

resembles a tulip flower. Head, brown, with a black spot high up on each

cheek. feat ;

Foodplant :—Poplar (Lebanon).

Cerura sp. (Plate I, Figure 13).

For the sake of completeness I also give a photo and description of a larva

of the Cerura genus which feeds on poplar at Hamadan and Tehran, Iran,

although I am unable to name the species with certainty. This larva is bright

green, and the red-brown dorsal area is thickly edged with yellow. Somite

4 is, as is turbida, quite devoid of dorsal markings, but, as the photo shews,

the dorsal chain has a quite peculiar outline. On somite 11 the only dorsal

markings are a yellow-edged fine brown line. The dorsal line is yellow on the

thoracic somites, darker on the abdominal somites. The tails carry a faint

yellow band near the end. Feet, orange. On somites 10-12 there is an

orange ventral line. Spiracles, pinkish, orange-rimmed. Head, brown, black

under the mandibles, and just visibly black under the hood.

Foodplant :—Poplar and willow.

The imago comes to light in June, July and August. An August 1939 larva

hatched on 14-v-40. |

Besides the above species, Iran has two more Cerura moths :—furcula ssp.

pseudobicuspis Dan. (Tehran and Elburz) and pulcherrima Brandt (Fars). Of

neither of these have I obtained larvae, unless the Tehran species above

described is furcula; I have not eriough material to be quite sure that it is not.

Agrotis (Ogygia) facunda Drdt. (Plate IT, Figures.1, 2).

Ova, bun-shaped, white; sculpture, not visible under a small-power lenz,

but perhaps responsible for the ‘matt’ appearance of the egg’s surface, A

JourN. BomBaAy Nat. Hisv. SOc.

—vV

EPIDOPTERA

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EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC LEPIDOPTERA 625

black apical dot and ring appear later. Some eggs were laid loose, others in

a large dense batch. Period: 11 days.

, Larva, immediately after hatching :—dark grey, with black:head and thoracic

plate.

Larva, in later instars :—subsequent instars are similar to the last instar,

except that the markings are less intense. Final instar:—brown and grey;

dorsal line, double, blackish, with an interrupted paler centre. Sub-dorsal

lines, finer, black, with a broad pale brown area above and a fine paler lower

edging which is obscured by heavy grey mottling. A thick blackish stripe runs

along the sides, above the black spiracles. Usual dots, black. Below spiracles,

a vague red-brown spiracular line running in a pale grey area, below which

the ufiderside’s grey mottling begins. Thoracic plate, marked with a white

dorsal and subdorsal lines. Head, brown, black-marked.

It feeds on low plants. at night, hiding by day in the earth. In a natural

state it overwinters.

The imago came to light in late September at 7ooo ft. in Fars.

Agrotis (Dichagyris) singularis Koll. (Plate I, Figure 16).

Ova, bun-shaped, glossy, ivory-white; sculpture, very faint. Period, 14 days.

Larva, when freshly hatched, pale grey, with glossy black heads and black

narrow thoracic plate.

Later :—sandy grey, freckled with light brown, and with a faint diamond

pattern on back. Somital joints, rather ochreous. Dorsal line, white, dark-

edged, continuous on the thoracic somites, obsolescent thereafter. Usual dots,

black. Subdorsal lines, with a fine darker upper edging, very obsolescent.

Spiracles, black; below them, a paler ochreous ground. Thoracic plate, now

brown, with the three dorsal lines marked in white. Head, ochreous grey,

freckled with brown.

Feeds on low plants at night, hiding by day in crevices, etc. In a state

of nature, overwinters.

The imago flies in October at 5000 feet in Fars.

Meganephria renalis Wilts = crassicornis Brandt. (Plate II, Figures 11, 12).

I do not yet know which of the above names is prior.

Larva :—Very variable. Not unlike the larva of oxyacanthae L. The neck

is orange, as in the genus Nychiodes, with four black transverse spots forming

a dorsal collar. The colour is usually brown, freckled with blackish, and

sometimes frosted dorsally with white. There is a continuous chain of dorsal

diamonds opening one into the other, sometimes very distinctly marked in

black. ‘The dorsal line is diffuse, brownish, grey-edged. On each somite

the four principal dorsal and two lateral setae are whitish, black-ringed; other

dots, black. A heavy blackish oblique lateral shade on somite 4. Spiracles,

pale, black-rimmed. Below them, a black sublateral line which zigzags parallel

to the subdorsal line, and has a vaguer paler upper edging. On somite 10

the posterior edges of the dorsal diamond are blacker than elsewhere. On

somite 11 are two prominent hair tipped dorsal points marked with black on

each side. On somites 12 and 13, a blackish Y. Underside, paler. Head,

large, square, with rounded red-brown-tinged upper corners, light brown, with

purple dots and black markings, the inner edges of the two lobes being deep

black, so as to form two converging whitish-edged almost straight black ‘S’s

which do not quite meet in the upper centre of the face.

Foodplants :—Amygdalus, Prunus, Crataegus.

It feeds at night, but often rests by day among the upper branches. At

3000 ft. (e.g. Shapur gorge) some larvae are full-grown in early March; higher

up, the larvae have all matured by the beginning of May. At 6000 ft. the

imago flies in November; lower down it flies later, no doubt.

Brachionycha atossa Wilts. (Plate II, Figure 6).

Ova, laid loose, or higgledy-piggledy ; ivory-white, bun-shaped, slightly glossy

finely but fairly strongly sculpted, with a very fine black apical dot.

Larvae, when freshly hatched, grey with prominent setae, whitish lateral

stripe and speckled’ ochreous head. Second instar :—blue-green, with black

setae, ochreous head, and white dorsal, subdorsal and sublateral lines, the latter

being wide stripes. Third instar :—dorsal and subdorsal lines, fine and white ;

spiracles, black-rimmed, placed on a broad conspicuous white stripe. Head,

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLITII

yellow-green. At this stage the resting position is with head curled downwards.

In its final instar, the head is thrown backwards, so that the larva resembles

a curled leaf. It is now plump, apple-green, sluggish except if exposed to direct

sunlight, and slightly humped on somite 11. The dots, dorsal and subdorsal

lines are yellowish. The broad sublateral stripe is yellowish and edged above

with crimson-lake. Head, green, with a yellow inverted V on the face; thoracic

hood, yellow edged in front. The white black-rimmed spiracles are just above

ae sublateral or spiracular stripe. Underside, with a faint yellow-green ventral

ine.

It feeds at the same time and places as the Meganephria species described

above. Foodplants: Acer, Prunus, etc.

It proved impossible to photo the characteristic resting-position 6f this

larva, since these photos were taken by sunlight (except for one of audeoudi

which was taken by lamp-light) and atossa larvae invariably rest in the shade

of a leaf, avoiding direct sunlight. The figure shewn, therefore, is of the

larva trying to move into a shady place.

Eumichtis muscosa Stgr. (Plate II, Figure to).

This species is perhaps the same as the later rasilis Draudt.

Ova, bun-shaped, ivory-white at first, later with a brown apical dot and

ring, strongly sculpted. Laid in small strings or batches. Period, seven days.

Young larva, glossy brown with black tubercles and light bristles. Later :—

brown, with a rather vague darker grey-brown pattern. Dorsal line, dark,

double, darkest at ring-joints, which are darker. Subdorsal lines, paler, vague,

dark-edged, with short longitudinal bars close to the black setae, one on each

somite. Spiracles, white, black-rimmed, placed just above a not very con-

spicuous whitish spiracular stripe; next to each spiracle, a black tubercle.

The area above the spiracular stripe is rather dark and cloudy, but below it

much paler and greyish. Head, brown, marked with two blackish lines on

top.

Of larvae hatching from ova laid in mid-October, the first pupated, in

captivity on December 20th; but this speed of growth was doubtless due to

forcing, and in a state of nature the larva doubtless feeds throughout the winter,

at a slower pace. They fed on various low plants, especially dandelion.

Atethmia xerampelina subsp. pallida Stgr. an sp. dist. (Plate II, Fig. 4).

Not having examples of the European xerampelina larvae for comparison

with the Persian pallida, I sent a skin of the latter to Dr. Cockayne, who

replied to me:—‘I haye compared it carefully with six British xerampelina,

all of which agree exactly with one another. The notable difference between

these and pallida, is the dorsal line. In pallida it is narrower but complete and

bordered throughout by a narrow black line, whereas in British xerampelina

it is broader and broken up and not bordered by the black line. The pale

neighbouring areas of ground colour give it a very different appearance.

Apart from this pallida is less pigmented. The thoracic plate in . . xeram-

. pelina is largely black, but in pallida it has only a narrow black edge. The

head and anal plate are less pigmented. There is no pigment on the legs

of pallida, but on the legs of British xerampelina pigment patches are present.

The venter of pallida is very transparent, but it has a denser and greyer tone

in the British. xerampelina. The black supraspiracular line is thicker in British

xerampelina. If these differences are constant it seems to me that pallida is a

closely allied species.’

In the three skins retained by me here in Iran, there is no variation, all

resembling that sent to Dr. Cockayne, so it seems very possible that pallida

is a good species. Its larva feeds not only on ash, but on the cultivated

almond, biting holes in the flower-buds in spring-time. At Kermanshah I found

that the ash-feeding larvae were a week or two in advance of the almond-

feeders. They hide by day in the ground.

At Kermanshah the larvae were full-grown in March. The imagines fly

in October. Kermanshah, Tabriz, Shiraz.

Oncocnemis idioglypha Brandt (Plate II, Figures 5, 7, 8).

The larva has two well-differentiated forms :—

1. green form :—green with a brown head, and a white spiracular stripe

which has a pinkish upper edging. Spiracles, white or yellowish, black-rimmed.

Joints, yellowish, Somite 11 has a double prominence. On closer inspection

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC LIPIDOPTERA 627

a number of very fine wavy whitish lines can be detected on the back.

(Figure 5).

In earlier instars the head is green.

2. grey form :—grey, with a double white dorsal line, forming a series of

backward-opening whitish V-marks. Subdorsal lines, black, interrupted. On

somite 11 a double prominence. Spiracles, white, black-rimmed, placed between

two white lateral lines which tend to converge forward and are edged with

black on somites 4 and 5; posteriorly these two lines are separated by grey

shades. Above the feet are two faint white wavy lines. Underside, pale grey.

Foodplant : Lonicera persica. It refuses cultivated honeysuckle in captivity.

The larva is slender, and of a lively habit.

Pupa, red-brown, fairly thin-skinned.

The larvae may be beaten in numbers from the honey-suckie trees of the

high mountain scrub woods of Fars; the imago is out in July and August.

The foodplant is not found below 6000 ft., but above this height the moth

appears to be widespread.

Scythocentropus cyrus Brandt.

Larva, at first bright green, with a yellow sublateral stripe. Later, olive

brown,» with many fine yellow lines and a conspicuous broad yellow sublateral

line. The head and first somite are dotted with black. Spiracles, pale brown,

black-rimmed. In well-marked examples, there is a darkening of somite 11

dorsally, and a slighter darkening of the dorsal stigmata on somite 10 and

also of the subdorsal line.

Foodplant, Fraxinus in the high forest at Pir-i-Zan, Fars; another species

of ash grows commonly in gardens along water-channels at 4000-6000 feet, but

this moth does not seem to occur in these localities. It may however feed

on other trees in the forests, such as acer. It is very lively, and grows quickly.

A larva full-grown in early June produced an imago in August; the® pupal

stage therefore seems to be longer than in other quick-growing species which

emerge in midsummer.

Elaphria bodenheimeri Drdt. (Plate II, Figure 3).

The larvae here described were bred from ova laid in Fars on 11 and 12-iii-41,

by a female of the Persian race plesiarchia Brsn.

The ova were bun-shaped, yellowish, finely but clearly sculpted; later a

pink-brown apical ring and dot developed. Period :—r1o days.

Soon after hatching the young larvae assumed a_ striking orange-brown

colour. Later :—brown. Dorsal line, a series of disconnected pale lozenges,

each bisected by two fine dark cross-lines. A darker dappled shade joins these

lozenges together. Subdorsal lines, paler, edged on both sides with darker

brown. Spiracles, black, placed on the border between the brown dorsal area

and the paler greyish ventral area. On each somite above the spiracle is a

pale hemispherical blodge. Head, pale brown, dark round the edges.

In captivity the larvae fed readily on Calendula.

Cocoon, among litter, firm, fairly roomy.

From these pupae, two imagines emerged on 2 and 3-vi-41, while the others

hatched in the autumn, but in a wild state there are only two broods, a

spring and an autumnal.

Enargia badiofasciata Drdt. (Plate II, Figure 9).

Ova, bun-shaped, ivory, sometimes green or yellow tinged, laid in twos

and threes. Period, 18 to 30 days.

Larva, very unlike its congener abluta in aspect and habit. (For the sake

of comparison I include in the plate a photo of the larva of Enargia abluta

Hbn., as found feeding on poplar in the Elburz mountains. The protuberant

lobes of the head are conspicuous, and the habit is to live between spun-up

leaves on its host-tree :—(figure 13) Badiofasciata larvae are grey-brown finely

freckled with black. The dorsal line is represented by a series of white

spear-heads, joined by a fine, pale, but, except on the thoracic somites, less

white line. Usual dots, white, black-centred. Subdorsal lines, whitish, black-

edged above. Just below the inconspicuous, brown, black-rimmed_ spiracles

is a wide wavy whitish lateral stripe with. a brownish centre, and above it a

series of blackish shades each surmounted by a white mark. Head, brown,

freckled with black. Anal plate, blackish brown, with dorsal line marked in

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

white. Thoracic plate, paler brown, with dorsal and subdorsal lines similarly

marked. Underside, grey-brown. Head, not prominently lobed.

Feeds on low plants at night; in a wild state over-winters. Larvae kept

in a warm room were full grown in January, but then entered a state of coma, .

not pupating until March. The pupal stage lasts till the autumn. .

Pupa, pale brown.

(The pupal stage of abluta in Persia lasts only a month, the imago emerging

‘at the beginning of July.),

I doubt whether these two species should really remain in the same genus.

Catocala lesbia Christ. (Plate II, Figure 14).

This larva has less whiskery trousers than its congeners; or, to use

more scientific language, the sublateral hairs, so typical of the genus, are un-

usually scanty. At a first glance the larva might be taken for an Ophiusa or

Pandesma. It can, however, easily be distinguished from that of Pandesma

anysa Guen., which feeds on the same tree in similar localities, by the interrup-

tion, on the 4th somite, of anysa’s broad whitish dorsal stripe. It also grows

exceedingly fast, and has two, perhaps more broods in a year. I regard it as

the descendant of a more primitive type of Catocala than most of the other

species of the genus. Vide my article, The phenological classification of Palearctic

Lepidoptera Ent. Rec., Oct. 1941.

Larva, pink-brown, or grey. Dorsal stripe, broad, pale, continuous, grey-

centred. Lateral stripe, similar, but with more irregular borders. Intervening

areas, darker grey. Spiracles, dark grey, black-rimmed; below them, a wavy

paler stripe. Head, outlined with black. An oblique black line runs forward

down from a pale cross-bar on the back of somite 11. Underside, pale, with

big black spots between the claspers. There are a few pale bristles just above

the claspers. .

Thé larva spun up: on 27-iv-41 but only pupated on 5-v-. The moth hatched

on 2-vi. I have also taken it in the late autumn.

Pupa, purple brown; with a pale lilac bloom. Length, 3.5 cm. Cocoon,

roomy, papery.

Clytie distincta B-H. ssp. iranica Brandt. (Plate II, Fig. 16).

Immature larva, slender, green, with continuous white longitudinal lines.

Head, as in the green form of Clytie delunaris (vide the third article in this

series, loc. cit.).

Mature, slender, ochreous brown or grey, whitish underneath.

Somite 8 is slightly swollen and darkened dorsally, while somites 11 and

12 have two double dorsal prominences, those on the latter being slighter.

Markings, mottled blackish grey. On somite 4 the subdorsal dot typical of

the larvae of this genus is accompanied by a blackish shade. On each of the

somites 1-10, there is a whitish mark close to the usual subdorsal dot. Dorsal

line, discontinuous, consisting of grey disconnected spear-heads, pointing back-

wards. Lateral line, pale grey. Head, grey brown, marked with blackish.

Spiracles, pale, black-rimmed, inconspicuous.

Foodplant :—Tamarisk.

Pupa, red-brown, without bloom. Can be found in branchforks or under

bark, of the big tamarisk trees at Bushire. From larvae full-grown in February

and March, imagines hatched in April. I should expect it to have repeated

broods all the summer, as is the habit of its congeners, but cannot confirm

that this is so.

Gnophosema palumba Brandt. (Plate II, Figure 23).

Ova: long-oval, grey-green, glossy; sometimes in ones and twos, but more

often laid in straight strings of three to eight eggs. Period (in June) :—one

week.

The freshly hatched larva is grey with a black head. Later it becomes

a very remarkable green ‘stick-caterpillar’, exactly harmonising with the stems

of its foodplant, on which it rests by day usually straight along the stem,

but. sometimes forking from it like a short twig. It feeds at night. It is

smooth and green, with a purple bifid head and a pair of less prominent yellow

points just behind the head on somite 1. The face is pale lilac; the claspers

and thoracic feet are purplish. On s. 5 are ventral (and sometimes dorsal)

purple marks, and on somite 9 a purple dorsal dot,

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC LEPIDOPTERA 629

Foodplant :—Amygdalus spartioides.

It feeds slowly but the pupal stage in June is brief.

Pupa:—purplish, heavily freckled with blackish.

The larva may be found during winter at about 3000 feet in Fars, or in

early summer at higher elevations. There are at least two broods.

Somatina Wiltshirei Prout.

Larva :—long, slender, pale brown, 1 1/3 inch long, with a rather com-

plicated pattern of grey dots .and marks. Dorsal line, pale, grey-edged, inter-

rupted by short grey cross-bars or v marks, and dotted on somites 3, 4, and 8.

Subdorsal lines, pale, grey-edged, interrupted; lateral lines, similar. A grey

sublateral shade on the fore-part of each somite, sometimes blackish on the

thoracic somites. Joints, paler, or: grey-marked. Somites 4-8 also have’ rather

large whitish sublateral marks. Underside, grey-suffused, with wavy grey lines.

Habit :—between strides it sways laterally from the hind claspers.

Foodplants :—Fraxinus and Acer, probably other trees also, in the Zagros

forest.

Pupal period, eight to fifteen days.

Cocoon :—oval, large and roomy, loosely woven amid leaves and _ litter.

The larva matures about midsummer, and the imago flies from July to October ;

perhaps there are two generations.

Scopula beckeraria Led. (Plate II, Figure 15).

Ova, laid singly or in clusters, on end: first greenish yellow, then coral

pink, dotted with darker red; finely sculpted longitudinally.

Larva :—slender, yellowish green until half growth, (then putty-coloured.

Skin, transversely wrinkled. Dorsal line, very faint except on the last three

somites, where it is fine, white and grey-edged; the white centre is less apparent

on the other somites. On the anterior part of each of the four most elongated

somites is a pair of distinct grey dorsal marks. The dorsal line is also grey-

marked on somites 11 and 12, especially when half-grown. Spiracles, black.

Head, pale, with faint grey markings. Somite 11 terminates in a_ pointed

dorsal flap bearing a pale bristle, somewhat like the lip of the anal orifice on

somite 12; somites 9 and to have a similar bristle only, and, indeed, the other

somites are similarly equipped with dorsal bristles. Feet and claspers, pale.

Underside pale; lines, obsolete. Lateral ridge, slightly obfuscated.

The larvae bred during the summer of 1939 were full grown about six

weeks after the laying of the eggs from which they hatched. .There are two

regular broods, a spring and an autumnal; apparently also there is a mid-

summer flight, at least this is so in Fars, at about 6000 feet.

Triphosa taochata Led. (Plate II, Figures 17, 18).

German collectors in the Middle East have speculated whether this was

not only a race of the European sabaudiata. It is certainly a close relative, but

the larva shows such definite differences from the descriptions of the latter

to which I have access that I incline to regard it as a good species.

The young larva is plump, lazy, apple-green, glossy; the dorsal line is

darker green and probably subcutaneous. Stigmata, whitish green. Spiracular

line, conspicuous, creamy white, joining across the rounded lip of the anal

orifice. Spiracles, very conspicuous, whitish, dark-rimmed. Head, small, pale

green, shielded by a hood-like thoracic plate. It feeds by night, resting by

day among the leaves where it is quite invisible. By day, however, large

numbers can be beaten out of very small bushes. (Fig. 17).

When mature,~ the larva is dark olive brown. The head is pale

brown, dappled with black, not remarkably glossy (i.e., very unlike that of

sabaudiata). Dorsal area, usually darker brown but sometimes paler;

in it the complete dorsal line and the interrupted subdorsal lines are

marked lightly in black, while the lateral stripe, in all forms, is very heavy

black. Below the lateral stripe is a pale yellowish area, marked with paralle!

lines after the same fashion as the dorsal area. This lateral area is edged

below with a less heavy black edging consisting of a series of dashes each

thickened: on the anterior part of the somite. Spiracles, pale, black-rimmed.

Setae yellow, black-circled. It rests by day on the lower stems and can there

be found by searching. (Fig. 18),

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Foodplant :—Rhamnus. .

At 5000 feet in Fars it pupates in April and produces imagines in May. Higher

in the Persian mountains, the imagines fly in June, and even later. It also

occurs at 2000 ft. in early summer in Iraqi Kurdistan.

Abraxas webrlii B-Salz and Brandt.

When young, the larva’s ground colour is pale green, and the longitudinal

lines are discontinuous; but in the last two instars the larva is yellowish white

with thick continuous black lines (one dorsal, two subdorsal and two lateral

on each side, and two sublaterals on each side below the spiracles). Spiracles,

black. The lower lateral line is partly interrupted above each spiracle. Under-

side, yellow-white. The head, thoracic plate, glossy anal plate, and all the

last somite are orange-brown; the anal plate is edged anteriorly with a black

transverse band, but only in the last instar. Thoracic,feet, orange, marked

with blackish. First pair of claspers, lightly marked with brown. ,

Foodplants :—Fraxinus and Acer, in the Fars forests at over 6000 ft. The

species does not occur among the ash-trees of the gardens of Persia.

Pupa :—light red-brown, glossy, in a slight cocoon among litter on the ground.

Larvae full-grown in late August produced imagines in mid-September. The

first brood flies at the end of May and in early June, both by day and at

night. It is extremely numerous during its brief season of flight.

Epitherina rhodopoleos Wehrli. (Plate IT, Figure 19).

Ova, oblong-oval, rather large for the size of the imago, rather narrower

at one end, purplish pink, glossy. Period :—two weeks.

Larva :—freshly hatched, yellow-grey, with brownish mouth and alimentary

canal. Later:—green, yellowish at joints, with white subdorsal lines, and

some other very faint yellowish lines, and two faint white ventral lines. The

upper lip of the anal orifice is marked with purple. ‘The colour is sometimes

quite bluish green.

Foodplants :—Amygdalus, Prunus, Crataegus.

The imago flies in Fars as early as February at 3000 ft., and as late as

April at 6-7ooo ft. The larva feeds up and pupates in early summer.

Tue Genus NYCHIODES.

Perhaps the most extraordinary fact of Brandt’s discoveries in Fars in

1937 was the introduction of six new species of Nychiodes, a genus of which

till then hardly more than that number of species were known, furthermore,

none of the known species were recorded from Fars, nor have I found any of

them there either. Evidently this genus is a speciality of the Southern Zagros ;

evidently too it is both vigorous and sensitive to environment, easily forming

new species in its haunts.

Of Brandt’s six new species I have been lucky enough to breed four ;

I partly describe the larva of a fifth, previously known, species here also. All

these larvae resemble each other in having sluggish habits, a fondness for

arching the body, three more or less developed pairs of dorsal spurs on somites

5, 6 and 7, and an orange collar. All, too, seem attached to Amygdalus and

Prunus. I found none, however, on the common Fars tree Amygdalus spartioides,

which has smooth glossy green stems with very few leaves; on this they

would be conspicuous; the geometrid larvae I have found on this tree were

all green, smooth, and held themselves straight. Nychiodes larvae are, however,

impossible to detect in a dense, twiggy bush such as is provided by the other

two species of Amygdalus (probably horrida and eburnea, the latter being the

robuster) and the Prunus, on which they also feed.

Nychiodes variabilis Brandt. (Plate II, Figures 28, 30, 31).

As the name denotes, the imago is very variable; but so also is the larva.

The ova are at first green, then reddish grey. Period; about a week.

The young larvae are ochreous, the dorsal area being darker on the posterior

somites. The spurs are blackish.

When full-grown, the pair of spurs on somite 6 is usually considerably

larger than those on 5 and 7; when well developed, these spurs are conical,

fleshy, slightly retrorse, and a similar smaller pair occurs on somite 11. But

later in the season these spurs fail to develop, so that the larva, in this respect,

EARLY STAGES. .OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC LIPIDOPTERA 6381

hardly differs from that of subfusca (vide sub); the spurs are best developed in

the larvae that have hibernated.

The markings vary too:—the colour may be pale grey, blackish, or bright

purple. The purple form usually has two white subdorsal lines and the dorsal

area is. considerably suffused with white too. The black dorsal line is inter-

rupted on somites 5 to 8 and accompanied on either side by a dark zigzag line.

The spiracles are black-rimmed. Curious to relate, the entire brood of larvae

reared from a female taken in mid-June on the Muk Pass, Fars, were of

this form, and in all these larvae the dorsal paired spurs were obsolescent.

Figure 30 shews one of these larvae. Figure 28 shews a similarly . coloured

and marked larva, taken earlier in the season, in which the spurs are better

developed.

The black and grey forms however !ack the white lines and suffusion of

the purple form, but they may have the spurs equally undeveloped. The dark

ae is light grey, heavily speckled with black; head, dark grey; dorsal area,

dark grey. Spiracles, black, set in a dark area and preceded by an _ oblique

dash usually orange-tinted. Anal somite, white-marked. Somites 7 and 8 are

pale grey laterally, and a dark zigzag line borders the dorsal area. In _ the

paler grey form, somite 8 is pale dorsally too; behind each pair of spurs is a

whitish, black-edged triangle, pointing backwards. The dorsal markings are

clearest on somites 4-7 and consist of an X on each somite except the eighth

and the thoracic somites. (Figure 31).

The first brood emerges in May and June; the second brood is partial,

only some of the larvae feeding up quickly.

As for the form leviata Brandt, I regard this as a mutation, not a distinct

species. I must confess that I have not bred it from one parent together with

the more ordinary form; but I have bred it from larvae which seemed identical.

I might add that I can only recognise leviata as distinct in the male sex.

Until both forms are reared from a single parent, however, these opinions

cannot be considered proved.

Foodplants :—Amygdalus, Prunus, Crataegus.

Nychlodes subfusca Brandt (Plate II, Figure 24).

Ova, long-oval, light brown with a green interior, and darker brown longi-

tudinal ridges. Period, ten days.

Larva :—more monotonously coloured than variabilis and equipped with a

greater number of small spines; in the generation bred, the paired spurs

typical of the genus were reduced in size in the last instar; this was a second

generation of larvae, some of which fed up quickly and produced a second

brood of imagines in August.

In the second instar the larvae is pale grey with blackish head and white

warts and a white sublateral area edged above with a thick zigzag purple line.

The paired spurs in this stage were short and fleshy, those on somite 6 being

more prominent. Behind the head are a number of conspicuous small spines,

and the white warts are spine-like in form. On somites 1-7 there are dark

dorsal cross-bars and shades. Third instar, similar.

Last instar :—pale grey more or less heavily dappled with iblackish grey,

especially on the head. Dorsal area of somites 1-7, darker grey, with three

black transverse bars on somites 5, 6 and 7 behind the paired spurs. Dorsal

line, grey, with fine darker edges; subdorsal lines, wavy, interrupted. The

spurs. are still fleshy but now very short, the pair on somite 6 being scarcely

more prominent than the others. (Whether this is so in the hibernating, first

brood larvae, I do not know.) Below the spiracle on somite 4 is an oblique

black bar. On somite 1 a, black lateral mark above the spiracle extends forward

onto the head, which has an interrupted fine black crossbar on top just in

front of the orange collar. Spiracles, purple brown, black-rimmed.

Foodplant :—Amygdalus and Prunus.

Pupa :—red-brown, glossy, with slightly prominent face; in a slight cocoon

under leaves.

The first brood comes to light in mid-June at 7ooo ft. in Fars. Much less

common than variabilis.

Nychiodes divergaria Stgr. (Plate II, Figure 25).

Small larvae of this species were found at night in November 1937 on old

apricot trees in a Bagdad orchard. A few weeks later duty took me to Tabriz,

whose winter they did not survive. I cannot therefore describe in detail the

632. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

mature larva, but I give a photo of a half-grown larva, from which it can be

seen that it somewhat resembles that of variabilis, with the spurs on somite 6

well developed. The species occurs in Kurdistan, and a very unusual race has

been described from the Elburz mountains.

Nychiodes farinosa Brandt. (Plate II, Figures, 20, 29).

This rare species seems to be the only one of the species occurring in Fars

to inhabit orchards; the others inhabit the scrub-clad mountain-sides. It is

only known from the mountains round Ardekan; I have taken specimens in

the gardens of Ardekan (7ooo feet) in late June.

The rather large ova are laid in a batch, are pale green, but turn pinkish-

grey on the second day.

Larva, freshly hatched:—pale greenish grey, with black sublateral marks

between the thoracic feet and claspers. Head, brown, marked with black.

Second instar :—yellowish green with paler warts and bristles; brown head;

no other dark markings.

Third instar :—pale greenish white, with a whitish lateral stripe. Head,

at first pale green-white, then yellow-brown, later dark brown. In mid-August

the larva, still in this instar, began to develop a brown tinge in parts, the

paired spurs on somites 6 and 11 becoming notably brown. On August 30th

the larva was about 3 inch long, and was green, tinged with brownish, except

for the anterior edge of somite 1 which was pale yellow-white. Spiracles,

black-rimmed. On somite 1 a fine oblique lateral line behind the head, just

above the spiracle (pointing backward-downwards); another fine oblique blackish

lateral bar on somite 4 (pointing forward-downwards). The paired spurs on

somite 6 are well-developed, straight, almost cylindrical, but broader at their

base, red-brown in colour; those on somite 11 are similar, but retrorse and

somewhat smaller. On 5 and 7 however there are two equally developed smaller

pointed warts on each somite. Head, knotched, dark-brown, edged with black

close to the collar; the orange, typical of the genus, is hardly perceptible here..

A brownish interrupted dorsal line can be traced, and there is a certain amount

of brownish low down on the sides. Figures 20 and 29 show larvae both in

the third instar, but the former is of the green form, while the latter shows

the appearance of the brown, hibernating larva.

I was obliged to leave Iran in March 1942 and was therefore unable to

complete the life-cycle of this species.

This larva from Ardekan ova was bred in Shiraz and Isfahan on cultivated

kinds of Prunus. It showed no inclination to grow fast and produce a second

generation. Hibernation began in November, in the 3rd instar.

Nychiodes admirabilis Brandt. (Plate II, Figures 21, 22).

This beautiful species is common among the large almond bushes 6-8000 feet

high in- the Fars mountains. The larva however is hard to breed in different

surroundings,

The Swiss entomologist Dr. Wehrli wrote to me that its peculiar structure

justified the erection of a new subgenus for it; the larva also diverges strikingly

in form from its congeners. The paired spurs on somites 5, 6, 7 and 11 are

remarkably developed, as shown in the photos, and those on 5 and 7 are practi-

cally equal in size to those on 6.

Ova :—large, oval, pale putty-coloured, laid in twos and threes, in strings;

in crevices. There is no great change in colour.

Larva, freshly hatched :—pale ochreous, marked with brown. Head, with

two black spots. Spurs, black. A week later black lateral spots were noted

on somites 6, 7 and 8. Later, it becomes grey dappled with rusty brown.

When half grown (Figure 22) its distinctive form is already marked: purple-

grey, with three pairs of prominent orange-coloured fleshy, almost bulbous,

spurs on somites 5, 6 and 7, and a similar smaller pair on 11. White lateral

marks on somites 4-8, and a pale lilac dorsal suffusion on somites 8 and 9;

head, distinctly knotched, its two points being brown; on the face, four

horizontal white bars. The pale suffusion extends as the larva grows larger.

Figure 21 shews a full-grown larva just before pupation; at this stage nearly

the whole larva is whitish grey suffused: the twig-like spurs now seem less

bulbous and are dark grey, the anal pair being retrorse and joined at the

base. Spiracles, white, black-rimmed. The spiracle on somite 4 is placed in

a grey-brown blotch and below a black wart. There are blackish warts on

somites 5, 6 and 7 just below the spiracles. On somite 10 there is a short

EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL PALEARCTIC LEPIDOPTERA _ 683

oblique blackish bar below the spiracle. The thoracic feet are orange, and

there are two short grey black-edged oblique bars, separated by a. white bar

on the side of each of somites 2 and 3, just above the feet. Head, whitish

brown. Somite 1 has five pairs of short black spines or pointed warts on

its anterior edge just behind the orange collar. There are no lateral orange

marks,

Pupa:—dark red-brown, with long pointed cremaster. Period, twenty-six

days.

One larva, from ova laid in mid-June, attained full growth at the end of

August, which shows .that a second brood is possible.

Imagines from Muk Pass (due south of Shiraz) are a sootier, greyer race

than those flying north and west of Shiraz, and I suggest the name safidaria

ssp. n. for them, after the Safidar range which begins southward from the Muk

Pass. The types of this new race are in my collection and were taken in

profusion on 15-6-41 at 6500 ft., to light.

Gnopkos hoerhammeri Brandt. (Plate II, Figure 26). —

A protuberance reminiscent of an Ennomos larva distinguishes this larva

from ,most of its congeners; presumalhly its close relative stevenarius Bsd. has

a similar structure, but I have not bred the more widely distributed species

yet.

Larva:—pale grey, darker on somites 1-3 and 9-13. On somite qa short

black cross-bar marks the posterior somital joint. Somite 5 has a similar bar

behind four prominent warts coloured darker grey. Somite 6 bears two large

black sublateral protuberances and a transverse dark bar underneath. Somites

g-I1 each bear a pair of conspicuous black setae. Head, small, dark grey.

Subdorsal lines, whitish just behind head. On somites 4-8 are five short

oblique dark lateral bars. Sometimes the larva is considerably suffused with

black.

Foodplant :—Amygdalus (?) eburnea, but fed on the cultivated species in

captivity.

Pupal period. in early July, eight days.

Gnophos dubitarius Stgr. (Plate II, Figure 27).

Ova:—oval, slightly flattened, pale green, then pinkish grey; laid flat,

singly or in irregular batches. Period, in March, 20 days.

Larvae, freshly hatched: dirty white with broad dark brown subdorsal stripes.

Later :—pale olive, with heavy olive-brown arrow-heads, pointing backwards,

on each side, especially dark on somites 4-8. Dorsal line, very faint, scarcely

continuous, olive brown. Setae, pale, prominent. Below the black spiracles

begins a darker olive brown ventral area. Feet, of this colour or rather paler.

Movements, slow, jerky; pose :—arched; if disturbed, shakes.

Foodplant :—Polygonum, etc.

The larvae grew up in about eight weeks and pupated in mid-June in slight

oval cocoons.

Pupa .—light brown.

REFERENCES.

W. Brandt :—Beitrag zur Lepidopteren-Fauna von Iran. Ent. Rundsch 1938-

39:

L. Schwingenschuss :—Beitrag zur Lepidopteren-auna von Iran. Ent Zeit.

52/3 Jahrg. 7

E. P. Wiltshire :—New Lepidoptera from S. W. Iran. Journ. Bombay Nat

Hist. Soc. Aug. 1941.

The last of these three works gives a brief description of the characteristic

vegetation of Fars, which will be of service to readers of the present work.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES TO ILLUSTRATE ‘EARLY STAGES OF ORIENTAL

PaLearctTic LEPIDOPTERA—V’—by E. P. Wiltshire.

Pate I.

Fig. 1.—Aporia crateaegi L. larva. (Fars).

Fig. 2.—Melanargia lavissa Hubn. larva. (Fars).

Fig. 3-—Thecla abdominalis Gerh. gerhardti. Riley. two larvae. (Fars).

Figs. 4, 9.—Cerura syra Gr-Gsh. larvae. (Lebanon) (9 is a white-suffused form).

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Figs. 5, 10.—Cerura turbida Brandt. larva. (Kars).

Figs. 6, 14, 15.—Ocneria audeoudi Brandt. larvae. (Fars).

Fig. 7+—Malacosoma castrensis L. kirghisica Stgr. larva. (Kars).

Fig. 8.—Lymantria amabilis Chr. larva. (Fars).

Fig. 11.—Porthesia melania Stgr. larva. (lars).

ig. 12.—Kriogaster amygdali Wilts. larva. (Fars).

Fig. 13.—Cerura sp. larva. (Tehran.).

Fig. 16.—Agrotis singularis Koll. larva. (Kars).

IPYADE elle

Figs. 1, 2.—Agrotis facunda Drdt. larvae. (Kars).

Fig. 3.—Klaphria bodenheimeri Drdt. larva (Fars).

Fig. 4.—Atethmia pallida Stgr. larva (Kermanshah).

Figs. 5, 7, 8.—Oncocnemis idioglypha Brdt. (Fars). (5: green form larvae.

7 and 8, grey form larvae and foodplant).

Fig. 6.—Brachionycha atossa Wilts. larva (Fars).

Fig. g.—kKnargia badiofasciata Drdt. larva (Fars).

Fig. 10.—Eumichtis muscosa Stgr. larvae (Fars).

- Figs. 11, 12.—Meganephria renalis Wilts. larvae (Fars).

Fig. 13.—Enargia abluta Hbn. larva (Elburz).

Fig. 14.—Catacala, lesbia Christ. larva (Fars).

Fig. 15.—Scopula beckeraria Led. larva (Iran).

Fig. 16.—Clytie distincla iranica Brdt. larva (Bushire).

Figs. 17, 18.—Tvriphosa taochata Led. young and mature larvae (Fars).

Fig. 19.—Epitherina rhodopoleos Wli. larva (Fars)..

Figs. 20, 29.—Nychiodes farinosa Brdt. immature larvae (Fars). (Fig. 20 x2,

as on 30-8-41: Fig. 21, during hibernation 1941-42).

Figs. 21, 22.—Nychiodes admirabilis Brdt. larvae (Fars). (Fig. 22: a half-grown

larva).

Fig. 23.—Gnophosema palumba Brdt. larva on food-plant (Fars.).

Fig. 24.—Nychiodes subfusca Brdt. larva (Fars.).

Fig. 25.—Nychiodes divergaria Brdt. immature larva (Bagdad).

Fig. 26.—Gnophos horhammeri Brdt. larva (Fars.).

Fig. 27.—Gnophos dubitarius Stgr. larva (Fars).

Figs. 28, 30, 31.—Nychiodes variabilis Brdt. larva (Fars.).

(N.B. The figures in the plates are considerably, but not uniformly, en-

larged).

FISH-EATING BATS OF INDIA AND BURMA.

Dr. E. W. GUDGER.

Honorary Associate in Ichthyology.

American Museum of Natural History, New York City.

(With 1 plate and 4 text-figures).

To many readers the title of this article alleges a perfectly pre-

posterous manner of life for these winged mammals. All dwellers

in temperate regions know their bats to be insect-feeders and it is

a logical presumption that those of tropical India and Burma are

also insectivorous. There are good reasons for believing that all

bats in their earliest history were insect-feeders. This is evidenced

by the fact that by far the greatest number of species living today

are insectivores. However, there are in both the Old World and

the New many forms which have fallen from grace and have become

vegetarians—fruit-eaters. Then there are some few species which

seem to be ‘middle-of-the-road’ or transitional forms in their manner

of feeding. Departing -still further from the primeval mode of life

are certain American bats which catch and eat fishes, while in India

-and Burma bats of one genus are known to feed on various verte-

brates, including fishes.

Now, since bats are nocturnal animals and do their feeding at

night or at best at twilight, observations of their fish-catching are

made with difficulty. As a result, the proofs of this most unusual

habit have been accumulated slowly and stumblingly.

Apparently no one has as yet seen any Old World bats in the

act of catching and eating fishes—we have only allegations. One

set of these, however, indisputably establishes the fact that certain

Indian bats do eat fishes, the other falls to earth. The accounts

published by the allegers are widely scattered and are buried in

technical books and journals. I have had much pleasure in digging

out these accounts and putting them in order for this article. If

the reader finds herein something of that pleasure, I shall be repaid.

INDIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BATS CATCH AND EAT FISHES.

The first of the accounts now to be given is interestingly enough

the first recorded intimation that any bat anywhere in the world

ever caught and ate a fish. It was published nearly one hundred years

ago in the body of a technical article bearing a very non-informative

title, as the bibliographical reference (Blyth, 1844) shows. Here it

long remained securely hidden from all but a little handful of students

of Indian bats—all of whom quoted the fact without giving the

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiil

source. But thanks to long practice in running down obscure refer-

ences, I finally traced it to the original publication.

This bat, Megaderma lyra, which is widely distributed through-

out India, belongs to the insectivorous group but because of its

carnivorous ‘habits is called the false vampire bat. Its name,

Megaderma (large skin), is possibly given in allusion to its enormous

ears, SO prominent in the picture of its head. It is called a false

vampire because, while it does not suck the blood of man (as the

American vampire is known to do), it has been shown that it feeds

on various small vertebrate animals. Its feeding on a smaller bat

was vividly described as early as 1842 by Edward Blyth from a

personal observation. Furthermore this attack was begun while

both bats were in the air and was concluded after both had been

put in a cage. Since then the Indian vampire has been found to

prey also on small birds, on mice and on lizards. In feeding on

bats, it first sucks their blood and then eats the flesh.

The picture of the head drawn

in front view (fig. 1), with its huge

ears and their bipronged lappets,

the staring eyes having between

them the curious. fleshy nasal

appendage, and especially the pro-

minent sharp-pointed canine teeth,

portrays a nightmarish — animal

which, if it were larger, one would

not care to meet in the dark. In

an animal with such an_ aspect,

one might expect the bloodthirsti-

ness indicated above. Furthermore,

from our point of view there is

evidence that it also feeds on frogs

and fishes. Yet Megaderma lyra

is a small bat, with head and body

Fig, 1.—Head (front view) of Mega- only three to four inches long and

derma (big ears), the -Indian false a wing-spread of fourteen to nine-

vampire _bat—the first bat ever con- {een inches.

victed of fish-eating. I 8 Bivtl CeO nate?

After Sterndale, 1884. en ay SEY BERGEN so

Mr. Frith a letter in which evid-

ence was given that this bat eats fishes. Frith (about whom I have

no information) had read Blyth’s earlier account of the cannibalistic

predilections of the Indian vampire and wrote Blyth of his own

observations. Blyth published this information as follows:

ft,

ai;

Mr. Frith informs me that a number of these [Indian false vampire] bats

(\legaderma lyra) were in the habit of resorting to the verandah of his residence

in Mymunseng, and that every morning the ground under them was _ strewed

with the hindquarters of frogs, and the wings of large grass-hoppers and crickets :

on one occasion the remains of a small fish were observed; but frogs appeared

to constitute their chief diet—never toads: and on a quiet evening these animals

[bats] could be distinctly heard crunching the heads and smaller bones of their

victims.

It may be remarked just here that other Indian false vampire

bats seem to like to associate with man—as is seen in: their well-

known habit of bringing their prey to the verandahs of houses and

FISH-EATING. BATS OF INDIA AND BURMA 637

even into the houses, and there devouring it while hanging by

their hind feet to the wall or to the cross timbers. That the Indian

vampire is entirely capable of ‘crunching the heads and smaller bones’

of its fish prey is readily understandable when one sees the strong

jaws and pointed teeth portrayed in the skull shown in fig. 2.

Fig. 2.—Skull and lower jaw (lateral view) of Megaderma lyra, the Indian

false vampire bat. Note the large canine and the sharp-pointed molar teeth with

which it ‘crunches’ its frog and finny prey.

After Blanford, 1888.

The older writers on the mammals of India—Jerdon (1874),

Sterndale (1884), and Blanford (1888)—repeat Frith’s statement made

to Blyth in 1844, but add nothing as to the piscivorous habits of

the big-eared vampire. Thus matters stood for many years—until

in 1929—when T. B. Fry published in this Journal notes on a col-

lection of mammals made in the Taungoo district in Burma by

J. M. D. Mackenzie. Fry quotes Mackenzie that three specimens

of Megaderma were collected. Of their habits Mackenzie wrote:

I can confirm Mr. Frith’s remarks . .. [quoted by Blyth]-in every respect.

The beasts used to drop frogs’ hindquarters, etc., on my mosquito curtain.

On one occasion a mouse’s head was picked up. Remains of small fish were

found, though how bats catch a fish, | am not prepared to guess. Frogs and

mice would seem to present sufficient difficulties, even allowing the beast to

have the powers of a hawk or owl.

These deposits of ‘frog’s hindquarters, remains of small fish, etc.’

on Mackenzie’s mosquito curtain are proof positive of the aquatic

activities and piscivorous proclivities of this little false vampire.

From the eye-witness testimony of Blyth and others, it is

established that one Indian vampire bat on occasion backslides from

its original insectivorous mode of life to prey on small bats, birds,

lizards and rodents; and it is probable that all species of the genus

Megaderma have like habits. Further, from the testimony of Frith

in 1844 and Mackenzie in 1929, one cannot doubt that these animals

feed on fishes and frogs—water-dwellers. Dissection only is lacking

to clinch the point. How they catch these frogs and fishes is a

matter for future observers to settle. But, as we shall now see,

one observer thought that he had solved the enigma.

THE FLiyinc Fox—AN ALLEGED FISH-CATCHER.

Krom Indian insectivorous bats, which do catch and eat fishes,

we now turn to an Indian fruit-eater, which in 1863 was alleged to

catch fishes. This is the flying fox, Pteropus, a much larger tat

6388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

than the false vampire considered above. The flying foxes vary in

length of body from fourteen to sixteen inches, and in wing-spread

from forty-six to fifty-two inches. In great numbers they roost in

trees, hanging head downward as shown in the accompanying plate.

To give point to the name flying fox, there is reproduced here

Sterndale’s figure of the long fox-like head (fig. 3).

Fig. 3.—Close-up view of the head of a flying tox. ‘This figure clearly shows

how well the name fits this bat. Compare it with that of the head of the false

vampire (fig. -1). After Sterndale, 1884.

One glance at it makes unnecessary any comment on the fitness

of the name. But it may be noted that there is nothing here to

suggest bloodthirstiness or flesh-eating habits such as is to be seen

in the little vampire (fig. 1). Pteropus is an insectivorous mammal

which in long ages has turned fruit-eater. |

It is recorded as an ‘alleged’ fish-eater, and the ‘alleger’ was

one Dr. John Shortt, presumably a medical man, of Chingleput,

India. In 1863 he wrote about this frugivorous bat as follows:

‘At about 6 p.m. on the 30th of April last [1863], when at Conjeeveram,

my attention was attracted to a tank next the Dispensary, which, owing to a

light shower of rain which had just fallen, literally seemed alive with small

fish gambolling and jumping about in the water. There was nothing new in

this; but my attention was drawn to a number of large birds with a somewhat

heavy flight, hovering over the water and seizing with their feet the fish, with

which they then made off to some tamarind trees on the bund of the tank,

to devour them at their leisure, I suppose.

On a closer examination, I discovered that what I had imagined were birds

were none other than flying foxes, the Pteropus edulis. After watching them

fishing for some time, | had to leave, owing to the darkness of the evening.

I returned to the tank the next evening half an hour earlier, and again witnessed

the same occurrence.

1 then got my assistant, Mr. Watson, to bring his gun and shoot some,

so that I might satisfy myself as to the identity of these animals. Mr. Watson

shot some two or three whilst in the act of seizing their fishy prey, and on

examination I found them to be actually flying foxes. During a second visit,

on the 5th and 6th of June, I obServed the same thing occur again.

1 am not aware of the fishing propensities of this animal ever having been

noticed, for I find no account of them in any work on natural history that I

have ever had opportunities of consulting on the subject. This habit of the

flying fox appearing new to me, I send this communication, as there may be

others who, have witnessed the same thing; and if made known, this would, I

am sure, prove of interest to the naturalist.’

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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FISH-EATING BATS OF INDIA AND BURMA 639

Now Shortt was a medical man, presumably trained in dissecting.

Having at hand specimens of the bat killed in the very act of the

alleged fishing, it is the height of absurdity that he made no dissec-

tions, to prove or disprove his conjecture that they catch and eat

fishes. Hence, although his letter was published in the Proceedings

of the Zoological Society of London in 1863, and republished in 1864

in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, from the standpoint

of showing the flying fox to be a fish-catcher, it is not worth the

paper on which it was printed.

The early students of Indian bats all note the habit of Pteropus

of skimming the water in the evening. Two of them have com-

mented on Shortt’s communication. Thus Blanford states that he

has often seen Pteropus swoop down over ponds, at which time

‘, . . the water is just touched, I believe, by the tongue or lower

jaw. Ihave no doubt that some water is drunk’. Last of all Jerdon

writes that this fruit-eater swings down to touch the water lightly,

and states that ‘I could not ascertain if they took a sip or merely

dipped part of their bodies in’. Then he adds this brief reference

to Shortt: “A recent writer, on observing this, has jumped to the

conclusion that they do this for the purpose of fishing’. (And I

may add that ‘jumped’ is a good word.)

Having seen in The Field (London, 1889, April 6) a communica-

tion with a reference. to Shortt on fishing bats, a person signing

himself ‘Keswal’, at 'Alibag, British India, sent to the same journal

(1889, June 1, p. 767) a note on the subject. In this he tells of

seeing Pteropus bats skimming over water, disturbing the surface

much less than would a swallow one-tenth their size. This was

always on fresh, never on salt water. He never saw anything being

taken—water, insects or fishes. Nor could he detect any action of

the interfemoral membrane or of the claws. The membrane is small

and ‘Keswal’ does not think that it could be used to catch fishes.

In brief, ‘Keswal’s’ verdict is that of ‘not proven’.

The latest word on this alleged habit is from McCann, who in

this Journal in 1935 published a careful study of the flying fox,

Pteropus. He quotes Shortt’s letter in full and dissects it skilfully.

From a study of many specimens he finds that it is not proved that

they eat fishes, but that it is well known that they do eat pulpy

fruits, for which their flattened molar or grinding teeth with grooved

crowns are well suited; and that the feet are so constructed that

they serve only as ‘hangers’ to suspend the bat from a branch

(vide plate). The bats hang heads down and eat fruit without detach-

ing it, or if it is detached, ‘hold it in the folded extremities (‘‘wrists’’)

of both wings’. Dissection of more than ten specimens killed early

in the morning after feeding all night, revealed stomachs and intes-

tines filled with viscous fluid only—without trace of fish remains.

Had Shortt done this, he would never have made his egregious

error. !

Inspection of the figure of the skull of a flying fox (fig. 4) shows

that it has fairly sharp canine teeth, while the grinders (especially

in the lower jaw) are broad and blunt. These teeth are adapted

for fruit-eating, while those of the false vampire (shown earlier) all

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

have cusps adapted for piercing the hard exoskeletons of insects or

the scales of fishes.

lig. 4.—Side view of skull and lower jaw of the Indian flying fox, Pteropus.

The canine teeth are pointed for grasping, but the molars (especially the lower

ones) are blunted and flattened for crushing pulpy fruit.

After Blanford, 1888.

The evidence presented as to the feeding habits of the false

vampire bats is conclusive as to their preying on vertebrates. They

have been seen to capture and eat. bats, birds and lizards; and

underneath their sleeping places have been found fragments of these

animals, of mice and other small rodents, and of frogs and fishes.

They have not been seen in the act of catching fishes nor have any

fish remains ever been found in their stomachs. However, the

presence of such remains under their roosts proves that they eat

fishes, and to eat fishes, they must catch them. Perhaps some

reader of this article may have the good fortune to see and describe

how the fishes are caught.

On the other hand, flying foxes have been seen skimming over

the surface of a pond at twilight and the conclusion has been drawn

that they were fishing. Though specimens were killed, their stomachs

were not dissected. But years later examination revealed that the

stomachs of specimens dissected after a night’s feeding contained

nothing but a ‘viscous fluid’. Thus while it is alleged that the

flying foxes catch fishes, the allegation is what Mr. Kipling would

call ‘an Indian solar myth’.

REFERENCES.

Blyth, Edward., 1844.—Notices of some Mammalia, etc. Journ. Asiatic Soc.

Bengal, n.s. 18 (Megaderma, a fish-eater, p. 480).

Fry, T. B., 1929.—Notes on a Collection of Mammals from Taungoo, Burma.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 338 (Megaderma, the Indian vampire bat, a fish-

eater, p. 643).

Keswal, 1889.—Fish-eating Bats. The Field, London, June 1, p. 767.

McCann, Charles.—Notes on the Flying Fox (Pteropus giganteus). Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 37, pp. 143-149.

Shortt, John, 18603.—On the Fishing Propensities of the Pteropus [Bat] of

India, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 438-439. Also Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

1864, 3. ser. 14, p. 140.

Sterndale, Robert A., 1884.—Natural History of the Mammalia of India,

Calcutta, (Bats—Pteropus and Megaderma, pp. 37-43, figures).

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Pee.

General view of Mt. Abu from the top of a hill.

Photos by C. McCann

of the Abu Hills (in the back-

Guru Shikar, 5,650 ft., the highest peak

ground).—Clouds over the valley.

tab RAINS COME TO THE ABU HILLS*-

CHARLES. McCann, F.L.S.

(With a plate).

The hot weather in the Abu Hills is nearing its close. The

grey rocks radiate the heat of a fierce sun. The grass is crushed

to dust under foot. Many trees are leafless. Birds sit gaping.

Like walking skeletons clad in parchment, cattle roam about in

search of grazing. When will the rains break? The koel, as

though mocking at the efforts of King Sol, rends the vibrating air

with its noisy, monotonous calls. Of course it 1s happy, it has

quite recently hoodwinked the jungle crow and forced upon it its

own parental duties. Poor crow ! though you have been proverbially

gifted with a. wise head, you cannot differentiate between your own

young and those of the koel!. The koel is now getting ready to

shirk anew its parental duties.

While the koel was busy cuckolding the jungle crow, another

cuckoo, the pied crested cuckoo |Clamator jacobinus (Bodd.) |

victimised the jungle babbler (Turdoides terricolor sindianus Ticehst.)

As the month of June wanes on the voice of the koel is seldom heard.

It quits the hills for the plains where the common crow (C. splendens

Vieill.) is now nesting. The common crow with all its shrewdness

is saddled with the care of the koel’s young. At about the same

time as the koel departs from the hills, yet another cuckoo arrives

to take its place. This time it is the true cuckoo, from the call of

which the family gets its name, namely, the Asiatic cuckoo (Cuculus

canorus telephonus Heine). Without the clockwork regularity of the

cuckoo clock, it punctuates the air with its plaintive mellow notes.

In Tod’s Travels in Western India, p. 99, there are the following

references to this cuckoo :—

‘While, from an umbrageous peepul, the Kamérie* poured forth

his monotonous but pleasing notes, amidst the stillness of a lovely

scene, when the last tint of sunset ‘illuminated the dark hues of the

surrounding woods.’ (June 13, 1822).

again, p. 113:——The Kamérie’, as usual unseen, uttered its welcome

note, and the strong, clear voice of the blackbird* issued from a

dark coppice, whence stole a limpid brook, all serving to remind me

of the almost forgotten land to which I was about returning.’

(June 13, 1822).

The voices of the cuckoo and the blackbird made Tod feel a little

1 In my previous article on Abu (Vol. xliii, 206) I stated that Guru Sikar

is the highest point between the Himalayas and the Nilgiris—my authority’ for

this was the Gazetteer (New Ed. 1908). In the light of more recent knowledge

this statement must be erased as a peak in Mysore, known as Mulainagiri is

6,317 ft.—nearly 4oo ft. higher !

* This appellation of the cuckoo is derived from Kama, the God of Love,

whose’ emblems. are peculiarly appropriate, being. a bow and arrow composed

of roses and jessamine, and other flowers in which the Hindu poet allows no

thorn to lurk.’

3 Cuculus t. telephonus.

* Turdus merula,

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

home-sick; after all both these birds are hardly separable from their

Kuropean ita, only that they have settled in different lands.

The Asiatic cuckoo is less ambitious than its kinsfolk for, unlike

the koel, it lays its eggs in the nests of small birds, such as shrikes,

chats, larks, pipits and wagtails—foster parents all much smaller

than the foster children, and what-a job these little ‘parents’ have

to keep the enormous cavity filled !—-a cavity sometimes large enough

to engulf the feeder! Again, unlike the koel, this cuckoo does not

restrict its activities to the hills, but is common in the plains as well.

Its hosts breed above and below. Its flight is very hawk-like and

as soon as it takes to wing there is broadcast a general warning as

though some bird of prey threatened. It will often sit in the same

tree for a considerable time and pipe its song; with tail fanned out

and wings dropped; the head is moved backwards and forwards -

with each note, and the whole body moyed round in a semicircle.

The whole behaviour is much like that of a courting pigeon.

Many a flower has passed into fruit. The curanda (Carissa

Carandas L.) remains in fruit much later than it does on the Western

Ghats—it is still in fruit at the end of July, whereas on the ghats

fruiting is usually over by the end of May or middle of June. The

red-vented bulbul [ Molpastes cafer (L.)| takes full advantage of this

source of food supply and continues to breed. I found nests with

eggs, newly hatched young, and fledged young at the end of

July! Having remarked on the late fruiting of the curanda it 1s

worth noting that many of the deciduous trees which were in full

foliage a month or more ago in the Ghats were yet leafless, or only

just putting out new ieee Accordingly, the flame of the forest

(Butea frondosa Koenig), which flowers round about Bombay in

January and February does not bloom till March or April about Abu.

Going by train yet further north the same tree is found to flower later

still. A typical example of the differences brought about by climatic

change.

Silently the mists creep over the hills, and shed a portion of their

moisture, only to be evaporated as it touches mother earth—she is

thirsty. The rains at last! The first showers are a signal for

great activity, both above in.

Dormant Nature rises once more to a brief spell of intense activity

and later will go to rest again—the ebb and flow of life. It is July,

the violence of the winds increases and brings along the mists, and

soon the hills are shrouded in vapour—Abu is in the clouds! The

air is cool and the cuckoo is more often heard, but the koel is silent—

it has gone. Water rushes over the earth, but soon, disappears down

the numerous water-courses. The hot rocks return part of it as

steam. Birds flit gleefully about in the first showers—they sing

their thanksgiving to the great ‘Rain God’, and pipe to Venus for

success in the marriage market—it is breeding time for many of

them. My ‘sentries’ on the hills were to keep” me informed of the

weather conditions—I was out to catch the early monsoon plants.

According to plan, to use a well-worn phrase, I found myself on

another ‘Busman’s Holiday’ back again in Abu on the 3rd July.

It was quite a different picture from the one I had seen some

months back. Where pulverized plant dust covered the ground,

THE RAINS. COME TO THE ABU HILLS 643

now appeared the new grass, and the scorched rock faces were

matted with green and other hues—yes, altogether different to the

drab grey and khaki of the dry weather. :

The appearance of the beautiful sprays of pink flowers of an

epiphytic orchid (Aerides) heralded the change. Some sprays were

still to be seen on my arrival; they were to ty found almost every-

where, on trees, bushes, and even on rocks, most of them facing

southwest, the side from which the monsoon was to come, and the

direction the wind blew at the time of the seed dispersal. Tod

(l.c. p. 114) makes a passing reference to this orchid. Abu is poor

in orchids. Besides the Aerides, a little rain sends up a handsome

yellow ground orchid, EKulophia ochreata Lindl. ‘At first it raises

its yellow plume to the heavens, but this is soon followed by the

broad leaves folded fanwise in bud. About the middle of the month

(July) appear the leaves of three terrestrial orchids, all Habenarias,

much less attractive than the two mentioned above, and just inter-

esting enough for botanists to quarrel over ! Strangely enough

members of “he 15 ihaceae and Amaryllidaceae are very scarce in these

hills.

In the cracks and crevices of the rocks appear curiously folded

leaves, sometimes in clusters, at others in long lines, according to

the situation. They soon nrold to betray their true identity—a

member of the Arum lily family with a ‘forbidding’ name, Sauroma-

tum guttatum Schott. The corms were lying hidden below ground.

The plant generally flowers in the cold season, about February, and

the leaves appear during the rains. The flower is no beauty—the

spathe is a long strap-like affair coloured like decomposing flesh and

with an odour to match—the right sort to attract carrion insects

(flies) which carry the pollen from one flower to another, and thus aid

in fertilization. Flowers are produced only by corms of a certain

size, and the size and shape of the leaves vary in accordance with

the age or size of the plant. Most of the members of this Order

of plants, Araceae, have the tissues filled with needle-like crystals—

a reason why many of them cannot be used as food. The crystals

set up a fearful irritation in the mouth and other membranes, and

if too numerous give rise to alarming conditions. However, for

the first time I discovered that Sauromatum was eaten. Some of the

locals collect the leaf stalks and prepare them as a vegetable. Boil-

ing often destroys the crystals.

The irritation caused by the crystals reminds me of an ineident

which took place when one of the school ‘bearers’ saw my son

collecting some corms for me. Suspecting that the lad was

collecting them to eat, the bearer warned him against them. Im-

pishly, my son replied that he had already eaten two! The man

disbelieving him at first asked him to put out his tongue—there was

nothing wrong with it. Accordingly he put aside his caution and

chewed a couple of bits! All I need say, being a school servant

he should have known boys better; he hastened to the cook for

some butter to ease his suffering. This incident takes me back

to my own school days. Stories are still current among the Jesuit .

Fathers of the trouble I caused them by eating wild plants and

fruits. Other boys tried to imitate me, but very often ate the wrong

644 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

thing much to the discomfort of themselves and the infirmarian !

Being a lad who had passed my childhood in the districts and with

the local people I. knew many of the plants that could be eaten.

Catching snakes was another grievous fault of mine in those days,

and still is. It was the cause of much anxiety to my parents and

the good Fathers. Well, I am still alive !—the Devil looks after

his own. |

Two other members of the Araceae occur, (a) Remusatia vivipara

Schott—a partially epiphytic species, and (b) Colocasia antiquorum

Schott—a wild form of the edible plant. Along with Sauromatum.

Or apart grows a member of the Canna family—a Curcuma—with a

pinkish ‘brush’ of bracts which partially hide the yellowish flowers.

The layman usually mistakes the entire inflorescence for either a

flower or a series of flowers and consequently overlooks the flowers

themselves. The canna-like leaves appear shortly after the spike and

betray the true relationship. The flowers soon fade, but the spike

persists for quite a time.

Shortly after the first showers many are the botanical curiosities

that appear, and if the botanist wishing to study them is not on

“the spot at the right time, he just ‘missed the bus’ and will have

to wait for the next season. The curiosities are too many to be

recorded individually, but I cannot pass on without mentioning

couple. A curious little fern, which grows in suitable rocky, places

is the Snake’s Tongue fern (Ophioglossum). Two species occur.

From the layman’s point of view these ferns are insignificant looking

little plants, in fact, he would scarcely recognise them to be ferns,

but to the botanist they are wonders! Several other ferns now

begin to uncoil themselves—the leaves protruding in corners like

groups of question marks. Here and there I saw some twining

plants which looked suspiciously like the beginnings of a genus of

the A sclepiadaceae, Ceropegia, a genus I am particularly interested

in. My suspicions were soon confirmed as I eventually found it

in flower—it was a Ceropegia and one I had not seen before. In

the Western Ghats near Bombay, Ceropegias are not common;

mainly, I think, for the reason that the locals always dig them up

for the sake of the tubers which are eaten either raw or cooked.

Though the ‘Abuites’ know the food value of the tubers they do

not seem to worry about them to the same extent as the people dc

in the ghats.

A host of insects and other animals respond to the rain. The

once silent nocturnal air, only disturbed by the occasional “dung

roller’, was now full of the whir of insects’ wings. The ‘grand

opera’ of the amphibians rends the still air. The frogs and toads,

with their croaks and piping's rejoiced vociferously—it was breeding

time. Just as a musician can pick out the tones of one instrument

from many, so also the trained ear of the naturalist can identify the

voices of the various species in the amphibian concert. There were

toads, Bufo melanostictus and B.. andersoni; the burrowing frog,

(Rana breviceps Schneider) and the skipper (R. cyanophlictis

Schneider); these four were the main voices. Now and again the

bass of a bull-frog (R. tigrina Daud.) punctuated the chorus. This

hilarity commenced at dusk and stopped at dawn—daylight droye

THE RAINS COME TO THE ABU HILLS 645

the revellers to hiding. After a couple of weeks the amphibians

turned their attention to feeding—there were plenty of insects about.

In my previous paper on Abu I did not record B. andersom Bouleng.

and R, breviceps as occurring on these hills, but now I found them

to be plentiful and breeding. These two bring the total of Abu

frogs to seven. Of these, all with the exception of B. andersom

occur in the Western Ghats. Microhyla ornata Boulenger and R.

breviceps I have not found on the plain.

If insects spell food to frogs, frogs mean food to snakes.

Accordingly the snakes made their appearance in fair numbers.

Abu has its quota of the ‘big four’, the cobra, the Russell’s viper,

the common krait and the saw-scaled viper. The last two I ‘did not

record in my previous paper, namely, Bungarus caeruleus Daud.

and Echis carinata Merr. Echis is usually a terrestrial beast, but at

Abu | discovered it took to climbing during the rains, evidently in

order to get out of the wet. The first time I ever saw an Echis up

a tree was in Cutch and | accordingly remarked on it in my paper

on the Reptiles of Cutch. In Cutch it had evidently climbed up to

get out of the long grass into the morning sun, as animals usually

do. Fr. Hippolytus, having read my article on the Reptiles of

Cutch, wrote to me as follows :—

‘LT would like to say that the Echis carinata is very often found

in trees—chiefly during the monsoon—. When in the jungle near

Dohad and going on horseback to the villages I have seen it often

basking on the broad leaf of Butea frondosa—at the height of a

man on_horseback. I have knowledge of 2 of my people being

bitten by them on trees—one was bitten in the rst finger of his

left hand and he chopped it off at once with his axe. The other was

bitten in the back as he was coming down from a tree. The Bhils

KNOW it well and call it “‘galtar kot’’, for them the viperids are not

‘“samp”’ (snake) they are “‘kots’’. They call this “‘galtar’’ because it

causes the bitten part to rot—‘‘galwun’’.’

The behaviour of Echis in Abu during the rains certainly con-

firmed this point. A specimen killed while in a bush contained

the remains of a burrowing frog.

Among the harmless species of snakes not mentioned in my pre-

vious paper, there are (1) common cat snake (Dipsas_ trigonata

Boie) a dark form much resembling Echis in colour and habit. It

may easily be mistaken for the latter; (2) Forstein’s cat snake

(Dipsas forstenii Giinth.), a specimen was killed) by the boys in

St. Mary’s High School; (3) the trinket snake (Coluber helena

Daud.) is quite common; (4) the common wolf snake (Lycodon

aulicus Boie) is also met with; (5) the python (Python molurus) is fre-

quently killed by the Bhils; (6) the small: blind snake’ (Typhlops,

probably brahminus) a specimen was discovered under a stone by

my son Trevor but unfortunately it escaped later. This is the first

Typhlops 1 have seen in these hills. This brings the total number

of the species of snakes met with in Abu to eleven. The discovery

of Forstein’s cat snake, I believe, constitutes an extension of its

range.

' Since writing, my son sent me two specimens of T, brahminus,

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The common monitor (Varanus monitor Smith) appeared to be

more frequent than at other times. The day I arrived my son, Carl,

came to greet me with a three-footer over his shoulder as though

it were a tame squirrel—he took it about with him like a dog on

a leash! I could never understand why the animal never made an

attempt to bite him—he handled it most carelessly. A few days

later he caught another, somewhat bigger than his ‘pet’ but very

much less docile. ‘Suffering Cats! another naturalist in the house’

said Ma. ‘Hav’nt I enough with one?’. The monitor is responsi-

ble for the destruction of many ground-breeding birds, however it

also keeps in check a lot of vermin. Between the monitor and the

mongoose the feathered game must suffer a good bit. The blood-

sucker (Calotes versicolor Daud.) was breeding. One female

contained eggs about to be laid—a few days after capture she voided

16 eggs. The geckoes (Hemidactylus brookei Gray) and (H. flavi-

viridis Rippell) were common. A small skink’ [Ablepharus gray-

anus (Stoliczka)| was not uncommon among the dead leaves in

the forests. The little animals, barely more than three inches long,

were difficult to catch as they glided in and out of the fallen leaves.

This discovery constitutes a new record in the distribution of this

lizard, as the localities quoted in the Fauna (2nd Ed, Vol. II, p. 312)

are:-—Sind, Karachi; Waggur district, Cutch; Las Bela State,

Quetta district, Baluchistan. At the time when I collected this

creature I had my hands full of plants and no receptacle to put it

into, so I put it under my hat. I had accidently killed it with my

stick. A few yards further on I took off my hat, forgetting I had

the lizard under it. It was only after I had gone some distance away

that I remembered it. I searched the hat, but there was no lizard.

Back I went to the spot where I had removed my hat and spent a

good fifteen to twenty minutes searching for the animal without

success, and gave it up as lost. On my return home I re-searched

my hat and turned out the lining but could find nothing. Some

time later when I sat down to write up my notes I ran my fingers

through my hair. There was something there, which when I re-

moved it, turned out to be the missing lizard! Thus a new record

might have been lost, for it was only on my return to Bombay that

I was able to establish the identity of this ‘rarity’.

The common myna [Acridotheres tristis (Linn.)] nested in the

date palms and convenient holes in masonry. The brahminy

myna [Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin)] which I have not noted

at other seasons paraded a family on every grass slope in search of

food. The jungle babbler (Turdoides) followed its example. By

the middle of July the pied crested cuckoo had departed. The

Indian robin [Saxicoloides fulicata (Linn.)| and the pied wagtail

[Motacilla 1. maderaspatanensis (Gmelin)| were also engaged on

domestic duties. Among the leaf bases of the date palm the rufous-

backed shrike (Lanius schach Linn.) reared its family. The black-

capped black bird (Turdus simillimus) was in full song almost

1 Since writing, my son sent me two specimens of another small skink,

Riopa punctata (Gmelin) Smith—a welcome addition to the list of Abu lizards,

THE RAINS COME TO THE ABU HILLS 647

everywhere and was evidently breeding. It is only during the

breeding season that this bird is in full song. It sits high up in a

tree and pours forth its delightful liquid notes; at other times o1

the year | have only heard the familiar chuck-chuck-chuck—a warn-

ing note. I have not noticed this bird on the hill at other seasons.

The red-rumped swallow (Hirundo durica Linn.) collected mud for a

future home. The crested bunting |Melophus melanicterus

(Gmelin) | moved about in couples and were apparently breeding.

foras and white-eyes also seemed to have their family cares. The

white-breasted kingfisher [Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.)| breeds in

the hills. My son tound a nest with four fledged young. From the

remains outside the nest, crabs seem to have figured largely is

their diet. The pied kingfisher (Ceryle rudis Linn.) which is seen

during the dry season was not found at all. ‘The fantail flycatcher,

the yellow-cheeked tit |Machlolophus xanthogenys (Vigors)| and

Tickell’s blue flycatcher | Muscicapa tickelliae (Blyth) | to judge from

their behaviour. were also worried with domestic cares. The brown

rock-chat |Cercomela fuscu (Blyth)| was very common and true

to its name tenanted almost every stretch of rock. It was in full

song and apparently breeding. Parrots though common enough

during the dry season were less frequent, but in the plains they were

seen in somewhat large flights on the nim trees. This is just a

brief list of some of the birds. noted.

The filling of the streams was welcomed by the fish fraternity.

The streams rise and fall very rapidly according to the extent of

the downpour. The small fish that inhabit them take advantage

of each rise and try to get upstream; Danio aequipinnatus (Mic-

Clelland) is one of them and is abundant. ‘They can be clearly seen

trying to clear the ‘rapids’, some try to jump clear and are often

stranded in the effort, others try to run up in the shallow water

flowing over the rocks. . The locals know their habits and wait for

them at suitable points and handpick them and hurl them ashore

to jump to death and be gathered up later. Among the rocks is

also another fisherman, the checkered water snake (Tropidonotus

piscator). It is often seen trailing about with a ‘silver tongue’ pro-

truding from its mouth—a catch.

st this season butterilies are singularly scarce. The only species

I saw were Ixias pyrene (Linn.), Huphina n. _evegate Cr., Belenois

mesentina Cr., Terias sp. and a grass blue Lycaenid; and these

{oo were few and far between.

Between spells of fever in bed and rambles in the forest my holi-

day soon passed, only to regretiully discover that I could not do

all I had intended to do, in spite of a short extension of leave, due

to my ill health. Nevertheless, | made several interesting discoveries

and was able to amplify my notes very considerably. A naturalist,

if he really wants to study nature at all times, must forget he has

a sensitive skin—I forgot mine, and had to pay for it—mea culpa !

I am always told so, but how often do we harken to ‘words of wis-

dom’? Babies sometimes utter them !

On the 25th my wife and I bid farewell to our children endl to our

kind friends. Our thanks go to our friends whose kindness made this

short trip possible. Au revoir, Abu!

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE’.

Part I-A Preliminary Report on Fishes found in the Godavari,

Purna, Kistna, Tungabhadra and Siddha Rivers.

M. RAHIMULLAH, M.SC., F.Z.S.

Department of Fisheries, H. E. H. the Nisam’s Governmeni.

Hyderabad—Deccan.

INTRODUCTION.

So far very little work has been done on the fauna of the Hydera-

bad State. However, some papers on fishes from this region have

been published from the Zoology Department of the Osmania

University by Das and the author. Mention has also been made

of certain fishes from the Deccan Plateau by Spence and Prater, anc?

‘lately by Fraser. In the present series of articles I propose to give

a systematic account of the fish fauna, and in this first instalment

fishes obtained during our survey of some of the principal rivers

are listed. The survey was conducted in different seasons of the year

so as to collect, as far as possible diiferent varieties of fish and to

form an idea of their seasonal occurrence.

The Hyderabad State (H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions) is the larg-

est amongst the Indian State and lies between 15°10 and 20° 4o’N.

74°40 and 81°35,E. with an area of 82,698 sq. miles. It is situated

almost in the centre of the Deccan Plateau, touching Khandesh

District (Bombay Presidency) on the north-west, Berar and Central

Provinces are on the north; rivers Kistna and Tungabhadra separate

it from Guntur, Kurnool and Bellary districts of the Madras Presi-

dency. On the west are Ahmednagar, Sholapur and Dharwar of

Bombay Presidency, and on the east it is separated from Wardha

district by the Painganga river, and from the Madras Presidency

by the river Godavari. The total population, according to the census

of 1931, 1S 14,436,148, the average absolute density being 175 per

sq. mile.

The average elevation of this extensive plateau is about 1,250 ft.

above sea level, with a few summits here and there arising from

2,500 to 3,500 feet. It is roughly divided into two large divisions,

geologically and ethnologically quite distinct, separated from each

other by the rivers Manjra and Godavari. The portion to the north

and west belongs to the trappean region (that is to say, the Mara-

thwari and the Kanarese regions); that to the south and east being

granitic and calcareous, and is known as the Telangana side. The

' Published with the permission of the Additional Revenue Secretary (Rural

Reconstruction), H. E, H. the Nizam’s Government, Hyderabad, Deccan,

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 649

former or the black cotton soil country grows wheat and cotton,

while the latter is mainly rice producer and full of small and large

tanks.

The black cotton soil is richer and retains water longer, and is,

therefore, covered with luxuriant vegetation with cliffs, crags and

undulating hills. In the granitic region of the Telangana districts,

the hills are almost bare of vegetation, only low shrubs being found;

but low down in the more even places trees and jungles are present,

the most famous of which afte in Adilabad and Warangal districts.

The soil in this region is sandy and in parts consists of gravel, and

hence does not retain water. This necessitates the storing up of

water in big and small reservoirs and tanks. The surface of the

country has a general slope from north-west to south-east, the main

drainage being in this direction.

The principal mountain range is Balaghat, extending almost from

the east to the west of the Hyderabad State, with a length of 200

miles and an average width of 4 miles from east of Nander district to

Ashti in Bhir district. The Shyadriparvat runs along the north,

from Nirmal in the east, reaches Ajanta after passing Parbhani

and the Province of Berar, and proceeding further in a westerly direc-

tion, it finally reaches Khandesh district (Bombay Presidency). The

total length of the mountain within the State is about 250 miles and

some roo of this form the Ajanta hills containing the famous Ajanta

frescoes. Besides, the Jalna hills, Nindikalgutta (or Sirnapalli) and

others are smaller ranges passing through the State.

The oldest lake is ‘Pakhal Lake’ situated in the Narsampet Taluk

of the Warangal district surrounded by dense jungle. Other big

reservoirs and perennial tanks are Nizamsagar, Alisagar, Singtom

reservoir, Ellareddi tank, Manchappa tank and Masani tank (Nizama-

bad district), Osmansagar Himayatsagar, Mir Alam tank and

Hussainsagar (Hyderabad and suburbs), Pocharam (Medak district).

Dindi and Pindipakla reservoirs (Nalgonda district), Lakhnawaram

lake, Ramappa lake, Wyra and Palair reservoirs (Warangal dis-

trict). Smaller tanks are thousands in number and will be dealt with

in the reports on the fish-survey of different districts.

The principal rivers are the Godavari and the Kistna with their

tributaries, the Purna, Manjra, Penganga, Tungabhadra, Bhima,

Maner and some other. smaller ones, such as Musi, Ees:,

Windi, Munair, etc.. The river Godavari enters the State at Phul-

tamba in Aurangabad district, flows through it and the districts

of Parbhani, Nander and Adilabad for a distance of 500 miles, and

changing its course at the north-east corner of Elgandal, continues

in a south-easterly direction for about 170 miles, forming the eastern

boundary of Karimnagar and Warangal districts until at. Paranth-

pali it enters the Godavari district of Madras. Near Bhadrachellum

it has a precipitous fall of more than too ft.; there being no

anicut or dam across this river in our State, but there exists an

anicut at Dummugudum in the East Godavari district; the absence

of reservoirs is due to the fact that this river flows mostly through

the black cotton soil area where water is not much needed. It is

joined by the Manjra which rises in the Patoda taluka of Bhir

district after a course of 387 miles through Bhir, Osmanabad,

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

Bidar, Medak, and Nander districts; there being one anicut across

it at Ghanpoor (Medak district) and a dam forming the Nizamsagar

reservoir (Nizamabad district), The bed of the river Godavari

varies according to the tract of land through which it flows. In the

upper reaches it is stony, and boulders are found here and there;

but as it flows down, the soil becomes sandy and muddy in places

(near Nander), and still further down it flows through hilly tracts

and cuts through rocks near Adilabad and falls down about a

too ft. through a gorge near Bhadrachellum.

The Kistna crosses the border of the Bijapur district of the

Bombay Presidency at Echampet near Lingsugur, and taking a south-

easterly course traverses the districts of Raichur, Mahboobnagar,

Nalgonda and Warangal, forming the southern boundary of the

last three districts and, consequently of the State. The Penganga

rises in Shyadriparvat range and runs east along the north of

Hyderabad separating Parbhani, Nander and Sirpur Tandur (now

Adilabad) districts from the southern part of Berar. It joins Wardha

river north of Rajura Taluka. The beds of these two rivers are

mostly rocky and full of boulders of stone.

As all these rivers flow through a table-land the beds are very

deep and at some places more than too ft. below the general level

of the fields. The volume of water during the rainy. season is

tremendous, but during the hot and dry season smaller streams dry

up completely and in larger ones some deep pools are formed and

a small slow-moving stream of water joins them; some pools in

the river Kistna are reported to be more than 150 ft. deep.

The average annual rainfall varies from 28 in. to 33 in.; the

average temperature varies from 72.7°F. to 92.3°F. during the year,

but in certain districts such as Warangal, Nalgonda, etc., it some-

times goes up as high as 114°F.

The survey work was started by the Fisheries Department with

a view to find out various kinds of food-fishes in the Hyderabad

State. It is proposed to carry out the survey of different districts

in which there is a possibility of improving the fishes by establishing

fish-farms and stocking ponds and tanks; the introduction of exotic

fishes, such as ‘gourami’ and ‘pearl spot’ (Etroplus), from other

Provinces is also under contemplation. Investigations are also being

carried on the larvicidal fishes in co-operation with the Public Health

and Sanitation Department. There is a great possibility of develop-

ing the freshwater fishery of the Hyderabad State, because here we

have: (a) large rivers, such as Godavari and Kistna with their im-

portant tributaries such as Manjra, Bhima, Painganga; (b) very

large artificial and natural lakes, such as Nizamsagar, Pocharam,

Dindi reservoir, Pakhal lake; and (c) more than 30,000 tanks and

long stretches of irrigation canals.

LISTS OF FISHES.

I. River Purna near Purna town. 13-8-1941,

Bottom sandy in the middle and black clay near the banks.

Dries up during summer. Young specimens of Mystus aor, locally

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 651

known as ‘sengal’, were obtained in August, and from their size

it is presumed that they have hatched in the beginning of the rainy

season.

Barbus: (Puntius) kolus Sykes. Rohtee belangeri (Cuv. & Val.).

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Chela bacaila Ham. Mystus aor (Ham.).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Mystus armatus (Day).

Aspidoparia morar (Ham.). Rita hastata Val.

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Callichrous bimaculatus Bloch.

Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Proeutropichthys taakree (Sykes).

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Bagarius bagarius (Ham.).

I]. (a) River Godavari near Nander and Basar. 15-8-1941.

Bottom generally sandy, but gravelly in parts.

Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdon). Barilius bendelisis Hamilton.

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes. Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham. Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day. Rita pavimenta Val.

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.). Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch).

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Clarias batrachus Linné.

Mystus aor (Ham.). ‘Proeutropichthys taakree (Sykes).

~ Mystus vittatus (Bloch). Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes).

Rita hastata Val.

(b) River Godavan at Nander. 8-1-1942.

Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdon). Chela phulo Ham.

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.).

Barbus ticto Ham. Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch).

Barbus (Tor) khudree (Sykes). Cirrhina. reba (Ham.).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Barilius barila Ham.

Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Mystus aor (Ham.).

Silonopangasius childvenii (Sykes).

Fishes collected from deep pools and from amongst the boulders

(summer season).

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes. Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. Rohtee belangert (Cuv. & Val.).

Barilius barna (Ham.). Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.).

Cirrhina reba (Ham.). Mystus aor (Ham.).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Rita hastata Val.

Ill. Kandahar tank (Nander District). 17-8-1941.

Small tank with muddy bottom. Not fed by any river. Not

‘perennial.

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham. Esomus danricus (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Labeo boggut (Sykes). Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch.

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland). Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.).

Garra stenorhynchus (Jerdon). Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Gig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

IV. (a) Kistna river near Gadwal. 21-9-1941.

Bottom rocky and full of boulders. Flow of water very rapid.

(Rainy season).

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes.

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

Barbus (Tor) neilli Day.

Labeo boggut (Sykes).

Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch).

Labeo calbasu (Ham.).

Labeo porcellus (Heckal).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Ophicephalus punctatus Bl.

Rohtee vigorsit Sykes.

Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.)

Nemachilus botius (Ham.).

Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Glossogobius giuris Ham.

Mystus bleekeri (Day).

Rita hastata (Val.).

Bagarius bagarius (Ham.).

(b) Kistna river at its confluence with river Bhima. 6-2-1942.

Rocky bed and full of boulders. Fishes collected from deep pools

of water (winter season).

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes.

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch).

Labeo porcellus (Heckel).

Labeo boggut (Sykes).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Chela phulo Ham.

Barilius barna Ham.

Barilius bendelisis Ham.

Aspidoparia morar (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham.

Labeo calbasu (Ham.).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.).

Nemachilus denisoniu (Day).

Rohtee vigorsit Sykes.

Garra stenorhynchus (Jerdon).

Gagata viridescens (Ham.).

Mystus bleekeri (Day).

Rita hastata (Val.).

—E—— EES

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland).

Proeutropichthys taakree (Sykes).

V. Sengal tank, Gadwal. 239-1941.

Bottom—black mud. Profuse vegetation in the shallower parts.

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.)

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

' Ophicephalus punctatus BI.

VI. (a) Tungabhadra river near Alampur and Sunkesula anicut.

Be eee

Bottom consists mainly of black mud near the banks and sand

in the deeper parts; boulders and rocks are very few and scattered

(rainy season).

Fingerlings of Bagarius bagarius were found in large numbers

down the Sunkesula anicut trying to go up the current.

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes.

Barbus (Puntius) parrah Day.

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham.

Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Aspidoparia morar (Ham.).

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Laubuca laubuca (Ham.).

Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham.).

Rohtee neilli Day.

Rohtee vigorsit Sykes.

Mystus aor (Ham.).

Mystus Tengara (Ham.).

Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes).

Bagarius bagarius (Ham.).

(b) Tungabhadra river six miles down Alampur.

(Winter season).

1 2-1-1942.

Bottom gravelly and consists of boulders and rocks. Fishes

collected from deep and shallow pools. About 2 dozen fingerlings

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 653

of 3 in.-4 in. of Catla, which is indigenous (some fingerlings of

catla were caught from the Manjira river also) were obtained from

some shallower regions of the river. I think this fish breeds much

later in the Kistna than in the Godavari but more data will be

collected on this point in due course.

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham. Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. Mystus aor (Ham.).

Catla catla Ham. Mystus bleekeri (Day).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Gagata viridescens (Ham.).

Cirrhina reba (Ham.). Rita hastata (Val.).

VII. Siddha river near Bhainsa (Nander District). 10-5-1942.

A small river, usually dry during summer excepting some shallow

pools—.

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Mystus tengara (Ham.).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I am indebted to the Revenue and Public Works (Irrigation)

departments for all the facilities and help extended to me during

the survey work. My thanks are due to Dr. S. L. Hora for helpful

suggestions and identification of some doubtful specimens. I am

also indebted to the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Osmania University,

Professors B. K. Das and M. Sayeeduddin for allowing me to con-

sult their departmental libraries and also to the Additional] Revenue

Secretary (Rural Reconstruction) for encouragement and facilities

during this work. I am much indebted to the Assistants of the

Department of Fisheries for help in the identification of fishes, etc.

REFERENCES.

Bhimachar, B. S. and Subba Rao, A.—Journ, Mys. Univ., Vol. i, 141-153,

1941).

ea B. K.—Proc. Ind. Sc. Cong., Session 29, (1942).

Day, F.—Fauna Brit. Ind., Vols. i and ii.

Fraser, A. G. L.—Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., Vol. xliii, 79-92, (1942).

Hora, S. L.—Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxviii, 1-7, (1936).

Idem.—Ibid, Vol. xxxviii, 351-353, (1936).

Idem.—Ibid, Vol. xxxix, 5-28, (1937).

Idem.—Curr. Sci., Vol. v, 351-356, (1937).

Hora, S. L. & Misra, K. S.—Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xxxix,

502-520, (1937):

Idem.—Ibid, Vol. xl. 20-39, (1938).

Hora, S. L.—Ibid, Vol. xli, 64-71, (1939).

Idem.—Ibid, Vol. xli, 583-594, (1939).

Idem.—Ibid, Vol. xli, 518-526, (1940).

Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. xiil, 227-312, (1908).

Mukerjee, D. D.—Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xxxi, 359-361, (1931).

Rahimullah, M. and Das, B. K.—Journ. Osm. Univ., Vol. iii, 1-23, (1935).

Idem.—Bull. Soc. Portuguese Sci. Nat., Vol. xii, 136-190, (1936).

REVIEW

THE BUTTERFLY FAUNA OF CEYLON. Woodhouse and Henry. Printed

at Ceylon Government Press, Colombo. 12X10, xiv-+153 pages; 37 coloured

and 13 uncoloured plates; map of Ceylon. Price 20 rupees or 30 shillings.

I suppose that something like ninety percent of amateur entomologists in

India and Ceylon are interested chiefly in the collection of butterflies. This book

will be desired by all enthusiasts in Ceylon and by most in India. The book

is beautifully bound, the general production is of high quality; the plates are

‘entirely a *‘Home-made’’ (Ceylonese) production’ using a new method, and the

authors are to be congratulated, not without a touch of envy, on having been

able to get their work produced in such excellent form by a government press,

especially under present conditions.

There is a good glossary; the 34 introductory pages cover such subjects as a

general account of the life-history and of the structure of the different stages,

classification, habits, mimicry, variation, collection, preservation and a detailed

account of an original ‘wax-and-gum’ method of fixing wing patterns, the last

having been used for producing most of the coloured plates. There are indexes

of scientific and popular names, a bibliography and a list of food plants with

Singhalese and Vamil equivalents. The 37 coloured plates illustrate adults,

showing upper and lower sides of the wings and are mostly quite good, any

defects being pointed out in the text; the remaining plates are uncoloured and

with the exception of one of aberrations and one of eggs, are illustrations of

caterpillars from Moore’s ‘Lepidoptera of Ceylon’. The body of the text con-

sists of notes on all the Ceylonese species; these are not really ‘detailed descrip-

tions’ and it is implied that identifications should be made by comparison with

the illustrations; detailed diagnoses of families and genera are not given but

these can be obtained by those who need them from other sources, such as Evan’s

‘The Identification of Indian Butterflies’; what is known of the habits, larva

and pupa of each species is stated.

‘The pleasures of reviewing a book seem to be first, the retention of the

review copy (missed in my case, since it has to be returned to the Bombay

Natural History Society) and second, fault finding. Actually I have little to

say and the following suggestions are meant in a helpful spirit. On opening

the book we find, on the page explaining the frontispiece, three words: pseuda-

posematic, aposematic and procryptic which are not defined in the glossary;

in the latter ‘termenal’ should surely be ‘terminal’; I note that ‘Kremaster’

means ‘suspender’; as usual the Greeks have a word for it. There is good

evidence for separating the Hesperiidae as a separate superfamily (Hesperioidea)

from the remaining butterflies (Papilionoidea) but this is only hinted at on

p- 12; incidentally larvae of Hesperiidae differ from other butterflies and the

higher moths in having’ the crochets on the prolegs arranged in a circle, a

character associated with concealed feeding. In referring to segments of the

larva it is preferable to consider the head, thoracic and abdominal segments

separately rather than to take head and thorax together as segments 1-4 (page 5);

when describing larvae myself I have used simple abbreviations (T1 to T3 and

Ar to Aro) to avoid tedious repetition of the words ‘thoracic’ and ‘abdominal’

when referring to particular segments.

Preservation and storage of butterflies are described in detail, together with

an account of the ingenious wax-cum-gum method for wings, but the preserva-

tion of eggs, larvae and pupae is not. I consider it regrettable that so many

amateurs should concentrate their ‘activities on building up as complete as

possible a collection of butterflies (compare stamp-collecting) when there are

other aspects that are so neglected and so important. For example, why not

build up an authentically identified collection of immature stages? Practically

nothing is known of Oriental caterpillars for example and they will have to be

dealt with some time; it is true that classification of larvae is not particularly

easy and is in fact a specialist’s task, since minute morphological details must

be considered and descriptions must be comparative ; the old-fashioned description

of colours ‘alone is not enough (I speak with feeling as an ‘economic’ entomo-

logist the greater part of whose material received daily from all parts of India

for identification consists of larvae); it is necessary however to make colour

REVIEW 655

“aes

notes before preservation. A collection of identified larvae would, at some time,

be received with enthusiasm by workers on the subject. I suggest ‘therefore

that a second edition might include instructions for preservation of all immature

stages in spirit (essential) and also of caterpillars by inflation (useful and easily

accessible for reference). .

Another point not known to all amateurs is that economic entomologists are

crying out for authenticated host-records for parasites. All parasites, together

with cocoons, puparia, etc., if kept and labelled are of great value. I do not

know what risk there is of some of the ‘very rare’ species becoming extinct in

Ceylon, but certain species of butterflies have been collected to death in the

United Kingdom. Perhaps a note on the quality of mercy might be introduced

in the next edition.

_ The words ‘fly’ for butterfly and ‘Nymph’ for Nymphalid always make me

vaguely irritated, but I understand it is common usage. Also could not the

printed pages be numbered continuously to include the appendixes, etc.?

I have no hesitation in recommending this book, which is very good value

and I have ordered a copy for my library.

fo Cy Ae.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—RIVERS AS BARRIERS TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF

GIBBONS.

With reference to Mr. R. E. Parson’s notes on this subject on

pages 434 and 926 of Vol. xlii of the Journal: in the course of the

Vernay-Hopwood Scientific Expedition in Upper Burma in 1935 we

discovered that the Chindwin River served as a barrier between

the Hylobates hoolock of the areas east of the river, and the same

species west of the river.

While the hoolock of the forests west of the Chindwin have

only the white band of hair across the forehead, those east of river

have, in addition, white hairs across the bridge of the nose; some-

times also in the ‘point’ of the beard; and always in the preputial

region, which in some cases is almost entirely white.

C/o GrinpLay & Co. Ltp., R. C. MORRIS,

BomBay, Major.

11th October, 1942.

Il.—TIGER CLAW MARKS ON TREES.

With reference to Mr. C. E. Hewetson’s note on page 926 of the

Journal, Vol. xlii, No. 4: in the forest areas of the Kollegal and

North Coimbatore Divisions of the Coimbatore District, S. India,

it is by no means uncommon to find trees bearing the claw marks of

tiger, and occasionally of panther. In 90% of the cases the trees

are Terminalia Arjuna. In one instance the marks extended to a

height of 18 ft. A pair of mating tigers climbed to a height of

16 ft. on one Arjuna, and were seen lying on a single large branch.

C/o Messrs. GRinpLAy & Co. Ltp., R. C. MORRIS,

BomBay, Major.

11th October, 1942.

III.—SHEEP AT A SALT LICK.

A correspondent writes as follows :—

‘I noticed in several issues of Bomb. Nat. Hist. Society Journal

your articles on the analysis of salt licks and hence this letter.

In the village of Kothamangalam which is about 1o miles due

west of Satyamangalam which town is 42 miles N.W. of Coimbatore

City, I noticed that sheep after grazing come to a spot just at the

edge of the village to eat earth. This place, the villagers told me,

had always been thus used by the sheep. A circular basin about

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 657

ro ft. in diameter and 1 ft. deep had been scooped out, presumably

by the sheep. The soil here is pale pink in colour, extremely dry

and mixed with “‘fine sand’’. The village is located on the Northern

bank of River Bhavani. The analysis of the earth had the follow-

ing :—

Total solids eA nue we 1 O:260°%

ie Calculated Salts :

Sodium carbonate Na,CO, ... we» »0°021%

Sodium bi-carbonate NaHCO, 005094

Sodium sulphate Na,SO, ... --- 0-010%

Sodium chloride NaCl as He O27 65%

It will be seen that about 68% of the soluble salts is in the form

of sodium chloride. This may be the reason why the sheep eat this

earth. I noticed that only sheep and a few little calves eat this

earth. There were goats and grown up cattle grazing around this

spot; but they paid no attention to this spot. There are also pig's

in the village. I did not see them eat the earth, though they may

do so. Two villagers said that they do eat the earth while many

said that they do not eat it. But all agreed that full-grown cattle

do not eat it.

The sheep along with very small calves, not much bigger than

the sheep, are taken out for grazing early in the morning to the

scrub jungle near by. I was told that they never eat the earth in the

morning on their way out but only on their return after the feed.

I was also told that after a heavy rainfall they do not eat it at all.

The flock returns to the village about an hour before dusk. I

was present at the lick before they came near. I could see them

racing for the lick in a general melee and when they arrived they

attended strictly to business unmindful of any interference. I walked

and stroked a few of them without any notice being taken. I caught

hold of a ram and pulled it away and I had to use quite a bit of

force to do this. The moment I let it go, it made a bound for the

lick.

They scraped the earth from the rim of the basin, with their

front teeth but never inside the pit. Probably they get a bigger

mouthful in this way than in the level portion at the bottom of the

pit. They were at the lick for about an hour.

I do not think any wild animals come to this place. It is too

near the village and the real jungle is beyond the scrub about five

miles away.

Only recently I became aware of your articles: else I would

have sent the soil sample on to you. Unfortunately I threw

it away after the analysis.

Why do the animals eat the earth? What are the salts they

require? Sodium chloride or magnesium and sodium sulphates?

Many of your samples contain very little of these salts. Hence,

what percentage of these salts should be present in the soil to make

them a lick? Kindly enlighten. me on these points.’

If you wish to use the information given herewith please do so

without hesitation.

EDITORS.

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

IV.—MIGRATION OF PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

[CLAMATOR JACOBINUS (BODDAERT)].

Apropos of Mr. H. Whistler’s interesting article on the Migration

of the Pied Crested Cuckoo, Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert) on p. 136,

Vol. xxxiii of this Journal, I wish to report that I observed a solitary

example of this bird on a pink cassia tree in bloom, by the side of

the lane adjoining the Public Gardens, Trivandrum, on 27th and 28th

February 1942. After these dates, the bird has not been met with

anywhere in this neighbourhood. |

The previous records of this bird for Travancore are one female,

collected at Cape Comorin on 7-4-’33 by Mr. Salim A. Ali, during

the ornithological survey of Travancore and two specimens from

Kutyani, about 7 miles north of Trivandrum, dated 21st and 22nd

September 1898, sex unknown, in the Trivandrum Museum. Mr.

Salim A. Ali describes the pied crested cuckoo as fairly common

in the low country about Cape Comorin and Aramboli, inhabiting

lightly wooded and Babul scrub terrain and groves of trees in the

neighbourhood of cultivation. I visited Kutyani several times in

July and August 1933 while engaged in supplementary work con-

nected with the ornithological survey of Travancore, but the bird

was noted as absent.

GOVERNMENT MuSEvuM, N. G. PILLAI.

TRIVANDRUM,

22nd September, 1942.

V.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE GREEN-BREASTED

PITTA (PILDAY CUCU LE ATCA MANRIVMES) a Ada SV AT

It is worth recording that a specimen of the above was picked

up dead in the ‘Glen’, Simla, at an elevation of 6,000 ft. on the 23rd

June 1942 by Master Dick Nunn who had gone to this spot with

his father (Col. Nunn), mother and his brother for a picnic. He tells

me that it was lying dead on the ground and some ants were craw]-

ing over it at the time. It showed no trace of having been in

captivity. On skinning it I found that the femur -was, high up,

badly fractured.

One can only conjecture what brought it so far from its normal

habitat which is given in the ‘Fauna, Birds’, as the ‘Himalayas and

Assam’, etc., ete.

SIMLA, A. E. JONES.

16th December, 1942.

VI.—LOCAL MOVEMENTS OF THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE

(FRANCOLINUS PICTUS JARD. & SELBY) ROUND BOMBAY.

In a letter dated the 9th October, 1941, Mr. E. Sheehy of the

Bombay Police writes :—

‘From the remarks in your book one is led to believe that the

painted partridge is scarce owing to constant destruction by

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 659

sportsmen. I admit that within Salsette they are fast disappearing

but I do not put this down to the sportsmen. The advance of fast

and heavy traffic together with the easy access to places by motor

car, would tend to drive the game.

‘Where these civilised conditions do not exist, i.e. off the beaten

- tract, I still find this game in plenty. Not far beyond Salsette, say

within 15 miles I have had some of the finest shooting available.

‘In 1939 with 4 guns we bagged 30 brace.

‘In 1938 with 2 guns the days’ bag, shooting from 8 a.m. to

noon was :—

18 brace partridge (painted)

3 hares

6 couple snipe

15 brace quail (grey)

1 florican

‘On the other occasions in the same seasons, a morning’s shoot

produced 12 brace, 9 brace, 8 brace with 2 guns.

‘A few years previous to 1938 thinking that the birds on this

ground would be depleted by shooting yearly (I have shot over this

country since 1934) I released 48 bought birds in the same country.

It is an ideal spot, small scrub jungle and lark country and watered

by a stream throughout the year. All these birds were ringed with

a white bone ring. I did not shoot this particular ground for 3 years

but in 1937 on return from Home leave, realising from the reports

of my Shikari that birds were numerous I visited the place with the

result that two guns bagged 31 brace shooting from 7 a.m. to noon.

The strange thing was that not a single bird was ringed. Shooting

the following week at a place some 8 miles further than the spot

referred to above we bagged 7 birds with the rings in addition to

many without. So I can presume that the parent birds wander

away after bringing up the young. Later I shot ringed birds 15

and 20 miles away from the place of their release.

‘Another interesting feature; I released 24 ringed birds on the

Thana-Belapur Road. Shooting here 2 years after, I found them

scarce and did not get a single ringed bird. They were crowing

all over the place in the monsoon and I could not understand where

they had got to. Shooting some 10 miles on the Bombay side of

Panvel, I bagged 6 of these ringed birds amongst others and thus

solved the mystery of their migration from the monsoon to the cold

weather months which indicated they breed in fairly heavy scrub

and then wander off to the grasslands. I estimate the distance

from Belapur Road to the Panvel place is some 24 miles and this

over the Mumbra Hills’.

I mentioned these records to Mr. H. B. Hayes of the American

Express, who knows a lot of the shooting country round Bombay,

but his experience with partridge was no better than mine, amounting

to two or four birds in a morning. :

Mr. Hayes, however, was shooting round Khardi (on the Nasik

Road) in May 1941, and bumped into a temporary camp of Phansi-

pardas with their paraphernalia of ponies, goats, dogs, children,

poultry, etc. His attention was drawn to an incessant twittering

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

under a few large nets pegged down to the ground and further in-

vestigation proved that there were dozens of partridges under them

and two or three peafowls. Mr. Hayes estimated their number at

anything between 200 to 500 birds, and it appears that they had

recently been caught in the adjoining area.

Most of Bombay’s shikaris have pottered round the same country

for pig and other game, but I doubt if anybody would estimate

the number of partridges in the area at anything near these figures.

During the monsoon one hears them calling all round, and one would

venture a statement that there were a couple dozen birds in the

neighbourhood. After the crops have been harvested and the grass

cut. down, they disappear and possibly collect in favourable places.

Notes from other shikaris would be of interest.

I might mention that several birds shot in early October were in

breeding condition and the season which opens officially on the 15th

September should be delayed for at least a month, i.e. 15th October.

BomBay, HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

14th December, 1942.

VIIL—THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD [CHORIOTIS

NIGRICEPS (VIGORS)] BREEDING IN KUTCH.

I shot a Great Indian Bustard on the 11th October, and found

a small chick afterwards—which unfortunately died. However this

is the first evidence to prove that these bustards breed in Kutch.

No local shikari has up to now picked up an egg or seen a chick—

although I must say Sir Geoffrey Archer said that bustards must be

laying in Kutch.

Buujy, KutTcu, MAHARAO VIJAYARADJJI.

2oth November, 1942.

[The Great Indian Bustard is known to breed in Gujerat and

the Deccan: evidence of its breeding in Kutch was limited to a

single egg taken in Kutch in the month of January (Stuart Baker,

Game Birds, Vol. ii, p. 172). The breeding season varies in almost

contiguous areas. Eggs have been taken in the Deccan in April

and May and from Gujerat in June and November.—EDs. |

VIII.—EARLY ARRIVAL OF THE SPOTTED SANDGROUSE

[PTEROCLES SENEGALLUS (LINN.)'] IN: KUTCH.

I shot over 50 Waku-Waku or Spotted Sandgrouse—on the

Banni—on the 11th October. This place Neri is not very far from

the island of Pachham. The local shikaris told me that these birds

had arrived this year a month back, which means early in September.

The normal time for their arrival is about the middle of November

and even then you don’t see them in thousands. On that day, I

saw them literally in thousands. I wonder what drove them out

from their home—the floods; or the Russians in the Caucasus ?

Buuy, KutTcu, MAHARAO VIJAYARAJJI,

20th November, 1942,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 661

IX.-ON THE OCCURRENCE OF WOODCOCK

(SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA LINN.) IN KUTCH.

Yuvraj M. K. S. Madansinhji shot the first woodcock in Kutch

yesterday, in Bhuj Taluka, near a village called Chakar. In my

whole experience, I have never seen a woodcock in Kutch, nor heard

of one. I shall be glad to know about the advent of woodcock

in these parts of India.

Buuj, KutTcu, MAHARAO VIJAYARAJJI.

2oth November, 1942.

[Within Indian limits the woodcock is resident throughout the

Himalayas, breeding freely above 10,000 ft. During the cold weather

it migrates to every portion of the Indian Empire where there are

suitable hills and mountains. In the plains, at any distance from

the hills, the bird appears as a rare straggler en passage from one

range of hills to another. In this way woodcock have been shot in

various localities in the plains of India—the record from Kutch is

probably an instance in point.—EDs. |

X.—OCCURRENCE OF THE CRAB PLOVER (DROMAS

ARDEOLA PAYK.) IN SIND.

I saw a single crab plover on the rocky coast a few miles out

of Karachi on 31st May 1942. It was with a party of Saunder’s

terns. The bird was not wild, and even though twice disturbed by

passing fishermen, circled and realighted within a hundred feet of

me.

Apparently the crab plover was common in the Karachi harbour

in the days of Colonel Le Mesurier (1872, 1874). Now-a-days it is

rare and Ticehurst, though constantly on the look out, says he

never came across it.

Karacui (Sadar), N. H. MENESSE, ts.e£.,

2nd November, 1942. Executive Engineer,

Karachi Buildings Division.

XI.—UNUSUAL OCCURRENCE OF THE DABCHICK

[PODICEPS RUFICOLLIS (VROEG)] AT SIMLA.

This dabchick was picked up by a friend of mine from a roadside

drain near “Rothney Castle’ (Hume’s old home) on. ‘Jakko’ hill on

17-9-42 and brought to me alive. My friend kept it alive in a bath-

tub for a week feeding it on earthworms and insects but it was

found dead one morning and handed over to me to preserve.

The skin is now in my collection. Adult 2. Here we have a

clue, I think, to this bird’s migratory movements. Was it going

North or South? That we don’t know.

SIMLA, A. E. JONES.

16th December, 1942.

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

XII.—ON THE NUMBER OF YOUNG PRODUCED BY THE

RUSSELL’S VIPER (VIPERA RUSSELLI]).

Mr. K. R. N. Pillai, Divisional Forest Officer, Akola, Berar

reports ‘the destruction of 96 baby Russell’s Vipers (probably of

one brood) in a hole in a mud wall of the forest guard’s naka in

Jubbulpore.’ The Russell’s Viper is a prolific snake. A specimen

in the Society’s rooms produced 62 young at a single effort. Some

are content with a family of less than 20. Wall believed from his

observations on other snakes that ‘the oldest mothers are the most

fecund’.

B.N.H.S., EDITORS,

5th January, 1943.

XIII.—RECORD MAHSEER.

(With two plates).

Many anglers for mahseer have heard of the Record Fish—

119 Ibs., but no particulars concerning it have hitherto appeared in.

the Journal of our Society.

I am now able to contribute two very interesting photographs:

one of the 119 lb. fish, and one of the next largest on record, 110 lbs.

119 lbs.—This fish was caught in the Cauvery river, Mysore State,

on the 28th December 1919, by Lieut-Col. J. S. Rivett-Carnac, 14th

Lancers, about 44 miles from Mysore at a place called Muduktore.

The bait was ‘ragi’ paste, the time 9 a.m., and the time taken to

land the fish 30 minutes. It was gaffed by Mr. P. F. Bowring,

Deputy Commissioner of Mysore, and the photograph was taken

by the late Mr. Eugene M. Van Ingen. An enlarged copy of the

accompanying photograph is framed and hung in the United Service

Club, Bangalore.

The measurements of the fish, and the weight, were certified by

Mr. Bowring and were: length 64 inches, girth 42 inches, weight

itg Ibs. It is not known whether the length was taken to end of

tail or fork of tail, and the usual formula Le 2xG2 divided

by 1,000 makes the weight 141 Ibs. The appearance of the fish in

the photograph, and the very short time taken to kill it indicate that it

was a female spent by spawning and much out of condition. Other-

wise it might well have weighed another 15 lbs.; and as it was cut

in two for weighment loss on that account may have been some

pounds more. I have no doubt it would have weighed as much as

135 lbs. when in good condition.

110 lbs.—This fish, a female also, as are all mahseer much over

50 lbs., was in good condition. It had not spawned, though full of

eggs, and showed none of the usual signs of spawning. It was

caught in the Cubbany (Kabani) river, Mysore State, on the 22nd

October 1938, by Mr. A. E. Lobb, Kartikulam Estate, about 65

miles from Mysore. The bait was ‘ragi’ paste and the time taken

to kill the fish five minutes short of four hours. It was gaffed by

uasuy uv,

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JourN. Bombay Nat. HIsvT. Soc.

Photo by

Mahseer, 110 Ibs., caught by Mr. A. E. Lobb on 22nd October 1938

in the Kabani River, large tributary of the Cauvery, Mysore State.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 663

the late Mr. P. F. Bowring, who was fortunate to have witnessed

the taking of these two record mahseer, and gaffed both of them.

Mr. Lobb does not recollect how the length measurement was

taken, and gives length as 60 inches and girth 38 inches. ‘This, by

the usual formula, makes the fish 108 lbs. as against the 110 it was

tound to weigh 6 hours later when cut in two for the purpose.

So it was undoubtedly a good r1o lbs. The fish was in good con-

dition as is seen in the photograph, and as indicated by the time

taken to kill it.

Mr. Lobb writes:—‘I hooked the fish at 8-45 a.m. and it was

galted at 12-40 p.m. It was not fighting all the time, but sulked

for perhaps two hours out of the four. ‘Lhe fish and I would take

a trip round the pool and then have a rest; that is, | had a rest

when the fish felt that way. Then a pull or two and we would start

off again. Twice | was over the monster when she had her snout

in the mud and the great tail waving above the surface. This was

towards the last halt hour or so. it was a great experience; but

exhausting work, as a tight lme had to be maintained all the time.’

Mr. J. de Wet Van Ingen of Mysore very kindly sends me a

copy of a letter, written by his late father to the Madras Mail in

1921, from which I| learn that Mr. de Wet Van Ingen caught a

mahseer weighing 107 lbs. on the 15th January 1920, in the Cauvery

river near Seringapatam. The measurements were 624 by 384.

girth. Another fish was caught by the lateeMr. Bowring near the

same place and also weighed 107 lbs. Measurements 61 by 39.

And yet another was taken in another part of the same river by the

late Mr. Murray Aynsley and weighed 104 lbs.

It is interesting in connexion with these large mahseer to refer

to ‘The Rod in India’ where the measurements of a mahseer, be-

lieved by Sanderson to have weighed 150 lbs., are the same as those

of Mr. Lobb’s 110 lb. fish.

BANGALORE, Lt.-Col. R. W. BURTON,

ist January, 1943. Indian Army (retired),

XIV.—ADDITIONS TO THE GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY

AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS.

Referring to the Society’s brochure on the game fishes of the

Bombay Presidency’, I think it well worth while to make the follow-

ing 2 additions:

Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes). Mahrati name ‘wuluns’.

This fish is in almost every respect a smaller replica of the famous

“silund’ of the Ganges, but never reaches the size of this well known

monster, a 15 pounder being a large one.

J have repeatedly caught this fish, which is fairly numerous if

the Indrayani and the Dhima rivers, and found that it takes a leisurely

* Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the neighbouring districts of

the Bombay Presidency, Sir Reginald Spence and Se bie Praters uvOlsexxxva,

Bo 29-

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

spun 1-172 inch spoon rather well, and gives quite a respectable

fight on light tackle. Some of those I hooked jumped clear of the

water and ran out a nice length of line. |

Some care must be taken in handling this fish as the strong spiny

ray in the pectoral fin is extremely sharp and may inflict a deep and

painful sting. Native fishermen invariably break it off.

Callichrous bimaculatus.

This is a common fish in many river pools around Poona and

will take a fly spoon upto 1 inch with a surprisingly hard pull.

Also it may be tempted with a small mahseer fly, and gives very

pretty sport on light trout tackle.

' I have repeatedly caught upto 2 dozen of these fish in a sees

visit to a good haunt of theirs.

They do not often exceed ? lbs. hereabouts and are rich and very

delicious table fish.

Perhaps the above will interest readers of the Journal.

—

116, KOREGAON Park, M. SUTER, pD.sc.

Poona,

28th October, 1942.

XV.—ON THE WEED-DESTROYING HABIT OF

ETROPLUS SURATENSIS (BLOCH).

Thomas (1887) and Sundar Raj (1916) have stated that Etroplus

suratensis (Bloch) is essentially a herbivore... Panikkar (1920) while

agreeing with this view, refers to its occasional cannibalistic

tendency especially during the breeding season. In consideration

of its herbivorous habit, this fish has been recommended as a suitable

agent for keeping down excessive vegetation: in tanks and ponds.

But no attempt seems to have been made to discriminate between

those: species of aquatic plants it prefers and those it avoids. A

number of these fish in one of our aquaria afforded me ample oppor-

tunity for observing their feeding habits and studying their pre-

ference to certain species of aquatic plants.

Blyxia roxburghi Rich., Utricularia flexuosa, Otellia alismoides

Pers. and Hydrilla verticillata Casp. are commonly introduced into

fresh water aquaria as ornamental plants, but most of these plants

serve only as food for Etroplus. ‘The fish shows a strong predilec-

tion for the first two species and within a few minutes of their

introduction into the tanks they are ‘picked’ clean leaving only the

stumps. In the case of Otellia alismoides Pers., the fish snaps off

the broad leaves and then nibbles away the juicy stalks, preferably

the tender portions. It does not feed on Hydrilla verticillata Casp.

When all the above species of plants are introduced together the

fish first goes in for Blyxia roxburghi Rich. and Utricularia flexuosa

and only after finishing these does it turn to Otellia alismoides Pers.

The fish often snaps at the floating remnants of its meals, a habit

observed and described by Sebastian (1942) in a recent number of

this Journal.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 665

Other aquatic plants, such as Elueocharis spp., Chara spp., and

Nitella spp., were subsequently introduced into the tank. Etroplus

was found to feed on none of them although the fry were observed

to peck and nibble at the tender shoots of Chara. Even in the

absence of other food the fish was found to avoid these plants.

Control of Pistia growth in tanks and ponds is a serious problem

in this country. Larvae of at least three species of mansonioid

mosquito, viz., Mansonia (Mansonioides) annulifera (Theob.),

M. (Mansonioides) uniformis (Theob.) and M. (Mansonioides)

indiana (Theob.), the carriers of the-dreaded filariasis, are known

to live attached to the roots of Pistia stratiota Linn. The Health

Authorities are at present faced with the grave problem of removing

Pistia from all the tanks and ponds in certain coastal districts in

Central Travancore, where the percentage frequency of filariasis

is rather high. To discover whether Etroplus suratensis (Bloch)

could be of use in checking the growth of Pistia, a quantity of these

plants were introduced into the Etroplus tank in the Aquarium.

The fish appeared to be disturbed by the unusual appearance of the

hairy roots, even when accustomed to it, avoided the plant as

far as possible. Later it was ascertained that in Central Travancore

Etroplus was common in ponds containing an abundant growth of

Pistia. It seems that the species shows a marked aversion to some

floating vegetation such as Pistia, Lemna and Eichhornia.

Incidentally it may be stated that Etroplus is known to take

worms and insects and at times it shows a definite predatory tend-

ency. Specimens of Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) introduced

into the aquarium were chased and devoured by them. Whether

this was due to carnivorous instincts or to the artificial conditions

of life in an aquarium I am not certain. The fact remains that all

the Gambusia were readily eaten.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, K. GOPINATH.

UNIVERSITY OF ‘TRAVANCORE,

TRIVANDRUM,

3rd November, 1942.

XVI.—SOURCES OF FISH SUPPLY TO CALCUTTA

MARKETS.

The last year for which statistics of fish imported into Calcutta

are available is the year which ended on the 31st March, 1923. In

that year approximately 435,194.5 maunds of fish were imported

into Calcutta-by railways, steamers, country boats and road. It

was then stated that ‘the most important sources of fish to Calcutta

markets are the Padma, the Sundarbans estuaries and the Chilka

in Orissa. Very large quantities of hilsa, carp and several other

species of freshwater fishes come mostly by rail but partly by

steamers from the East Bengal’. From Bulletin No. 20 of the late

Department of Fisheries, Bengal (Calcutta: 1924), it is clear that

the quantity of fish imported into Calcutta was showing a gradual

increase for it rose from 308,037.5 maunds in 1918-19 to the figure

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIIt

for 1922-23 given above, thus registering a net increase in the fish

supply of Calcutta by 127,157 maunds in a period of five years.

If it be supposed that this rate of increase was maintained then

before the advent of the existing abnormal and unsettled conditions,

the total supply must have reached one million maunds (1,000,000

mds.). Unfortunately no statistics are available in support of this

assumption, but enquiries made in the various Calcutta markets

indicate that the fish supply did increase within the last 20 years

by about 200 to 300%. Though the methods of capture of fish

are still the same, improved methods of preservation and transport

made it possible to bring into Calcutta very large quantities of

excellent sea fish from the far off deltas at the head of the Bay

and the remunerative prices offered in Calcutta attracted fish pre-

served in ice from several fishing centres as far afield as Assam,

Bihar and the U. P.

That the fish supply of Calcutta has increased considerably

during the last twenty years is also evident from the fact that whereas

in 1923 there was only one wholesale market at Sealdah, there are

now several principal fish markets in Calcutta, viz., three markets

at Sealdah and one each at Howrah, Ballygunge, Patipukur, Kidder-

pore, Sir Stuart Hogg’s Market, Hathibagan, etc. In order to find

out the relative value of the sources of fish supply to Calcutta, one

must analyse the statistics available for 1922-23 and compare the

data thus collected with the information obtained for 1941-42 through

local enquiries.

Comparative statement of fresh fish (in % of total fish supply)

imported into Calcutta from different sources:

| Salt-water Fish Fresh-water Fish

ny:

ie Orissa and Madras|Local, within) Bengal Districts | eee

Sundarban ; Bihar

Retard coasts, including | a radius of | mostly from the and

sa es Chilka Lake |15to20 miles) Padma river U.P

1922-23 21°80% 7°95 % 13:01% 95°52% 1:72%

1941-42 38°00 % 3°50 % 9°66 % 34°34 % 14°50 %

We may now consider the various sources of supply one by

one and see how the Calcutta markets, under the existing emer-

gency condition, have been influenced by them. We may also con-

sider how the supply can be improved from each source so as to

relieve the present scarcity of fish.

Sundarban Estuaries:—The Sundarban estuaries have long been

recognised to be an inexhaustible store of fish supply for Calcutta,

but the main difficulties that stood in the way of increasing the

yield from this source were the primitive methods of transport by

country boats and absence of any means of preserving fish soon

after capture. However, with the advent of motor launches,

s SS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 667

especially from 1929 onwards, the estuarine fishery was revolutionis-

ed and vast quantities of excellent sea fish, such as Bhekti (Lates

& Serranus spp.), Indian Salmon (Polynemus spp.), Rock Salmon

(Otolithus & allied form), Indian Haddock (Serranus), Pomfrets

(Stromateus spp.), Mullets (Mugil spp.), Hilsa, Bagda, Golda,

Chapda and Ghoosa chingris (Prawns and Lobsters), Crabs, (Scylla

serrata), etc., became available in Calcutta at competitive rates in

excellent condition of preservation, for these launches during their

outward trip carried ice with them for the preservation of fish.

Though in 1940-41, fish from this source formed only 38% of the

total supply of Calcutta, in actual maundage, 1.e., about 380,000

maunds, this quantity exceeded the total supply of Calcutta during

1918-1919. Though there is always plenty of fish in the Sundarbans,

the primitive methods of fishing and frail fishing boats make it

more or less a seasonal fishery. The main fishing season starts

from October and. lasts till February, but from the enclosed salt-

water fisheries, known as ‘Bhasa Badha’, large quantities are

exported during the off season also when the fish fetch better

prices. The following table shows the variation in the proportion

of fish imported into Calcutta from the estuaries month by month.

Statement showing quantities of fish (in % of total fish supply)

imported into Calcutta from the estuaries month by month.

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

50 40 37 25 15 20 30 35 45 50 55 55

It will be seen from the above statement that starting from

the middle of September and lasting up to the middle of February

the fishing season is very brisk in the Sundarbans and imports

from this source form more than half of the total supplies imported

into Calcutta. During January, February and March, young of

Hilsa, under a foot in length, form 1/3, Bagda chingri 1/3, Bhekti

1/6 and the other fishes, such as Rock Salmon, Mullets, Pomfrets,

Haddocks, etc. the remaining 1/6 of the total supplies imported

into Calcutta markets from this source. In April, the composition

of the catches undergoes a considerable change for Hilsa is not

available in the estuaries at this season. During April, May and

June, the supply comprises 1/3 Bhekti, 1/3 small prawns and 1/3

Rock Salmon, Mullets, Pomfrets, Haddock, etc. all combined.

With the establishment of the monsoons, the Hilsa shoals begin

to ascend the estuaries and though this migration stops in the

middle reaches of the rivers about October, in the Sundarbans adult

Hilsa is caught in large quantities from July to September and

young Hilsa from October to March. Thus during July to December

the fish supply from this source comprises 1/3 Hilsa, 1/3 Bagda

chingri, 1/6 Bhekti and 1/6 the remaining varieties of fishes

entmerated above.

Mention must also be made of two other important seasonal

fisheries in the Sundarbans, i.e., Tengra (Mystus gulio) and Sea-

Pangas (Ariidae). Shoals of Tengra appear in April-May and their

fishery lasts for about three months while the shoals of Sea-Pangas

enter the estuaries during August, September and October.

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Chilka Lake, Orissa and Madras Coasts:—Though the percen-

tage of salt water fish imported from Orissa and Madras shows a

decrease, the actual maundage has increased slightly. In Nov-

ember, December and January somewhat larger supply is received

from these areas, otherwise the supply remains constant through-

out the year. The chief varieties of fish imported are Hilsa, Bhekti,

Rock Salmon, Mullets, Haddocks and Prawns, while at certain

seasons freshwater fish, such as Carps, are also imported from

Orissa. It was in the second decade of the present century that

a market in Calcutta for fish from the Chilka Lake began to grow. In

1924, the export of fish, fresh and cured, by rail from this source

amounted to 45,000 maunds and by 1937 it had arisen to 71,366

maunds, of which the fresh fish amounted to 60,000 maunds.

Though a considerable amount of this supply came to Calcutta,

some was distributed to. other towns as well.

Statement showing quantities of fish (in % of total fish supply)

imported into Calcutta from the Orissa and Madras Coasts

(including the Chilka Lake) month by month.

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Deca

5 3 3 Be oo 3 3 3 3 3 4 §

This source of supply can be effective only when fast trains are

running at times suitable for the fish trade, but at present the

timing of the Madras Mail and the slow running of trains are

greatly hampering the fish trade between these areas and Calcutta.

Local Supply:—TVhough the salt-water varieties of fishes that

used to be available from local sources during 1922-23 are not now

found in the neighbourhood of Calcutta on account of the silting

up of the Bidyadhari river and, in consequence, of the absence of

salt-water fisheries in the Salt Lakes, Calcutta, the supply of Carp

and other varieties of fresh-water fishes has increased considerably.

The greater part of the Bidyadhari Spill Area, partly assisted by

the Calcutta sewage, is now being used for the cultivation of Carp

and considerable quantities of Pona fish are thus available from

this source. It will also be noticed that though the percentage of

the total fish supply from local sources is now less, the actual

maundage is almost double of what it used to be in 1922-23. As

is shown in the statement given below, the main supply from the

local fisheries is during the dry months of February, March and

April and to a certain extent in May, when the shallow fisheries

are dewatered and most of the fish, that had been stocked during

the rainy season, are removed for sale. However, a certain amount

of fish from the areas within a radius of 20 miles of Calcutta is

always available in the markets of the town. The great possibilities

of meeting the present situation are by developing this source of

supply, because it is not effected by any kind of restrictions either

on fishing or on transport. With the death of the Bidyadhari and

deterioration of the Piali rivers, there are vast sheets of water in

the neighbourhood of Calcutta which cannot be drained and are

at present unproductive and a regular source of nuisance to public

health. ‘These should be stocked for increasing the local supply.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 669

Statement showing quantities of fish (in % of total fish supply)

imported into Calcutta from within a radius of 20 miles month by

month,

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

By) 15 25 32 10 5 4 4 4 J. 4 4

Bengal Districts :—The supply of fish to the Calcutta markets

from the Bengal districts is considerable but this, during the rainy

season, mainly consists of Hilsa from the Padma river and during

the other seasons, of Carp, which is extensively cultivated in Bhils

and tanks of every part of Bengal. Attention may, however, be

directed to the fact that during May, June, July and August, when

the supply from the estuaries becomes greatly reduced, the imports

of Hilsa from the Padma makes up the deficiency. During October

and November, when the waters begin to dry up and it

is possible to catch freshwater fishes in large quantities, it is then

that we find that the supplies from the Bengal districts are almost

equal to one-third of the total import of fishes into the Calcutta

markets.

Owing to restrictions on transport by Railways, the supply

has also decreased to a certain extent and for this reason Calcutta

felt a great shortage of fish during the early part of summer last

year. When the swarms of Hilsa came up the river about the middle

of August, then the situation was eased to a considerable extent.

Much improvement can be effected in this source of supply by the

Railways agreeing to grant adequate facilities for the transport

of fish.

Statement showing quantities of fish (in % of total fish

supply) imported into Calcutta from the Bengal Districts

month by month.

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

30 30 20 Ze 50 50 40 45 35 39 30 30

Assam, Bihar & U.P.:—In the dry months when the waters

dry up considerably, large quantities of freshwater fish in inland

fishing centres are caught and as better prices always prevail in

the Calcutta markets, considerable supplies of fresh fishes, packed

in ice, are imported from Assam, Bihar and the U.P. The trans-

port difficulties by Railways, referred to above, had an adverse

effect on this source of supply. It is difficult to judge how far this

supply can be revived under the existing emergency conditions,

but I think the co-operation of the Railway authorities can he

very helpful in this connection.

Statement showing quantities of fish (in % of total fish supply) -

imported into Calcutta from Assam, Bihar and U.P.,

month by month.

Jan, Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

10 12 15 18 22 22 23 13 13 13 7 6

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

The following table shows at a glance the relative value of the -

various sources of fish supply to the Calcutta Markets and the

varieties of fish that are imported from each source :—

Salt-water Fish Fresh-water Fish

Month | _ | Orissa and |Localsupply ‘Assam,

... |Madrascoast) within a ae ihar

Estuaries including PAE Bengal Districts rat

Chilka Lake} 20 miles | U.P.

Je eo BOG 5% 5% 30 % 10%

Feb. ... 40% 3% 15% 39% 12%

Mar... 37% 3% .| 25% 20 % 15%

April... | 25% 3% 32% | 22% 18%

May «| 15% 3% 10% | 50% 22 %

June ...| 20% 3% | 5% | 59% | 22%

Jailhye ease 30% 3% | 4% 40% | 23%

AUgal ea 35% 3% | 4% 45% 13%

Septaface 45 % 3% | 4% 35% 13 %

Octa y=. 50% i 3G | 4% 30% 13%

INOVAee: 55% 4% | 4% 30% 7%

Weciste.s 55% 5% | 4% 30% 6%

Hortons 38-00% 3°50 % 9:66 % 34-34 % 14-5 %

whole year 3 . | " : g

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Besides transport difficulties and the unavoidable restrictions on

fishing in the Denial Area, attention must also be directed to the

fact that due to oil shortage a number of ice factories have not

been able to work full time and thus sufficient ice is not available

in these days for the proper preservation of fishes. For this reason

also the supply imported into Calcutta has sometimes to be cur-

tailed. The number of factors that have brought about the high

prices of other, even non-perishable, commodities due to the present

emergency conditions have also operated in the case of the fish

trade and there are reasons to believe that the fish merchants may

have artificially raised the prices to some extent, but there can

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 671

hardly be any doubt that the supplies, due to the various reasons

cited above, have decreased very materially and result has been the

increase in the price of fish in the Calcutta markets and perhaps

in other larger mofussil towns also.

Whatever steps it may be possible for the Government to take

to increase the fish supply to the Calcutta markets, the fact will

remain that the supply, which has never been adequate even in the

past, will remain insufficient so long as the present emergency

conditions last. The need of the moment is, therefore, that we must

definitely concentrate on increasing the local production of fish

by stocking all pieces of water and of conserving our existing

supplies in such a way as to get the maximum benefit out of them.

1, DEODAR STREET, BALLYGUNGE. Sa ba HORAS

CALCUTTA, Director of Fisheries,

16th December, 1942. Bengal.

XVII.—NOTE ON CURETIS SPECIES AT KALLAR.

Kallar is at the foot of the Mettupalaiyam Ghat below Coonoor.

Its altitude is 1,250 ft. and it is locally abounding in butterflies.

1. Curetis thetis, Drury.

This was the only species observed by Hampson in the Nilgiris.

He notes, ‘1,000 ft. to 3,000 ft. S. and W. slopes of the Nilgiris.

Very rare. Outer margin of the H. W. much rounded. Both

orange and white females are found (?) ‘The question mark is

mine. | he

C. thetis is rare at Kallar but I have seen or caught it on the

following dates:—d 28/3, 2 31/7, 2 14/8, 22 22/9. The female

is a jungle insect, a characteristic shared to some extent by the

females of the other two species. The male does not seem to be

attracted much by moisture, and the female will usually be caught

settling on the underside of leaves.

2. Curetis bulis, Db. and Hew.

3. Curetis acuta dentata, Moore.

C. acuta is rare but I have records of it on the following dates :—

3 31/1, d 28/3, d 16/7, & 7/12, d May, 2 20/9 (Ootacamund). All

the males were caught settling on damp sand, but the females do not

seem to be attracted by moisture.

I also have one definite specimen of bulis 3 taken on 6/12, and

another doubtful specimen ¢ caught on 10/5. These also were

taken on damp sand. I have no information that bulis has been

recorded as a South Indian species before, and Evans gives its

range as Mussootie—S. Burma. I have come across .no females,

but the females of both these species seem to be very scarce.

i74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIETY, Vol. XLitl ~

The following are comparative measurements :—

KALLAR Other specimens inmy vans measure-

collection. \(bLurma, ments.

aissam, he. TFT W,

Liimalayas.)

acuta J§$43-44 mm. dd 40°o mim. (average.) 40-50 mm, for

both sexes.

bulis S45 and 44 mm. dd 46 mm. (average.) 1 59-45 mum. for

both sexes

acuta, 2 oW mm (Ootacamunds) ye Sy sUimm a(aVeraces)nin Geen mtcneces

in acuta ali the Kallar specimens are small and the HW is

much more rounded and the IW less pointed than is the case

with other specimens in my collection. they are very constant in

Shape and size and would seem. to warrant subspecitic rank. My

two (?) specimens ot bulis exhibit the same characteristics.

itvans states that in bulis the upper portion of the discal band

cell: in acuta it is in line. My experience is that this is not strictly

the case, as, in the majority of my specimens of acuta it is slightly

out of alignment with the discal band though occasionally it is in

direct alignment. in my first specimen ot bulis the bar and the

band are more out of alignment than is the case in any other of

my specimens. in the second specimen it is sulhcientiy out of

line tor me to identify it as bulis, but the upperside is that of

acuta, whereas in the first specimen the upperside markings are

typical of bulis. The second specimen has a great deal of orange

on the HW and the tooth on the forewing is definite. This, how-

ever, may be due to its being a DS butterly whereas the other

one is a WS specimen.

The only local specimen of 2 acuta in my possession is one from

the collection of the late O. C. Ollenbach, Esq., and is rather vaguely

marked ‘Ootacamund’. As this is large and much more ot the

shape and size of my northern specimens | suspect that it comes

from the drier northern slopes ot the Nilgiris. It would surprise

me to meet with any Curetis at the altitude of Ootacamund town.

To conclude, | have had no experience of Curetis from elsewhere

in Southern India and the particular characteristics | have mentioned

may be peculiar to most specimens from the south. Nevertheless,

it seems to me that a subspecies is indicated, whether for this locality

or for a larger area.

Kerri, Niciris, M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH.

5th Oct. 1942.

XVIII. ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF SIMLA BUTTER-

FLIES PUBLISHED IN VOL. XLI, NO. 4.

1. Papilio machaon asiatica, v. ladakensis, Moore. Poo, July,

1941. (Inner hills.)

2. Ismene aedipodea aegina, Plotz. Simla, Spring, 1942.

Hitherto not recorded west of Mussoorie.

* Evans measurements seem to me to be on the small side.

————————

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 673

Lhe following rarities have also been recorded :—

Appias lalage lalage, Doubleday. Previously recorded only

from Summerhill and the Glen in May, 1938. Fresh record from

Sanawar in 1942.

Amblypodia alemon, de Niceville. Simla, 1940. Recorded once

before. 7

Virachola perse perse, Hew. Sanawar, 1941. Recorded once

before some years ago in the Kalka neighbourhood.

KeTti, NILGIRIS, M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH.

5th October, 1942.

XIX.—NOTES ON TWO MAJOR CATERPILLAR PESTS

OF EUGENIA JAMBOS (ROSE APPLE).

(With a plate).

Eugenia jambos is a favourite plant in most private gardens in

Travancore, grown for shade, ornament and for its sweet rose-

scented fruit. The tree puts torth fresh shoots twice in the year

after the S.W. and the N.E. monsoons. When fresh tender shoots

with small copper coloured leaves appear in profusion, they. are

subject to the attack of a number of insects, chief among: which are

the two leat-eating caterpillars described in this paper. Among

others are the Lasiocampid caterpillar Metanistria hyrtaca Cr., the

Geometrid Vhalassodes flavifusata Wh1k, the Tortricid Homona

cofjearia N., a shoot boring caterpillar (unidentified), a leaf miner

(unidentified), a species of Apoderus twisting up the leaf tips. for

Oviposition, etc.

The two major caterpillar pests are the Noctuid Bombotela

delatrix Guen, and the Eucosmid Argyroploce mormopa Meyrick.

1. Bombotelia (Euielia) delatrix Guen.

Life-history.—Egegs are laid singly (Fig. 1) both on the upper

and on the lower surfaces of tender foliage. The egg (Fig. 2) is

circular, 1.3 mm. in diameter and planco-convex. ‘lwo distinct

regions can be made out—a thin ring-like peripheral region, closely

adherent to the leaf surface and the central region. ‘The central

region is slightly convex and is of a creamy white colour. Fine

radial striations start from the centre of the egg and radiate towards

the periphery.

The egg hatches in 3-4 days and the larva issues out through

a slit at the edge of the central region. ‘The newly-hatched larva

is 2 mm. long and is light yellow, with a slight greenish tinge.

It starts eating small holes in the tender leaf and, after a day or two,

drops to the leaf below by means of a slender thread. After the

first moult, the caterpillar begins to feed voraciously. It feeds

mostly at night, remaining quiescent on the leaf throughout the

day, and gets full-grown in 12-14 days.

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIiI

The full-fed larva (Fig. 3) is 25 mm. long and about 6 mm.

broad. The colour is still yellowish green, the larva not under-

going any change in colouration during its growth. The head is

of the same colour as the body and it is only just before pupation

that the prothoracic shield becomes at _ all distinguishable. A

narrow whitish longitudinal subdorsal line becomes faintly visible

on each side after the second moult. In the full-grown larva these

lines are more distinct and are seen to extend from the prothorax

to the anal segment. There are five pairs of prolegs and the cro-

chets are uniordinal and arranged in mososeries. (The caterpillar

of the present species can be easily distinguished from that of B.

jocosatrix, a common pest of mango in Travancore, by the absence

of the small purple spots on the somites, so characteristic a feature

of the latter). .

Prior to pupation, the caterpillar turns pinkish and the head

plates become slaty grey. The caterpillar constructs a loose cocoon

of silk covered over by pellets of excreta. The pupa (Fig. 4) is

13 mm. long, 5 mm. broad, and dark brown in colour. Pupal

period about 13 days. (For a description of the moth (Fig. 5)

vide Hampson’s Moths, Vol. II, p. 391).

Natural enemies.—Though all the larvae collected from the

affected trees, and reared in the insectary looked apparently healthy

and pupated, moths failed to emerge from 50% of the pupae, in

every one of which a large oval pupa of a Tachinid fly was noticed.

This was also the case in a number of larvae reared from eggs,

even though the greatest care was taken to see that the fly had no

access to the caterpillars. It would appear that in the case of this

Tachinid (as in certain others) large numbers of very minute eggs

are laid on the tender leaves (the food of the host) and that the

eggs with the contained fully-formed embryos are swallowed by

the caterpillars during the process of feeding, and the embryos get

liberated in the alimentary canal. This point, however, requires

further investigation.

Economic Status:—-The caterpillar is a major pest of Eugenia

jambos as the damage to tender foliage is often very serious. The

pest has also been found to be very destructive to young plants

of Eugenia javanica.

2. Argyroploce mormopa Meyrick (Eucosmidae).

Life-history :—Eggs are laid singly on the upper and lower

surfaces of tender foliage. The eggs are circular with a diameter

of 1.02-1.1 mm. and are divisible into a central slightly convex

embryonic part and a narrow very thin marginal part as those of

Bombotelia delatrix from which, however, they can easily be dis-

tinguished by the absence of the radiating lines so characteristic of

the latter.

The incubation period of the egg is 4-5 days. The newly-hatched

larva is 1.5 mm. long with a brownish green body and a black

massive shiny head. On hatching, the larva webs up the very tender

leaves at the apex of the young shoot and begins to eat holes

through the leafy tissue. After the first moult, the larva turns pale

pink, the head becomes dark brown and the prothorax brown. The

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

K. S. Padmanabha Aiyar—Caterpillar Pests of Eugenia jambos.

(For explanation see end of Note).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 675

growing caterpillar feeds in concealment, remaining between two

webbed up leaves or in a scroll-like leaf-fold, the whorls of the

scroll securely fastened together by silk.

The full-fed larva is 15 mm. long and dark pink in colour.

The head is brown or brownish yellow. The half moon shaped

prothoracic shield is dark brown and covers the whole of the dorsal

side of the segment. The anal shield is blackish. The thoracic

legs are black. There are five pairs of prolegs the claw like crotchets

of which are arranged in a complete circle. Warts are present on

the somites from each of which two or three short hairs arise. The

larval period is about 18 days.

The full-fed caterpillar pupates inside the webbed up shoot or

between a webbed up pair of leaves in a loose cocoon of silk. The

pupa is 7.5 mm, long, brownish dorsally, greenish ventrally with

the wings brownish green. Pupal period is 7 days.

Moth.—vide description by Meyrick in J.B.N.H.S. (1906), p. 136.

Economic Status.—The damage caused to young shoots and

tender foliage is sometimes serious and the pest may be classed

among the major pests of this fruit tree.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Lombotelia delatrvix, eggs on Hugentia leaf.

eee Do. egg (highly magnified).

re Oe Do. Full grown Jarva.

Sy ks Do. Pupa.

Ane TO) Do. Moth.

», 6. Argyroploce mormopa Moth.

TRIVANDRUM, Ke SS) RPADMANABHAVATYAR “p:Sc: ,

15th Nov. 1942. Central Research Institute,

University of Travancore.

XX.—A NOTE ON THE EGG-LAVING HABITS OF THE

INDIAN GLOW-WORM (LAMPROPHORUS TENEBROSUS

WLK.)

(With one plate)

Paiva in the Rec. Ind. Mus, XVI, 1919, records the luminosity

of the few eggs laid by a single female glow-worm. Later on

Hutson and Austin in the Ceylon Agricultural Bulletin No. 69, 1924,

describe briefly the egg-laying habits of Lamprophorus. Their

observations were made from 1921 to 1923 on material collected at

Peradeniya, Ceylon. According to them the ‘oviposition period’ lasts

from 1 to 3 weeks and is followed by a ‘post-oviposition period’

during which the female incubates. ‘Females which have not had

a chance of mating will still lay eggs, but none of the eggs will

hatch, merely turning black and drying up.’

The following observations of mine were made during the years

1939 to ’42 from material collected at Tambaram, Chingleput District,

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

Although the larvae at various instars are obtainable throughout

the year, the females make their appearance only during the rainy

months. They were collected from different localities mostly from

inside thorny bushes.

The adult female Lamprophorus is exactly like a larva except

for its creamy white colour and a few other definite anatomical

peculiarities, especially those concerning the antennae and the tarsi.

The larvae which have just emerged from a moult also resemble

the adult female in colour. But their antennae and tarsi differ

fundamentally from the adult coleopteran style. ‘

The female which is normally sluggish during daytime is un-

usually restless during oviposition. The eggs are laid both during

day and night. The eggs when laid are very light yellow in colour,

but become darker with time. They are spherical and without any

sculpture or ornamentation and vary from 3.00 mm. to 3.50 mm.

in diameter. The eggs are faintly luminescent. The luminosity of

the egg lasts for several days. Their glow is faintly noticeable even

from inside spirit for a few hours. Before oviposition, the female

makes a shallow open burrow over which she coils herself in a

quiet. pose for hours together. So far I have not observed any

deep or closed burrow constructed for the purpose. When eggs

are being laid occasional convulsions are seen towards the posterior

portion of the body. The convulsions sometimes occur at definite

intervals. The whole anal brush’ is retracted into the last segment

and the posterior most segments are pushed in and out and bulge

and relax moving from side to side. During oviposition as

far as possible, the same place is sought. Almost all the eggs are

laid over the same burrow to form a single heap, over which the

mother coils round. If the female is disturbed during oviposition

she creeps about restlessly for a long time emitting the brightest

glow from her photogenic organ. Sometimes she leaves the burrow

and cleans her body busily with her anal brush and again creeps

back to the burrow. She is also sometimes noticed to lay eggs

singly, slightly outside the burrow and then she carries them by

the fore-legs and deposits them over the original heap.

A female (Female A) which emerged from her pupal skin on

25th September 1941, was taken to the laboratory and left in a

large glass trough over moist earth. The first eggs were laid on

6th October 1941, the ‘preoviposition’ period lasting for about 10

days. The last egg was laid on 16th October, the ‘oviposition

period’ lasting for about 11 days, during which time she had laid

57 eggs, all singly varying from 2 to 9 per day. Of these about

half the number of eggs were laid during daytime and the rest at

night. Of the 6 eggs laid on roth Oct. morning, 2 were laid out-

side the original heap, and the 2 eggs laid on 8th night were laid in

two separate places. All the remaining eggs were laid in the same

heap over the same burrow.

PSE Uo 2% ‘The Giant Glow-Worm of Tambaram’, Madras Christian College

Magazine, Vol, xi, No. 2, December 1941, page 88, ‘

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ING, Ao

J. S. Raj—Indian Glow-Worm (Lamprophorus tenebrosus WIk.)

(For explanation see end of Note).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 677

The following scheme gives the details regarding the number

of eggs laid by Female A.

FEMALE A.

Date. Time. _ No. of eggs laid.

| = a a

6th Oct. 1941 Afternoon 3

7th - About 6 p.m. l

7th A Late in the night 4

sth y Night 2

9th sn | Morning 2

9th =F | About 2 p.m. 3

10th A | Morning 6

10th a About 11 a.m. cece 2

llth | |

12th i | a | 25

13th |

14th | . |

15th a | A 9

& 16th

After 48 eggs were laid a few older ones turned dark and dried

up and most of them were attacked by fungi. Later on some of

the freshly laid eggs were removed immediately to dry earth, but

soon they too turned black and died out. So I could not get them

hatched. On 22nd October, the female also died. The female was

dissected immediately and found to contain over 100 normal eggs

in the ovary. But here and there were noticed a few dark eggs.

From the single massive ovary which occupied almost the whole

of the interior just beneath the adipose layer and above the alimentary

tract, start two short, fairly stout oviducts which meet to form the

uterus, which leads on to the vagina. From in between the uterus

and vagina were observed two (a small and a large) spermathecae,

both loaded with sperms.

The question arises, whether the eggs laid were fertilised or

not. Hutson and Austin during their breeding experiments had

cases where the eggs laid ‘merely turned black and dried up.’ These

they described as unfertilised eggs, i.e., eggs laid by females which

have not had a chance of mating. The Female A, which I have

described is interesting. She laid 57 eggs in all and all turned black

and dried up and were attacked by fungi. But the presence of sperms

in the spermathecae confirms that Female A had definitely mated

before oviposition. At present with the little material at hand I

can only conclude by saying that even females which have had a

chance of mating will lay eggs which are destined to turn black

and dry up.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

1. Normal resting position of the female (Note the head is with-drawn under

the pronotum). A anal brush; P photogenic organ; T tergal plates.

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

2. Egg-laying position of the female.

3: The Reproductive system of Female A. Ad. Adipose layer; Ov. Ovary ;

Od. Oviduct; Ut. Uterus; Sp. Spermatheca; Vag. Vagina.

TAMBARAM, J. SAMUEL RAJ, Bae B.Sc. (Hons.),

12th Nov, 42. Demonstrator in Zoology,

| Madras Christian College.

XXI.—THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SPINES OF

HVGROPHTEASS PINO SAMS ANIDE IRS:

( With one plate).

Hygrophila spinosa T. Anders. (=Asteracantha longifolia Nees,

Ruellia longifolia Roxb., Fam. Acanthaceae) is a herb growing usu-

ally in marshy or aquatic situations and attaining a height of about

70-80 cm. The plant is rather common and is distributed through-

out India, Burma and Ceylon.

Position of the spines.

The stem bears at each node two opposite leaves which are linear-

lanceolate in shape: the main stem seldom develops normal branches.

Instead of elongated leafy branches there are at each node usually

6 stout, straight or slightly incurved ‘spines’, 3 being on each side

(fig. 1). The length of the ‘spines’ varies from 1 to 4 cm. Besides the

spines there are a number of leaves at the node; all of them are

so crowded together that their arrangement is not very clear and -

the morphology of the ‘spines’ is not easily understood. Occasion-

ally one or more of these ‘spines’ develop small leaves and thus

show their branch nature; but such a phenomenon does not explain

the morphology of all the ‘spines’ and their relation to one another.

Morphology of the spines and their arrangement at the nodes.

The arrangement of these ‘spines’ at the node has been studied

and their morphology has been determined. All the 6 ‘spines’ seem

to develop from the node, but in reality only two develop at the

node each in the axil of each of the two opposite leaves; the remain-

ing four develop as secondary branches of these two. The method

of branching may be explained as follows: in the axil of a leaf a

branch develops: the terminal bud of this branch soon ceases to

grow and the whole structure becomes hard and woody and _ is

modified into a ‘spine’; normally such a short branch does not

develop evident nodes and internodes, but develops two opposite

leaves at its first node, the internode below this node becoming

entirely suppressed; on account of this, these two leaves appear to

develop from the node of the main stem on the two sides of the sup-

pressed branch. Each of these leaves bears a branch in its axil

which is also modified into a ‘spine’; this also develops two opposite

ult. Sauk” 4 wat

2 he - nal ’ oh Vent Ae 4,

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fae Wola it

et, ( ‘vi

3 wish pita hates _ ¥ : 7

rc) ey

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“(9]0N fO Pus vas UO11DUDIGZa 404) 3 sopuy: °L DSourgs “Dyyqousk 7—npuny 2. -¢

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 679

leaves at its first node, ln internode below it also becoming sup-

pressed.

Thus at a node there are two main branches, the primary “spines’

(each in the axil of each of the two opposite leaves), each of which

also develops two lateral branches, the secondary ‘spines’, and so

altogether we get 6 ‘spines’; as the first internode of the primary

‘spines’ remain suppressed, all the 6 spines are crowded at the node

with 6 pairs of opposite leaves (minus the two leaves of the main

stem). Occasionally the number of spines may be 5 or less in

number, on account of one or more of the secondary spines not

being developed. The method of branching as described above is

shown in a diagram (fig. 2) where the first internodes of the sup-

pressed branches (‘spines’) are shown elongated. (See also figure 3).

The arrangement of the leaves and ‘spines’ at the node becomes

further complicated by the crowding of the flowers. They are al-

ways axillary, developing in the axils of the leaves of the ‘spines’.

Roxburgh (1832) describes the arrangement of the leaves and

spines’ in the following way; ‘Leaves verticilled; an exterior,

opposite sessile pair at each joint, within these, and subalternate

with the spines, several small ones in a verticil. Spines 6 in each

verticil between the leaves and flowers.’ It appears from the present

study that the above description given by Roxburgh is not correct.

Transition from spines to normal foliage shoots.

Occasionally, however, the suppressed branches, particularly the

primary ones become normal long foliage shoots instead of being

transformed into spines. Such a long branch, like the main stem,

bears opposite leaves at each node, which usually develop 2 or

more ‘spines’ in their axils. The secondary ‘spines’ like the primary

ones may develop into short branches. Fig. 3 shows a case where

all the ‘spines’ have been transformed into shoots. In certain cases

the spines may not grow out into branches, but have been found

to develop nodes and short internodes; small leaves develop from

such nodes. All stages of transition from “spines’ to elongated

foliage shoots can be observed in different specimens. In a parti-

cular example, on one side of the node the three spines have all

developed into long shoots, but on the other side only the primary

spine is so transformed (fig. 4). In another specimen each of the

buds in the axil of 2 opposite leaves of the main stem instead of being

transformed into a spine develops a leafy branch; the secondarv

‘spines’ in this specimen have not developed.

The transition from ‘spines’ to normal foliage shoots appear to

depend on environmental conditions. In plants of Hygrophila

spinosa growing in comparatively drier situations, the ‘spines’ have

never been observed to be transformed into foliage shoots. In

specimens growing in water, the ‘spines’ particularly those growing

in contact with water always show a tendency of elongating into

foliage shoots.

Similar elongation of spinous shoots may be brought about

experimentally and has been described in other species by Goebel

(1905) and Troll (1937). It has been said that if the terminal shoot

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIII

is cut off above the region of the spines, the spines are prolonged out

into normal leafy branches with distinct nodes and internodes.

Conclusion.

All the six spines found at a node of the stem of Hygrophila

spinosa are modified branches. Only two of them really grow from

the axil of the two opposite leaves at the node of the main stem

and the other four develop as secondary branches of these two.

The term ‘spine’ and ‘thorn’ are often regarded as synonymous.

They have also been used by some to denote different senses, viz.,

thorn for a modified shoot and spine for a modified leaf or part of

aleaf. Kundu (1942) has reviewed the whole question and supported

the latter view. So the ‘spines’ of Hygrophila spinosa should be

described as thorns.

REFERENCES.

1. Clarke, C. B., 1884, in Hooker’s Flora of British India, vol. IV, pp. 408-9.

2. Goebel, K., 1903.—Organography of Plants (English Translation), Part ie

PP- 453:

3. Kundu, B. C., 1942.—A note on the use of the terms ‘thorn’, ‘spine’,

and ‘prickle’. Science and Culture, VII, 460-61.

4. Roxburgh, W., 1832.—Flora Indica (Clarke’s Edition, 1874) p- 475

Serampore.

s. Troll, W., 1937.—Vergleichende Morphologie der hdheren Pflanzen,

Berlin.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE FIGURES.

Fig. 1.—A portion of the stem of H. spinosa T. Anders, showing the leaves

and the 6 spines at a node.

Fig. 2.—A diagram of a portion of the stem of H. spinosa to explain the

method of branching and the relation of the spines to one another. In the

diagram the suppressed basal internodes of the ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ spines

are shown elongated.

Fig. 3.—A stem-node of H. spinosa where all the spines have been trans-

formed into short shoots.

Fig. 4.—A stem-node of H. spinosa T. Anders, from which all the leaves

have been removed. On one side all the 3 spines have been transformed into

branches and on the other side only the primary spine is so transformed.

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6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

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