/

■U1

Ofo.EA

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History society

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

' ' ' • j ’ , ^ 4 ~ F'V

VOL. XL1V

NOS. 1 & 2

Price .... Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

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The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound : —

Title page ... ... \

Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. XLIV ...

List of Contributors

List of Plates ...

Index to Illustrations

Errata

To follow frontis-

piece in this order.

Index to Species

To go at the end of

two numbers.

THk

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

EDITED BY

Rev Fr. J. F. CAlUS, S.J., F.L.S., S. H. PRATER, O.B E M.L.A., J.P.

and C. MCCANN, P-L.s.

VOL. XLIV

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 30 Black and White Plates,

28 Text-figures, 1 Map and 2 Graphs

Dates of Publication

Part I. (Pages 1 to 158) ... August 1943

,, 11. ( ,, 159 to 314) ... December 1943

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY)

212, Shaftesbury Avenue,

LONDON, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS^ MADRAS

1944

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV

No. 1

Page

The Game Fishes of India. Part XVI. By Sunder Lai Hora,

D.SC.j F.R.S. E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I. ( With 0716 coloured

plate and three text-figures ) . .«• I

The Birds of Mysore. Part IV. By Salim Ali 9

The Larger Deer of British India. Part III. The

*

Sambar ( Rusa ). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. ( With three text-

figures) 27

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish

in India and Burma. Part IV. By A. St. J. Macdonald.

( With 07ie plate ’, a map and three text-figures ) 38

On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found

over 3,000 feet. Part II. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u.,

P. F. Garth waite and B. E. Smythies 60

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XIV.

By N. L. Bor, M.A., d.s.c., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B.

Raizada, m.sc. ( With one coloured , two black and white

plates a7id three text-figures ) 73

The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera. Part XI.

By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s.... 78

Fish Survey of Hyderabad State. Part II. By M.

Rahimuliah, m.sc., f.z.s 88

The Medicinal and Poisonous Lindenblooms of India.

By J. F. Caius, S.J., f.l.s 92

Tiger SnkRK—Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle, By

P. N. Sarangdhar, m.sc. ( With three plates) 102

Review *

Report of the Game and Game Fishes Preservation

Committee on the existing species of Game in

Bengal. S.L.H Ill

Obituary: Mr. Hugh Whistler 112

Miscellaneous Notes : —

I. The record skull of an Indian Clouded Leopard

(. Neofelis nebulosa Griffith). By R. I. Pocock,

F.R.S 113

II. Elephant and Bison on Roadways. By Lt.-Col.

R. C. Morris 113

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL IV

Page

III. Occurrence of the Himalayan Tahr {Hemi tragus

jemlahicus)\n Sikkim. By Capt. C. J. T. Wrenicke 114

IV, Life span of some wild animals in captivity. By

E. S. Simon, Curator, Government Zoological

Gardens, Trivandrum 117

V. Breeding season of the Indian Sambar ( Rusa

unicolor , Kerr) 118

VI. Small Game shooting in the Salem District. By

Capt. Aubrey Buxton 119

VII. Woodpeckers feeding on fruit. By E. A. Storrs

Fox... .o 122

VIII. The eggs of the Indian Bay-Banded Cuckoo

(. Penthoceryx sonneratii). By Humayun Abdulali 12 2

IX. Green Pigeons in a Swamp. By Major E. G.

Phythian Adams, i. a 122

X. Some notes on the common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles

exustus Temminck) in Kaira District. By

Herschel C. Aldrich, m.d. {With a plate) 123

XI. Occurrence of the Close-barred Sandgrouse

{Pterocles lichtenstemi aiabicus Neum.) in the

N.-W. F. P. By Major J. O. S. Donald 126

XII. Late stay of Snipe and weight of Pintail. By J.

Beckett, i.p....... 126

XIII. The White-fronted Goose {Anser albiirons Scop.)

in Assam. By D. J. Monta^non 126

XIV. Gynandromorphism in the Common Teal {Anas

crecca Linn.) By Salim Ali 127

XV. Occurrence of Comb Duck {Sarkidiornis melanotus

Penn.) in Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian

Adams, i.a., f.z.s 130

XVI. Red Crested Pochard {Net la ruiina Pallas) in the

Madras Presidency. By Major E. G. Phythian

Adams, i. a., f.z.s 130

XVII. Notes on the viviparity of the Common Indian

Skink {Mabuya carinata Schneider). By J. L.

Bhaduri 130

XVIII. The anatomy of the duodenal region of some

genera of Apoda {Amphibia). By L.S. Rama*

swami. {With two plates') 134

XIX. A note on fish mortality in the Sohan River. By

K. R. Bagchi, d.sc..„ 137

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL1V v

Page

XX. Papilio ardurus in the Himalayas. By William

Harcourt-Bath 137

XXI. Control of Aedes egyptns (Slegomyia fasciata) or

tiger mosquito, (the carrier of yellow fever) in

the Bombay Harbour by a patent mosquito

proof cap and tap. By Dr. J. D. Bana, m.b., m.r.

C.S., D.P.H., d t.m. & h., i.p 139

XXII. Observations on a few cases of larval Ecdysis of

the Indian Glow-Worm, Lamprophorus tene-

brosus Wlk. By J. Samuel Raj 142

XXIII. The flowering of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. By

C. McCann 143

Proceeding of the Annual General Meeting 145

No. 2

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XV.

By N. L. Bor, m a.,d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada,

m.sc. ( With one coloured , two black and zvhite plates and

two text-figures) 159

The Game Fishes of India. Part XVII. By Sunder Lai

Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i. ( With one

black and white plate and one text-figure) 164

The Larger Dear of British India. Part IV. The Chital

(Axis) and the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus). By R. J. Pocock,

f.r.s. (With 4-8 text-figures) 169

A Note on the Feeding Habits of the Little Bittern

(Ixobrychus minutus ). By Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u.

( With two plates) 179

‘ Light-Win Dows’ in Certain Flowers (Asclepiadaceae and

Araceae). By Charles McCann, f.l.s. (With a plate) 182

Circumventing the Masheer and other Sporting Fish

in India and Burma. Part V. By A. St. J. Macdonald

( With five plates arid one text- figure) 185

The Birds of Mysore, Part V. By Salim Ali. (With one

plate) 206

On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found

over 3,000 feet. Part III. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u.,

P. F. Garthwaite, and B. E. Smythies 221

Breeding Habits and Early Stages of the Gourami

(Osphronemus goramy Lacepede). By C. V. Kulkarni, b.a.

(Hons.), M.sc,, ph.D. (With seven text-figures) 233

vi

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV

Page

Some Common Indian Herbs with Notes on Their Ana-

tomical Characters. Part XL By M. Sayeedud-Din.

( With three plates ) 244

Some More New Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, with

Their Life Histories. By E. P. Wiltshire, f.r.e.s.

( With a plate ) 247

The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. By L. S. S.

Kumar and A. Abraham. ( With four plates') 252

A Few Notes about the Five Rhinoceros of the

World. By W. S. Thom 257

Effect of Different Foods on the Larval and Post-

Larval Development of the Moth Prodenia litura

Fab. ( Lepidoptera , Noctuidae). By A. C. Basil, m.sc.

( With two graphs) 275

Obituary : Hugh Whistler 289

Miscellaneous Notes : —

I. An interesting Tiger shoot. By Thakore Sahib

of Palitana 291

II. A Black Panther shot in Sind. By K. R. Eates,

f.z.s., m.b.o.u 291

III. On the occurrence of the Yellow-headed Fantail

Warbler (Cisticola exilis tytleri Jerdon) in the

Kumaon Tarai. U.P. By B.E. Smythies 292

IV. Occurrence of the Golden Oriole and Common

Cuckoo in Sind. By N. H. Menesse, i.S.e 296

V. The distribution of the Grey Hornbill ( Tockus

birostris) and Tickell’s Flower-Pecker ( Pipri -

soma agile?). By Capt. R. G. Hutchinson...... 296

VI. The European Common Partridge ( Perdix perdix)

in Persia. By J. A. Cergh.. 297

VII. Description of chick, in down, of the Simla Hill

Patridge {Arbor ophila torqueola miliar di). By

A. E. Jones 298

VIII. Local movements of the Painted Patridge {Fran-

colinus pictus) around Bombay. By F. C. D.

Ogden 299

IX. Banding of the Lesser Florican {Sypheotides indica)

in Bhavnagar State, Kathiawar. By K. S.

Dharmakumar Sinhji , 299

X. Whimbrel and Fiddler Crabs. By M. R. Raut 300

XL The moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By

Humayun Abdulali..., 300

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL1V vii

Page

XII. Ducks of Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich,

M.D 301

XIII. The Arabian Large-crested Sea Tern ( Sterna

bergii velox ) breeding off the Sind Coast. By

K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u 302

XIV. The hatching of a Mugger, ( Crocodilus palustris).

By C. Bone 303

XV. Specific identity of the ‘ Record mahseer.’ By

S. L. Hora, d.sc.... 303

XVI. Strange breeding habits of the Cichlid Fish

/ ( Etroplus maculatus). By Lt.-Col. H. J. Rice... 304

XVII. A note on the transmission of Malaria at Ketti,

Nilgiris, 6,300 feet. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth,

m.a 307

XVIII. Butterfly migration. ( Danais melissa dravidarum

and Euplxra c. core). By W. L. French- 310

XIX. Insects in fruit eaten by birds. By J. C. M.

Gardner 311

XX. A trip to the Yala Sanctuary. By Lt.-Col. H. G.

Rossel... 311

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XUV

Nos, 1 and 2

Page

Abdulali, Humayun ; The

eggs of the Indian Bay*

Banded Cuckoo ( Penthoceryx

sonneratii) 122

— — — ; The moulting of

Duck after arrival in India ... 300

Abraham, A. ; See Kumar,

L.S.S 252

Adams, Major E. G. Phy-

thian, i. a., f. z. s. ; Green

Pigeon in a swamp 122

— — - ; Occurrence of Comb

Duck ( Sarkidiornis melanotus

Penn.) in Mysore 130

• Red Crested

Pochard ( Netta riifina Pallas)

in the Madras Presidency ... 130

Aldrich, Herschel, C., m.d. ;

Some notes on the Common

Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus

(Temminck) in Kaira District.

( With a plate ) 123

— - ; Ducks of Kaira

District 301

Ali, Salim ; The Birds of My-

sore. Part IV. 9

— - — — ; Gynandromorphism

in the Common Teel ( Anas

crecca Linn.) 127

— ; The Birds of My-

sore. Part V. ( With one

plate) ... ... 206

BaGchi, K. N., d.sc. ; A note

on fish mortality in the Sohan

River 137

Bana, Dr. F. D., m.s.,m.r.c.s.,

D.P.H., D.T.M. & H., I.P. ;

Control of Aedes egyptus

(Stegomya fasciata) or tiger

mosquito, (the carrier of yel-

low fever) in the Bombay

Page

Harbour by a patent mos-

quito-proof cap and tap ... 139

Basu, A. C., m.sc. ; Effect of

different foods on the larval

and post-larval development

of the moth Prodenia litura

Fab. (Lepidoptera, Noctui-

dce ) ( With two graphs) ... 275

Bates, Lt-Col. R. S. P.,

m.b.o.u. ; A note on the feed-

ing habits of the Little Bittern

{Ixobrychus minutus) . (With

two plates). 179

Beckett, J., i.p., ; Late stay

of Snipe and weight of Pintail. 126

Bhaduri, J. L. ; Notes on the

viviparity of the Common

Indian Skink, (Mabuya cari -

nata Schneider) 130

Bone, C. ; The hatching of a

Mugger ( Crocodilus palustris) 303

Bor, N. L., m.a., d.sc., f.l.s.,

i.f.s., and Raizada, m.b.,

m.sc. ; Some beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs. Part

XIV. ( With one coloured ,

two black and white plates and

three text-figures) 73

Part XV. With one coloured ,

two black and white plates

and two text-Hgures) ... 159

Buxton; Capt. Aubrey; Small

Game Shooting in the Salem

District 119

Caius, J. F., s.j., f.l.s. ; The

Medicinal and Poisonous Lin-

denblooms of India 92

Cergh, J. A. ; The European

common Partridge ( Perdix

perdix) in Persia 297

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

IX

Page

Dharmakumar SiNHji, K. vS. ;

Banding of the Lesser Flori-

can ( Sypheotides indica) in

Bhavnagar State 299

Donald, Major J. O. S. ; Oc-

currence of the Close-barred

Sandgrouse ( Pterocles lich-

tenstenii arabicus, Neum.) in

the N.-W.F.P. 126

Eates, K. R., f.z.s. , m.b.o.u. ;

A black Panther shot in Sind 291

; The

Arabian Large-crested Sea

Tern ( Sterna bergii velox )

breeding off the Sind Coast ... 302

Fox, E. A. Storrs ; Wood-

peckers feeding on Fruit ... 122

French, W. L., ; Butterfly

migration 310

Gardner, J. C. M. ; Insects in

fruit eaten by birds 311

Garth waite, P. F. ; See

Smith, H.C., m.b.o.u., and

Smythies, B. E. ... 60, 55, 221

Harcourt-Bath, W. ; Papilio

arcturus in the Himalayas ... 137

Hora, Sunder Lal, d. sc.,

F.R.S.E., E.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B.,

f.n.i. ; The Game Fishes of

India. Part XVI. {With one

coloured plate and three text-

figures) 1

Part XVII. {With one black

and white plate and one text-

figure) 164

— ; Specific

identity of the 4 Record Mah-

seer * 303

Hutchinson, Capt. R. G. ;

The distribution of the Grey

Hornbill ( Tockus birostris)

and TickelPs Flower-Pecker

{Piprisoma agile) 296 * 1

Jones, A. E. ; Description of

Chick, in down, of the Simla

Hill Partridge {Arborophila

torqueola miliar di) 298

Kulkarni, C. V., B.A.,

(Hons.), M. sc., ph. d. ;

Breeding Habits and Early

Page

Stages of the Gourami {Osph-

ronemus goramy Lacepede).

{With seven text-figures)- ... 233

Kumar, L.S. S., and Abraham,

A. ; The Papaya, its Botany,

Culture and Uses. ( With four

plates 252

McCann, Charles, f.l.s. ; The

flowering of Strobilanthes cal-

losus Nees 143

— ‘ Light

Windows in certain flowers

{Asclepidaceae and Araceae).

( With a plate) . 182

Macdonald, A. St. J. ; Cir-

cumventing the Mahseer and

other Sporting Fish in India

and Burma. Part IV. ( With

one plate , a map and three

text-figures) 38

Part V. ( With five plates and

one text-figure ... ... 185

Menesse, N. H., i.s.e. ; Oc-

currence of the Golden Oriole

_and Common Cuckoo in Sind 296

I Montagnon, D. J.; The White-

fronted Goose {Anser albi-

frons Scop.) in Assam ... 126

Morris, Lt.-Col. R. C. ; Ele-

j phant and Bison on Roadways 313

j Ogden, F. C. D.; Local move-

ments of the Painted Par-

tridge {Franco linns pictus)

around Bombay 299

Pocock, R. I., f r.s. ; The

Larger Deer of British India.

Part III. The Sambar (Rusa) .

{With three texU figures ... 27

— — — - - ■ ■ ; The record

skull of an Indian Clouded

Leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa

Griffith) 113

; The Larger

Deer of British India, Part

IV. The Chital {Axis) and

the Hog Deer {Hyelaphus).

{ With 4-S text-figures) ... 169

Rahimullah, M., m.sc., f.z.s. ;

Fish Survey of Hyderabad

State ... ... ... ... 88

X

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Page

Raizada, M. B., m.sc. ; See

Bor, N.L., m.a., d.sc.,f.l.s.,

i.f.s 73, 359

Raj, J. Samuel; Observations

on a few cases of larval Ecdy-

sis of the Indian Glow-worm,

Lam prophorus t ene brosus

Wlk 142

Ramaswami, L. S. ; The ana-

tomy of the duodenal region

of some' genera of Apoda

{Amphibia) . {With two

plates) 134

Raut, M. R. ; Whimbrel and

Fiddler Crabs 300

Rice, Lt.-Col. H. J. ; Strange

breeding habits of the Cichlid

Fish (Etroplus maculatus) ... 3‘) 4

Rossel, Lt.-Col. H. G. ; A

trip to the Yala Sanctuary ... 311

Sarangdhar, P. N., m.sc. ;

Tiger Shark —Galeocer do

tigrinus Muller and Henle.

( With three plates) 102

Sayeedud-Din, M. ; Some

Common Indian Herbs with

notes on their anatomical

characters. {With three

• plates) 244

Sevastopulo, D. G., f.r.e.s.;

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera . Part XI. ... 78

Simon, E. S., Curator, Govern-

ment Zoological Gardens,

Trivandrum ; Life span of

some wild animals in capti-

vity 117

Page

Sambar ( R u s a unicolor

Kerr) 118

S. L. H. Report of the Game

and Game Fishes Preserva-

tion Committee on the exist-

ing species of game in Bengal 111

Smith, H.C., m.b.o.u., Garth-

waite, P. F,, and SmythiEvS,

B E. ; On the Birds of the

Karen Hills and Karenni

found over 3,000 feet. Part II. 60

; Part III ... 221

Smythies, B. E. ; See Smith,

H.C., m.b.o.u. and Garth-

waite, P. F 60, 221

; On the

occurrence of the Yellow-

headed Fantail Warbler Cisti-

cola exilis tytleri Jerdon) in

the Kumaon Tarai, U.P. ... 292

Thakore Sahib of Palitana ;

An interesting Tiger shoot ... 291

Thom, W. S. ; A few notes

about the five Rhinoceros of

the world ... 257

Wiltshire, E. P., f.r.e.s. ;

Some more new Lepidoptera

from S.-W. Iran, with then-

life histories. ( With a plate) 247

Wrenicke, Capt. C. J. T. ;

Occurrence of the Himalayan

Tahr {Hemitragus jemlahi-

| cus) in Sikkim 114

i Wynter-BlYth, M.A., m.a. ;

A note on the transmission of

; Malaria at Ketti, Nilgiris,

| 6,300 feet. ... ... ... 307

Breeding season of the Indian

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME XLIV

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGji

The Game Fishes of India

Plate

Circumventing

Burma

Plate

Barbus {Tor) klmdree Sykes (upper) ... ... 1

Barbus ( Tor) musullah Sykes (lower)

the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and

(1) A typical ‘ Golden Mahseer’ , 50 lbs. Barbus {Tor)

putitora (Hamilton).

(2) Thick-lipped ‘mahseer’, 52 lbs. Barbus ( Tor ) putitora

(Hamilton). With hyper-trophied lips,

(3) The ‘ Black mahseer’. 26 lbs. Barbus ( Tor) putitora

( Hamilton ) . Melanie form .

(4) Short gilled, deep-bodied type, 25 lbs. Barbus { Tor)

tor (Hamilton) ... ... ... 38

Plate ‘ White water ’ where large fish are usually taken.

Part of a bag taken in the rapid shown above. Two

best 30 and 25 lbs. ... ... ... 48

Plate Sketch map of water likely to be met with in most

hill rivers ... ... ... ... 49

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XXV. The Trumpet Iioney-suckle {Lonicera sempervirens

Linn.) ... ... ... ... 73

Plate Lonicera sempervirens Linn. New Forest, Dehra

Dun ... ... ... ... 76

Plate Lonicera japonica Thunb. New Forest, Dehra

Dun ... ... ... ... 77

Tiger Shark— Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle

Plate I. A, female, 13 ft. 1 in. long, landed at Sassoon Dock,

Bombay; B, under surface of head; C, typ cal

teeth of same ... ... ... ... 102

Plate II. A, uterus partly opened to show arrangement of

compartments ; B, spindle shaped, unfertilized

egg within shell membrane ; C, compartment

showing embryo within the water-filled sac in the

shell membrane; D, embryo, 6*8 cms. long, with

its umbilical cord and large yolk-sac. Note fila-

ments in gill slits and spiracles ... ... 104

Plate III. A, embryo with yolk-sac and umbilical cord (advanc-

ed stage). Note conspicuous tiger-like markings ;

B, 42 embryos each weighing 1 lb. are seen spread

out along the mother’s body. The white bag on

the left is the shark’s stomach from which were

taken several basketsfull of miscellaneous and

quite fresh fish. (Inset top right.) ..,

107

LIST OF PLATES

Xll

Some notes on the Common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus Temminck)

in Kaira District

Plate 1. Female with one chick under her wing and two

standing in front of her.

2. Male, female and three chicks attempting to es-

cape by slowly creeping away

The Anatomy of the Duodenal Region of some genera of Apoda (Am-

phibia)

Plate I. Anatomy of duodenal region of Apoda

Plate II. Do.

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XV. The Cape Plumbago (Plumbago capensis Thu nb)...

Plumbago capensis Thunb. New Forest, Dehra Dun

Do. Do.

India

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. From Canara,

Malabar

A Note on the Feeding Habits of the Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus)

Plate 1. Ixobrychus minutus ( Linn.)

Plate II. Do.

‘ Light-Windows ’ in Certain Flowers

Plate

The Game Fishes of

Plate

Circumventing

Burma

Plate

‘ Light- Windows ’

the Mahseer and other

1.

Sporting Fish in India and

Plate

A panoramic view of the famous confluence look-

ing down from the bungalow.

2. Famous rocks 22 miles north of Myitkyina

3. Mali Rapid into confluence F — G is excellent

water

1. Golden or Himalayan Mahseer, Barbus (Tor)

pntitora Hamilton, 25 lbs. Because of its long

body referred to in Assam as the Greyhound type.

2. Black Mahseer. A colour variety of the Pulitor

or Golden Mahseer.

3. Chocolate Mahseer, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexa-

gonolepis.

4. Red Mahseer. Another colour variety of Barbus

(L) hexagonolepis

Chocolate Mahseer, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagono-

lepis , 16 lbs. (Left.) Golden Mahseer, Barbus tor

putitora, 23 lbs. (Right.)

Thick-lipped Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora Hamil-

ton (Left.)

Copper Mahseer, Barbus tor mosal Hamilton,

(Right.) Note the pronounced adipose extension of

the lips in the larger fish. It is a peculiarity not

yet fully investigated

The Sahman Chaung. 1. View through Finlay

Fleming’s estate ; 2. Hill section, holding fish

from 8-10 lbs. 3. Another view of Hill section.

Typical B. bola. water

Page

124

134

135

159

162

163

164

180

181

183

186

189

190

193

LIST OF PLATES

xtii

The Birds of Mysore

Plate V. 1. Little Cormorants ( Phalacvocorax niger) and

Small Egrets ( Egretta g. garzetta) on rocks in

the Cauvery near Palahally Island (Seringapa-

tam), the newly created Bird Sanctuary.

2. Nest and eggs (c/11) of the Spot-billed Duck

{Anas poecilorhyncha) on a islet in Vanivilas

Sagar (Marikanive). 6-1-1940 ... ... 216

Some Common Indian. Herbs with Notes on their Anatomical Characters

Plate I. Fig. 1. — An association of Heliotropium zeylanicum

Laruk.

Fig. 2. — Heliolr opium zeylanicum Lamk ... 242

Plate II. Heliotropium zeylanicum Lawk ... ... 243

Plate III. Do. ... 244

Some more new Lcpidoptera from S.-W. Iran

Plate Figs. I. — 14. New Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran ... 247

The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses.

Plate I. Drawing showing female, hermaphrodite and male

flowers ... ... .. ... 253

Plate II. A female papaya plant nearly one year old. Due to

poor soil fertility and effect of seasonal variation

the upper part is without fruit ... ... 254

Plate III. Female plant, ten months old, growing in good soil

and bearing fruits right up to the apex, and from

less than two feet from the ground. (Left.)

A male plant also of the same age. Note the long

pendulous inflorescences bearing numerous small

flowers. (Right). ... ... ... 254

Plate IV. A male plant bearing a few female flowers and

fruits at the terminal portion of infloresences pre-

dominantly bearing male flowers. (Left.)

A plant with inflorescences exactly similar to the

male inflorescence in appearance, but with all

flowers female. (Right.)

254

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XLIV

Nos, 1 and 2

Page

Anas poecilorhyncha

— mussullah

Text-fig- 1 3

tor

Text- fig. 1

- — — - mosal

PI

{tor) khudree

PI.

Text-fig. 3

Pl.

Text-fig. 1

_. mussullah

PL

r- r- ■ » putitora

PL

Pis.

3

... 191

1

7

... 164

... 166

1

... 38

189, 191

- — — - tor

Pl.

Bawanny mahseer

Text*fig 2

Black mahseer

Pis. ...

Cervus wallichii

Text-fig. 5

Xretta g. garzetta

Pl. V

... 38

4

...186, 189, 193

170

216

INDEX To ILLUSTRATIONS

XV

Page i Page

Plumbago capensis

Rusa unicolor

ERRATA

VOL. XLIV— Nos. 1 & 2.

I, The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera~—Pt. XL

Page 80, line 3, insert ‘ Soc .’ after ‘ Hist*

,, line 10, read ‘ Crocale L.’ for ‘ Crocale Cr.’

„ 82, line 25, insert * 452 ’ after ‘...Moths, v,’

,, 84) line 19, read ‘ Boerhavia ’ for ‘ Boerhaavia ’

„ 85, line 2, from bottom read ‘ somites ’ /<?r f somite

bottom line read ‘ spiracle ’ for * spiracles’

„ 86, line 39, ‘ darker, pruinosed Spiracles ’ for

‘ ...darker. Pruinosed spiracles.’

II. Misc. Note XIX. — A Note on Fish Mortality in the Sohan River .

Page 137, line 5, for 1 p ’ read ‘ pH

,, 9, for ‘ p ’ read ‘ pH

„ 18, for ‘ p ’ read ’ pH ’.

III. Few Notes about the Five Rhinoceros of the World.

Page 258, line 6, from bottom of the page for ‘ 1936 ’ read

‘ 1836 \

,, 260, line 23, from bottom of the page for ‘Peter Spicer or ’

read ‘ Peter Spicer of

„ 261, line 18, from the bottom of the page, for f Ah ’

read ‘ At \

„ 262, line 2, from the top of the page for « Messrs. Hursh

& Blackett.’ read‘ Messrs. Hurst & Blackett.’

263, line 18, from the top of the page for the word

‘ needed ’ read * indeed ’.

n 265, line 3, from the bottom of the page for ‘ re bark ’

read ‘ remark ’.

„ 267, line 12, from the top of the page for ‘ Kyautpyu ’

read ‘ Kyaukpyu ’.

„ 272, line 2, from the bottom of the page for ‘ wisting ’

read ‘ twisting

„ 274, line 14, from the top of the page for i male ’ read

‘ males ’.

IV. Misc. Note No. 1. — A Black Jungle Cat from Karachi and the

Panther of Sind.

Page 585, line 10, from the top of the page for ‘ sivler-fox ’

read ‘ silver-fox ’.

590, line 4, from the bottom of the page for ‘Mutjac ’

read ‘ Muntjac ’.

591, line 3, from the top of the page for ‘ Bisson’ read

‘ Bison

I

INDEX OE SPECIES

Abroscopus

superciliaris superciliaris

Accipiter trivirgatus indicus

virgatus besra

Aceros nipalensis

Acrocephalus agricola stevensi

— arundinaceus

Actitis hypoleucos

Aedes egyptus

Aegle marmelos

Aethiopsar griseus grandis

Aethopyga gouldiae dabryi

nipalensis karenensis

sanguinipectus sanguini-

pectus

siparaja subsp

Page

65

64

229

23

226

62

63

214

139

79

66

69

70

69

Alcedo atthis bengalensis 225

taprobana .. 14

Alcemerops athertoni 225

Aleucis 249

Alseodaphne semicarpifolia 81

Amanda va amandava flavidiventris ... 66

Amaurornis bicolor ... 231

— _ phoenicurus phonicurus ... 210

Ambhypharyngodon mola 90

Amygdalus 249

Anas crecca 127

crecca ... 219

penelope ... 219

platyrhynclia 301

poecilorhyncha 302

— poecilorhyncha ... 218

strepera 219

- — — querquedula ... ... ... 219

Anastomus oscitans 216

Anguis fragilis ... 132

Anhinga melanogaster 216

Anona squamosa 278

Anopheles aitkeni 308

culicifacies 308, 309

— — — fluviatilis ... 308

• gigas ... 308

— jeyporensis 308

— — maculatus 308

2

Anopheles splendidus

Anser albifr:ns

anser

indicus

Anthocincla phayrei

Anthropoides virgo

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni

— richardi subsp . ...

Page

... 308

... 126

... 301

... 218

... 71

... 211

... 69

134, 135

... 278

Anura

Apium graveolens

Aquila rapax vindhiana 20

Arachnothera longirostra longirostra 70

magna aurata 70

. magna 70

Arborophila brunneopectus brunneo-

pectus

rufogularis tickelli

torqueola millardi...

ardea cinerea

purpurea

Ardeola grayii

— *P-.

Arenga saccharifera

Arnebia hispidissim;

Aroideae

Artamus fuscus

Artocarpus integrifolia

Asio flammeus flammeus

Astur badius dussumieri

■ poliopsis

Athene brama brama

Attatha ino

Axis

axis

* maculata

maculalus

or>zus

Aythya f erica ferina

luligula fuligula

- — — — rufa rufa

Bagarius yarcplii

Bapta ...

(Aleuci^) distincta...

... 231

... 298

... 217

... 232

... 236

... 245

... 84

... 61

... 278

... 17

... 22

229

18

85

169, 171, 172

117, 169, 170, 171, 173

... 178

171

177

220

198

249

XV111

INDEX OF SPECIES

Bapta (Aleucis) distinctata

— — — ( -) orientalis

— _____ — —) pictaria

Barbus bola

curmuca

— — dobsoni

— hamiltonii.

— khudree 2, 3, 6, 7, 164,

— — kolus

- — (Labeobarbus) hamiltonii

(Lissochilus) hexagonolepis

malabaricus 164,

. ■ megalepis 4, 5, 164,

— — — - mussullah 2, 5,

— — — — - progeneius

— — (Puntius) dorsalis

— ) kolus

—) sarana

— ) sophore

- (

- (•

-) terio

-) ticto

1, 6-8,

tor

— — mosal

— — putitora

- - — - khudree

— — mussullah

Barilius barna

— — — bendelisis

Batrachostomus hodgsoni

Bhriaga remifer tectirostris

Bibos frontalis

gaurus

Bindabara phocides moorei

Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis

Boarmia ...

Boerhaavia

Bombax malabaricum

Botaurus stellaris stellaris

Boulengerula

boulengeri

Brachydanio rerio

Brassica oleracea

Bubo bubo bengalensis ...

Bubulcus ibis coromandus

Bucia athertoni ...

Burhinus cedicnemus indicus ...

Butastur teesa

Buteo sp.

Byblia ilithyia

Page

... 249

192, 193

2

164, 166

165, 166

1, 150

164, 165

166, 190

165, 166

166, 304

164, 166

... 164

... 90

89, 90

... 90

89, 90

188, 202

... 190

166, 304

1, 8, 304

189

89

198

227

62

272

271

309

222

250

84

293

217

136

135, 136

90, 91

278

18

217

13

211

21

229

309

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus

querulus

Callichrous biinaculatus

malabaricus

Page

9

. 223

. 89

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus

— indicus

■ indicus

— jotaka

macrourus ambiguus

* — atripennis

monticolus monticolus

Caragola ochripes

Carduelis spinus

Careya arborea

Carica papaya

Carissa carandas

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus

Casarca ferruginea

Cassia fistula

Catla catla

Catopsilia crocale

pomona

Cemus goral

Centropus bengalensis bengalensis

- sinensis intermedia

________ parroti

Ceratophyllum

Ceropegia

Cervidae

Cervulus cambojensis

Cervus affinis

— — = albicornis

• — — — aristotelis

- axis

— major

- — uni color

eldi

- - — elephus

— equinus

— — hanglu

— hippelaphus

_ — — jarai

— leschenaultii

. ~ malaccensis

17

227

17

227

17

... 80

... 128

... 84

252, 278

... 278

... 66

218, 301

80, 86, 87

... 40

... 80

... 260

... 224

10

235, 241

183, 184

119

35

32

29

30, 35

171

29

260

30

35

32

30

30, 35

35, 36

INDEX OF SPECIES

xix

XX

INDEX OF SPECIES

xf i

135,

Gecinus squamatus

Gegenophis ...

carnosus

Gelasimus sp

Gennseus lineatus subsp.

Glareola lactea ...

Glaucidium brodiei subsp.

cuculoides rufescens

subsp.

. radiatum radiatum

Glossogobius giuris

Glottis nebularia

Glycosmis pentaphylla

Goniozus indicus

Gorsakius melanolophus melanolophus

Gracula intermedia religiosa

Graucalus macei siamensis

Grevillea

Grewia asiatica...

carpinifolia

- hirsuta

— — laevigata

microcos

mollis

- occidentalis

. — paniculata

populifolia

— sclerophylla

tenax

tiliaefolia

- — — villosa

— — — umbellata

Gyps fulvus fulvescens

indicus

Habrobracon juglandis

Haematornis cheela burmanicus

cheela

_____ — — melanotis...

96

Halcyon pileata ...

smyrnensis

subsp.

Haliastur indus indus

Harpactes erythrocephalus erythroce-

phalus

fasciatus malabaricus

— oreskios uniformis ...

Heliopais personata

Heliotropium linifolium

paniculatum

supinum

— zejdanicum

Page

122

136

300

231

212

228

19

89, 90

214

278

151

232

65

61

12

86, 97

96, 97

96, 98

86

97, 98

.. 96

96-98

,98,99

97, 99

, 97, 99

96, 100

19

287

. 229

21

14

, 226

21

226

15

227

232

244

. 245

.. 245

244, 246

244,

Hemerophila (Megalycinia) engys

Hemicercus canete canete

Hemiprocne caronata

Hemipus picatus picatus

Hemitragus jemlahicus

Herpele

ochrocephala

Heterobapta

— — — plumellata

Heteropnestes fossils

Hibiscus cannabinus

esculentis...

Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor

— sparveriodes

— varius

Himantopus himantopus himantopus

16,

Page

251

221

. 227

60

.. 114

.. 136

135, 136

.. 249

249, 250

89

.. 278

.. 223

9, 223

9

213

Hirundo arctivitta 68

daurica japonica 68

• striolata 68

* rustica gutturalis ... 68

— _ — — — tytleri 68

Hodgsonia 151

Homochlamys fortipes ... 64

______________ pallidipes pallidipes ... 65

Huhua nipalensis . 228

Hydrilla 235

Hydrocissa coronata 15

Hydrophasianus chirurgus 211

Hyelaphus 169, 174

pumilio 175

■ . porcinus 175-177

_____ oryzus 177

Hypacanthis spinoides ambiguus ... 66

Hystrix leucura H8

Ibis leucocephalus ... 216

Ichthyophis 136

glutinosus 155-137

monochrous ... 135-137

Ictinaetus malayensis perniger ... 21

Indicapus sylvaticus 16

I ole virescens ... 223

Ipomea 235

Irena puella sikkimensis 65

Ixobrychus minutus 179

Jussisea repens 84

Jussieua 84

Jynx torquilla 222

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti ... 18

Labeo boggut .. 89

calbasu ...

— fimbriata

2, 40, 89, 90, 198

89, 90

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxii

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxiii

Perdix perdix ...

Pericrocotus brevirostris

cinnamomeus \ividus

roseus roseus

Solaris Solaris

~ speciosus elegans

Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis

— . — subsp.

Phragmaticola sedon

Phalacrocorax caibo

fuscicollis

niger

Pbasianus colchicus

Phodilus badius subsp.

Phoebe lanceolata ...

Phyllergates cucullatus coronatus

Phylloscopus cantator...

davisoni davisoni

_ fuscatus

— inornatus inornatus

— - — maculipennis maculi-

pennis ...

— — magnirostris

proregulus ehloronotus

— pulcher pulcher

reguloides assamensis

claudias

-- schwarzi ....

— tenellipes

— trochiloides plumbei-

tarsus ...

— trochiloides

Page

.. 297

61

23

229

63

.. 215

118, 216

.. 128

Picus canus hessei

— chlorolophus chlorolophoides ...

228

80

65

64

62

63

64

63

64

63

221

.

xxU INDEX OF SPECIES

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXV

Suya superciliaris superciliaris

Sypheotides indica

Syrmaticus humiae-burmanicus

Taccocua leschenaulti

Tapirus indicus

Tephrodornis gularis pelvica

pondiceriana pondiceriana

65

211, 299

.. 231

10

273, 274

60

Terminalia tomentosa ...

Thaocervus schomburgki

Thera

Thereiceryx viridis

Theretra pinastrina pinastrina

Threskiornis melanocephalus

Thuya orientalis

Thynnichthys sandkhol

Tinola bisellella

Tockus birostiis

griseus

Tor hamiltonii

Trachylepidia fructicassiella

Tribura sp.

Trichirurus savala

15,

60

84

... 170

... 249

23

82

... 216

.. 278

89, 91

.. 287

296, 297

15

.. 164

87

62, 63

... 104

Tropidophorus

Turnix dussumieri

— suscitator taijoor

- — — — sylvatica dussumieri ...

tanki blanfordi

Turtur erythrocephalus

Upupa epops ceylonensis

— subsp

Ureotyphlus

— — — — narayani

Urodela

Uroloncha striata acuticauda ...

Verbenaceae

Vipera

Vivia innominata malayorum

Wallago attu

Wallagonia attu

Xantholaema haemacephala indica

Zosterops ery thro pleura

— palpebrosa subsp.

— — siamensis

- ~ - simplex

... 132

... 231

... 210

... 231

26

15

... 226

135, 136

... 135

66

... 151

... 132

== 222

... 199

89, 90

... 223

69

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Vol. XLIV, No. 1

AUGUST, 1943.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV , No. /

0

Page.

The Game Fishes of India. Part XVI. By Sunder Lai Hora, d.sc.,

f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i, ( With one coloured plate and three

text-figures ) ... ... ... ... ... ... i

The Birds of Mysore. Part IV. By Salim Ali ... ... ... 9

The Larger Deer of British India. Part III. The Sambar ( Rusa )

By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. (With three text-figures ) ... ... 27

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Part IV. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With one plate, a map

and three text-figures ) ... ... ... ... ... 38

On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet.

Part II. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite and B. E.

Smythies ... ... ... ... ... ... 60

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XIV. By N. L. Bor,

m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one coloured,

two black and white 'plates and three text-figures) ... ... 73

The Early Stages of Indian Lepipoptera. Part XI. By D. G. Sevasto-

pulo, f.r.e.s. ... . . ... ... ... ... 78

Fish Survey of Hyderabad State. Part II. By M. Rahimullah, m.sc.,

f.z.s. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 88

The Medicinal and Poisonous Lindenblooms of India. By J. F. Caius,

s.j., f.l.s. ... ... ... ... ... ... 92

Tiger Shark — Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle. By P. N. Sarang-

dhar, m.sc. (With three plates) ... ... ... ... ... 102

REVIEW : —

Report of the Game and Game Fishes Preservation Committee on the

existing species of Game in Bengal. S. L. H.... ... ... 111

OBITUARY: . ... ... 112

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I. The record skull of an Indian Clouded Leopard (Neofelis

nebulosa Griffith). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. ... ... 113

II. Elephant and Bison on Road ways. By Lt.-Col. R. C. Morris 113

III. Occurrence of the Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus)

in Sikkim. By Capt. C. J. T. Wrenicke ... ... ... 114

IV. Life span of some wild animals in captivity. By E. S. Simon,

Curator, Government Zoological Gardens, Trivandrum ... 117

V. Breeding season of tt|f Indian Sambar (Rusa unicolor, Kerr) 118

VI. Small Game shooting in the Salem District. By Capt. Aubrey

Buxton ... ... •• ... ... iiQ

ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XLIV, No. 1

Page

VII. Woodpeckers feeding on fruit. By E. A. Storrs Fox ... ... 122

VIII. The eggs of the Indian Bay-Banded Cuckoo ( Penthoceryx

sonneratii). By Humayun Abdulali ... ... ... 122

IX. Green Pigeons in a Swamp. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams,

i*a. ... ... ... ... ... ... 122

X. Some notes on the Common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus

Temminck) in Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich, m.d.

(With a plate) ... ... ... ... ... I23

XI. Occurrence of the Close-barred Sandgrouse (Pterocles lichten-

stenii arabicus, Neum.) in the N.-W.F.P By Major J. O. S.

Donald ... ... ... ... ... ... 126

XII. Late stay of Snipe and weight of Pintail. By J. Beckett, i.p. 126

XIII. The White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons Scop.) in Assam.

By D. J. Montagnon ... ... ... ... 126

XIV. Gynandromorphism in the Common Teal (Anas crecca Linn.).

By Salim Ali ... ... ... ... ... 127

XV. Occurrence of Comb Duck (Sarkidiornis melanotus Penn.) in

Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i.a., f.z.s. ... 130

XVI. Red Crested Pochard (Netta rufina Pallas) in the Madras

Presidency. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i.a., f.z.s. 130

XVII. Notes on the viviparity of the Common Indian Skink (Mabuya

carinata Schneider). By J. L. Bhaduri ... ... ... 130

XVIII. The anatomy of the duodenal region of some genera of Apoda

(Amphibia). By L. S. Ramaswami. (With two plates) ... 134

XIX. A note on fish mortality in the Sohan River. By K. N. Bagchi,

D. SC. ... ... ... ... ... ... 137

XX. Papilio arcturus in the Himalayas. By William Harcourt-Bath 137

XXL Control of Aedes egyptus (Stegomyia fas data or tiger mosquito,

the carrier of yellow fever) in the Bombay Harbour by a

patent Mosquito-proof cap and tap. By Dr. F. D. Bana,

M.B., M.R.C.S., D.P.H., D.T.M. & H., I.P. ... ... ... I39

XXII. Observations on a few cases of larval Ecdysis of the Indian

Glow-Worm, Lamprophorus tenebrosus Wlk. By J. Samuel

Raj ... ... ... ... ... ... 142

XXIII. The flowering of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. by C. McCann ... 143

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting ... ... 145

TWO TYPES OF MAHSEER FROM THE POONA WATERWAYS.

I

!

Upper : BARBUS (TOR) KHUDRHE Sykes. * ca i/2.

Lower : BARBUS (TOR) MUSSULLAH Sykes. * ca 1/4.

The drawings were made from specimens and colour sketches supplied by Dr. M. Suter.

.JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1943. Vol. XLIV No. 1.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.

BY

Sunder Lal Hora, Disc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i.,

Director of Fisheries, Bengal.

( With one coloured plate and three text-figures.)

( Continued from page 169 of . Vol. xliii, No. 2)

XVI. — The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India.

9. Further observations on Mahseers from the Deccan.

Contents.

Page

Introduction

Barbus (Tor) inussullah Sykes

Table of Measurements ...

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ... ...

Acknowledgments ... ... ...

List of References

Explanation of Plate ...

Introduction.

In the last article of this series (4)1, attention was directed to

the specific identity of Sykes’s three species of Barbus from the

Deccan, and it was shown that while B. kolas and B. khudree could

be recognised as valid, doubts still existed about the identity of

1 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

d£c y

2

JOURNAL, bomRAy NAtUrAl hJst. society, Uol. kUf

B. mussullah. From the evidence then available, it seemed possible

that B. mussullah might be the same fish which Hamilton (3) had

previously described from Mysore as B. curmuca and which was

later recorded from the Deccan also. However, a detailed con-

sideration of the systematic position of this species was deferred

till Dr. M. Suter had an occasion to carry out further investigations

at Sirur, the type-locality of B. mussullah. He has now completed

his studies and favoured me with the following report ip his letter

dated December 8, 1942. He writes : — -

‘I have now been to Sirur, Sykes’s type-locality for his Barbus mussullah

mainly in order to ascertain as definitely as possible whether Barbus curmuca

occurs in the Ghod river and whether it is known to the local fishermen.

‘The information elicited on hand of a preserved specimen and with the

help of the excellent coloured picture from tne pamphlet of the Bombay Nat.

Hist. Society “Game Fishes oi Bombay” proved entirely negative, i*e., neither

the specimens nor the illustration were recognised as representing a fish of

local occurrence, or at all known to local fishermen. A resemblance to B. holus

was indeed remarked upon and 1 was asked whether this (B. kolus) was the

fish 1 wanted to know about.

‘As you relate in your article in the August number of B. N. H. Society’s

Journal, the same men, on a former occasion, picked a picture of B. curmuca

^out of the illustrated volume of Day’s Fishes of India) as representing “ mussullah ”

out, when later on they showed me a catcli of very large higfi-backed mafiseer,

iney assured me that tfiis was “ mussullah ” and admitted that their identification

01 Day's picture nad been an error caused mainly by tne fact tfiat tliey thougtit

me snape of the head in tfie picture seemed to tnem a good likeness ot me

head 01 “ mussullah ”, being somewfiat “roman nosed”.

‘They also criticised Syices’s drawing of “ mussullah ” as being correct for

the head, but wrong lor tne body, tfie scaies being too small and 100 many.

‘Tfie position is now as follows :

1. Barbus curmuca is not known to the professional fishermen at Sykes’s

type-locality for B. mussullah ;

2. Hie sturdy and high-backed species of mafiseer of the Deccan is the only

fish known to these men by the name of “ mussullah ” and most of the men

differentiate it clearly from the slenderer species oi mahseer ( Barbus khudree

Sykes).

3. Sykes expressly relates having been given a specimen of “ mussullah ”

weighing 42 lbs. at Sirur, and tfie local nsfiermen repeatedly stated to me

that the high-backed mahseer was the only fish with large scales known to

them, whicnever reached such a size, or exceeded it. .

The only other big fish with prominent scales known to the men are,

B. khudree, B. dobsoni {=jerdoni), Labeo calbasu, L. porcellus, and L. fimb riatus.

4. The designation “ mussullah ” is also used by the fishermen of the Bfiima and

Idrayani rivers for large mahseer only, and many of the men use it for the

high-backed species only, expressly differentiating it from the slenderer' B. khudree

Sykes, for which they have other designation, such as khudchee, barsa, etc.

Others, whilst quite aware of the difference between the two types of

mafiseer, will apply the name of “ mussullah ” to large specimens of both types.

The more observant ones, however, will not do so.

‘Faced by the above result of my investigations at Sykes’s locality I cannot

but arrive at the conclusion, that the fish to which Sykes applied the name of

B. mussullah, was none other than the stockily-built and high-backed mahseer

of the Deccan.

‘The uncertainty prevailing for so long in respect of the identity of Sykes’s

species was caused by his incomplete description in respect of scale counts, and

by the undoubted incorrectness of the drawing prepared by his employee, in

which the scales were filled in haphazardly without any count having been

taken.

‘I have no doubt that you will arrive at the same conclusion and that

thereby, the question will have arrived at its final elucidatipn.’

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

3

All ichthyologists and lovers of sport will ever remain grateful

to Dr. M. Suter for the great trouble taken by him in elucidating

the taxonomic position of Sykes’s B. mussullah as there seems no

doubt now that in describing this fish he intended to portray the

high-backed mahseer of the Deccan waters. The difference in form

between the two species of Deccan mahseers is clearly shown in the

drawings on the coloured plate.

Dr* Suter has found both species of the Deccan mahseer pretty

foul feeders at times. During the rains, he found them at such

unsavoury spots as the place of discharge of surplus municipal sew^

age and has repeatedly seen them consume fresh buffalo dung;

Though the young of the various kinds of mahseer generally

look alike, and the differences pointed out by Annandale (1) between

the two species of Deccan mahseer are not very distinctive, it is

quite possible that his musundi of the Upper Kistna may represent

f vieWS of ^ung specimens of Annandale ’s two species

of Mahseer from the Deccan.

(a) Barbus tor (Hamilton), known near Satara as Kudis. x ca. 4.

this is probably a young of B. khudree Sykes.

(b) Barbus mussullah Sykes, known near Satara as Masundi , x ca.

Bavbus mussullah and his B. tor , locally known as Kudis , may be

B. khudree. To facilitate reference in future, I give here drawings

of Annandale’ s young specimens of the two species.

4 Journal Bombay natural hist, society , Voi. xt'iv

The remarkable shape of Sykes’s B. mussullah did attract the

attention of later ichthyologists, but owing to his defective des-

cription and figure they could not identify it correctly. For instance,

in recording Barbus megalepis McClelland from South India, Jerdon

(5) stated : —

‘I obtained a single small specimen of what I consider may be this fish

in the Cauvery at Seringapatam. It was only a few inches long, but the fisher-

men, who call it Kilche, said it grew to an enormous size.’

The fish that grows to an enormous size in the Cauvery and its

tributary streams, such as the Bhavani River, is figured and des-

cribed by Thomas (6, pp. 22, 23) under the composite name Barbus

Text-fig. 2. — The Bawanny Mahseer of Thomas (Reproduced from Rod in

India).

tor in accordance with Day’s (2, p. 573) nomenclature, though he

seemed to have been aware of the fact that ‘there are more Mahseers

than have been named’. Thomas called it ‘The Bawanny Mahseer’

and noted that it is much deeper and more high backed than the

other Mahseers. From his figure, reproduced here, it can be seen

that the fish is pointed towards both ends. According to Thomas,

it has a rich golden hue which shines on the gill-cover and forms

predominant colour of every scale'. It is known as ‘Bom-min’.

Some years ago, Mr. S. H. Prater of the Bombay Natural History

Society sent me a colour sketch of a baby Mahseer, 16^ inches long

and 1^ lbs, in weight, caught by Messrs Van Ingen and Van Ingen

of Mysore in the Bhavani River. The local name of the fish was

given as Kargolchi. Though the colouration of this specimen, as

shown in the sketch* is different from that of the Poona examples

of B. mussullah, there seems hardly any doubt about its identity. It

would thus appear that Sykes’s mussullah is fairly widely distributed

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

5

in the rivers of the Western Ghats. This remarkable mahseer may

be redescribed as follows: — -

Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes.

1838. Barbus mussullah, Sykes, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 159.

1840. Barbus mussullah, Sykes, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, p. 56.

1841. Barbus mussullah, Sykes, Trans. Zool. Soc., London, II, p. 356.

1849. Barbus megalepis, Jerdon ( nec McClelland), Madras Journ. Lift. &

Set. XV, p. 31 1.

1897. The Bawanny Mahseer, Thomas, Rod in India, 3rd Edition, pp. 22, 23.

D- 4/9; .4.3/5/-; P l6; v-9; C- 19 ; L.1.25-26; L.tr.^/sh

Whereas the Khudree Mahseer corresponds with the Mosal Mah-

seer of the Himalayan waters, Mussullah is similar in certain respects

to the Tor Mahseer. In the Tor Mahseer, however, the head is

always smooth, while in Sykes’s species there are series of small

tubercles, sometimes indistinct, on the sides below the eyes. The

head is considerably shorter than the depth of the body, more parti-

cularly in older individuals, and the general build is stocky and heavy.

The form is more or less spindle-shaped as both the profiles are

considerably arched ; the dorsal profile rises considerably from the

tip of the snout to the base of the dorsal fin and then sharply slopes

down to the base of the caudal fin. The ventral profile is com-

paratively gently arched. The head is pointed anteriorly ; in mature

specimens its length is contained about 5 times in the total length

and 4 times in the length without the caudal. The depth of the

body is contained from 3^ to 3f times in the total length and little

over 3 times in the length without the caudal. The eye is small and is

situated in the anterior half of the hea:d ; its diameter is contained

about 6 times in the length of the head. The mouth is small and

slightly slanting; the maxillary barbels are longer than the rostrals.

The relative proportions of different parts vary considerably with

age as can be readily made out from the table of measurements.

The dorsal fin is situated in the middle of the back and possesses a

strong, bony dorsal spine. All the fins are more or less pointed.

The scales are large and well set; there are about 26-27 scales along

the lateral line and 3^ rows below it to the base of the pelvic fin.

The colouration varies considerably. The young ones are rather

silvery on the sides with pink reflexes, a creamy belly and slaty

back and fins. In some large specimens the colour is very dark with

bronzy reflexes. The bases of the scales below the lateral line

are bluish gray while their margins are creamy. Generally the ven-

tral surface is reddish cream. The dorsal surface is dark bronze.

The bases of the scales in the upper half are mauvish gray while

the bodies are reddish bronze with darker margin. The fin rays

of the dorsal and caudal fins are reddish gray, while the interspinous

membranes are bluish gray. The other fins are reddish gray, and

all the fins are shot with bright blue streaks which are very pro-

minent in the caudal.

The colours are more golden and reddish orange in the specimens

from the Bhavani River. It would thus appear that whereas the

predominant colour of the two Mahseers of the Deccan is bluish in

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.'XLIV

the Poona waterways, it is reddish in the specimens found in the

Cauvery and Bhavani Rivers much further south,

Table of Measurements.

Measurements in millimetres and scale counts of Barbus (Tor)

mussullah Sykes

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes.

In the preceding article of this series (4), it was stated that the

sketches and, specimens of B. khudree received from Dr. Suter would

be dealt with later, but the transfer of the Zoological Survey of

India to Benares for the duration of the war has made it impossible

for me to comment in detail on them. It can, however, be stated

with certainty that the material is similar to that collected by Dr,

Fraser at Deolali and Poona,

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

7

A female mahseer, 5^ lbs. in weight, taken by Dr. Rishwortb

on the 20th December, 1942, in the Uhlas, a small river about 40

Text-fig. 3. — Head and anterior part of body of Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes,

showing hypertrophied lips; The specimen was collected by Dr. Rishworth in

the Uhlas River, 40 miles north of Bombay. x|.

(a) Lips and mouth closed; ( b ) Lips and mouth protruded.

In the fresh condition, Dr. Rish worth found that the lips could be extended

much further than shown in the drawings made from preserved specimens.

miles north of Bombay flowing into the Arabian Sea from the west-

ern slopes of the Ghats, has been identified as B. khudree. It is

one of the few specimens of mahseer which have been collected from

the cis-Ghat area and is characterized by greatly hypertrophied lips.

The accompanying sketches show the lips and mouth protruded and

closed. The colour of the specimen was similar to that found in the

Deccan examples of this species, but the fins were tipped with

8 JOURNAL , BOMBAY -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

yellowish pink. Its stomach contained green vegetable matter. The

following further particulars about this specimen were supplied by

Dr, Rishworth: — -

Measurements in inches and number of fin rays.

From the observations on the colouration of the species made

by Dr. Suter, it appears that in the Poona Waterways the colour

is silvery bluish gray below the median line and almost creamy

yellowish white on the ventral surface. The colour is darker

above the lateral line, the bases of the scales being gray and their

margin reddish gray. The colour of the back is dark olive. The

head is dark olive above and creamy yellowish white below. The

fins are bluish gray. The colour drawing of B. khudree reproduced

here shows the general colouration of the species in the Poona

Waterways as noted by Dr. Suter. Living fish as seen in clear

water look reddish bronze in the back.

Acknowledgments .

I am indebted to Dr. M. Suter for specimens, colour sketches

and observations on the Mahseers of the Deccan, and to the authorities

of the Bombay Natural History Society for bearing the entire cost

of the illustrations. I am also thankful to Babu B. Bagchi for the

skill and care with which he prepared the illustrations under my

supervision.

List of References.

1. Annandale, N. — ‘The Fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay

Presidency. V. Notes on Freshwater fish mostly from the Satara and Poona

Districts.’ Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xvi, pp. 134-137 (1919).

2. Day, F. — Fishes of India, p. 573 (London, 1878).

3. Hamilton, F. — An Account of the Fishes found in the\ River Ganges and

its branches, pp. 303-307 (Edinburgh, 1822).

4. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India, XV. The Mahseers or the

large-scaled Barbels of India. 7. On the specific identity of Sykes’s species of

Barbus from the Deccan’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xliii, pp. 163-169

(I942)*

5. Jerdon, T. C. — ‘On the fresh-water fishes of Southern India. ’ Madras

Journ. Litt & Sci., vol. xv, pt. 2, pp. 302-346 (1849).

6. Thomas, H. S. — Rod in India, pp. 22, 23 (London, 1897).

Explanation of Plate.

Two types of Mahseer from the Poona Waterways.

Upper : Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. X ca. L

Lower : Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes, x ca. J.

The drawings were made from specimens and colour sketches supplied by

Dr. M. Suter.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE.

BY

Salim Alt.

With notes by Hugh Whistler.

Part IV.

( Continued from Vol. xliii. No. 4, p. 595).

Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vigors). The Large Hawk-Cuckoo.

Specimens collected : Biligirirangans : Mq(H) J 10-3-34, M48(G) d 29-10-34

(5,000' — Honnametti).

Not met with by the Survey.

[Measurements :

Status? Evidently rare.

Hierococcyx varius Vahl. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo.

Specimens collected: 162 $ 24-11-39 Maddur (2,500'); 184 d 28-11-39

Antarsante (2,500') ; 263 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500') ; 460 $ 26-12-39 Dodballa-

pur (2,900'); 641 $ 15-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000'); 682 9 20-1-40 Bababudan

Hills (5,000' — Kemmangundi). Biliginrangan Hills : 21-12-32, M37(H)

5'4‘34 (4,ooo'-5,ooor — Honnametti).

Elsewhere not noted.

Evidently resident. Not common but frequent. Met with singly in both

deciduous and evergreen biotopes and throughout the intermediate zone. Between

November and March the birds were silent and no ‘ Brain-fever' calls were

heard.

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl.). The Plaintive Cuckoo.

Specimens collected : 383 9 (hepatic) 19-12-39 Maklidrug (2,800' — Bangalore

Dist.).

Elsewhere noted : Settihalli. (This or Penthoceryx sonnerati? Unconfirmed).

[Measurements: 1 9 Bill 22, Wing 1 18, Tail 105.5 mm.

This is an adult female of the ‘hepatic type.’ It is moulting the wings

and body, and it is important to note that it is moulting from ‘hepatic’ to

‘hepatic’ plumage. — H. W.]

Status? The specimen was a solitary in dry, deciduous, broken scrub-and-

bush country.

Clamator jacobinus jacobinus (B'odd.). The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Specimens collected: 91 17-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 298 9 8-12-39 (2,000'

— Seringapatam) .

Elsewhere noted : Kolar Gold Fields.

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

[Measurements :

No. 91 3 is slightly larger than any other male of this race which I have

examined. (Wing 138.5-146), but I think there is no doubt that it belongs to

this race as there is no authentic record of the larger race below Bombay and

the Central Provinces. — H. W.]

Status? Met with in deciduous biotope — lightly wooded country about

villages and cultivation.

No. 91 was excessively fat, a circumstance which — in view of Mr. Whistler’s

remarks above — suggests that it may possibly belong to the northern race pica

(believed to winter in Africa) preparing, rather late, for emigration.

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceos (Linn.); The Koel.

Specimens collected: 96 o? 18-11-39, 158 3 24-11-39 Bandipur (3,300');

244 ? 3-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 506 3 29-12-39 Thondebhavi (2,500'); 635 3

15-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; Biligirirangan Hills : Mi4(G) 3 I5_9~34> M28(G)

9 21-9-34, M49(G) 9 25-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted : Namadachilume (3,000' — Tumkur Dist.).

[Measurements :

Bill

4 3 3 ad. 30-33-5

3 9 9 ad. 30-34

1 9 juv- —

Wing Tail

188-202 I77-5-I95 mm.

192-203 192-193 mm.

188 188 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects lightly wooded

country about villages and cultivation with large leafy green trees as of banyan

and tamarind, interspersed.

No. 96 (18 November) was very fat. Major Phythian-Adams has an egg

taken from a crow’s nest at Gundlupet, 25-8-1929.

Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon). The Small Green-billed Malkoha.

Specimens collected : 93 3> 94 3 18-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 228 3 1-12-39

Antarsante (2,500'); 345 9 I5-I2"39 Satnur (2,500'); Biligirirangan Hills :

M4o(H) 3 5-4-34 (4,000' — Honnametti) ; Mi2(G) 9 8-8-34, M2i(G) 9 IO-7-34>

M 60(G) 3 1 9-7-34 (3,000' — Gdahatti, Eastern base).

Elsewhere noted: Jogimaradi (3,400' — Chitaldrug town environs); Hiriyur.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing

4 ^ 29-31.5 I3I-H3

3 9 9 28-32.5 131-135

1 3 juv. 29.5 133

Tail

202-246 mm.

220-225 mm.

213 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects thin

secondary, and scrub-and-bush jungle.

The ovary of No. 345 (15 December) was maturing ; largest follicle over

2 mm. Major Phythian-Adams has a c/2 taken near Gundlupet, 12-6-1935.

Taccocua leschenaultii subsp. The Sirkeer Cuckoo.

No specimen.

Noted : Satnur. A pair in deciduous heavily thorn-scrubbed ravine, 15-12-39.

Cenlropus sinensis parroti Stres. The Southern Crow-Pheasant.

Specimens collected: 194 9 29-11-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 562 3 8-1-40

Marikanive (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : M2(H) 9 juv. 7~5-34, My6(M) 9

16-5-34 (4,000-5,000' — B'ellaji).

'Elsewhere noted : Edbuthi (Biligiris), Bandipur, Namadachilume, Settihalli.

[Measurements :

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

11

Both these juveniles are exactly like the adults in colouration whereas most

if not all adults of C. sinensis sinensis in N.-W. India have a conspicuously

different barred plumage. It will probably prove to be a racial characteristic.

—H. W.]

Resident. Not common ; occasional solos. Confined to deciduous biotope.

Affects lightly wooded and scrub-and-bush country, usually about cultivation.

No. 562 was infested with the cestodes Railiettina ( Skrjabinia ) centropi

(Southwell, 1922) in the body cavity (or intestine?).

Psittacula eupatria subsp. The Alexandrine Parakeet.

No specimens.

Noted : Settihalli ( — A flock of 8 in teak and bamboo forest on 27 January,

and again a small flock on" 2 February),; Kolar Gold Fields (Solo, 21=2-40).

Psittacula krameri manillensis Bechst. The Rose-ringed Parakeet.

Specimens collected: 438 24-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); 511 c? 31-12-39

Namadachilume (3,000').

Elsewhere noted : Heggadedavankote, Karapur, Kolar Gold Fields.

[Measurements: 2 Bill from cere 23-25, Wing 167-172, Tail 218-238 mm.

It is interesting to note that from the size of the organs (testes 12x6 and

12x5 mm.) both these males were about to breed in immature and female-like

dress— H. W.]

Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Found in fairly

wooded country, usually around cultivation.

The specimens, with testes 12x6 and 12x5 mm- respectively were either

breeding or about to breed.

Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linn.). The Western Blossom-headed

Parakeet.

Specimens collected: 114 9 1 9-1 1-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 538 S 4-1-40

Namadachilume (3,000'); Biligirirangan Hills : 20 <$ 8-11-39 (3,500' — Bedaguli) ;

Mi7(G) 9 IO-7-34 Mi 11(G) $ 3-8-34 (3,000' — Cdahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted : Devarbetta Hill, Jagar Valley (Bababudans), Settihalli.

[Measurements :

Bill (from cere) Wing Tail

2 cf $ ad. 18-19 138-142 191-215 mm.

1 9 ad. 17 132 —

1 9 imm 16 133 H. W\ ]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope, but it also

extends far into the intermediate zone. In the Biligirirangans it was a notice-

able feature that this species occurred in the deciduous and semi-evergreen forest

(in the last coincident with columboides ) up to about 3,500 ft. elevation, but

that it was entirely replaced by columboides higher up as the vegetation took

on an increasingly evergreen aspect.

Along with the next species this parakeet is very destructive to crops of

jowari and the vetch Dolichos lablab (Linn.) (Canarese : aore-khai)1 cultivated

in forest clearings.

In specimen No. 538 (4 January) the testes measured 6x4 mm. and were

evidently maturing.

Psittacula columboides (Vigors). The Blue-winged Parakeet.

Specimens collected: 350 <$ 15-12-39 Devarbetta Hill (3,000'); 61 1 S

13-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 769 9 29-1-40 Settihalli (2,500') ; 849 $ 8-2-40

Agumbe (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : 34 c? 10-11-39 (4,000' — Bedaguli);

6 18-12-32, Mn(H) (5 16-3-34, Mi7(H) s 24-2-34, M6i(H) 24-4-34,

1 The Forest Guard when asked whether this was used as food explained thgt

‘if is only used for putting intol bag and tying to nose of horse’ J

12 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Mi3-i4(H) c? $ 8-5-34, M40-41 $0? n-5-34 (4,000-5,000' Honnametti) ; M82

(H) $ 18-5-34 (5,000' — Bellaji) ; M36(G) 14-7-34 (3,000' — Odahatti, Eastern

base).

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Antarsante, Karapur, Bababudan Hills (Jagar

Valley 2,500' ; Kemmangundi 4,500').

[Measurements :

9 6 d ad.

1 9 ad.

4 6 6 juv.

i 9 juv.

Bill (from cere)

22.5- 24

23

21.5- 23

20

Wing

1 43 • 5- 1 56

144-5

I4°-5"I52

H3.5

Tail

204.5-246 mm.

167 mm.

148-164 mm.

163 mm.

This species has not been recorded before so far east as the Biligirirangan

Hills and Devarbetta Hill.— H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope, but freely entering

the intermediate zone to about the same limit as cyanocephala does from the

deciduous end. The distribution of the 2 species overlaps at its seam.

It is the only parakeet found in the coffee estates and may invariably be

seen eating the nectar from the Greville'a and Erythrina flowers of the shade

trees planted here.

This species, prized by fanciers as the ‘Bababudan Parrot’ has acquired an

almost universal reputation in Mysore State (and doubtless beyond) as a talking

paragon. It is accredited with being an exceptional linguist and believed to

address human beings in Arabic ! The foundation for this widespread belief

appears to be that one Babuddin, a pilgrim from Mecca (and incidentally the

originator of coffee-planting in South India) who settled on the hills that now

bear a semblance of his name (Bababudan), kept a local parakeet (or several

parakeets?) whom he taught to call to Allah and recite verses from the Koran.

Whether some of his trained parrots escaped or were artfully released

after completing their novitiate is not clear. But they were regularly fed and

so kept near the abode of this holy man. To his glorification they caused open-

mouthed wonderment amongst the devout who pilgrimaged to the saint periodically

and who helped afterwards to broadcast the magical piety of Babuddin and

the spell it had cast upon the parakeets of the locality.

Coryllis vernalis (Sparrm.). The Indian Loriquet.

Specimens collected: 113 9 19-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 250 <5* 3-12-39

Karapur (2,500'); 643 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 687 20-1-40 Bababudan

Hills (Jagar Valley 2,500'); 791 11 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'); 858 <$ 11-2-39

Jog (2,000'). Biligirirangan Hills: ^55-56(0) 9 i9~7-34> M91 -92(G) $ <$

25-7-34 (3,000'— Odahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted : Bedaguli (3,500' Biligiris) ; Antarsante, Agumibe.

[Measurements :

Bill (from cere) Wing Tail

5 3 $ . 11-12 91-96 38.5-43.5 mm.

299 11 96.5-99.5 45-47 mm-

In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N .H.S., xxxvii, 754) I expressed my

hesitation at keeping up the race rubropygialis for birds of the southern distribu-

tion of this species. The examination of this series and some new skins from

Assam has satisfied me that the race cannot be maintained. The supposed

differences on which it is based do not appear to hold good, being either

individual or due to wear. — H. -W.J

Resident. Common. Essentially an inhabitant of the intermediate zone,

but wandering a good way into either extreme as prospects of food tempt it.

The specimens of 26 "and 31 January and 11 February had mature testes :

6x4 (2), 5x3 (1) mm.

Coracias fcenghalensis indica Linn. The South Indian Roller.

Specimens collected: 333-335 S 6' 9 *5* — -3Q Satnur (2,500'); 459 $ 26-12-39

Dodballapur (2,900'); 779 $ 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills:

Mf 08(G) rT 1-8-34 (3.000' — Odahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted : Hiinsur, Mandya, Namadachilume, Kolar Gold Fields,

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 13

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

5 6 6 4x-45 180-184 119-128.5 mm.

i? -41.5 174 117 mm. — H. W.J

Resident. Not common and sparsely and patchily distributed. Confined to

deciduous biotope. Frequents open, lightly wooded country and cultivated

areas. Curiously enough not a single example was observed between 10 Nov-

ember and 5 December at Bandipur, Antarsante, Mysore City environs, Kaken-

kote or Karapur although appropriate facies were not wanting.

The noisy, aerial pre-nuptial display was first observed on 15 December

(Satnur). Specimens 459 (26 January) and 779 (30 January) both had maturing

testes — 6x4 mm.

Major Phythian-Adams has a c/2 in his collection from Nanjangud 2-1930,

and another c/2 Gundlupet 7-4-1938.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham. The Common Indian Bee-eater.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : 41 9 io-ix-39 (3,500' — Bedaguli) ;

M26(G) 9 12-7-34, M87(G) <3 25-7-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Antarsante, Satnur, Marikanive, Settihalli,

Agumbe, Kolar Gold Fields, Mysore and Bangalore City environs.

[Measurements: 1 9 Bill 33, Wing 91.5, Tail 107 mm.

Both the July birds are in moult. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope, extending partly

through the dry-inter belt. Affects open scrub-and-bush and cultivated country.

Also found in forest taungya clearings.

Status? Apparently rare. The specimens were out of a small party seen

near the Travellers’ Bungalow in open village outskirts on the edge of ever-

green forest.

Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot. The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Specimens collected : 326 9 13-12-39 Shimsha (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills :

30 9 9-1 1-39 (4,000' — Edbuthi).

Elsewhere noted : Settihalli.

[Measurements 129$ Bill 38.5, Wing 106, Tail 80-80.5 mm.— -H. W.J

Status? Uncommon; occurring sparingly and sporadically. Apparently con-

fined to deciduous biotope, principally to the dry-inter belt, but extending in

small numbers throughout the intermediate zone. Affects well wooded country.

Bucia athertoni (Jardine & Selby). The Blue-bearded Bee-eater. *

Specimens collected : 309 3 1 9-1:2-39 Hunsur (2,000'). Biligirirangan Hills :

Mi 6(G) 9 16-10-34 (5,000' — Honnametti) ; M39(G) 9 i3“9'34> M43IG) 9

24-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted : Manchgowdanhalli, Namadachilume.

[Measurements :

Bill

1 6. 50-5

2 $ 9 50-57

Wing

I43-5

138

Tail

137 mm.

128-137 mm.

One of the Biligiri specimens is in heavy moult hence not measured. — H. W.]

Resident. Uncommon and patchy. I believe this is really a bird of the

dry-inter belt, but it wanders across into either of the terminal biotopes for

some distance.

It affects fairly well-wooded country with a sprinkling of large trees.

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Ceryle rudis subsp. The Pied Kingfisher.

No specimens.

Noted : Karapiir (at tanks and Kabani river) ; Kolar Gold Fields (at

Betmangala tank and Palar river). Not common.

Major Phythian-Adams has a e/8, Gundliipet, 20-1-1929.

Alcedo afthis taprobana Kleinschmidt. The Common Ceylon Kingfisher.

Specimens collected : 327 9 13-12-39 Shimsha (2,900') ; 558 9 7-1-40

Marikanive (2,500'); 654 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 844 $ 7-2-40 Agumbe

(2,000'); Biligirir angans : M 10(G) $ 8-8-34 (3,000— Odahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements :

1 6

3 9 9

Bill

44

43-44-5

Wing Tail

70 30-5

72-5 -73 33-33-5 mm-

While these are not quite pure taprobanus they are .certainly closer to that

race than to bengalenis. — H. W.]

Resident. Not common. Seen singly on rivers and streams chiefly in deciduous

biotope, but extending into the intermediate zone.

Geyx erithaca erithaca (Linn.) The Indian Three-toed Kingfisher.

Specimen collected : 283 c? 6-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500').

Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements : 1 Bill 36, Wing 58, Tail 24.5 mm.

A very welcome record in view of my remarks in the Eastern Ghats Survey

(J.B.N.H.S., xkxii, 761) about the paucity of records for South India.

Mr. C. G. Webb-Peploe kindly informs me that about 1936 he found one of

these beautiful kingfishers dead in a stream bed at 2,000' at Naraikkadu on the

east slope of the Ashambu Hills in Travancore. — H. W.]

The specimen — the only met with in Mysore — was solitary in dense deciduous

bamboo jungle on the banks of the Kabani river.

Ramphakyon capensis [gurial (Pearson)]. The B'rown-headed Stork-billed King-

fisher.

No specimens.

Noted : Manchgowdanhalli (deciduous biotope. On Kabani river) ; Settihalli.

Major Phythian-Adams has a c/3, Moyar river (Mysore-Nilgiris boundary)

31-3-38.

Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis (Linn.). The White-breasted Kingfisher.

Specimens collected: 341 $ 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); Biligirirangan Hills:

M 10(G) 15-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala), and another without precise data.

Elsewhere noted : Sakleshpur, Settihalli.

[Measu^ments : 1 Bill 62.5, Wing 123.5, Tail 82 mm.

In size and colour I cannot separate this from the typical race. The two

birds from the Biligirirangans, however, both in complete moult, are very

dark and would seem to be fusca. — H. W.]

Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Frequents tanks

and ponds as well as light secondary jungle.

Halcyon pileata (Bodd). The Black-capped Kingfisher.

No specimens.

A solitary example was observed on rocks in the ‘cauldron’ at the foot of

Jog (Gersoppa). Falls, 10-2-40.

Humayun Abdulali ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, 830)^ noted a solitary bird in this

same spot in December 1935, as curiously enough did also Davidson exactly 42

years earlier ! ( J.B.N.H.S ., xii, 46).

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

15

Hydrocissa coronata (Bodd.). The Malabar Pied Hornbill.

No specimens.

A party of three was observed in deciduous forest with tall trees and

bamboo at Manchgowdanhalli (near Antarsante) 3-12-39. This was the only

meeting with the species in Mysore.

Tockus birostris (Scopoli). The Common Grey Hornbill.

Specimens collected : 321 9 13-12-39 Satnur (2, goo7). Biligirirangans : M3

(G) 9 14-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted : Maddur, Gundlupet, Hiriyur.

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects secondary jungle,

and wooded country and groves about cultivation.

Tockus griseus (Latham). The Malabar Grey Hornbill.

Specimens collected: 642 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000'); 675 3 19-1-40

Bababudan Hills (4,500' — Kemmangundi).

[Measurements :

Bill from skull Wing Tail

1 3 100 205 210 mm.

1 9 84 195 2°4 mm- — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope, being the ecological

counterpart here of the Common Grey Hornbill. Affects forest, especially where

the various species of Ficus abound.

Upupa epops eeylonensis Reichenbach. The Ceylon Hoope.

Specimens collected : 101 9 18-11-39, 155 9 23-11-39 Bandipur (2,800-

3,300'); 399 <$ 20-12-39, 472 3 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); Biligirirangan

Hills : M49(H) 3 10-4-34 (5>ooo' — Honnametti) ; M2(G) 3 _ 14-9-34 (2,000' —

Satyamangala) ; M32(G) 3 14-7-34, M89(G) 3 25-7-34 (3,000' — Odahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted : Hiriyur, Kolar Gold Fields.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

6 3 3 52-61.5 120.5-143 83-98 mm.

2 99 SI-55-5 I27 84-88 mm.— H. W.j

Resident. Not common. Confihed to deciduous biotope but extending in

diminishing numbers through the intermediate zone up to its evergreen boundary.

The December males had maturing testes : 7X4 and 5X3 respectively.

Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould). The Malabar Trogon.

Specimens collected : 612 9 13-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 741 9 26-1-40,

767-768 c? 9 29-1-40, 788 3 31-.1-40 Settihalli (2,500').

[Measurements :

Bill

2 3 6 20-20.5

3 9 9 20-2 I

Wing Tail

123.5- 128 156-162 mm.

122.5- 127 162-167 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to evergreen biotope, extending across

the moist-inter zone.

Micropus me!ba bakeri (Hartert). The Indian Alpine Swift.

Specimens collected: 532 9 3-l~40 Devarayadrug (4,000'— Tumkur Dist.);

857 9' 1 1-2-40, 861-864 3 3!3 9 12-2-46, also cT 9 25-12-35 (Humayun Abdulali),

Jog (2,000' — Sagar Dist.). Biligirirangan Hills : o? 19-12-32 (5,000' — above

Dodsampagi).

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Nandidrug.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing C. tail O. tail

4 3 3 14-16 204-212 59-62.5 74-77 mm.

5 99 i4-i5.s 200-206 58-61 72-76 mm.

ife JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol xUV

A very useful contribution to the verification of this interesting race disting-

uished both by its small size and by its dark colouration. — H. W.]

Resident and local migrant. Not common. Usually seen in the hills hawking

winged insects about and above fissured crags and rock scarps.

On the summit of Devarayadrug Hill I observed that the ibirds circled back

and forth almost within gunshot before the sun had set, but that they steadily

rose higher and higher after the sun went down. This was evidently due to

the fact that their insect prey kept rising higher to remain in the warmth of the

sunlight. The ibirds were usually seen flying about the hill until about 10-30 a.m.

when some of them at least retired into the fissures of the rock (brooding?). There-

after practically none were on the wing in this neighbourhood again before

late afternoon, and they continued to feed till well after dusk high up in the

heavens.

Several pairs were observed in copula on the wing, the male treading the

female in mid-air. During the act both birds whirled round and round as one

unit and fell slowly through space parachuteuwise for about 100 feet or so on

outstretched but motionless wings. They separated after this and flew off indi-

vidually.

All the specimens had maturing or fully mature gonads, and breeding was

undoubtedly in progress. Testes 9X4 to 14x6 mm. ; ovaries markedly granular.

The largest follicle in No. 532 (3 January) measured 4 mm. and its distended

oviduct indicated that it had laid.

Humayun Abdulali collected breeding birds at Jog, where the species is

particularly numerous, on 26-12-35 ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, p. 829). Strangely

enough when Mr. C. McCann visited the Falls on 10 June (1938) he found

these Swifts completely absent ( J.B.N.H.S ., xli, p. 450). Where they go away

during the S.-W. Monsoon still remains to be discovered. Humayun Abdulali

tells me that the birds were absent from this locality on 3 August (1939), but

some were back by 7 September when the place was revisited by him.

Micropus affinis [aff in is (Gray)]. The Common Indian House-Swift.

No specimens.

Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. Evidently not common. Small

numbers of these swifts were observed about Vanivilas Dam at Marikanive

(9 January). Also about the old temples at Halebid (12 January) wherein they

were nesting and making a nuisance of themselves. Several disused nests were

also seen in the former locality.

Ghaetura giganteus indicus Hume. The Brown-throated Spinetail.

No specimens.

Noted : Maddur (near Gundlupet), Sakleshpur, Bababudafi Hills (Jagar

Valley).

Presumably resident. Confined to evergreen biotope. Usually seen in loose

flocks flying at terrific speed and hawking insects over grassy hilltops and

forest clearings, especially where fired.

tndicapus sylvaticus (Blyth). The White-rumped Spinetail.

No specimens.

Noted : Sakleshpur, Kadamane Estate, Settihalli.

Resident? Sporadic. Confined to evergreen biotope. Like the preceding

species it is usually seen in loose ‘flocks’ hawking insects above grassy hilltops

and forest clearings ; frequently also in the intermediate zone.

Coltocatia fuciphaga subsp. The Edible Swiftlet.

No specimens.

Noted : Karapur (Deciduous). A gathering of 30-50 birds hawking insects

high above Kabani river, 3-12-39. Agumbe : (Evergreen. A few on 2-2-40 1).

Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell). The Indian Crested Swift.

Specimens collected: 120 121 20-11-39 Bafidipflr (3,3000.

Elsewhere noted : Shimsha, Sivasamudram, Namadachilume, Settihalli.

[Measurements : 2 $ ^ Bills damaged. Wing 153-154, C. Tail 44, O. Tail

109.5-117 mm.— H. W.J

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

17

Resident. Not uncommon. Confined to deciduous biotope. Met with in

secondary jungle and about forest clearings for cultivation.

Caprimulgus macrourus atripennis Jerdon. Jerdon’s Long-tailed Nightjar.

Specimen collected: 147 <$ 23-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

[Measurements : 1 $ Bill 23.5, Wing 189, Tail 133 mm.— H. W.j

The specimen was hawking beetles at dusk on a motor road through decidu-

ous and bamboo forest.

Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham. The Indian Jungle Nightjar.

Specimens collected: 119 $ 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 249 9 3-12-39

Antarsante (2,500'); 627 <$ 14-1-40. Sakleshpur (3,000'); 747 cf» 748 27-1-40

Settihalli (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : Mi3(H) 9, Mi6(H) 4-3-34 (5,000'

— Honnametti).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4C S d 20-23.5 192-198 129. 5-137 mm.

4 99. 23-24.5 190-195 129-13 1 mm— H. W..]

Resident? Common. Confined to deciduous biotope ; occasionally found in

the dry-inter belt. Affects teak plantations and bamboo facies. Perches on

branches both lengthwise and across. No. 627 was shot at 10 a>m. perched

lengthwise asleep on a branch of a tall shade tree at edge of coffee plantation.

The call of this nightjar, commencing at dusk and continued far into and

often throughout the night, (especially if moonlit) is Kruk . . . krii-kroo or

Uk . . . krii-kroo repeated monotonously every 2 seconds or so for £ or even

5 hour at a stretch. Elsewhere I have recorded the call also as Chuck-ko, chuck-

ko etc. about once every second.

Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus Franklin. Franklin’s Nightjar.

Specimens collected: 134 9 21-11-39 Gudalur Ghat (3,000' — near Kaken-

halla) ; 148 . 9 23-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

[Measurements: 2 9 $ Bill 19-26, Wing 187-190, Tail 108-113.5 mm. — H. W.]

Usually seen on roads through deciduous forest at dusk. No. 134 was -

perched on a telegraph wire (across).

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham. The Common Indian Nightjar.

Specimens collected : 231 $ 2-12-39 Antarsante (2,500') ; Biligirirangans :

Mi 13(G) 9 4-8-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, E. base).

Elsewhere noted : Marikanive.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

1 19 143 — mm,

1 9 — 147 io3 mm- — H. W.j

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects open

sparse scrub-and-bush country and fallow land.

Testes of 2 December specimen 7x5 mm.

[Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan). The Sliort-eared Owl.

Specimens collected : 655-658 9 9 9 9' i 7-1 -40 Hebbale, Coorg (2,500').

[Measurements : 4 9 9 Bill 30-30.5, Wing 300-318, Tail 143.5-.146 mm.—

H. W.J iA;

These specimens were obtained actually a few miles beyond the western

boundary of Mysore State, but are included here since there, seems no reason

to doubt that the species also occurs within our area in the appropriate

deciduous facies.

The birds were shot from a loose ‘flock’ of about 20 resting amongst scrub

and grass covered stony hillocks. One was observed sunning itself, belly to

ground and wings outstretched. On the wing, and seen from behind, the birds

were reminiscent of a party of Houbara bustards.

At 3 o’clock in the afternoon, when shot, the stomachs of all the specimens

were quite empty.]

2

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Strix indranee indranee Sykes. The Brown Wood-Owl.

Specimens collected: 168 $ 25-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

Elsewhere noted : Satnur.

[Measurements : 1 $ Bill 40, Wing 340, Tail 186 mm.— H. W.]

lhe specimen was one of a pair up in a dense bamboo clump in deciduous

forest. Its stomach was empty at 7-30 a.m., when shot, but for a single live

Tscam-like nematode worm Seuratum sp., probably a ‘pseudoparasite.’ Testes

13x7 mm.

Strix ocellata (Lesson). The Mottled Wood-Owl.

Specimens collected: 135 $ 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — near Hangala

village).

Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar, Gundlupet, Marikanive.

[Measurements : 1 9 Bill 40.5, Wing 339, Tail 177 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects wooded

country with large densely foliaged tamarind and similar trees around villages

and cultivation. When flushed from its daytime retreat it can fly long distances

in bright sunshine without apparent discomfort. As distinct from Bubo, this

owl afights on the inside (more or less secluded) branches of a tree after a

flight, and not on the outside or peripheral ones.

Bubo bubo bengaiensis (Franklin). The Indian Great Horned Owl.

Specimens collected: 136 ($ 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — near Hangala village);

537 c? 4-1-40 Namadachilume (3,000').

[Measurements : 2 $ Bill 44-47, Wing 364-374, Tail 190 mm.

These specimens are rather dark on the upper plumage, but I have already

pointed out (J.B.N .H.S., xxxviii, 234) that this species is very variable in

colour and I do not think that northern and southern races should be

separated. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects ravines

and boulder hillocks in secondary forest and sparsely wooded country, as well as

groves of large thickly foliaged trees in the neighbourhood of villages and

cultivation.

The specimens were both either breeding or about to breed: testes 18x10

and 15x10 mm. Under the skin of the nape of No. 136 were found embedded

several examples of the. Nematode worm Parhamatospiculum bubicola Skrjabin

& Petrow, 1935.

A local belief current about the large owls was narrated to me by a Forest

Range Officer. It appears that if a large owl (species not stated) is confined without

food for 8 days and thereafter well beaten with a stick, it begins to talk

fluently like a human (language unspecified !) and can be made to tell your

fortune with infallible precision. Here is a tip for those waiting for ships

to come home 1

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (Temminck) The Brown Fish-Owl.

Specimens collected : 9 Biligirirangan Hills (without precise data).

[Measurements : 1 9 Bill 51, Wing 402, Tail 200 mm. — H. W.]

Noted: Antarsante (29-11-39 A pair by forest tank at dusk).

Probably not uncommon in suitable localities — about tanks and streams.

Otus bakkamoena sub-sp. The Scops Owl.

No specimens.

The characteristic call of this little owl ‘ Wut . . . wut’ &c was heard after

dusk at Namadachilume and Settihalli, 1 and 30 January. Evidently somewhat

uncommon.

Athene brama brama (Temm.) The Southern Spotted Owlet.

Specimens collected: 137 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — Hangala village); 272

cJ 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500') ; 386 9 I9-I2_39 Maklidrug (2,800') ; 395 9

20-12-39, 461 9 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'). Biligirirangan Hills: M28(G) 9

I3-7_34 (3,000'— Odahatti M3o(G) rj 21-9-34 (2,ooo' — Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

19

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

3 d d 19.5-2© 148-156 68-73 mm.

4 9 $ 20.5-21 152. 5-154 69-72.5 mm.

' . . Vi

All are dark birds. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects groves of large

trees in the neighbourhood of towns, villages and cultivation.

No. 272 (5 December) was very fat.

Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell) The Malabar Jungle Owlet.

Specimens collected: 173 9> 174 9» 175 d 25-II-39 Bandipur (3,000' — near

Kakenhalla) ; 210 9> 211 d 30-11-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500'); Biligirirangan

Hills : Mi(H) <$ 10-3-34 (4,000'); Mi5(G) d I5-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala) ;

M34(G) d 22-10-34 (5>ooo' — Honnametti).

[Measurements :

Bill

5 d d I7-5_I9

3 9 9 16-18.5

Wing

130-13 3

Tail

68.5-76.5 mm.

66-70.5 mm.— H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope, occasionally

entering the dry-inter belt. Its typical habitat is teak and bamboo forest.

The stomach of one example contained a grasshopper and the viscera of a

snail.

Ninox scutulata hirsuta Temm. The South Indian Hawk-Owl.

Specimen collected : 736 9 26-1-40 Settihalli (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Edbuthi (4,500' — Biligirirangans).

[Measurements: 1 9 Bill 22, Wing 212.5, Tail 121.5 mm. — H. W.j

The specimen was shot off the roof of the Forest Lodge after dark. Two or

three other birds were heard calling in the deciduous bamboo forest in this

neighbourhood. The call of this owl is a distinctive, rather pleasant, Oo...uk,

00. ..uk etc. repeated once a second and 4 to 10 times running. A pause of

half to one minute follows and then the calls are repeated.

The ovary of the specimen was maturing ; largest follicles over 2 mm. A

tangle of 13 round thread-like Nematode worms ( Parhamatospiculum sp. (Fam.

Filariidae)], from 25 to 80 mm. long (mostly overdo mm.), were removed from

under the skin of the skull above one eye-socket. Otherwise the bird seemed

perfectly healthy. Its stomach (at 8 p.m.) was crammed with remains of what

were apparently Potter Wasps (Eumenes) — orange brown in colour.

Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (Linn.). The Osprey.

Specimen collected : 287 d 8-12-39 Seringapatam (Palahally Island, Cauvery,

2,000').

Elsewhere noted : Marikanive (Solo on Vanivilas Sagar 7 Jan.).

[Measurements: 1 d Bill 41.5, Wing 481, Tail 210 mm. H. W.J

Winter visitor. Scarce.

Sarcogyps calvus (Scop.). The Black or Pondicherry Vulture.

No specimens.

Noted : Bandipur, Marikanive.

Occasional solos.

Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume. The Indian Griffon Vulture.

No specimens.

Noted (unconfirmed) at Jog where several pairs were nesting on ledges of

rock scarp a few hundred yards downstream from the Gersoppa Falls (10 Febru-

ary).

Gyps iudicus [indicus (Scop.)] The Long-billed Viflture.

Humayun Abdulali records a few pairs nesting on cliffs opposite Jog Falls

at end December 1935. ( J.B.N.FI.S ., xxxviii, 830).

20 JOURNAL , £OMEAy iVATi7i?^L HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). The Indian White-backed Vulture.

No specimens.

Noted : Settihalli, jog and elsewhere.

A single nest with bird brooding was observed on a tall straight tree ca.

60 ft. up, in forest of moist-inter facies at Settihalli. No other nests were in

the proximity, but the birds were here numerous, and it was evident from the

dcid reek of their droppings and the dirty whitewashed appearance of the ground

that they roosted in the adjoining area' at night.

At Jog a number of nests with birds either brooding or perched in their

proximity were observed on tall upright trees in evergreen forest. (10-2-40).

Neophron percnopterus gingmianus (Latham). The Smaller White Scavenger

Vulture.

No specimens. .

Noted : Biligirirangan Hills (about cattle sheds and coolie lines on coffee

estates) ; Bandipur, Satniir, Chitaldrug, Mysore, Bangalore, Dodballapur, Kolar

Gold Fields and elsewhere.

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Occasionally met with

in the intermediate zone around human habitations.

On 9 January a bird was observed carrying building material, and nesting

was in progress on the bare rocky hills in the environs of Chitaldrug town.

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams has one egg each from 2 nests at Nanjangud,

2-2-1939.

Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall. The Shahin Falcon.

No specimens.

Noted : Balmoorie Island (Cauvery river, near Krishnarajsaghr) ; Devaraya-

drug (3,500' — Tumkur Dist.) ; Bababudan Hills (5,000' — above Kemmangundi) ;

Jog (on cliffs flanking Gersoppa Falls).

Solitaries or a pair were seen about cliffs and rock scarps in the hills. On

22 January a pair had their nest on an inaccessible ledge of rock in the Baba-

budans (ca. 5,000' elevation). The owners were observed playfully stooping

about the cliffs; at incredible speed, and performing a variety of amazing

aerobatics.

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linn. The European Kestrel.

Specimens collected: 144 $.’22-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 337 S 15-12-39

Satnur (2,500'); 396 $ 20-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); Biligirirangan Hills :

M35(G) $ 22-10-34 (5,000' — Honnametti).

[Measurements:

Bill . Wing Tail

2 (S (S 21-22 234-253 161-166 mm.

2 $ $ 21.5-22 .249-255 163-170 mm. — H. W.J

Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Stuart B'aker). The Indian Kestrel.

Specimens collected: 841 $ 7-2-40 Agumbe (2,000'). Biligirirangans : 6 <$

6-11-39 M4o(G) $ 22-10-34 {5,000' — Honnametti) also 1 without precise data.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing

3 6 6 21.5-22 222-232

2 $ $ 22-22.5 242.5-253

Tinnunculus winter visitor ; objurgatus resident.

Usually seen singly about grassy hillslopes and in bare open sparsely scrubbed

country and fallow land, mostly in deciduous biotope.

Tail

1 45-1 58, mm.

164-175 mm,— H. W.]

Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin. The Indian Tawny Eagle.

No specimens.

Noted only at Marikanive 7-1-40. Evidently rare.

Lophotriorchis kieneri (de Sparre). The Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle.

No specimens.

Noted: Settihalli (2,500'— Shimoga Dist.). A solitary -bird perched, bolt

upright in a -lofty bare tree on edge of forest clearing for teak plantation ; moist-

inter belt.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

21

Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgs.). The Indian Black Eagle.

No specimens.

Noted : Biligirirangan Hills 5,000'. Solo 19-12-32.

Circaetus ferox (Gmelin). The Short-toed Eagle.

Specimen collected: 154 $ 23-11-39 Gopalaswami Betta (4,800' — near Gundlu-

pet).

Elsewhere noted : Birur (Solo in dry scrub-and-bush country about cultiva-

tion).

[Measurements : 1 9 Bill 53.5, Wing 525, Tail 278 mm.

This specimen is considerably darker above and has the markings on the

lower surface both heavier and darker than in my series of North Indian

birds. Unfortunately there are no other South Indian birds available for com-

parison— except 2 unsexed skins marked vaguely ‘Madras’ in the British

Museum — so it remains to be ascertained whether there is a dark southern

race or whether the difference is due to individual variation. This eagle varies

a certain amount in plumage. — H. W.]

Resident. Apparently confined to deciduous biotope. The specimen was ready

to breed. Largest ovum 6 mm. Its stomach contained a snake ( Psammophis conda-

narus) 9" long, and loose snake scales. Strangely enough this is the first record

of this snake from Mysore.

Haeraatornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon). The Crested Serpent-Eagle.

Specimens collected : 724 $ 23-1-40 Bababudan Hills (3,500' — below Kemman-

gundi)j 816 9 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Heggadedavankote, Namadachilume.

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

No. 724 9 46-5 497 294 mm.

No. 816 9 43-5 424 260 mm.

No. 816 is a perfectly typical example of melanotis in both size and colour.

No. 724 on the other hand would pass both in size and colour as a specimen

of H. c. cheela. One can either -consider if therefore as a vagrant wanderer

of the typical race which has somehow reached South India, or as an aberrant

specimen of the race melanotis varying towards the typical race. I prefer the

latter explanation for I have already pointed out ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, 426-427)

how very variable this eagle is. — H. W.]

Resident, Affects heavy forest both in evergreen biotope and in the inter-

mediate zone.

The ovary of No. 724 (23 Jan.) was maturing with many of the follicles

ove.r, 2 ,mm. in diameter. It was very fat. Its stomach contained snake scales.

The call of this eagle is distinctive and usually the first indication of its

presence in any locality. It is a shrill kek-kek-kek-kek-kek-kek-kde — the final

note prolonged and particularly shrill. This call is mostly uttered on the wing.

Butasfur teesa (Franklin). The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle.

Specimens collected: 138 9 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — near Hangala village) ;

199 9 2Q-11-39 Antarsante (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Settihalli.

[Measurements :

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects open light

secondary jungle and the vicinity of cultivation.

Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert). The B'rahminy Kite.

Specimen collected: Biligirirangan Hills: M 103(G) 9 29-7-34 (3,000' —

Odahatti).

Elsewhere noted : Antarsante, Jog, Kolar Gold Fields, Satnur,

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope near tanks and

rivers, 4>ut met with temporarily elsewhere in search of food. On io February

a solitary example was observed flying up and down the Gersoppa Falls, stick-

ing to the contours of the flanking crags, using the wind eddies to rise effortlessly

without wing beats to the head of the falls. After circling round here in among

the spray a couple of times the bird shot down (also along the contours) at

great speed almost to the foot of the falls, with wings half pulled in like a

Peregrine stooping. The entire performance was repeated again and again,

its object remaining a mystery.

At Antarsante a nest was observed, with bird brooding, in the top of a

large peepal tree growing in the village (5 December).

Milvus migrans govinda Sykes. The Common Pariah Kite.

if; Specimen collected: 145 3 23-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

Elsewhere noted: Chamarajanagar, French Rocks, Mysore, Bangalore,

Thondebhavi, Marikanive. Almost ubiquitous.

[Measurements: 1 3 Bill 38, Wing 452, C. Tail 221, Outer Tail 284 mm.

— H. W.]

Resident. Preferentially in deciduous biotope, but small numbers also in

the moist-inter belt around human habitations in the low country, and ascending

temporarily in search of food to the highest homesteads in the hills. All the

time from 4 November to 6 January the breeding season was in progress.

Many pairs were observed in copula and numerous nests with birds brooding

or under construction were observed.

The testee of the specimen measured 17x6 mm.

Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). The Black-winged Kite.

Specimens collected: 75 9 15-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); Biligirirangans : M107

Resident (presumably). Uncommon Confined . to deciduous biotope. Affects

secondary and scrub jungle.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin). The Pale Harrier.

Specimen collected: 129 3 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

[Measurements: 1 3 ad. Bill 26.5, Wing 345, Tail 213 mm. — H. W.]

Winter visitor. Not common.

Stomach of the specimen contained remains of a lizard, and a quail chick

dbout 1 day old.

Circus aeiUginosus aeruginosus (Linn.). The Marsh Harrier.

No specimens.

Noted : Sakleshpur (solo at swamp 15-1-40) ; Kolar Gold Fields (Betmangala

tank 22-2-40.

Winter visitor. Not common.

Astur badius dussumieri Temm. & Laug. The Indian Shikra.

Specimens collected : 288 9 8-12-39 Seringapatam (2,000' — Palahally Island,

Cauvery river); 336 9 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 468 $ 27-12-39 Dodballapur

(2,900'); 507 3 29-12-39 Thondebhavi (2,500'); 515 3 1-1-40 Devarayadrug

(3,500'); 756 d, 757 3 28-1-40, 805 9 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500'); Biligirirangan

Hills : M4o(G) 3 23"9“34 (2,000' — Satyamangala).

[Measurements :

Bill

20-21.5

23

21.5-22

Wing

176-192.5

201

193-200

Tail

r33_I47 mm-

160 mm.

150-165 mm,

3 S3 ad.

1 9 ad.

3 9 9 imm-

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

23

In the Eastern Ghats Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, 432) I discussed the

question of the races of this species at some length, and this fine series merely

strengthens the views that I arrived at then. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects wooded country

and groves frequently in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation.

No 288 (8 December) was the only one of the Survey specimens that showed

any gonadal development : ovarian follicles 2 mm. It was very fat. It

dashed out of its ambush after a Rosy Pastor. No. 805 had all the primaries

and some secondaries of one wing, and also the tip of its tail singed for about

half their length. Presumably this was caused accidentally while hunting in a

fired grass and scrub patch ( taungya clearing).

Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon. The Southern Besra Sparrow-Hawk.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: 35 9. 10-1 1-39 (4,000' — Bedaguli) ;

M25(H) J 30-3-34 (5,000' — Honnametti).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

1 cfimm. 18 155 127 mm.

1 $ ad. 22 183.5 142 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Shot in the moist-inter belt. The stomach of 288 contained remains

of a Green Barbet ( Thereiceryx viridis).

%

Pernis ptilorhynchus ruf icollis Lesson. The Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard.

Specimens collected: 189 9 28-11-39, 269 c? 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'):

252 c? 3-12-39 Karapur (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Biligirirangan Hills 4,000-5,800 .

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 S3 ad. 41-41. 5 4 1 2-4 *7 ' 252-259 mm.

1 9 imm. 40 403 262 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Particularly plentiful in the neighbourhood of

Antarsante. The stomachs, crops and gullets of the specimens were . crammed

with wax and honey, and in one instance also some small bees (species?).

No. 189 was very fat. 269 (5 Deer.) had maturing testes — 17x6 mm

When incised for removal of tendons, it was noticed that all its 8 toes

were infested under the skin with Nematode worms (Pelecitus sp.), especially at

the base of the claws.

Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth). The Southern Green Pigeon.

Specimens collected : 195 c? 29-11-39, 268 c? 5"I2"39 Antarsante (2,500').

Biligirirangan Hills : M24(H) 9 I8-3-34, My2(G) (j1 22-7-34, M97(G)

27-7-34 (3,000' — Gdahatti Eastern base).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

4 d'd' 21-23 185-192 116-118 mm.

1 9 ^4 184 — mm. — H. W.J

Resident, but locally migratory (especially altitudinal) depending upon the

ripening of the various fruits that comprise their food. Fruits ripen later on

the hills than in the plains.

This Green Pigeon is essentially a bird of deciduous biotope Out rt also

occurs freely in the dry-inter belt.

At Bandipur their food consisted largely of Ficus figs and gall-nuts (myra-

bolans).

Dendrophassa pompadora affinis (Jerdon). The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon.

Specimens collected : 803 <$ 1-2-40 Settihalli (2,500') ; 818 9 4-2-40 Agumbe

(2,500') 871 12-2-40 Jog (2,000').

Elsewhere noted : Bababudan Hills 3,000-4,500',

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Resident. Fairly common. Locally migratory as above. Confined to ever-

green biotope ; also found in the moist-inter belt. Affects shade trees (Ficus

and others) in and about coffee plantations. Its call notes are like Crocopus,

but somewhat shriller. I was informed by Mr. H. H. English, a coffee planter

in the Bababudans, that on his estate these pigeons frequently dash into the

walls of out-houses and get killed. I have recorded a similar case under the

Bronze-winged Dove in the Travancore-Cochin Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxix, 339).

Ducula badia cuprea (Jerdon). Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : 9 9 7-1 1-39 (4,000' — Edbuthi) ;

M47(H) 9 9-4-34 (5,000' — Honnametti).

Elsewhere noted : Sakleshpur, Settihalli, Agumbe.

[Measurements: 2 9 9 Bill 30-30.5, Wing 227-231, Tail 166 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to evergreen biotope. Extends into the

moist-inter belt. Met with in twos and threes on tall thinly foliaged trees.

Call : a' deep, rather mournful Uk-ook...ook etc. uttered with tail slightly

depressed, back arched and head lowered. The flight is attained by leisurely

wing beats as in the House-Crow.

The specimen of 7 November had a mature ovary with the largest follicle

over 6 mm. in diameter.

Muscadivora aenea pusilla (Blyth). The Ceylon Green Imperial Pigeon.

Specimen collected: Biligirirangan Hills : M27(G) 9 2I-9_34 (2,000' —

Satyamangala).

Elsewhere noted : Antarsante.

[Measurements : 1 9 Bill 27.5, Wing 216, Tail 138 mm. — H. W.J

Resident. Uncommon. Confined to deciduous biotope, extending diminish-

ihg'ly into the intermediate zone. Affects secondary jungle dotted with large

Ficus trees.

Chalcophaps indica indica (Linn.). The Bronze-winged Dove.

Specimen collected : Biligirirangan Hills : M37(G) 9 juv. 23-10-34 (4,000' —

Bellaji).

Elsewhere noted : Bababudan Hills (4,500' — Kemmangundi) ; Settihalli.

Resident. Uncommon. Confined to evergreen biotope ; partial to the moist-

inter belt. It also extends to the more deciduous but well wooded portions of

the intermediate zone. Frequents thick secondary forest and bamboo patches,

and outskirts of forest clearings.

Columba livia subsp. The Blue Rock-Pigeon.

No specimens.

Noted : Bhadravati, Jog.

Resident. Patchily distributed and nowhere abundant except at Jog (Ger-

soppa Falls). At the Mysore Iron Works, Bhadravati, I noticed (24 Jan.) that

while the casting was in progress (8 p.m.) a number of pigeons roosted com-

placently on the cross beams and rafters of the corrugated casting-shed roof,

regardless of the terrific heat, glare and spluttering ‘fireworks’ from the molten

metal, and only a few feet above the sparks from the gigantic blast furnace!

About the scarps of Gersoppa Falls the number of these pigeons has to

be seen to be believed. They are there literally in thousands and when flying

to and fro across the rock faces, as they do all day long in vast flocks, the

birds look like swarms of midges by comparison with their surroundings.

There is a very widely current legend about the storing of grain by ‘birds’

obviously meaning these pigeons, in the holes and fissures of the rock behind

and on the flanks of the actual waterfall at Gersoppa. This legend even had

the distinction of figuring in a local political speech recently (Bangalore, 17- 1-40)

but what its exact significance was in the context is not understood. It is

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

25

said that the birds hoard — or at least used to hoard in by gone days — paddy

in such quantities that the right of collecting this grain was formerly auctioned

out by the Bombay Government for as much as Rs. 500 annually. 20 candies

(140 cwt.) or more are alleged to have been recovered at a time by a man lowered

in a basket. Since the accident which terminated the career of this intrepid

exploiter, no one else has ventured to tap the ‘granaries’. Needless to say

there seems to be no one living at the moment who has any first hand knowledge

of the matter. Enquiries in the relative Mamlatdar’s office, kindly made for

me by the Divisional Fore'st Officer of Karwar, revealed that all records over

50 years old have been destroyed and the entries of revenue from the1 auction

of the garnering rights cannot now be1 traced.

It has not been explained how the pigeons could have transported such vast

quantities of paddy to the granaries, and from where — since at the present time,

at any rate, there is no extensive paddy cultivation, such as is implied, within

many miles of the Falls. Of course, the legend will not bear scrutiny, but

it would be interesting to learn how it originated and managed to gain such

wide and ready credence.

Columba elphinstonii (Sykes). The Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon.

Specimens collected : Biligirirangan Hills : M43(H) 9 7-4-34 (4,000' — Bellajil ;

M48(H) 9 9-4-34, M36(H) 9 1 0-5-34 (4,000-5,000' — Honnametti) ; Mii6(H) o?

25-5-34 (4,000' — Edbiithi).

Elsewhere noted : Devarbetta Hill (3,000') ; Bababudan Hills (4,500'- — Kem-

mangundi).

[Measurements 13 9 9 Bill 27-28, Wing 199-205 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common but not abundant. Confined to evergreen biotope

and partial to the moist-inter belt. Seen singly or in pairs, occasionally small

parties, on trees in fruit.

Strepfopelia orientalis erythrocephala (Bonaparte).1 The Indian Rufous Turtle

Dove.

Specimens collected: 792 9, 793 9 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500').

[Measurements : 2 9 9 Bill from feathers 16, Wing 176-178, Tail 118-120 mm.

The sight of these two skins has given me as much pleasure as any birds

in the Survey, for at last Mr. S&lim Ali has produced specimens of the Rufous

Turtle Dove which breeds in Peninsular India, a bird whose very existence I

was almost beginning to doubt. Curiously enough about the same time I

received a third specimen from the collection of the late Mr. E. A. D’Abreu2.

a female (one of a pair) collected at Mahrajbagh, Nagpur, on 8 June 1938.

In the Eastern Ghats Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, pp. 677-678) I discussed

the whole question of these doves, but in the absence of satisfactory proof

of the breeding of any form in peninsular India my conclusions were not

altogether satisfactory. I am now satisfied that my ‘richly coloured form’ of

that account falls into two races. The bird of the Eastern Himalayas and

Assam is really an intermediate between S. o. orientalis (Manchuria, Korea,

Japan and Tibet) S. o. meena (Western Himalayas) and the breeding bird of

peninsular India which is distinguished by the vinous-red crown, nape and

mantle and the deeper red of the edges of the scapulars, coverts and tertiaries.

The vinous-red of the undersurface is also much richer.

For the East Himalayan intermediate I propose to retain, as in my previous

note, the name of Columba agricola Tickell, J.A.S.B. vol. ii (Nov. 1833) p. 581 —

jungles of Dholbhum and Borabhum. The description is a poor one but obvi-

ously refers to some form of Turtle Dove. There are no specimens available

from these 2 localities, but Beavan obtained specimens at Manbhum, now in

the British Museum, and these agree with East Himalayan birds.

1 Since this is the resurrection of an old existing name, Koelz’s sylvicola

(type locality: Castle Rock, Proc. oj the Biol. Society of Washington, vol. . lii,

pp. 61-82 [5 June 1939]) becomes a synonym of it.

2 It may be convenient to record the fact that Mr. D’Abreu ’s private collection

of birds from Kumaon, Sikkim, Bihar and the Central Provinces has been

very generously presented to me by his son and is now being incorporated in

my own collection. The- labelling of these birds is a model to collectors,— H. W,

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Specimens from Raipur, Seoni and North Kanara in the British Museum

evidently belong to the same very richly coloured resident form as these Survey

birds. For them I propose to use the name Turtuy erythrocephalus Bonaparte,

Consp. Gen. Av. vol. ii (after April 15, 1855) p. 60 of which the type labelled

‘Cape of Good Hope’ is in the British Museum. The type locality is of course

an error. — H. W.

The specimens were shot on a cart road through forest in bamboo facies

of the dry-inter belt. A number of other examples were observed and the

species seemed to be fairly common in this locality.

No. 792 had a soft ovarian egg 17 mm. in diameter, and the distended

oviduct indicated that she had laid. The ovary of 793 was mature : largest

follicle 6 mm.

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin). The Indian Spotted Dove.

Specimens collected: 533 534 <$ 3-1-40 Namadachilume (3,000'); 804 $

2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500'); Mi3(G) c? 9-7-34 (3,000' — Cdahatti, Eastern base)

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Begur, Satnur, Sakleshpur.

[Measurements: 4 $ $ Bill 18-19.5, Wing 135-145.5, Tail 118-134 mm.

— H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope, extending into the

dry-inter belt. Frequents wooded country around cultivation etc.

All the 3 specimens of January-Februarv had fully mature testes (14x5,

13X5 and 10X5 mm-) and they were certainly breeding. On 27 January a

nest with c/2 was found 6 ft. up in a bamboo clump in secondary jungle (Setti-

halli). In this locality it was the only dove besides S. orientalis.

Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin). The Little Brown Dove.

Specimens collected : 553 9 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Begur, Satnur, Thondebhavi, Namadachilume,

Hiriyur, Kolar Gold Fields.

[Measurements : 1 9 Bill 16.5, Wing 124, Tail 104 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects dry open country

less wooded than that favoured by the Spotted Dove, but sometimes the 2

habitats overlap at the seam. These facies preferences are most noticeable

in the dry season when their boundaries are better defined than during or just

after the rains.

The specimen had a mature ovary with the largest follicle measuring 3 mm.

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivalszky). The Indian Ring-Dove.

Specimens collected : 356 $ 16-12-39 Satnur (2,500') ; 425 23-12-39 Makli-

drug (2,800'). Biligirirangan Hills : M25(G) 20-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala) ,

M37(G) c? 15-7-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, Eastern base).

[Measurements: 4 ^ Bill 19. 5-21. 5, Wing 169-174, Tail 129. 5-133.5 mm.

— H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Prefers drier and

less wooded facies than the Spotted Dove, and often met side by side with

the Little Brown Dove.

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Begur, Thondebhavi, Marikanive.

Both the December specimens were breeding: testes 17x6 and 17x7 mm.

Major Phvthian-Adams took an egg at Gundlupet, 28-7-38.

(Enopopelia tranqnebarica tranquebarica (Hermann). The Red Turtle Dove.

Specimens collected : 366 c5* , 367 ^ 17-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 554 $ 7-1-40

MarikanivS (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Kolar Gold Fields.

[Measurements: 3 $ $ Bill 16-5-18, Wing 136-140, Tail 84-89 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects dry, open, secondary and

scrub-and-bush jungle, and the neighbourhood of cultivation. The preferential

facies of this dove is nearer that of the Ring Dove than of the Spotted Dove.

All the 3 specimens had testes enlarged to breeding size: 13x6, 16x5 and

17x6 mm. Major Phythian-Adams has taken eggs at Gundlupet 28-7-38.

(To be continued .)

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

BY

R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S.,

Zoological Department , British Museum, Natural History t

Part III — The Sambar ( Rusa ),

( With 3 text-figures).

( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 4 (1943), p. 572).

Genus Rusa H. Smith.

(The Sambar).

Rusa, Hamilton Smith, Griffiths’ An. King., 5, p. 309, 1827,

and of most recent authors as a genus or as a subgenus of Cervus.

Type of the genus: — Cervus unicolor.

Distribution from Ceylon and India eastwards to the Philippines

and beyond.

British Indian representatives of this genus are the largest of

the typically Oriental Deer, approaching the Shou in size, but.

differing from Cervus in external characters similar to those of

Rucervus, namely the long, bushy tail, absence of rump-patch and

more extensive rhinarium, the chief external difference being in

the antlers which are much simpler and carry normally only two

terminal tines, the anterior or outer of which represents the trez

tine of Cervus and may be longer or shorter than the other.

In the skull the auditory bullae are smaller than in Rucervus

and closely resemble those of Cervus, (Fig. 1) only very seldom pro-

jecting slightly below the level of the basioccipital bone ; but the chief

cranial characteristic of typical Rusa lies in the great depth and

size of the gland-pit, which far surpasses that of the other genera,

and has a protrusible gland p the vacuity also is relatively longer.

A further difference from Rucervus, but resemblance to Cervus, is

the presence of the upper canine tooth in the female.

Although the Sambars (Rusa unicolor ) of the British Indian

Fauna are referred in recent literature to two subspecies, one,

Rusa unicolor unicolor, from Ceylon and most of India, the other,

1 In some of the small Sambars from the Far East the gland-pit is relatively

smaller and shallower and the gland is not known to be protrusible.

28 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Rasa unicolor equina from Burma and Assam, distinguished from

the first by its shorter antlers, I find evidence for the admission

of three, the Indian form being separable from the typical Ceylonese

form, R. unicolor.

Fig. i.

A. The small, flat left auditory bulla ( b ) of young-adult d Sambar ( Rusa

unicolor nigra) from South Coorg (Shortridge).

B. The relatively larger, swollen auditory bulla ( b ) of adult d Swamp Deer

( Rucervus duvauceiii) from? Barainga (Earl of Derby).

C. The same of adult d Thamin ( Panolia elcli) from Burma (Zool. Soc.).

The light, falling from the right, throws the1 inner half of the swollen bullae

of B and C into heavy shadow, whereas in A the flattish bulla casts no shadow.

They may .be briefly diagnosed as follows : —

a. Tips of the antlers variable, the posterior-inner tine usually

shorter, sometimes longer than the anterior-outer, some-

times equal to it, the anterior-outer usually but not al-

ways definitely continuing . the line of the beam.

b. Antlers and skull on the average smaller, unicolor.

bl Antlers and' skull on the average larger, nigra.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

29

a 1 Tips of the antlers less variable, the pos-

terior-inner tine always shorter than

the anterior-outer, which always de-

finitely continues the line of the beam. equina.

Rusa unicolor unicolor, Kerr.

Cervus axis unicolor t Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 306, 1792.

Cervus axis major, Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 306, 1792.

Cervus albicornis ; Bechstein, Allgemcin. Uebersicht vierfuss.

Thiere, 1, 1799.

Rusa unicolor unicolor , Phillips, Man. Mamm. Ceylon, p. 337,

1935. (excluding references to Indian specimens).

Locality of the type: — Ceylon, as restricted by Hamilton Smith.

Distribution : — Ceylon.

Distinguished from the Indian Sambar, with which it has hither-

to been united, by its average much shorter antlers which are not

known to exceed 34 in. in length, and apparently by its smaller skull,

although the evidence on this head is scanty.

This race can be soon dismissed since there are hardly any

Ceylonese specimens in the British Museum to describe.

My information about the antlers is derived mainly from Phillips’s

volume. He states that their general average length is 26 or 27 in.,

the longest recently procured being 32^ and 33 7/8 in. In Ward’s

Records, 1935, p. 22, several are entered ranging from 27! to 32^ in.

As regards the terminal tines Phillips states that they are generally

approximately equal in length, but, if unequal, either may be the

longer. On plate 35 he figures two heads. In the upper figure

the antlers are of the primitive ‘rusine’ type, with the front-outer

tine continuing the beam and greatly exceeding in length and thick-

ness the hinder-inner tine. In the lower figure the two are short

and subequal in size, resembling apparently rather closely the prongs

of a hay-fork. On pi. 34 the two tines appear to be nearly inter-

mediate between the previous two.

No d skulls are available for description. But a $ skull from

Aldie Patmas, C.P. (Phillips) is that of a youngish adult which had

apparently attained its full length dimensions. Its total and con-

dylobasal lengths are respectively 320 mm., about 12 4/5 in., and

315 mm., about 12 3/5 in., nearly 2 in. shorter than the average

of five 9 Indian skulls referred to under nigra. But the second

Ceylonese skull, collected for the Survey by Mayor at Durgali C.P.,

would have been a little longer than Phillips’s. Its condylobasal

length is the same, namely 315 mm., and its total length a little

greater; but it is a younger skull with the premolars of the first

set still in use and its last molar just appearing in the bone. Since

it had not quite reached its full length, it may be assumed that

the two Ceylonese skulls would be about 1 in. shorter on the average

than the Indian skulls, justifying provisionally the conclusion that

the Sambar of Ceylon are smaller on the average than those from

the mainland.

The technical name of this race was given by Kerr to a Deer

described by Pennant (Hist. Nat. Quadr., 1, p. 106, No. 48, 1781)

30 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

as the ‘Middle-sized Axis’, a species as large as the Red Deer, with

the ground-colour like that of the Axis but never spotted, the antlers

strong, rough and trifurcated, meaning three-pointed. From hear-

say evidence, there being no type, he cited Ceylon, Borneo, Celebes

and Java as its localities. The name was restricted to the Ceylonese

Sambar by Hamilton Smith in 1827.

I have included the names major and albicornis in the synonyms

for the following reasons. Both were given to the ‘Greater Axis’

of Pennant (op. cit., No. 481) ; but in Pennant’s first description

(Syn. Quadr. p. 52, No. 41, 1771), the species, based on a pair of

antlers in the British Museum without the least trace of locality or

history, was described as having the antlers of the same shape as

those of the Axis and trifurcated, but large, very thick, strong,

rugged and 33 in. long. Since this description fits the antlers of

the Ceylonese Sambar as well as any other, the names may be con-

veniently disposed of as synonyms of unicolor. In 1881 Pennant

repeated this description, quoted by Kerr, but added the suggestion

that the specimens probably came from Borneo or Ceylon. Acting

on this Kerr definitely stated Borneo and Ceylon to be the homes

of major, adding that its colour was ‘reddish brown’, both state-

ments being unwarranted inventions.

Gray complicated the question by identifying as the antlers

Pennant described, a pair in the British Museum (No. 697 U) ; and

this verdict was endorsed in 1915 by Lydekker, who entered them

as the type of major and albicornis. This claim cannot be upheld.

The antlers in question are those of a Sambar, without history,

but are very aberrant and not the least like those of an Axis in

shape. One only is trifurcate and in this the tine near the summit

of the beam rises on its outer side and projects outwards and up-

wards, a most unusual variation. In these respects the antlers

entirely disagree with Pennant’s description of those of the Greater

Axis.

Rusa unicolor nigra, Blainville.

Cervus niger, Blainville, Bull. Soc. Phil. Paris. 1816, p. 76;

Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng., 11, p. 449, 1842.

Cervus aristotelis, Cuvier, Oss. Foss., ed. 3, Vol. 4, p. 503,

1825 and of many subsequent authors either as Cervus or Rusa.

Cervus leschenaultii Cuvier, Oss. Foss., ed. 3, Vol. 4, p. 506,

1825.

Cervus hippelaphus , H. Smith, Griffith’s Anim. Kingd., 4, p. 105,

1827 and of several subsequent authors as Cervus or Rusa; but not

Cervus hippelaphus Kerr, 1792 which is a European race of C.

elaphus.

Cervus jarai, Hodgson, Gleanings in Sci., 3, p. 321, 1831.

Locality of the type of niger, unstated but probably somewhere

in north India; of aristotelis , Nepal; of leschenaultii, Coromandel;

of jarai, Nepal.

Distribution: — India apart from the western desert and semi-

desert areas, but not perhaps crossing the Brahmaputra in the north-

east, the Assamese Sambar belonging apparently to the next race.

Distinguished from the Ceylonese race by its potentially larger

antlers and apparently larger skull.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

31

In Rowland Ward’s Records, 1935, there is a long list of antler-

measurements ranging in length roughly from 37 to 50 in., almost

all of the specimens having been procured in parts of Central India.

Variation in the length and direction of the two terminal tines of the antlers

of the left side of the Indian Sambar. a the front-outer tine; p. the back-inner

tine.

A. Antler, 465 in., from Chanda, C.P. (Hume).

B. Antler, 43 in., from Kh^ndwa, C.I. (Sharmon).

C. Antler, 37 in., from Rohtas, Bihar, (Walker).

D. Antler 42.J in., from Central India (Anderson).

E. Antler, 36 in., from Bhopal.

F. Antler, 27^ in., of the primitive type. Drawn from an example of

equina from the Ruby Mines, Upper Burma, (Bruce).

32 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The antlers vary greatly in the comparative lengths and in the direc-

tion of the two terminal tines (fig. 2). As a general rule the front-

outer tine is erect, definitely continues the line of the beam and is

longer and generally stouter than the back-inner tine which inclines

backwards, inwards and upwards. Almost equally commonly the

two tines are subequal, forming a fork, and sometimes in this case

neither can be said definitely to be a continuation of the beam.

More rarely the back-inner tine is the longer of the two, sometimes

much longer, and in this case also the front-outer tine cannot always

be said to continue the line of the beam more than the other. Antlers

of this rare type were figured by Blanford in 1891 and by Lydekker

in 1915 as if they were characteristic of the Indian Sambar. Three

are represented in fig. 2, A, B, D. In C, the much commoner type,

the front-outer tine is longer and thicker than the other and mani-

festly continues the beam. In E, also a common type, the two

tines are subequal and the front-outer is in line with the beam.

In F, is represented a type quite usual particularly in smaller antlers

of the Indian Sambar and characteristic, with minor differences in

details, of the races of Rusa unicolor found to the east of the Bay

of Bengal, in Formosa, the Philippines, Borneo and Sumatra.

Since, as above stated, nearly all the antlers of the Indian

Sambar considered on account of their size, worth entering in

Ward’s Records came from Central India or at all events from

districts to the south of the Ganges, a few notes on those from

the north of the river, about which little has been recorded, may be

of interest. The specimens in the British Museum and the few

recorded by Ward give the following length measurements. Eight

from Nepal vary from 29 to 35 in., the average being 32 in., two

from Oudh are 36^ and 40, with the average about 38; three from

Dehra Dun vary from 32 to 40, with an average of 36; three from

Garwhal vary from 35 to 46^, the average being about 40; and

three from the United Provinces vary from 40 to 46^, with the

average about 43. The total average of the series is about 38 in.,

probably approximately the average of mature antlers of the southern

Indian Sambar, if anything a little over it. These northern antlers

resemble the southern not only in size but also in the variation of

the terminal tines which may be subequal or unequal, quite a large

percentage having the back-inner tine the longer. An instance of

individual variation is supplied by a pair from Dehra Dun (Hume)

in which the right antler is 36 in. long, with the two tines subequal,

the left 39I in., with the back-inner tine much longer than the front-

outer approximately as in the head from Chanda, C.P., figured by

Lydekker. It is perhaps surprising that none of the north Indian

antlers described shows greater proximity to those of the Burmese

race than do those from Central India.

The skull of the <3 Indian vSambar exceeds in length the skulls

of the other species of British Indian Cervidae, apart from Wallich’s

deer ( Cervus waUichii) and the Shou ( Cervus affinis). But it is

narrower than the skulls of Cervus. Although its total length is

on the average over 20 mm. longer than in the Hangul ( Cervus

hanglu ), the width across the orbit in the latter is on the average

about 12 mm. greater, a feature which, combined with the shorter

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

33

length, gives the skull a more robust appearance. The skull is

very much larger than the skull of the Swamp Deer and Thamin,

has relatively considerably smaller auditory bullae and much longer

vacuities and bigger gland-pits.

In fourteen skulls the vertical diameter of the orbit varies from

47 mm. in a skull from Palamau to 61 mm., which is exceptional,

in one from Nepal (Hodgson), the average being 52 mm. The

c B

Fig- 5-

A. Orbital area of the skull with the vacuity and gland-pit of a Sambar

(Rusa unicolor nigra ) from Rohtas in Bihar (Walker).

B. Posterior end of the nasal bones, with the vacuity and inner portion of

the gland-pit (dotted) of the same specimen.

C. The same of a specimen from Palamau (Walker).

length of the vacuity, which always exceeds the orbit, varies from

60 mm. in the type of heterocerus from Nepal to 80 mm., which is

exceptionally long, in a skull from Garwhal (Burke), the average

being 69 mm. The gland-pit, which is very deep, with well defined

edges, usually exceeds in length the diameter of the eye, varies in

length from 54 mm. in a skull from Kanara to 64 in one from

Khandwa, the average being 58. The free edges of the nasals

3

34 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

where they border the vacuities internally are typically lightly convex

but may be almost straight; they vary in length from 12 mm., which

is exceptionally short, in the type of heterocerus from Nepal to-

34 mm. which is exceptionally long, in the skull from Garwhal,

which has the unusually long vacuities. On the average the

posterior angle of the nasals is about on a level with the posterior

ends of the vacuities, sometimes slightly surpassing them, some-

times falling short. But the nasals vary individually in nearby

localities. In a skull from Rohtas in Bihar (Captain Walker), with

the total and condylobasal lengths 420 and 408 mm., the nasals are

much less than three times as long as wide, being 145 mm. long

and 60 mm. wide at the widest point, their interfrontal penetration

is comparatively short and the angle they form nearly rectangular

and not quite reaching the line of the ends of the vacuities. But in>

a younger, but adult skull from Palamau (Captain Walker) with

the total and condylobasal lengths 416 and 397 mm., the nasals are

considerably more than three times as long as wide, their length

being 150 mm. and their greatest width 45 mm. ; they are corre-

spondingly narrower (Fig. 3, B, C) throughout, with a deeper, inter-

frontal penetration, the angle they form being acute and surpassing

by about 6 mm. the ends of the vacuities.

As regards the length of the entire skull, the longest two are

those from Rohtas and Palamau above mentioned. Out of thirteen

adult skulls nine surpass 400 mm. in total length, the shortest of

this category being Hume’s skull from Chanda with a total and

condylobasal length of 403 and 382 mm. The localities and total-

length of four, which fall short of 400, are as follows : — Nepal 398,

Kanara 395, Garwhal 394, Rajputana 390. In the last three of

these the condylobasal length is not available; but another skull

from Nepal (Hodgson) has the total and condylobasal lengths 405

and 386 mm. and in one from Ivumaun (Vanderbyl) those lengths

are 407 and 390 mm. From these data it seems there is no differ-

ence in the size of the skulls of the Sambars found to the north

and south of the Ganges. The average total length of thirteen

skulls ranging from Kanara to the Himalayas is 405 mm. ; and the-

condylobasal length of ten is 392 mm.

The particulars cited above apply only to 6 skulls collected by

sportsmen not interested in hinds. But the collectors for the

Mammal Survey of British India secured several adult 9 skulls in

perfect condition. Three were from widely separated districts in

India. Their localities and total and condylobasal lengths are as

follows: — Sitabani, Kumaun, (Crump) 361 and 350 mm.; Maha-

bleshwar, Satara, (Prater) 363 and 353 mm. ; Wottekolle, S. Coorg,

(Shortridge) 367 and 350 mm. ; Nallamalais, (La Personne) 370 and

358 mm. Their uniformity in length is very close, the total length

being about 367 mm. (14 3/5 in.) and the condylobasal length about

353 mm. (14 1/5 in.). A young 9 skull was also secured by

Shortridge at Makut, Coorg. An adult 9 skull from Coimbatore

(R. C. Morris) is a trifle larger than the largest of the preceding,

its total and condylobasal lengths being 372 and 362 mm., but these

measurements hardly appreciably increase the average length given,

above, of the skulls of 9 Indian Sambar.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

35

With regard to the names applied to the Indian Sambar, it is.

unfortunate that niger, based by Blainville on a painting, is several

years older than the frequently quoted name aristotelis given by

Cuvier to a sketch of antlers from Bengal sent to him by Duvaucel

who reported that the stag was common in Nepal and towards the

Indus. Since Bengal in those days extended considerably to the

north of the Ganges and Duvaucel collected to the north of that

river, aristotelis } like niger , belongs to the north Indian Sambar.

But Cuvier supplied the Central and South Indian form with the

name leschenaultii, based on a sketch of antlers from Coromandel.

The future may show that the Sambar found north of the Ganges-

differ from those to the south of it; but since there is insufficient

material to decide this point, I provisionally adopt the name nigra

for all the Indian Sambars apart from those occurring in Assam.

Rusa unicolor equina Cuvier.

Cervus equinus, Cuvier, Oss. Foss., ed. 2, 4, p. 45, 1823, and

of subsequent authors including Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Brit. Mus.,

4, p. 78 containing bibliography under Cervus unicolor equinus.

Cervus malaccensis , F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. Mamm., 1, pi. 10, „

1824.

Cervulus cambojensis, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. , 1861, p. 138.

Rusa dejeani, Pousargues, Bull. Mus. Paris, 1896, 2, No. 1,

p. 12, 1896; G. M. Allen, Mamm. China and Mongolia, 2, p. 1169,

1940 as Rusa unicolor dejeani.

Rusa unicolor equina , Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11), IX,

P* 5i8> i942*

Locality of the type of equinus , Sumatra ; of malaccensis the

Malay Peninsula ; of cambojensis Cambodia ; of dejeani Szechwan.

Distribution:- — From Sumatra, through Malaya to Burma and

Assam, Siam, Cambodia, Cochin China, Annam, Yunnan, Szechwan,.

Hainan.

Distinguished from the Ceylonese and Indian races by the

terminal tines of the antlers being much less variable in their respec-

tive lengths, the front-outer always definitely continuing the line

of the beam and being longer and thicker than the back-inner

which projects inwards, backwards and upwards from its inner

side; the antlers also are much shorter on the average than in the

Indian race, with the brow tine longer compared with the beam and

there is some evidence that the skulls are a little shorter on the

average.

According to Peacock (Game Book for Burma, p. 124, 1933)

the average length of the antlers in mature Burmese Stags is about

26 in., 30 in., or a little over, being considered large. This was

confirmed by H. C. Smith (Wild Animals of Burma, 1, p. 39, T935).

In Ward’s Records for 1935 the picked Burmese heads entered as

trustworthily measured range from 29 to 33 in. In a skull from

the Ruby Mines (Bruce) in the British Museum, the antlers are

27! in. ; a pair from the Garo Hills, Assam (Hume) are 28 in. ; but

a pair labelled Assam (Cutler) are only 19^ in. From Malewoon

and Victoria Island, Tenasserim Lyon (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 31,

36 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

p, 585, 1906) measured four heads with antlers ranging from about

.23 to 33^ in., the average being 27 in., thus agreeing with the

previous entries; and in Ward’s Records 1935 a few no doubt picked

heads from various parts of Indo-China ranging from about 28 to

33 in. are entered, showing close agreement with Burmese antlers.

There thus appears to be very little difference in the average size

of the antlers in the Sambars of continental Asia to the east of the

Bay of Bengal. For these the oldest available name is malaccensis .

There is some evidence, however, that in typical equina from

Sumatra the antlers may be smaller. For instance a pair in the

British Museum (Robinson) from Korinchi is 22 in. and in a series

of ten from eastern Sumatra recorded by Lyon ( Proc . U. S. Nat.

Mus. 34, p. 633, 1908) the range is from about 15J to 20^ in., the

average, being only 18 in. approximately. But although there is

no evidence that all these specimens were fully developed, the data

suggest that the typical form of equina from Sumatra may have on

the average smaller antlers than those from the mainland, justifying

the separation of the latter as a distinct local race, malaccensis.

But since the evidence is unsatisfactory, I leave the accepted nomen-

clature undisturbed.

There are only two adult 6 skulls of this race in the British

Museum. They differ a good deal in details. One from the Ruby

Mines, Upper Burma (Bruce), with a total length of 421 mm. is a

few mm. longer than the longest known skull of nigra from Rohtas,

but its condylobasal length of 400 mm. is 8 mm. less. The vertical

diameter of the orbit and the length of the vacuity agree tolerably

^closely with the average of the Indian race; but the gland-pit is

exceptionally long, 74 mm., exceeding by 10 mm. the longest record-

ed from India i.e. from Khandwa, which is 64 mm. The other

.skull from Assam with a total and condylobasal length of 380 and

372 mm. is younger and much shorter, but appears to have attained

its full length. Its orbit, 57 mm., is large, but the vacuity, 53 mm.,

is exceptionally short, whereas the gland-pit, 60 mm. long, is

-approximately equal to the average in the Indian race.

As regards the length of the skull of equina Lyon ( Pvoc . (J . S.

Nat. Mus., 31, p. 585, 1906) recorded the basal length of three

adult 6 skulls from southern Tenasserim. From these I compute

their condylobasal lengths to have been approximately 370, 375 and

395 mm. respectively. Of one adult 6 skull identified as dejeani

from Yunnan, G. M. Allen recorded the occipito-nasal length, from

which its condylobasal length may be estimated to have been 384 mm.

The average condylobasal length of these four skulls and of the

two in the British Museum works out at 383 mm., about 10 mm.

less than the average of nine 6 skulls of R. unicolor nigra.

Three adult 9 skulls were collected by Shortridge for the Mammal

Survey at Banlaw in Mergui, Thagat in Tenasserim and probably

at Tenasserim Town, although labelled merely Tenasserim. They

vary individually in details. The Mergui skull has the vertical

diameter of the orbit 46 mm., the vacuity 70 mm. long and the

gland-pit 48. In the Thagat skull the same areas are 44, 46 and

57 mm. and in the Tenasserim Town skull 49, 61 and 48 mm. The

wacuity is exceptionally long in the Mergui skull and the gland-pit

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 37

in the Thagat skull. The averages of these areas in the three is

46, 59, and 51 mm. respectively, both the gland-pit and the vacuity

exceeding in length the vertical diameter of the orbit. Both the

orbit and the vacuity are smaller than the average of the five 9

skulls of the Indian race; but the gland-pit is a little longer. The

three skulls similarly vary in length, the condylobasal being 353 mm.

in the skull from Thagat, 345 in the one from Mergui and 332 in

the one from Tenasserim Town. But Lyon recorded from the

Malay Peninsula a much bigger 9 skull, which had a condylobasal

length, I estimate, of about 373 mm. The average in the four skulls,

works out at about 351 mm., only 4 mm. less than in the five 9

skulls of the Indian race.

(To be continued)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER

SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

BY

A. St. J. Macdonald,

( With 1 plate , a map and 3 text-figures).

( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 4 (1943), p. 620).

Part IV.

FISHING FOR MAHSEER.

4 Wild and wide are my borders , stern as death is my sway ,

‘And I wait for the men who will win me — and I will not be won in

a day;

‘And I will not be won by weaklings, subtle, suave and mild,

‘But by men with the hearts of Vikings , and the simple faith of a

child;

‘Desperate, strong and resistless, unthrottled by fear or defeat,

‘Them will I gild with my treasure, them will I glut with my meat’ .

. R. S.

The attributes of the good angler. (1), The Mahseer’s idiosyncrasies (2),

Size no indication of age (3), Diet of Mahseer (4), Power of jaw (5), Spawning

(6), Method of taking bait (7), Spoon versus other lures (8), Capt. F. Stonham’s

Note on Plug bait (9), Spoon bait and scale effect (10), Hen fish attains greater

-size ( 1 1 ), Spinning for Mahseer (12), Where to look for Mahseer (rapids) (13),

Sketch of good water lettered (14), Pools (15), How to work water and the

•cast (16), Known water (17), How Mahseer rise (18), Monotony of one bait

(19), Point of rod (20), Selection of water (21), Lacey’s log of good and bad

days with my summary (22), Wade cautiously (23), The element of luck (24),

Water and temperature (25), Following in a boat (26).

Other Methods of Fishing for Mahseer (27), The fly and fishing with

fly (28), Gram fishing for Mahseer (29), Method of Fishing (30), Gram for bait

(31), Hooks (32), Cast lines (33), Tackle (34), Other tips (35), Paste fishing

dor Mahseer (36), Baiting with paste (37), Points relating to heavy fishing! (38).

THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE GOOD ANGLER.

i. The patience of Job; the eye and observance of the eagle; the

perseverance of the termite ; the hands of an artificer; the touch

of a musician; the temper of a saint; and, above all, an unsatiable

ambition to learn.

2. The Mahseer' s idiosyncrasies. Before dealing with the actual

fishing, it will be as well to consider a few important points about

the mahseer which either directly or indirectly influence the methods

to be adopted. The mahseer has certain idiosyncrasies, which are

not in conformity with the salmon or trout. He likes clear water,

in fact the clearer the better ; the rougher and whiter the more does

he love it; thunder and rain may or may not subdue his capricious

appetite. They are taken in the winter, summer, spring and autumn.

His size is no indication of his wants, the little chap of 1 pound or

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(i) A typical ‘Golden Mahseer’, 50 lbs.

Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton).

(2) Thick-lipped ‘Mahseer ’, 52 lbs.

Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton)

With hypertrophied lips.

(3) The ‘Black Mahseer’. 26 lbs.

Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton)

Melanie Form.

ISote. Dr. H ora’s work on the Game Fishes of India has revealed that there is no reason to

believe that 1, 2 and 3 are separated forms.

(4) Short gilled, deep-bodied type, 25 lbs.

Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton).

4. COMMON TYPES OF MAHSEER TAKEN

IN MOST NORTH INDIAN

RIVERS.

|

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 39

less will ambitiously take a 4-inch spoon, with the same readiness

as the monster of 30 or 40 pounds takes a half-inch fly spoon ; and

most important of all when considering- mahseer fishing, we have

to bear in mind a fish ranging from a few ounces to one of 5 score

pounds or more.

True, that in most rivers his size can be ascertained fairly

accurately, but this is by no means the case with most of the larger

rivers, which have the monsters mingled with the game little fel-

lows of a few pounds. Few anglers who have fished the larger

rivers have not experienced g-etting- into one of these iron-clads

while indulging- in the gentle art with 9 ft. fly rod and fine gut

casts, and many must be the recollections and regrets of good fish

lost.

3. Size no indication of age. Fishing for large and small mahseer

are things apart, and call for methods as widely separated as those

used for the monsters of the sea of 100 pounds or more, with those

employed for the game little trout of a pound or more, in ,a stream

barely 3 feet across. The size of a mahseer is not necessarily any

indication of age. A ten-year old fish in a small stream may only

be 5 pounds, whereas a ten-year old fish in a big river may grow to

20 pounds or more. Like the salmon in Britain, the mahseer is the

aristocrat of the Indian waters. His chief characteristic is the first

rush As soon as he is hooked he may go 50 or 200 yards without

stopping, depending on his size and the strength of the water. His

choice for rapids ,and broken water makes him a strong fish, this

is further illustrated by his area of fin. The mahseer, like most of

the Indian fish, is not very tasty, and is inferior to the Butchwa and

Murral; some people, however, prefer his flesh to any other.

4. Diet of Mahseer. He is a fish with a variety of tastes. He will

take small fish with the same readiness as he will worm and paste ;

a fig or berry on the surface; or a frog on the bottom; leaves and

scum in a still backwater ; small birds or birds’ eggs; lizards, locusts,

flying- ants, weeds and small fish. He will even de-tick an animal

lying in water. The best and most convenient bait is the artificial

spoon, which should always be the first course on the menu when

fishing for him, unless, of course, it is known that he will not

touch spinning bait, as is the case in some rivers. Persevere with

dead or live bait and if these two produce no luck, then try baiting

a. rapid with paste balls and fish with a similarly baited hook, the

same applies to gram or fig berries. I have known of mahseer

waiting under bridges over the Ganges canal near Hardwar, for

young martins to fall out of their nests. A 40-pound fish was

caught in this way. Eggs we will leave aside, because of the

difficulty in mounting; flies, locusts, green caterpillars, etc., are

easily fished with, and well known.

5. Power of Jaw. It is difficult to realise the crushing power of a

mahseer. I have had a 3-inch copper spoon (one-eighth of an inch

thick), and the treble crushed in a more convincing manner than if

it were done in a vice. His teeth are located in the throat well

back, and inlaid in rolls of muscle. Cutting out the teeth, con-

vinces one of where the strength lies.

I am inclined to believe that the damage is done by the teeth

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

and not in the mouth chamber, as is commonly supposed. I am

opposed to Thomas in this, but in defence can only quote two

instances. In the first, I found the tail treble crushed, while the fish

was hooked by the top treble of my mount inside the mouth. The

throat was cut and bleeding, and the crushed treble had on it the

white leathery lining of the throat. This was an n -pound fish.

The second instance was when I found the tail treble broken

off and in the throat, the fish being hooked by the top treble. This

was a 2 1 -pound mahseer, the treble was one of Hardy’s improved

types, and was bent out of shape. If the damage was done by

the lips or in the mouth chamber, as stated by Thomas, and gener-

ally believed, broken and bruised fingers would be common among

fishermen and anglers : whereas the professional fisherman will

readily put his hand down into the mouth of a fish (mahseer) to

extricate a hook, which he would hardly do if these powers were

in the mouth. I have never myself experienced a bite or met any-

one who had. A horny pad on the roof or floor of the mouth would

surely be provided by nature, were these phenomenal powers in

the mouth. Dr. S. L. Hora writes to me on the subject as

follows: — -

‘In the case of Cyprinoid fishes, the pharyngeal teeth are

developed as a compensation for the loss of the teeth in jaws, and

for this reason they perform all the functions of the ordinary teeth

of fishes.’ (See B. N. H. Journal xli, pp. 790-94).

6. Spawning. Spawning is done two or three times in the year,

chiefly during the monsoon, and just before, when the snow w&ter

comes down.

In April 1928 at the confluence of the Mali and N’Mai river

in Burma, I took, with a friend, nearly 1,200 pounds of fish, and

the majority were full of spawn.

Different rivers though have different periods. Spring-fed

rivers are probably later and not until the monsoon sets in properly.

Fish then work up the smaller streams, and deposit their eggs.

Mahseer are not always edible during this period, and cases of

poisoning or colic have been recorded.

Dr. Hamid Khan, Ph.D. (Cantab), writing in the B.N.H.S.

Journal , Vol. xli. No. 1 dated August 1939, under the heading

‘Study of the sex organs of Mahseer’, deals fully with his collection

and study over most of the Punjab rivers of mahseer throughout

the year, and his conclusions, based on careful observation, would

certainly indicate that in the Punjab anyway, mahseer have been

found gravid three times in the year. His own words sum up the

position fairly conclusively: —

‘There is thus strong .evidence to show that the mahseer spawns more than

once during the year. Most of the Indian Carps, such as Labeo rohita, Labeo

calbasu, Cirrhina mrigala, Catla catla and others spawn in June and July when

the rivers are flooded with the monsoon rains and lay their eggs in one batch

once in the year (Hamid Khan, 1924). The Mahseer, however, as a study of

its sex organs reveals, seems to spawn firstly, in winter, in January and February,

secondly, in May and June, when the snow melts and the rivers are- swollen

and thirdly,, from July to September, when the rivers are flooded with the

monsoon rains. It is for this Very reason that fry of the Mahseer of all ages;

is seen during the whole of the year in the hill streams of Kangra, Hoshiarpurv

Jhelum and Rawalpindi Districts/

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

41

‘There is, however, hardly any evidence to corroborate1 the views of Thomas

(1897) that the Mahseer lays its eggs in batches, “just as a fowl lays an egg

a day for many days.” The simile does not appear to be appropriate, as in

the case of the Mahseer all the eggs contained in the ovaries seem to be laid

at the spawning time and the ovaries become empty. At the approach of the

next spawning season the ova reappear, increase in size, swell the ovaries and

are laid again. It may, therefore, be said that the Mahseer does not lay its

eggs in three batches, but that it spawns three times in the year, and that all

the eggs in the ovaries are laid in each spawning season.’

This might well be taken to represent the conditions of the other

river systems in India, which are snow fed, or such spring-fed

rivers that join these larger rivers in the hills. The conditions in

the case of the smaller rivers that are not influenced by snow water,

and have to flow long distances over the plains before joining

these rivers, will need further elucidation, and I think some variation

may be found to exist.

Though the mahseer is essentially a bottom feeder, his special

choice being among rocks for stone loach, and shell fish, he will

take below and on the surface, whatever dainty morsel is in season.

I have seen them under a fig tree, almost jump out of the water

to take a fig as it touched the surface; so when fishing for him,

exploit all means and depths before abandoning your efforts with

the poor assurance that fish are not on the feed.

7. Method of taking bait. From what I have been able to

study of the Mahseer taking a spoon or small fish, they will either

surprise it from below, or follow from underneath turning over the

bait as they take it.

That small fish come to the surface, as soon as a big fellow is

signalled, partly substantiates this. I have also seen a fish take

up a position in a small cove and dash out at passing fish with

the same up and round movement; this also partly accounts for

fish getting foul-hooked so often in the face, the hook catching

them as they pass over the spinning bait.

Whether. I am right or wrong, it was my belief in this that

caused me to devise a special form of mount, — a small treble on

top and a larger tail treble. The head treble I find, invariably

hooks the fish, if it is hooked outside the mouth. I think also, that

a mahseer takes or tries to take a bait head first, as a snake takes

a frog or rat. This would also account for the smaller hook fouling

the fish outside the mouth, the trace obstructs the fish taking the

bait from the front end, ,and in failing as he turns over it, he is

hooked in the cheek. I have often experienced fouling a fish with

the hook shaft running away from the mouth, and the tail hook

wrapped under and fast under the jaw.

8. Spoon versus other lures. Before we consider bait, let us first

of all be agreed on the object of the bait. It is to attract and

deceive. I have dealt in a previous chapter on the fish’s senses,

as I understand them, that is that he is attracted to the lure by

the vibrations set up, that he has detective rather than sharp vision,

as a. secondary organ to his feeling, and to these two senses we

may add taste or smell, as he is well equipped with barbels.

How does the spoon fit these two points of attracting and deceiv-

ing, as compared to dead bait, plug, spinners, etc. ?

42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The spoon of the Myitkyina type, certainly sets up more pressure

waves than a dead bait, as it spins faster, and is not as well

adapted in shape to the water as the dead bait (Fish), so setting-

up greater pressure waves of a kind, the roughly hewn scale effect,

on the convex side, must give additional aid in the water much as

the teeth of a saw, in wood. The plug has a greater displacement

than the large spoon, but has not the action or disturbing factor,

in the water. The plug’s superficial area, though slightly larger

than that of the spoon, has considerably less bearing surface, so

that the action in the water is reduced. The whole surface area

of the spoon grips the water and revolves, whereas the diving shield

on a plug is only half an inch square approximately, and in the

jointed types the rear section has about as much again. Spinners

have even less than the plug. So that in ‘Attracting’, I am inclined

to the belief that the spoon covers a greater range, and would

register to a fish at greater distances than the other bait under

consideration.

We now come to the second point, ‘Deceiving’. Here the other

two senses of the fish come into play to a greater extent. In a

close-up vision of a spoon revolving, a fish is able to see no more

than we can, probably less, as the sharpest perspective the eye can

take in is, I believe, at one-fifth of a second. So that a spoon

revolving fast, retains its deceptiveness to the eye of a fish, though

the chemical senses of taste or smell would be to the fish’s advantage

and consequently against the spoon ; but in the case of the plug

the main portion is stationary in the sense that the body maintains

the upright position with the hooks below, and consequently does

not deceive the eye to the same extent that a fast revolving spoon

would, the detection of the chemical senses is the same in both

cases, but the hooks on a plug are not revolving but dangling from

the body of the plug, and would show up if carefully scrutinised,

and then as we must suppose a mahseer cannot recognise a treble

hook as such, he may reasonably be expected to take it to be a

pectoral fin- — if he is as inquisitive as all that !

The hooks on a spoon revolve with it. The spinner shares the

advantage of the spoon in moving around its own axis, though

not as fast. So that on the points considered so far, the spoon

would seem to have an advantage over the plug and spinner, and

the spinner a slight advantage over the plug, but the important

point of how the action of each, in water, is conveyed to a fish,

remains unsolved, and it is probably that in this the plug has its

main advantage, though this is only surmise on my part.

As has been pointed out previously fish are near sighted, so

in fast water a mahseer has not much time to examine the bait, there-

fore each of these would give results ; but in the slower water of pools

and runs a fish is able to be more fastidious, and this is why dead

bait is so much more killing than the other baits, as the chemical

senses must be the fish’s convincing factor, unless of course there

is competition in a shoal, when the boldest fish takes first. So

that considering the spinning baits on these lines, I am left con-

vinced that the spoon is the best lure, unless of course we know the

fish of a particular river will not take it. But for the supporter

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

43

of the Plug Bait, I reproduce a note by Capt. Frankly n Stonham,

I.M.S., who has very definite views on the merits of this lure,

based on the excellent results he has had in the Donn and other

rivers.

Plug baits for Mahseer by Captain Franklynn Stonham f I.M.S.

9. ‘There is now little doubt that the plug has come to stay as a

favourite bait for mahseer and other Indian fish. Not only has

it “caught on” in the river round the Dehra Dun district but I have

had reports of its success in Ceylon, and in other parts of India.

Its advantages should be at once obvious. Its action in the water

is the closest imitation of a genuine fish that has as yet been devised,

and as the majority of plugs are lighter than water and only dive

when pulled, they are seldom lost. The wriggling action in the

water effectively disguises the hooks which are sent into vibrations,

and the fact that they do not “spin” or rotate renders anti-kinking

devices superfluous and besides there is very much less wear on the

lines.

‘There are many makes of plug to be had, many types, and

many finishes. For mahseer I find the finish is of minor importance

provided that it is a natural scale finish. Those painted in more

freakish manner such as white body and red head do not appear

so attractive and to be a little dogmatic I may state that what I

have found the best colours are Natural Perch, Natural Pike, Golden

Shiner, Red side Scale, and Green mullet, the latter two being mv

favourites. I have tried almost every conceivable type of plug and

both from my own experience and that of my angling colleagues 1

consider that the “Pfluger” Pal-o-mine stands supreme. It is beauti-

fully finished, the hooks can be easily changed or renewed, a very

important point, and it darts through the water with a most con-

vincing slight wriggle, close to the surface, and exactly mimics a

ehilwa. Remember that when mahseer are “taking” they are feed-

ing at or just below the surface, and the old motto slow and deep

for big ones in no way is generally applicable to mahseer fishing.1

Next to the excellent products of Pfluger I would place the Heddon

Company’s ‘ River Runt”. This has the same advantages of

Pfluger’s Pal-o-mine, and is even more beautifully finished and can

be had of translucent material. However, the diving plane is diffi-

cult and they have some tendency occasionally to come out of the

water. I do not think that the jointed plugs have much advantage

over the straight ones except in quieter water and if they are not

kept dry after use there is a slight though definite tendency for the

wood from which they are made to crack. I almost invariably use

the largest size, i.e. the 4! inch Pal-o-mine as small fish are not

averse to tacking so large a bait, and I have taken mahseer as

small as one pound on them, and besides they are easier to cast

being heavier. The sinking type of plug such as the “Live Wire”,

“Neverfail” and “T. N. T. ” minnows are good for occasional use in

1 I am afraid I cannot hold with this view, and unless, he fishes deep in

some of the great rivers and pools of Burma and Assam, the angler would be

destined to failure.

44 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

deep still water, when the fish are not rising. They have all occa-

sionally brought me success.

‘A most important feature about plugs is the hooks. Those

fitted to most American plugs are not quite strong enough to be

relied upon for heavy mahseer, and after trying many varieties I

find the best type to be those put up by Pflugers as “Extra strength’'

size io tinned trebles. The conventional mahseer treble is not such

a good shape and unnecessarily heavy. They upset the balance

and movement of the plug and besides their absolute rigidity results

in a greater tendency for the plug to lever them out of the mahseer ’s

fleshy mouth. The hooks fitted to some plugs of English manu-

facturers are far too small and besides the British firms so far do

not seem to get the hang of plugs at all.

‘Plugs can be fished on any kind of spinning tackle, but their

main problem is their extreme lightness, as the largest size only

weighs 5/8— 3/4 oz. according to the type used. If the conventional

type of heavy spinning tackle is employed a weight may have to

be added to the trace which is not desirable as it has a tendency

to make the bait go too deep and it interferes with its action,

besides the risk of fouling the plug on the bottom, especially if one

has an overrun and losing it. This practically never occurs if no

lead is used. Overruns are fairly frequent if one attempts to cast

light baits with heavy tackle. I have now completely abandoned

the two handed rod in favour of what is known as the American

bait Casting rod. These rods are conventionally about 5-5^ feet long

and a standard 5 ft. rod weighs only about 5 ozs.' For all ordinary

mahseer fishing such a rod is quite heavy enough and I have landed

mahseer up to 45 lbs. quite easily on a 5 oz. rod. I prefer how-

ever to use one a little more powerful when I expect heavy fish

so tnat I can play them hard as I usually like to play the fish

.against the maximum amount of drag I think the tackle will stand.

For that reason I use a rod of 6^ ozs. to 7 ozs. 5^ ft. long which

is, I think, perfectly adequate to land any mahseer. Using a rod

weighing 6 ozs. 1 dram I once landed a 50-lb. fish in less than

twenty minutes in heavy water.1 For heavy mahseer I advocate the

use of a “Norka” reel carrying 200 yards of 24 lb. test braided

silk line such as “Lignum Vitae” or a “Nonpareil”, and for lighter

fishing I recommend the “Supreme” reel with 200 yards of 12 lb.

test line.2 The trace should be one ft. of fine cabled steel or

phosphor bronze wire with a “Cooper” or “Stronghold” snap, which

works like a safety pin, to attach the bait, and a “Lyons” ball bear-

ing swivel to attach the line to. The ball bearing swivel will always

revolve no matter how hard it is pulled on, and though not essential

for plugs it allows spoons or spinning baits to be employed as well

if one wishes, and only one such swivel is required. Solid wires

are not to be recommended for traces as they may very easily break

1 I think an average on fish over 20 lbs. would break this theory, and toy

tackle would be next to useless for negotiating the really heavy water in most

of the larger rivers in India and Burma.

2 I have quoted instances in this book, where 200 yds. of line has proved

insufficient for the large fish, and 150 for light and medium fishing.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

45

if kinked, though fine stainless piano wire exhibits this tendency to

only a minor degree, if one wishes to make up one’s own traces.

Solid wire can be twisted to attach it to swivels, but cable wire must

be soldered, taking precautions not to let the wire become overheated

by too hot a soldering iron.

‘The advantages of one-handed casting are numerous. The

tackle being very light in proportion to its strength, may be used

all day without the slightest fatigue, which is a very decided ad-

vantage in hot weather. If one becomes proficient in over-head

casting it is extraordinarily accurate, and using the reels mentioned

above casts of thirty to sixty yards can be made with a little practice.

The reels are multiplying and the plugs can be moved at any speed,

and can be even cast upstream and worked down with' a strong

current. The multiplying action saves much of one’s energy and

is of the utmost advantage in playing a fish as slack line can be

recovered almost immediately. Braking is done by thumbing the

spool and is semi-automatic as a sudden rush on the part of the

fish pulls the rod down and moves the reel away from the thumb,

and besides this thumb pressure can be finely graded. Another

very great advantage is that the rod can be held and the fish can

be played entirely with one hand, leaving the other hand free to

assist oneself climbing rough banks, or wading strong water with-

out the aid of a cooly, and this feature is also an advantage if one

wishes to gaff the fish oneself.

‘This type of tackle has been frequently criticised because it

limits the length of the trace. My experience leads me to the

conclusion that there is not the slightest disadvantage in a one-foot

trace.1 2 One only needs the trace in the event of a fish with teeth,

such as a goonch, being hooked, and to obviate the risk of the

hook points accidentally fraying the line. Otherwise it is open

to question if a trace is necessary at all, as the dull black colour

of the two lines mentioned above makes them no less invisible than

any ordinary wire trace. Another criticism is that these short rods

do not allow the line to be lifted over bushes. This argument does

not bear closer examination as the rod can be held high above the

head and the fish played, and besides this, there seldom are any

bushes close to a mahseer stream." In fact, there is often no

vegetation within several hundred yards of the water except when

it rises during the monsoon. One disadvantage is that weights of

over i oz. such as a chilwa on a spinning mount are not easily cast

with one hand as neither the rod nor one’s muscles will stand up to

the strain, and for such heavy baits a two-handed rod is better.

Still when one is accustomed to plugs one seldom wants to use

chilwa.

‘Lastly, let us consider the reel. For this style of fishing the

level wind anti-backlash multiplying reel is to be preferred. They

are all American and many makes and types may be obtained. The

only British example I know of, though an excellent reel, has too

1 In this connection I have expressed my views freely elsewhere.

2 I think this view is also a questionable one; in some rivers certainly.

46 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

small a line capacity to commend its use for anything- but light

mahseer fishing. These reels are entirely automatic and do not

, overrun but they are complicated and are easily put out of gear

by careless .use. They require constant attention to give good

service. The level wind mechanism is the most vulnerable part in

dusty India and must be frequently oiled and cleaned. Still if one

is careful with one’s tackle they give long hard service. On all

the better ones the bearings etc. are adjustable for wear and the

level wind pawl is supplied in duplicate and this spare is built into

the reel, other spare parts are standardised and can be obtained

from the makers if ever required. If one buys one of the better

types and looks after it, will give almost unlimited trouble — free

service. I have used a Norka solidly for four seasons and it is

stni as good as new. It casts baits from -§-i oz. admirably, but

the smaller reels work well and give satisfactory length casting

even less than ^ oz. provided not too heavyHine is used.

‘In conclusion I may state that in my opinion the heavy two-

handed rod and many of the methods now employed in mahseer

angling are doomed to early obsolescence, and the short light rod

and light tackle will appeal more strongly to anglers if only from

their sporting features. These rods can be obtained made entirely

of steel, and the superior grades of these are delightful to use and:

besides they are quite unaffected by climate. ’

io. Spoon ■ bait and scale effect on spoons. It is difficult to-

explain what a fish imagines a spoon to be. I am reluctant to say

he thinks it a fish ; and it is a perfectly logical assumption to think

that he, like most creatures, has a certain curiosity for new things,

catches it. with his mouth, as we would with our hands, and so comes-

to be hooked.

Mahseer prey more on sick and damaged fish, or small fish

at a disadvantage. A spoon may present a likeness to a wounded

or sick fishj but I am afraid I can see no resemblance to a healthy

fish more especially in still or slow running water.

In a rapid it is quite another matter, for a feeding fish is an

opportunist, and has no time to inspect h spoon dancing about

in broken water. He darts out and takes it. This is substantiated

by watching a fish in a pool while trolling. He will come up and

even follow a spoon ; change over to a dead bait and he takes it,

which might be the work of the barbels on the "mouth, referred to

by fishermen as ‘coming short’.

In the case of scale-marked spoons, I found I never had a blank

day, when every other kind failed ; and with them I was, in 23 days,,

able to catch 800 pounds of fish, the best being 75 pounds and then

after having worked through many kinds and varieties. Try a

spoon similar to the Myitkyina type as shown in the chapter on

‘Tackle’, get it to spin any speed in water below you, and see for

yourself whether or not the scale effect shows up.

it. Hen fish attain greater size. Fish, like falcons and eagles,

appear to reverse the general laws of nature, in that the hen fish

(spawner) attains a greater size than the cock fish (milter). It may

be a provision of nature, to assure that the spawn of a hen fish can

always be reached by the cock fish when she migrates up into small

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER

47

streams. If the tables were reversed it might be possible that

the cock fish through his size, could not always' get where the

hen fish selected to deposit her eggs. Only a surmise on my -part,,

and an assurance to my own curiosity !

12. Fishing for mails eer : Spinning. I will start by assuming that

the angler has now learnt the use of the tackle, can cast a bait,

has seen to all the important factors of the reel working well, the

joints of the rod firm, the trace correctly attached, the spoon bait

and lead mounted, and the end of his line tested.

13. Where to look for mahseer : Rapids. The rapid will provide

the best sport for spinning, as feeding fish invariably collect in the

‘bottle necks’ where small fish are to be had at some disadvantage.

Small fish will collect in the quieter water of rapids, that is in

A

(

I

u-

f

I

(

f

A'

if , * h 1

i ’ ! ' '

A f

A

/ I 1 1

r 1

7'

3). »

i i

? /

Fig. i. — Start at ‘A’ and work down to ‘B’ ; then come around to ‘C’ and

work down to ‘A’ and up to ‘D’, and so on in each case.

‘feathers’ behind rocks; in the eddies and swirls by the edge of the

fast water; or below falls where the force of the water is broken,

affording them temporary rest from the fast rushing water of the

main current. So that generally speaking this is the water we

should consider and work thoroughly.

48 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Just above runs are spots where the water flows deep and strong,

and where it gathers itself for the final plunge down the rapid.

This is smooth and oily looking and should always be tried.

Before starting to fish take stock of the water, and look for

movements of fish, gulls, kingfishers, etc. Make a mental note of

the likely places and number them off in your mind. Tackle each

in turn. If the rapid is long and narrow quarter it off in your

mind and fish each section thoroughly, starting from the top of

the section each time. See diagram (A) overleaf.

If on the other hand it is a wide and shallow rapid, and allows

wading, quarter it off and wade in so many yards at a time, and

work each section thoroughly. See diagram (B) overleaf.

It is a sweat sometimes, but I assure you it pays. Work the

edges first, then move in at suitable distances, and work down

as far as you can. When you are taken or you move a fish fix

the point in your mind at once by setting two points on the bank,

a tree, boulder or brush wood, for future use and reference.

Work all the water in a rapid from the head, where it breaks

over stones and is shallow, to the point where it ‘fans’ out in the

pool. Fish will take anywhere in such water, give the ‘white

feather’ behind rocks and boulders special attention, and the ‘V’

formed by the fast and reverse water ; work these as quietly and

with as little disturbance as possible. If the rapid is large, and

a boat is necessary, follow the same procedure. Have the boat

held at intervals to allow you to fish all the likely water, then move

up or down ten yards or so and repeat the operation.

A very good tip and one that frequently pays with dead bait, is to

allow your bait down the rapid by degrees, past boulders, swirls and

eddies, very often this attracts fish lying at the side or behind a sub-

merged boulder. In fact, wherever the water is fast and narrow,

flowing over large boulders, it is a good plan to fish it in this way

first, or wherever the water does not allow of casting and spinning,

owing to the narrowness of the run, or the ‘boil’ being under a

large overhanging rock, or the many other similar conditions met

with. Allow the bait to play about in such water for a minute or

two, then move it down to the next place and so on. Very often

it also pays to pause awhile after wading out into a rapid as, how-

ever careful, one is sure to disturb the water and be detected by

fish. Allow the water to settle down and get used to you, so to

speak, so that the fish too will be assured that you are just part

c£ the rapid. It is most extraordinary how this pays, and how

fish will almost bump up against you, if you keep perfectly still.

14. In order to simplify these notes, I have included a sketch of

a mile of ideal water and lettered the best places, to look for fish.

The map is taken from my log book, and illustrates water likely

to be met with in most hill rivers ( vide reverse of adjoining plate).

(a) Is a large pool, 600 yards long, by 600 yards across with

30 ft. of water in the deepest parts. It is the first pool below where

the river leaves the hills, always a good place if sufficient protection

Is afforded by boulders. Trolling across from where the Jogi Khola

joins (below and above would be likely water), also up the right

bank, where the still water has banked up below the junction at (b).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

part of a bag taken in the rapid shown above. Two best 30 and 25

‘White water’ where large fish aire usually taken.

Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. See.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 49

(b) The junction is not very imposing, the Jogi Khola has

about 2\ ft. of water, where it runs over shingle into the main

river, and falls over a steep bank abruptly into deep water.

Below such banks, and in-the quiet water between the two channels,

usually holds fish, but it must be approached very carefully, and

is best fished from the island.

(c) Is the ‘fan’ which is almost without exception good if

boulders are present, as in (j). This is water B. bola (Indian trout)

love, and I never failed to take two or three each time I fished it.

(d) Is the best rapid in this stretch of water, from the junction

of the two channels to the ‘fan’ into the pool, about 40 yards short

of the junction (b). It is fast water over large boulders 5 ft, in

diameter, with the main current about 40 yds. across and 10 ft.

deep, shelving to the sides for about 20 yards where the water

is 3 to 5 ft. deep, permitting wading. This is excellent water for

big fish.

(e) The point at the junctions of two streams, generally has

a ‘ridge of boiling water running out for some distance, caused by

the banking up of the lesSer streams by the stronger. This is

generally a certain find for feeding fish. If the water is deep at

the point, it should be fished from above, and the spoon or bait

allowed to work down. Work all the water from the actual point

to where this boil disappears.. Fish will take anywhere in such

places.

(f. h.) Are modifications of (e), and should be fished in the same

way. ’ It is light water 4 or 5 ft. deep with boulders dotted about,

and about 25 yds. wide. Best worked from (1) through (1), (h),

(g) and (f), first from one bank then, after a rest, from the other,

keeping the sun in front of you and wading #in where necessary.

It is ideal fly spoon water. The ‘fans’ at (g) and (1) should be

approached from above in each case.

(g. 1.) Are ‘fans’ falling away into small rapids on either side

of the island, and are best worked from the banks and above.

(j) Is an ideal ‘fan’, defined by dotted line, and a certain find

for fish, having plenty of ‘feathers’ behind large boulders. It is

50 yds.' across, 3 to 5 ft. deep, and connects the two large pools

Gooncha and Nunthur.

(k) Is ‘white water’, broken up by three huge boulders, forming

‘feathers’, and falling 5 ft. in as many yards. This is big water.

(l) This is a ‘V’ formed by the reverse water and rapid, (marked

in with a ‘V’).

(m) Tail of rapid starting at (o), into deep pool below cliff. This

is also a ‘V’, with slow water tailing into the pool.

(n) Deep very fast water, narrow and deep over large rocks or

slabs of sand stone.

(o) Similar to (j), but without ‘feathers’ of boulders, running

in a deep narrow channel over shingle.

Gooncha and Nunthar are both huge deep pools, ideal for fish,

The former is rocky at the head and sandy at the tail, the latter

runs along a cliff, very deep with huge slabs of sand stone dotted

about at intervals.

4

50 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

15. Pools. The water in a pool may be still and glass like, or slow

moving with odd swirls caused by out crops of rocks, shallow banks, -

bays, etc., so that I can only refer my remarks in a general way

to the most suitable water.

The really big fellows will usually be taken in the pools by fishing

deep and slow, with a dead bait or spoon. I myself like to work

a trolling bait diagonally across a pool, so that the bait is carried

well below the boat, and at least 20 yards or so away. Work

all likely water near rocks, swirls, over boulders, and along the

edges of the flowing water formed with the still back-water where

you will generally find froth and foam collected. Best of all is the

tail of the pool where it shallows down, and just before it starts

to flow down the next rapid.

16. How to work water. The following diagram shows how to

work a promising bit of yater. Vary the length of cast each time,

if possible, then move up or down stream,

and repeat the same system of casts.

The Ca$t A is the position of the

angler — -(1) is the first cast, (2) the next

and so on until (4). These are made

out and into the rapid at right angles

to the bank. Allow the bait to swing

round and below you before winding in.

Feel the spoon all the time it is making

this arc of a circle through the water,

as this is when one is usually taken. Try

to reel in your bait up the side through

swirls, by rocks and where the reverse

and rapid water meet. This and behind

rocks, is where big fish mostly lie when feeding.

17. Known water. If you are fishing water that is protected by a

club, and a log book is kept, the first thing to do and before you

assemble your rod, is to study the notes and any sketches there

may be of the water you are going to fish, jot clown as many of

these as necessary in your pocket book, locate the spots and

always tackle the best water first. If it is a rapid, you should start

at the bottom, if you want the big ones.

The larger the fish the lower down he lies in the rapid, or he

may be at the head of the pool, usually where the rapid tails into

it. If you are on a new piece of water, of which you have no

previous information, try to get out the evening' before' to see

where fish rise.

Fish lie with their heads up stream, and bait-spoon or natural,

cast up stream,- is often more successful than casts made across

or down. Method has to be suited to water conditions, and for

these directly up-stream casts, reeling in has, to be more rapid,

and a mutiplying reel is an advantage, almost a necessity.

There are always back-waters on the edge of rapids, and the

water works round in a circular movement, in the opposite way

to the current. Sit and watch from some convenient spot or spots,

with the assistance of an attendant if necessary, each taking a

circumventing the Mahseer si

section of water, to observe which looks the most promising. As

ihe sun is beginning to set, you will usually see mahseer rising

over the best places.

18. How Mahseer rise. They rise much the same as the dolphins

and porpoises in the sea or large rivers, and are easily distinguishable.

Their hog backs come right out of the water; but it is not always

that you will enjoy such delectable sights. In many fine rivers the

tish are not seen, or their presence known, until the reel screams

out its music.

Try all the good looking water on one side, before attempting

to fish the other. It is always owing to that spirit of adventure

which is in us, that the further bank is the better one. The rapids,

if shallow, are best in the morning and evening, and the deeper

quieter water during the day.

Fish deep and as near the bottom as you dare, and don’t be

satisfied until you have felt it once or twice. If however, you are

losing your tackle each time, take off the hook mount, and survey

the bottom with only the lead and spoon. Get the hang of your

water in this way and then fish deep where you dare, and shallow

only where you must.

Some of the water is so deep in Burma rivers, that I know

of a most experienced angler, who has caught some large mahseer

of 70 and 80 pounds, who used to count ten after a cast with a

4-oz. lead on, paying out line the whole time before he started to

wind in his bait.

I am convinced that this is the secret of catching the really

big fellows. Let us consider our grandparents and their lack-a-

daisical mood. They are not moved by the latest hit in the town,

to which the young ‘bloods’ flock. They are quite satisfied to sit

in an easy chair and take the news and diet that is served on them,

with as little trouble as possible to themselves. This is how I

reason also for the grandmother mahseer. If you put your spoon

near her into the depths, she will take it, otherwise she will let it

go to the younger and more active fish.

19. Monotony of one bait. Here again if you strike or lose a fish

at one spot, do not go on hurling your spoon at him the whole

day. You know what poached eggs daily for chota hazri taste

like ? -You are not altogether kindly disposed to the servant ! A

fish with a torn or hurt jaw is going through much the same feel-

ings, if you continue to serve up the spoon from which he has just

escaped ! Rest the water and come back to it in a couple of hours.

Remember your fish — the real big one — is generally a hen, and

extend the psychological factor to our own kind. Women are ever

inquisitive and easily caught, change the fashion in spoons, and

hope the fish, like women, will bite ! ! !

It has been my experience when fishing, that as long as one

lands the fish one strikes one can keep on fishing the same spot

with success, but as soon as you run and lose a fish, they seem to

go off the feed. Whether they have a means of communicating

danger to each other or not, it is difficult to say.

Let me here draw an analogy of the human ear and the lateral

line of a fish. It is possible, that as certain sounds have adverse

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xll V

effects, such as the soothing- sound of music or the irritating yap-

ping of a dog, or child crying; so, vibrations set up by the different

lures, may have similar reactions on a fish. Which are soothing,

and which are annoying or alarming, is what the angler must find

out for himself.

Remember these three big points when playing a fish.

1. Point of rod up.

2. Line always taut, and

3. Play a fish off the reel and through the rod.

20. Point of rod. The moment you are taken, and your reel

screams, the first action should be to raise the point of your rod, as

high as you can, of give him ‘butt’ as it is caned. 1111s puts both

pressure on your fish as well as saves your line slacking, for even

that fatal second. It also serves as an indication of when to reel

in, for you will soon learn how the rod is forced down, and your

arms pulled almost straight, by the first mad rush of a big mahseer.

it is at the end of the rush that the critical time comes; for if the

line is the least bit slack when the fish turns, the chances are that you

lose him. This is the Commonest and easiest fault while playing

a fish.

By playing the fish off the reel and through the rod, I mean

to imply that you should not use only the one or the other. If

you overbrake your reel, you are putting all the strain on the rod,

and likewise, if you point the tip of the rod in the direction of the

fish, you are direct on the reel, and you lose the whole advantage

of the rod ; compromise between the two and you get the correct pres-

sure ; if your reel is large enough, and takes 300 yards of line, you can

rest assured that you have enough line for the largest mahseer.

Don’t brake a reel or foul the handle of the drum white it is revolv-

ing. You will come to grief if you do; just study what you are

doing. With a brake on you are unable to gauge what pressure

you are applying, however expert you may be, and by putting your

band in the way of the handles, you are sending out a succession

of jerks which go down the line to your hook-hold, and furnishing

the best way ol releasing your fish. We all know what it is like

to pull a firm peg from the ground by gentle pressure, but a few

taps and it comes away. Exactly the same applies to the hook

hold, and what your hand is causing to the fish’s mouth by fouling

the handles,

21. Selection of water. I am a firm believer, when on a short

holiday, in sticking to a piece of water you know is good, rather

than spending a week of leave by exploring new places; but if one

has plenty of time on hand look for new water every time.

22. Lacey’s Angler’s Hand Book, gives the figures of his luck,,

through a career of fishing for mahseer, and these are interesting, as

he must have kept careful notes. He works it out over 10 days, in

the following way (Inserted from Lacey’s Angler’s Hand Book).

‘I do not wish to discourage the beginner, but to take an average

all round, say that out of ten days steady fishing, taking rivers and

seasons about, the angler will, as a rule, have 5 days blank, 4 days

on which he will have perhaps, moderately good sport, but the tenth

will be the really good day, which should make up for all the rest. *

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

53

The above is an average, and such has been my own experience

while fishing exclusively for heavy fish. I thank that 7 days out of

ten, good fishing can be had with fly spoon, and something on the

other three..

I like to reason this subject in the same way as heavy mahseer

fishing compares with big game shooting, and light fishing with the

‘scatter gun’. In the first place blank days are to be expected; we

do not get every tiger that kills, or every bison or tsine we track, but

seldom do we go out with ‘scatter gun’ or fly rod and not get some-

thing.

I give as a matter of interest, the log for my last seven trips which

are representative of the average river. (See p. 54).

As will be seen no exceptional days were experienced, as is some-

times the case when the small fish are running or the large fish are

collecting. My companions on these trips were, with the exception

of two, all new to the sport, so that we may justly conclude either that

snort is better than it was when Lacey wrote his book The Angler’s

Hand Book or modern methods are proving more successful.

23. Wade cautiously. Movement above where fish are feeding,

causes some disturbance and displacement both of water and gravel

while wading. This is connected with some unusual occurrence to

fish, and they become alert. The hungry fish will look for food,

the shy fish for danger. Adapt your methods to meet both cases.

24. The element of luck. It remains a mystery why on one day

fish will feed ravenously, and the next day, (though even to the

keenest observer both days appear identical) not a fish will move.

Time in trying to study the causes is never wasted, and notes made,

such as temperature of water and other cognate matters, always

assist one. I have had equally good luck on cloudy and sunny days,

windy or still days, and even thunderstorms have not disturbed

the fish. They have their feast and fast days, as* we have ours,

but the reasons for this are what every angler should try to

elucidate.

25. Water and temperature. Unlike the English fish, the

mahseer will take in gin clear water, in fact the clearer the better.

Do not despair if water is running dirty; quite often fish will take

a spoon in water so discoloured that you cannot see the bottom in a

depth of 1 2 inches. If you know the water it helps, as fish will

p'enerally be found in the same places as when the river was clear.

I have taken fish with spoon in water a companion of mine refused

to fish in. After all, if the lateral line has the function we attribute

to it, whv should a spoon spinning in a good spot, not attract a fish?

Dead bait used the same wav is also effective, and here suit your

methods to the chemical senses. The functions of the eye in clear

water, are replaced bv those of smell and taste in discoloured water.

The temperature of water has its effect on fish. When the water

is cold the river will seem quite lifeless. Falling water has its sup-

porters, but I think we are, comparatively ignorant of the ‘whvs

and wherefores’ of our scaly friend’s capricious appetites. Studv

y^ood days as well as bad, both are equally important. Do not fall

into a groove of supposition that it js useless to fish at any time,

SUMMARY

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

55

except the morning's and evening's. More especially where streams

meet, or when a river has been discoloured by rain water, the fish

start to feed irrespective of the time of da}7, and the moment it starts

to clear. They may be hungry from not having fed for three or four

days, and are on the look out for food as soon as the water is clear

enough to allow of it.

There is no better way of meeting the local people than to talK

to them in their own homes about sport and their crops. Play the

gramophone to them, dress their sores, give the children a few

sweets and keep both ears open for local ideas. The primitive

people, such as one usually meets on a fishing trip, are largely

dependent on their wits for fish and flesh, and have experience

handed down to them for generations. Exploit and adapt their sug-

gestions and ideas, and with your own knowledge you can very

soon arrive at a killing method. This recalls to me an incident

at Namti in Upper Burma, where I tried to catch some mahseer

in a pool just below a villag'e by spinning ; the fish would not look

at my bait. An old Burman saw my failure, and as I had been

there before asked me if he should collect the fish, to which I

gladly assented. He then started breaking up pumpkin leaves and

throwing them into the slow water, which in a short time was alive

with mahseer. 1 attached a hook and light gut cast, and with

this leaf caught seven nice fish. The village feasted in my honour

and we became very good friends for ever after.

26. Following in a boat. Boats, if available, are the best things

in which to follow fish. One can concentrate on the fish the whole

time, and not have to worry about where to put one’s feet, or how

to climb over rocks while following down a bank. The Burmans.

or better still the H’Kamti Shans, in fact all the fisherman tribes

in India, are wonderful at manipulating a boat through the most

treacherous water. They seldom if ever lose their heads, and have

a wonderful sense of correction while the boat goes hurling down

a rapid.

If, as usually happens some time or other while on a fishing

trip, the water is discoloured, baiting can be done quite successfully

by getting rice or flour mixed with earth or any other ingredients,

such as bran, oilcake, and the more foul tasting things, bad meat

etc. and fixing it into two wicker baskets, tied over one another.

This is placed in a run, where the water churns up and washes it

out through the sides of the basket by degrees, when it works down

stream and fish move up towards it. A live or dead bait should

be anchored just below the basket. This gives very good sport,

if one is driven to it with no other alternative.

Dead bait fishing is done in the same manner as spinning, and

does not call for any special explanation.

OTHER METHODS OF FISHING FOR MAHSEER.

27. I have dealt chiefly with spinning for mahseer, which is quite

the most pleasant of all, and the way most of the large fish are

taken. I have also dealt with trolling, and dead and live bait

fishing.

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

It will suffice to say a few words on how to fish with fly, gram,

and paste, which cover all the ways we know of circumventing

this fish All these methods, with the exception of paste, might

be considered under light fishing.

28. The fly and fishing with fly. A number and variety of flies

are listed in the tackle books, and one must suit ones fancy to the

local conditions and tastes of the fish prevailing, which is only

picked up locally from experience. Manton’s list 12 of the best

known, and be it a ‘Jock Scott’, ‘Blackamore’, or ‘Black Ranger’,

must be your individual choice.

Sea-trout flies, dressed with sufficiency of tinsel, the two hooks

of stouter wire than the flies made for home use, are said to be

effective lures for mahseer, Indian trout, Butchwa and other fly

takers. They should be dressed to imitate the smaller minnows

prevalent in the water being fished.

It sometimes happens that flying white ants flutter in myriads

over the water affording a great feast for fish. At such a time they

will look at nothing else. The fly known as ‘Gibby’s Ant’ (A & N

Stores Bombay) will then prove successful.

In rivers the fly should be used in the same way as for

salmon, pulling the fly with uneven speed and occasionally pausing,

giving it a chance to spread and assume a life-like move-

ment of opening and closing. Allow the water to play it about

keeping the line taut enough to enable you to strike instantly. It

is also a good dodge to drop your fly in fast water passing over a

steep step, and where it suddenly falls away deep, pay out line by

raising the top of your rod, and then lowering it, you must always

feel the line or you will miss a rise. Such places usually hold

feeding fish. Striking is the same for all fish, and is made by

sharply lifting the point of your rod, with the line free. A strike

off the reel is good enough for the leathery mouth of the mahseer.

In comparison, I think the artificial fly is an inferior bait to fly

spoon; and fewer fish, both in size and numbers are taken than

with a very light spoon which is made from tin foil or aluminium.

It starts spinning the moment it touches the water. Fly has a

traditional love attached to it, and keeps your hand in for the

home fish when the spot of leave comes along. So, brother angler,

weigh its merits for yourself.

29. Gram fishing for mahseer. This form of fishing is almost

exclusively practised in most of the C. P. rivers, where the mahseer

prefers it to any other form of bait.

Fish of ten pounds and under are taken in this way on light

tackle, and afford excellent sport on a fine cast, and a small hook

with a 9 or 10 ft. trout rod. The tackle for small mahseer is

suitable.

30. Method of fishing. First select your water. The best places

are runs into pools, waterfalls, and bathing ghats, or rocky gorges.

This done the selected spot must be baited morning and evening

with parched or roasted gram, and when it is thrown in to the

water, especially in the case of slow or still water that is very

clear, the man who is doing this for you, should be instructed to

keep out of view (in the case of runs and waterfalls it is not so

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

57

important). If a suitable rock or bush be near-by, all the better,

the arm too should not be flourished about in the air when fishing*,

but the gram flicked from the hip, with as little movement as pos-

sible. This is the most important thing about this form of fishing.

If you are resident in a place and baiting can be done daily, the

fish are in time educated and get accustomed to the sight of man,

and will associate him with food, and little precaution will be

necessary. I refer more to the visitor to the wild parts of rivers

where he may happen to be shooting, and is intending to have

an occasional afternoon’s fishing under these conditions. Fish may

collect in one, two, or four days, depending on the size of the

river. When they have collected in sufficient numbers, fishing

should commence. The mornings and evenings are the best, the

earlier and later the better.

31. Gram for bait. Selected grains should be drilled with a piece

of wire beaten into a spear point, and large enough to take the

eye of your hook. (Special gram hooks are sold by Messrs Verona

and Mantons of Calcutta). An orderly or chaprassi can be put

on to this job the- day before ; carry a small tin of drilled gram in

your pocket for bait.

32. Hooks. As already mentioned special gram hooks are offered

by tackle dealers. I like Hardy’s sharp loop-eyed hooks

the best. They are very light and sharp and can be attached

of removed from the cast in a moment, and the spring

extension keeps the gram in position. Size 11 for one grain,

or size 9 for two grains ; the eye can be passed through the

drilled gram quite easily, and the cast attached by the

loop. I am against any form of metal, other than the hook,

on the cast or at the joining of the cast to line. This makes 3-

your line and cast sink faster than your bait, and scares the fish.

33. Cast lines. Do not spare gut, and use a six foot cast of 2x.

gut.

34. Tackle. A small Silex 3! inch or any other suitable reel

serves the purpose. A g-ft. or 10-ft. fly rod that will throw a small

spoon makes the ideal rod for this form of sport. (Hardy’s ‘Per-

fection’ or ‘Gold Medal’.

35. Other tips. When your fish is hooked, if he makes either up

or down stream, follow and shelve him, as far away from your

baiting place as possible, so as not to disturb the water; for if

you do not move away, he will surely return to the other hungry

fish, and splashing and turning, as a hooked fish does, will spoil

your sport for a time.

Before leaving the place throw in more gram, so that the fish

can again feed after the scare has worked off, and the bolder fish

will attract the shy ones.

Lightness of tackle and limited movements, with as little dis-

turbance as possible to the natural elements of the water, are the

three things to sum up the precautions to be taken in this form of

fishing.

36. Paste fishing for mahseer. This covers a much wider range

than the two preceding methods, and may be productive anywhere

from north India to the south of Burma. It is a bait all varieties

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

and sizes of fish will accept. Conditions must therefore be adapted

to the rivers in which one is fishing.

In coloured water, in the largest rivers, or in the C.P. rivers

in the same place as gram fishing is practised, and under similar

circumstances, paste will bring the mahseer and other sporting

fishes of India to bag, provided the local conditions are taken into

account. It is however a dull form of sport compared to the fore-

going methods. I have mentioned paste in Chapter X.

37. Baiting with paste. This can be done along with gram* in the

same places, so that when fish have stopped feeding on the surface,

one may try the paste balls on the bottom, a method which generally

produces carp, mahseer, or, as I have said before, perhaps any

other fish or even a turtle ! !

The method of baiting with Atta is to make small paste balls

the size of Dove’s eggs, and throw them in, in much the same way

as gram. When you are going to fish with atta, the usual few

pellets should be thrown in, to collect the fish. When you send

down the baited hook amongst them, be it rapids or slow water,

keep out of sight as far as possible, or if this is not possible, than

as still as possible. As with all wild life it is movement, not form,

that alarms.

Baiting a hook for this fishing, can be done in no better way

than with paste dealt within the manner I have mentioned in the

Chapter ‘Scraps from my Note Book’. By boiling it it holds on

to the hook, and is not washed off by the rapid water, or the small

fish nibbling. I prefer a single hook to* a treble, though the treble

holds the paste far better. A fair-sized hook, to take a lump of

atta the size of a dove’s egg. Any shape of hook does, and is a

matter of choice or fancy. ‘Killen wire’ for the heavy fish and gut

for the medium-sized ones, meets the purpose. The awful snags

that these C.P. rivers have, with the knife edge trap rock bottom

or sides, gives a fish a distinct advantage over the angler for

freedom. For attaching hooks and tying casts, see Chapter V.

For paste fishing for the very large mahseer taken in the rivers

of Mysore the bait is made from ‘ragi’, a staple grain of Mysore

arid other parts of South India. This paste is strongly adhesive

to the hook, and both the balls thrown in as ground bait, and those

used on the hook, are the size of large hens’ eggs. December-

January and September-October are the best months. Single hooks,

size 4/0 are used, and the turned-down eye is best. Gut or wire trace

is not advisable: line should be of dark colour. No float is used:

strike should be hard, to drive in the hook, as soon as the fish

begins to move.

38. Heavy Mahseer fishing. I will conclude this chapter with a

few points which require mention, and which are more especially

concerned with heavy mahseer fishing.

1. This is hard work and it is only perseverance that brings

reward.

2. If you want to catch the monsters you must know where to

look for them, and above all, you must get your bait down to the

fish.

3. Get into your mind the ideal water for fly spoon work, then

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

59

try to find these conditions in a big way, that is, instead of the

rapid being 4 feet deep and 40 yards across, find one 20 feet deep

and 150 to 200 yards across. Here, or in deep pools, with slow

runs into them, or in bays by the side of rapids.

4. Big water wants a great deal more fishing than does the

ordinary rapid. The first cast may only tickle the fish, the second

draw or attract him, the third or fourth will bring him to the bait.

If your boatmen can ferry you across the smooth water above

one of these rapids, and your nerves will stand it, your reward

awaits you. I was taken above the ‘Rocks’ rapid in the Myitkyina

District of (Burma, three times in three tries, by monsters. I

saw them in the clear shallow water (8 ft. deep), but what with

having to make the bank 100 yards away, and the roaring torrent

below, either my nerves gave and deprived me of concentration on

the fish, or the 300 yards of line proved inadequate.

I gave these monsters best here, and never tried again as it

was only asking for trouble. What tempted me to try at all was

the monsters I saw rising the evening before. I camped on the

bank opposite, and after showing the boatmen fins and tails, the

like of which they had never seen, persuaded them against their

wishes to try it. (An angler’s nightmare).

In conclusion I would refer anglers to Col. R. W. Burton’s

article in Vol. 41 No. 4 of the Bombay Natural History Society's

Journal. ‘A Mahsir River in Southern India’. It is a complete

guide to the Bhavani river, by an able and experienced angler.

Also two articles by Major W. B. Trevenen ‘Mahseer fishing in the

Deccan Lakes’ and ‘Fishing in the rivers of the C.P.’ (Vol. 31,

No. 1, p. 120 and Vol. 34, No. 3, p. 700). A well illustrated

article by Sir Reginald Spence and Mr. S. H. Prater entitled ‘Game

Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the neighbouring districts of

the Bombay Presidency’ appeared in Vol. 36. No. 1. of the Journal

(pp. 29 to 66). It was written as a help to anglers in the Bombay

Presidency, but contains information of interest to anglers in most

parts of India. It is obtainable in pamphlet form on application

to the Society.

ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

FOUND OVER 3,000 FEET.

BY

H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite, and

B. E. Smythies,

Burma Forest Service,

assisted by

The late Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, m.a., m.r.c.s., m.b.o.u. etc.

(Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 3 (1942), p. 474).

Part II.

711. Lanius c. colluroides. Burmese Shrike.

Previous records. — Karen Hills ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 .

Noted. — Probably breeds in these hills. Not seen at Thandaung.

712a. Lanius nasutus tricolor. Burmese Black-headed Shrike.

Previous records. — Karen Hills.

Specimens. — None this year.

Noted. — We did not meet with this species again.

716a. Lanius schach nipalensis. Grey-backed Shrike.

Previous records. — Karen Hills 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Salva:

dori).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — One bird was seen in the tea estate at Thandaung on 1 1 October

I94I*

719. Lanius c. cristatus. Brown Shrike.

Previous reicords. — Karen Hills (Salvadori) ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 •

Noted. — This bird appeared in the tea estate in Thandaung on 7 May as

a passage migrant ; others were seen on 9 and 10 October 1941.

724, Hemlpus p. picatus. Black-backed Pied Shrike.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 .

Noted. — Several parties were noted in Thandaung in September and October,

but it is chiefly a bird of the foothills.

727. Tephrodornis gularis pelvica. Nepal Wood Shrike.

Previous records, — Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — None this year.

Noted. — Occasionally seen both on Nattaung (where a pair was observed

feeding young) and at Thandaung.

729. Tephrodornis p. pondiceriana Indian Common Wood Shrike.

Previous records.— Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen, except for one party on Nattaung not identified for

certain.

fHE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

61

734. Pericrocotus speciosus elegaas. Burmese Scarlet Minivet.

Previous records. — Karen Hills ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung i($ ; Thandaung itf1.

Noted. — Common.

739. Pericrocotus brevirostris subsp. Short-billed Minivet.

Previous records. — Karenni 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; pine forests of the

Salween (Davison).

Specimens. — Nattaung 2(5'.

Noted. — Not collected at Thandaung, but probably occurs.

742. Pericrocotus s. Solaris. Yellow-throated Minivet.

Previous records.— None before 1939.

Specimens. — Nattaung i^.

Noted. — Not collected at Thandaung, but may occur.

[744. Pericrocotus r. roseus. Rosy Minivet.

According to the F.B.I. it has been recorded from the Shan States and

Tenasserim and is therefore likely to occur in our area, but so far there are

no records or specimens.]

[746. Pericrocotus cinnatnomeus vividus. Burmese Small Minivet,

Wardl&w Ramsay obtained it in Karenni, elevation not stated. We have

not seen* it and doubt whether it occurs over 3,000 feet.]

754. Lalage melaschistos melauoptera . Pale Grey Cuckoo-Shrike.

Previous records. — Karen Hills ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 19 juv. ; Thandaung i9«

Noted. — Common on Nattaung but at Thandaung noted only at the end of

the rains. It is curious that the call-note : 4 notes' with the last two dropping

in pitch, wee-wee-weyou-weyou : should differ from this bird’s call in Maymyo.

761. Graucalus raacei siamensis. Siamese Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None,

Noted. — Not uncommon on Nattaung and also noted at Thandaung.

763. Artamus fuseus. Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

Previous records. — None before 1939*

Specimens. — None this year.

Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung but may occur.

769. Dicrurus macrocercus cathoecus. Chinese Black Drongo.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Once only, at Thandaung on 22 October when it was probably on

passage.

772. Dicrurus leucophaeus mohouti. Burmese Grey Drongo.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 29*

Noted. — Status uncertain. It seemed to be absent from Thandaung in

September but was much in evidence in October ; after 1 May it again disap-

peared, so that it may only winter in the hills.

780. Chaptia aenea aenea. Northern Bronzed Drongo.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay),

Specimens . — Nattaung i9-

Noted. — Occasionally seen both on Nattaung and at Thandaung.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1 V

782. Chibia h. hottentotta. Indian Hair-crested Drongo.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Seen at Thandaung in October and March (when it was common),

and on Nattaung in evergreen and pine forest up to 5,000 feet.

786. Bhringa remifer tectirostris. Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Common both on Nattaung and at Thanda'ung.

[788. Dissemurus paradiseus rangoonensis. Burmese Large Racket-tailed

Drongo.

Recorded by Salvadori from the Karen Hills (elevation?); we have not seen

it and doubt whether it occurs over 3,000 feet. Cook, who recorded it as

common and breeding at Thandaung, must have' confused it with the preceding

species.]

803. Acrocephalus agricola stevensi. Plains Paddy-held Warbler.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 1$ , 1 0 > Thandaung 2 <5.

Noted. — Not uncommon on Nattaung and noted up to 23 April ; several birds

were observed in the tea estate at Thandaung in March, but they had all left

by 24 April. We saw no signs of breeding, and the bird appears, to be either

a winter visitor or a passage migrant. In the field it resembles PhyUoscopus

]uscatus, and has a similar call-note, but can be distinguished by the fact that it is

much less active and more of a skulker ; it is also lighter in colour and has

a noticeably longer and more ragged tail. It frequents thick undergrowth

where there is little or no overhead cover, and though sometimes seen near

the bank of a stream it was more often, and more surprisingly, observed on

the driest of dry ridges, where it was wont to lie dormant most of the day

and come to life only in the early mornings or evenings. It is most difficult

to observe, and on one occasion it took a full hour of watching and waiting

to get a glimpse of a bird calling in thick undergrowth. The fact that the

first specimens were identified by us (incorrectly) as Tribura sp. indicates the

difficulty of naming these skulking Warblers, even with the bird in the hand.

814. Orthotomus sutorius patia. Burmese Tailorbird.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

818. Orthotomus atrogularis nitidus. Burmese Black-necked Tailorbird.

Previous records.— -N one.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung, where breed-

ing* pairs were observed in May. It is very tame and I have watched a pair

at a range of four feet ; the sexes are easy to distinguish in the field and the

trilling call-note kri-kri-kri-, repeated a varying number of times, is quite

distinctive.

827. Franklinia gracilis hodgsoni. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.- — None this year.

Noted. — Franklinias were twice seen at Thandaung, but the species was

not distinguished.

828. Franklinia r. rufescens. Beavan’s Wren-Warbler.

Previous records.— Karen Hills 2,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens . — None.

N oted.—^S&Q under preceding species.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

33

839. Phragmaticola aedon. Thick-billed Warbler.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung i 9 •

Noted. — Several birds arrived in Thandaung on 8 May on passage, and

birds were seen and heard singing up to 12 May, when I left. The song is

mainly low in pitch and lacks power, but though thin is not unpleasant.

[Note. — Some of the other migrant Warblers may occur in the hills on

passage and should be looked for. Admail party that I strongly suspect were

Acrocephalus arundinaceus , but of which 1 failed to obtain a specimen, was

seen in Thandaung on 8 May. A species of Tribura has recently been obtained

on Mt. Byingye and is likely to occur in our area.]

851. Phylloscopus schwarzi. Radde’s Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1^, 1 9 > 1 o.

Noted. — It probably winters in the tea estate and was very common there

in March ; birds on passage were noted in April-May, the last on 9 May, and

the first specimen was obtained on 3 November. It resembles P. juscatus in

habits and makes a tschik tschik note in bushes, but is easily recognised by

plumage.

864. Phylloscopus p. pulcher. Nepal Orange-barred Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — Karenni, 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None this year.

Noted. — Scarce and confined to the higher slopes of Nattaung.

871. Phylloscopus i. inornatus. Crowned Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — None before 1939?

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 $ .

Noted. — Common and probably winters all through these hills.

871. Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus. La Touche’s Yunnan Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori) ; pine forests near papun (Davison).

Specimens. — None.

Noted . — Not seen iby us.

863. Phylloscopus m. maculipennis. Grey-faced Willow Warbler.

Previous records.^- None nearer than Mt. Victoria and North-East Burma.

Specimens.— Nattaung 29, to.

Noted. — Found only on Sosiko, 7,000-7,300 feet. It is easily recognised

by small size, intense activity, and grey head contrasting with olive-green back

and yellow rump. Those observed were working through the undergrowth in

evergreen at 3 to 6 feet from the ground. No evidence of breeding was

obtained.

[878. Phylloscopus magnirostris. Large-billed Willow Warbler.

Davison' obtained it at Thaton, and it is not unlikely to occur in the hills

on passage though there is no record so far. The dark tip to the lower mandi-

ble is probably the best field distinction from the next species.]

880. Phylloscopus t. trochiloides. Dull Green Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — None?

Specimens. — Thandaung 2 (25-9-39) and (7-5-40), 19 (28-4-40).

Noted. — Probably winters in small numbers.

876. Phylloscopus trochiloides plumbeitarsus. Middendorff’s Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — None..

Specimens. — Thandaung 2 <$ (25-9-39).

Noted. — These two specimens were the only birds seen, and must have been

on passage.

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol xliY

[879. Phylloscopus tenellipes. Pale-legged Willow Warbler.

We did not meet with this species, which Davison obtained at Kyaukhnyat

and which probably occurs in the hills on passage.]

884. Phylloscopus reguloides assamensis. Baker’s Willow Warbler.

Previous records. — None before 1939?

Specimens. — Nattaung 2 $ , 2 9 •

Noted.— A male was shot off a nest on the top of Sosiko, 7,500 feet, on the

edge of temperate forest. The nest was compactly made of moss and was

built on the ground under a tuft of grass, and contained 3 young just ready to

leave. Another nest, containing 2 young of about the same age, was found

on a hillside under a tuft of grass ; it was made entirely of moss of a felt-like

texture, and had a . dome of moss. The note of this bird is difficult to describe :

pit-chew-a-pit-chew-a-pit-chew-a... the three notes slurred into each other to

produce a continuous undulating wave of sound; the alarm-note is zip-aye...

zip-aye , or cheep-it...cheep-it. Not collected at Thandaung but probably resident

there also.

886. Phylloscopus reguloides claudiae. Pallas’s Himalayan Willow Warbler. '

Previous records. — None before 1939?

Specimens.— None this year.

Noted. — We were unable to detect any difference in the call-notes of assamen-

sis, claudiae, and davisoni. All three/ are typical leaf Phylloscopi, frequenting

the canopy and occasionally the understorey.

885. Phylloscopus d. davisoni. Tenasserim White-tailed Willow Warbler.

Previous records.— Thandaung, breeding (Cook).

Specimens. — Nattaung ij, 1 9 1 ° > Thandaung i_9 .

N oted. — Common.

[895. Phylloscopus cantator, Tickell’s Willow Warbler.

Wardlaw Ramsay obtained it in the Karen Hills near Toungoo (elevation?),

but we have not met with it east of the Sittang.]

890. Seicercus burkii tephrocephalus. Anderson’s Flycatcher-Warbler.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Salvadori),

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 $ .

Noted. — Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung. It keeps to

dense bamboo thickets and undergrowth, and often associates with Stachyris

chrysaea. It has a chip-chip call-note. It was observed from September to

mid-April, but none was seen after 24 April, and it either becomes very secretive

in the breeding season or else, migrates. It is known to breed in the Chin

Hills and North-East Burma and probably breeds in . the Shan States; proof

that it breeds in our area would be of interest.

896. Abroscopus s. superciliaris. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher-Warbler.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay);

Specimens. — Nattaung 2 $ , 19 > Thandaung 1 ($ .

Noted. — Common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung up to 4,500 feet in

ponzo, bamboo and wet thickets.

910. Homochlamys fortipes subsp. Strong-footed Bush Warbler.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens i — Nattaung 1 9 5 according to Dr. Ticehurst this specimen pro»

bably represents a new race.

Noted. — The only bird seen was skulking in long grass beside the J^fawchi

road qt 4,500 feet and uttering a call-note like that of Muscicapa parva cur-

tailed. In the field it looks a small dark brown bird with a buff supercilium.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

66

913. Homochlamys p. pallldlpes . Blanford’s Bush Warbler.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Papun (Davison).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not' seen by us.

922. Phyllergates cucullatus coronatus. Golden-headed Warbler.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None this year.

Noted. — It is common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung, but keeps low

down in dense bamboo thickets ; one may wait half an hour or more close to a

party calling busily without getting even a glimpse of a single bird. The call-

note, not very well described in our previous notes, is most distinctive : a four

note whistle, the first two notes on the same pitch, the third a trill (or 3 to

4 notes uttered very quickly) and. the fourth is either higher or lower in pitch

than the first two. This call is repeated in a remarkable number of keys,

high and low. Like Abroscopus it occasionally climbs 20 or 30 feet up a tall

bamboo when feeding.

930. Suya s. superciliaris. Anderson’s Hill Warbler.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Thandaung, breeding

(Cook).

Specimens. — Nattaung 2 o; Thandaung i'<$ (30-4-41).

Noted. — It is a common resident, both in the grassy undergrowth of the

pine forests on Nattaung and in the grassy ponzo in the tea estate at Thandaung.

Its song, chvuee-chwee-chwee 25 times in 10 seconds, is uttered from the.

top of a bush or tall reed and closely resembles the song of Orthotomus sutorius

patia, though no doubt differences in volume1 and pitch would be noticeable if

the two were heard calling together. Its call-note resembles the song but is

louder, slower, and higher in pitch pee-up, pee-up, pee-up, . Its alarm-note

is a continuous reel, uttered by both birds at the nest.

950. Irena puella sikkiraensis. Fairy Bluebird.

Previous records. — Western slopes of the Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A bird is usually to, be seen on the road up to Thandaung, and on

26 September a party of 4 was seen at 2,500 feet; it is mainly a 'bird of the

foothills and probably seldom exceeds 3,000 feet. It is confined to evergreen

and was not seen on Nattaung.

955. Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris. Burmese Black-naped Oriole.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung itf'. immature.

Noted.— Not uncommon. The r#ce diffusus has been recorded from Thaton

(Davison) and probably occurs in our area.

.958. Oriolus x. xanthornus. Indian Black-headed Oriole.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — None seen by us ; evidently scarce above 3,000 feet.

961. Oriolus t. trailii. Maroon Oriole.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw R.amsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung • 1 9 •

Noted. — It is not uncommon on Nattaung and frequents both evergreen and

the more open parts along the Mawchi road, where the specimen was obtained.

A bird was observed carrying food in its bill on 21 April. The notes are

similar to those of chinensis, but rarely heard. Seen occasionally at: Thandaung.

7

[964. Gracula intermedia religiosa. Indian Grackle.

There seem to be no records from the area ; if it occurs it is probably eon-

fined to the foothills.]

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

970. Saroglossa s. spiloptera. Spotted-winged Stare.

Previous records.—' Tolerably abundant on the thickly wooded slopes of the

Karen Hills’ (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us ; as all the Burma records are between December

and February we may have been too late for it.

Mynas. We saw none. Wardlaw Ramsay obtained in Karenni, Jerdon’s

Myna ( G . burmanica ) and the Siamese Jungle Myna ( Aethiopsar griseus

grandis )-, the latter at 3,000 feet. Mawchi, which we did not visit, is a likely

place for them.

1024. Uroloncha striata acuticauda. Hodgson’s Munia.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay and Salvadori).

Specimens. — N attaung 1 U •

Noted. — A few parties were seen in the growth beside streams running

through taungyas, and once at 5,500 feet in pine forest. In Thandaung they

are common in large parties all round the tea estate, and are probably the

birds recorded by Cook as punctulata, which we did not see. A pair was

observed building a nest on 12 May.

[1037. Atnandava a. flavidiventris. Burmese Red Munia.

Obtained by Wardlaw Ramsay in Karenni, elevation not stated. It is un-

likely to occur above 3,000 feet.]

1069. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. Hodgson’s Rose Finch.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay and Salvador!).

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 •

Noted. — Cook obtained one from the lower hills below Thandaung, but we

have not seen it there.

1090. Hypacanthis spinoides ambiguus. Yunnan Green Finch.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 > 1 o.

Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. It is common in

the pine forests of Nattaung, in which it keeps mainly to the tree tops and

frequently perches on the topmost point of small pines. The broad yellow

band from base to tip of wing, dividing it into three roughly equal parts, is

diagnostic in flight and the blackish head when perched. The call, freely

uttered, is a thin metallic tinkle and quite distinctive.

1107. Passer rutilans subsp. Cinnamon Sparrow.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw iRamsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 2<$, too worn to* determine subspecifically.

Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung. The specimens were obtained from isolated

trees in taungyas, and one of them was singing something like chwe-cha-cha

repeated over and over, a thin but pleasant song. One other male was seen

but no females, which were probably sitting.

1108. Passer flaveolus. Pegu House Sparrow.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us ; may not occur above 3,000 feet.

(Note. — We saw no ‘house Sparrows’ (P. domesticus & P. monianus) but they

may occur at Mawchi).

1120. Emberiza f. fucata. Grey-headed Bunting.

Previous records. — Yado (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

«7

1122. Emberiza pusilla. Little Bunting.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Yado (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

[Slated. — Not seen by us. Possibly it migrates early.

1131. Emberiza aureola. Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens. — Thandaung i o.

Noted. — The specimens were obtained at Thandaung in the tea estate cn

2 8 April and g May, the male being one of a pair and the other a solitary

bird. It does not winter at Thandaung, and these birds were passage migrants.

1135. Emberiza rutila . Chestnut Bunting.

Previous records. — Described by Wardlaw Ramsay as the common Bunting

of the higher Karen Hills, and recorded by Salvadori from Yado. Cook ob-

tained one at Thandaung in April.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — The only bird seen was a male on 20 March at 4,200 feet ia

Thandaung, in unuergrowth at the edge of a small clearing. It seems to be

more of a forest bird than other Buntings, and possibly migrates early.

1139. Melophus latiiani subcristata. Crested Bunting.

Previous records.- — Described by Wardlaw Ramsay as ‘by far the commonest

Bunting in the Karennee country, where the rocky scrub-covered hill-sides seem

to suit it. It is particularly fond of the neighbourhood of tiny streams covered

with bushes in open country. Their note, which is uttered on the wing, is a

rather pleasing whistle quite unlike that of any other Bunting.’ Apparently

he did not find it over 3,000 feet. Recorded from Yado by Salvadori.

Specimens.— None.

Noted. — It is curious that we did not meet with this bird at all.

1143. Martula urbica whiteleyi. Siberian House Martin.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Nattaung i$.

Noted. — As Stanford has commented (Ibis, Oct. 1938 p. b22) on the lack

of authentic records of House Martins, the fonowing notes may be ol interest : —

A party of House Martins, either M. u. whiteleyi or M. dasypus cash-

meriensisy- was observed hawking insects over the summit of the Kambilu Taung,

2,634 feet; this hill is. in the Tharrawaddy district (Zigon forest division) a

few hundred yards off the main Pegu Yoma ridge (Irrawaddy-Sittang divide),

and is the second highest hill in the Pegu Yomas. The House Martins were

in company with a large flock of White-rumped Swifts, and appeared little

more than half their size. This was on 13 December 1935, but when I climbed

the same hill on 7 December 1937 there were no House Martins.

A party of M. d, cashmeriensis (1 (5 obtained and sent home to Dr. Ticehurst

but unfortunately lost in transit) was observed hawking insects over the summit

of a 5,208 foot peak in the Arakan Yomas close to the main Yoma , ridge

(Irrawaddy-Bay of Bengal divide) ; the summit is on the boundary between

the Thayetmyo and Minbu districts, and is one of the few peaks in these hills

with a bare grassy top. The birds were seen on 4 and 5 December 1938.

A large flock of House Martins was seen on Nattaung last year, but no

specimen was obtained (vide our previous paper).

On Nattaung this year large flocks, totalling hundreds of birds were seen

almost daily throughout our visit, and the specimen obtained was M. u. whiteleyi ;

they appeared at about 8 a.m. and hawked insects through the heat of the

day over the pine forest, especially where the trees had been felled and the

ridges and knolls were bare, until the early afternoon, when they disappeared.

Finally a large flock appeared in Thandaung on 29 April, but was not seen

again.

It seems therefore that the Siberian House Martin is a regular winter

visitor in comparatively large numbers, arriving early in November (when

Livesey saw them at Taunggyi) and leaving in early May, and that it has

been overlooked in the past only because it spends the winter over inaccessible

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

mountain ranges, whence it is occasionally driven by bad weather. It would

be interesting to learn where they roost at night.

[1150a. Riparia coticolor sintaungensis. Dusky Crag Martin.

This was obtained by Mr. H. C. Smith on Mt. Byingye in November 1938,

and Davison observed Crag Martins in Tenasserim many years ago. We

did not visit any rocky hill-tops, but observed some in the distance where these

birds might occur.]

1153. Iiirundo rustica gutturalis . Eastern Swallow.

Previous records. — None?

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A flock appeared in Thandaung on passage on 30 April, a few of

which stayed till 2 May.

[1154. Hirundo rustica tytleri. Tytler’s Swallow.

Wardlaw Ramsay found them common in the plains of Karenni, and they

probably pass through the hills on migration, but have not been recorded

thence up to date.]

1160. Hirundo daurica striolata. Chinese Striated Swallow.

Previous records .■■ — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay, recorded as H. arctivitta).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — On 8 April 1938 we saw a Striated Swallow fly out of small cave

beside the Mawchi road, and when we investigated on 18 April we found the

beginnings of a mud nest, which the bird had evidently abandoned. It seems

likely that striolata is resident in these hills.

1161. Hirundo daurica japonica. Elodgson’s Striated Swallow.

Previous records.— None.

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 $ .

Noted. — A large flock appeared on passage on 30 April and was not seen

again ; the birds mixed freely with the Eastern .Swallows that appeared on

the same date. Both species settle freely on telegraph wires. Another flock

was seen on 22 March at Thandaung.

1166-73. Motacilla alba suibsp. White. Wagtail.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A bird was seen in the tea estate at Thandaung on 8 October 1941.

1174. Motacilla cinerea melanope. Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Previous records. — Karen Hills.

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 rj •

Noted. — It had arrived in Thandaung' on 30 August 1941 and was common

thereafter, especially along the roads. Last seen on 29 April.

1176. Motacilla flava subsp. Grey-headed Wagtail.

Previous records. — Karenni at 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1183. Dendronanthus indicus. Forest Wagtail.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Thandaung 1$ (24 September 1938).

Noted. — Two birds were seen along the Leiktho mule path on 24 September

1939 and one bird on the Kemapyu stream at 3,000 feet on 10 April. Status

uncertain.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

1186. Anthus h. hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Cook, Salvadori).

Specimens. — Thandaung i $ , i o.

Noted. — It was not seen round Thandaung on 23-25 September, but was

first noted on 8 October ; it was last seen on 9 May when a specimen was

obtained. On Nattaung it swarms in the grassy undergrowth of the dry pine

ridges, where it may be found in the heat of the day when most birds have

retreated to the valley bottoms. The return migration must take place early

in May.

1193-4. Anthus richardi subsp. Richard’s Pipit.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Several birds were seen on passage in the tea estate at Thandaung,

7-9 May.

[ Anthus roseatus? I saw a very dark Pipit along the Leiktho road on

23 September and failed to collect it. Unlike A. h. hodgsoni it did not fly up

into a tree when disturbed but settled further along the path.]

1247. Zosterops palpebrosa subsp. White-eye.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Karenni (Salvadori),

recorded in F.B.I. as Z. a. mesoxantha.

Specimens. — Nattaung 19 ; Thandaung 5(5'.

Noted. — Common in parties, especially at Thandaung, where the parties were

splitting up into pairs in May.

[1252. Zosterops simplex. Pegu White-eye.

Cook recorded this as common at Thandaung and also listed it from KalaWj

but apparently did not collect any ; we did not meet with it and further evidence

of its occurrence in the area is required.]

1253. Zosterops siamensi Si Siamese White-eye.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni.

Specimens. — Nattaung 3 c?.

Noted. — In contrast to other White-eyes all those seen were solitary, fre-

quenting open scrub along the Mawchi road and bushes near streams running

through taungyas, 4,000-5,000 feet. It did not appear to be breeding. Its note

differs from that of palpebrosa and is stronger.

— Zosterops erythropleura. Chinese White-eye.

Previous records. — None before 1939.

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 •

Noted. — A winter visitor. It was not seen in Thandaung in September and

October : the specimen was obtained out of a party Seen on 2 November : a

number of large parties were seen on 20-24 March, when the maroon on the

flanks appeared much deeper than in November ; and none was seen after I

returned on 24 April, though I looked for them daily. Several parties were

seen on Nattaung, but not after mid-April. In habits and voice it is similar

to palpebrosa.

1260-2. Aethopyga siparaja subsp. Yellow-backed Sunbird.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Except for a male seen in Thandaung on 1 November, uttering a

very high pitched trilly song, we have not seen this species, which is more

a bird of the foothills.

1271. Aethopyga gouldiae dabryi. Dabry’s Sunbird.

Previous records.— Karen Hills ; Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw RamsayA

Specimens. — Nattaung 29; Thandaung 1 $ .

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Noted. — Rather scarce ; in Thandaung' it was seen only in November and

March, and on Nattaung two or three times. It seems to prefer fairly open

scrub and bushes bordering streams, and has twice been seen just below the

top of Thandaung-gyi.

1273. Aethopyga s. sanguinipectus. Walden’s Yellow-backed Sunbird.

v Previous records. — Karen Hills; Karenni (type locality, Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 2$ ; Thandaung 1^, iQ-

Noted. — Fairly common up to 5,000 feet. It keeps mainly to evergreen and

is very partial to streams running through this type of forest, where I have

often seen them feeding along the bushes on the banks in the middle of the

day. It also visits the more open country.

1276a. Aethopyga nipalensis karenensis. Na:taung Sunbird.

Previous records. — None before 1939.

Specimens. — None this year.

Noted. — This appears to be confined to the Pine-Rhododendron association

and temperate forest on the higher slopes of Nattaung ; it is common there,

but none was seen below 7,000 feet.

1279. Cinnyris asiatlca intermedia. BurmesS Purple Sunbird.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us. May not occur above 3,000 feet.

1293. Arachnothera m. magna. Indian Streaked Spider.hunter.

1294. Arachnothera m. aurata. Pegu Streaked Spiderhunter.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 (nearest aurata ) ; the specimen obtained last,

year on Nattaung was magna.

Noted. — The two races evidently intergrade in .the Karen Hills. The bird

is not uncommon and there seemed to be an influx at the end of April into

Thandaung.

1296. Arachnothera I . longirostra. Little Spiderhunter.

Previous records. — Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Scarce. Only observed in the tea estate at Thandaung in October,

April and May. The flight is direct and strong, and a bleating note is uttered

or the wing.

1298-9. Dicaeum cruentatum subsp. Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker.

Previous records.— None.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Although it is common in Toungoo town we have seen only one

in the hills, on 2 November at Thandaung.

1300. Dicaeum trigonostigma rubropygium. Tenasserim Orange-bellied Flower-

pecker.

Previous records.— Karen Hills 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1302. Dicaeum chrysorrheum chrysochlore. Burmese Yellow-vented Flower-

pecker.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (common at 3,000 feet, F.B.I.).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Except for a pair in the tea estate on 10 May we saw none, and

jt my9t be either local or a bird of the foothills,

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

71

1303. Dicaeum i. ignipectus. Fire-breasted Flowerpecker.

Previous records. — Karenni.

Specimens. — Thandaung i<$ , i 9 •

Noted. — This is the typical Flowerpecker of the area ; it keeps to the tree-

tops and would escape observation but for its clicking note on the wing. I

have seen a male utter a long continuous series of clicks from a perch, while

swaying his body from side to side.

1306. Dicaeum concolor olivaceum. Plain-coloured Flowerpecker.

Previous records. — Karen Hills, type locality (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

[1312. Piprisoma m. modestum.

It has been recorded from the Southern Shan States, Tenasserim, and the

Pegu Yomas in the Toungoo district, though not as yet from ou*- area, in

which it seems likely to occur.].

1316. Anthocincla phayrei, Phayre’s Pitta.

Previous records. — This bird was first obtained in the Toungoo district,

‘probably in the higher hills to the east of the Sittang river’. The F.B.l.

states that Bingham found a nest at about 5,000 feet in the Karen Hills,

whereas he actually found it near a Karen village in the Dawnas (Meple valley,

Northern Tenasserim).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1318. Pitta oatesi. Fulvous Pitta.

Previous records. — Karenni 2,500-4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Sal-

vadori).

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 •

Noted. — This, the only bird seen, was in the bed of a stream running

through evergreen at 3,500 feet on Nattaung, and was obtained at about

2 p.m.

1320 Pitta c. cyanea. Blue Pitta.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 o.

Noted. — A bird was given alive and apparently uninjured by a Karen to

the durwan of the Circuit House, but it died a few days afterwards and the

corpse was presented to me on 22 October ; seen once or twice near Pathi-

chaung at about 500 feet.

[1321. Pitta moluccensis Lesser Blue-winged Pitta.

The F.B.l. gives this from the Karen Hills, based on Hume’s loose state-

ment that it breeds from Arakan to Karenni ; all specimens and records indicate

that it is a low elevation species.]

[1325. Pitta c. cucullata. Green-breasted Pitta.

A Pitta seen on the Leiktho mule path, the upper-parts of which appeared

very dark as it hopped off into the bamboo thickets below, must have belonged

to this species; it was certainly not P. moluccensis, P. c. cyanea, or P. oatesi .]

[1328. Eurylaimus javanicus Horsfield’s Broadbill.

Lloyd is said to have obtained it in the Toungoo hills, and the F.B.l.

gives it from Karenni, but proof of its occurrence is desirable.]

1330. Corydoo sumatranus. Duskv Broadbill.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay)

Specimens. — None,

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Noted. — Except for a bird seen in a tree-top beside the Leiktho mule path

at 3,500 feet we have not met with this bird. The abroad reddish bill and red

orbital skin contrasting with the black head are diagnostic.

1333. Serilophus i. lunatus. Gould’s Broadbill.

Previous records. — Karenni 3,000-4,000 (Wardlaw Ramsay). Karen Hills,

Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen, by us.

1335. Psarisomus dalhousiae. Long-tailed Broadbill.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Yado (Salvadori).

Specimens. — Nattaung itf, r$ . ,

Noted. — Fairly common, both on Nattaung and at Thandaung ; it keeps

mainly to evergreen, but we have noted it in high regrowth. The . call is a

loud piercing whistle of 5 to 8 notes with little if any change in pitch ; it

occasionally utters a single weet note. A pair was observed building a nest

on 15 April. The nest was quite typical, suspended from the tip of a branch

overhanging a stream where the pine forest merged into evergreen.

(To be continued )

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XIV.

The Trumpet Homey-suckle

LONICERA SEMPERVIRENS Linn.

( Nat size. )

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

BY

N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s-,

Forest Botanist ,

AND

M. B- Raizada, m.sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist ,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XIV

( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 4 (1943), p. 552).

( With 1 coloured and 2 black and white plates, and 3 text- figures).

Lonicera Linn.

The Honeysuckle or Woodbine.

(A genus named in honour of Adam Lonitzer, Professor of Medicine

in Mainz, 1528-86).

Lonicera L. is a genus of the family Coprifoliaceae and comprises

about 160 species which are distributed in the sub-tropical and tem-

perate regions of the northern hemisphere, from the arctic circle

southwards to the Malayan Archipelago, Southern Asia, North Africa,

Madeira and Mexico.

Characters of the genus. — Upright to twining, rarely creeping

shrubs- Stems glabrous or hairy, often glandular, with fistulose

(hollow) or solid branches. The leaves are opposite, petioled or

sessile and often with opposite pairs connate at the base. Stipules

usually opposite, but occasionally interpetiolar stipules are present.

Flowers white or yellow, purple or scarlet, usually arranged in simple

cymes which are 2-flowered by the suppression of the middle flower,

or three-flowered, and sessile or whorled and collected in terminal

spikes or panicles. Individual flowers subtended by bracts and

bracteoles. Calyx tube short, adnate to the ovary, ovoid or sub-

globose with a short, 5-toothed limb. The corolla is tubular to

funnel-form or sometimes campanulate with a regular five-lobed

limb or 2-lipped, in which case the upper lip is 4-lobed ; lobes long

or short, imbricate in the bud. Stamens five, inserted in the tube,

usually near the mouth, usually exserted. Ovary inferior, 2- to

3-celled ; each cell with 3-8 ovules pendulous from the inner angles.

Style elongated, with a capitate stigma, usually exserted from the

74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

tube. Fruit a red or yellow berry, few-seeded. The receptacle at

the base of the corolla tube secretes a nectar. Cross-fertilisation

is accomplished by insects which come to take the nectar-

Before we show how this cross-fertilisation takes place we shall

describe the mechanism of a typical specimen of the genus, Lonicera

periclymenum L. , a European species.

Just before the erect flower buds open the stigma is receptive

and the anthers have already dehisced. The pollen is sticky and

as the stigma stands some distance above the anthers, self fertilisa-

tion is avoided (A.). When the bud opens the flower sinks through

an angle of 90° so that it comes to rest in a horizontal position. The

positions of the stamens and style are shown in Fig. B. The style

Fig. 1. — Pollination in Lonicera periclymenum Linn, after Kurth Xf.

is well out of the way below the stamens whose dehisced anthers

are turned upwards. Any insect visitor which now comes to get

nectar from the flower is bound to touch the dehisced stamens and

carry away pollen on its under surface. After pollen has been re-

moved the filaments wither and sink down. The style at the same

time curves upwards and comes to occupy the position indicated in

C. It is obvious that in this state of the flower it is the stigma

and not the stamens which will touch the undersurface of an insect-

visitor. In stage B the flowers, are large and brightly coloured ;

in stage C they have become smaller and duller.

The process of cross fertilisation is as follows: — On any plant

of L. periclymenum there will be found flowers in all stages of

development from the bud to the fading fertilised bloom. When

the bud opens an attractive scent is emitted and the flower itself is

fresh and brightly coloured. Hence insects (hawk-moths) visit

these flowers, which are in stage A, first. From the relative posi-

tions of stamens and style it is certain that the visitor will carry

away quantities of pollen. In stage B, the flower has faded and

the scent is not so strong, therefore these flowers are visited later,

and as may be seen from fig. C. it is the stigma this time which

must touch the insect. In this way cross-fertilisation is ensured,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

75

The Loniceras are deservedly popular on account of the fragrant

pretty flowers and handsome foliage.

Key to the species.

Leaves connate L. sempervirens.

Leaves distinct.

Bracts subulate ; ovary hairy ;

leaves and flowers larger. ... L. conjusa.

Bracts ovate, leafy ; ovary glabrous ;

leaves and flowers smaller. ... L. japonica.

Lonicera sempervirens Linn.

The Trumpet Honeysuckle-

( sempervirens means evergreen in Latin).

Description. — An extensively climbing, glabrous, woody twiner.

Leaves oblong or ovate, rounded at the tips, wedge-shaped or

rounded below, opposite, exstipulate, glossy, green on the upper

surface, covered with a white bloom below. 2-3 in. long. The

upper one or two pairs of leaves are connate by their bases.

Inflorescence a terminal, interrupted spike, the individual flowers

being whorled in groups of 4-6, supported by bracts and bracteoles.

Calyx adnate to the ovary ending above in five, short, blunt teeth.

Corolla tube, 1-2 in. long, seated on top of the ovary slightly

ventricose, glabrous outside, sparsely pubescent with white hairs

within, scarlet, orange or sometimes yellow on the outer surface,

yellow within, five-lobed ; lobes reflexed. On the inner surface near

the base is an oval-shaped area which is slightly thicker than the

rest of the corolla and is covered with stalk-like glands-

Stamens five inserted on the tube below the mouth, alternate

with the lobes. Ovary inferior, 2-3 celled. Fruit a red berry. The

flowers of this species are not fragrant.

Flowers. — February-March. Does not fruit in this country.

Distribution.— Indigenous to Southern United States. Culti-

vated in gardens in the plains.

Gardening. — A beautiful twiner when in full bloom with its

scarlet, though scentless flowers. It is best adapted for a trellis * or

pergola. It is a common twiner in English gardens and is readily

propagated by layers.

Lonicera confusa DC.

( Confusa means confused or uncertain in Latin, and refers to the

fact that this plant has often been mistaken for a closely allied

species, L. japonica Thunb.).

Description. — An extensively climbing* hairy species. Stems

cylindrical, fistulose, covered with short, dense, brownish hairs.

Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate in shape rounded at the base,

petioled, 2-3 in. long, rather rough, glabrous or sparsely hairy on

the upper surface, ciliate on the margins, softly and shortly hairy

on the prominent nerves and reticulation of the under surface.

Flowers in axillary, pedunculate pairs, or collected into terminal

panicles or spikes of whorled pairs. Pairs of flowers supported by

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

subulate, hairy bracteoles. Calyx adnate to the ovary, very hairy,

ending- in five subulate hairy teeth- Corolla i in. long, two-lipped,

softly and shortly hairy within and without, white fading to yellow;

Fig. 2. — Lonicera confusa Dc. X^.

tube as long as the lips; upper lip 4-, the lower i-lobed. Stamens

five, alternate with the lobes of the corolla, long exserted. Style

long, filiform. Ovary inferior.

Distribution. — Found wild in China, Java and Borneo. Culti-

vated in the plains and hills.

Flowers. — March-April. Does not fruit in this country.

Gardening. — An evergreen twining shrub similar to L. japonic.a.

The flowers, at first white, afterwards fading to yellow, are produced

in March and are quite effective. It is suitable for growing over an

arch or trellis. Propagation is by cuttings or layers during the

rains.

Lonicera japonica Thunb.

Japanese Honeysuckle.

(The specific epithet indicates the origin of Thunberg’s specimen).

Description. — A widely climbing twiner. Stems glandular-hairy,

fistulose, cylindrical. Leaves opposite, petioled ; ovate to oblong-

ovate, 1J-2J in. long, rounded at the base, acute or obtuse at the

tip, glabrous or sparsely hairy on the upper surface, glabrous or

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fhoto by

M. N. Bakshi

Lonicera sempervirens Linn.

New Forest, Dehm Dun.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by _ M. N. Bakshi

Lonicera japonicu Thunb.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 77

softly hairy on the under surface, ciliate on the margins; petiole

i /4 in. long, covered with soft yellow hairs-

Fig. 3. — Lonicera japonica Thunb. Xf.

Inflorescence similar to that of L. confusa. The bracts are,

however, foliaceous, instead of subulate, in shape. The corolla is

somewhat larger and is hairy and glandular without. The calyx is

glabrous.

Flowers. — Cold season. Does not set seed in this country.

Distribution. — Indigenous to China, Japan and Formosa, now

commonly grown in gardens in the plains and hill stations.

Gardening. — An evergreen twiner with white red or purple tinged

flowers which are very fragrant- It is suitable for trellis work and

grows readily from cuttings and layers. The form commonly

cultivated in gardens is var. chinensis.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

BY

D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s.

Part XI

( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 3 (1942), p. 415).

RHOPALOCERA

Papilionidae

Chilasa clytia L., clytia

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 393. 1938.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind.} Butterflies (2nd edit.), i, 115, pi. 1,

figs. 5, 6. 1939.

I have bred this species yearly since 1931, and all larvae have

been of the black and cream form first described. This year (1942)

a^l larvae found have had the normally black areas an olivaceous

grey dotted with black, not unlike Talbot’s figure referred to above,

but with the spots larger and fewer. I am unable to account for

this sudden change of form.

Talbot, quoting Bell, gives the following description: — ‘Velvety

black or dark green, with a dorso-lateral row of carmine circular

spots. A creamy dorsal band on segments 3 to 7, narrowing at

both ends and flanked by a broad, lateral, similarly coloured band ;

also a broad creamy band on segments 11 to 14 externally. Two

lateral rows of sharp spines on segments 1 to 4, and a single row on

the other segments. Osmeterium a light watery indigo-blue. Length

55 mm.’ This description is incorrect in several details — the spines

are subdorsal not lateral, the cream bands are wrongly placed, and

there are three rows of carmine spots instead of one.

My original description contains an error. It is the lower lateral

series of spots that is complete from the 4th to nth somite, the

upper series has spots on the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th and 9th

somites only.

Papilio polytes L. , romulus Cr.

Moore, hep. Ceyl., i, 150. 1880-81.

Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc v, 366. 1890.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind . , Butterflies, ii, 62. 1907.

Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr . Rhop., ix., 61. 1909.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies (2nd edit.), i, 177, pi. 1,

figs. 18a, 18b, 19. 1939.

Immature larva — Head brown. Body dark olive brown, in some

examples almost chocolate, with a diffused white lateral stripe on

the thoracic somites, a white V-shaped mark, starting laterally on

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

79

the 5th somite with the arms joining dorsally on the 8th, and a

broad white lateral band on the 10th and nth somites with a

transverse bar across the dorsum of the 12th. A white sublateral

line from the 6th somite backwards. 1st somite with a black-tipped,

yellowish subdorsal spine. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse

series of six very short blunt tubercles, barely visible without a lens.

5th somite with a similar lateral tubercle and a dorsal series of

tour, the centre two in front of the others. 6th to 10th somites

each with a similarly placed dorsal series of four, nth somite with

a dorsal pair of slightly larger, pointed, white tubercles. 12th

somite with a dorsal pair of still larger tubercles. 4th somite rather

swollen. Osmeterium dark purple. Legs brownish. Prolegs

greyish white.

Full grown larva similar to that of Papilio dcmoleus L. (1939,

inihi, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 311) except that the

osmeterium is more scarlet than orange; the ocellus on the 3rd

somite consists of a black spot surmounted by two whitish dots

and surrounded by a yellowish green ring ; the line joining the two

ocelli is composed of black-ringed yellowish spots; instead of the

lawn transverse stripe on the 4th somite there is a very sinuous

white line edged behind by an olive green stripe ; the subdorsal

spines on the nth somite very much smaller and whitish.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of greyish silk. Head

bifid, the horns rather longer than in P. demoleus , thorax keeled,

the keel forming a short forward-pointing horn, the wing cases

protruding, abdomen angled at base so that the thorax is bent back-

wards, three pairs of small subdorsal spines on the abdomen, the

hindmost pair smallest. Colour variable, usually green or mottled

brown and grey. The green form with a fawn speck at the base of

the wing cases, a bluish-white diffused stripe along their upper edge,

which continues as a latero-ventral stripe along the abdomen. The

anterior portion of the abdomen with a large subdorsal yellow-green

triangular mark, with a small red-brown speck at the anterior angle.

The brown and grey forms usually with a dark triangular mark on

the wing cases. One specimen formed on white paper had a chalky

white dorsal stripe on the apical somites of the abdomen.

Food-plant — Citrus spp. and Aegle marmelos Correa.

Described from a larva found in Calcutta, pupated 22-viii-42,

and a male emerged i-ix-42.

Moore’s description is as follows : — ‘Larva smooth, glossy -green

much attenuated posteriorly, anterior segments swollen and scutel-

lated, fourth and fifth segments with dorsal transverse cream-

coloured fleshy crest, that on the fourth ending on each side in

an eye-like spot ; a brown-streaked cream-coloured oblique band

ascending from the base of seventh segment, and is nearly united

with that from the opposite side on back of ninth segment ; a similar-

coloured broken lateral band on the tenth segment, which is conti-

nued round base of anal segment, the latter segment with two small

pointed fleshy tubercles. Pupa curved anteriorly ; head flattened

and slightly bifid, thorax conical in front, abdominal somites with

short dorsal tubercles. Colour olive-brown.’

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

PlERIDAE

Catopsilia crocale Cr.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist., xl, 394. 1938.

Talbot, Fauna Brit, hid., Butterflies (2nd edit.), i, 491. 1939.

A large number of larvae bred in Calcutta in July 1942 all had

the usual black lateral line expanded into a wide dorso-lateral stripe,

varying both in width and in depth of colour. In some examples

the dorsum was also suffused with blackish.

Whilst not wishing to re-open the controversy of whether C.

crocale L, and C. pomona F. are conspecific or not, it is worth

recording that a number of larvae reared from ova found on Cassia

fistula L., the reputed favourite food-plant of C. pomona, in the

hope that they would prove to be this species, all turned out to be

crocale. Also young crocale larvae, found on a small plant of one

of the pink-flowered Cassias, fed up readily and well on Cassia

fistula.

HETEROCERA

Lymantriidae

Caragola ochripes Moore

Gardner, Indian Forest Records, iii, 202, figs. 9, 20, 21. 1938.

Head pale orange. Body with the dorsum pure white, minutely

streaked and speckled with black. 1st somite with four crimson

tubercles, the outer pair larger and tufted with longish white hair.

2nd and 3rd somites each with six small orange tubercles tufted with

short white hair. 4th and 5th somites each with paired dorsal

brushes consisting of a ring of short thick rose-pink hair surround-

ing a dark tubercle with a pale glandular apex. 6th somite with a

dorsal tuft of very short white hair and a minute orange wart with a

rosette of short white hair. 7th to 9th somites each with two pairs

of these orange warts with white hairs. 10th somite with similar

warts but the hairs deep yellow. 11th somite with a dorsal tuft of

short pale yellow hair. 12'th somite deep yellow. A series of sub-

lateral yellow tubercles bearing fringes of long white hair, the area

below these tubercles pale yellow. Legs and prolegs pale yellow.

Venter pale yellow slightly tinged with grey. Dorsal glands yellow.

Pupa under a few netted threads spun across the hollow of a

leaf. Ivory white, the dorsum tinged with olive brown. A chestnut

patch at the base of the wing case. Dorsum of abdomen, just be-

hind the broadest part, with two pairs of blackish dorsal spots. A

tuft of longish pale grey hair from the head, two groups of three long

spatulate black hairs from the abdomen just above the wing cases,

and another group towards the cremaster. Venter clad with longish

white hair. Dorsum of abdomen with three paired tufts of short

brownish hair and one of white. Wing cases slightly black- veined.

Food-plant — -Gardner gives Litsea polydnlka Juss., L. chinensis

Lam. and Phoebe lanceolata Nees, all Lauraceae.

Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 24-IV-41,

pupated 13-V-41, and a female emerged 21-V-41.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

81

Lasiocampidae

Metanastria hyrtaca Cr.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.f xl, 406. 1938.

Subramanian & Anantanarayanan, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

xl. 257. 1938.

Ovum almost spherical. Chalky white, the micropyle a dark

chocolate-brown spot, and a large dark chocolate-brown spot on

either side of the ovum. Laid in small batches.

A fairly powerful hand lens did not reveal the fine sculpturing

and the irregular dirty grey faint markings mentioned by Subrama-

nian and Anantanarayanan.

Eupterotidae

Eupterote undata Blanch.

Head dull black, the clypeus filled in with creamy-white and

with a broad creamy-white stripe from apex of clypeus to vertex and

extending along the back of the head ; a fringe of short, dark golden-

brown hair above the mandibles. Body very dark brown, the inter-

segmental areas almost black. A subdorsal and sublateral dark

pinkish line. Clothed fairly thickly with longish, pale-tipped, dark

brown hair, growing in spreading tufts subdorsally, laterally and

sublaterally. The dorsal area on the abdominal somites clothed,

in addition, with large patches of very short, black-brown hair.

Spiracles pinkish. Venter dark brown, not hairy. Legs dark brown.

Prolegs yellowish-flesh colour.

Cocoon of dark brown, closely woven, rather papery silk, with

an inner cocoon of dark brown silk interwoven with larval hair.

Pupa dark mahogany, very shiny, the abdominal somites very minute-

ly punctate. Cremaster closely covered with golden, short, hooked

spines. The divisions between the leg, antenna and wing cases not

well marked.

Food-plant — -Quisqualis indica L., Lantana camara L., Alseo-

dapline semicar pifolia Nees. and numerous other trees and shrubs.

One larva was even found feeding on a coarse, ornamental Grass.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta i6-xi-4i, spun

i9-xi-4i, and a female emerged 29-VL42.

Eupterote geminata Wlk.

Penultimate instar — Head terra-cotta, a black mark on either

side low down and a double black spot just above the clypeus. Body

with a broad, pale brown, dorsal stripe with a double, darker, median

line, and a broad, blue-grey, dorso-lateral stripe containing two

cream lines. A subspiracular cream line. Clothed with long

whitish hair. Venter cream with a purplish-black lateral stripe.

Legs chestnut. Prolegs pink. Spiracles set in pink patches.

Final instar — Similar to the penultimate, but the pale brown

dorsal stripe obscured on the abdominal somites by a coating of

short, dark brown, silky hair, and the subspiracular line absent.

Lateral area brownish. Head with a wavy pale horizontal line

above the lower black marks and below the upper, and with a pale

inverted V-shaped mark with its apex on the vertex.

6

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY / Vol. XLIV

The larvae are gregarious, congregating on the trunk and

branches of the food-tree in close packed, furry masses by day, and

feeding by night. The larvae rest close together, the heads usually

pointing in one direction, in slightly curved rows, and may cover

an area of two or more square feet. The hairs are extremely irritat-

ing and I know of a case where some syces had to desert their

usual sleeping place because a tree close by was harbouring these

larvae in large numbers.

Pupa in a cocoon of dense greyish-brown silk interwoven with

larval hair. Reddish chestnut, the wing cases rather paler. Surface

dull, the cuticle densely punctate. The abdominal somites some-

what contracted. Cremaster a fairly long, stout spine armed with

a few short bristly hairs.

Food-plant — Various trees and shrubs, among them Lager stro-

emia indica L.

Described from larva found in Calcutta 19-X-41, one of which

spun 26-xi~4i, and a female emerged 8-V-42.

Sphingidae.

Thevetra pinastrina Mart., pinastrina.

Butler, Proc. Zool . Soc. Lond., ix, 560, pi. 92, fig. 8. 1877.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind,} Moths, i, 88. 1892.

Mell, Biol. u. System, der Sudchin. Sphing., 310, pi. xi, figs.' 12-

[8 (figs. 18-24), pi. xix, figs. 19-21. 1922.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces , x, 567. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind ., Moths, v, pi. vi, figs. 6, 7. 1937.

Ovum — Jade green, of the usual ovoid Sphingid type. Laid

singly on the upper or lower surface of a leaf of the food-plant.

Hatched 23-viii-42.

1 st instar — -Head round, green. Body green, at the end of the

instar with a yellowish white subdorsal line only visible under a

lens. Horn shorter than in most first instar Chaerocampid larvae,

straight, black, the base reddish-orange, the tip slightly bifid.

Moulted 25-viii-42.

2nd instar — Similar but with a minute black dot on the sub-

dorsal line on somites 4 to 9, the spot placed about one-third of

the somite’s length from the anterior edge. An indistinct bluish

dorsal line. Horn reddish. Moulted 27~viii-42.

3rd instar — Similar, but colour rather yellower green and speckled

minutely with yellow. An additional black dot on the 10th somite,

and all ringed with whitish later in the instar. Horn short, dark

pink. Fore part of the body slightly tapered. Moulted 29-viii~42.

4th instar — Variable, the usual form similar to the preceding

instars, but with the black spots enclosed in an oval ring, bluish

white above and yellowish below, the whole edged with a black line.

Horn shorter comparatively. Legs pinkish. Another form has a

suffused reddish-brown stripe above the subdorsal line from the

ocellus on the 6th somite to the base of the horn. A third form

has the whole dorsum between the subdorsal stripes suffused with

rufous. A fourth form has the green colour, including the head,

replaced by rufous. These last three forms with the prolegs deep

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

83

pink. A fifth form has the head and body dark chocolate brown,

a narrow, double, paler stripe on the dorsum and a paler lateral

stripe. Ocelli with the pupil black, the iris whitish, the whole

enclosed in a black ring. Horn blackish brown. Legs, prolegs and

venter brownish pink. Moulted 3i-viii-42.

Final instar — Bred green form — Head green. Body yellow green.

4th somite with a small round subdorsal ocellus, consisting of a

round black pupil surrounded by a greenish-white iris, the whole

ringed by a black line. 5th to 9th somites with larger, similarly

coloured, but oval, ocelli, the upper edge more convex than the

lower. 10th somite with the ocellus reduced to the black pupil only.

Legs pink. Prolegs deep pink. Spiracles purple with the ends

whitish. Llorn very short, straight, smoky at the sides, pinkish

above, the extreme tip yellow.

Bred dark form — Head dull brownish olive, with a darker stripe

each side of the clypeus, and speckled with paler. Body purplish

brown, a dark chocolate brown median line, a dark chocolate brown,

broad subdorsal stripe from head to base of horn and narrowing at

both ends ; the lateral area with a narrow whitish stripe above and

below, tinged with chocolate brown on the thoracic somites and

speckled throughout with whitish. Ocelli placed as in previous form

and cut by the lower edge of the subdorsal stripe; the pupil black,

the iris whitish and narrow above, deep yellow and slightly wider

below, the whole encircled by a black line. Legs pink. Venter and

prolegs very dark chocolate. Spiracles black with the ends yellowish.

Horn with the upper surface orange, the sides dark chocolate, the

extreme tip orange with a dark chocolate ring below. Pupated

5-ix'42-

There is a considerable amount of variation in the tint of the

ground colour and in the degree of contrast between the dark and

pale areas. In some examples the chocolate colour is tinged with

olive, in others with reddish chestnut. Normally the dorsal and

lateral areas are the same colour but the lateral area may be suffused

with chocolate ; in some examples the dorsal and lateral areas were

cream-coloured. One specimen had the dark areas blackish purple,

the light areas somewhat paler. The ocelli vary considerably in

size. The contrast between the dark and pale areas is most marked

early in the instar, later the contrast is reduced and the colours them-

selves degraded to a muddy or yellowish brown.

Wild green form — Wild green larvae are slightly different to

the bred form. Head green. Body yellow green with minute yellow

dots. Ocelli the same shape as in the other forms but the pupil

blue-green, the iris of those on the 4th, 5th and 10th somites creamy

yellow outlined by a black ring, of the remainder orange shading

into yellow and outlined by a black ring. One had the ocelli on

somites 6 to 8 only with the orange iris. Another had no orange

round any of the ocelli and had the outlining black ring much

broader above than below. Spiracles mauve with white ends. Legs

pink. Venter and prolegs green. Horn green in some examples,

pinkish in others, the extreme tip yellow.

Wild brown form — Head golden brown. Body pale golden

84 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

brown, a dark dorsal line on the thoracic somites. A slightly darker

golden brown subdorsal stripe, faintly streaked with dark brown,

from head to base of horn and narrowing at both ends. The ocelli

with the pupil black, the iris purplish shading into whitish above,

and pale orange shading into yellow below, the whole ringed by a

black line. Legs pink. Prolegs and venter pinkish brown. Spira-

cles dark brown, the ends yellowish. Horn dark golden brown,

the extreme tip orange. One bred example belonged to this form.

Pupa in captivity in a slight cocoon among litter. In the field

.a number were found spun up in growing leaves of the Arum on

which they had been feeding. Colour pale yellowish bone colour,

minutely streaked with dark brown, the abdominal somites with a

dark olive dorsal line and a dark olive subdorsal stripe, traces of

a dark spiracular stripe, a latero-ventral and median ventral stripe.

Wing cases lined with dark brown. Tongue case forming a slight

frontal keel. Spiracles protruding slightly. Cremaster short, black

and pointed.

Food-plant — Arums of various species. Bell and Scott give

Jussiaea repens L. , Boerhaavia and Aroideae as food-plants.

Described from larvae bred from ova or found in their first and

second instar in Calcutta.

Hampson describes the larva as ‘green, with the dorsal area

red-brown; a subdorsal paler line with equal sized ocelli from 4th

to 10th somites with green centres; horn red brown.’ Seitz writes

‘Larva green or earth-coloured with lighter lateral stripes, on the

4th to 10th rings dark-centred eyes surrounded by dark; horn small.

It chiefly lives on Taro ( Colocasia antiquorum), also on Jussieua

(sic)’.

Noctuidae.

Selepa celtis Moore.

Moore, Lep. E. I. Co., 353, pi. 16, fig. 8a. 1858.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 370. 1894.

Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal ., xi, 298. 1912.

Gaede, Seitz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 396. 1937.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 276. 1941.

Head black. Body greenish yellow, under a lens with indistinct

longitudinal whitish lines. Some examples with traces of a black

lateral line. A large black dorsal spot on 5th, loth and 12th somites.

Clothed with longish, single, white hairs, in some examples the hairs

on the thoracic somites black. Legs and prolegs greenish yellow.

The black dorsal spots do not appear until the penultimate instar.

Gregarious.

Cocoon canoe-shaped of tawny silk, and covered with frass, etc.

in captivity ; in nature probably spun on a branch and covered with

bark fragments. Pupa slender, golden yellow, the dorsal area on

the abdomen tinged with orange, the lateral with green.

Food-plant — Lagerstroemia indica L. Gardner gives the fol-

lowing list, Shorea robusta Gaertn., Eugenia jambolana Lamb.,

Carey a arbor ea Roxb., Terminalia tomentosa W. & A., etc.

Described from a number of larvae found in Calcutta, one of which

spun 29-vii-4 2, and a male emerged 7-viii-42.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

85

Hampson, in the Catalogue, gives the following reference and

description: — ‘Semper, Reise. Phil., Schmett ., ii, 529, pi. Q, figs.

12-14 — Yellow; head black; dorsal black patches on 5th, 10th and

nth somites; a lateral reddish line with a series of black spots;

hairs long and sparse; forms a cocoon covered with faeces.’ This

description of Semper appears to be the basis of that in the Fauna

and also in Seitz. Gardner correctly places the dorsal spots on the

2nd, 7th and 9th abdominal somites, but also mentions a smaller one

on the 8th abdominal somite, this latter was absent in my specimens.

Attatha ino Drury

Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal ., xiii 10. 1913.

Head slightly flattened, pale green very slightly tinged with

brown. Body pale green, very similar in colour to the young leaves

of Peepul on which it feeds, a broad white subdorsal line. The

dorsal chord is plainly visible as a dark, pulsating streak. Legs

pale green. Prolegs pale green slightly tinged with brown. Spira-

cles pale buff. The larva is somewhat flattened, particularly the

thoracic and posterior somites. Before pupation the ground colour

turns purplish pink and the lines fade.

Pupa subterranean in a slight cocoon of earth and silk. Colour

dark purple brown, the thorax and wing cases darker, a darker dor-

sal stripe and the intersegmental areas. Cuticle punctate, the thorax

and wing cases more so. Cremaster ending in a pair of divergent

spines..

Food-plant — Peepul ( Ficus religiosa L.).

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta i6-iv-42, buried

18-W-42, and a male emerged 27-iv-42.

Hampson gives the following reference and description: —

‘ Indian Museum Notes , v, p. 114, pi. xiii, ff. 6a, b. Yellowish

white or dark pink above, yellowish white below; lateral lines pale,

more or less distinct ; each somite with a few colourless bristles ;

head dirty white, pinkish, or brown. Food-plant, Pipal. Pupates

underground without cocoon’.

Cosmophila sabulifera Guen.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records , vi, 288. 1941.

Head yellow green. Body olive green, a darker dorsal line due

to the contents of the intestines, a white subdorsal line, a slightly

sinuous white lateral line and a sinuous whitish sublateral line. In-

tersegmental rings yellowish. 1st somite with two dorsal, a sub-

dorsal, and a lateral black dot on the anterior edge and a second

series of two dorsal, a smaller subdorsal and lateral immediately

behind. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black dot just above the sub-

dorsal line, one between it and the lateral line, and three below.

4th to nth somite with two dots above the subdorsal line, one between

it and the lateral, and two below, the one above and anterior to the

spiracles, the other below and posterior. 8th and 9th somites with

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

an additional spot at the base of the proleg. 12th somite similar

but with no spots below the lateral line. The black dots all ringed

indistinctly with whitish and with a single, short, black bristle.

Venter, legs and prolegs rather more silvery green. The first pair

of prolegs reduced. Spiracles brown ringed with whitish.

Pupa in a slight cocoon among leaves. Dull olive brown, a

darker dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites, the intersegmental

areas also darker. Minutely punctate. Cremaster ending in a

bunch of golden brown hooked spines.

Food-plant — Gardner gives Grewia tiliae folia Vahl, G. asiatica

var. vestita Wall., G. laevigata Vahl and Eriolaena Hookeriana

Wight and Arn.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 25-viii-42,

pupated 2 8-viii-42, and a female emerged 3~ix-42.

Gardner gives the following description: — ‘Head dull yellow,

body dull fairly dark green with two fine pale lines along each side.

Setiferous rings on white spots themselves encircled by pink. Spira-

cles white with black rims. Prolegs on A3 abruptly reduced.

Labral emargination less than half deep. Length about 30 mm.’

Ericeia ( Polydesma ) inangulata Guen.

Head pale brown, reticulated with darker, a white spot on each

side of the vertex ; or in darker individuals blackish brown speckled

with white and with two larger white spots on top of each lobe.

Clypeus outlined with orange and with an orange line from apex to

vertex. Body tawny brown, an orange dorsal stripe with a double

central dotted line, a dark tawny subdorsal stripe sprinkled with

minute dark dots and with a series of small white spots — -two to

each somite, a slightly paler tawny lateral stripe speckled with

darker dots, which are more numerous in the middle, below this

a darker tawny, dark speckled stripe, and below this again a paler

tawny, dark speckled stripe. Venter pale tawny with a dark brown

central stripe. Legs orange brown. Prolegs tawny, the feet

pinkish, the first pair obsolescent. Spiracles blackish. Head and

body with very short, very sparse, black hairs. Some examples are

very much darker, the dark tawny stripes being almost black.

When young very Geometer-like.

Pupa, in captivity, in a cocoon spun under a leaf and covered

with earth. Rather slender, reddish brown, thorax and wing cases

slightly darker, intersegmental areas darker. Pruinosed spiracles

black. Apex of abdomen longitudinally wrinkled, the cremaster

consisting of two longish, stout, hooked spines with a number of

shorter and finer spines behind.

Food-plant — Cassia fistula L.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 29-VU-42,

pupated 2-viii-42, and a male emerged io-viii-42.

Geometridae.

Scopula cleoraria Wlk.

Head pale brown with a whitish subdorsal and lateral stripe.

Body brownish green, with an indistinct darker dorsal stripe, more

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

87

noticeable intersegmentally, and a whitish lateral line. 4th and

5th somites with an irregular, dark brown, sublateral spot, in some

examples, on the 6th and 7th somites also. The intersegmental

divisions yellowish. Legs pale brown marked basally with darker.

Shape very long and thin, slightly broader posteriorly. Rests

extended straight out away from the support, or very slightly curved.

The fore part is never coiled up. Turns crimson before pupation.

Pupa in a slight cocoon between leaves, in a state of nature

probably among litter. Pupa pale chestnut tinged with green, the

wing cases olive green. Spiracles black. Cremaster ending in two

stout, longish, divergent, hooked spines, with four finer spines

ventrally, last segment of abdomen with a transverse dentate dorsal

ridge.

Food-plant — -A cultivated Lantana, L. sellowiana.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 25-viii-42, pupat-

ed 3i-viii-42 and a male emerged 7-ix-42.

Pyralidae.

Trachylepidia fructicassiella Rag.

Head chestnut. Body greyish with a chestnut dorsal plate on

the 1 st somite. Each somite with two pairs of minute black dots

on the dorsum. A double lateral series of slightly larger black

dots, one below and one above the spiracle. Anal somite marked

with blackish. Legs chestnut. Venter and prolegs whitish.

Spiracles chestnut ringed with black. A single colourless hair from

each of the black spots.

Pupa in a shuttle-shaped cocoon of dense white silk. Venter

and wing cases honey colour shading into a very pale chestnut

dor sally on the thorax and abdomen. 1st to 8th abdominal somites

with two chitinous, blackish, dorsal teeth, those on the 1st to 7th

somite slightly apart, on the 8th almost joined.

The larvae live each in a separate compartment in the pod of

Cassia fistula, but appear to congregate together to pupate, a com-

partment being completely filled with cocoons and frass.

Food-plant — Cassia fistula L. , living in the pod and eating the

ripe seeds.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta i9-iv-42, pupated

24-iv~42, and a female emerged 29-W-42.

Pachyzancla aegrotalis Zell.

Head brown. Body yellowish, appearing blue green from the

contents of the intestines, a darker dorsal line. 1st and 2nd somites

with a subdorsal black spot. A white spiracular ' line. A few

colourless hairs arising from olive green spots, only visible under

a lens. Legs colourless. Prolegs yellowish green. Lives in a spun

together leaf.

Pupa in a spun together leaf, reddish chestnut, slender.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 30^*1-42, pupated

2-vii-42, and a male emerged 7-vii-42.

[To be continued)

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE.

Part II — Fishes of Hyderabad City and its suburbs.

BY

M. Rahimullah, M.SC., F.Z.S.,

Department of Fisheries , Hyderabad (Deccan).

Hyderabad City and its suburbs, popularly known as Baida and

Atraf-i-balda district, are situated about in the centre of the State.

It is surrounded by the districts of Medak and Karimnagar on the

north, Mahboobnagar on the South, Nalgonda on the east, Gulbarga

on the west and Bidar on the north-east. Its total area is 3,399 sq.

miles, including the city of Hyderabad (26 sq. miles). The country

is mostly hilly with a few wooded hills, known as the Rajkonda

range, extending upto Nalgonda district. Another is the Anantgiri

range extending from Mahboobnagar to Dharur near Vikarabad.

A large portion of this range is composed of high level laterite; and

isolated granite hills are seen everywhere amongst which Moula Ali.

the Golconda rock and the Black rock of Trimulgherry are of special

interest.

The most important river is the Musi, rising in the Anantgiri

hills. It passes through the city and falls into the river Kistna near

Wazirabad in the Nalgonda district. The river Manjra touches

the district on the N.-W. side. Other smaller streams are the

Sakalvani, Haldi, Deo, and the Eesi river.

The geological formation is Archaean Gneiss ; tors and boulders

of fantastic shapes are seen everywhere, composed of basalt and

granite piled up in picturesque confusion.

Series of dams have been formed in the Musi and Eesi, and

there are 143 large and about 300 small tanks; but most of the

tanks hold water only for about 8 months in the year, some are in

disrepair and if properly maintained may become sources of peren-

nial supply. Here, I will deal only with some important perennial

reservoirs.

The rainfall is only 30" and the temperature 62°-g6° but it some-

times reaches even 108°. Population including Secunderabad is

16,53,249; number of fishermen 41,463.

Himayatsagar, with a water spread of 14.7 sq. miles is situated south-west

of the city about 12 miles away. It is a dam of the Eesi river and two big

‘nalas’ also fall into it ; its water is taken into the Meer-Alam tank by means

of a channel and then supplied to the old part of the city. The margins are

weedy, but the bottom is full of submerged boulders. The dam is 7,463 feet

long with 17 automatic flood gates.

The methods of fishing are very primitive and practised in shallow water;

fishing is done by means of long lines also, but owing to the presence of otters

very few fishes are found iptqct in the morning when the line is taken out;

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE

89

usually only the heads remain on the hooks. This reservoir contains much fish,

and below is given the list of fishes obtained during the survey :

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Notopterus sp. nov.

Mastacembelus armatus (Lac4p.).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) kolus (Sykes).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto (Ham.).

Cirrhina reba (Ham.)

Labeo calbasu (Ham.).

Labeo fimbriata (Bl.)

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Ophicephalus striatus Bl.

Heteropnestes fossilis (Bloch).

Wallagonia attu (Bl.).

Osmansagar (water spread area 16.22 sq. miles), about 11 miles west of

the city, is the main source of water supply. The bottom is full of boulders ;

vegetation is scanty. It is formed by damming the Musi river which is a

tributary of the Kistna. The dam is 6,3000 ft. long with 45 flood gates.

The water level in this reservoir has gone down considerably during the last

five years owing to scanty rainfall. The predominant fishes are the two varieties

of carps, Labeo calbasu Ham. and Labeo fimbriata (Bl.). It is not open -

for netting ; only angling is allowed.

List of fishes obtained :

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Notopterus sp. nov.

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep).

Chela clupeoides (Bl.).

Barilius barna (Ham.)

Barilius bendelisis Ham.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.)

Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto Ham.

Cirrhina reba (Ham.).

Labeo boggut (Sykes).

Labeo calbasu Ham.

Labeo fimbriata (Bl.).

Labeo potail (Sykes).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Thynnichthys sandkhol (Sykes).

Rohtee belangeri Cuv. & Val.

Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch).

Mqer-Alam tank is about 4 miles south west of the city, and is a beautiful

sheet of water ; it is 8 miles in circumference. The dam consists of a series

of 21 semi-circular retaining walls with their convex sides facing the

water; its total length is 1,120 yards, and it was constructed by French engineers

at a cost of 8 lakhs, during the time of Nawab Meer Alam ; it is the main

source of water supply to the old city. The margins are very weedy but the

deeper parts are devoid of vegetation. It is noted for its rohu ( Labeo calbasu)

Ham. and ‘phool-murrel’, Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Only angling is

allowed, but being near the city it is a great attraction for poachers.

Fishes obtained during survey :

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Notopterus sp. nov.

Mastacembelus armatus (Lac4p).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) kolas (Sykes).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto (Ham.).

Labeo calbasu Ham.

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Ophicephalus punctatus Bl.

Ophicephalus striatus Bl.

Callichrous malabaricus C.V.

Heteropneutes fossilis (Bloch.)

Clarias batrachus Linn.

Wallagonia attu (Bloch).

Hosainsagar is a large sheet of water which when full extends over an area

of 8 sq. miles ; it lies between Secunderabad and Hyderabad. It supplies un-

filtered water to the Osmania University and to gardens of Hyderabad and

Secunderabad. The dam is 2,500 yds. long and forms the road between the two

cities. It was built by Sultan Ibrahim Kutb Shah about 1575 A.D. It is fed by

‘Balkapur nala’ running from the river Musi near Shankerpalli, and a small

feeder channel known as ‘Begampet nala’ brings flood water from the adjacent

hills during the rains. The stocking of the reservoir is not satisfactory, and if

artificial means are not resorted to the finny population will gradually diminish

and the rentals will fall within a few years. If the fisheries of this reservoir are

developed on proper scientific lines they can be a great source of supply to the

city markets.

90 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

It contains much vegetation, and its ‘rohu’ ( Labeo calbasu Ham.) is of

excellent taste. Other fishes are :

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep).

Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham.).

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Rasbora buchanani Bl.

Barbus ( Puntius ) dorsalis (Jerdon).

Barbus ( Puntius ) kolus (Sykes).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.)

Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore Ham.

Barbus ( Puntius ) terio (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto Ham.

Brachydanio * erio (Ham.).

Labeo calbasu Ham.

Labeo fimbriata (Bl.).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Ophicephalus gachua Ham.

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Ophicephalus punctatus Bl.

Ophicephalus striatus Bl.

Mystus vittatus (Bloch).

Mystus cavasius (Ham.)

Wallagonia attu (Bloch).

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland). Young fry of L. fimbriata measuring

i "-2 were obtained in the month of August from the upper reaches of

‘Begumpet nala’.

Ibrahimpatan tank is about 20 miles from the city in the Baghat district,

and has a water spread of about 6 miles when full. It was formerly fed by a

channel from the river Musi but now this is in disrepair and hence the water

level has gone down very low. It was noted for ‘Murrel’, but owing to the

paucity of water it is being gradually overfished. At the time of the survey

the water was very low and only about a sq. mile in area.

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Rasbora daniconius Bl.

Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.).

Barbus ( Puntius ) dorsalis (Jerdon).

Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore Ham.

Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto Ham.

Ophicephalus punctatus Bl.

Ophicephalus striatus Bl.

Mystus vittatus (Bloch).

Notopterus sp. nov.

Notopterus sp. , Rahimullah and Das.

Bull. Soc. Portug., Vol. XII, No. 18, pp. 135-141.

It is found in large numbers along with Notopterus notopterus

(Pallas) but differs from it in many characters. Below I give the

fin formula and other characters which identify it as a new species.

B = VII ; D = 8-io ; P=i4-i5; V = 5; A+C=ioi-ii7; Ll.%180.

A distinct concavity on the head : (no concavity in N. notopterus) ;

serrations exist along the lower surface of the preorbital, 28-31

serrations; the maxilla extends from \ to 2/3 of the diameter of

the orbit, and below the latter; the dorsal fin commences much nearer

to the tail fin than to the snout.

The characters are intermediate between those of N. notopterus

(N. kopirat) and N. chit ala Day.

Labeo calbasu Ham.

Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.) Day, Fauna Brit. Ltd., Vol. I,

pp. 259-260.

Day has described the colour as blackish ; sometimes, especially

in examples from clear streams, many of the scales have a scarlet

centre.

The colouration was noted in fresh specimens from the same

locality, and two varieties have been obtained ; one is more or less

black and the spots on the scales are not very distinct, but in the

other variety the colour is silvery with scarlet spots on the scales,

whilst in L. fimbriata there are orange bloches on some scales,

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE

91

Brachydanio rerio (Ham.)

Brachydanio rerio } Prashad and Mukherji, Rec. In. Mus., Vol.

xxxi, pt. iii, pp. 206-208.

Brachydanio rerio 3 Hora, Ibid., Vol. xxxix, pt. I, pp. 8 and 15.

Brachydanio rerio } Bhimachar and Rau, J. Mys. Un ., Vol. 1,

pt. xvi, pp. 146 and 152.

The specimens were collected in large numbers from Hosain-

sagar and its feeders. They agree in all characters with those de-

scribed by Bhimachar and Rau. Lateral line and lateral line organs

are absent. The fins are diaphanous. Upper half of the body is yellow

and there are five steel-blue bands separated by yellow ones in the

upper and by silvery bands in the lower half. Four horizontal bands

on the anal, 3 distinct and two lighter ones on the caudal ; pectoral

and ventral fins yellowish. It has proved to be a very good larvicidal

fish.

Thynnichthys sandkhol (Sykes).

Thynnichthys sandkhol f Day, Fauna. Brit. Ind., Vol. I, p. 289.

Length of head 4J, height of body 3! in the total length. Eye 4

in the length of the head, 2 diameters apart.

In colouration and other respects it is the same as described by

Day.

Rohtee belangeri (Cuv. & Val.).

Rohtee belangeri , Day, Fauna. Brit. Ind., Vol. I, p. 342.

It differs in its measurements from those given by Day.

Length of head 7, height of body 2f in the total length. Eye :

head — 3J, if diameters from end of snout 2f diameters apart.

This fish is commonly found in all parts of the dominions.

Acknowledgement.

I am indebted to the Revenue and P.W.D. authorities for

help rendered to me during the survey work. I am also thankful

to the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, and Professors B. K. Das and M. Sayeed-

uddin for the loan of literature ,and to the Additional Revenue

Secretary (Rural Reconstruction) for all the facilities, and to my

colleagues of this department for constant help. For publication, I

am grateful to the Bombay Natural History Society.

References.

Bhimachar, B. S., and Subba Rau, A. — /o«m. Mys. Un., Vol. I, pt. xvi,

(1941).

Day, F. — Fauna Brit. Ind. Fishes, Vol. I (1889).

Hora, S. L. — Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxix, pt. i (1939).

Hora, S. L., Misra, K. S. and Malik, G. M. — Ibid, Vol. xli, pt. iii (1939).

Mukerjee, H. K., Mozumdar, S. R. and Das Gupta, B. — Ind. Journ. Vet. Sc.

and Anim. Hush., Vol. xl, pt. iii (1941).

Prashad, B. and Mukerji, D. D. — Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxi, pt. iii (1929).

Webber, Max and Beaufort, L. F, De. — Fish, Indo- Austral, Arch., Vols, iii

and iv (1936).

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS

OF INDIA.

BY

J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F.L.S.

The TILIACE/E are trees or shrubs, rarely herbs.. Most of

them are tropical; a few inhabit the temperate northern hemisphere,

and some are found behind the tropic of Capricorn; but none extend

into the Arctic Circle, or ascend to great mountain elevations. The

380 species are distributed into 35 genera.

In general the leaves are mucilaginous and emollient ; the bracts

and flowers are aromatic, antispasmodic, and slightly sudorific. The

bark may be bitter and astringent.

Among the products obtained may be mentioned : — (1) a volatile

oil; (2) laevo-rotatory phytosterols ; (3) vanillin ; and (4) glucosides —

capsularin, corchorin, tiliacin — .

The medicinal and poisonous Lindenblooms of the world belong

to i2 genera: Ancistrocarpus (tropical West Africa); Cistanthera

(tropical Central and West Africa); Corchoropsis (Japan, China);

Corchorus (warm regions) ; El^ocarpus (tropical) ; Glypklea (tropi-

cal Africa) ; Grewia (Asia, Africa, Australia ; mostly tropical) ;

Luehea (tropical America, West Indies); Sloanea (tropical);

Sparmannia (tropical and South Africa) ; Tilia (northern temperate

regions); Triumfetta (tropical).

The medicinal and poisonous Lindenblooms of India belong to 4

genera : Corchorus, El^eocarpus, Grewia, Triumfetta.

A. Anthers opening by slits.

I. Petals usually foveolate or glandular at the base ;

stamens springing from the apex of a raised torus.

a. Fruit without prickles ... ... ... Grewia.

b. Fruit prickly.

Herbs or undershrubs. Fruit small ... Triumfetta.

II. Petals not foveolate or glandular at the base; stamens

springing from a contracted torus ... ... Corchorus.

B. Anthers opening by a terminal pore.

Petals sepaloid ... ... ... ... Elaeocarpus.

Corchorus.

The genus consists of 40 species widely dispersed throughout

the warm countries of the world.

The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands —

C. acutangulus Lam., C. capsularis Linn. — ■; in Indo-China — C.

capsularis Linn. — ; in Egypt— C. olitorius Linn. — ; in Gold Coast—

C. acutangulus Lam. — ; in Southern Africa — C. asplenifolius Burch.,

C. serrcefolius Burch. — .

A. Capsule globose, not beaked ... ... C. capsularis.

B. Capsule elongated.

1, Beak 3-fid spreading ... ... ... C. acutangulus.

93

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS

II. Beak entire.

1. Capsule glabrous, cylindric, io-ribbed.

Beak long, erect

2. Capsule scabrous or aculeate, 3-angled.

Beak short, erect

C. Capsule short, beak entire.

I. Annual. Capsule pubescent, 3-valved

II. Perennial. Capsule glabrous, 4-valved

... C. olitorius.

... C. trilocularis .

... C. fascicularis.

... C. depressns.

1. Corchorus acutangulus Lam. is found throughout the hotter

parts of India and Ceylon. It is distributed to Australia, tropical

Africa, and the West Indies.

The bitter seeds are given by the Mundas of Chota Nagpur in

pneumonia and stomach ache.

In Gold Coast the whole plant, including the root, is used in the

form of an injection for urethral discharges.

Akim : Survabiri— ; Awuna : Lolui-tsu — ; Bengali: Titapat — ; Ewe:

Have — ; Ibo : Aheheara, Ahihira — ; Krepi : Ademademaa, Adomadoma ;

Krobo : Togatoya — ; Mende : Ndogbo-ngengele — ■; Mundari : Karigiri, Karijiri,

Karijuri, Piritijudiring — ; Tubu: Koebulu — ; Twi: Padeedee, Siwabiri — ;

Yoruba : Abojaga, Abo jaja— .

2. Corchorus capsularis Linn, occurs throughout the hotter

parts of India. It is cultivated in most tropical countries.

A decoction of the dried root and unripe fruit is given in

diarrhoea.

In cases of dysentery the dried leaves are eaten at breakfast

time with rice. The cold infusion is also administered as a tonic

in dysenteric complaints, fever, and dyspepsia.

It is a common practice in the jute-growing districts of Bengal

to keep a small stock of the dried jute leaves in the house, whereof

an infusion — a so-called tea — is made and taken by those suffer-

ing from any disorder of the liver. From the reports received

by the Indigenous Drugs Committee it appears that the infusion

is used as a popular domestic medicine for disorder of the liver

and is of great value when there is a trouble with burning sensa-

tion in hands and feet. It is also used as a bitter tonic, stomachic,

laxative, carminative, stimulant to increase appetite and flow of

saliva and gastric juice; also as an antiperiodic, anthelmintic,

astringent and intestinal antiseptic. It has been reported as effica-

cious in fever, bilious troubles, worms of children, dysentery,

hepatic and intestinal colic, gastralgia and gastric catarrh, skin

diseases especially itches, atonic dyspepsia, slight jaundice, and

in the disorder of the digestive system.

In Indo-China the flowers are given in epistaxis; the fruits are

applied to swelling and abscesses, and prescribed in diseases of

the bladder.

Assam: Marasag, Titamara — ■; Bengal: Ghinalitapat, Koshta, Narcha

Titthapat — ; Bombay: Chouchen, Ghinaltapat, Narcha — ; English: Jute — ;

Formosa: Ma-p’i — ; French: Chanvre de Calcutta, Jute — ; Hindi: Ghinalita,

Koshta, Narcha, Pat — ; Indo-China: Bo day, Floang ma, Ta ma — ; Marathi:

Chaunchan — ; Mundari: Hatularita — ; Philippines : Patas, Ponglopongloan —

Porebunder : Borachhunchh, Chhunchh — ; Portuguese: Juta — ; Sadani.:

Larita — ; Sanskrit: Kalasaka, Nadikapatta — ; Sant all: Kaskomrau — ;

94 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HlST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Shahjahanpur : Harrawa — ; Sinhalese: Jaladara — ; Tagalog : Pasaonabilog — ;

Tamil : Pirattikirai — ; Vis ay an : Lamhay — ■.

3. Corchorus depressus Stocks is found in the Punjab, Sind,

Baluchistan, Cutch, Gujerat, Deccan. It is distributed to Afghani-

stan, Arabia, North Africa, Cape Verde Islands, and tropical Africa.

The plant has tonic properties,. It is given as a cooling medicine

in fever.

The mucilage is used in Sind for gonorrhoea.

The leaves are emollient. The Baluchis make a cooling drink

out of them. In Jaisalmer and Jodhpur they ai*e applied to wounds,

and a decoction is said to be efficacious in cases of skin eruption.

The seeds in decoction, with milk and sugar, are given as a tonic.

Arabic: Ueki — ; Baluchistan: Mandira, Munderi, Mundheri — ; English:

Shrubby Jute — ; Gujerati : Bahuphali, Bethibahuphali, Chhikni, Chhunchh — ;

Hindi : Baphuli — ; Marathi : Bahuphali — ; Punjab : Babuna, Bahuphalli,

Bophalli, Kurana — ; Rajputana : Hadekakhet — ; Sanskrit: Bhedani, Chanchu,

Katuka, Kshudra, Ksudrachanchu, Patupatrika, Shunakuchanchuka, Tvaka-

sara — ; Sind : Mudhiri, Munderi — ; Uriya : Bojoromuli — .

4. Corchorus fascicularis Lam. occurs throughout the hotter

parts of India. It is distributed to tropical Africa and Australia.

It is very mucilaginous and somewhat astringent, and is valued

as a restorative.

In Bombay, a watery extract, mixed with sugar-candy, is taken

as a nutritive tonic.

Bengal: Banpat, Bilnalita, Janglipat— ; Bombay: Bhauphali, Hirankhori,

Mothibahuphali — ; Gujerat: Chhunchhadi, Ubhibahuphali — ; Hindi: Banko-

stoa, Janylipat, Khetapat — ; Marathi: Hirankuri, Motibuhuphali — ; Poona:

Mayarmithi — ; Porebunder : Chhunchhadi, Ubhibahuphali — ; Sanskrit: Bhiru-

patrika, Chanchu, Chanchuputra, Chanchura, Chhunchhu, Chincha, Diagh-

patri, Kalabhi, Kshestrachhunchhu, Kshestrasambhava, Sushaka, Vijala — .

5. Corchorus olitorius Linn, is generally distributed by culti-

vation in all tropical countries. The chief seat of its Indian culti-

vation is near Kulna in the Burdwan district of Bengal.

The dried plant, roasted and powdered, is used in visceral

obstruction. In South India it is used as a demulcent.

The leaves are demulcent, tonic and diuretic, useful in some cases

of chronic cystitis, gonorrhoea and dysuria.

The leaves and tender shoots are eaten, and in the dried state,

known as nalita ; they are used in infusion by the natives as a

domestic medicine, being tonic and slightly febrifuge, and hence

used as a fever drink.

The dried leaves are sold in the market. A cold infusion is

used as a bitter tonic, and is devoid of any stimulating property.

It can be safely given to patients recovering from acute dysentery

to restore the appetite, and improve the strength.

The seeds are purgative. In Egypt they are put into the eye

to cause inflammation by way of malingering.

Abeokuta : Eyo — ; Arabic: Melochia, Meloukhia, Meluhhije, Molochia,

Molukhyia, Muluhhije — ; Awuna : Acleme — ; Bengal: Banpat, Bhungipat^

Phunjipat, Koshta, Lalitapat, Pat — ; Berar : Chooich — ; Bombay: Chhunchh,

Motichhunchh, Tankla — ; Efik : Etinyon — ; Egypt: Melukhiye — ; Ekoi : Etin-

yung — ; English: Jew’s Mallow, Jute, Long-fruited Jute — ; Ewe: Sigli,

MEDICINAL and poisonous LIN den blooms

95

Singili, Singli — ; ¥ anti : Otoro, Oturo — ; French : Corete, Corette, Corette

potagere, Guimauve potagere, Melochie — ; Fulani : Lolo, Lolo memel — ; Ga :

Otoro, Oturo — ; Gambia : Alo — ; German : Gemuese Corchorus— ; Greek:

CorchoroS' — ; Gujerati: Chhunchho — ; Hausa : Lalo, Malafiya, : Marafiya,

Tungurnuwa — ; Hindi: Banpat, Koshta, Pata, Sanpat, Singinjanasha — ■; Ho:

Hatempa — ; Ibo Owerri : Ahu hara — ; Ijebu-Ode : Ayo — ; Ilesha : Yoyo — ;

Iraq: Malukhiyah — ; Kanuri : Darraba, Gamgaino — ; Katsina : Turgun-

nuwa — ; Kissi : Yo-ngengeyo — ; Konno : Kokoe — ; Kratchi : Aposse — ; Lagos:

Ewedu — ; Mandingo :■ Kiringere — ; Marathi: Chunch, Motichunch-— ; Mende :

Gingere, Ngenge, Ngengele, Yengei, Yeingei — ; Mundari : Larita — ; Nimar :

Rajan — ; North-Western Provinces : Banphal — ; Oloke Meji : Eyo-ganbi — ; Pore-

bunder: Chhunchho, Chunchhdo, Motichhunchh — ; Punjab: Banpat, Banphal — ;

Sadani : Larita — ; Sanskrit : Brihatchanchu, Dirghapatri, Divyagandha,

Kalasa, Mahachanchu, Nadika, Patta, Singgika, Sthulachanchu, Suchanchuka,

Vishari — \ Santali : Birnarcha — Senoufo : Sobo-- - ; Severe : a Koud: — ;

Sherbro : Krinkrin-de — ■ ; Sierra Leone : Bush Okra, Crincra, Crincrin, Ingle — ;

Sind: Banpat — ; Sinhalese : Wanuk — ; Sobo: Oyoyo — ; Susu : Surr — ; Tamil:

Peratti, Perumpunnakhuppoondu, Punaku — ; Telugu: Parinta, P'arintakura — ;

Timne : Kenkerin, Kirinkirin — ; Umu Ahia : Agheregha, Aheheara, Ahihira — ;

Uriya: Jhoto, Jot.o, Kaunria — ; Wolf: Mbali — ; Yemen: Melochia — Yoruba:

Ewedu-ga-nbe, Eyo, Eyo-ga-nbe, Oyo — .

6. Corchorus trilocularis Linn, is found in Bihar, the Deccan

and Carnatic of the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, Khandesh,

Gujerat, Cutch, Sind, Baluchistan; whence it extends to Afgani-

stan, Arabia, tropical and southern Africa.

The plant, macerated for a few hours in water, yields a mucilage,

prescribed as a demulcent.

The seeds are bitter and administered in doses of about 80

grains in fever and obstruction of the abdominal viscera.

Arabic: Melochia, Molukhiya— ; Arago : Emakikoho — ; Bombay:

Kaduchhunchh, Kuruchuntz — ; Canarese : Tanolassir — ; Egypt: Melukhiye — ;

Fulani: Lalo — ; Gujerati: Kadvi-chhunchhdi — ; Hausa: Lalo, Turgunuwa — ;

Hindi : Kadukosta, Kadvapat — ; Malay : Ramput haya roaza — ; Marathi :

Kaduchunch — • ; Nasirabad : Datrab — ; Porebunder : Lambichhunchh — ; Raj-

putana : Hardikeket, Kaglekitamaku, Karak— ; Sanskrit: Dirghachanchu.

Kaunti, Nadika — ; Sinhalese: jahedara, Wanuk — ; Songhai : al Muluguia — ;

Tamil : Peratti, Punnakkuppoondu, Talakkaippoondu — .

El^ocarpus

The genus numbers 90 tropical species, most abundant in the

hotter parts of India and the Indian Archipelago; a few are found

in some of the South Sea Islands, New Zealand, and Australia.

E. madepolatus Pierre is used medicinally in Cambodia, E.

photiniae folia Hook, and Arn. in Indo-China.

A. Anthers not terminated by an awn.

1. Elaeocarpus Ganitrus Roxb. is found in the Western

Ghats and the Konkan of the Bombay Presidency, Nepal, Bengal,

Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.

96 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV

The fruit is used by Hindu practioners in diseases of the head

and epileptic fits.

Bengal : Rudrakya — ; Canarese : Rudraksha — ; English : Utrasum Bead

Tree — ; Hindi : Rudrak — ; Malay alam : Rudraksham — ; Marathi : Rudraksh — ;

Sanskrit : Amara, Bhutanashana, Harksha, Nilakanthaksha, Pavana, Pushpa-

chanamara, Rudraksha, Sharvaksha, Shivaksha, Shivapriya, Trinameru — ;

Tamil : Akkam, Irattaiyuruttirasham, Kaurichangamani, Uruttiradcham,

Uruttirakkam — ; Telugu : Rudrachallu — Tulu : Rudraksha — ; Uriya :

Rudrakhyo — .

2. Elaeocarpus oblongus Gsertn. occurs in the Western

Peninsula, and in Malaya.

The fruit is used as an emetic.

Badaga. : Bikki — ; Canarese : Bikki, Hanaltadi, Hanillatade, Hennalatade — ;

Malay alam : Kattakara, Malankara — ; Tamil : Kattukkarai — Visayan :

Cabaite, Cabilte — .

3. Elaeocarpus serratus Linn, is found in the Western Penin-

sula, Ceylon, and Malaya.

The leaves are used in rheumatism, and as an antidote to poison.

The fruits are prescribed in dysentery and diarrhoea.

Bengal: Jalpai — Canarese : Bigada, Guddarenje, Perinkara — ; English :

Wild Olive — ; Hindi : Jalpi — ; Malayalam : Avil, Karamavu, Nallakara, Perun-

kara, Valiyakara — ; Sanskrit : Chiribilva — ; Sinhalese: Weralu — ; Tamil:

Ulangarai, Uruttiracham — ; Tulu: Rahubija — ; Uriya: Jolopari — .

4. Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. is found in the Western

Peninsula, and in Malaya.

A decoction of the bark is given in vomiting of blood, and in

biliousness-

The nuts are used in rheumatism, typhoid fever, and epilepsy.

Badaga: Rudraksha — ; Canarese: Bhutali, Dandele, Dandla, Rudrak,

Rudraksha, Rudrakshi — •; Hindi: Rudrak — ; Kadir : Navati, Pag-umbal,

Pillahi, Pulandi — ; Malayalam: Ammakkaram, Kotuvasi, Maggara, Nakara,

Navati, Pillahi, Pulanthi — ; Mysore: Danala — ; Tamil: Pagumbal, Rudrak-

sham, Uruttracham — .

Grewia

The genus numbers 150 species spread over Asia, Africa and

Australia, mostly tropical.

Mucilaginous and demulcent, useful in the treatment of diarrhoea

and dysentery.

The following are used medicinally in Indo China — G. paniculata

Roxb. — ; in the Philippine Islands — G. paniculata Roxb-, G.umbel-

lata Roxb. — ; in Australia — G. hirsuta Vahl — - ; in Tropical Africa —

G- carpinifolia Juss., G. mollis Juss., G. populifolia Vahl, G. villosa

Willd. — ; in South Africa — G. occidentalis Linn. — .

A. Inflorescence terminal and axillary (sometimes extra-

axillary). Flowers in umbellate cymes

I. Scandent shrubs. Torus long. Drupes obscurely

lobed, purple ... ... ... G. umbellata.

II. Shrubby. Torus short. Drupes yellowish, gener-

ally 2-lobed, lobes the size of a small pea, orange-

red ... ... ... ... G. populifolia.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS

97

B. Inflorescence leaf-opposed and axillary. Leaves glabrous

1. Grewia asiatica Linn, is cultivated throughout India.

The fruit is a well-known Ayurveda medicine credited with

astringent, cooling, and stomachic properties.

An infusion of the bark is used as a demulcent. The Santals

use the root-bark for rheumatism.

The leaf is employed as an application to pustular eruptions,

and the bud is also prescribed by native practitioners.

Ajmere : Dhamni — ; Arabic : Phalasah — - ; Bengal : Phalsa, Shukri — ;

Burma: Pintayaw, Tagaw — ; Bombay: Phalasi — ; Canarese : Buttiyudippe,

Jana, Tadasala — ; Central Provinces: Dharnru, Dhamun — ; Deccan: Phulsha,

Pulsha — ; Gujerat : Phalsa — ; Hindi: Dhamin, Karra, Parusha, Phalsa, Phar-

vah, Pharsa, Phulsa, Shukri—; Kohlu : P'istawan — ; Kolami : Gonyia, Sing'

hindamin — ; Konkani : Phalsi — ; Kctra : Pharwan — ; Malay alam : Chadicha —

Marathi: Phalsi — ; Nepal: Sialposra — ; Newari: Fussi — ; North-Western

Provinces: Dhaman, Phalsa, Pharsiya — ; Parbut: Fulsa, Fursu — ; Persian:

Falseh, Palasah — - ; Punjab : Phalsa, Phalso, Pharoah, Phalue^ — ; Pushtu :

Pastaoni, SSiikarimaiwah — ; Sanskrit: Alpasthi, Dhanv anchhada , Giripilu,

Mriduphala, Nagadalapam, Nilacharma, Nilamandala, Parapara, Paravata,

Parusha, Parushaka, Porusha, Purusha, Roshana — ; Santal: Jangolat — ;

Sind : Phalsa, Phalso, Pharaho, Pharoah — - ; Sinhalese : Dowaniya, Hin-dam-

aniya— ; Tamil: Palisa, -Tadachi, Unnu — ; Telugu: Jana, Nallajana, Pedda-

jana, Phutiki, Putiki — ; Urdu: Phalasah — ; Uriya: I’harosakoli — .

2. Grewia carpinifolia Juss. is found in the Western Peninsula

and is distributed to Tropical Africa.

In West Tropical Africa the plant is used medicinally or to

combine with other medicines. Women use it in washing the hair

to remove or prevent lice, and put the roots in soup when approach-

ing childbirth.

In East Tropical Africa the broth obtained by boiling the head

of a kid in a decoction of the root is taken in cases of diuresis and

polyuria.

Ashanti : Ntabanu — ; Ewe : Gayalige, Tupoetupoe — ; Fanti : Nkukumbe,

Ntaanta — - ; Ga : Asegetete-ntaata, Asegremi-tsho — ; Gosha : Donoi — - ; Krobo :

Akpe-tsho — ; Somali : Debi — ; Yoruba : Itakun okere — .

7

98 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoL XLIV

3. Orewia hirsuta Vahl occurs in the sub-Himalayan tract up

to 4,500 feet from the Indus eastwards, the Salt Range, Bihar,

Orissa, Burma, the southern Provinces, and Ceylon.. It is dis-

tributed to North Australia.

I he fruit is employed as a medicine by the Santals, in diarrhoea

and dysentery. The root pounded is also prescribed for the same

diseases, and powdered in water is applied externally to hasten

suppuration, and as a dressing for wounds. The paste dries and

forms a hard coating, thus effectually excluding air from the raw

surface,

t his plant is used by the aborigines of North-Western Australia

as a remedy for dysentery.

Arabic : Karnafetusa — ; Australia : Plain Currant — ; Betul : Kharota — ;

Bombay : Gowali, Gowli— ; Burma : Kyettayavv — ; Canarese : Chikkudippe,

Jana, Udippe — ; Hasada : Setalele — ; Hindi: Gursukri, Kakarundah, Kukur-

bicha — ; Kharwar : Gursukri — ; Kolami : Setaandir, Setabeli, Setakata — ;

Marathi: Govli — ; Merwara : Phrongli — ; Naguri: Seta-bili, Seta-kata — ■;

Persian : Karalasrumi — ; Porebunder : Khoddhramani — ; Queensland : Karoorn,

Kooline, Ouraie — ; Santal : Setaandir, Setabeli, Setakata — ; Tamil : Tavidu — ;

Telugu : Bidarachipuru, Budda, Cbinnachipuru, Chipuru, Chittijana, Jibilike,

Muvalchu, Tellajana — ; Urdu: Kakarundehrumi — ; Uriya: Kulo, Sonaranga —

4. Grewia Microcos Linn, occurs in Eastern Bengal, Assam,

Burma, the Western Peninsula, Mysore, and Ceylon. It is distri-

buted to Java and China.

The plant is much used medicinally ; it is given for indigestion,

eczema and itch, smallpox, typhoid fever, dysentery, syphilitic

ulceration of the mouth.

Bombay: Ansale, Shiral — ; Burma: Myaza — ; Canarese: Abhhrangu,

Biliyabhhrangu, Majjigesoppu — ; Malay alam *: Kottakka— ; Sinhalese: Keliya — ;

Tamil: Kadambu, Visalam — ; Tulu . Abroni — .

5. Grewia paniculata Roxb. is common in the Malay Peninsula

and in Indo-China, in open country.

In the southern parts of Indo-China a decoction of the roots is

given as a cure for cough.

Indo-China: Co ke, Poplear thorn — ; Malay: Chenderai hutan — ; Visayan:

Bangalad — .

6. Grewia populifolia Vahl extends from the arid tracts of the

Punjab, Sind, Rajputana, and Western India, down to the Nilgiri

Hills. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Arabia, tropical Africa,

Mauritius.

A mucilage of the bark is used by the women of West Tropical

Africa to cleanse the hair of vermin.

Somali women take a decoction of the roots to incite the foetus

in the womb and thus ascertain that it is alive.

Falor : Sonne — ; Gosha : Moris — ; Kohat : Shikari mewa — ; Kolami : Bursa —

None: Sonne — ; Punjab: Ganger, Gangi, Kanger, Khircha, Inzarre — ; Pushtu:

Khircha, Madzar — | Rajputana: Ganegam, Gangan, Gangerun — ; Serere :

Nghel, Nguel — ; Sind: Gangi, Gango — ; Somali’ Morio — Telugu : Gundukadira,

Kadadari, Kaladi, Kattekolupu — ; Tuareg: Tarkat — Tukulor : Keli, Kelli — ;

Wolof: Kel — .

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS

7. Grewia sclerophylla Roxb. occurs throughout the sub-

Himalayan tract and outer hills of Kumaon, up to 3,500 feet,

Sikkim, Assam, Chittagong, Ava.

The root is prescribed in coughs and irritable conditions of the

intestines and bladder. The decoction is also used as an emollient

enema.

Bengal: Phalsa — ; Burma: Petshat — ; Canarese : Darsuk, Kadukadele — ;

Cutch : Susaka — ■ ; Dehra Dun Gurbheli — ; Gujerati : Padekado — ; Haldwani :

Phalsa— ; Hindi : Pharsia — ; Kumaon : Pharsia — - ; Marathi : Khatkhati,

Pandharidhaman — ; Mundari: Gaphni — ; Tamil : Kattukkadaii, Punaippiduk-

kan — ; Telugu: Bankajana — ; Tharu : Dapher — .

8. Grewia tenax Fiori is found in the Punjab, the desert of

Western Rajputana, Sind, Baluchistan, Cutch, Southern Maratha

Country, the Deccan and Carnatic of the Madras Presidency, and

Ceylon. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia, tropical

Africa, and Mauritius. It is most probably identical with G.

popuLifoiia Vahl,

A Baluchi medicine for all sorts of diseases and very highly

esteemed. The berries are given for colds.

in Jhalawan a decoction of the wood is given as a cure for

coughs and pains in the side.

Arabic: Chodar, Moucken, Nabba — ; Baluchi: Gwangir, Buzi putrunk — ;

Brahui : Gwangir — ; jhalawan: Gwangi, Kango — ; Kalat : Rango — ; Mandi :

Putrunk — ; Rajputana: Gangeran, Gangerun, Gangi, Gang'o, Kankeran — :

Sinhalese < : Katuperatti— ; Tamil : Achu — ; Telugu : Gundukadira, Kadadari,

Kaladi, Kattekolupu — .

9. Grewia tiiiaefolia Vahl occurs in the sub-Himalayan region

from the Jumna to Nepal up to 4,000 feet, Central India, all the

districts of the Madras Presidency, Bihar, Orissa, Burma, and

Ceylon. It is distributed to East Tropical Africa.

In the Konkan the bark, after removal of the tuber, is rubbed

down with water, and the thick mucilage strained from it and

given in 5-tola doses, with 2 tolas of the flour of Panicum miliaceum

(warrij as a remedy for dysentery.

The bark is also employed externally to remove the irritation

from cow-itch.

The wood reduced to a powder acts as an emetic, and is employed

as an antidote to opium poisoning.

Bengal : Dhamani, Pharsa — ; Bhil : Dhamnak — ; Bombay : Damana, Kara-

kana — ; Canarese: Batale, Butale, Buttele, Dadsal, Jana, Tadagana, Tadasali,

Tadasalu, Thadasal, Thadsal — ; Centra! Provinces : Damun, Dhaman, Dhamni — ;

Ceylon : Chadachi — ; English : Dhaman—; Gond : Ainlubaranda, Kasul, Khesla — ;

Gujerat : Dalmon, Dhamana — ; Hindi: Dhaman, Dhamani, Dhamin, Pharsa — ;

Kadir : Chatachi, Una — ; Kharwar : Dhaman—; Khond : Kahal, Karkana — ;

Kolami : Ahsing, Dhamin, Gonyer — , Konkani : Butale, Dadsale, Damoni — ;

Kumaon: Pharsia — ; Kurku: Dhamni — ; Malay alam : Satchi, Una — ;

Marathi : Daman, Damni, Dhaman, Karavai ani, Karakarani — ; Matheran :

Dhaman — ; Mundari : Asin, Asindaru, Bengadaru — ; Mayurbhanj : Kultho — ;

Porebunder : Dhaman, Dharman — ; Sanskrit: Dhamsi, Dlanuvriksha, Dharmana,

Dharwana, Manabala, Pichhilaka, Pichhilatvaka, Raktakusuma, Rujasaha,

Ruksha, Swaduphala — ; Santali : Janoolat, Olat — '; Saora: Inuputada — ;

Sinhalese: Daminiya, Daminne — ; Tamil: Sadachi, Tada, Tarra, Una, Unnu— ;

Telugu: Charachi, Ettatada, Jana, Nulijana, Tada, Tadajana, Udupai — ;

Tulu : Kanapadi — ; Uriya: Bhangia, Dhaman, Dhamono, Dhamuro — .

100 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

io. Grewia umbellata Roxb. is found in the Malay Penin-

sula, Siam, and Borneo.

The leaves are applied to cuts and wounds.

Malay : Akar chenderai, Akar kapialu, Akar sekapu, Akar -sempelas lida

kuching — ; Philippines : Danloy — .

n. Grewia yillosa Willd. occurs in the Trans-Indus, the

Punjab, Rajputana, Sind, Gutch, Kathiawar, the Deccan and

Carnatic of the Madras Presidency from the Kistna southwards.

It is distributed to the Cape Verde Islands and tropical Africa.

The juice of the fresh bark is used with sugar and water for

gonorrhoea and urinary complaints attended with irritability of

the bladder.

The root is employed for diarrhoea in Chota Nagpur.

East of Chad, in tropical Africa, the root is an ingredient in

native prescriptions for syphilis and smallpox.

The roots macerated and triturated with milk are a Somali

cure for belly ache in babies ; the adults apply a poultice to the abdo-

men, the roots are ground with as little water as possible.

Ajmer e : Dhohan — ; Baluchi: P'achini putrunk — ; Canarese : Buttigaragale,

Garakele, Sannudippe — ; Cutch : Luskano — ; Ewe : Adzadze — ; Falor : Lekit — ;

Gujerati : Padekhado, Parekhado — ; Hausa : Gwiwar rak ’umi — ; Kamba :

Mugu— ; Kolami : Gaphni— ; Mangu : Yumbu — ; Marathi : Kharmati — ;

Merwara : Dhokelan — ; None: Ngomen — ; Punjab: Jalidar, Kaskusri, Tham-

tlier — ; Pushtu : Inzarra, Pastuwanne — ; Rajputana : Lonkas — ; Santali :

Tarsekolap — ; Tamil: Kullai — ; Telugu: Benta, Chenula — ; Tigre : Hafule,

Khafule — ; Wolof : Horom sap — .

Triumfetta

The genus consists of 75 tropical species.

All the species are mucilaginous, demulcent, bechic, and

dieuretic ; but those more commonly used are T. rhomboidea Jacq.

and T, semitriloba Linn, generally, and T. Lappida Linn, in

Guiana.

Fruit the size of a small pea; spines hooked, glabrous or

ciliated ... ... ... ... ... T. rhomboidea.

Fruit the size of a large pea; spines bristly or shaggy ... T. semitriloba.

i. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. occurs in tropical and sub-

tropical India, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, from

which it extends to China. It is distributed to Africa and

America.

The root is bitter and acrid, and used as a diuretic.

The bark and fresh leaves are given in diarrhoea and dysentery.

The leaves, flowers and fruits are mucilaginous and astringent.

They are given in gonorrhoea. The fruit is believed to promote

parturition.

Zulu women take a hot infusion of the root to facilitate child-

birth or to hasten the inception of parturition when it is delayed.

In La Reunion and Mauritius the mucilaginous roots and

flowers are used for their demulcent, bechic, and diuretic

properties.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LIN DEN BLOOMS

101

The pounded root is applied to sore eyes and to boils in Mada-

gascar ; the leaves and the stems bruised .together are used for

poulticing all sorts of tumours. In the district of Menabe the

plant, associated with Cynodon dactylon , is applied to burns and

sore eyes.

In Brazil a decoction of the herb or of the fruit is used as an

injection in inveterate gonorrhoea.

In Northern Nigeria the leaves, along with natron and bran,

are given to horses for internal troubles, Similarly in Sierra Leone

the seeds are mixed with Guinea-corn and given to horses for

worms, and constipation.

Agolo : Abali oicha — ; Aguku: Abali ilenza — ; Akim : Betekuo — ; Ant-

sianaka : Besofimbavy, Besofinantanana — ; Bakwiri : Toli — ; Bengal : Buno-

kra — ; Betsileo : Besofina, Kihasinkasina — ; Bombay : Nichardi — ; Brazil:

Carapicho, Carapicho da Canada — ; Ceylon : Aaiyooldi — ; English : Paroqueet

Burr — ; Ewe: Bobui — ; Goa: Tupsado — ; Gujerati : Jhipato — ; Hansot :

Bharvado — ; Hausa : ’Danka ’dafi, Suren fadama — ; Hindi: Banokra, Chikti,

Chiriyari — ; Hova : Tsindailay, Tsitiamoty — ; Ibo : Udo — ; Ijebu : Epafo — :

La Reunion: Herisson blanc — ; Madagascar : Besofina, Tsindailay — ;

Marathi: Jhinjhira, Jhinjudi, Kutrevandare, Nichardi — ; Matheran : Nech-

arda — ; Mauritius: Herbe a panier, Herisson blanc, Aadaye otti — ; Mende .

Chobwe, Chohobwe, Sogbe, Sogbei — ; Mundari : Mindiat, Mindilata — ;

Onitsha : Udo mberi — ; Owerri: Azuzo, Azu uzo, Oke udo, Udo mberi— ;

Sakalave : Kisalenjy, Tsirrijy — ; Sanskrit: Jhinjharita, Jhinjhirita, Jhinjhurdi,

Jhirpata, Kantaphali — ; Sinhalese: Epala — ; Tamil: Ottuppullu, Puramutti— ;

Telugu: Chirusitrika, Tutturubenda — ; Timne : Agbint-marabana, Egbun-

temoer, Ekboentemoer — ; Twi : Petekuku — ; Umu Ahia : Ngbo — ; Uriya :

Bojoromuli, Jotojoti — ; Wolof: Douperei't — ; Yoruba: Ako-bolobolo, Boko-pupa,

Ilasa-omde — ; Zulu: inDolaencane, iNorthwane — .

2. Triumfetta semitriloba Linn, is a tropical weed.

The leaves and fruit are mucilaginous and astringent.

The leaves are used in parts of Sierra Leone as a medicine for

dysentery. In Cameroons a cold infusion of the leaves along with

those of Microdesmis pub(*yula is taken as a remedy for diarrhoea.

In Brazil a decoction of the herb or of the fruit is used as an

injection in inveterate gonorrhoea.

Aguku: Agamevumawo — ; Ashanti: Mfo — ; Bakwiri: Toli — ; Brazil: Cara-

picho, Carapicho da Calqada — ; Cameroons : Okon, Okung — ; Duala : Wonge — :

English: Burweed — ; Ewe: Bobui — ; Ibo : Udo, Udo ji — ; Koranko : Segbe — ;

Limb a : Ubama-wuyeremi — ; Mende: Bongewuli, Bonhui, Chobwe, Kpolohui,

Kponhui, Pohui, Sogbe — ; Nzima: Egurie — ; Onitsha: Udo umuaka — ; Owerri:

Udo umuaka — ; Tagalog : Calotang-bilok, Colotan — ; Timne: E-boloni, Ka-

boloni, Ka-bononi, Raka — ; Visayan: Daracot — ; Yoruba: Esura — ,

TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER AND

HENLE.

Feeding and Breeding Habits.

BY

P. N. Sarangdhar, m.sc.,

Research Assistant,

Department of Industries , Bombay.

( With three plates).

An opportunity to amplify the existing- morpholog-ical description

and other characteristics of Galeocerdo tigrinus was afforded to

the author during- work on the extraction of oil from livers of

sharks and rays. The tiger shark is fairly common off the

Bombay, Ratnagiri and Kanara coasts. It is one of the terrors

of coastal fishermen, who dread it on account of its extensive de-

predations and the severe havoc it causes to their nets, often

entailing loss of their entire catch. Fishermen do not go in deliberate

quest of the fish, as there is no shark industry in our Province.

WheneveY it is caught, it is accidental, being due solely to its being-

enmeshed in the nets. The fish feeds indiscriminately and voraci-

ously or^ most of our edible fishes such as pomfrets, eels, ribbon

fishes, etc. This fact has been amply borne out by an examination

of its stomach contents. The shark is generally common from

November to May and is taken at a depth of 6 to io fathoms while

attacking nets with edible fish.

No systematic record of its life history is at hand and this

deficiency, the author thought might partly be filled by a detailed in-

formation of its external characters, feeding and breeding habits,

so that it may contribute to a fuller knowledge of an important mem-

ber of the elasmobranchs which visits our coast.

Family ... Carcharhinidae,

Genus ... Galeocerdo Muller and Henle.

Species ... Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle.

Local names : — Waghbeer or Waghsheer.

(Plate i. Fig. A.).

Description: — The genus Galeocerdo is characterised by the

presence in both jaws of large, compressed and sub-triangular teeth,

denticulated and externally notched. Each of the denticulations

possesses serrations on its edges. The presence of such teeth, to-

gether with the presence of minute spiracles, labial folds and pro-

minent subcaudal pits, singles out this genus from the remaining

genera of the family Carcharhinidae. The shark is locally knovrn

as Waghbeer or Waghsheer t a name which describes the tiger-like

Journ. Bombay Nat. Mist. Soc.

Plate i Tiger shark, Galeocerdo tigrinus. A, female 13 ft. 1 in. long landed at Sassoon Dock, Bombay ;

undersurface of head ; C, typical teeth of same*

TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & IIENLE 103

marking's on the individuals of this species in young stages. The

snout is shovel-shaped, with a rounded outline. The length of its

preoral portion is slightly less than half the width of the mouth

and nearly i / 3rd that between the eye and the first gill opening.

The width of the snout beyond the nostrils is less than the general

width of the head. There are grooves at the angles of the mouth,

which extend along both jaws for a considerable distance, that on

the uppper jaw being nearly thrice as long as that on the lower

(Plate 1. Fig. B). Nostrils, with distinct, triangular flap-like valves

are situated on the borders of the snout, rather nearer its tip than

the apex of the mouth. The eyes, of a moderate size, are oval in

outline, with dark iris and rounded pupils. The spiracles are small

and oval and are situated behind the eyes at a distance which is

nearly twice the horizontal diameter of the orbit. Each gill slit is

almost thrice the size of the eye.

21-24

Teeth: . They are triangular in outline, with broad

bases and with notches on their outer borders. The borders of the

teeth are broadly serrated and each of the serrations has still finer

serrations. The teeth on the upper jaw are slightly bigger than

those on the lower (Plate 1. Fig. C).

Fins : — The pectorals are falciform in outline and extend to

beneath the hind end of the base of the first dorsal fin. The outer

edge of each is four times the inner. The first dorsal originates

slightly behind the axil of the pectoral. The second dorsal originates

very slightly in advance of the anal and is a little bigger than that

fin. The caudal fin is nearly one-fourth the total length, with a

well-developed subcaudal lobe. Two prominent keels run along the

lateral borders of the trunk, beginning some distance behind the

pelvic fins. Also, a prominent mid-dorsal crest starts behind the

first dorsal and ends slightly ahead of the second dorsal.

Colour : — Bluish or yellowish grey above and white on the side

and beneath, tinged with pink. The dorso-lateral surface in adults

is marked by faint vertical bars or stripes. These markings fade

with age and then the colour appears to be grey above and white

underneath. Even then faint, dark, rounded spots may be dis-

cernible on the sides of the caudal blade. The newly born young,

however, are pale grey, marked with dark, more or less vertical

bars all over the dorsal surface and over the dorsal fins.

Size : — This shark attains a great size. Individuals measuring

from 8 ft. to 13 ft. in length and weighing from 500 lb. to over

a ton are frequently landed all along the western coast, from

November to March.

Habitat : — Red sea, seas of India to Japan and beyond.

Feeding habits : — The shark is a nomad of the waters that

surround our subcontinent — -a fact which is evidenced in its wide

geographical distribution. It feeds on smaller sharks, fishes like

eels, pomfrets, black pomfrets, ribbon fishes, silver bar fishes,

mullets, etc. and prawns and crabs. It also feeds on rotting

carcases and other offal. Two sea snakes were taken from the

stomach of a specimen landed at Ratnagiri, while a turtle ( Chelone

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

my das), wholly intact, was found in the stomach of one caught

in Bombay waters. The diversity of diet is well illustrated by

an enumeration of the motley creatures found in a shark landed

at Bombay on 17-1-1942. The shark which measured 13' 1", had

a most amazing miscellany of food recently swallowed, consisting of

and a large quantity of prawns, crabs, squids etc.

The pomfrets secured from the shark’s stomach were completely

whole and wholesome, so much so that the fishermen washed them

and sold them to the local dealers. Their appearance was such that

none would have hazarded the view that they had been recovered

from a shark’s stomach. (Plate 3. Fig. A). Swallowing of fish

complete and untorn by such sharks is also commented on by G. P.

Whitley, who writes as follows —

‘It would seem that the tiger shark is not a fierce or voracious man-eater,

but a quiet scavenger which approaches its food and swallows it without tearing

it in pieces, but it is perhaps not safe to judge too far from habits in captivity.’

The list of fish taken from its stomach clearly indicates the

enormous havoc wrought by this shark with consequent loss to our

fishermen. Unfortunately, the intensity of this menace cannot be

abated in our Presidency in view of the total absence of a shark

fishing industry, which would automatically have the effect of re-

ducing the depredations of these monsters and minimising loss to

the fishermen. Local fishermen catch sharks only incidentally while

fishing for other varieties of fish for the market.

Describing its mode of feeding, Dr. Jerdon, a keen observer of

Indian fishes, notes that: —

‘this shark swells itself out so as to look like a floating mass of animal sub-

stance and having thus decoyed its; prey, it immediately attacks it.

Our fishermen, too, have observed this shark swelling out into

a sort of floating mass but have been unable to explain its signi-

ficance. To this extent, Jerdon’s observation appears to be correct.

The tiger shark is known to attack man, and recently there was

a report from Malwan, on the Ratnagiri coast, of a man being

attacked and killed by one. The fishermen recognised the assai-

lant as ‘waghbeer’. This shark also works havoc among fisher-

men’s nets which are often carried away by it.

Economics : — The shark is fairly important from an economic

point of view. Its liver yields a high percentage of oil of fairly

good vitamin A content, having a vitamin potency from two to

three thousand Blue units per gramme. The maximum weight of

liver recorded was 150 lb., which yielded 10 gallons of oil. The

livers of adult sharks are not eaten, but those of newly born young

Five white pomfrets ..

One black pomfret

Karli

Palla

73 Ribbon fishes

Koth

Mandeli

Stromateus cinereus

Stromateus niger

Chirocentrus dorab

Clupe a ilisha

Trichiurus savala

Sciaenoides brunneus

Coilia dussumieri

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate 2 A, uterus partly opened to show arrangement of compartments ; B, spindle-shaped, unfertilized egg within

shell membrane ; C, compartment showing embryo within the water-filled sac in the shell membrane ; D, embryo 6.8 cms. long

with its umbilical cord and large yolk-sac. Note filaments in gill slits and spiracles.

TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE 105

ones are considered a delicacy by fisherfolk. The flesh is salted

and consumed in inland districts and is considered exceedingly

nourishing. The fins of this shark are not of much value.

Breeding habits (early stage)

Large females from io ft. to 13 ft. long and bearing from 26 to

44 young ones are frequently landed in Bombay. A female measur-

ing 12 ft. in length and weighing about 800 lb. was landed at

Sassoon Dock on December 15, 1941. Examination of the fish

revealed that it was pregnant, both uteri being well developed,

elongated structures, occupying nearly the whole of the abdominal

cavity. Both ovaries were present, but did not contain prominent

eggs. The oviducts were short and the nidamental glands, which

were situated nearer the uteri, consisted of two coiled horns each,

one of the horns being directed posteriorly and the other anteriorly.

The uteri were long bag-like structures, not very broad and had

thin vascular walls. They opened by a common aperture into the

cloaca.

Structure of uterus and disposition of embryos.

(Plate 2. Fig. A).

The outermost epithelial coat of the uterus and the fibro-serous

coat next to it can easily be separated from the highly vascular

spongy coat, which contains greatly relaxed circular muscular

fibres. The uterine wall being carefully cut through, each uterus

is seen to be divided by transverse partitions into about 22 trans-

verse compartments. The mucous membrane lining the compart-

ments is very highly vascular. The embryo in each compartment

is placed rather obliquely, enclosed in a thin and rounded sac

formed within an elastic, yellow, iridiscent shell-membrane and filled

with a watery liquid in which it floats freely. In front of and

behind this sac, there are two brownish yellow, wrinkled tuftSj

formed by great folding and plaiting of the shell membrane.

Only 18 out of the 22 compartments of the above-mentioned

female contained developing embryos, while four contained unferti-

lised, spindle-shaped eggs enclosed in thin pouches of the shell-

membranes. Both the embryos and the unfertilised eggs, together

with their shell-membranes, were closely examined in the laboratory.

Shell membranes and unfertilised eggs.

(Plate 2. Fig. B).

Eggs that escape fertilisation receive the same treatment

from the nidamental glands as fertilised eggs. These are spindle-

shaped, transparent, gelatinous structures enclosed in shell mem-

branes and lie obliquely in compartments in the same manner as

the embryos. Tufts of the shell membrane are present, and on these

being stretched out, the membrane extends into a thin, long quadr-

angular sheet, in the centre of which a spindle-shaped sac is seen

to be present. This has thin, transparent walls derived from the

laminae of the membrane. When the upper wall of the sac is care-

fully removed, a transparent, gelatinous, albuminous substance is

seen surrounding a small quantity of pale yellow yolk in the sac.

This substance and a little of the yolk also extend into the ends of the

106 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

spindle. There is, however, no watery liquid in these sacs as

in the sacs containing- embryos. It is possible that the watery liquid

in the sacs containing embryos originates from this gelatinous

albuminous substance.

Shell membranes and embryos.

(Plate 2. Fig. C).

The wrinkled and plaited tufts of the shell membrane enclosing

the embryo afe stretched out and the membrane spreads out into

a long, thin, elastic, hyaline and transparent quadrangular sheet,

in the centre of which there is a thin-walled sac filled with a watery

liquid. In this, the tiny embryo, with its umbilical cord and yolk-

sac, floats freely. The upper wall of this central sac is seen to be

formed by a very thin lamina rising from the centre of the shell -

membrane.

Embryos.

(Plate 2. Fig. D).

Dimension# : —

(a) Total length of embryo — -6.8 to 7.5 cms.

(b) Length of the caudal fin — 1.8 cms.

(c) Length of longest branchial filament — 2.5 cms.

(d) Length of umbilical cord — 4.3 cms.

(e) Diameter of yolk-sac — ^5.6 cms.

(/) Length of filament in spiracle — 1.1 cms.

The embryos are semi-transparent, pale white or ivory, partly

suffused with crimson, and have loose membranes hanging in the

region of the fins. The myotomes can be seen through the trans-

parent skin covering them. All the external features seen in

the adult are developed, but are in a rudimentary condition. The

head region is rounded and swollen dorsally, and the divisions of the

brain can be seen through. The region of the snout in front of the

mouth and below the swollen brain region is rounded in outline,

its length being nearly equal to the width of the mouth at this stage.

Large prominent eyes, with sparsely pigmented iris, are situated on

the lateral margins of the head. Some distance behind the eyes are

situated tiny spiracles, rounded in outline as contrasted with the

oval spiracles of the adult form. Through each spiracle issues a

bunch of crowded filaments similar to the branchial filaments. The

presence of such filaments in the spiracles of early embryos suggests

the possibility that they, too, may be serving the same function as

the branchial filaments, viz. of absorbing the liquid in the sac, which

is probably nutritive in nature.

A bunch of crowded, crimson-coloured branchial filaments issues

from each gill slit. Rudiments of all the fins are present, these being

mere membranes, only partially covering the fin rays. The

pectorals arise behind the last gill slit. The first dorsal fin is

situated midway between the pectorals and the pelvics. The second

dorsal and the anal fins are opposite each other. The sub-caudal

lobe is not well developed. The umbilical cord pierces the abdo-

minal \yall between the pectoral fins.

Joum. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 3

B

Plate 3 : — A, embryo with yolk-sac and umbilical cord (advanced stage). Note

conspicuous tiger-like markings; B, 42 embryos each weighing 1 lb. are

seen spread out along the mother’s body. The white bag on the left is the

shark’s stomach from which were taken several basketsfull of miscellaneous

and quite fresh fish (Inset top right).

TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE 107

Yolk-sac : — This is a massive rounded bag, filled with heavy

yellow yolk, and its walls have well developed blood capillaries

which continuously unite to form larger vessels. A transparent,

gelatinous disc is present at the upper pole of the yolk-sac. A

single prominent vein courses vertically up along the yolk-sac wall

towards the disc, and two horizontally placed arteries unite to form

a single artery, so that it and the single vein eventually emerge

from the disc to pass into the umbilical cord. Between these two

vessels can be discerned passing upwards a very minute prolongation

of the sac, and this represents the yolk-duct. The yolk-sac is

enclosed in a very thin envelope of connective tissue which is con-

tinued over the umbilical cord.

Umbilical cord: — This structure originates at the upper pole

of the yolk-sac and terminates by piercing the abdominal wall of

the embryo between the pectoral fins. The cord consists of the

umbilical artery, the umbilical vein and the yolk-duct between the

two. The vein and the artery are formed by the union of the

venous and arterial capillaries respectively, ramified in the meso-

blastic tissue of the yolk-sac wall, while the yolk-duct is a mere

prolongation of the sac conducting yolk granules. All these three

structures are enclosed in a gelatinous, tubular sheath, which, in

turn, is covered over by a prolongation of the connective tissue

covering the yolk-sac. There are no appendicula on the umbilical

cord. The exact arrangement of the umbilical vessels in the body

of the embryo cannot be made out, but the yolk-duct is seen to

give rise to an internal yolk-sac which joins the upper end of the

colon on its dorsal aspect.

Breeding Habits. (Advanced stage).

(Plate 3. Fig. A).

An outsize female, weighing over a ton, was landed at Sassoon

Dock on January 17, 1942. It contained a liver weighing approxi-

mately 150 lb. The monster was captured as it was attacking the

bag end of a ‘dol’ net in which a great quantity of fish had been

trapped. The shark was dead by the time it was landed. Its

dimensions were as follows: —

(1) Total length from tip of snout to tip of tail

(2) Length of caudal fin

(3) Girth round widest part of body

(4) Width at angles of the mouth

(0 Length of preoral portion of snout

(6) Distance between the eye and spiracle

(7) Distance between the eye and the first gill

opening

... 13 ft. .1 in.

... 3 ft. .2 in.

... 6 ft. .8 in.

... 21 in.

... 6 in.

... 2.75 in.

... 16.5 in.

Both the uteri in this female were distended structures occupying

the entire length of the abdominal cavitv. The ovaries were rather

small and did not contain ripe ova. The oviducts were, short.

The wall of each uterus is rather thin. The spongy coat is

hip-hlv vascular and the circular muscle coat not verv prominent.

On carefully cutting through these, the transversely placed uterine

compartments come into view. The mucous membrane in each com-

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

partment is almost purplish crimson in hue, being highly vascular.

Each compartment contains a large water-filled sac enclosing the

embryo with its attached structures, viz., the umbilical cord and

the yolk-sac. These water-sacs, which are formed within the shell-

membranes, now assume such proportions as completely to obliterate

the proximal and distal plaits and folds of the shell membrane

present in the early stages of the embryonic development. A

slight tilting of these sacs causes the embryos, with their attached

structures, to move freely in the liquid, thus showing that the yolk-

sacs do not enter into any connection with the maternal tissue.

Each uterus of the aforesaid female contained 21 well developed

embryos, but only one embryo out of the 42 was under developed

and had undergone degenerative changes. Of the remaining- 41

embryos, 30 were female and 11 male.

Embryos.

The embryos at this stage are almost fully developed, but differ

from the parent fish in having a totally different dorsal colouration

and possessing the umbilical cords and yolk-sacs. The embryos

possess the following morphological characters.

The snout is semicircular in outline, its preoral portion being

slightly more than half the width of the mouth. The nostrils,

.with triangular valves, are situated midway between the tip of the

snout and the apex of the mouth. The groove along the upper jaw

is thrice as long as that on the lower, and extends below the anterior

margin of the orbit. The spiracles are situated behind the orbits

at a distance of about one-third the orbital diameter. The gill slits

are without branchial filaments. The pectoral fin originates below

a point slightly in front of the fourth gill slit. The first dorsal

originates behind the posterior end of the base of the pectoral, and

its hind tip does not reach the origin of the pelvic. The second

dorsal originates slightly in advance of the anal. The bases of

both these fins are nearly equal. The anal is situated midway

between the posterior end of the base of the pelvic and the root of

the caudal. The caudal fin is about one-third the total length of

the embryo.

Originating behind the skull and extending backwards on either

side of the mid-dorsal line are two keels which assume a lateral

position, a short distance ahead of the second dorsal, and continue

behind as the lateral keels. In the region of the caudal fin, they

turn upwards and continue on either side of the caudal blade. A

narrow groove extends from behind the base of the first dorsal

and stops short in front of the origin of the second dorsal. The

scales are sparingly set all over the body.

TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE 109

Colouration : — The head is grey. Roundish or oval black spots

are visible behind the skull. The dorsal surface of the body is

marked by black stripes or curved bars. There are dark trans-

verse bars on the first dorsal, and the top of the second dorsal is

black. Below and behind the second dorsal are darkish oval spots,

above the lateral keels, and these spots become rounded on either

side of the caudal blade. The upper margin of the caudal fin is

light in colour, but the lower is darker. The ventral surface is

ivory, as are also the pelvic and anal fins, although their tips show

a very faint grey pigmentation.

The Yolk-sac: — The yolk-sacs, are fairly big and contain

a considerable quantity of yellow, granular yolk in the lower parts.

Their walls are highly vascular, and the superficial blood capillaries

in some of the yolk-sacs run parallel to one another, coursing

vertically upwards. The capillaries ultimately join to form the um-

bilical vessels. At the upper pole of the yolk-sac there is a slight

bulge, marking the beginning of the umbilical cord. The large

size of the yolk-sacs with plenty of yolk yet left in them, tne

absence of any trace of foldings on their walls distally and their

free positions in the water-filled sacs containing the embryos, point

to the possibility that a yolk-sac placenta is not at all formed in

this species, and that nutrition is supplied to the developing embryo

in the form of yolk throughout its intra-uterine life.

Umbilical cord: — It consists of the vitelline duct, the umbilical

artery and the umbilical vein, enclosed in a smooth tubular sheath

of connective tissue reflcted from the outer layers of the yolk-sac

walls. On carefully opening this sheath, it is seen to contain a

certain amount of a dark-brown or reddish serumlike liquid in

contact with the vessels. This liquid is also found in the bulge at

the top of the yolk-sac. It is probable that the yolk is converted

into this liquid, which is finally absorbed by the umbilical vein and

carried into the hepatic portal system of the embryo.

The vitelline duct is seen to open into a fairly big internal yolk-

sac lying on the dorsal side of the colon and opening into it dorsally,

at its upper pole. The size of the internal yolk-sac is found to

vary inversely with that of the external yolk-sac, being larger when

the yolk in the external yolk-sac is small in quantity and vice versa,.

The umbilical vessels are traced into the body of the embryo, and

the vein is seen to join the hepatic portal vein before the latter

bifurcates to enter the hepatic lobes, while the umbilical artery is

seen to course along the posterior wall of the upper end of the

internal yolk-sac to become the continuation of a branch of the

coeliaco-mesenteric artery, the other branch of which supplies blood

to the posterior wall of the small intestine.

Comparison of the two embryonic stages of Galeocerdo tigrinus

reveals the following noteworthy points: —

(1) In both stages of development, the embryos are enclosed

in water-filled sacs formed in the shell membranes.

(2) The very small size of the embryo in the early stage

necessitates great plaiting and folding of the shell-membrane both

proximally and distally, whereas in the later stages the well-grown

110 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

embryo requires the covering of the entire shell-membrane, so that

the proximal and distal foldings disappear.

(3) 'I he branchial filaments are present in the earlier stages

and tneir function appears to be to absorb the liquid in the sac,

which is probably nutritive in value. The same function may be

assigned to the filaments in the spiracles. In the later stages the

branchial filaments as also the filaments in the spiracles are no longer

present and the function of nutrition is carried out by other well

developed structures, namely, yolk duct and the umbilical vessels.

(4) dhe embryos in the early stages are of a pale ivory colour,

no pigmentation being present. In the later stages, however, pig-

mentation is perfect and the dorsal colouration of the embryo is

characteristically tiger-like.

(5) No trace of a serum-like liquid is noticeable when the

umbilical cord is slit open in the earlier stages, whereas a reddish

serum-like liquid can be seen lying in contact with the umbilical

vessels when the sheath of the cord is opened in the later stages.

Inferences.

(1) The embryos of Galeocerdo tigrinus grow to a large size

(nearly 2.5 ft. in length) before birth. At birth they have con-

spicuous tiger-like markings on their bodies.

(2) Extra protection seems to be afforded to the developing

embryos by their envelopment in sacs filled with a watery liquid.

The liquid must probably also be having a nutritive function in the

earlier stages, at least, of the embryonic development.

(3) The large quantity of yolk in the yolk-sac appears to nourish

the embryo throughout its intra-uterine life. Further, the absence

of any folding of the yolk-sac wall even in the advanced stages of

development and the free • position of the embryo in the uterine

compartment seem to suggest that a yolk-sac placenta may not at

all form in the tiger shark.

Acknowledgment.

My best thanks are due to Dr. S. B. Setna, the Fisheries Officer,

for his valuable guidance and criticism, both in the field and in the

laboratory. He suggested the problem and the entire work was

done under his supervision.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Day, F. — The Fauna of British India. Fishes; Vol. I — 1889.

2. Fowler, H. W. — Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archi-

pelago and adjacent regions — 1941. Smith. Inst. U, S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100,

vol. xiii.

3. Garman, S. — Mem. Mus. of Comp. Zool. at Harward College, vol. xxxvi

19 *3-

4. Norman, J. R. & Fraser, F. C. — Giant Fishes, Whales and Dolphins — 1937.

5. Nichols, J. T. & Breder, C. M. — ‘The Marine Fishes of New York and

Southern New England.’ — Zoological Sci. Contribs. N. Y. Zool. Soc., vol. ix,

No. 1 — 1927.

6. Thillayampalam, E. M. — ‘Scoliodon’ Ind. Zool. Mem. ii — 1938.

7. Whitley, G. P. — The Fishes of Australia, Part I — Roy. Zool. Soc. N. S.

Wales, Sydney — 1940.

A REVIEW

REPORT OF THE GAME AND GAME FISHES PRESERVATION COM-

MITTEE ON THE EXISTING SPECIES OF GAME IN BENGAL. Com-

piled by L. R. Fawcus, Esq., c.i.e., i.c.s., Pages i-iv + i-ii+1-53, Superintendent,

Government Printing, Bengal, Government Press, Alipore, Bengal, 1943. Price —

Indian, Rs. 3 ; English, 5s. 3d.

The members of the Society and lovers of sport all over the world will be

greatly interested to learn of the publication of the Report under review. The

gradual decline of game in the Bengal ‘shikar’ areas, the likely chances of its

reaching the vanishing point, and the concern felt by the Bengal Government

in this matter, led to the appointment of the above mentioned Committee

with the hope of finding means to arrest this decline for the benefit of future

naturalists and sportsmen. At the outset, the Committee felt that it will be

profitable ‘to take stock, so far as we can, of the game which still remains in

Bengal and though no exact census is obviously possible, this Committee has

done its best to gather from those1 best able to give it, as accurate! information

as possible on the existing distribution in Bengal of the animals, birds and

fish which are conventionally known as game’. In the absence of precise defini-

tion of game animals, treatment of certain species, which the sportsman may

not call game but which those with love for natural history would look on

with interest, has also been included. No attempt has been made to compile

a catalogue of names or give technical descriptions of species, but, section by

section, some account is given of the game found in Bengal today, together

with information of their numbers, habitat and distribution. The Committee

has generally avoided to give exact specification of localities so as to save

destruction of game by pot-hunters in Bengal.

The first section of the Report deals with animals (mammals) such as

Greater and Lesser Cats; Civets and their relatives; Mongooses; Hyaena;

Dog Family; Weasels, Otters and Bears; Rodents; Wild Elephant in Bengal;

Rhinoceros in Bengal ; Bison and Buffalo ; Serow and Goral ; Antelopes and

Deer ; Pigs ; and Pangolins.

A treatment of Birds is given in the 2nd section and such forms are dealt

with as Pigeons and Doves; Sand Grouse; Peacocks and Pheasants; True

Quails and Partridges ; Button Quails ; Rails, Cranes, Bustards and Floricans ;

Plovers, Snipe and Woodcock ; Ortolans ; Ducks and Geese of Bengal ; and

Semi-Sporting Birds.

In the 3rd section larger Reptiles, such as Crocodiles, Python and Monitor

Lizards, are dealt with, while the final section, dealing with the Game Fishes

of Bengal, contains an account of the three Himalayan species of Mahseer,

Katli, Indian Trout and Goonch. A key to the three species of Mahseer is

given and their main distinguishing features are explained with the help of

illustrations.

The Report under review shows clear evidence of having been based on

extensive material, which has been carefully sifted and ably edited. The thanks

of sportsmen and naturalists are due to the Committee and especially to

Mr. L. R. Fawcus, who compiled the Report, for the production of such a useful

and interesting work.

The volume is nicely bound in the usual style of Government publications.

The printing and general get-up do considerable credit to the authorities of the

Bengal Government Press. A few typographical mistakes have been noted but

they were perhaps unavoidable in a compilation of this nature.

S. L. H.

1 Sub-Section of the Report dealing with ‘Elephants and Rhinoceros’ was

contributed by Mr. T. V. Dent, I.F.S., that on ‘Ducks and Geese of Bengal’

by Mr. W. A. S. Lewis, I.C.S. , and the one on ‘The Game Fishes of Bengal’

by Sunder Lai Hora, Director of Fisheries, Bengal.

OBITUARY

We regret to announce the death in England of Mr. Hugh

Whistler, the well-known ornithologist — author of A Popular Hand-

book of Indian Birds — early in July, 1943. A fuller obituary notice

will appear in a later issue.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.— THE RECORD SKULL OF AN INDIAN

CLOUDED LEOPARD (. NEOFELIS NEBULOSA GRIFFITH).

Although in Rowland Ward’s Records for 1935 skin-measure-

ments of the Clouded Leopard are entered, no mention is made of

the skulls presumably because they were considered to be of no

interest to Indian sportsmen. Since some of the readers of the

Journal may be interested in the subject, I give the conventional

dimensions of the skull of an adult 6 from Assam which

appears to be a little longer than any skull of which the measure-

ments have hitherto been published. It was figured by Gray in

1867, by Blanford in his Mammals of British India, p. 73 and by

myself in vol. i of my edition of this work, p. 247, 1939. The

skull itself, however, was not available to me when I drew up the

table of measurements (p. 25 2). In that table the largest specimen

entered was an adult d1 from Nepal which is appreciably shorter.

But in the Appendix to vol. ii of the same work, 1941, p. 475, I

gave the dimensions of an adult 6 from Sumatra which exceeded

the Nepal skull.

In the following table the length and breadth of 4 skulls are

entered in English inches and in millimetres, the latter being in

brackets: — •

It may be noted that the two largest skulls are longer than

the 6 skull of a Snow Leopard entered on p. 242 of my vol. i and

longer than several 9 skulls of Panthers entered on p. 230.

British Museum (Nat. Hist.), R. I. POCOCK.

London, S. W. 7.

September 11, 1942.

II.— ELEPHANT AND BISON ON ROAD WAYS.

Two incidents recently occurred on the Ghat Road leading down

from the Billigirirangan Hills. The first in connection with ele-

phants and a cart-bull, and the second a solitary bull bison — obvi-

ously sick — and a motor car.

(1) A single cart-bull had been trotting in front of a car travelling

from the Estate down the Ghat for some way, and eventually the

8

114 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoU XLIV

car was stopped and H., a visitor to Honnametti, got out and ran

after the bull in the hopes of turning it olf the road. On rounding

the corner an extraordinary sight met his eyes : — An elephant

group — a bull and 2 cows and a calf, had just come on to the road,

and as the cart-bull trotted up to the party the 2 cows put their

heads together and without hesitation pushed the cart-bull off the

road down into the long grass below. Luckily it was not much of

a drop and the cart-bull appeared to suffer no harm !

(2) While motoring up the road to Honnametti my wife came

on a solitary bull bison walking slowly up the road in the same

direction. The bison appeared to take no notice of the car behind

it but heaved from side to side as though very ill. On my wife

sounding the horn, however, the bull turned round, lowered its head

and advanced slowly towards the car. The car was reversed none

too steadily however and went into the bank ! The bull had in the

meantime turned again and proceeded to walk up the road once

more. It turned and repeated the performance every time the

horn was sounded. Eventually the bull turned the corner and

my wife gave it about 10 minutes before following slowly in the

car, only to find the bull waiting expectantly round the corner

facing her with its head down. Reversing back round the corner,,

my wife waited for about 20 minutes before proceeding slowly

forward again by which time the bull had left the road and could

be observed moving slowly through the long grass below, every

now and again staggering from side to side and giving every indi-

cation of suffering from either a severe wound or disease. One

may assume that sick as it was, the bull would have attacked the

car, had my wife not reversed on each occasion; and had those

in the car not realized that the bull was definitely not in its normal

condition, the incident might have given rise to a record of another

instance of an unprovoked attack by an unwounded bull bison.

C/o Base Post Office, R. C. MORRIS,

Ceylon. Lt.-Col.

March 23, 1943.

III.— OCCURRENCE OF THE HIMALAYAN TAHR

(. HEMITRAGUS JEMLAHICUS) IN SIKKIM.

As little appears to be known about the distribution of the

Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus) in the eastern part of its

range, the following note may be of interest.

Unfortunately I lost my shikar diary during the withdrawal from

Libya last year and this note is written from memory only, so the

details as to elevations, distances, etc., may be slightly erroneous,

but the main facts are correct.

In November 1939, while waiting to join up, I decided to fill in

time with a shooting trip in Sikkim as I was already living in the

Darjeeling district, the original object being simply to bag a Burhel

( Pseuddis nahoor).

While discussing passes etc. with the political officer at Gangtok,

I was told that earlier in the year a German Natural History Ex-

pedition, from I think, Munich, had discovered ‘a new kind of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

animal on the slopes of Kancheng-junga’. This animal was describ-

ed as a sort of goat or sheep and went by the local (Lepcha) name

of ‘shepi’. There was no mention of it in the Sikkim Durbar’s

list of game which may or may not be shot, and I could find out

nothing more about it in Gangtok.

It did not at that time occur to me that it might be a type of

Tahr, as the Tahr was not included in the above mentioned list

either, and although I believe the Tahr is known to occur as far

East as Bhutan, I had only heard of one case of its being reported

from Sikkim which was many years ago somewhere in the Talung

Chu. In any case a German Natural History Expedition would

presumably have recognised a Tahr on seeing one, and would

hardly have described it as ‘a new kind of animal’, though it must

be admitted I only had this information at second hand.

The omission of the Tahr from the Sikkim game list may be

due to confusion arising from the fact that in Sikkim and the

Darjeeling district the local (Paharia) name for Serow ( Capricornis

siwiatrensis ) is ‘tahr’ and the Serow is included in the list.

I had more or less forgotten about the ‘shepi’ until I got to

Chum Tang, a Lepcha village near where the Lachen and Lachung

rivers join to form the Teesta; here I found one of the local Lepchas

had joined the German expedition earlier in the year, and on enquiry

he said he knew of the place where they had found the ‘shepi’,

though he had not been with them at the time. It was many

years since he had seen a live specimen himself.

My time and stores being limited, I pushed on to Thanga after

Burhel but made arrangements for the Lepcha ‘shikari’ to go to

the ‘shepi’ ground straightaway and to report to me on my return

journey as to the chances of finding any.

On my getting back to Chum Tang about a fortnight later, the

shikari met me and told me that after spending several days and

nights in the jungle, he had located a flock of ‘shepi’. The ground

was apparently situated some distance up a small tributary, the

Pirn Chu, which joins the Lachen on its right bank about five miles

above Chum Tang.

The next morning we set off for the ‘shepi’ ground, travelling

light; the shikari, two coolies and myself. The distance from Chum

Tang turned out to be only about ten miles but the going was very

bad. A cattle path led along the bank of the Lachen for two or

three miles, but after that there was no track at all and kukris had

to be used frequently to cut a path through the jungle to allow the

laden coolies to follow. In many places ladders had to be made

out of tree-trunks to help them to climb up steep banks and rock-

faces and over some of the enormous boulders which completely

blocked the bed of the stream.

The range at the head of the Pirn Chu is some 12,000 to 14,000 ft.

in height and the valley floor slopes very rapidly towards the

Lachen, with numerous water-falls in its course. The hills on

either side are extremely steep and clothed in dense forest, but

where the bed of the stream reaches about 7,500 ft., the forest

stops abruptly and above this the banks on either side are positively

precipitous, while above the precipices there are steep grassy slopes

dotted with patches of scrub-jungle and stunted bamboos. The

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

whole area is cut up and broken by old land-slips and the surface

is mostly very loose and gives but poor foot-hold. The rain fall

during the monsoon must be fairly heavy, and at the time of year

that 1 was there (early December) the sun never penetrates to the

valley floor, leaving it cold and inhospitable.

By about 3 p.m. we had almost reached the point where the

jungle ends and the precipices begin, and as there is no flat ground

or water available except in the bed of the stream, we decided to

camp there on a patch of sand between the boulders, in spite of

the obvious chilliness of the place. There was no alternative any-

way !

The Lepchas proceeded' to build themselves a lean-to out of

branches and leaves, backed by a large rock, and I had a forty-

pound wind-proof tent. While putting up the latter the shikari

suddenly said, ‘There they are!’ and pointed towards the grassy

slopes further up the opposite (North) side of the valley. I could

hardly believe him, as 1 was under the impression that we should

have to go considerably higher before finding any ' shepi \ but on

examining the slope through my binoculars, I could certainly make

out two or three black animals grazing at the top of one of the

cliffs. I was still somewhat sceptical however and thought they

were probably only Serow after all, as we had noticed plenty of

Serow tracks in the jungle on the way up from Chum Tang, but

the Shikari swore that they were not Serow Tahr ’ in his language),

but ‘shepi’.

It was too late to begin a stalk that evening and the same night

I had the misfortune to develop an attack of dysentery.

The next morning we could see no ‘shepi’ from the camp, so

we climbed up through the jungle on the north side of the Pim

Ohu, and by about mid-day, reached the top of a rock slab over-

hanging the slopes on which the ‘shepi’ had been grazing the pre-

vious evening; the only living thing to be seen however, was a

cock monal pheasant (L. refulgens ), and except for some tracks and

droppings in the jungle, which might easily have been those of

Serow, there was no sign of the ‘shepi’. We had something to

eat and were resting on the top of the cliffs, high above the floor

of the valley, when three or four black objects appeared, but this

time on "the south side of the nullah, i.e., the side opposite to us,

and well out of rifle-range. It was impossible to cross the valley

at that point as the precipices on either side were quite unclimbable ;

the only way was to return to the camp-site some distance back

down the valley and to cross there. There was not time to do

this before dark, so we just had to content ourselves with waiting

in the hope that something might turn up on the slope below our

rock where we had seen them the evening before. Nothing appeared

however, but I had a good view through my binoculars of the

‘shepi’ grazing on the opposite cliffs, and I watched them for a

considerable time.

The following day we tried the cliffs on the south side and

nearly got within range of a male with the best head I had so far

seen, but the going was extremely bad and I was beginning to feel

-weak with dysentery; the result was that I dislodged a stone which

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

117

went bounding- down the hill side and scared the ‘shepi’ who went

off, with a shrill whistle of alarm, straight up the valley where the

ground rapidly got worse, and we soon had to give up any attempt

to follow them.

We were making our way back to camp in the late afternoon

when five f shepi ’ appeared on the far side of the nullah below

the slope on which we had first seen them, but of course they were

again out of range; I had another good view however.

We tried the north side once more the next day, but by then I

was feeling decidedly groggy and could not move without sending

showers of stones down the hill sides, and again the only ‘shepi’

we saw were on the opposite side of the valley.

The following day I was feeling slightly better, but provisions

were running low, and as I still had a four-day treck back even

to the comparative civilisation of Gangtok, and considering the

state of my health, I thought it advisable to move back to Cham

Tang, as I saw no more of the ‘ shepi' .

During my four days in the Pirn Chu valley however, I had

several good views of ‘shepi’ through field-glasses, and on one

occasion without glasses, and I am convinced they are the same

as the fTahr’ of the Western Himalayas, or possibly an eastern

race of the same species. The Lepcha shikari said they were the

same kind of animals as the German Expedition had obtained.

I personally saw at least eight ‘shepi’ and there may have been

dozen or more inhabiting that part of the valley, but curiously

enough, a friend of mine who visited the same spot with the same

shikari some two months later, was unable to find any at all ; the

snow conditions would of course have changed by then; when I

was there the snow was not lying below 10,000 ft., though it

froze hard every night.

On Active Servi.ce, C. J. T. WRENICKE,

April 1943. Capt.

IV. — LIFE SPAN OF SOME WILD ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY.

A Chital stag ( Axis axis Erxl) born in the Trivandrum Zoo in

1920, died of old age last December. For some time previous to

its death it was showing unmistakable signs of old age. Veterinary

examination also resulted in establishing old age as the cause of

death. This deer has thus lived for 22 years. We have had others

of the same species for periods ranging from 12 to 18 years.

Would it be a record age for Chital in captivity, as it is so for this

zoo?

Incidentally, similar records of the age of some other animals

may not be out of place. In spite of the curtailment of freedom

involved in keeping wild animals in captivity, it has been the ex-

perience of the staff of menageries and Zoological Parks, that most

of the animals and birds live to a ripe old age. As we have no

means to ascertain the span of life of animals in their wild state,

it would only be possible to infer the years for which they would

live, from the data available in zoos. Therefore, a few particulars

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

regarding- the age of some of the animals kept here are added for

what they are worth.

Mammals. — Among Primates, an Orangoutan (Simla satyrus )

survived for 15 years and a Black Ape ( C.ynopithecus niger) lived

for 21 years. A Baboon monkey (. Papio hamadryas) acquired as an

adult, died after 22 years of captivity, while a Bonnet monkey

(. Macacus sinicus ) died after 23 years.

There have been some long lived ones among the carnivora too.

A lion, born here in 1919 died last year at the age of 23. Another,

born in 1923 is still going strong. The recorded maximum age for

tigers and panthers is 16.

We have not been able to ascertain the maximum age of the

Himalayan Bear. One of this species, aged 10 at the time of

acquisition has been here for the last 12 years.

An important loss which this zoo had to sustain a few months

back was due to the death of a bull Giraffe (G. Camelopardalis )

imported from Africa in 1927. It was a full-grown one then pro-

bably 8 years old, and has lived here till September 1942 (15 years).

Among other mammals, special mention may be made of a Porcupine

(. Hystrix leucura ) and an Otter (Lutra vulgaris) both of which have

completed 22 years of captivity. The former died in 1942 while the

latter is still living.

Birds. A recent newspaper report mentioned a 150 years old

Cockatoo of the London Zoo as one of' the casualties during an air

raid alert. We have had parrots living only for 33 years, not even

attaining the half century. Eagles and vultures have lived for

40 years. An Australian Cassowary hatched out here 37 years

ago is still living. Similarly a Hornbill ( Dichoceros bicornis) pur-

chased for the zoo in 1905 (37 years) and an Adjutant crane ( Lepto -

ptilus dubius) obtained in 1911 (31 years) are alive. A little

Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax niger) died only last week after a period

of 21 years of captivity. A curious feature about this bird was that

for a long time before its death it had lost the use of both of its

eyes and had to be fed by its keeper. There is another cormorant

of the same age. One of its eyes is blind, but it is still alive.

Govt. Zoological Gardens, E. S. SIMON,

Trivandrum, Curator.

January 12, 1943.

V.— BREEDING SEASON OF THE INDIAN SAMBAR

(RUSA UNICOLOR , KERR).

It has been mentioned about the Indian Sambar ( Journal Bombay

Nat. History Society, vol. xxxvii, No. 1 (1934), ‘Wild Animals of

the Indian Empire and the problem of their preservation’, Part II,

p. 77), that ‘there is much variation both as to the pairing season

and the time at which the antlers are shed’. Again on page 78 it

is said that ‘pairing takes place in November and December ....

The young are born at the commencement of the rains in late

May or early June’.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

119

Though there may be regional variations, observations made of

a herd of Sambar, numbering over two dozen kept in the Trivandrum

Zoo, have tended to establish definite periods with no wide range,

as regards the seasons for the shedding of horns, mating or birth

of the fawns. The seasons for these differ from those mentioned

above. Unlike other Cervidae which have been seen with young ones

or with shed antlers at all seasons, all the Rusa deer stags were

observed to cast their antlers in May. Pairing took place in late

June and early July. A dead hind in mid July last year, was found

to contain a foetus of a few weeks development. Between the

middle of December and the third week of January this year, eight

young ones were born. Each hind has given birth to a single

fawn and the period of gestation has been six months.

Govt. Zoological Gardens, E. S. SIMON,

Trivandrum, Curator.

January 21, 1943.

VI.— SMALL GAME SHOOTING IN THE SALEM DISTRICT.

East of Salem, between the Shevaroys and the Chitteris and

the hills to the South of them, a narrow neck of flat country broad-

ens out into the great empty spaces which extend to the coast. At

the eastern entrance to the gap, where thankfully there is always

a welcome breeze a considerable variety of sport can be found

with a scatter-gun, from jungle fowl in the hills to sandgrouse on

the plains, and wild fowl on the tanks, all within a radius of five

miles. By far the biggest item between October and March is wild

fowl, which arrive in at times vast legions, until every tank (of

which there are far too many) is solid with them. The impossibility

of assembling flighting parties at the right moment, and the com-

plete inadequacy of their strength when it could be arranged, was

tantalizing with so many birds about, and many occasions went

by when red-letter bags might have been made. I should like to

know whether anyone has shot in this area in recent years. There

were no indications of it, judging by the astonishment of the natives

at our activities, local talk, and the inexperience of the duck them-

selves when we first started operations.

Before their arrival I had odd walks after sandgrouse. Only

a few small parties inhabit the intermittent barren stretches of

country, and there are too few, and too much water, to shoot them

properly at flight. Two species occur, common and painted, the

Common Sandgrouse predominating in the autumn, while after

Xmas I saw only painted. They mixed together, and one ‘doublet’

I got out of a bunch of five contained one of each. Beyond the

sandgrouse, only grey partridges which are common, presented a

quarry, but not a sufficiently exciting one to justify the reduction

of my previous ammunition supply. Jungle fowl are fairly abundant

in the Chitteri Hills, but the organization required to shoot them

in those impenetrable thickets did not make them a proposition.

The snipe, too, were resisted, when they arrived early in October.

120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

I was determined to save every round for the ducks. There

were ten pintail to every common snipe and a few of those queer

rail-like birds, painted snipe, which seem so inappropriately named.

By now, thousands of migrants had arrived, most of them first

seen in August, green and wood sandpipers, Temminck’s and little

stints, stilts and greenshanks (grand to see old East Anglian

friends again). But still there were no duck, beyond one or two

dull pairs of spotbills.

At last on October 3, I saw three garganey and after a skilful

drive by my batman I got one, and should have had two. How-

ever I had got a duck, my first East of Yarmouth ! During the

ensuing days pintail and garganey poured in. I erected a hide

on the nearest tank and went out for an hour one evening with

another gun on the next tank. The pintail flew well between us,

and I got seven, but after a time they cleared off, and went and

sat on the other tanks. This paltry effort obviously did not meet

the case, and I attempted to mobilize every gun in the area and

organize a proper flight. But naturally much success was not

possible, and the largest party we ever mustered was five. With

twenty large tanks, not more than a mile between each, we could

not hope to keep the birds on the move and the story was always

the same. After a grand hour at day-break, during which we had

excellent sport, every duck disappeared to find more peaceful sur-

roundings in which to pass the day only a couple of miles away. At

each flight I increased the number of ‘disturbers’ on surrounding

tanks, but to do the thing properly I needed twenty guns and fifty

disturbers — for which I fear this shoot must wait until the ‘pipings

days, etc.’ But I recommend it to anyone then, if I am not here

to partake myself (personally I hope it will be the desolate saltings

of Essex, or the iced-f ringed creeks of the Solway !)

The other problem was caused by the unsuitable nature of the

tanks for shooting. They are large and round, with banks like

golf greens : not a suspicion of cover. I put up the hides as far

out as possible, but the duck were always near the middle, and

just out of range, and not until I made my floating butt did I come

to grips with them properly. This was an excellent answer, the

butt being a simple construction of bamboo and petrol tins (now

dutifully returned to their lawful occupation), tied together with

string and covered with palm leaves. I cannot imagine why we

never thought of this at home, where time and money has been

spent building enormous erections on twenty-foot poles. When

anchored, the new model is surprisingly steady, as a shooting

platform, and is easily transported to any tank desired. It is the

most important result of the season for me.

Garganey and pintail were the most common throughout. I

saw only one cotton teal, on November 12, and on that day the

first tufted duck, which were fairly common all the winter. One

or two big flocks turned up at every flight, circling round obligingly

and giving every one a crack before they made off. Teal appeared

early in November, but there were never very many. There were

no pochard, but I saw big flocks of red-crested pochard further

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

121

to the east and nearer to the coast a single pigeon, a young cock.

I shot one shoveller and again he was the only one I saw, until

four appeared on March 21. On October 15 an enormous flock of

nukta flew by while we were building hides for next morning;

it was their only appearance. All these were isolated incidents and

the only birds permanently present were pintail and garganey,

always in large numbers, and sometimes tufted and teal, and of

course a few spotbills.

The duck effected a strange and total disappearance immediately

after Xmas. Not a bird was to be seen during January and I

assumed that our sport was over. But to my surprise and delight

pintail and garganey appeared suddenly on February 5, followed

by a few tufted and we had one perfect flight. I have no idea

what caused their absence for six weeks, but in my experience at

home such an event would merit some definite explanation. There

was no drastic change in the water-level and nothing particularly

interesting about the weather. I am at a loss.

Most of the duck remained until the end of February and I saw

the last garganey on March 31.

Lastly the geese. Wild geese are my obsession, but I had

never hoped to see any, as I assumed we were too far south to

come within their range. There are no marshes and no big rivers,

and as I associate geese with the gale-swept desolation of the

waste and other similar scenes, I could never imagine them per-

spiring in the heat of the day round a circular tank. However I

was elated to a degree to see thirteen bar-headed geese, with a

dozen spoon-bills, on December 3. They were padding about on

the margin of a tank and I hurried home for my fowling piece and

batman, by now an expert at driving the wily fowl. We sat long

behind a rock, deliberating on our plan, and regarding them hungrily

through a telescope. Finally I crawled out on to a spit at the

far side of the tank, within range of which I hoped the breeze

would swing them. But when they took wing they did completely

the wrong thing, climbing in the opposite direction. I was about

to emerge from my position, when they turned and headed back

towards me, and actually glided straight over my head, at an

absurd height for my No. 6 shot, all I had. However to my

astonishment my bird fell like a stone, probably one pellet in its

head — a fearful fluke ! But the local audience were suitably im-

pressed, and I was delighted.

One more lot came on January 20, this time about seventy. A

drive was arranged for them and this time they came low and two-

seemed already in the bag. But I had a dud cartridge in the right

barrel, and so picked up one. It would happen with geese.

Tactical School,

Poona,

April 14, 1943.

AUBREY BUXTON,

Capt .

122 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

VII.— WOODPECKERS FEEDING ON FRUIT.

As within the last week or two I have noticed both the West

Himalayan Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker ( Gecinus squamatus ),

and the Black-naped Green Woodpecker ( Gecinus occipitalis) eating

berries on the trees here in Murree, I should be glad to know

whether such a diet is usual with these birds.

St. Denys' School, E. A. STORRS FOX,

Murree, Senior Chaplain, I.E E. (Retd.)

December 12, 1942.

[Woodpeckers are essentially insectivorous, a frugivorous diet

is unusual. — :Eds.]

VIII.— THE EGGS OF THE INDIAN BAY-BANDED CUCKOO

(. PENTHOCERYX S ON N ERA Til).

On page 7 2 of ‘Cuckoo Problems’, Stuart Baker writes of the

Bay-banded Cuckoo

‘In the south of India Davidson, Bell and Stewart found them

breeding fairly freely and took eggs in the nests of the Ioras, Red-

whiskered Bulbuls, and small White-throated Babblers and saw

these birds feeding young Cuckoos of this species. A few of the

eggs I have seen from Travancore and the Western Ghats are

certainly like some eggs of Red-whiskered Bulbuls, but none are

in any way like those of Iora’.

On the 3rd August, 1941, I shot a female at Khandala (Western

Ghats) with a shelled egg in the oviduct. The egg was damaged

by the shot, but the remains have been preserved and the egg agrees

with an Iora’s — white background with sparse reddish-brown

blotches and streaks heavier towards the thicker end. There were

numerous enlarged ova together with this egg, and the bird (wing

128 mm.) was in heavy moult.

I am sending you the egg herewith and I shall be glad if you

will forward it either to Mr. Stuart Baker or anybody else who is

interested, when transport is safer.

C/o Messrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

75 Abdulrehman Street, Bombay, 3.

February 12, 1943.

IX.— GREEN PIGEONS IN A SWAMP.

One naturally associates green pigeons with banyan and similar

fruiting trees, and it was therefore with some surprise that I put

up a couple in a swamp near, the village of Munderi up the Kakod

backwater and some 7 miles direct north-east of Cannanore, on

17th March last. I was at the time not too hopefully looking for

belated snipe and was working with a line of men through a swamp

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

covered with short reeds. Here and there a small hole had been

excavated and the black saline earth thrown up round the edge,

it was from one of these waterholes close in front of me that two

green pigeons rose and flew back over the line, to perch on a

cocoanut palm some 200 yards away. I could not be sure of the

species but think they were Grey-fronted (O. pomapadora) and not

the Southern Green (C. phoenicopterus).

Green pigeons so seldom visit the ground that this fact alone

seems worth recording, but the incident raises another point of

speculative interest. In ‘Birds of Southern India’ Col. Baker quotes

Jerdon’s remark that large numbers of Imperial Pigeons annually

visit a salt swamp in the neighbourhood of Cannanore in the hot

weather, and adds that though he lived some years at various times

at Cannanore he had never seen or heard of this swamp nor could

he get any information about it. I also have tried without success

for many years to locate it. May it not be that the place where

I found these green pigeons is the swamp to which Jerdon refers

and that they visited it for the salt earth on the analogy of deer

visiting salt licks? True they were green pigeons and not

imperials, but if the latter have acquired this habit there seems no

reason why the former also should not have it. That imperial

pigeons eat earth at salt licks is mentioned on page 359 of Smythie’s

‘Birds of Burma’. I would add that in 25 years’ experience of

the country round Cannanore I have never seen a green pigeon

before in the coastal area; but then I have never visited the swamps

so late as mid-March.

X.— SOME NOTES ON THE COMMON SANDGROUSE

(PTEROCLES EXUSTUS TEMMINCK) IN KAIRA DISTRICT.

I have kept notes on matters of shikar and natural history

interest in Kaira District since 1930, and the following observations

are based on these.

Pterocles exustus is the only sandgrouse found in Kaira District.

Distribution. — Found ordinarily only in small numbers along

a relatively narrow belt bordering the western limits of the district.

This belt widens both in its northern and southern extent ; especially

in the south adjoining Cambay State where the character of the

country is more suitable ; that is drier and barer sandy patches of

land with scattered areas of cultivation near large barren plains.

The common sandgrouse is a resident of the district, but the

numbers to be found in any given year depend largely on the

rainfall of the previous season. There seems to be a certain amount

of local migration into and from the drier portions of Kathiawar,

and the number breeding in the district varies considerably with

the season. Ordinarily there must not be very many that nest in

the district.

Bangalore,

April 10, 1943.

E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS,

Major, I. A.

(With a plate )

124 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

During the period under observation the rainfall was average

or above average from 1930 to 1934, and during these years sand-

grouse were seen only occasionally. From 1935 to July 1941, each

succeeding year the rainfall was increasingly below average; 1939,

1940 and 1941 being extremely dry. In April 1940 the Vatrak river,

just above its point of junction with the Sabhrmati, was completely

dry; the first time, according to the local villagers, that it had

been so, since the famine year of 1900. At the same time many

deep wells that had never been dry, went dry. It was during

1939, 1940 and up till the rains in 1941 that a marked increase

in the numbers of sandgrouse in the district was noticed. During

this period they were plentiful and some nests were found. In

the following two years, 1941 and 1942 the rains were exceptionally

heavy, above average for the district, and sandgrouse again scarce ;

and they are still so at the present (April 1943).

Nesting. — In. the months of December, January and up till the

end of February in 1940 and 1941 grouse were found in enormous

flocks of several hundreds. Sometime during the last week of

February these large flocks could no longer be found. Those then

seen would be in scattered pairs or small flocks of six or eight

here and there. The question arises whether this increase in the

size of the flocks during December, January and February, is con-

nected with pairing and breeding or whether it represents a pre-

paration for a local migration of a certain number over into Kathia-

war and the northern drier sections of the country.

The following are some extracts from my notes on nests and

young : —

March 20, 1940. Saw, while riding in our car, about noon, a

pair of common sandgrouse out in an open plain near Radhu. The

hen was sitting on a newly scrapped out shallow depression, with

the cock standing nearby. We drove up cautiously until we were

within about eight feet of the pair without disturbing them. Watch-

ed them for some time from our seat in the car. (Unfortunately

did not have the camera with us). It was only after my wife

stepped out of the car that the pair flew off. The nest consisted

of a simple depression in the ground, unlined, placed next to a

lump of dried cowdung. There were no eggs.

March 27, 1940. Went back to photograph the sandgrouse and

nest seen on March 20th near Radhu. Found the nest deserted.

There were a few pieces of egg shell lying in and around the nest.

Robbed?

May 22, 1940. West of Traj; saw a pair of grouse with two

recently fledged young dusting themselves in an ox cart road. The

wings of the young were fully feathered and they could fly.

Feb. 12, 1941. West of Traj near the Vatrak river, saw several

good-sized flocks of sandgrouse. Shot ten ; of these, two of the

hens were found to be with fully matured, and hard shelled oviduct

eggs. The testes, and ovaries of most of the others were enlarged.

Febi 19, 1941. Wank. Saw several very large flocks of grouse

coming to water between 10 o’clock and 11-30 in the morning.

Shot 19 birds. All of the testes and ovaries of these were in an

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Common Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus Temm.)

i. Female with one chick under her wing and two standing in front of her.

2. Male, female and three chicks attempting to escape by slowly creeping away.

[ Photos by Author.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

125

-enlarged condition. One hen was found with a soft shelled oviduct

egg-

April 30, 1941. Jakhara; while riding in our car, found a

family of common sandgrouse, cock, hen and three chicks in down

plumage. Was able to approach very closely to them by manoeuvr-

ing the car carefully. Got some good photographs with the birds

in various positions. Whenever we would attempt to drive up

towards them, in gradually narrowing circles, they would slowly

creep off away from the car ; always keeping their tails pointing

towards us, changing their line of retreat with each change in

the position of the car. They remained always in full view, and

made no attempt to take advantage of any cover, though they

several times passed clumps of dry grass and a small thorny bush.

Throughout the manoeuvres the three chicks were constantly mak-

ing an attempt to keep under the tails or next to the bodies of

one of the parent birds. All of the birds seemed to suffer con-

siderably from the heat while being shifted around in the bright

afternoon sun ; especially the chicks which could be seen breathing

rapidly through open beaks. The chicks though able to walk freely,

and appearing to be at least five or six days old, were not able to

walk very steadily. Two or three times one or the other would

upset in some small crack or depression ; and they did not seem

to be able to move very rapidly. (Partridge chicks of this age

would have been very difficult to catch by hand). The parent birds

fully appreciated the dangers their chicks were being exposed to

from the air (hawks) ; they were constantly scanning the skies for

a possible enemy. We did not get out of the car at any time.

In all probability, the adult birds would have flown off to some

nearby spot and the chicks would have perhaps ‘frozen. ’ ivfter

taking several photographs from the car we left them undisturbed.

May 7, 1941. West o£ Kaira across the Vatrak river. Found

a sandgrouse’s nest out in an open patch between two uncultivated

fields. The nest consisted of a small shallow depression, loosely

lined with a few pieces of dried grass, and was placed between

two small tufts of dry grass. It contained two hard-set egg's.

The female bird was on the nest when discovered, but flew off

immediately when approached.

(The technical details of the two photographs ; enlargements

of which are illustrated, are : — Taken at about 2 o’clock in the

afternoon, very bright sunlight, with birds at a distance of about

twelve feet from the camera. Camera Super Ikonta fitted wilh

Zeiss Tessar F4.5, 10.5 cm. lens. Pictures taken on Panatomic —

X film, at F16, 1/50 second. It should be noted that grouse are

protectively coloured; and as they match their background so closely,

are difficult to photograph satisfactorily, because of a lack of

•contrast between subject and background).

Xadiad, HERSCHEL C. ALDRICH, m.d.

Kaira District,

April 13, 1943.

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

XI.— OCCURRENCE OF THE CLOSE-BARRED SAND-

GROUSE (: PTEROCLES LICHTENSTENII ARABICUS ,

NEUM.) IN THE N.W.F.P.

I am also sending- you the skin of a Close-barred Sandgrouse.

This bird was shot near Alizai in the lower Kurram at an elevation

of about 3,000 ft. above the sea level. It is described in Game

Birds of India as being only found in Sind within Indian limits.

Major Francis, Commandant of the Kurram Militia, who shot the

bird, said that it was one of a small pack of 4 or 5 birds. They

allowed the guns to approach quite close before getting up and

even after being shot at came and settled quite close again after

circling about a bit.

I shot a specimen of this bird two years ago near the village of

Mullazai in the Tank sub-Division of the Dera Ismail Khan District.

It was one of a party of 6 birds and they behaved in much the same

manner as described above. Mr. Emerson shot one near Sarwekai

in Waziristan, as far as I remember, at about the same time.

Parachinar, J. O. S. DONALD,

Kurram Valley, N.W.F.P., Major.

February 7, 1943.

XII.— LATE STAY OF SNIPE AND WEIGHT OF PINTAIL.

Yesterday i.e. , nth May 1943, close to Madura, I shot a snipe,

a pintail, weight 5f ounces. He was with three Painters in rather

dry stubble. This was a very late bird, and is possibly a record.

He did not seem to be a wounded bird.

I shot a number of snipe here also on 1st May 1942.

Madura. J. BECKETT, I.P.,

May 1 2, 1943. D.I.G ■ of Police f S.R.

(The heaviest pintail so far recorded is a bird weighing 12J tolas

(about 7 oz.) shot by W. Gaye, at Secunderabad on the 6th January

1890. The average weight is about 4 oz- — Eds.)

XIII.— THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE ( ANSER ALBIFRONS

SCOP.) IN ASSAM.

I am writing to you to record the occurrence of the white Fronted

Goose in Assam. As Stuart Baker refers to this goose as a rarity

in Western India and quotes no authenticated instance of its being

shot in Assam, the record may be of interest to members.

Some geese were reported to be down on the bheel near my

bungalow (on the 7th of January) and on going out with the glasses

I saw at once that the birds were neither grey lag nor bar-headed.

It was the middle of the morning and three geese of a very dark

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

127

colour were standing- out in the sunshine on the edge of a pool,

in the middle of the open bheel.. I could see no way of getting

within shot and expected them to get up any moment and fly otf

to the Brahmapootra. However, i left my labrador with a boy

on the south side of the bheel to engage the attention of the geese,

and making a wide detour crossed the bheel and got between the

geese and the river. An exciting stalk then began ; the going was

very soft and entirely exposed and the geese, I could see, were

very uneasy — one, as usual, the sentinel, head up, was staring in

every direction ; my only hope was a small herd of cattle grazing

nearby, these I managed to work slowly towards the geese, creeping

up when covered and crouching, still, when exposed. I had nothing

but No. 8 — so a pot shot was my only chance, eventually the cattle

drifted apart and I had to take a long shot ; he floundered about

in the pool, but was retrieved in great triumph, one pellet had

struck him in 'the head — his companions made off for the big

river. He was in fine plumage and of course quite unmistakable,

but the dark colouring was rather more dark ashey than dark brown

as shown in Stuart Baker’s plate.

I showed the goose to- Mr. Buckingham Jones of Dibrugarh,

who is a keen ornithologist, and was greatly interested.

My reference to the ‘big river’, the Bramapootra, reminds me

of the derivation of the name given by the local ‘uneducated’

Assamese — who even today call it the Borompootar — in Assamese

‘hor’ is big and, of course, ‘ putra ’ spring or river. Sir Samuel

Baker, in his books, always spells it (in italics) ‘Borrompooter’ —

the name is understandable — the big river — the original inhabitants

were animists and knew nothing of Brahma but it was easily

corruptible into Brahmaputra, and, lately, German highly coloured

prints used to be for sale in Dibrugarh for four annas depicting the

‘Brahma’-putra gushing from the head of the God seated on a

throne and surrounded by people somewhat resembling Hitler & Co.

Mothola Company Ltd.,

Dibrugarh, Assam, D. J. MONTAGNON.

January 26, 1943.

XIV.— GYNANDROMORPHISM IN THE COMMON TEAL

(ANAS CRECCA LINN.)

The Society recently received from Mr. H. W. Porter, Balu-

chistan, the head of a Common Teal shot at Quetta on 26th Decem-

ber 1942. The left side of the head shows the normal colouration

and pattern of the adult male in summer and winter plumage ; the

right side is that of the adult female (or of the male in eclipse). A

detailed description is given below :

Left side : As in adult male summer and winter plumage. Cheeks and

lores chestnut. Thin cream-coloured lined from .gape upwards along base

of upper mandible over and under eye to nape, enclosing broad band of metallic

green. This band still with slight admixture of a few unmoulted . cinnamon-

tipped brown feathers at its posterior end, near nape. Extreme point of chin

(for 4 or 5 mm.) brown, the feathers tipped buff. Forehead, crown and nape

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, V ol. XLIV

<xs in adult female, i.e. black-streaked brown, the feathers edged with buff on

forehead and cinnamon-buff on crown and . nape. Throat and foreneck parti-

coloured medially, chestnut on the left side contiguous with the cheek, and

whitish-buff on right. The division between the chestnut and whitish-buff is

not clear-cut but some of the chestnut ‘flows’ into the white and vice versa.

Right side : As in adult female or in eclipse plumage of adult male. Cheek

huffy- white. Upper throat and foreneck light buff more or less thickly spotted

or streaked with blackish-brown. Indistinct blackish-brown streak from behind

■eye to nape. A tiny whitish patch under eye (also present under left eye). A

single metallic green feather behind and slightly above eye the only indication

of the broad metallic green band on the opposite side of the head.

Unfortunately merely the head, i.e., skull with mask (severed

at the ‘halal’ cut) has been sent to us. The covering- letter mentions

that the rest of the plumage was female, but I feel that a critical

examination would probably have shown the same bisexual character-

istics as are present in the head. Also a morphological examination

and dissection of the body would have proved of the greatest interest.

The letter further remarks that the bird’s right leg was missing

below the tarsal joint. This may be accidental or congenital, and

may or may not have to do with the otherwise abnormal condition.

The case is a highly interesting one and represents what I

believe to be the first known occurrence in the Common Teal of

that curious abnormality known as Gynandromorphism. Bird

gynandromorphs or gynanders wear male plumage on one side of

the body and female on the other ; they are very rare and not much

is known about them especially in life. Instances have been recorded

in the Bullfinch ( Pyrrhula pyrrhula ), Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs ),

Siskin ( Carduelis spinus ), the Pheasant (, Phasianus colchicus) and

in certain members of the families Ploceinae (Weaver Finches),

•Coerebidae (Sugarbirds of South and Central America), and Picidae

(Woodpeckers).

In several examples that have been dissected a testis was found

in the male half of the body (in most cases the right half) and an

ovary in the female half. But sometimes this arrangement was

reversed, as it presumably also was in the present case. Gynandro-

morphism is apparently less rare among insects, the commonest and

most striking type being, as in birds, where the male and female

halves of the body are sharply delimited lengthwise along the middle.

In others a quarter of the body may be of one sex and three-

quarters of the other. In some examples it is even less in extent,

only patches of the characteristic form and colouration of one sex

appearing on the body of the other. Natural gynandromorphism

is apparently quite independent of the influence of sex hormones

and is explained by an aberration in the chromosome distribution

in the development of the gametes. And here a little digression

is perhaps desirable.

Sex hormone is a chemical secretion of the gonads (testes in

male ; ovaries in female) which pours into the blood-stream in the

same way as do hormones from the other ductless glands situated

in various parts of the body, collectively known as the endocrine

system. It circulates with the blood and is known to control the

secondary sexual characters such as the beard in Man, antlers in

most deer, and the plumage in sexually dimorphic birds. But it

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

129

can obviously influence an organism only as a whole, and therefore

the possession by a gynander of both male and female sex glands

could not by itself account for the clear-cut bipartite effect, for

instance as seen in the plumage of bird gynanders.

‘Cock-feathered’ female pheasants are well known. It is also

known that this peculiar condition is brought about by damage

to the bird’s ovary — atrophy, either through old age or disease.

It has been proved experimentally that female feathering in the

domestic hen (and presumably also in its wild relations) is due

entirely to the influence of the female sex hormone discharged into

the blood by the ovary. If the ovary of a domestic hen is removed —

an operation known as ovariectomy — it will assume cock plumage

at the next moult including the long tail. This is because the in-

fluence of the female sex hormone, on which hen feathering is de-

pendent, has been removed. If a cock’s testes are removed — by

castration — although certain other changes such as shrinking in

size of the comb will soon be observed, yet its plumage at the next

moult will grow again unaltered in appearance. This proves that

‘cock feathering’ is really speaking the ‘Neutral’ phase of plumage

and not dependent upon the male sex hormone. Thus by castrating

a cock and ovariectomising a hen it is possible to produce ‘neutral’

birds that look closely alike. This neutral bird, however, can be

further changed to male or female by engrafting it with the relative

male or female gonads.

With the exception of some raptores chiefly of the genera Falco,

Accipiter and Circus and certain other birds which possess paired

functional ovaries, the general rule is that only the left ovary is

functional while the right is suppressed and remains vestigial.

Experiments show that if the left ovary of a bird is removed the

right one, till now dormant, develops. . But the curious point is that

it develops not into an ovary to replace the missing one as one

would expect, but actually into a male testis ! Thus a hen in which

the left ovary has been removed soon develops into a cock. The

sex hormone released by the newly formed testis brings about,

in the erstwhile hen, all the characteristics of appearance and be-

haviour of the cock even to the extent of attempting to mate with

hens. Effective mating is however rendered impossible owing to

anatomical disabilities, but an exceptional case is on record where

such a sexually reversed bird, a good egg layer up till 3 years old

began to crow at 3^, and took on most of the male characters.

At the age of /\\ on being mated to a virgin hen it became the

father of 2 chicks ! It will thus be seen that it is actually possible

to produce a cock (in this case even a perfectly functional one) by

removing the left ovary of a hen !

As distinct from the Natural (due to chromosome derangement),

Artificial gynanders have been produced in the laboratory thus: A

cock was plucked of its feathers on one side. It was castrated and

implanted with an ovary. Under the influence of the female sex

hormone, the plucked side soon developed female feathering so

that until the next moult that bird presented the characteristic

bipartite appearance of a natural gynander. At the next moult,

9

130 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoL XL/F

however, the male half of the feathering disappeared and was re-

placed by female plumage all over.

33, Pali Hill, SALIM ALI.

Bandra, Bombay.

XV.— OCCURRENCE OF COMB DUCK ( SARKIDIORNIS

MELANOTUS PENN.) IN MYSORE.

With reference to Mr. R. F. Stoney’s note xiii on p. 525 of

vol. xliii, I have to record shooting a Comb duck (female) about

50 miles west of Bangalore on 14- 1-43 — -the bird was solitary.

This is the first of the species shot by me in S. India though I

had definitely seen it once previously near Gundlupet, 40 miles

south of Mysore City.

Bangalore, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS.

January 18, 1943. Major.

I.A., F.Z.S.

XVI. — RED CRESTED POCHARD ( NETTA RUFINA PALLAS)

IN MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

As reports of this duck in the Province appear to be scanty,

it^may be of interest to record that I shot a male from a flock

of about 30 on a tank near Cumbum in the Kurnool District on

1 1-12-1942.

Bangalore, E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS.

January 18, 1943. Major.

I.A., F.Z.S.

XVII. — NOTES ON THE VIVIPARITY OF THE COMMON

INDIAN SKINK [MABUYA CARINATA (SCHNEIDER)].

A specimen of the common Indian skink, Mabuya carinata

(Schneider) was collected from the suburbs of Calcutta on March 11,

1943, for the study of its protozoal contents and helminths by my

colleagues Messrs. M. M. Chakravarti and G. K. Chakravarti. It

was a gravid female and contained embryos in a fairly well-developed

condition. It was handed over to me in a partially dissected con-

dition for the collection and preservation of the embryos, and my

thanks are due to my colleagues on this account. In view of the

dubious viviparity of this species (Smith, ’35, p. 268) it seems

desirable to record the following observations.

The specimen was fairly large, measuring 124 mm. from snout

to vent, the tail being 149 mm. The eggs with ripe embryos were

arranged in fours, one after the other in a series, in each uterus.

An ovary with immature ova in various stages of development was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

131

found to be located on the left side of the vertebral column very

near the left oviducal opening, there being no trace of any other

ovary on the right side, which might have been lost while the

alimentary tract was removed. The eggs in situ appeared to be

broadly oval and were about the same size. Unfortunately they

had not been measured before the embryos were taken out, but

from an ocular examination they were estimated to be 15 by 10 mm.

on an average. Although each embryo was in a fairly advanced-

stage and had pentadactyle limbs well-developed, the egg itself

contained much yolk. The outer envelope covering the eggs was.

thin, colourless and transparent, and the vascular allantoic sac was

clearly noticed through it. From this it might be assumed that,

a calcareous shell had not been so far deposited on the egg. The

translucent uterine wall which was very much thinned out presuma-

bly owing to the lodging of the developing embryos enabled me to

notice also the movement of the embryos as well as the allantoic

circulation.

It should be noted that I did not much care to determine how

the eggs were held in the uteri, especially the mode of their attach-

ment to the wall of the uterus, as recorded in certain lizards giving

some hints of placental connection (Kerr, T9, p. 483).

The embryos were carefully removed from the eggs and fixed

in the aqueous Bouin’s fluid. It was observed that the embryo

within the egg lay snugly curved upon itself, while the long tail

was coiled a few turns and hugged between the limbs. All the

embryos appeared to be more or less in the same stage of develop-

ment. On the following day, when they were measured, the length,

from snout to vent ranged from 22 to 23 mm., with 22.5 mm. as

the average, and the length of the tail, between 23.6 to 25.8 mm.,,

with 24.7 mm. as the average.

Although the embryos look like veritable miniature skinks, their

morphological characters differ somewhat from those of the adult

pattern. The head was proportionately large as is usual in all

embryos. The brain was clearly visible through the almost trans-

parent membranous skull. The head and chin shields, so character-

istic of the adult, were not yet developed, while a uniform non-over-

lapping squamation covered the rest of the body, viz., throat, trunk

with limbs and tail. The eyes were prominently developed, and

the lower eye-lids without any scales. It is interesting to note

that the parietal organ which is so characteristic of almost all

lizards (Sedgwick, ’05, p. 344), was seen very clearly under the-

binocular microscope, in the form of a dark-ringed fleck on the

middle of the head of the embryos. This parietal fleck was, how-

ever, not evident in the adult female specimen from which the

embryos were removed. The ear opening covered by the tym-

panum was not yet deeply sunk. The limbs were well-developed,

as noted before, with fully-formed digits. The fingers, and especi-

ally the toes, however, had not attained the characteristic pattern

and relative proportions of the adult. Pigmentation did not occur

in any part of the embryo. No ‘egg- tooth’, such as occurs in

very many lizard embryos at the extreme tip of the snout, was

observed. From the data at hand it cannot be decided whether

132 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

M. carinata produces young- alive or lays eggs containing ripe

embryos only to be hatched soon after.

With regard to Gadow’s (’oi, p. 560) sweeping statement: ‘all

the Scincidae seem to be viviparous’, Malcolm Smith (’35, p. 256)

expresses an element of doubt, since he has recorded more oviparous

forms than viviparous ones. He holds that viviparity is possibly

true of the majority of the Australian skinks, but not of the Oriental

forms. He states further that so far as is known of' the Indian

genera of Scincidae, all the species of Tropidophorus are viviparous,

and of the rest only four species belonging to three genera, viz.,

Mabuya aurata, M. m. multifasciata, Lygosoma i. indicum and

Leiolopisma himalayanum are recorded to be viviparous. Closely

related species and even genera frequently adopt either method of

breeding, and from this point of view the genus Mabuya becomes

extremely interesting in that the ‘closely allied species may produce

young by either method, for example, Mabuya carinata and M. multi -

fasciata or M. dissimilis and M. aurata ’ (Smith, ’35, p. 6). Boulen-

ger (1890, p. 190), however, under the species Mabuia macularia ,

notes, ‘this species is stated by Theobald to be oviparous, whilst

its close* ally M. carinata is, like most Scincoids, viviparous. ? Per-

haps to this statement Malcolm Smith ( loc . cit ., p. 268) has taken

exception, and reiterates in reference to the species M. carinata

particularly, ‘it is usually stated that this Skink is viviparous, but

such is not the case. A female kept by Father Dreckmann in

captivity laid 23 eggs ; from another female he removed 22 eggs.

All are of about the same size, approximately 13 by 8 mm. ; none

of those examined shows any trace of embryo. Both clutches are

now in the British Museum.’ From the above statement it is

quite apparent that Malcolm Smith lays considerable emphasis on

the oviparity of M. carinata. But the observations recorded by

me above on M. carinata differ from those of Father Dreckmann.

It appears to me, however, that the eggs obtained by Father

Dreckmann were in all probability either infertile or in a very early

stage of development.

Now the point is whether M. carinata can be called viviparous

or not. It may be pointed out that Malcolm Smith (’35, p. 263

and p. 269) notes that M. aurata contains eight almost fully deve-

loped embryos, while M. m. midtifasciata produces five to seven

young ones. Both the species, in his sense of the terminology

used, are viviparous. From this emerges the view that a female

specimen containing embryos in the uterus may as well be described

as viviparous. It may also be noted in this connection that Gadow

(’01, p. 499) in general consideration of the Saurian eggs states,

‘many Lizards do not lay their eggs until they contain ripe embryos,

which burst the shell shortly after deposition. Some, for instance

Lacerta vivipara, Anguis fragilis, and Chamaeleo pumilus , are

practically viviparous.’ Further, Graham Kerr (’19, pp. 482-83)

is of the opinion that there are three steps in the evolution of vivi-

parity in reptiles. In the first type are included those forms ( Anguis ,

Vipera t Coronella) in which the egg is merely retained within the

uterus, the egg-envelope persists without having any intimate re-

lations developed between the embryo and the maternal tissues.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

133'

Note should be made of the fact that an intra-uterine development

of the ovum into an embryo generally takes place before the egg*

is deposited. As M. carinata seems to belong to this type, I do

not refer to the other two types described by Graham Kerr. From

all these considerations, M. carinata is, to all intents and purposes,

a viviparous skink, and not an oviparous one as contended by

Malcolm Smith. If M. carinata lays eggs at all, such as those

with embryos as described above, it should rightly be described as

ovo-viviparous, and strongly do I suspect that many of the skinks

would turn out to be ovo-viviparous in which the hard calcareous

shell has been dispensed with. As far back as 1890, Boulenger

noted, ‘they (Scincoids) are, as far as we know, ovo-viviparous,

with the exception of Mabuia macularia, which, according to

Theobald, is oviparous’ (p. 180). Annandale (To, p. 201) and

Okada (’35, p. 56) incidentally lend support to the view that most

skinks are ovoviviparous.

A further coincidence of fact that may be noted here is that

M. aurata and M. carinata both contain eight well-formed embryos,

while M. m. multifasciata, which is a close ally of carinata, pro-

duces five to seven young ones. But the number of eggs (23 and

22) laid by or removed from M. carinata as given by Father Dreck-

mann (Smith, ’35, p. 268) seems surprisingly larger and is no less

puzzling. This, therefore, requires further confirmation in the light

of present observation as well as from the fact that none of the

skinks, especially Mabuya, has so far been credited with laying

eggs or producing young ones more than nine in number.

McCann (’40) who has recently given elaborate accounts of

breeding habits of many Indian lizards, records some brief observa-

tions on the two common species, M. carinata and M. macularia,

but he has not noted anything about the breeding habits of the

former except that the young ones are numerous during the months

of June and July. The presence of young would naturally indicate

that hatching must have occurred recently. However, he has given

a photograph of the genital organs of a female M. carinata which

clearly demonstrates that both the ovaries contain immature ova,

and that they are situated at different levels, the right one being

located slightly anterior to the left. It cannot be made out from

that photograph, nor from the text, whether the specimen is a

recently parturiated female or not.

Blanford notes (vide, Smith, ’35, p. 268) that the breeding season

of M. carinata in the Godavari district is during March, and it is

true of the specimen, though single, obtained from Calcutta in

March.

JNANENDRA LAL BHADURI.

Zoological Dept-, University of Calcutta,

35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Ballygunge, Calcutta.

March 29, 1943.

134 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

References.

Annandale,t N., ‘Notes on the Darjilin,g Skink ( Lygosoma sikkimense)' , Rec.

Ind. Mus., V, p. 201, (1910).

Boulenger, G. A., Reptilia and Batrachia, Fauna of Brit. India, (1890).

Gadow, H., Amphibia and Reptiles, Cambridge Nat. Hist., viii, (1901).

Kerr, G. J., Text-book of Embryology, vol. ii, Vertebrata with the exception

of Mammalia, (1919).

McCann, C., ‘A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany’, Pt. ii, Journ. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., xlii, pp. 46-64, (1940).

Okada, Y., ‘Reptile of Jehol’, Rep. 1st Sci. Expdt. Manchoukuo, sec. V,

pt. II, Art. 2, p. 56, (1935).

Sedgwick, A., A Student’s Text-book of Zoology, vol. ii, (1905).

Smith, M. A., Reptilia and Amphibia, vol. ii — Sauria, Fauna of Brit. India

0935)-

Since the above article was written and accepted for publication

in this Journal on April 6, 1943, I have come across a short note

on the same subject [An instance of ‘viviparity’ in Mabuya carinata

(Schneid.)] written by Mr. R. vV. Seshaiya and published in 1938

{ J.B.N.H.S. , 40, p. 132, 1938). I regret very much to have missed

referring to this article. As my observations are considerably

different from his brief account, although the conclusion is some-

what alike, I do not like to alter the text of my article. A brief

comment may, however, be made here. Mr. Seshaiya did not record,

inter alia, the number of eggs that were actually present in the

uteri and the time of breeding, nor did he add a description of the

embryos except that they superficially resembled a 3-day-old chick

embryo. It appears that the embryos obtained by him were cer-

tainly in much earlier stages of development than those recorded

by me above.

Zoological Dept., University of Calcutta, J. L. B.

35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Calcutta,

April 28, 1943.

XVIII.— THE ANATOMY OF THE DUODENAL REGION OF

SOME GENERA OF APODA (AMPHIBIA).

( With two plates)

A comparative study of the duodenal region of some apodan

genera was made to note the opening of the hepatic and pancreatic

ducts. »

In Anura t it is common knowledge that the hepatic ducts arising

from the liver lobes unite to form a common hepatic duct with

which one of the cystic ducts coming from the gall bladder merges

to form the ductus choledocus. The other cystic duct opens into

the common hepatic duct entering the pancreas. Entering into the

choledocal duct, there is a duct (as shown by Wiedersheim) from

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE i.

L. S. Ramaswami — Anatomy of duodenal region of Apoda.

(For explanation see end of note).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 2.

L. S. Ramaswami — Anatomy of duodenal region of Apoda.

(For explanation see end of note).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

135

the pancreas formed by the union of small ductules. O’Donoghue

(1:925, p. 47) described many small pancreatic ductules opening into

the hepatic duct. The choledocal duct enters the duodenum. There

are no separate pancreatic ducts, therefore, opening into the in-

testine.

On the other hand, in Urodela, the pancreas throws its secretion

into the duodenum by two ducts ; of these the anterior opens behind

the pylorus and the posterior along with the hepatic duct (Noble,

1931, p. 205). It is noted that the duct corresponding to the

anterior one of the Urodela disappears in Anura (Goppert, 1891) ;

the other opens into the ductus choledocus.

I have examined the duodenal region of the following examples

of Apoda both by dissection and by sectioning: —

Ichthyophis glutinosus (Linne) ; I. monochrous (Bleek.) ; Gegeno-

phis carnosus (Beddome) ; Ureotyphlus narayani Seshachar; Der-

mophis gregorii Blgr. ; Boulengerula boulengeri Torn^ ; Herpele

ochrocephala (Cope) and Scolecomorphus ulugaruensis Barb & Lov.

The gall bladder (text-figs. 1-8, g.) situated at the posterior

end of the tabulated liver (Z.) can be clearly seen in a ventral dis-

section. The cystic duct arising from the dorsal aspect of it joins

the large hepatic duct coming from the liver. Opening into the

latter are a few hepatic ductules. The ductus choledocus (text-

figs. 4, 6, dc .) passes through the tissue of the pancreas p1., p.)

(the anterior limb of which is situated near the liver) closely associ-

ated with the hepatic portal vein ( hpv .).

The larger part of the pancreas (text-figs. 1-8, p.) is associated

with the duodenal part ( d .) of the intestine and it is in this region,

he. posterior to the pylorus (py.) that the openings of the common

hepatic and pancreatic ducts are noticed. Tracing sections from

the pyloric end, in all the examples studied, a large duct arising

from the pancreas opens into the intestine, which therefore, would

correspond with the anterior duct of Urodela. In her figure 76

(PI. xxii) Francis (1934) described the anterior as dorsal duct in

Salamandra. However, in two examples of Apoda studied by me

[Scolecomorphus , Ureotyphlus ) another smaller pancreatic duct

gains entry into the intestine (which may therefore, be called second

anterior) before the choledocal duct opens into the gut. Posterior

to this choledocal opening, the intestine receives the second or

posterior pancreatic duct. In Dermophis the posterior pancreatic

and choledocal ducts unite before opening. In Salamandra also,

Francis (1934) described the posterior duct opening into the duode-

num by two ductules, one anterior and the other posterior to the

common bile duct.

The difference between the anuran and apodan gall bladder is

at once apparent. While in the former there is a cystic duct to

lead bile into gall bladder from which duct there is another to

throw the juice into the choledocal duct, in Apoda, on the other

hand, the gall bladder is merely an enlargement of the hepatic

duct corresponding to the first type shown by Kingsley (1926,

P* 259, figf- 284).

The presence of double independent pancreatic ducts opening

into duodenum would naturally relate the Apoda more with Urodela

than with Anura.

136 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

A word or two about the pylorus may not be out of place here.

The series of figures drawn of the pylorus (text-figs. 9-16) of the

genera investigated, it is noticed that the pyloric sphinctre is poor

in Dermophis (text-fig. 15) and Herpele (text-fig. 16), fairly well

developed in Boulengerula (text-fig. 14) and very well deve-

loped in Ureotyphlus (text-fig. 12), Gegenophis (text-fig. n),

Ichthyophis monochrous (text-fig. 9), I. galtinosus (text-fig. 10)

and Scolecomorphus (text-fig. 13). In Ureotyphlus, Gegenophis

Ichthyophis and Scolecomorphus where the histology of the pyloric

epithelium could be studied with certainty, it is noticed that the

gastric epithelium also lines the pylorus ; however, glands are

absent. In Ureotyphlus (text-fig. 12) the cavity is considerably

reduced on account of the villi-like projections ; in I. monochrous

(text-fig. 9: not glutinosus ) and Gegenophis (text-fig. 11) there is

a ‘typhlosole’-like (tp.) projection which starts from the post gastric

region and ends in the pylorus. This projection, however, is not

continued into the intestine.

Summary.

The duodenal region of the apodan genera examined reveals an

interesting feature. There are two pancreatic ducts ; one opening

into the intestine in front of the choledocal duct and the other along

with it or posterior to it. In this respect, the Apoda resemble the

Urodela where also two ducts are described; in Anura there is

only one duct corresponding to the posterior of Urodela.

I wish to express my thanks to Prof. A. Subba Rau for helpful

criticism.

Intermediate College, L. S. RAMASWAMI,

Mysore, Dept, of Zoology, University of Mysore .

March 10, 1943.

References.

Braun, Morph. Jahrb. xxxvi, (1906).

Ecker, A., The Anatomy of the Frog, (translated by G. Haslam. Oxford,.

1889).

Francis, E. T. B., The Anatomy of the Salamander. (Oxford, 1934).

Goppert, E., Morph. Jahrb. xvii, (1891).

Kingsley, J. S., Outlines of Comparative anatomy of Vertebrates. (London,,

1926).

Noble, G. K., The Biology of the Amphibia. (New York, 1931).

O’Donoghue, C. H., An Introduction to Zoology. (London, 1925).

Ramaswami, L. S., Proc. Indian Sci. Congress, xxx, part 3, (1943).

Wiedersheim, R., V ergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere translated by W. N„

Parker. London, 1908.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Ventral view of the slightly distended duodenal region of :

text-fig. 1. Ichthyophis monochrous (Bleek.).

2. I. glutinosus (Linne).

3. Ureotyphlus narayani Seshachar.

4. Gegenophis carnosus (Beddome).

5. Scolecomorphus uluguruensis Barb & Lov.

6. Depmophis gregorii Blgr.

7. Herpele ochrocephala (Cope).

8. Boulengerula boulengeri Torn. [allx6]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

137

bv. blood vessel; d. duodenum; dc. ductus choledocus; g. gall bladder; hpv.

hepatic portal vein ; l. liver lobe ; p. pancreas ; p ’. the thinner anterior portion

of pancreas reaching liver : py. pylorus ; 5. spleen ; st. stomach.

Plate II.

Transverse section in the region of the pylorus of :

text-fig. 9. Ichthyophis monochrous (Bleek.).

10. I. glutinosus (Linne).

11. Gegenophis carnosus (Beddome).

12. Ureotyphlus narayani Seshachar.

13. Scolecomorphus uluguruensis Barb & Lov.

14. Boulengerula boulengeri Torn.

15. Dermophis gregorii Blgr.

16. Herpele ochrocephala (Cope).

bv. blood vessel ; c. cavity of the pylorus ; ct. connective tissue layer ; e. epithelium ;

mm. muscularis mucosa; ps. pyloric sphinctre ; tp., "typhlosole’-like projection.

XIX.— A NOTE ON FISH MORTALITY IN THE

SOHAN RIVER.

( Comment on Miscellaneous Note, No. XX, Vol. xxxiii, No. 3,

P- 534)-

As fishes are very sensitive to free and albuminoid ammonia,

acids and alkalis and deficiency in dissolved oxygen in water, any

abnormalities of these constituents are likely to prove dangerous. It

appears from the report that the water is ‘strongly acidic’ due to

‘free acids’ and as such it is harmful to fish life. The p value

of water going below 6.7 (7 being the neutral pont) is not conducive

to their health. The report does not state what acids were found

in the water and how much, but since it is. noted as ‘strongly acidic’

it implies that the p value must be very much less than 6.7 and

is therefore dangerous to fish life.

I would advise that samples of water collected from three different

places, namely, (1) one from the place where the Leh river joins

the Sohan, (2) one from the Leh river before it falls to Sohan, and

(3) one from the place about } mile up the Sohan river, be examined.

A comparative statement showing the amounts of (1) dissolved

oxygen. (2) oxygen absorbed by organic matters (Tidy’s process),

(3) free and albuminoid ammonia, (4) nature of the free acids if any

and (5) the p value of the water (simple colorimetric method will

do) along with the usual details of ordinary analysis is very helpful

for studying the condition. It is not possible to give a definite

opinion about the nature of water which is likely to endanger fish

life, unless the above data are available.

Calcutta, K. N. BAGCHI, d.sc.,

February 19, 1943. Chemical Examiner to the Govt, of Bengal .

XX.—PAPTLIO ARCTURUS IN THE HIMALAYAS.

As is well known to Himalayan Lepidopterists there are five

beautiful species of swallowtails belonging to the blue- and green-

spotted group of which Papilio paris may perhaps be regarded as

the most typical example at the same time as possessing the most

138 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

extensive geographical distribution of them all not only in the

Himalaya but eastward throughout southern China. While, how-

ever, Papilio ganesa is apparently confined to the south-eastern

portion of the chain it is represented west of Nepal by the closely

allied Papilio polyctor which in the neighbourhood of Simla is well

known to European collectors by the name of the monal. The

beautiful Papilio krishna is. I believe confined exclusively to the

south-eastern Himalaya of Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Of the

preceding, the first three are strictly sub-tropical being confined to

the potter valleys below 3000 feet although individuals are occasion-

ally carried up by ascending currents of warm air, 1000 or even

2000 feet above their usual habitat. On the other hand, the last-

named species is a denizen of the cold-temperate zone besides that

of the warm-temperate occurring thus within the latter climatical

belt at about 3000 feet and from thence ascending up to 9000 feet

or so. The fifth species, the special subject of this memoir, Papilio

arcturus is apparently the only exclusively cold-temperate species

of the group of what I denominate the ‘Peacock Swallowtails’, its

habitat comprising the cold-temperate forests at an altitude of be-

tween 6000 and 9000 feet. This beautiful species is fairly plentiful

in the south-eastern Himalaya, more especially on the so called ‘Outer

ranges’ though I have also met with it in the interior of Sikkim

on slopes in close contiguity to the high snow peaks at about

8000 feet. In the immediate neighbourhood of Darjeeling it is of fre-

quent occurrence, where on Observatory Hill at an altitude of nearly

7000 feet I have seen it on the wing during every month from the

middle of April to the middle of November, though it is most plenti-

ful in June and July. This species is somewhat seasonally dimorphic

and possesses apparently as many as five broods in the course of the

year if my observations are correct, the first appearing in the imago

stage in April, the second in May and June, the third throughout

July and August, the fourth in September and October and the

fifth during November. As I have not reared it from the caterpillar

I do not know however in what stage of its metamorphosis it

hibernates or passes through the winter. Although the winters are

comparatively mild at Darjeeling, snow being only of very occasional

occurrence and frosts, with the exception of hoar frosts, practically

absent in most seasons, it would nevertheless be too cold for the

larva to continue to feed throughout the winter solstice. Accord-

ingly I am under the impression that it is the chrysalis which hiber-

nates. If this is so the perfect insects which appear in April may be

representatives of some which did not emerge in the winged state

the previous November in consequence of unfavourable metrological

conditions ; on the other hand they may be the entire product of the

fifth brood. Only those entomologists continuously residing on the

spot could elucidate this enigma with any degree of certitude how-

ever, I presume with regard to their seasonal dimorphism (or trimor-

phism) : the first and fifth broods are closely alike in their small

size and the colour of the powdered scales on their wings which are

predominantly of a golden bronze instead of the bluish-green of the

later broods. The largest specimens by far, besides being the most

brilliantly coloured, belong exclusively to the brood which makes its

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

139

appearance immediately subsequent to the summer solstice and con-

tinues on the wing- throug-hout July and August and occurs accord-

ingly at the period of the greatest S.-W. Monsoon deluge, at sunny

intervals during which specimens may be always seen on the wing.

The second and fourth broods which appear respectively throughout

May and June and September into October are about midway in size

with regard to the expanse of their wings to the extremes represented

by the first and fifth broods in comparison with the third or mid-

summer form of the perfect insect. During my stay at Darjeeling

I obtained a very fine series of this beautiful species, illustrative of

all the different broods, which was much admired by my friend

Dr. Alfred Russell Wallace when he came to see my collection of

Himalayan Butterflies many years ago.

Plymouth, WILLIAM HARCOURT-BATH.

February 6, 1943.

XXL— CONTROL OF AEDES EGYPTUS ( STEGOMYIA

FASCIA TA) OR TIGER MOSQUITO (THE CARRIER

OF YELLOW FEVER) IN THE BOMBAY HARBOUR

BY A PATENT MOSQUITO-PROOF CAP AND TAP.

Brig. -General Coveil, I.M.S., Director, Malaria Institute of India

commenting on the discussion on his report on Malaria in Bombay

remarked that Bombay was known as the worst Port for mosquitoes

in the East as instanced by the repeated complaints made by Ships

officers visiting the Port. He simultaneously urged for devising

means to control the unlimited breeding of Aedes egyptus 3 the cause

of this prevalence of mosquito in the country craft in the Harbour

and Docks of Bombay. Since then much water has flown under the

bridge. In 1935 soon after assuming the charge of Malaria Pre-

ventive Measures in the Port Trust Estates, Docks and Bunders as

its Administrative Medical Officer, a preliminary survey of country

craft made by me revealed that out of 898 country craft examined,

458 or more than half the number were found breeding Stegomyia

jasciata giving a ratio of about 51% or that every alternate native

craft was breeding the pest. This mosquito breeds profusely in one

or more open fresh water receptacles or barrels which are round or

oblong, square and box-shaped liberating thousands of adults. Most

of these barrels are open or barely covered with a piece of cloth

or plank, water being taken in Bombay or along other ports of call

in all sorts of conditions. This water when examined revealed not

only mosquitoes, but dirt and debris of all kinds including droppings

of rats, cockroaches, fibre or coal particles and was drawn by hand

for drinking with the risk of conveying diarrhoea, dysentery and

cholera germs. As the Bombay Port Trust did not have compulsory

powers for examination of the craft at the time, it was decided to

continue to carry out the surveys further by examination and empty-

ing out water when necessary by a notice freely circulated urging

gentle persuasion and education of the tindal or master of the craft.

Many refused at first the voluntary request, but with a full year of

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

working- with constant examinations and emptying out, 19453 country

craft or vessels were examined in 1935-36 showing a reduction in

breeding of 28.7%, in 5688 of the craft so examined when 5551 were

persuaded to empty out the infested waters. Fresh water was allowed

free from the Docks and Bunders in its place. Progress was made-

in 1936-37 with the same voluntary working when with the repeated

inspections and emptying out, breeding further diminished to 19.3%

as seen from figures given below. Improvement continued during

the next year to 14.4% in 1937-38, the peak of period of examination

of 30602 vessels when the numbers breeding fell to 4412 from 5551

in 1935-36 all complying with the procedure.

This working was detailed and published by me in three prelimin-

ary papers (Nos. 3, 4, 5) on the subject as referred to at the end of

the article. ■ The following figures give the actual working for the

last 7 years : —

COUNTRY CRAFT.

At the end of 1936, as a result of the voluntary wTork having

been carried out successfully, the Government of Bombay gave the

Port Trust compulsory powers by a rule under the Ports Act 1908

section 6 (1) (p) to inspect and deal with country craft so infested

within the precincts of the Port and the Trustees appointed their

Administrative Medical Officer to carry out the work. Soon after

in 1937 a further step was taken in fitting of a mosquito-proof cap

with a wooden cork or plug for the open entrances with provision

of a separate tap to draw off water. This was at first fitted to our

own craft for effectively stopping breeding of Stegomyia in the

barrels and was adopted as a standard for others to follow when

found successful.

The cap is made of a strong perforated zinc plate with a mesh

of 1/16 in. in the shape of an inverted square boater fixed to the

opening* by screws. It is closed by a wooden cork or plug with a

nob on top to which a small chain is attached anchoring it to a

side of the opening (for full details with sketches and plans see

paper 6). Thus the cap serves as a filter to all impurities and does

not allow the imago or full-grown insect to escape even if water be

laden with eggs of the mosquito. The cork keeps out cotton,

cocoanut and other fibres, dust or coal particles entering it, thus

keeping the water sweet and clear and further eliminating risk of

contamination by hands dipped into the water. A brass cock or

tap is fitted at a suitable distance from the bottom of the cask or

barrel to draw water which is used mainly for drinking purposes.

The capacity of such a barrel is often some 10-25 gallons for a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

141

small and for a big square wooden cistern about 400 or more

gallons each carried by country craft coming from long distances

like Karachi, Cutch, Kathiawar, Cochin, Arabia, Africa, etc. The

whole Western Coast line or littoral of India is infested with this

mosquito as shown by craft coming from estuaries and even rivers

up the coast such as from Surat, Navsari, Goa and Cochin etc.

where water is often taken from wells or step wells.

The gradual diminution in the findings of breeding in subsequent

years is an event of evolutionary reduction of the Stegomyia Index

due to constant inspections and emptying out of such infested craft,

The device if and when adopted to those coming from other ports

will still reduce the Stegomyia Index to the normal safe one of 2%.

I am glad to report that so far the caps and taps fitted by kind

permission of the Trustees at their Workshops have withstood more

than 4 years of hard wear and tear and none of the barrels so fitted

have shown any breeding. The advantages of this pucca device

are evident in the long service and efficacy of its working the

benefits of which are now being appreciated by all owners who

often request and send new barrels to be fitted up at our Work-

shops. Further no drastic action under the powers has been neces-

sitated nor any obstruction offered by the owners or servants plying

the boats. It has freed them of the annoying attention of their

own mosquitoes bred in man-made receptacles as said by Mhatre

and Coveil in their reports.

To deal with this nuisance in the Port, for some two decades,

both the Bombay Municipality and Port Trust have approached the

Government from time to time, but no decision was arrived at in

the absence of a suitable working scheme and when this was attained

on sound and practical lines it was easy for Government to give

the long-needed powers to the Port Trust to enforce control over

the infested craft entering their precincts. Thus in this instance

instead of Legislature enforcing a certain procedure or custom, the

correct procedure has justified the necessary enactment or rule as

a beneficial one. This provision of cap and tap and constant in-

spections are the full answer to Brig. Coveil’s quest in 1928 to devise

a way to check this nuisance of constant annoyance and danger to

the public and the sea faring or Mercantile Community visiting the

Harbour. In fact all of Col. Covell’s recommendations have been

practically carried out during my regime including Roof-gutters

work, a pioneer work of its. kind in Indian Ports with mosquito-

proofing of all Port Trust tanks both on ground and overhead at

considerable expense. Lastly larvicidal Gambusia fish has been

introduced into sweet water static and open tanks. That instead

of Bombay being one of the Worst Ports in the East for Mosquitoes,

I have tried to make it one of the Safest Ports in the East. For

this I have to thank all the Chairmen and Trustees of the Port

with the present Chairman, Sir B. Rama Rao, i.c.s., for the kind

help and the latter for permission to publish this paper.

Bombay,

February 13, 1943.

F. D. BANA,

M.B., M.R.C.S., D.P.H., D.T.M. & H. , I.P.

Administrative Medical Officer

Bombay Port Trust .

142 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

References .

1. Malaria in Bombay by Col. Coveil, i.m.s., 1928.

2. A Survey of Aedes Mosquitoes in Bombay, by Dr. Mhatre, 1934.

3. A practical way of dealing with Aedes egyptus (Stegomyia fasciata) mos-

quitoes breeding in country craft, by} Dr. F. D. Bana, Indian Medical Gazette,

February 1936.

4. A Practical way of dealing with Aedes egyptus (Stegomyia fasciata) mos-

quitoes breeding in country craft, by Dr. F. D. Bana, Indian Medical Gazette,

May 1936.

5. Mosquito Reduction in the Port Trust Docks and Bunders, by Dr. F. D.

Bana. The Port of Bombay Magazine, July 1936.

6. Control of Stegomyia fasciata (Aedes egyptus) mosquitoes in Indian

country craft by a mosquito-proof metal cap for drinking water receptacles, by

Dr. F. D. Bana, Indian Medical Gazette, June 1938.

7. Yellow Fever in the East, by F. D. Bana, The Port of Bombay

Magazine, July-September 1939.

XXII.— OBSERVATIONS ON A FEW CASES OF LARVAL

ECDYSIS OF THE INDIAN GLOW-WORM, LAMPROPHORUS

TENEBROSUS WLK.

1. A complete moult of the larva.

On 12th March ’42, a completely moulted skin was found along'

with a larva kept in a dish and the newly moulted larva was bright

and oily with the marginal areas of the dorsal plates more brownish

than yellowish. From an examination of the moult it was discovered

that the thin cuticle lining* the photogenic organ also was cast and

the linings of the tracheal tubes were as usual left attached to the

moult here and there. The linings of the mouth-parts and even

the eye were cast out. The whole moult was complete excepting

a small gap at the ventral portion of the thorax, through which I

suppose the animal would have wriggled out.

2. A case of moulting inside a r closed burrow \

A fairly large larva, measuring about 55 mm. in length was

left in a glass tray over moist earth on 1st March 1942. It was

supplied regularly with snails, but the glow-worm did not feed.

It was unusually very inactive. After 2 or 3 days it began to

burrow into the earth and by the 9th a deep burrow was constructed

against a side of the tray. The burrow was about 2 inches deep

and the hollow inside was lined with a smooth surface. The

animal had completely buried itself inside the burrow, which was

closed with earth above. Occasionally by disturbing it I could see

through the glass a bright glow inside the burrow. On 15th

morning I saw the creature with a completely moulted skin attached

to it. I took both the larva and its moult out and the larva of the

fresh instar began to move about. The plates were very soft and

delicate, but dark (dark, because ecdysis must have taken place a

rew hours earlier). The moulted skin had the usual linings of the

tracheal tubes attached to it. These linings I could notice inside

the hollow of the burrow only on the 15th. So I presume that

the larva moulted on the 15th itself, but the whole skin was cast

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

in the course of a few hours, during- which time the animal had

assumed the dark colour. The skin is preserved dry.

3. A case of moulting outside the burrow.

Another case of moulting was noticed to take place outside.

In this case no special burrow was constructed for moulting. The

larva having a length of about 50 mm. was placed in a glass tray

over moist earth on 1st March ’42. It stopped feeding and gradu-

ally developed an aversion towards snails. It began to burrow but

didn’t proceed further. It came out again and lay coiled up, quite

exposed and inactive. The only sign of life was observed in the

sudden glow of the photogenic organ when hammered by the

mounted needle. It also wriggled slightly when pricked. The

plates grew darker and darker and the body was considerably

narrowed. On 18th March, 1942, morning at 10 a.m., it was quite

inactive and I took it to be dead. It was sooty black and the body

shrunken very badly. At 2 p.m., to my surprise I discovered the

larva in the act of moulting. The metathoracic and abdominal

exoskeleton was detached and thrown out posteriorly. The pro-

notum and mesonotum were still attached to the body. The newly

moulted individual was bright yellowish white. At 5 p.m., no

further change was observed. But the skin was becoming less and

less yellow and the larva was stretching the abdomen and relaxing

itself. The skin covering the 2 posterior pairs of legs were cast

already and so they were white. At 5-30 p.m., the animal wriggled

out vigorously. Dorsally the pronotum and mesonotum were left

and ventrally the prosternum and the skin covering the forelegs

alone were left. Now it looked as though the animal had a helmet.

The two posterior pairs of legs were moving and pressing against

each other. The head was kept outside but not so fully thrust out

as during locomotion. The dorsomedian line was seen as a white

streak. The posterolateral margins of the terga were diaphanous.

The 8th abdominal tergum grew very dark in the middle area. The

anal brush was completely retracted inside and obviously it had

no part to play in ecdysis. The skin gradually became dark and

on 19th morning the chitin was completely turned black as in the

normal active larvae. But the ‘helmet’ (or pronotal piece) was not

cast till the following day.

Madras Christian College, J. SAMUEL RAJ,

Tambaram, Department of Zoology.

April 14, 1943.

XXIII.— THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES

CALLOSUS NEES.

Owing to the uncertainty of the flowering cycle of Strobilanthes

callosus, locally known as the Karvi, I recorded the time of the

general flowering which occurred in 1928 in volume xxxiv, p. 264,

of the Journal, in the hope that some botanist might record the

144 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIS. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

next general flowering and thereby fix the length of the flowering

cycle. In the note quoted above, I referred to ‘forerunners’ of the

general flowering which showed up in August-September 1927. In

1942 ‘forerunners’ appeared on the Western Ghats at Khandala.

My son, Carl, wrote in 1942 to say that isolated bushes flowered

at Abu. At present (1943) all the bushes at Khandala are full of

buds, ,and my son wrote again recently to say that all the Strobil-

anthes at Abu are showing signs of flowering. Last week-end I

noticed old plants at Mumbra, Thana District, also in bud. These

records give us the flowering cycle of Strobilanthes callosus as

fifteen years (1928-1943).

This is a hurried last-minute note to draw the attention of

members to the general flowering of this species which will take

place between September and November this year, 1943.

Bombay Natural History Society, C. McCANN.

Bombay,

August 5, 1943.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The Annual General Meeting of the Society will be held at

the Prince of Wales Museum, on Thursday the 19th August 1943

at 6 p.m.

AGENDA

1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the

past year.

3. Election of the Committee.

4. Such other business as may be properly brought before the Meeting.

The Honorary Secretary announced the election of the following

92 new members since the last meeting held on 22nd July 1942: —

22nd July 1942.

(1) Shri Bada Maharaj Kumar Sahib Hanwant Singh of Jodhpur ; (2) Mr. G.

Loucatos, Bombay; (3) Mr. R. D. Leakey, Bombay; (4) Mr. A. Raptakos,

Bombay; (5) Mr. Francis Low (Jr.), Bombay; (6) Major R. H. Beamish, No. 12

Advance Base P.O., India; (7) Mr. James A. Hall, M. E. Force; (8) Mr. R. F.

Twist, Assam; (9) Mr. S. W. C. Dunlop, I.C.S., Bezwada ; (10) Mr. R. S.

Symons, I.C.S., New Delhi; (11) Professor of Zoology, Osmania University,

Secunderabad, Deccan ; (12) Mr. W. F. Penberthy, Calcutta; (13) The Principal,

Dunger College, Bikaner; (14) The Honorary Secretary, Ahmednagar Club,

Ahmednagar ; (15) D. S. Vala Bawabhai, Talukdar of Babra, Kathiawar ;

(16) Dr. G. Heslop Harrison, Bombay; (17) Major J. W. Rawlins, New Delhi;

(18) Major Peter Hook, New Delhi; (19) Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips, I.A. (Retd.)

Srinagar; (20) The Director of Industries, Bombay; (21) Capt. Aubrey Buxton,

Bombay; (22) Lt.-Col. J. H. Blyth, I.A., New Delhi; (23) The Mother Superior,

Oxford Mission, Behala, Calcutta; (24) Major G. M. Holland, Bombay; (25)

Mr. W. T. Loke, Bombay; (26) Mr. E. K. Hari Krishna, Quetta; (27) Mr. H. J.

Mitchell, B.F.S., Simla; (28) Mr. A. S. Laing, Bombay; (29) Mrs. Desiree

Proud, Simla Hills (30) Mr. J. Walker, I. F. S., New Delhi; (31) W.

Olmstead, Esq., New Delhi; (32) Mr. Brian Hocking, I.A.O.C., Cawnpore ;

(33) Mr. H. T. Mackett, Delhi ; (34) Dr. V. N. Likhite, d.sc., Mehsana, North

Gujerat ; (35) Lt. J. R. Armitage, Bombay ; (36) Mr. K. Karunakaran Nayar,

Trivandrum ; (37) The Principal, Sikh National College, Lahore ; (38) Mr. A. G. A.

Beyts, Chitral; (39) Mr. W. L. French, Army Base P.O. ; (40) Major F. J. S.

Turner, Colombo ; (41) Mr. C. L. Hamilton, Calcutta.

1st January 1943.

(1) Mr. J. R. Scott, Bombay; (2) Mr. H .B. Hayes, Bombay; (3) Mr. G. H.

Jollye, Middle East Force; (4) Mr. Owen Martin, Bombay; (5) Sgt. J. D.

Romer, Bombay; (6) Mr. Eden Showers, Assam; (7) H. H. The Raja- of

Pudukkottai ; (8) Mr. A. R. Haseler, Simla; (9) H. H. Maharaja Shri Brijendra

Sawai Brijendra Singh Sahib Bahadur, Maharaja of Bharatpur ; (10) Dr. V.

Prabhakar Rao, m.a., d.sc., Bombay; (11) Dr. C. C. John, m.a., d.sc., Tri-

vandrum; (12) D. Stewart Brown, Bombay; (13) The Director, Drug Research

Institute, Jammu Tawi ; (14) Major J. N. Reeve, R.A., Bombay; (15) Major

I. A. Pace, Bombay ; (16) Sgt. A. F. Armstead, Dinapore 7 (17) Miss M. F.

Barber, Mudis P.O. ; (18) The P.R.I. No. 26, Prisoner of War Camp, Yol,

Punjab; (19) Mr. J. T. D. Savary, Sind; (20) Capt. A. D. Hunter, No. 6,

10

146 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Advance Base P.O,, India; (21) Mr. Rufus H. Le-Fevre, U.S.A. ; (22) Lt.-Col.

E. L. Farley, c.b.e., m.c., Mhow ; (23) Mr. S. N. Elijah, Belgaum ; (24) 'Dr.

P. Dharma Pal, l.m.&.s., Mudis P.O. ; (25) Mr. E. H. Clarke, Jullundur ;

(26) Major R. Holmes, m.b.e., Bushire ; (27) Major T. D. Mills, Dinapore;

(28) Mr. M. R. Coghlan, Travancore ; (29) Sgt. P. V. Hicks, A. B. P.O. No. 21,

India; (30) The President, Mess Committee, Chindwara, C.P. ; (31) Major-

General H. J. Manockjee Cursetjee, Bombay; (32) Mr. W. J. Cullen, Karachi;

(33) Lt. G. L. Randall, R.E., Lahore; (34) The Instructor, Eastern States

Forest School, Champua P.O. ; (35) Mr. M. J. P. Cruttwell, Mussoorie;

(36) Capt. C. R. Stoner, No. 14, Advance Base P.O. ; (37) Mr. N. B. Banarjee,

Meerut; (38) Major F. R. McL. Moodie, I.E., Roorkee ; (39) Lt.-Col. D. C.

MacLeod, New Delhi; (40) Mr. James A. Hislop, Bombay; (41) Rev. Dr. J. B.

Freeman, Chingleput ; (42) Capt. C. Rea, Kakul ; (43) Major J. D. Olivier,

R.A., Campbellpore, Punjab; (44) Mrs. K. I, Barlow, Peshawar; (45) Capt.

Ph. E. Milon, Egypt; (46) Major L. D. J. Turnbull, Calcutta; (47) F/O T. R.

Garnett, Indian Command; (48) Mr. Alfred S. Paines, England; (49) Lt. P. W.

Hinde, Bombay; (50) Lt. P. I. R. Maclaren, R.I.A.S.C., Rawalpindi; (51)

Mr. John Dewar, Jalpaiguri.

Office Bearers — 1943.

The following gentlemen were elected to serve on the Managing Committee : — -

President. — H. E. The Right Hon’ble Sir John Colville, g.c.i.e., t.d.

Vice-Presidents. — Rev. Father J. F. Caius, s.j., f.l.s. and Rt. Rev. R. D.

Acland, m.a.

Executive Committee (Bombay). — Mr. Humayun Abdullaly ; Mr. Salim Ali ;

Mr. Farrokli E. Bharucha ; Mr. A. Forrington; Mr. J. B. Greaves, c.b.e., m.l.a.,

j.p. ; Mr. R. E. Hawkins ; Mr. D. G. Hill, f.r.g.s., j.p. ; Dr. M. Sharif, d.sc.,

ph.D., f.n.i. ; Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, i.m.s. ; Mr. F. Wadigi ; Mr. T. E. Savaides

(Hon. Treasurer ); Revd. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.j., f.l.s. (Hon. Secretary ).

Advisory Committee. — Dr. N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., Assam;

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, I. A. (Retd.), Bangalore; Mr. M. B. Dalai, Bombay;

Mr. C. H. Donald, f.z.s., Dharmsala ; Dr. F. H. Gravely, d.sc., Kodaikanal ;

Mr. C. M. Inglis, b.e.m.b.o.u., f.z.s., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, f.r.g.s,,

f.z.s. , Coimbatore; Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, f.z.s., i.a.. Bangalore;

Dr. Baini Prashad, d.sc., Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, i.f.s., Simla; Mr. J. H-

Williams, Coimbatore.

Staff. — Mr. S. H. Prater, o.b.e., m.l.a., j.p., c.m.z.s. ( Curator ) and Mr. C.

McCann, f.l.s. (Assistant Curator); A. F. Fernandes (Head Clerk).

Proceedings concluded with a vote of thanks to the Chair.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31ST DECEMBER, 1942.

ADMINISTRATION.

President. — H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, g.c.i.e., d.l.

Vice-Presidents. — Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.j., f.l.s., and Rt. Rev. R. D.

Acland, m.a.

Executive Committee (Bombay). — Mr. Humayun Abdulali ; Mr. Farrokh E.

Bharucha; Mr. A. Forrington; Mr. J. B. Greaves, c.b.e., m.l.a., j.p.;

Mr. R. E. Hawkins; Mr. D. G. Hill, f.r.g.s., j.p.; Dr. M.

Sharif, d.sc., ph.D., f.l.s.; Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, i.m.s.; Mr. F. Wadia ;

Mr. T. E. Savaides (Honorary Treasurer); Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.j., f.l.s.

(Honorary Secretary).

Advisory Committee. — Mr. Salim Ali, Dr. N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l,s,,

i.f.s., Dehra Dun ; Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, i.a. (Retd.), Bangalore ; Mr. C.

H. Donald, f.z.s., Dharmsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, D.sc., Kodaikanal; Mr. C. M,

Inglis, b.e., m.b.o.u., f.z.s., Darjeeling; Lt.-Col. R. C. Morris, f.r.g.s., f.z.s.,

Coimbatore; Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, i.a., f.z.s.. Bangalore; Dr. Baini

Prashad, d.sc., Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, i.f.s., Simla; Mr. J. H. Williams,

Coimbatore.

Staff. — Mr. S. H. Prater, m.l.a., j.p., c.m.z.s. (Curator) ; Mr. C. McCann,

f.l.s. (Asst. Curator).

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

147

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE

YEAR 1942.

The Society’s Journal.

Three numbers of the forty-third Volume of the Journal were

published during the year.

Mammals.

Papers on Mammals include Part I of Mr. Pocock’s study

of the larger Indian deer. Scientific literature on the species

of deer inhabiting British India is ^limited mainly to descriptions

of their antlers and other external features. The present contribu-

tion provides detailed descriptions of the skulls, indicating resem-

blances and differences in cranial characters. Four Elapine species

are dealt with. Two of them, the Kashmir Barasingh or Hangul

and the Shou are known to occur within our limits. Wallich’s Deer

is found in Tibet. The fourth species, Przewalski’s Deer ( Prze -

malskium albirostris ) is included in the Indian list on the evidence

of a head-skin and skull obtained in the Darjeeling Bazar. A key

summarising distinctions between the 4 species will help both students

and laymen to identify these little known deer by their external

and cranial characters.

Dr. W. C. Osman Hill, Professor of Anatomy at the Colombo

Medical College, describes a new race of Slender Loris under

the name ' Loris tardigradus nycticeboides from an adult male and

female and two young obtained from the Horton Plains (alt. 6,000

ft.) in Central Ceylon. In a second paper, Dr. Hill deals with

the Tocque Macacques ( Macaca sinica) of Ceylon. Pocock in his

recent volume on Mammalia distinguishes two races— the typical

form, M. s. sinica, found in the dry zone of the lowlands and a hill

race M. s. aurifrons, inhabiting the central hill ranges and the

lower jungles of the wet zone. A study of Tocque monkeys col-

lected from the uppermost levels of the Central Range led to the

conclusion that they represent a distinctive race to which Dr. Hill

assigns the name M. s. opisthomelas. This, the real highland

race, occupies the uppermost of the three geographical terraces

composing the land structure of the island, while M. s. -aurifrons,

from the lower or intermediate levels, is an annectant race between

the highland and the lowland forms.

Birds.

Mr. Salim Ali’s paper on the Birds of Mysore embodies the

results of a survey of the State carried out conjointly by the

Society and the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

A survey of Mysore was especially necessary to complete the data

obtained as a result of surveys in the Eastern Ghats and Southern

India, which indicate that the intervening territory of Mysore is a

meeting ground of the distinctive racial forms inhabiting the eastern

and western parts of the Peninsula. Our thanks are due to the

Mysore Darbar for financial help and other facilities given to the

Society in carrying out the Survey. In the introduction to his

report Mr? Ali discusses the Physiography and Meteorology of

148 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Mysore, associating his study of environmental factors with the

distribution of species. An attempt is made to fix provisional

habitat types by distinguishing species which inhabit dense ever-

green forest, those found in deciduous forest and those confined

mainly to an intermediate mixed biotope. These ecological studies

are a step to the better understanding of factors underlying dis-

tribution of species and the evolution of racial forms. In India they

offer naturalists a wide field of neglected exploration. Mr. Ali’s

paper shows the lines upon which this work can be done. The

survey was also instrumental in settling a number of questions

about the racial status, plumage, breeding, and movements of a

number of species. We must thank Mr. Ali for his interesting

report and Mr. Whistler for his taxonomical study of the collections

obtained by the Survey.

A useful supplement to previous literature on Central Indian

Birds is a paper on the Birds of Berar by Mrs. M. D. Wright.

The birds of the higher levels of the Karen Hills and Karenni,

Burma, by Messrs. Smith, Garthwaite and Smythies is the first

connected account of the birds of this area. Readers of our Journal

will be glad to hear that the authors have been able to bring away

from ill-fated Rangoon most of the blocks and original paintings

used for their fine work on the Birds of Burma. From the many

enquiries we have had for this book we may assure them that a

second edition is awaited by many.

Additional notes on the Birds of Northern Baluchistan, supple-

menting the late Dr. Ticehurst’s papers on the Avifauna of the

country were written by Major-General A. F. P. Christison. The

paper deals with new records and settles questions relative to a

number of species of which the racial status has been in doubt.

Obviously, a great deal of exploratory work remains to be done in

Baluchistan, a promising field for Ornithologists stationed in the

country.

Among the local lists published during the year is a paper on

the Birds of Londa, North Canara, by Walter Koeltz in which

reference is made to a large number of new races of birds originally

described by the author in the Proceedings of the Biological Society

of Washington. Mr. Whistler’s study of and comments on these

new races, published as an addendum to Mr. Koeltz’s paper,

emphasizes the need for greater restraint in establishing new races

without adequate material for comparative study. This from the

nature of his deductions, Mr. Koeltz obviously did not have, the

majority of new races described by him cannot stand.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali gives an account of a second visit to the

Vengurla Rocks — off the Ratnagiri Coast — the breeding grounds of

various terns and of edible-nest swifts. To the local breeding re-

cords of Sterna bergii, S. anaetheta and S. repressa we may now

add S. dougalli and S. fuscata — the Sooty tern, whose nearest

hitherto known breeding place was the Laccadives. The party

spent much of the time investigating the breeding cave of the

swifts. Some 5,000 of them swarmed home to roost after dark

and could be seen by torchlight clinging close-packed to the rock

face and to their nests, looking extraordinarily like bats. Many

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 149

of the nests appeared to have been replastered with saliva, suggest-

ing that they may be used more than once. All were empty.

Breeding probably takes place later in the year when the on-

coming monsoon makes this forbidding, wave-beaten islet wholly

inaccessible.

An interesting and well illustrated account of the nesting habits

of the Indian Courser was contributed by Mr. W: W. A. Phillips.

Mr. E. H. N. Lowther writes his notes on Indian Birds with

all that insight and sympathy which comes from many hours of

patient bird-watching. His subject is Indian Hornbills, about

whose unique nesting habits much that is precise yet remains to

be known. Does the imprisoned female leave the nest before her

eggs are hatched? Habits may vary with different species. In

the instance of our Common Grey Hornbill (/. birostris) Mr. Low-

ther ’s answer based on observations made at three different nests

is definitely — no’. Again, in the case of this species, the bulk of

evidence shows that the female alone builds the enclosing wall of

the nest. Analysis of fragments of the wall, sent by the author to

the Society, reveal that it is built up of earth and animal excreta

mixed together with pieces of bark, hay, etc., collected from the

nest hollow. Food for the imprisoned female is carried by the

male in his gullet and feeding is effected by regurgitation. The

female Grey Hornbill does not leave the nest till the young are

about a fortnight old, not infrequently when they are about ready

to fly. She lets herself out unaided by the male, breaking down the

nest wall with hammer strokes of her bill. The wall may or may

not be rebuilt to provide continued protection for the young.

Whether the parents rebuild the wall or whether, as in the case of

certain African species, it is rebuilt by the young is a question

which remains to be answered. Mr. Lowther’ s informative notes

are, as always, illustrated with his fine photographs.

Excellent also are Col. Bates’ pictures of birds taken during a

brief holiday in the great deodar forests of the Kazinag range. His

notes and photos were a feature of the April number. Readers of

our Journal have reason to be grateful both to Mr. Lowther and to

Col. Bates, whose pictures and writings add so much to the

attractiveness of its pages. At no small sacrifice they maintain the

fine tradition of voluntary effort upon which the repute of this

Journal has been built.

Reptiles and Fishes.

We were able to publish only one part of Dr. Hora’s serial on

the Game Fishes of India, as high costs of printing impose a more

rigid limitation on the number of coloured plates included in each

issue. In his six previous articles Dr. Hora described various

species of ‘Mahseer’ from the rivers of North India, he now turns

to the Mahseer of the Deccan from whence a confusing number of

species have been described. We take this opportunity of offering

our congratulations to Dr. Hora on his appointment as Director of

Fisheries, Bengal. The Bengal Government is fortunate in secur-

ing the services of a man of his knowledge and ability. It. is hoped

that Dr. Hora will have time to continue his scientific work and

10A

ifco Journal , bombAy natural hist, society , Voi. xLiV

that Indian Ichthyology will not be wholly deprived of the services

of one who is making so great a contribution to its progress. The

lishes of the waterways of the Deccan also form the subject of a

report by Capt. Fraser, who collected some 2,800 specimens in

Poona and its environs. Dr. Fraser’s general account of the

various localities in which fishes were collected and the species

obtained in each is followed by his notes on the ecology and

bionomics of certain forms. His collection was studied by Dr. Hora

and K. S. Misra who give a list of Poona fishes, with their Hindi

names, and their distribution. Of special interest is the discovery

within this limited area in India of certain species hitherto known

to occur only in Burma, Siam and Malaya, suggesting the Malayan

affinities of the Fauna of this part of the Western Ghats The

thanks of the Society are due to Capt. Fraser for the work he has

done, the greater part of his fine collection is now in our Museum.

Yet another student of the Fish Fauna of Poona is that enthusiastic

fisherman, Dr. M. Suter who contributes his observations on the

breeding coloration of Barbus kolus. A handsome breeding livery

is customarily donned by males of this group of fishes, but with this

carp it is the female who attracts attention to herself with the gaiety

of her bridal apparel. The coloured plate accompanying the

article is based on an original coloured sketch by Dr. Suter. We

thank him for contributing towards the cost of its reproduction and

for the many ways in which he has helped Dr. Hora in his study of;

the fish fauna of his neighbourhood. Dr. Hamid Khan’s paper on

the ‘Spawning of Carp and their Spawning grounds in. the Punjab’

is a contribution to better knowledge of this group of Indian fresh-

water fishes. The supply of these fine food fishes, economically the

most important in our rivers, is at present dependent entirely on

natural spawning. As such, improvement of our inland fisheries

depends substantially on the measures taken for their protection

from wholesale destruction during the breeding season and upon

the facilities which can be given them to reach their natural spawn-

ing grounds. Neglect of these provisions has implied and continues

to imply neglect of an important and valuable source of food supply

to the people of the country. The series of articles on the Game

Fishes of India, written mainly from the scientific aspect, were

directed to provide, in the first instance, accurate information about

their status and distribution. But knowledge of fish is one thing

and knowledge of fishing is another. We feel therefore that no

better pendant to Dr. Hora’s work in our Journal could be provided

than Mr. A. St. J. Macdonald’s serial on ‘Circumventing the

Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma’. Mr.

Macdonald writes for the young angler and for those of lesser ex-

perience, giving them generously all that hard won knowledge of

fish and fishing which leads to the mastery of the gentle art and to

'the qiaking of a good fisherman. Many fish have been taken and

much water has flowed from the rivers to the sea since Thomas

wrote his classic ‘Rod in India’. To the sum of what was then

written Mr. Macdonald adds much that is new both in practice and

precept. When Macdonald’s serial finally appears in book form it

will become the new vade mecum for anglers in India.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

151

Insects.

Papers on insects include parts IX and X of Mr. Sevastopulo’s

study of the Early Stages of the Indian Lepidoptera, and a paper

by Mr. M. C. Cherian on Goniozus indicus, a natural enemy of the

sugarcane White Moth borer ( Sciropliaga rhodoproctalis).

Botany.

Parts X, XI and XII of the serial on ‘Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs’ by Dr. N. L. Bor and M. B. Raizada, pub-

lished during the year, deal with the Solanaceae and the Verbena-

ceae which include so' many attractive garden plants. Father Caius

continued his serial on Indian medicinal and poisonous plants; the

August number of the Journal contained his paper on the Medicinal

Mallowworts of India. As with all the Malvaceae none of these

plants are poisonous, but many are well known for their emollient

and tonic properties. Parts IX and X of Mr. M. Sayeedud-Din’s

serial on Common Indian Herbs were issued. Mr. McCann’s paper

on Indian Duckweeds ( Lemnaceae ) is an important contribution to

the study of a little known order of plants, much neglected by

Botanists. The author clarifies the confused status of Indian

species and records fresh observations made over many years both

in the held and the herbarium. Dr. Kundu’s Revision of the Indian

species of Hodgsonia and Trichosanthes revises the classification

and nomenclature of the two genera, and assembles in one paper

the large number of species discovered and described by various

workers in numerous scattered publications. Such revision of most

of the families of Indian plants described in Hooker’s ‘Flora of

British India’ is long overdue. Appreciative reference must also

be made to Professor D ’Almeida’s intensive study of Indian marsh

and aquatic plants which adds much new information to what is

recorded in the various Floras. Mr. Abdul Hameed’s paper on

the Liverworts of the Murree Hills introduces laymen to an obscure

but none-the-less important division of the Plant Kingdom. His

paper contains notes and illustrations of some 23 different species

from the Murree Hills.

General.

More reminiscences of happy hunting days on the banks of

the Narbudda come to us from the pen of Col. Burton, whose

articles never fail to recapture the charm of leisurely days in field

and forest given now to few to enjoy. Mr. McCann’s ‘Busman’s

Holiday in the Abu Hills’ is a miscellany of interesting notes on

plants, animals and birds, written by one whose sole absorption

at work or at play is the world of Nature.

We cannot conclude this review of the papers published during

the year without expressing our thanks to all those who contributed

to the Miscellaneous Notes which have always been a feature of

our Journal and a source of special interest to most of its readers.

Despite increasingly rigorous conditions imposed by the War, we

have endeavoured to' maintain the standard of the Society’s Journal,

but the Council of the Society feels that we cannot altogether escape

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

the fate that has befallen so many kindred publications and that a

stricter limit must be placed to the number of its pages and

illustrations. This naturally raises the difficulty of finding space

tor numerous papers received, and of maintaining unbroken the

sequence of various current serials, but we are certain that members

will bear with us. Their support and cooperation will help the

Society to tide over these critical times, and to continue its work,

till happier days restore to the full the measure and scope of its

many activities.

Publications.

The first edition of Salim Ali’s Book of Indian Birds published

in 1941 was sold out almost within the year. A second revised

and enlarged edition containing additional plates and descriptive

matter is now in the press and will be available shortly, "there

is a demand for well written and well illustrated books on Indian

Natural History. So far, such literature has been limited mainly

to technical works or costly books unintelligible to — or beyond the

reach of the public. The Book of Indian Birds has served its

precise purpose — readable, attractive and inexpensive, it has appeal-

ed to a wide public. Its immediate success has encouraged the

Society to consider the publication of companion volumes in the

same style and format. The Book of Indian Animals is now in

course of preparation by Mr. Prater, whose serial on the Wild

Animals of the Indian Empire was published in the Journal some

years ago. Mr. Prater’s book will deal with the commoner

Mammals of India. It will be well illustrated in colour, and black

and white, and will include descriptive accounts and general chapters

in the manner of the Book of Indian Birds.

Another book now in preparation is a work on the Poisonous Land

Snakes of India. It is many years since the fourth edition of the

Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of India by Col. Wall went out of

print. Part I of the new work has been written by Dr. Malcolm

Smith, author of the new edition on Indian Reptiles in the Fauna

of British India series. Parts II and III dealing with snake venoms

and the treatment of snake bite was to have been written by Dr.

Burgess Barnett, whose researches into the application of snake

venoms in surgery and medicine have attracted considerable atten-

tion. On the outbreak of War with Japan Dr. Barnett, we under-

stand, offered his services to the Military and we regret that we

have not heard from him since. The Society has however been

fortunate in securing the help of Lt.-Col. Sokhey, Director of the

Haffkine Institute, Bombay, who has undertaken the preparation

of Parts II and III. The book will provide an up to date and

authoritative work on Indian Poisonous Snakes and the treatment

of snake bite.

The Nature Calendars issued annually by the Society have been

an outstanding success. We received numerous letters congratulat-

ing us on the excellence of the Calendar published in 1942 and

were, unfortunately, unable to meet the unexpectedly large demand.

Our special thanks are due to Col. Bates, to Mr. Lowther and others

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

153

whose fine photos contributed so much to the attractiveness of these

Calendars, which are a welcome source of much needed revenue

to the Society.

Revenue Account.

Our total revenue amounted to Rs. 38,665-3-7 as compared

with Rs. 24,887-12-5 in the previous year. The increase was

mainly due to receipts from sales of publications. Receipts from

subscriptions amounted to Rs. 16,622-5-5 as against Rs. 16,101-6-10

in the previous year. The loss of Malaya and Burma where we had

many members, and loss of contact with so many now serving in

various fronts have considerably depleted this main source of constant

revenue. On the other hand while expenditure on salaries and staff

has been maintained at pre-war level, we are faced with increasing

costs in almost every direction. It is confidently hoped that every

effort will be made by the members to ensure the continuity of their

support and the continuity of the Society’s work.

Donations.

The Council of the Society, on behalf of its members

wish to acknowledge with gratitude the handsome dona-

tions of Rs. 5,000 each, made by their Highnesses the Maharao of

Kutch and the Maharaja of Bikaner both of whom, on their recent

accession, honoured the Society by becoming its Vice-Patrons.

Our thanks are also due to all those who generously contributed

to the special fund created to meet the increased cost of the Journal.

The following is a list of donations received: —

Rs. A. P.

Membership.

68 new members joined as against 48 in the previous year. 32

resigned as against 24 in 1941.

After deductions made owing to death, or non-payment of sub-

scriptions the total membership inclusive of Life Membership was

974 as against 992 in the previous year.

Obituary.

The death of H.H. Shri Kengarji Maharao of Kutch was

a sad loss to the Society which for many years enjoyed his

patronage and support. An obituary notice in the Journal of

the Society pays tribute to the memory of His Highness, a Patron

and a friend of the Society, a sportsman and a great gentleman,

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Acknowledgments .

We offer our grateful thanks to Mr. W. S. Millard who since

he retired from the Honorary Secretaryship, some 25 years ago,

has continued to look after the Society’s affairs in London. His

constant and willing help has meant much to us.

Staff.

• .■ / mJ'.Gfsri

The Committee once again wishes to record its appreciation of

the services of the Curator and staff whose loyal and devoted

service is helping the Society to carry on in these critical times.

10th July 1943

J. F. Caius,

Honorary Secretary.

1942.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

155

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV , No. 2

Page

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XV. By N. L. Bor,

m.a., d.sc. , f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one coloured,

two black and white plates and two text-figures) ... ... ... 159

The Game Fishes of India. Part XVII. By Sunder Lai Hora, d.sc.,

f.r.s.e. , f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i. ( With one black and white plate

and one text-figure) ... ... ... ... ... ... 164

The Larger Deer of British India. Part IV. The Chital (Axis) and

the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. (With 4-8

text-figures) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 169

A Note on the feeding habits of the Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus).

By Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u. (With two plates) ... ... 179

‘Light-Windows’ in certain flowers (Asclepiadaceae and Araceae).

By Charles McCann, f.l.s. (With a plate) ... ... ... 182

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Part V. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With five plates and one

text-figure) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 185

The Birds of Mysore. Part V. By Salim Ali. (With one plate) ... ^206

On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet.

Part III. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite, and B. E.

Smythies ... ... ... ... ...» ... ... 221

Breeding habits and Early Stages of the Gourami (O sphronemus goramy

Lacepede). By C. V. Kulkarni, b.a. (Hons.), m.sc., ph.D. (With seven

text-figures) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 233

Some Common Indian Herbs with notes on their anatomical characters.

Part XI. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates) ... ... 244

Some more new Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, with their life histories.

By E. P. Wiltshire, f.r.e.s, (With a plate) ... ... ... 247

The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. By L. S. S. Kumar and

A. Abraham. (With four plates) ... ... ... ... 252

A FEW NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD. By W. S.

Thom ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 257

Effect of different foods on the larval and post-larval develop-

ment of the moth Prodenia litura Fb. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). By

A. C. Basu, m.sc. (With two graphs) ... ... ... ... 275

OBITUARA': Hugh Whistler ... ... ... ... ... 289

ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XLIV , No. 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I. An interesting Tiger shoot. By Thakore Sahib of Palitana ...

II. A Black Panther shot in Sind. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u

III. On the occurrence of the Yellow-headed Fantail Warbler

(Cisticola exills tytleri Jerdon) in the Kumaon Tarai, U.P.

By B. E. Smythies

IV. Occurrence of the Golden Oriole and Common Cuckoo in Sind.

By N. H. Menesse, i.s.e.

V. The distribution of the Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris ) and

Tickell’s Flower-Pecker ( Piprisoma agile ) By Capt. R. G.

Hutchinson

VI. The European Common Partridge ( Perdix perdix) in Persia.

By J. A. Cergh

VII. Description of chick, in down, of the Simla Hill Partridge

(Arbor ophila torqueola millardi). By A. E. Jones

VIII. Local movements of the Painted Partridge ( Francolinus pictus)

around Bombay. By F. C. D. Ogden

IX. Banding of the Lesser Florican ( Sypheotides indica) in Bhav-

nagar State. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

X. Whimbrel and Fiddler crabs. By M. R. Raut

«

XI. The moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By Humayun

Abdulali

XII. Ducks of Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich, m.d.

XIII. The Arabian Large-crested Sea Tern ( Sterna bergii velox ) breed-

ing off the Sind Coast. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

XIV. The hatching of a Mugger ( Crocodilus palustris). By C. Bone

XV. Specific identity of the ‘Record Mahseer’. By S. L. Hora, d.sc.

XVI. Strange breeding habits of the Cichlid Fish (Etroplus maculatus).

By Lt.-Col. H. J. Rice

XVII. A note on the transmission of Malaria at Ketti, Nilgiris,

6,300 feet. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a.

XVIII. Butterfly migration. By W. L. French

XIX. Insects in fruit eaten by birds. By J. C. M. Gardner

XX. A trip to the Yala Sanctuary. By Lt.-Col. H. G. Rossel

Page

291

292

296

297

298

299

300

3 00

301

302

303

304

3 °7

310

31 1

311

■

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc

Plate No. XV

The Cape Plumbago

PLUMBAGO CAPENSIS Thunb.

Size 2/3.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1943. Vol. XLIV No. 2,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

BY

N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s.,

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. Raizada, m.sc,,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Delira Dan.

Part XV

(Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 1 (1943), p. 77).

i With 1 coloured and 2 black and white plates and 2 text-figures).

Plumbago Linn.

The name Plumbago seems to be derived from the Latin

plumbum, meaning lead. Some authors assert that the name was

given to the genus on account of the lead-coloured flowers of some

species. There is, however, another explanation. Pliny and

Dioscorides, who wrote on medicinal plants in ancient times, pre-

scribe decoctions of the plant Plumbago europaea as treatment for

an affection of the eyes known in Latin as plumbum. The sap of

the roots is also said to leave lead-grey coloured flecks if applied to

the skin.

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The family Plumb.aginaceae , to which our genus belongs, contains

besides Plumbago, several genera which are valued in temperate

countries for their pretty flowers. Limonium and Statice may be

mentioned in this connection, both of which are represented by

many species in the gardens of America and Europe.

The family contains for the most part perennial shrubs or half-

shrubs and also rosette plants. The leaves are entire, rarely lobed,

and characterised by the possession of many-celled glands which

secrete water, slime or carbonate. The inflorescence may be simple

or compound with the flowers arranged in heads or racemes.

Flowers gamopetalous ; corolla tubular with a spreading, 5-lobed

limb. The calyx is gamosepalous, shortly 5-lobed and furrowed

between the lobes. Stamens 5. The ovary consists of 5 carpels of

which one only has a pendulous ovule on a basal funicle.

The genus Plumbago , of which several species are commonly

cultivated in the gardens of India, comprises shrubs and under-

shrubs sometimes scandent. The leaves are alternate, entire, with

the petiole sometimes auricled at the base. The flowers are arranged

in terminal racemes. The corolla tube is long and slender and is

divided at the top into 5 spreading lobes. The colour of the corolla

may be white, rose-coloured or blue. The stamens are five in

number opposite to the petals, and are free with oblong, dorsifixed

anthers. Ovary superior, 1 -celled, 5-angled, and contains one

ovule. The fruit is a capsule.

The flowers are protogynous, that is, the stigmas are thrust

forth from the corolla tube well above the maturing anthers. This

is a device to ensure cross fertilisation which in the case of Plumbago

seems to be accomplished by flying insects. Unwelcome visitors

such as ants, are prevented from reaching the corolla by the rows

of viscid glands found on the calyx tube.

A bitter substance known as plumbagin is contained in the

tissues of the. species of this genus. It is said to be identical with

ophioxylin, which occurs in Rauwolfia serpentina, a species of

Apocynaceae, which is well known in the Hindu pharmacopoeia.

Plumbagin has vesicant properties, and is said to be widely used

in tropical countries as an abortifacient. As the juice causes large

and painful blisters, its use for this purpose seems to be not un-

accompanied by danger. More legitimate uses for the drug are in

its application to stimulate stagnant ulcers, as a counterirritant

for toothache, as a purgative and as a palliative for rheumatism,

glandular swellings and the like.

This genus affords a good example of dispersal through the

viscid hairs on the calyx. The calyx is persistent and contains the

1 -seeded capsule. Any animal which brushes against a Plumbago

bush is certain to carry away ripe fruits, transporting the seed to-

great distances.

Key to the Species.

Flowers white or blue.

Calyx wholly covered with stalked glands

Calyx glandular in the upper part only

P. zeylanica .

P. capensis -

P. rosea.

Flowers red

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

161

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

The Ceylon Leadwort.

(zeylatiicus is a Latin adjective, meaning of Ceylon, and refers to

Southern India or Ceylon as the country of origin of the species).

Description. — A shrub or semi-scandent shrub with diffuse

branches and ribbed stems covered with a scurfy, glandular exuda-

tion. Leaves alternate, petiolate; petiole up to i in. long, slightly

auriculate at the base; blade up to 3 in. long by 2 in. broad, ovate,

acute or obtuse, suddenly narrowed into a cuneate base, dark green

above, rather pale below, gla-

brous ; margin entire.

Flowers arranged in terminal

simple or branched racemes up to

12 in. long; rhachis very glandular

and covered with a viscid

exudation. Flowers seated on a

very short pedicel supported by

a bract and two bracteoles. Calyx

• 5-.6 in. long, conspicuously 5-rib-

bed, each rib ending in an acute

clayx-lobe. The ribs are covered

all over with numerous stalked

glands with spherical tips, very

viscid. Corolla gamopetalous,

white; tube slender .75 in. long,

ending in 5 ovate lobes .3 in. long.

Stamens 5 ; filaments green, as

long as the tube slightly dilated at

the base. Ovary shortly stipitate ;

style long, divided at the tip into

5 stigmas. Fruit a capsule con-

tained in the viscid, glandular,

persistent calyx.

Flounders and Fruits. — Cold

season.

Distribution. — Tropics of Asia

and Africa, and east to Australia

and Hawaii. Wild and extensively

cultivated throughout India.

Gardening. — A rambling, sub-scandent, untidy shrub with star-

like, white flowers. It seeds abundantly but is usually propagated

by suckers. It is capable of much improvement by judicious

pruning and training.

Medicinal uses. — The medicinal properties of the root of this

plant are well known to Indian practitioners. It is said to excite

digestion and promote appetite. It is also used in piles, diarrhoea,

and skin diseases (Dutt).

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

Plumbago capensis Thunb.

The Cape Leadwort.

(This species, which is indigenous in South Africa, was first collected

by Dr. Carl Thunberg).

Description. — A woody, sub-scandent shrub with striate -stems.

The leaves are entire, oblong or oblong-spathulate in shape, obtuse

or acute at the apex, glabrous, tapering downwards into a very short

petiole, up to 2 in. long by 1 in. wide at the broadest part. The

under surface is covered with a white scurfy glandular excretion.

The inflorescence is a terminal raceme; rhachis puberulous. The

flowers are seated on very short pedicels supported by bracts and

bracteoles. The calyx is gamosepalous, about .4 in. long, with

5 acute, triangular lobes at the top, 5-ribbed, each rib rather fleshy

and ending in the tip of a lobe. The calyx between the lobes is

somewhat membranous.. In the upper half the calyx bears numbers

of stalked glands with swollen, purple, viscid tips. The corolla is

pale blue in colour; tube about 1.5 in. long, 5-lobed, each lobe

about .5 in. long, obovate-obtuse in shape with a well-marked central

vein of a darker blue. Stamens 5, blue, on long filaments the

length of the corolla tube. Filaments dilated at the base into what

appears to be five nectar-secreting glands. The ovary is shortly

stipitate, 1 -celled, with 1 pendulous ovule. Style simple, as long

as the tube, ending in 5 feathery stigmas, from a basal funicle.

Capsule oblong-clavate, rounded above, tapering and pentagonal

below.

Flowers. — Practically throughout the year, but in profusion dur-

ing July-October and December-March. Does not set seed in this

country.

Distribution. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope; now widely

cultivated in gardens throughout the plains of India.

Gardening. — An evergreen, sub-scandent or straggly upright bush

with beautiful azure-blue flowers. It is one of the commonest as

also one of the most ornamental plants of our Indian gardens. It

is advisable to remove all dead wood and old stems, as it is on the

new shoots that the best flowers are produced. In South California

and elsewhere if planted against a tree it will climb up to 15 ft.

or so. It is best suited for borders or as a bedding plant or even

for pot planting. Usually propagated by suckers or division of

roots, as cuttings are less successful. It is apt to be cut back by

frost where it is severe. There is a white variety similar in every

way to the blue except for the colour of the flower.

Plumbago rosea Linn.

Rose-coloured Leadwort.

[roseus refers to the colour of the flowers of this species).

Description. — A perennial shrub with obscurely striate scandent

branches. Leaves alternate, shortly petiolate, broadly ovate or

elliptic in shape, up to 8 in. long by 3 in. broad, glabrous ; entire,

dark green above, pale below; petiole short, dilated and half-

amplexicaul.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plumbago capensis Thunb. Photo by M. N. Bakshi.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

163

Inflorescence a terminal raceme up to 2 ft. long*. Individual

flowers spaced, often secund, seated on short pedicels, with bracts

and bracteoles; rhachis glabrous. Calyx gamosepalous, .3 in. long,

5-ribbed and 5-lobed, the lobes short triangular acute, covered with

very numerous gland-tipped stalked hairs. The corolla tube is 1.25

in. long; slender with 5 rounded lobes about .5 in. long, of a beauti-

ful brick-red colour. Stamens 5, on long filaments. Ovary stipitate,

i-celled, i-ovuled. Style long and hairy towards the base, ending

above in 5 definite stigmas. Fruit a capsule contained in the glan-

dular persistent calyx.

Flowers.— Cold season, but also at other times of the year.

Distribution. — Native of Sikkim and Khasia. Extensively culti-

vated in the tropics of both hemispheres.

Gardening. — A small shrub with pretty red flowers. It is an

excellent subject for winter blooming in pots. Propagated by

offsets.

Medicinal uses.— It possesses medicinal properties similar to

those of P. zeylanica.

Plumbago rosea Linn. var. coccinea is a form with larger scarlet

flowers and more common under cultivation than the type.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.

BY

Sunder Lal Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i,,

Director of Fisheries , Bengal.

( With one black and white plate and one text-figure.)

( Continued from page 8 of Vol. xliv, No. i.)

XVII. The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India.

IO. ON THE SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF JERDON’s SPECIES OF

MAHSEER FROM SOUTHERN INDIA.

Under the genus Barbus Cuvier, characterized by ‘Dcfrsal short,

preceded by a strong spine; 4 cirri’, Jerdon (8, pp. 311-314)1 de-

scribed or recorded a number of species from Southern India, but

he examined specimens of only a few of them. Of these, several

-are provided with a serrated dorsal spine, and some of those in

which the spine is entire the number of scales along the lateral line

exceeds 30 and in all probability the labial groove is interrupted

in them. Excluding fishes of these two categories from his list of

14 species of Barbus there are five, viz., B. hamiltonii, B. megalepis,

B. malabaricus, B. mussullah and B. khudree, which may be con-

sidered here.

He regarded Barbus pro geneius McClelland as synonymous with

Barbus ( Labeobarbus ) hamiltonii (Gray), which he described as

follows : —

‘Head to the whole body as 1 to 3I; cirri long; a fleshy projection on both

upper and lower lips ; body compressed ; its height is to total length as 1 to

3! — 26 scales along the lateral line, in 6 rows; green above, cheeks golden,

silvery beneath ; fins tinged with orange red ; D. 3-9, 3rd spine simple, very

strong; A. 2-5, etc.’

In recording Barbus khudree Sykes, of which no specimen was

examined, Jerdon observed that ‘If Colonel Sykes had not given

14 rays to the dorsal fin I might have considered it the same as

B. Hamiltonii.' I (4, p. 521) have discussed in an earlier article

that Gray’s Tor hatniltonii ( — Cyprinus tor Hamilton) is the Tor

Mahseer of Northern India, but in identifying the Peninsular form

B. khudree, with McClelland’s B. progeneius , Jerdon seems to have

been influenced by the character of the enlarged lips, which is pro-

bably common to all species of Mahseer. He observed:

‘This fine fish is one which in the South of India most nearly resembles

ihe Mahseers of Bengal, but I am not aware of its having been taken by fly

1 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

165

"here. It is found in the Cavery and all its tributaries, and grows to a size

I am told, of 2 to 3 feet. It is a very handsome fish. I am not certain of

its being McClelland’s fish, which appears to differ somewhat in colouring,

in the size of the head, and in wanting the projection on the upper lip. The

drawing in Gray and Hardwicke gives a very fair representation of our southern

fish.’

In the last article of this series (6, p. 7), the head and

anterior part of body of a specimen of Barbus khudree Sykes col-

lected by Dr. Rishworth in the Uhlas River, 40 miles north of

Bombay, were figured to show the greatly hypertrophied lips and

there seems no doubt that Jerdon had a somewhat similar specimen

which he referred to Barbus ( Labeobarbus ) hamiltonii (Gray). This

fish is very much like the Mosal Mahseer of the Himalayas and,

but for the tubercles on the cheeks, is almost indistinguishable from

it.

Jerdon recorded Barbus megalepis McClelland from South India

with a query and stated :

‘ I obtained a single small specimen of what I consider may be this fish

in the Cavery at Seringapatam. It was only a few inches long, but the fisher-

men, who call it kilche, said that it grew; to an enormous size.’

He characterized it as : ‘Head is to body as 1 to 3 ; 25 scales

along the side in 6 rows; D. 12, A. 7.’

In the preceding article (6) it has been shown that the Mahseer

of Peninsular India that grows to an enormous size is Barbus

mussullah Sykes and evidence was adduced to show that Jerdon’s

B. megalepis is synonymous with it.

Barbus malabaricus was characterized by Jerdon as follows: —

‘Head to whole body as 1 to 4; height 3! times in its length; 4 long cirri;

23 scales along the body in 6 row’s. D. 3-8. A. 2-8; pale brownish olive above;

•silvery beneath ; fins tinged with red. ’

Pie further stated :

‘I have taken this handsome barbel only in mountain streams in Malabar.

It rises to the fly sometimes, and will also take a bait of boiled rice. I have

not s(feen it more than 10 inches long, but from the rapid growth of one I

have 'kept alive for some months I imagine it attains a much larger size.’

Judging from the above description, the species is insufficiently

characterized, and probably for that reason Day (1) did not even

mention it in his ‘Fishes of Malabar’. Gunther (3, p. 82, foot-

note) included it among the doubtful species of Barbus. In his

^Fishes of India’, however, Day (2, p. 569) gives a detailed de-

scription of the species and includes it among those with 4 barbels.

In which the last undivided dorsal ray is articulated, or if osseous

very weak. He gives the distribution of the species as ‘From

South Canara down the Western Ghats to the Travancore hills.

Mr. Ballard has captured it at Courtallum with a fly. It attains

at least 18 inches in length.’ As regards its colour, he stated:

‘bluish, becoming white on the abdomen. Fins usually blue. Eyes

red. Sometimes the fish is brown : and the dorsal, pectoral, and

ventral red. Or the front edge of dorsal and anal and upper and

lower borders of the caudal may be dark.’ The variation in colour

exhibited by the Malabar Mahseer is shown by Thomas (9) in the

first three plates of the 2nd edition of his ‘Rod in India’.

166 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

I have examined Day’s specimens from Canara and found that

though the dorsal spine is relatively very weak, they are in all

other respects ( vide table of measurements given below) very

similar to B. khudree Sykes (7, pp. 24-28), even in the presence

of tubercles on the sides of the head (see plate). In the case of

Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis McClelland (5, p. 82), it was

pointed out that owing to great variation in the size and strength

of the dorsal spine no reliance could be placed on it as a character

of specific value. Further, I have examined only a few specimens

of B. malabaricus and for the time being, therefore, I am unable

to separate malabaricus from khudree specifically.

It may, however, be noted that, as is the case of other Mahseers

discussed in the preceding articles, the nature of the lips varies

considerably even in this form. This is clearly shown in Day’s two-

specimens of malabaricus from Canara (Text-fig.).

Fig !• Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of two specimens of

Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ( = B. malabaricus Jerdon) from Canara collected

by Day (Z.S.I. Register Nos. 2380 and 2394), showing variation in the form

and structure of lips. X 2/3,

Thus among the five species of the Tor-type included by Jerdon

in his list of South Indian fishes, we have the following two types: —

1. Barbus khudree Sykes —B. hamiltonii Jerdon nec Gray.

= B. malabaricus Jerdon.

2. Barbus mussidlah Sykes =B. megalepis Jerdon nec

McClelland.

Both B. khudree and B. mussiillah have already been described in

fair detail in the two preceding articles of this series. However,

I give below measurements, etc. of four specimens of B. malabaricus

Jerdon for convenience of reference in future. It will thus be seen

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

WT

that throughout Peninsular India there are probably only two types

of Mahseer which are widely distributed in all the principal rivers.

Table of Measurements in Millimetres and

Scale-counts

Canara Tenmalai

Acknowledgments.

As in the case of the previous articles, the entire cost of illustra-

tions was borne by the authorities of the Bombay Natural History

Society and to them my best thanks are due. I am obliged to

Mr. K. S. Misra, Fish Assistant, Zoological Survey of India, for

drawing up the table of measurements and to Babu S. Mondul for

the execution of the illustrations.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

List of References.

1. Day, F. — The Fishes of Malabar (London, 1865).

2. Day, F. — The Fishes of India, p. 569 (London, 1868).

3. Gunther, A. — Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum, vol. vii,

p. 82 (London, 1868).

4. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India. IX. The Mahseers or the

Large-scaled Barbels of India. 2. The Tor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, p. 521 (1940).

5. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India. XI. The Mahseers or the

Large-scaled Barbels of India. 4. The Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of

the Nepalese, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis McClelland.’ Journ. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xlii, p. 82, text-fig. 4 (1940).

6. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India. XVI. The Mahseers or the

Large-scaled Barbels of India. 8. Further observations on Mahseers from

the Deccan.’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xliv, pp. 1-8 (1943).

7. Hora, S. L. and Misra, K. S. — Fish of Deolali. Journ Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., vol. xl, pp. 24-28 (1938).

8. Jerdon, T. C. — ‘On the Fresh Water Fishes of Southern India.’ Madras

Journ. Litt. Sci., vol. xv, pp. 31 1-3 14 (1849).

9. Thomas, H. S. — Rod in India. 2nd Edition (London, 1881).

Explanation of Plate.

Lateral view of a specimen of Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ( = B. mala-

baricus Jerdon) from Canara collected by Day (Z.S.I. Register No. 2394) X4/7.

Notice the weak and articulated dorsal spine ; series of small tubercles on

the cheek, small number (23) of scales along the lateral line and i\ rows

of scales (not as described by Day) between lateral line and base of pelvic

fin.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA.

BY

R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S.

Zoological Department, British Museum , Natural History.

Part IV — The Chital (Axis) and the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus).

The remaining . two species of Indian Deer to be dealt with,

namely the Chital, Axis or Spotted Deer, and the Hog-Deer differ

essentially from those already described in two main structural

features: — (i) There is a long, deep, glandular cleft in the middle

of the pastern of the hind foot, which is absent in the others

(Fig. 4) ; (2) the crowns of the median lower incisor teeth, when

unworn, are greatly expanded, the free edge considerably exceeding

A. Anterior view of hind foot of a Chital (Axis axis ) showing the dilated

orifice of the interdigital gland which is also present in the Hog-Deer ( Hyelaphus ).

B. Section of the same foot showing the glandular pit and the layer of

secreting cells.

C. Section of the hind foot of a Sambar ( Rusa unicolor ), showing the

absence of the glandular pit which is also absent in other large Indian Deer.

in width the combined widths of the three teeth outside them (Fig. 5).

Also the upper canine teeth are typically absent in both sexes.

Lydekker, it is true, says, on unstated authority, that they are gener-

ally absent in Axis and this is repeated, perhaps copied, by Phillips.

They are entirely absent, however, in all the numerous skulls

( With text-figures 4-8).

(Continued from page 37 of this volume).

Fig. 4.

170 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

examined in the British Museum. The antlers, as is well known,

are simple and three-tined as in the Sambar, the three species

D

A. Incisiform teeth of old d Wallich’s Deer ( Cervus wallichii ), the stag

imported alive from Nepal.

B. The same of Schomburgk’s Deer (Thaocervus schomburgki ), the age

shown by the exposed roots of the teeth, as in A.

C. The same of adult 9 Sambar ( Rusa unicolor) from Satara (Prater),

much younger than A and B as shown by the unexposed roots.

D. The same of adult 9 Chital ( Axis axis ) from the Nallamalai Hills (La

Person ne).

having- alike retained this primitive feature, which is not an indica-

tion of affinity between them.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

J71

Genus Axis, H. Smith.

(The Chital or Spotted Deer).

Axis, Ham. Smith, Griffiths’ An. King-., 5, p. 312, 1827, and of

many subsequent authors, sometimes as a genus, sometimes as a

subgenus of Cervus.

Type of the genus. — Cervus axis Erxleben.

Distribution. — India and Ceylon.

In addition to the characters mentioned above, the distinguishing

external features of this genus are the conspicuous pattern of white

spots extending at all seasons over the upper side from the neck

backwards; the smooth short coat, forming no mane on the neck;

the legs are normally long and the brow tines are externally diver-

gent and form a nearly rectangular junction with the beam.

Axis axis, Erxleben.

Cervus axis Erxleben, Syst. Regn. An., p. 312, 1777; and of

most subsequent authors (based on the Axis of Pennant Syn.

Quadr., p. 51, 1771).

Cervus nudipaipebra Ogilby, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1831, p. 136.

Axis maculatus Jardine, Nat. Libr., 3, p. vi and p. 167, 1935,

and of several authors (substituted name).

Locality of the types of axis, nudipaipebra and maculatus : ‘the

banks of the Ganges’.

Distribution. — Jndia and Ceylon.

The only skin available for description is a mounted Indian

specimen (Duke of Bedford). The general colour is brownish fawn,

the darkening being due to the black tips of the hairs, which are

more conspicuous on the nape and on the sides of the lower neck

below the cheek, but die away on the lower side of the neck which

is fawn except for a large white patch in front ; the spinal area is

blackish and this extends as a black streak up the nape to the

head; the upper part of the sides of the neck, the backs of the

ears, the cheeks, sides of the muzzle and round the eyes is pale

creamy buff, but the forehead is brownish fawn and this area

extends as a dark angular V-shaped point in front of the eyes

and is sharply set off by the pale hue above the eyes and on the

sides of the muzzle; there is also a dark patch on the top of the

muzzle, behind the rhinarium ; and another at the corner of the

mouth, but the chin and lower side of the jaws are white; the

breast, belly, scrotum and inside of the thighs and lower side of

the tail are also white; the limbs externally become gradually whiter

towards the hoofs. The pattern of white spots extends from the

neck and shoulders but is absent from the head, throat, tail and

limbs below the line of the belly ; the spots show a definite longi-

tudinal lineal arrangement along the spine and low down on the

flanks above the belly; elsewhere they are more irregular; but on

the hinder part of the thigh they form a vertical white stripe.

For the Ceylonese Spotted Deer, Lydekker in his Catalogue,

Vol. 4, p. 51, 1915, adopted the subspecific name ceylonensis pro-

posed by Fitzinger in 1874; and Phillips (Man. Mamm. Ceylon,

p. 329, 1935) followed him and published three photographs of the

172 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

entire animal and one of a mounted head. According- to Lydekker

the spots are smaller in ceylonensis and the forehead has no dark

horseshoe mark. I am unable to distinguish the body-pattern

shown by Phillips’s photographs from that of the Indian specimen

described above and the horseshoe or V-shaped mark on the fore-

head is clearly indicated, thus contradicting Lydekker ’s statement

on that point and his amplification of it that the forehead is all

brown. He also says that ceylonensis is yellower and paler fawn

in its ground colour. That alleged difference I am unable to check ;

but the description of the head was taken from his type of zeylanicus

(Field, 1905, p. 147) which has the forehead more uniformly brown

and the chevron-mark hardly differentiated ; but the brown patch

behind the rhinarium above is continued laterally to the corner of

the muzzle which is not the case in the Duke of Bedford’s Indian

skin, but is apparently indicated in Phillips’s photographs.

The character, however, to which Lydekker apparently attached

the greatest importance was the alleged thinner antlers in Ceylon

specimens. Phillips, who followed him in this claim also, states that

the three stoutest Ceylonese antlers known to him had a basal girth

above the burr of 5^, 6 and 6| in. In three skulls, collected by Mayor,

and in the type of zeylanicus , the girth ranges from 4^ to 4J in.,

the average girth of the seven being about 5J in. In seven skulls

from southern India the girth varies from 4J to 6 in., the average

being 5 in., nearly the same as in the Ceylon skulls; and in fifteen

heads from Garwhal, probably collected by St. G. Burke as being

good trophies, the girth varies from 5 to in., agreeing very

closely with Phillips’s three picked Ceylonese heads, the average of

the fifteen being 5! in. From these data it seems that the subspecific

status of ceylonensis is at present hardly admissible.

The skull of Axis is on the average about 2 in. shorter than that

of Panolia, the smallest of the Deer of the preceding categories,

and has the face relatively shorter, the distance from the posterior

edge of the orbit to the tip of the muzzle being about twice the

postorbital width, whereas in Panolia f which has the postorbital

area exceptionally narrow, the face, so measured, is much more

than twice that dimension. In Rucervus also the length of the

face is well over twice the postorbital* width.

There is a large collection of adult 6 Indian skulls available

from districts both to the north and south of the Ganges. Those

from the north are on the average a little smaller than those from

the south. The largest and smallest skulls from the north were

collected by St. G. Burke in Garwhal. The total and condylobasal

lengths of the largest are 286 and 275 mm. respectively and of the

smallest 271 and 260 mm., the average of those dimensions in a

large number of skulls, mostly from Garwhal, being 280 and 267

mm. The largest skull from the south, collected for the Survey by

Baptista at Diguvametta in Kurnool, has the total and condylobasal

length 302 and 290 mm. respectively: and the smallest collected

for the Survey by Shortridge at Kanara, has those dimensions 277

and 269 mm., the averages of a considerable number from scattered

localities being 286 and 275 mm. The average total in all the 6

Indian skulls is about 11J in., and the average condylobasal about

10 4/5 in.

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

173

Only two 6 skulls from Ceylon, both collected for the Survey

by Mayor at Cheddikulam, are .available. Their total and condylo-

basal lengths are 276, 2 66 mm. and 270, 256 mm., the averages

being 273 and 261. Curiously enough they are noticeably smaller

on the average than the southern Indian specimens, coming nearer

the northern in size, although a little smaller. Their average total

of just under n in. and average condylobasal of just under iof in.

suggests that Ceylonese skulls may be a trifle shorter than Indian

skulls; but the data from Ceylon are clearly insufficient.

A. Orbital area with vacuity and gland-pit of adult <$ Chital (Axis axis)

from Kanara (Shortridge).

B. Nasal bones of the same specimen, with the vacuity and inner portion

of the gland-pit (dotted) of the left side*.

C. The same of adult $ Chital from Garwhal (St. G. Burke).

Figs. B and C show approximately the extreme variations in the species

in the length and width of the nasal bones.

(Figs, two-thirds nat. size).

As regards other skull-characters, the bullae are moderately

inflated, about to the same extent as in Panolia and Rucervus, but

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

show a good deal of individual variation, although always projecting

below the surface of the occipital bone between them. The nasals

are always expanded posteriorly between the vacuities ; their free

edges at this place being usually about 15 mm. long, but varying

from about 9 to 18 mm.; the interfrontal penetration of the nasals

is usually about on a level with the posterior ends of the vacuities,

but may extend as an acute angle some 15 mm. beyond. The

vacuities are wide as compared with their length which in almost

all cases is less than the vertical diameter of the orbit which averages

about 43 mm. The gland-pit is moderately large, but rather shallow

and, although varying to a certain extent individually, is always

much shorter than the vertical diameter of the orbit (Fig. 6).

Three adult $ skulls were collected for the Mammal Survey in

southern India. Their histories and total and condylobasal lengths

are — Dharmapuri, Salem (Baptista) 260 and 242 mm.; Nallamalai

Hills (La Personne) 257 and 246 mm. ; Palkonda Hills (Baptista)

241 and 231 mm., the averages of these dimensions being 253 mm.

(about 10 in.) and 239 (about 9 3/5 in.). They are thus about

in. shorter respectively . than the 6 skulls from southern India.

Genus Hyelaphus, Sund.

(The Hog-Deer).

Hyelaphus , Sundevall, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad, Handl., 1844,

p. 1 81 and of many subsequent authors either as a genus or as a

subgenus of Cervus or of Axis.

Type of the genus. — Cervus porcinus.

Distribution. — Northern India, Burma, Siam, Annam, some of

the Philippine Islands ; also Ceylon, where it is believed to have

been artificially introduced.

Distinguished from Axis in external characters, as has frequently

been recorded, by its colour, smaller size, shorter legs imparting

a more crouching gait, and by the nearly erect brow tine diverging

from the beam at an acute angle. In the skull the antler-pedicles

are relatively longer, the gland-pit is at all events relatively larger,

and deeper, not shallower as stated by Lydekker, the bullate portion

of the auditory bone is actually larger, being more inflated in three

dimensions, although the skull is smaller, and the nasal bones are

less expanded between the vacuities, being typically nearly parallel-

sided (Fig. 7).

This diagnosis is taken from the typical British Indian species,

the species or races assigned to Hyelaphus, and found to the east

of Burma being too little known at present for inclusion.

Hyelaphus porcinus, Zimm.

(The Hog-Deer).

Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, Spec. Zool. Georg., p. 532, 1777;

and of later authors as Cervus, Cervus ( Axis ), Cervus ( Hyelaphus ),

Axis, Axis ( Hyelaphus ) or Hyelaphus. (Based on the Porcine Deer,

Pennant, Syn. Quadr., p. 50, 1751).

THE LARGER DEER ' OF BRITISH INDIA 176

' ? Cervus pumilio H. Smith, Griffiths’ An. King., 4, p. 120, 1827 ;

id. op. cit. 5, p. 312, 1827, as Cervus (Axis).1

Locality of the type — of porcinus. — ‘India’; of pumilio unknown.'

Distribution. — ‘The Indo-Gangetic plains of India from Sind

and the Punjab to Assam and thence to Burma’ ; extending north

of the Ganges to the United Provinces, Nepal and Bhutan Duars.

B C

Fig. 7. .

A. Side view of the left bulla and surrounding bones of a Hog-Deer

(Hyelaphus porcinus from E. Nepal (Baptista), showing the bulla ( b ) projecting

below the level of the occipital .bone.

B. Lower view of the bulla ( b ) and surrounding bones of the same specimen.

C. The same of a Chital (Axis axis ) from the Palkonda Hills (Baptista),

showing the relatively smaller, less inflated bulla ( b ) than in the Hog-Deer

(. Hyelaphus ).

The only skin available for description is that- of a mounted

adult 6 from Burma (Evans)..' The general colour above and

below is fawn brown, with very faint traces of some paler spots

on the flanks, but more along the spinal area which has no dark

median stripe; the sides of the neck, the cheeks and back of the

ears are decidedly paler than the body, nape .and top of the head,

but the muzzle is darker brown, especially on the corner of the

mouth; the front of the upper lip and the chin are white and the

1 The type .of pumilio was the very young frontlet and antlers of some quite

unidentifiable deer. It was in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons;;

but since that historical collection was destroyed by ~a bomb.Jn 1940,, the., species

will never be determined. To get rid of the name I follow Lydekker’4, lead

and add it to the synonymy of porcinus. *

2

m journal, b6mray natural hist, society , Voi. xliv

white from the chin extends backwards over the lower jaw to the

front of the neck which, like the chest, is brown; the lower side

of the tail, the inner sides of the thighs and the scrotum are white.

This specimen agrees in a general way with the current descrip-

tions of typical porcinus, mostly derived from Blanford who observed

for a few’ years a seasonal change in living specimens the colour

being pal^r in summer and showing spots especially on each side

of the f spine.

Some 'features of the skull were briefly alluded to under the

generic diagnosis. Additional particulars are as follows : — The

largest arid smallest complete d skulls were alike collected by St.

B C V

Fig. 8.

A. Orbital area with vacuity and gland-pit of adult d Hog-Deer ( Hyelaphtis

porcinus) from Bijnor (St. G. Burke).

B. Nasal bones, with vacuity and portion of gland-pit (dotted) of right

side of the same specimen.

C. Nasals of another adult d Hog-Deer from Nepal (Baptista).

D. Nasals, with vacuity and inner portion of gland-pit (dotted) of Hog-Deer

from the Upper Chindwin (Bruce).

G. Burke at Bijnor in the United Provinces. The largest has the

total and condylobasal lengths 241 and 232 mm. respectively; the

smaller has those dimensions 226 and 218 mm. The average total

length of eight d skulls is 233 mm., about 9 1/3 in. and the average

THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA

177

condylobasal length of six is 224 mm., about 9 in. The skulls of

Hyelaphus are thus on an average about 2 in. shorter than <$

skulls of A xis. Actually the shortest S skull, collected at Pani-

chatta in Bengal, has a total length of 224 mm., about 9 in.

The face is relatively shorter, as compared with the total length,

than in Axis. In eight skulls the average length from the front

edge of the orbit to the tip of the muzzle is 122 mm., a little over

half the total length which exceeds twice the facial length by only

11 mm. The orbit and vacuity are about the same relative size

as in Axis, but the gland-pit is on the average deeper, with better

defined edges, and the nasals between the vacuities are narrower,

the bones being typically nearly parallel-sided from the premaxillae

to the frontals, although sometimes a little expanded where they

abut against the vacuities (Fig. 8). The most noticeable difference

however, between the two lies in the size of the auditory bones

(Fig. 7). The oblique width of the bone from the auditory orifice to the

inner anterior margin of the bulla is 40 mm. in an average of

seven skulls, . approximately the same as in 'Axis-- with its considera-

bly larger skull; and the swollen or bullate portion of the bone is

more inflated vertically; transversely and longitudinally* its average

total length, excluding the apical spike, being 26 mm., actually 5

or 6 mm. longer than in Axis.

Apart from the absence of antler pedicles, the skulls of the

9 Hog-Deer differ from those of the 6 in being exceptionally

'narrower across the upper rim of the orbit behind and, as normally

in the family, shorter. There are only four skulls available, two

from Nepal, one from Bharnabari in Bhutan Duars (Baptista) and

one from the Dibong River, Assam (Wells), the last two, collected

for the Mammal Survey, being respectively the longest and -shortest.

The total and condylobasal lengths of the one from Bhutan are

respectively 232 and 222 mm., the same dimensions of the one

from Assam being 213 and 206. The average total length of all

the skulls is 222 mm., about 8 4/5 in. ; the average condylobasal

of three is 8 3/5 in. The orbit and vacuities are about the same

as in the d1, but the gland-pit is shallower and about 5 mm. shorter

on the average.

Hyelaphus porcinus oryzus, Kelaart.

Axis oryzus Kelaart, Prodr. Faun. Zeyl. , p. 83, 1852.

Axis oryzus Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng., 23, p. 217, 1854.

Hyelaphus porcinus porcinus Phillips, Man. Mamm. Ceylon,

P- 333) 1935*

Locality of the type. — Ceylon.

Distribution. — ‘The wet zone along the west coast from a few

miles north of Kalutara southwards towards Kottawa, west of Gaffe'

(Phillips).

Distinguished from the typical race, on the evidence cited below,

by its smaller skull and, on the average, smaller antlers and by

the usual absence of any marked seasonal change of colour and

the absence of spots in the adults.

Racial status has hitherto never been granted to the Ceylonese

Hog-deer. A remarkably small adult skull in the British Museum

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Voh XL1V

drew my attention to the possibility of its distinctness from the

north Indian and Burmese race and some confirmatory items

favouring this idea were found in Phillips’s account.

As regards the colour, Phillips, after referring to Blanford’s

description of the Indian Hog-deer, which says that the summer

coat is paler and more rufous (than the winter coat) and more or

less spotted with pale brown or white, the spots being sometimes

restricted to one or two rows along the spine, states that in Ceylon

he has ‘never seen any sign of such spotting in the adult’ and

expresses the doubt about the occurrence of any marked seasonal

change in colour. Similarly in connection with the antlers, he

quotes some measurements of Indian specimens which, as stated

above, may exceed 20 in. in length, and adds that in Ceylon ‘the

antlers appear as a general rule to be much smaller,’ the largest

of which he has a record measuring only 13 in. in length.

Kelaart described the Ceylonese Hog-deer as about two-thirds

the size of Axis maculata and light fawn brown with two parallel

lines of small white spots along the medial line of the back and

some white hairs interspersed on the sides arid upper parts of the

limbs; the under side and lower side of the tail being whitish.

This description fits the youngish hind referred to by Phillips as

the only specimen showing spots seen by him. The horns, accord-

ing to Kelaart, are small.

The skull from Ceylon (Zool. Soc.) above mentioned, is that

of an old 6. It is remarkably short, with a total length of only

218 mm. the length from the anterior edge of the orbit to the end

of the muzzle only hi mm. and from the occiput to the tip of the

nasals only 178 mm. It is considerably shorter than the shortest

6 Indian skull measured, one from Panichatta District, Bengal,

in .which those dimensions are respectively 224, 120 and 206 mm.

Its total length of about 8f in. is 1 in. shorter than the average

total length of the Indian skulls measured. On the other hand it

is a relatively broad skull, probably owing to its age, its postorbital

and orbital widths of 82 and 97 mm. respectively being about the

same as the average in Indian skulls. The size of its orbit, vacuity

and gland-pit are also about average, but the length of the nasal

edge of the vacuity, 17 mm. is exceptionally long, greatly sur-

passing the average of Indian skulls.

Although the antlers are very short, the right being only 10J in.

long and the left 10 in., they show obvious age decadence, the

inner branch of the beam being short and conical on the right and

altogether lost on the left antler.

Blyth first suggested that the presence of the Hog-deer in

Ceylon is to be explained by artificial introduction ; and according

to Phillips there is a tradition that this was effected either by the

Dutch or the Portuguese. The purpose of importing a small deer

into the island, already containing the Sambar and Axis, is not

clear ; and Phillips says there is no record of when it took place_,

but since the species has been well established for a hundred years

dr more, it is entitled, he thinks, to rank as a Ceylonese animal.

In this conclusion I fully concur, trusting that some zoologist on

the spot will soon verify or refute the opinion that H. p. oryzus is

£ distinguishable race.

A NOTE ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE

LITTLE BITTERN (IXOBRYCHUS MINUTUS ).

BY

Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u.

( With two plates).

Round about fifteen years ago I had my first experience of

watching and photographing the Little Bittern from the hide. Tlie

habits of this denizen of the reed beds are so extraordinary that the

episodes I then witnessed have remained impressed most vividly

upon my memory. It has consequently remained my fixed intention

to complete the series of photographs I then obtained with a further

series of the young in the nest.' I wished above all to depict the

extraordinary manner in which the food is passed to them by their

parents.

Last summer I found myself at the end of June in a houseboat

on the Dal Lake with four days of my leave to go, and a good

number of plates still unexposed. In a little backwater off the Nagim

Bagh amongst the floating gardens I spent a few delightful hours

photographing the Whiskered Terns, and discovered just as I was

about to move off that three yards behind the shikara from which

I had been operating was a Little Bittern’s nest with 6 tousled

youngsters in it. AH I had to do was to part a way through the

reeds I had been anchored against and transfer the camera % the

back of the hide. The chicks as usual were of very different ages

and development, ten days probably separating the oldest from the

youngest, for the eggs are generally deposited at 2-day intervals

while incubation starts with the laying of the first one. I anticipated

therefore that I might have some difficulty in obtaining the photo-

graphs I required, as I knew from past experience that the chicks

become wanderers as soon as they are strong enough to clamber

out of the nest, and I have on occasion found an entire household

distributed throughout the reeds in a circle some yards out from

their home as if each one had started out on an independent voyage

of discovery. True, I had also noted that they seemed to be in

the habit of recollecting at the nest at night, in stormy weather,

and often on being disturbed.

On this occasion I had not been long in the hide before all

beaks were turned expectantly in the same direction. The two

largest young ones clambered a couple of feet from the nest and

a moment later I caught a glimpse of the male parent who stalked

deliberately and silently past as if he did not own it. The young

ones gazed sorrowfully after him but soon returned to their usual

practice of jostling one another and on occasions making vicious

stabs at young brother or sister just to remind me what quarrel-

some brats they always are. In a former paper I once remarked

that I Ihought this aggressive spirit must be a special dispensation

wherebv the smallest youngster by sheer ferocity should be enabled

to obtain a share pf the food,

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

After a short lapse of time the male suddenly appeared on the

edge of the nest where he stood rigidly to attention. He was

evidently ill at ease, for he took no notice of the family at all and

started clambering hand over hand up one of the stout supporting

reeds on reaching the summit of which he flapped away uttering

a single harsh croak as he did so. It is hardly correct to say he

suddenly appeared at the nest for a Little Bittern seldom does any-

thing suddenly. Rather do they fade in or out of the picture, as

their movements are always so deliberate, solemn, and silent: except,

that is, for the lightning dart of the bill at an unwary dragonfly

or a silvery sprat required for the offsprings repast. The young

ones too are as silent as their parents, their bills opening and shutting

when asking for food without the noisy infantile chorus of most

young birds.

The two wanderers had immediately come home on the arrival

of the male, and there they remained until he at last made up his

mind to come and feed them. There then ensued those incidents

I had witnessed so often before, but which so interested me that

in watching every phase of the routine I had always failed to

record them. On arrival on the nest, for a space he remained

with bill horizontal ; he then lowered it. This was the signal for

an immediate attack upon his person by his seemingly ravenous

horde. One of them seized his beak about halfway down but with

a twist he freed himself. This, however, availed him nothing for

the largest of the brood fastened on to him close to the base of

the bill and there ensued a wrestling bout in the midst of which I

took the accompanying photograph at a moment when his head was

twisted right over but with no signs of his being able to break

the aggressor’s hold. Upon this the other five at once ceased to

participate in the struggle and subsided into an attitude of anticipa-

tion with all eyes upon father. A moment later the latter forced

his head down, his bill opening somewhat. A couple of heaves

and there fell therefrom the semi-digested remnants, black in colour,

of the regurgitated food for the brood. So broken up was it that

on this occasion it was quite impossible to recognize its origin.

It looked not unlike lumps, variable in size and crumbly in texture,

of bazaar tobacco, and I was inclined towards the opinion that it

was a jumble of insect remains. The main point of interest how-

ever is what happened to it. I have seen the young one in posses-

sion slide its own beak down that of its parent so that it was able

to grab the food before it fell to the lot of one of its brethren. On

this day however on all three occasions on which I witnessed the

feeding process, not once did success crown the efforts of the bill-

seizer, whereas the smallest member of the family was able to

snatch up a sufficiency of fallen morsels for his needs. If the bill-

seizer was generally successful in his attempts, one could readily

understand the evolution of this curious habit. But a theory to fit

in with its formation where the aggressor is more often than not

quite unbenefited by his efforts, eludes me. Nature does not strike

one as being philanthropic, so a habit on the part of the strongest

which helps the weakest does not seem to fit in anywhere. Of

course, a few intermittent observations from the hide at, widely"

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Feeding habits of the Little Bittern. Photo by author.

Ixobvychus minutus (Linn.)

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

Feeding habits of the Little Bittern.

Ixobvychus minutus (Linn.)

Photo by author.

THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE LITTLE BITTERN

181

spaced intervals, such as I have been able to carry out, not only

provide quite inadequate data for solving such a problem, but are

very apt to lead to erroneous conclusions. Should one be blessed

with the opportunity to watch the growth of a family from the hatch-

ing of the first chick to the final departure of the whole brood, then

perhaps some useful facts might emerge to guide one along the

path to the correct interpretation of the Little Bittern’s amazing

behaviour.

I

‘LIGHT-WINDOWS’ IN CERTAIN FLOWERS.

( Asclepiadaceae and Araceae). . ; -

BY

Charles McCann, f.l.s.

( With a plate).

The title of the paper may, at first sight, seem rather curious,

but its true significance will soon become apparent from what

follows. It is well known that in the great economy of Nature

animal agents, directly or indirectly play an important r61e in the

pollination of flowers and the dispersal of seed, so much so, that it

is doubtful whether certain plants could survive without their animal

‘helpmates’.

Most plants that employ carrion feeding* insects must appeal to

the ‘aesthetic’ senses of their guests, and accordingly the ‘hosts’

produce flowers which resemble decomposing material in colour,

form, or scent or better still, a combination of all three. Carrion

and fruit flies ( Diptera ) are perhaps the chief guests. The flower

may offer some form Of refreshment, by way of food or drink, or

a temporary home for the visitors or their young, or it may lure

its visitors by mere bluff, and what is more, imprison them for a

while under ‘Act i of year o’ ! In return for whatever form of

hospitality they receive, the guests must transport the pollen from

one flower to another, and thereby effect cross-pollination. Some

such flowers, keep ‘open house’ and the guests come and go freely,

irrespective of ‘caste or creed’ ; others are more select in their choice

of visitors, only the ‘chosen’ may enter and depart at will; lastly

there are the ‘highbrows’ that are not merely highly exclusive in

the choice of their guests, but are so overbearing in hospitality that

they imprison the visitors, and only permit them to take their leave

at their (the hosts’) pleasure.

Flowers that invite carrion feeders generally range in shades

of colour varying from pink, through purple, to almost black,

mottled with green and yellow tints and finished off with a bluish

gloss or bloom. The region in which the reproductive organs are

situated is usually the deepest in colour, thus often making it quite

dark within, especially in flowers which select and imprison their

visitors. Carrion flies and fruit flies are usually diurnal insects and

accordingly must have a certain amount of light to see and feed

(remain active). Into such a darkened flower the flies would probably

not enter, or if they did, would soon fall asleep. Nature in some

marvellous way ‘anticipated’ this, and has invariably inserted a

‘window’ in such flowers, or rather, a translucent ‘window-pane’.

The ‘window-pane’ is a light-coloured area which admits light.

Viewed from within it merely appears as a light coloured area in

the region, and its true significance is not immediately apparent.

The ‘window’ is so arranged that the light is focussed on to the

reproductive organs. What a marvel !

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

‘Light Windows’

[ For explanation see end of article.

‘ LIGHT-WINDOWS' IN CERTAIN FLOWERS

183

It is not my intention to pursue the subject of ‘light windows’

exhaustively in the plant world, but merely to draw attention to

the formation of such ‘windows’ as observed by me in the course

of studying certain plants in the field. My attention was drawn

to this point particularly when engaged on the study of the genus

Ceropegia f and subsequently I extended my observation to the genus

Cryptocoryne, in which I knew of the existence of ‘closed’ flowers,

darkened internally.

Flowers which have developed ‘light windows’ have usually

developed devices to exclude top lighting and for darkening the

chamber containing the reproductive organs. This is achieved by

modifications in the corolla as in Ceropegia (Figs. 1-5), or by modi-

fications in the spathe as in Cryptocoryne (Figs. 6 and 7). In both

instances there is a more or less inflated chamber formed round

the reproductive organs. In Ceropegia the corolla is remarka-

bly inflated at its base to form a chamber round the reproductive

organs (corona). Above the chamber the corolla is strongly con-

structed, and generally bent to form a funnel-shaped tube terminating

in the five corolla lobes, which are united at their extremities. The

chamber and part of the tube above are very deeply pigmented

interiorly with purple. Thus it will be clear that, but for a ‘window’,

the interior of the flower would be in darkness — the colouring of

the inside, the bend in the corolla tube, and the union of the corolla

lobes above the ‘funnel’ all contribute towards excluding direct

light from the reproductive chamber. A glance at the accompany-

ing figure will make matters clear. The inner surface of the corolla

lobes, the throat of the funnel, and often the chamber itself are

provided with stiff hairs, all pointing downwards. The amount of

hairiness varies with the species. The hairs admit the visitors, but

prevent their exit for they all face the visitors like so many spear

heads — the intruders are trapped ! Following the maturation of

the pollinia (pollen masses) the flower stalk bends downwards, the

hairs break down, and light is admitted down the tube and the

flies make good their escape carrying with them the pollinia fixed

to their head like pairs of horns.

In Cryptocoryne the construction is somewhat different. What

appears to be the flower is in reality an inflorescence, and not a single

flower as in Ceropegia. Nevertheless, the method of attracting

visitors is much the same. The spathe, which may appear as a

corolla, is converted into a reproductive chamber in its lower portion

to contain the two groups of male and female flowers, the remaining

upper part is twisted into a tube of varying length, according to

the species. Externally the spathe is variously pigmented in dark

hues, but internally it is a very deep purple, almost black at times.

But for light windows the internal gloom would be further accen-

tuated by the presence of a valve which separates the chamber

from the tube above. This valve admits the visitors, but once in,

there is no escape — it is a trap-door which will only open when the

pollen is mature and the visitors are thoroughly covered with golden

dust. The inner surface of the chamber is polished and may act as a

reflector. The female flowers are situated at the bottom of the

chamber and the males are fixed at the top near the valve. Both

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

groups are connected by a thread-like process which may serve as

a ladder. When the female flowers mature the spathe opens and

gives off the necessary odour to attract visitors. These alight on

the free end of the tube and in their ardour to discover the ‘goods’

advertised, enter the tube and finally press pass the valve into the

chamber. The male flowers ripen next, giving out the pollen grains.

The flies finding themselves trapped, fly round the chamber and

towards the source of light, which in Cryptocoryne enters from

two trellis-like grids at the top of the chamber, one on either side

of the group of male flowers (Fig. 6), the polished surfaces of the

walls probably reflecting a certain amount of the light admitted.

The whirling of the flies in their frantic efforts to escape fills the

chamber with clouds of pollen dust and the flies themselves

are covered with it. The valve soon after breaks down and out go

the flies with the new pollen only to enter another flower and effect

the task assigned to them by Nature.

The Cryptocoryne are more or less aquatic, or amphibious plants,

and according to the species may be partially submerged when

flowering or, as is the case with some less aquatic species, a greater

portion of the reproductive chamber may be hidden from view.

The flowers are produced deep in the axils of the leaves and con-

sequently become slightly compressed. The windows are produced

on the ‘shoulders’ of the chamber which are not covered by the

petioles.

In both Ceropegia and Cryptocoryne the reproductive chamber

would be positively dark, but for the fact that Nature has provided

Tight- windows’ in each case. In Ceropegia the position of the

‘window’ varies. In some species there exists a light-coloured

ring around the top of the chamber, in others the ring of light is

below, and in such a position as to light up the corona, while in

yet others the ‘windows’ form longitudinal ‘pannels’ composed of

dense and thin bands of tissue to admit light. Whatever may be

the type of lighting arrangement, it is so constructed as to illuminate

the corona in Ceropegia and the male flowers in Cryptocoryne. The

accompanying drawing will explain the subject matter more explicitly

than my pen.

Explanation of Plate.

Fig. i. — Flower of a Ceropegia.

Figs. 2 to 4 show various types of fighting.

Fig. 5.— Polien-masses.

Fig. 6. — ‘Flower’ of Cryptocoryne.

Fig. 7. — ‘Window’ of Cryptocoryne enlarged.

(The figures are somewhat diagrammatic.)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING

FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

BY

A. St. J. Macdonald,

( With 5 plates and i iextr figure).

( Continued from page 59 of this volume )

Part V.

The Mahseer in Burma.

Oh! Scaly monsters of the deep, or of the turbid stream,

Reveal your secrets now and then, and fulfil the Angler's dream /

Why do you accept my bait one day, disdain it on another?

Though light and shade prevail the same, please what's the secret

khubbar ?■

I cast my spoon and hide from sight, the same from day to day.

Sometimes you take it at my feet, anon just swim away!

Large sums I spend on rod and reel, all to beguile and fight,

Hundreds of miles I go in search, to test your strength and might.

Into the borulels of the Himalayas, to Burma, Assam, Mysore,

And barren mountains and waters small, Quetta, Banu, Tor.

Then to Trap Rock and Tiger Land, where only gram you take,

Raipur, Saugor, Seoni, in Tapti Sone or Berach.

Pride of place in my heart I give, to your Ava cousins all,

Be they monsters of the Mali H'ka, or Barilius Bola small.

Long may your secrets remain your own, and long may your haunts

prevail,

For this after all is the fun of the chase, to find you, lure you, then

fail !

A.M.

The Chindwin (1), The Irrawaddy (2), The Salween (3), Tenasserim (4), Size

of Mahseer (5), Burma Record and Record Mahseer (6), Varieties of Mahseer (7),

Golden Mahseer (8), Thick-lipped Mahseer (9), Black Mahseer (xo), Copper

Mahseer (11), Chocolate Mahseer (12), Red Mahseer (13), Points to remember

when fishing (14), Best season for catching fish (15), Fish destroyers (16).

Fishing Small Streams in Burma. Isolation not a factor (17), Tackle (18),

Summary of a Fishing trip in 1928 (19), Notes from Myitkyina and Seniku

Fishing Notebook (19), Bait (20), Fishing conditions (21), Tackle (22), Quota-

tions from Notes (23), Big Fish (24), A comparison of the Mali and N’Mai

Khas (25), List of fishes to be caught (26), Extracts from the Myitkyina Fishing

diary (27), Extracts from the Seniku Fishing Diary (28), More extracts from

the Myitkyina Fishing Diary (29), Notes on the Mali K’ha (30), Notes on the

N’Mai K’ha (31), Notes by Capt. Finch (32), Myitkyina Fishing Association

(33), Mr. T. P. Dewar’s notes (34).

The Mahseer in Burma.

In devoting a special chapter to Burma I do so with recol-

lections of perhaps some of the finest fishing waters in the Indian

/

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Empire, for they hold a variety of mahseer the study of which

affords a most interesting subject. As a province it is, with Assam,

the best and most adapted to the mahseer. This is on account of

its net- work of rivers, forest clad, and for the most part unmolested

by the ravages of man or beast. Sir George Scott writing in his

book Burma and Beyond says: —

‘From the stretch of hill country between Assam and China a number of

mighty rivers start to run southwards in nearly parallel courses. They supply

all the water that is wanted for cultivation and irrigation in Indo-China. Thev

begin near one another in a very narrow span of longitude, and gradually spread

out in a fan, which covers the lands from the Yellow Sea to the Bay of Bengal.

All of ihem run in deep narrow rifts, and the range's which separate them go

on running southwards almost as far as the rivers themselves, and in China

almost as sharply defined as the river Channels.’

‘These mountain ranges fall away from each other as the river valleys widen,

and they lose their height as tributary streams steadily cut through the ridges

which form herring-bone spurs and spines. But they still keep the same north

and south direction, though here and there spines re-enter and form the series

of flat-bottomed valleys and wide straths which make up the Shan States.’

‘Of all these rivers the Salween most steadily preserves its original character,

for it flows swiftly down in deep channels, sometimes precipitous gorges between

high cliffs, from its . source till it reaches the plain-land, which it has itself

piled up over the sea in the course of ages. It runs down the centre of the

British Shan States, and these lie towards the fringe, and nearly in the centre

of the fan, which has for its ribs the Brahmaputra, the Irrawaddy, the Salween

itself, the Mekhong and the Yangtzu.’ The chief rivers in the north are the

Chindwin on the west, the Irrawady in the - centre and the Salween to the

East, with the Tenasserim in the South.

i . The Chindwin. — Fed from the west by the Manipur river and

its smaller tributaries and from the east by the Uyu and its many

affluents, all of which hold mahseer ; for some unaccountable reason

the fish of this river are reluctant to take spoon or spinning bait.

This has been the experience in the past, and it must for this reason

alone be classed as an indifferent fishing river below Homalian. In

the Hukawng valley, where the Chindwin rises, the fish run large

and are game, taking spoon readily ; the upper reaches of the

Uyu, coming from Mogaung and Karmaing in the Myitkyina dis-

trict, also afford excellent sport.

The circumventing of the fish in the Chindwin is an unfinished

study in the case of the western rivers, though not to such an extent

with the eastern tributaries.

2. The Irrawaddy. — Roughly dividing Burma lengthways has

some 700 miles of course before it empties itself into the sea below

Rangoon. It becomes the Irrawaddy 29 miles above Myitkyina, the

most Northern district of Burma, where two rivers of equal size,

the Mali and N’Mai H’ka come into confluence, forming a pictur-

esque junction and an angler’s paradise. The fishing water mav

be roughly defined as being above Katha. It is not really good till

Bhamo, but is par-excellence above Myitkyina whence, from the

confluence of the Mali and N’Mai H’ka to Fort Hertz up the Mali,

and H’Tawgaw up the N’Mai, there is approximately 120 miles of

water on each of these rivers. Fish run to any size, and many a

monster is to be seen cruising in the backwaters of the Mali from

the road above at Teing H’ka. At the actual confluence I have

taken a 75 pounder and fought for two hours with another monster

and then lost him. In the Myitkyina District there are numerous

Famous rocks 22 miles north of Myitkyina. 3. Mali Rapid into confluence F — G is excellent watet\

CikCUMYktiTlNG THE MAllSEkk is7

large spring-fed rivers that make excellent junctions with these

two rivers, the Mali and N’Mai, and some wonderful bags have

been made in the past.

3. The Salween. — This great river, which is navigable for

hundreds of miles inland, is hardly touched on in any books as a

fishing river. 1 here again quote Sir J. G. Scott from his book :

‘The Salween is one of the most astonishing rivers in the world. Its sources

are not accurately known, and throughout its whole course, in British territory

at least, it preserves the character of a gigantic railway cutting or canyon.

Though it runs from North to South, it has a variety of bends that prevent any

very long view up or down its course. The banks rise to thousands of feet on

each side, and often so sheer from the water’s edge that there is seldom room for

any sort of camping ground on either side. In the dry weather there are what

may be called ‘bays’ of blinding white sand, or a chaos of huge boulders strewn

broadcast ; and here and there, where a tributary enters, a stretch of pebbly

gravel. The rocks are of the hardest kind, siliceous and even vitreous, and

yet they are ground and scored by the stones borne down by the current. The

rocks for the most part are coated with a glistening polish, as if they were black-

leaded, and when it is considered that the sun can only shine down into this

great gorge when right overhead, and that blankets of mist lie over it every

morning, its austerity may be imagined’.

‘A feature of the Salween is the extreme coldness of its waters, partly caused

by the melted snows coming down from the sources, but partly also because of

the lack of sunlight. In the cold weather the mist hangs over it densely like a

blanket, but in the hot weather it rises half-way up the hills, and remaining there

produces the phenomenon of sunshine above and a clear atmosphere over the river

bed. This . blanket of fog is found by aneroid to measure a thousand feet with

a clear atmosphere above and below’. The average difference between high and

low water in the Salween level is sixty or seventy feet, and in some places as

much as ninety feet. There are many rapids in the current, and many reefs

of rock running across . In the time of high water all beaches and boulders

are lost, and the water actually laps the steep slopes of the forest. The current

varies extremely; there arer sluggish reaches, and then races. Native boats at

certain seasons of the year can ply on it, but continuous navigation for any

length would be impossible. ’

‘There are many ferries for traders at various points, but in some the ferry-

men live in villages high up on the hills above, and the steepness and the

absence of proper landing-places make the working of these ferries both difficult

and erratic.’

‘The drenching mists would lead to fevers and ague, it might be supposed,

but the Red Kerens, and others who live in the District, seem to be immune,

from long acclimatisation.’

‘At five miles below the Keren-ni border the busy part of. the river begins,

with the Ta Taw Maw ferry, and from here the river is a regular trade route

down to Moulmein and the coast.’

There is little to be desired more than this as a fitting* description

of ideal mahseer water. Whether it is because the higher reaches,

of this river traverse wild country out of the beaten track of the

‘White man’, or because of lack of enterprize by residents of the

neighbouring stations, I have found it difficult to get in touch with

any one who has fished it, or knows anything about the fishing

this river offers; but that there are huge mahseer in it, is certain.

A correspondent writes me that a nephew in the Bombay Burma

Teak Corporation told him of having seen shoals of masheer

6 ft. in length cruising at certain places in the lower Salween, on

the Siam Border.

The rivers coming in on the left bank from China should cer-

tainly hold mahseer, even though the rivers coming in on the right

bank from the Shan States are almost denuded of fish life by the

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol XL1 1/

extensive irrigation. This appears to have been the experience of

most anglers posted in the Shan States: and we read in ‘The Mighty

Mahseer’ that it is hardly worth wetting line in any of these rivers.

An illustration of what poaching and extensive irrigation will do.

4. Tenasserim. — In the south this river has afforded excellent

sport and the rubber planters have made some big bags. Trips

are made by motor launch into the higher reaches where large fish

of 50 or 60 pounds have been taken so that, generally speaking, we

might justly conclude that the Mahseer is common throughout

Burma; and one can reasonably expect to find him in any perennial

stream which is rocky and rises in hills, irrespective of where it

joins the larger rivers. As an illustration of this see Sahmaw

Chaung further on in this chapter.

5. Size of Mahseer. —To what size we may expect fish in a

river depends largely on the size of its waters. The larger the river

the bigger do fish run.

The limit of the size a Mahseer attains is put at nine feet.

6. Burma record and Record Masheer. — The best taken to date

in Burma is 92 lbs., caught two miles below Myitkyina and a

souvenir of the fish was in the Myitkyina Club. The record

Masheer caught on rod and line is 119 lbs. This was taken in

Mysore ; it was 64 inches long and had a girth of 42 inches.

That this grand fish can be beaten in Burma I am convinced.

I have myself seen fish nearly 6 feet long at Tiang-Kha, 40 miles

north from Myitkyina, that must have been 150 lbs. At the con-

fluence of the Mali and N’Mai Rivers also, I have seen fish rise

that were 18 inches across the back, if an inch. This much suffices

then, to show that we have in Burma Mahseer as large as anywhere

else in the Indian Empire.

7. Varieties of Mahseer. — Burma in particular is fortunate in

offering opportunities for studying the much neglected subject of

the varieties of mahseer. Thomas in his ‘Rod in India’ of 1873

invited the attention of anglers to this study. To give up catching

fish when they are on the feed, and write down copious notes and

details of an unusual fish is not a very interesting occupation, still

it is time well spent, and invaluable to Natural History. By doing

this in 1928, I was able to open up the question of whether there

are not at least 6 distinct varieties of mahseer to be caught. The

photographs contained in this chapter show the difference but they

are not conclusive enough. If anglers would only further note down

the colourings and different characteristics of such fish, we may

prove this by specimens packed and forwarded to the Bombay

Natural History Society. (See specimen form elsewhere.)

The six types of Mahseer that I caught are as follows; and

though they differ all fit Doctor Day’s Barbus tor in the main points.

8. The Golderf or Himalayan Mahseer is the commonest and the

same as the Indian fish, which are represented by two forms; —

(a) Golden Mahseer. The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora

(Hamilton) known in Assam as the ‘Greyhound’ fish. It is usually

long and narrow, with a distinct black line down his entire length,

two and a half scales in width above the lateral line, head large

and long, top half green, lower half pale green running into silver.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

i. Golden or Himalayan Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora Hamilton, 23 lbs. Because

of its long body referred to in Assam as the Greyhound type.

2. Black Mahseer. A colour variety of the Putitor or Golden Mahseer.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

189

Above lateral line from golden with a mauve tinge on silver grey

background. Fins blend with colouring; dorsal green and dirty

pink, ventral and pectoral pale green to olive with red fringe. Eye :

iris golden, pupil black. Belly white.

(b) The for mahseer, Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton). This is

rather uncommon, and is generally taken with paste or dead bait,

fishing on the bottom. The head and mouth is smaller, and body

deeper than in the first type, the colouring is much the same as

the lirst type. See photos opposite. The scientific names have

been adopted from Dr. Hora’s article Game Fishes of India, from

the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, Vol. xli, No. 3, page

521 dated April 1940.

9. Thick-lipped Mahseer. — The thick-lipped mahseer has the same

colouring as the Himalayan mahseer differing only in the head.

Chief features are the thick lips with the adipose extension. Hora

classifies this fish as a variation of the true putitor mahseer, the

development of the lips not being as yet cleared up.

10. The Black Mahseer. — Two distinct types are taken, (a) Is

stocky in build, head small and black, mouth small, barbels and

eyes black. This fish is marked by a jet black line two half scales

above the lateral line; scales above lateral line have a tinge of gold

on the scale tips running to jet black on the back. Below lateral

line scales are lighter but dirty white, almost shot black to the

scales on the belly which are dirty white with a black fringe. Fins

black with grey at base. It is fairly common in the streams which

are heavily wooded, and is almost without exception a very game

fish.

(b) Is a melanic form of the putitor mahseer.

11. Copper Mahseer. — The copper mahseer is quite the most

beautiful fish I have seen. He is bright copper all over with a sheen

running into all the colours of the rainbow, he runs from the

deepest shade of copper with the delicate mauve sheen through-

out, to the more - delicate shades of copper with shell

pink, on a background of shot silver and gold. The head is

small and nose slightly concave, the lips are a modification of the

thick-lipped variety. The adipose continuation of the lower jaw is

clearly defined, but very much modified and not so pronounced as

in the thick-lipped variety. Fins deep blue, except tail fin which

has a red fringe. Belly delicate shade of yellow eyes bright copper;

pupil deep indigo blue. Only three of this variety were caught

in 1928 at the confluence of the Mali and N’Mai Rivers; best fish

weighing 25 lbs. no black line down the side.

12. The Chocolate Mahseer. — Head round and square and small

like a Labeo, colour bronze, running through delicate shades into

purple. No black line above lateral line. Above the lateral line

chocolate running into blue to dark chocolate on the back, with

polished bronze tinge to scale tips. Below lateral line, running

from faint silvery blue to white on belly to the extent of three

complete rows of scales, with half row on either side, clearly defined,

making four. Bright orange spots under lower jaw on chin; lips

thin, mouth small. Fins sky blue ; iris chocolate; pupil black.

Two fish of this kind taken, best 28 lbs. taken also at the conflu-

ence of the Mali and N’Mai Rivers.

iyo JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

13. The Red Mahseer has a round and small head, top of which

is shot gold and purple, also gill plates ; mouth small. Above

Lateral Line, beautiful sea green shot with silver, tips of scales

salmon pink. Below Lateral Line, mauve with silver, vermilion tips

to scales; belly pink, fins all bright red; black line above the Lateral

Line not present in this fish. Eye golden, pupil indigo blue. Took

five of these fish at the same confluence, best 18 lbs.

A study of the photographs will convince anyone interested,

that these fish bear marked differences to each other both in

colouring and shape. This is of no value to piscatology, but if

fishermen are able to differentiate the varieties, my object will

be fulfilled; and if further pursued, by specimens being sent to

Bombay, we will have at least opened up this neglected but inter-

esting study.

From the recent work by Dr. Sunder Lai Hora, on the Game

Fishes of India, appearing in serial form in the Bombay Natural

History Society journal , and from correspondence I have had with

him, he has identified these fish as follows : —

The Chocolate Mahseer ...

Stocky Black (0) ,,

Red ,,

The Golden Mahseer

The Thick-lipped Mahseer.

The Black (melanic) (£)

Mahseer

The Copper Mahseer

].B. ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis (McClellan)

j only colour forms.

] B. tor putitora (Hamilton).

1-The hypertophied lips being only a peculiar! -

j ty, not yet fully investigated.

B. tor mosal (Hamilton).

14. Points to remember when fishing.- — Mahseer which have not

been ‘educated’ by wielders of the spinning rod are not, so far as

my experience goes, shy or difficult to catch; so we need only follow

the usual rules of fishing, to be successful. There are, however,

one or two points of importance which, if mentioned elsewhere, will

also bear repetition here, as being of special value while fishing in

Burma, where the dense forest that grows to the water’s edge of

most of the rivers supplies various leaves, fruits and vegetation to

form a diet to which these fish seem particularly partial. The

large jungle figs, so abundant at certain seasons, are much sought

after; also the larger forms of insect life.

In the matter of spoon, fishing deep meets with success; in

fact it is only by so doing that one hooks the really big fish. The

use of as fine tackle as is compatible with the size of the fish,

combined with the least conspicuous mounting and hook arrange-

ments, amply repays the careful fisherman in these gin clear waters.

15. Best season for catching fish. — The general idea of the

autumn and spring being the best seasons does not appear to fit

most of the rivers of Burma. This is also the case in Assam.

Langley’s famous catch of 1400 lbs. of mahseer in two days was

made in November up the Mali H’ka, and good bags have been

made by others at the same season. It is interesting to note that

these cold weather catches have all been made at the junction of

spring-fed rivers, with the N’Mai H’ka and the Mali H’ka, both

of which are snow fed, and probably connected with the winter

spawn.

Joiirn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

pSpfl^S

heft. Chocolate Mahseer, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis , 16 lbs.

Right. Golden Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora, 23 lbs.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Left. Thick-lipped Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora Hamilton,.

Right. Copper Mahseer, Barbus tor. mosal Hamilton.

Note the pronounced adipose extension of the lips in the larger fish. It is a peculiarity

not yet fully investigated.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER

191

16. Fish destroyers , Crocodiles and Turtles. — The upper reaches

of the Irrawaddy from Bhamo are free from crocodile and turtles, and

the fish are assured this much immunity in having nothing larger

than the otter to destroy them. This is a curious situation, and

rather unaccountable as the Mogaung and Namyin, and the Uyit

are all large, sluggish rivers, with rocks and sandy beds, especially

adapted to tnese fish-eaters ; game also abounds for the mugger

in the dense forest that grows down to the banks. Long may this

remain foreign to these pests.

The upper waters of the Chindwin also, I understand, are free

from the crocodile, and the turtle is rare, though one was caught

on a Victor rod by Mr. T. P. Dewer in the Hukawng valley, 87 lbs.,

while fishing with a spoon ! !

Otter. Otters abound and there is hardly a stream free

from them. I have seen schools of as many as eleven, hunting

together in small streams. They occasionally damage large fish,

and are besides Man, practically the only destructive creature in

these waters.

Man. Even in Man we may count our luck as being well in,

for the best fishing water in Burma is undoubtedly in the Hill tracts.

These are administered by the Burma Frontier Service, whose

officers are both policeman and magistrate. No settlement is

allowed in these tracts by our Aryan brethren, so the country remains

unspoiled and wild. Long may the policy last.

I refer to Kachins chiefly, who fortunately for the' fish are a

lazy easy-going people, and slow at exterminating fish. They have

their primitive methods of trapping, shooting with arrows, cutting

with dhas by night with the aid of flares, even poisoning the fish,

but with all this, are not nearly as destructive as the fishing

classes in India, who deplete a river in a short time. In some

streams fish are partly protected, by the local Dewar, or chief

of a group of villagers, who allows trapping to be done only after

permission is obtained, or when he has a feast. So long as these

Hill tracts are not thrown open to colonization, we may hopefully

expect to see mahseer remain in the same great numbers as at

present.

Fishing small Streams in Burma.

There is abundant opportunity for the Angler who wishes to

try Fly, or Fly Spoon, in the innumerable small streams that drain

this forest clad land.

In fact, almost any stream, however small, will hold Mahseer

and Trout ( B . bola), provided it rises in the hills, and is perennial.

It seems immaterial where these streams meet the larger parent

rivers, or whether the bed is shingle or: sand, fast or sluggish.

Let me here describe just one such stream. 1 will take as

an example the Sahmaw Chaung, in the Myitkyina District.

I was resident on Finlay Fleming’s Sugar. Estate for 4 years.

It was then in its embryo stage; I was employed in the process

of opening up vast areas of grass land for sugarcane cultivation,

so I was able to study the river fairly thoroughly. I had some

3

i92 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV

200 mahseer, ranging from 4 lbs. to a J lb., protected behind my

bungalow, under a large concrete bridge. These were fed daily,

and fishing was forbidden for a distance of 300 yards above and

btelow.

This little burn is no more than 15 miles over its total length,

and about 10 yards across at its widest part, and is nowhere over

its whole length more than 8 feet deep. The drop is considerable,

and it is consequently a series of shallow runs and pools, varying

in depth from 3 to 6 feet.

The bed is shingle with small boulders 18" in diameter and the

water gin clear. The banks, for the last four miles of its course,

and where it flows out into the valley are covered with high grass

(1 Saccharum glumeosum ) known locally as Kaing grass, but better

still as tiger or elephant grass, growing about 12 ft. high.

Two good Silund ( Silundia gangetica ) taken at the mouth of the Namti H ka :

22 and 15 lbs.

I have taken Mahseer up to 7 lbs., out of this little stream,

and B. bola of 3 lbs. It is full of fish, and a dozen or so small

rnahseer may be taken any day, over a couple of miles of water.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

THE SAHMAW CHAUNG.

i. View through Finlay Fleming’s Estate.

2. Hill section, holding fish from 8-10 lbs.

Another view of Hill section Typical B. bola water

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

19 3

B. bola of good size and in plenty, may be had over the whole

stretch of river.

I give below two specimen days, with these fish : —

17. Isolation not a factor. — -The interesting feature about this

iittle stream lies not so much in the fish it holds, as in its isolation

and distance to the nearest Mahseer water. The Sahmaw stream

flows into the Namyin Chaung. A slow sluggish river with a sandy

muddy bed, draining the Mu Valley for 40 miles or so; and empty-

ing itself into the Mogaung River 20 miles from where it takes in

the Sahmaw Chaung. Over the whole length of its course it is

free from rapids, and has no mahseer. The Mogaung River is a

very considerable stream, but is also muddy and sluggish, and has

no rapids or runs for 30 or 40 miles from where the Namyin joins;

so that this colony of mahseer, in the -Sahmaw Chaung, is isolated

and is at least 50 miles from the nearest suitable water, with no

other smaller tributaries in between.

I deal with this at length, in order to illustrate the possibilities

of fishing in the many similar streams found in Burma. There is

of course no doubt about any small streams that run into the rivers

in the Hill tracts, as these are bound to hold fish.

It is interesting to note that in the hills, where the Sahmaw

Chaung runs through a small defile, two or three large pools have

formed in which can be seen from above fish of 15 lbs. or more.

It would be most interesting to know the age of these fish, as their

size is out of all proportion to the size of the stream. They are

resident there at all times of the year.

18. The tackle is the same as for all light fishing, but the

lighter the gut and smaller the spoon, the better. I found 32s gut

and a J" Fly Spoon answered best. Fly took well, but did not

give the good results of the Fly Spoon, with either B. hola or

Mahseer.

A chapter on Burma cannot be considered complete, without

some reference to the famous ‘Confluence’ and to the water above

Myitkyina.

I have included in this chapter notes from my own diary, with

a summary of my bag, not with any object of exemplifying my

results, but to illustrate to the would-be visitor what he may

expect. For although this is wonderful water, it is by no means

easy, nor does the reel sing at every cast. These are results of

10 hours of hard fishing- daily.

For the condensed notes of the fishing round Myitkyina, I am

indebted to Capt. Finch, who put in a great deal of hard work

compiling them, when Hon. Secretary of the Club. They give any-

one interested, all the details required, and should the reader wish to

194 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. X '.LTV

satisfy himself further, of these two famous places ‘The Confluence’

and ‘SenikiC, I can only suggest his getting Sheets 92 to G/6,

and 92 G/14, scale 1 inch to a mile, obtainable from the Govern-

ment Map Depot, Calcutta, and studying these with the notes.

It is to the co-operation of anglers in making notes in the

fishing books at these places, that we owe all this interesting data.

A great pity it is not done more by station clubs, all over India.

TRIP TO CONFLUENCE OF THE MALI AND N’MAI K’hAS, 1928

53 fish weighing861 lbs. giving an average of 16*25 lbs.

The best day 3rd May. 5 fish weighing 1451 lbs.

The 4 best fish 75, 50, 48, 44 lbs.

2 Goonch = a.

7 Butchwa.= £.

* B. bola=c.

Seasons.

Up to date 1932.

19. Condensed notes from the Myitkyina and Seniku Fishing

Note Book .

(By kind permission of the Hon. Secretary Capt. Finch and

members of the Fishing Club.)

Mahseer have been caught in every month of the year, but undoubtedly,

both in the Mali and the N’Mai, the most promising' seasons are from late in

February until the end of April or the middle of May, (depending upon the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

195

incidence of heavy rain) and also parts of September, October and November.

The majority of big fish have been accounted for from the upper Mali in the

Autumn, and from the N’Mai in March and April during recent years. The

earliest in the year that a catch is recorded is 13th January. One enthusiast

landed fish in July and August, and accounted for a couple on 30th December,

but this may be regarded as somewhat exceptional.

During the Rains, tributary streams give some sport with small fish, both

fly-spoons and flies being successful.

In the Autumn, much depends upon the state of the water, a paucity of

rain being conducive to sport with really large Mahseer.

20. 'Baits’, etc. — The most satisfactory ‘weapon’ for these

waters is the Spoon. Opinions differ, of course, as to the size and

type of spoon which is most killing-. A copper and silver spoon of

almost any shape, mounted with a flying- treble hook is recommend-

ed. Two experts, whose names fiq-ure as the captors of numerous

monster Mahseer, employed home-made spoons not exceeding- about

two inches in length. Many useful fish have been landed on spoons

of four inches and over.

(The writer landed a 65 lbs. on a if-inch spoon, and a if lb. on

a 3-inch spoon from the same rapid, and the only things that he

has hooked on 4-inch spoons during hours of soinning are: — (1) a

submerged cabbage, and (2) portions of Asia. Chacun a son gout.)

If fish are feeding or inquisitive they will take anything, even

discarded cheroot ends. Prior to 1914, success was frequently

achieved with dead bait; live bait has also been used, and these

should be resorted to when the water is very dirty and spoons

have failed to attract.

Flies and fly-spoons have sometimes given amusing sport in

tributaries. In certain places, wild figs, pieces of leaf and those

cheerful little insects called bv the Burman ‘payit’, fished near the

surface, have caught small Mahseer. ‘Phantom’ minnows have

not proved a success in these waters. The record Mahseer for

Burma was taken bottom-fishing with Atta from the Irrawaddy

not far from Waingmaw a few miles below Myitkwna.

The ‘chocolate’ mahseer is partial to a worm !

21. Conditions for Fishing. — -Mahseer have been caught on

bright days, on dull days, during rain, even during thunder storms,

before noon, at noon, after noon, and after sunset. At any phase

of the moon.

Mahseer can be caught on ordinary tackle in dead clear water,

in pale green water, in beer-brown water, in pea-soup.

When the river is hipTi, when it is low, when it is rising, when

it is falling. The ideal? Quien sahe?

In the Spring-, I think, when the water is clearish, not trans-

parent, but translucent to a depth of about three to five feet ; then

good catches mav be hoped for.

In the Autumn, when the sun has had a whack at the water,

and the water is rather dirty and falling fairlv fast, fish may be

hooked, particularly where a tributary adds clearer water to the

main streams.

When the temperature of the water is high, fish will be more

numerous in broken water and close to falls.

When the water is very cold and clear, a few mahsqer can be

hooked usually in broken white water,

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

Fish may really be ‘on1 * the feed’ for most of the day, or perhaps

for only half an hour. No definite rule can be laid down as to

the best times for fishing. As an example of the impossibility of

knowing whether morning or evening fishing will prove the more

successful, the following catch, (from the N’Mai), is quoted:

September

Morning

Evening

18th. 5 fish

19th

20th 5 fish

21st

Best 30 lbs.

Nil.

Best 49 lbs.

Nil.

Not a touch.

5 fish, best 20 lbs .

Nil.

22. Tackle. — In the Myitkyina District, the all-round angler

should supply himself with an outfit to meet the following varieties

of fishing: —

(a) Spinning deep in fast water for fish up to ioo lbs.

( b ) Trolling from a boat or raft.

(c) Casting a fly spoon and fly fishing.

(These notes are given as a rough guide, in case they may prove

of assistance to anyone who has not as yet fished in the East.)

(a) ‘Heavy’ Spinning: — -

Rod: — Should be of Greenheart, split cane sometimes fails in

a tropical climate. Length n to 12 feet is enough.

Reel: — Must hold over 200 yards of suitable line.

Line: — ‘Lignum Vitae’, 36 lbs. strain, from Manton’s Calcutta

is good.

Traces : — Strong killin Wire.

Leads: — ‘Jardine’ spinning lead type, up to oz.

Spoons: — Get these made from samples by a lohar, or Indian

artificier, and mount them yourself with a flying treble-hook. Good

types: — -(all obtainable from Manton & Co.).

Name Colours Sizes obtainable

The ‘ Putao ’ Spoon.

Special Hog- backed.

The 4 Myitkyina ’ spoon.

Hardy’s Hog-backed.

Spoon.1

Dull copper and silver.

Gilt both sides best.

Brass and silver.

Mahseer.

Bright gilt and silver.

1|, 2, 2}, 3 ins.

Sizes Nos. 4 to 10.

Scaled, 4 inches.

1", 1|. 2, 2£, 3 ins.

Dead bait tackle. — The Archer Spinner, to take a fish 3 to 6 inches long.

Lacy’s chilwa tackle.

(b) Trolling from a boat for big fellows: —

A Sea Rod about 8 feet in length.

A large reel to carry 300 yards of line, with an extra brake.

(c) Fly Fishing : —

Dark coloured flies seem to be the most killing, also white or

yellow flies at times. Mahseer will probably take any fly occasionally,

Suggested : — Watson’s Fancy, Blackamoor, Black Gnat; also

1 A good shape; Hardy’s wire mount is unreliable, sometimes fraying through

from twisting when a fish is ‘on’,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

197

Coachman, Smoky Dun and Yellow Spider, sizes 2, 6, 10; and 12

for barils.

Gut casts as for equivalent weights of salmon and trout.

Accessories :■ —

One or two intelligent piadas or orderlies : a gaff or landing net

is seldom needed.

A Spring balance, to weigh by \ lb. up to 60 lbs.

A pair of wire-cutting pliers; a small file.

A baiting needle. A tackle box.

Plenty of spares to replace those lost.

23. Quotations from Notes on Tackle. -—‘This fish’ (a 32 lbs.)

‘fought too much for my split cane rod and it has a bad kink just

below the base ring'.’

‘Have found no line to equal “Lignum Vitae” from Manton’ (Sk. P. 211).

‘For traces nothing but ‘‘Killin’’ wire . . . For spoons I prefer the old-

fashioned bar-spoon.’ (SK.P. A.D.).

‘Do not have a “triangle” in the belly of the spoon, which may be crushed

flat by a fish, resulting in oaths and loss. A fish making an attempt at the

spoon will slip on to a single tail triangle and be hooked.

Large mahseer have been caught on the following varieties of spoons : —

li, 2|, 3, 3^, 4, 4£, 4\ inches copper and silver ;

H, 2}, 3, 4. 4\ ,, all copper ;

li, 2£, 3, 3£, 4, ,, brass ( or gilt) and .silver ;

If, 3, 4, 4\ ,, silver.

Spoons of many different shapes, ‘mistri’-mado, made by Farlow, Luscombe,

Manton, Hardy, etc.

There is so far no record of any mahseer having been hooked on a ‘Phantom’,

‘Devon’ or similar toy, in local streams.

Further Notes on Tackle ; contributed by two successful anglers.

Spoons. — (a) ‘A two-inch copper and silver spoon, with a treble hook flying

mount. I have also found useful a silver and brass about three inches and

rather narrow- — this in very strong water.’

(b) ‘I prefer the “Myitkyina” shaped spoon, sold by Manton.

Dull outside, bright inside.’

Lead. — (a) ‘I have always used a 2| oz. lead — triangular shape.’

( b ) ‘I use as much as the rod will stand in most places, and let the lot

sink as far as I dare. You lose a lot but it pays: about 4 oz., I think.’

Dead bait. — (a) ‘Dead bait I have tried on a few occasions with success

usually at a junction where one stream was dirty and the other clear. Bait

just on the margin of the dirty.’

Line. — (b) ‘I use waterproofed plaited cutty hunk or similar. Silk is too ex-

pensive and rots, breaking strain about 20 lbs. I rub it with Cereline (Hardy’s)

every day or so and dry carefully every evening. Backing, Undressed cutty

hunk, very strong. ’

24. Big Fish. — Undoubtedly the keen angler who is determined

to go ‘one better’ than his predecessors stands the greater chance

of landing a record if he concentrates upon the warm waters of the

Mali H’ka, or the Mali at the ‘Confluence’, which have surrendered

more fine fish in a shorter period than those of the chilly N’Mai.

Nevertheless, the fortunate fisherman who has worked hard

and been blessed with good weather conditions, may hope for a

catch from the N’Mai which will rival those given up by the Mali.

For comparison, a list of large mahseer caught from both rivers

is given on the next page.

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

25. List compiled from notes in the Myitkyina and Seniku Fishing

Diaries up to 30 th June 1931.

Mali H’ka and Confluence

Fish weight over

80 lbs. 70 lbs. 60 50 40

1 1 ...

Total

2

Prior .to

1915

1915 Spring f

Autumn |

1916 S. j

A. 1

1917 S. j

A. j

1918 S. f

A. t

1919 Spring

1920

1921 Autumn

1922 S. J

A. t

1923 Spring

1924 „

1925 S. f

A. t

1926 and 1927

1928 Spring

1929 S. /

A. t

1930

1931

Totals ...

Weights over...

(а) Includes 6 fish of 50 lbs. and 3 fish of 40 lbs.

(б) The 3 fish over 80 lbs. were all caught by L. Lacy Langley.

(c) All caught at the ‘ confluence.’

(rf) All caught from the Right back ‘ Triangle.’

The Mali is far more fished than the N’Mai, being more accessible.

N’Mai H’ka

80 70 60 50 40 Total

2 ... 2 4 3 11

Prior to

1915

A. M.

26. List of Fish to he caught in the Mali and N'Mai H'kas.

(Will members of the Myitkyina Fishing Association please add to

this list any other species caught while angling for Mahseer).

Mahseer ( Barbus tor.) At least six easily recognisable varieties.

The Common

The Thick-lipped

The Black

The Chocolate

The Copper

The Red

j- The largest varieties.

| Small mouthed.

Indian ‘Trout’ ( Barilius bola). Reported to weigh as much as 5 lbs. but

seldom taken over 3 lbs.

Other Lesser Barils occur but do not exceed a few ounces in weight.

Bachhwa ( E ut r o pitch thy s vacha (Hamilton). Two varieties, up to 6 lbs.

Take spoons of any size, also natural bait.

Goonch ( Bagarius yarcelli). Two varieties, running to over 150 lbs.

‘Kalabanse’ ( Labeo calbasu). (Labeo). Up to 30 lbs. or more; occasionally

taken on a spoon.

Silund (Silundia gangetica). Run to over 20 lbs., occasionally taken.

Taken Silund'of 15, 23 at the mouth of the Narnti H’ka, they run up to 100 pounds

and over and are very game fish.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MATISEER

199

Freshwater shark ( Wallago Attu).

Pithecanthropus indicus, sometimes hooked when fly fishing.

Other varieties of Fish caught in the Myitkyina District.

27. A f&vti extracts from the (old) Myitkyina Fishing Diaries.

When to fish. ‘My experience has been that the best time for

fishing is the afternoon between 2-30 and 6 p.m.’

(Myitkyina book, p. 49).

‘ .... it is worth fishing the Mali however dirty the water may be’.

(P- 57).

Fly fishing. ‘Except in the very cold months all rivers in the (Putao)

district yield, probably, “B. Bola, Pakan” ; and many an evening can be put

in at Lungsawt or the Nam Khamti Zup with a small fly-rod : the “black

gnat” is, I think, the most killing fly. Have taken as many as 27 of these

small fish in one evening and several times over 20.’ (P. 43).

‘I have found most of the Salmon Flies, about Lake Trout size and smaller,

good, noticeably the “Jock Scott!” also the “Butcher”.’

In the Hukawn Valley.

‘In the winter months in the Hukawn I never caught anything big on a

fly, but one can get quite a big bag of tiddlers in almost any stream of an

evening. For these small fish I found a touch of red or other bright colour

with dark wings and a fair amount of tinsel, preferably silver, effective.

‘Fly fishing for the bigger mahseer commences after about 1st April.

‘Generally fished in the evening only and used a single fly.

‘My largest on a fly was an eleven pound black Mahseer which put up a

very fine fight, landed several five and six pounders.’ (With fly.) (P. 76).

Some good catches : —

From the Mali H’ka : —

22- 11-16 ... 20 fish weighing 489 lbs. (Langley) (afternoon).

23- 11-16 ... 16 fish ,, 387f lbs. (Ditto). (P.38).

14-4-24 ... 12 fish, best 52 lbs. weighing 228 lbs. at Namlang-MaL

Zup. (between 11*30 and 4-30 p.m.).

At the * Confluence ’ : —

April 1928, in one day, 5 fish, best 50 lbs., total 142^ lbs.

From the N’Mai Hka

September 1929, in 'three days, 15 fish, best 49 lbs. (Seniku Book,

p. 218).

From the Namli Hka (from Seniku)

May 1903, in 2£ days, 32 (small) mahseer. (Seniku Book, pp. 76-9).

28. Brief Extracts from the Seniku Fishing Diary.

Tumpang Zup. ‘Fishing at the junction is not much good after the middle

of April as the N’Mai K’ha then begins to come clown very dirty. The Tumpang

is fishable up to the end of May, though thei river is frequently unfishable for

a day or two after rain has fallen’. (P. 3, 1900).

This is not in accordance with my experience, I should say when the

N’Mai comes down coloured, the mouth of these: spring fed rivers should be

at their best, I think a visit late April, when the snow water is down the

Zup should be excellent, until the monsoon breaks. Fish will then collect in

the warm clear water of the Tumpang. ‘The fishing in the small streams

(Namli and Tumpang)’ from 26th April to 21st May 1903 was A. I. Between

these dates I got in the Namli and Tumpang 75 fish, total weight 415 lbs.

My advice to a successor is : — Be at N’Mai — Tumpang jtn. with good heavy

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

tackle and dead bait on ist February .... ‘After February the! fishing at

this big junction seems very poor and in the first half of April and in March

the small streams are poor also. Remember that February is the month for

big fish (Pp. 84-85).

(The above is not true of zups up stream from Shingaw.) In April 1927

I got 5 fish in half an hour on a visit by cycle from Tanghpae at the Con-

fluence, I punctured both tyres and thel rain had made the road impossible ; so

I chucked and returned. Heavy rain spoilt the trip. The Mali was coloured

when I got the .... 23, 17, 17, 12, 11.

Chipwi Zup : — ‘Tried the river on ist and 2nd November, (1918) but saw

and touched nothing. It is obvious that I have missed the Autumn fishing:

anyhow in places north of the Tunpang-N’Mai junction.’

‘At Chipwi on 13th March I found the temperature of the water of the

N’Mai Hka 60 degrees, and of the Chipwi itself 64^ degrees, astonishingly

high temperature as compared with 50 of the Chenab river where I killed

II fish in one day last December.’ (P. 182, 1919.)

Conditions : —

‘The fish were landed under weather conditions varying to such an extent

that there can not be any hard and fast rule about feeding fish.’ (P. 203).

29. Brief extracts from the Myitkyina Fishing Diary. (1915-31).

Near Putao. ‘A nice hack out to Maneu village leaving Putao about noon

arriving Maneu 1.15 p.m. Troll if miles down stream to a deep still pool —

the river down as far as this only yields Pangyin, but there must be some

good fish in this pool. I took one of 57 lbs. out of it and have had several

runs from big fellows — right in the centre between the 2 rocks is the place

they lie. You can get back to Putao in comfort by 7 p.m. “The Namlang-

Mali zup needs no eulogising, it is a first rate spot-get about 50 yards up the

Mali and your spoon into that smooth Triangle’’ if possible.’ (P. 42.)

‘About \ a mile above the Kankin pagoda there is a big pool near a lot

of rocks — a small pagoda on one of them. I lost a monster here which I

had played for nearly an hour. I am certain there are big fish in it.

‘Another good spot where I lost a big fish is about a mile below Nam Sati.5

(P. 49).

‘On the 18th March I caught a 47 lbs. and 60 lbs. in the pool “(Namlang)’’

before 10-30 a.m. The 60-lber I got on casting where the water begins to

gather speed and though I breaked as hard as I could. I could not keep

him off the silk backing which broke. As I looked at the end rushing through

the rings I felt a tug again on the rod. The end of the line had caught in a

snake ring I had put on the night before. I put the rod down hurriedly and

jumped into the water and got the line, calling to the Shan to hold it while

I put it through the rings and tied it round the reel above the backing. This

took about 20 seconds (?) during which time the Shan said the fish had gone,

but on reeling in a yard or two I found him still there and eventually coaxed

him into slack water. He took more than his 60 minutes to bring to gaff.

The line must have given at the ve^y end of his rush and he must have

turned because he was in very swift water. Both these fish I got on with

a silver-copper 3-inch hog back spoon.”

‘Newnkhai, was taken in “Pickthall’s Pool” by a fish which took out

250 yards line at first rush and smashed me at the drum. I breaked with

fingers on line drum and was badly burnt.

‘I have tried “Langley’s Pool” many times but have never touched a fish

there.’ ' (P. 57).

From the Confluence. ‘The N’Mai I tried on three days and had no luck

in it; it is so very much colder than the Mali Hka that the chance of doing

really well in it is small.’

The ‘Confluence’ : — ‘I lost a number of strong fish, one of them taking

200 yards of line up stream where I was unable to follow him. I had on

also a large fish from 6 p.m. to 7.45, which twice1 taxed my last few coils of

line on the drum of my reel. The main spring broke in his second rush. .

he made another rush for the actual zup, when the reel jammed and . . .

lost the fish.

The fish took us 400 yards down stream. This was the heaviest fish I

had on. My 75 lb. fish took 40 minutes, and did exactly the same thing.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER

201

They all make for the ist opening into the large still pool behind the large

rock island, and if one is run, out to this one can generally expect a good

fish.’ (P. 69), (1928).

Upper Mali Hka (Read the type-written Appendix at the end of the

(old, club diary ; full of information.)

‘Pickthall’s pool, or “The” pool. Fishable whenever it is possible to get

to it, but is at its best in the autumn. The easiest way to fish this pool is

from the rocks at the head. Cast into the main current and let the spoon

swing round into the Pool beware, however, of sunken snags under the bank . . .

‘Langley’s pool is just below the suspension bridge on the right bank.

This has been fished assiduously by many fishermen without any success since

Langley’s departure . . . His secret went with him’. (Appendix, pp. 3 & 4).

‘In afternoon At once taken by a very heavy fish, which sailed

away, taking out all but two or three coils of 200 yards of line. . . .’

(P. 65. c).

Lengths of time recorded from hooking to landing of fish —

82 Iber. ... ‘ about 1 5 minutes.’ (Langley).

86 lber. ... * about 12 or 13 mins.’ ,,

41|lber. .. ‘2 hours.’ ,,

59 lber. ... ‘ If hours.’ ,,

60 lber. ... ‘ more than 60 minutes.’ ,,

50 lber. ... ‘ about \ hour.’ ,,

Note. — This almost confirms the weight Cock and Hen*fish run to a reasonable

belief and example that the 41|, 59, 60 pounder were Cock fish.

30. Notes on the Mali H’ka. — From the point of view of

accessibility for fishing", the river is divisible as follows: —

1. From the Confluence of the N’Mai to Tiang Zup, (about 27 miles) the

river is within a short distance of the P.W.D. road, which is motorable in the

open season, weather permitting.

2. From Tiang Zup to Nawng Hkai : —

Corresponds to about 150 miles of road and is mostly sufficiently far

from the P.W.D. road to necessitate pitching a camp.

3. The vicinity of Fort Herts. (Putao) : —

The confluence near the Inspection Bungalow at Nawng Hkai, 13 miles

from Fort Hertz, is the best water, but other places have been fished with

success in the neighbourhood.

Facilities etc. for fishing the most easily accessible stretch of river from

Myitkyina : (viz. 1 above) :

Transport : — From October to May motor cars and vans traverse the road.

During the Rains, only bullock carts and pack animals can be utilised.

Accommodation : — Inspection Bungalows, furnished, with crockery and cook-

ing utensils, exist at Weshi (33rd mile). Nsopzup (42nd mile) and Tiang'zup

(55th mile).

Boats, etc. : — Sometimes can be hired at the Kwitao Ferry, 2 miles down-

stream from Weshi. The only certain means of having a boat in this section

is to hire in Myitkyina and send it on ahead. Kachins will make rafts locally

but they are of little use.

Supplies : — Should be taken out from Myitkyina, as only a limited number

of fowls and eggs can be obtained on the spot.

Good fishing water

From Weshi ‘dak’ bungalow : — •

Downstream: — For 4 miles to the ‘Confluence’ is fairly fast running

with few rocks, pools or bends. Good fish have been landed, (a) at Kwitao,

( b ) from the Triangle side, from the rapid above the Confluence. A boat is

very useful here.

A large freshwater shark has been caught near the Weshi bungalow,

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Upstream ' The Hpungin confluence, where fish other than mahseer have

been landed on the sandy spit on the downstream side of the Hpungin Hka,

as well as Barbus tor. A boat is not essential.

From Nsopzup, downstream from 2 miles from the bungalow as far as the

Hpungin zup, 4! miles by road.

Upstream : — disappointing for 2 miles, after which there is good water up

to Njip zup, 7 miles by road.

There is a deep pool at the Njip confluence, from the top of which is a

rapid, good fish have been taken.

Tiangzup: — Upstream: — The river leaves the road here and it is not easy

to get more than a mile or so upstream.

From a mile upstream down to the head of the rapid half a mile downstream,

including the Tiang zup, is good. This confluence has given up numbers of

small fish, and several mahseer over 40 lbs. have been grassed- just above the

rapid.

Two miles downstream towards Njip zup (6 miles from Tiang zup), many

fish have been hooked from the Triangle side.

Between Tiang Zup and Nawng Hkai : — '

The Mali lies one or more days’ march from the P.W.D. road. Few

people have had opportunities of trying this stretch, which must include good

places for angling. A tent and pawlins a necessity.

The best sport in the Putao area has been obtained from Nawng Hhai

31. The NJ Mai Hka. —

Accessibility : — From November till May, (weather permitting) by motor car

and light lorry from Waingmaw via. Nausaung (11 miles) to Seniku (32 miles).

The Namyin-Namlao Hkas at Wausaung are not worth fishing.

* The better fishing spots marked,

circumventing the mahseer

203

From Seniku (good Inspection Bungalow), the confluences of Namli and

Tumpang streams can be reached on foot within an hour, and the -Tumpang

confluence with the N Mai is then best arrived at by bamboo raft. All necessary

information can be obtained from the Fishing Diary (1900-31), kept in the

Dale Bungalow.

Beyond Seniku, Pack Transport or coolies must be resorted to. Only a

very few of the latter are available near Seniku.

If the Tumpang area proves disappointing, move on to: —

Shingaw, not a bad spot.

Then on to Tamu Zup, the best angling place on the left .bank of the

N. Mai.

Give Tanga Hka a miss; poor for fish; a paradise for biting insects.

Chipwi Zup, 49 miles from Seniku, is very variable ; the Maru’s poison the

water above the bridge on and off in the spring and autumn, thus making

spinning at the Zup a waste of time.

General : — Virtually no supplies available anywhere. Bring up everything

from Myitkyina. The occasional chicken and a few eggs are all that can

be expected.

Include a rifle, tiger are quite plentiful and have taken quite a lot of mules

etc., within shouting distance of Tenga, Tamu and Chipwi 1. B.S.

From February to November, a sandfly net and plenty of ‘Flit’ are essential;

(From November to February the fishing is a wash-out, anyway, at Chipwi

and upstream from there).

The N’Mai is less reliable than the Mali for Mahseer; a very rough general

guide as to seasons is : —

Spring: — SeniKu ; end of February till the first big rise of the N’Mai, (which

may be in March).

famu confluence; second week of March till beginning of May.

Autumn: — N’Mai and Tributaries: — Odd periods of a couple of days

or so between the second week of September and the first few days of

N o vember.

Atter heavy rain, the Tamu Hka be expected to clear sufficiently for spinning

within 36 hours ; the Chipwi Hka does not clear for 3 or 4 days after a down-

pour.

If leave is short, previous application to the A/S. Sadon, for a raft to

be made ready near Seniku (and at Shingaw) and for cooies, if required, is

(or advisable).

Where to Fish in the N’Mai Hka.

(with rough sketenes;.

(Maps of the Mali Hka are to be found in the Myitkyina Club Fishing

Book).

(1) From a Raft, drifting down the j Hkm^ } t0 the

Tumpang Zup. In the N’Mai a mile below the Tumpang Zup.

(2) Shingaw Hka and Zup. and small fish ; vide sketch.

(3) Tamu Hka and Zup. Good for both large and small fish ; vide sketch.

(4) 37th mile (from Seniku). 3 miles from Tamu I.B.

(5) Laima Zup. From Chipwi I.B. (5 miles by P.W.D. route, 35 miles

by short cut.

^6) Chipwi Hka and Zup. Vide sketch.

(7) Any other small zup.

(Reference maps 92 G/14., and 92 K/i.)

32. Notes by P. W. Finch on the Fishing in Myitkyina : — -

‘1931, At the Mali Hka and the Confluence, and in the N’Mai Hka was

a bad year, and 1932 so far giving no sign of being a better one. There was

one 60 lbs. fish caught in the N’Mai Hka in 1931, and one of 40 lbs., each

in the same river and at the Confluence.

In 1932, W. caught fish, of 383 and 403 lbs. in the Mali Hka, and J. was

lucky enough to get two of 12 and 14 lbs. at Alam Village.

The Governor’s party recently working really hard for 3 days, managed

to get a 9-pounder.

R. T. who did very well before here, has just come along for a month’s

fishing and it will be interesting to see what he gets. I will make a point of

letting you know when he comes back.

204 journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xliv

There is a very good camp at the Confluence now. Run by the Fishing

Association, I am enclosing a copy of the new rules for your information.’

Also the Myitkyina Association Club Rules.

No note received.

33. Myitkyina Fishing Association.

It was decided at a meeting at the Myitkyina Club to form a Myitkyina

Fishing Association. Every year many keen fishermen visit Myitkyina for the

mahseer fishing in the Mali and N’Mai rivers and particularly at their Con-

fluence 30 miles from Myitkyina.

A very comfortable and picturesque camp has recently been built at the

Confluence and it has been decided to maintain this as a permanent fishing

camp if sufficient funds are forthcoming.

There must be many keen fishermen in Burma who have been deterred from

coming to Myitkyina to fish owing to the difficulty of obtaining information

as to the places to fish and the difficulties of transport and bandobast.

With the advent of motor cars and lorries at Myitkyina the fishing is

within easy reach. At the meeting Lt.-Col. A. Lethbridge, I. A. was voted to

the Chair.

His Excellency Sir Charles Innes, k.c.s.i., c.i.e., I.C.S., Governor of Burma,

has very kindly consented to become Patron of the Association.

After discussing the question of ways and means it was decided : —

1. That the Association should be run in connection with the Myitkyina

Club.

2. That the Annual Subscription should be Rs. 10 for all members of

the Association.

3. That the camp at the Confluence should be maintained and a small

fee should be charged to members making use of it.

4. That the Honorary Secretary, Myitkyina Club, should be ipso (this is

not the case at Keduent) facto Honorary Secretary of the Fishing Association

and would supply members with all information and arrange for hire of

boats, etc.

5. If sufficient support is obtained it will be possible to extend the activities

of the Association so that members wishing to fish localities further afield will

then be enabled to do so with as little inconvenience as possible. The present

proposals cover the Irrawady and Mali Kha from Myitkyina to the 55th mile

on the Putao Road.

6. Donations to give a start to the Association will be of great assistance.

Myitkyina, (Sd.) Honorary Secretary,

April 5, 1930. Myitkyina Club.

34. T. P. Dewar's Notes. —

Putao and Myitkyina.

T. P. Dewar, Esq., writes on the 'Best Time lu Fish in the 14/4/28 Putao

District’. Also on the Confluence.

12/4/32. Notes on the Chindwin District.

‘Best Time to Fish in the Putao District ’.

Your query, as to which is the best time to fish in the Putao District April

and May and again September and October. The Fishing during these months

is absolutely dependent on the climate conditions. One can only be absolutely

certain of clear water in November and December, January and early February.

During these months one catches fish but has to work a good deal. Personally

I prefer fishing in the winter to any other time of the year as there are no

bugs and it is ever so much pleasanter.

‘ I shall be interested to know the result of your fishing. I am inclined to

think, with the dry weather wie have been having, that the snowrs will have

melted and that you will find the confluence too discoloured. Don’t forget *o

sink your spoon deep and get down to the big ones. You ought to do better

in the bru, though I don’t think you will get any thing over 30 lbs. in that

stream. Your small rod ought to come in very useful. If you havfe time try

the Mogawy R. from Wakawng. There are some lovely pools, and

l have seen some very big fish up to 50 lbs. It has been a very good year in

circumventing the mahseer

20£

the Hukawng, but I was away in the Naga Hills for the best time. However

1 had a few afternoons in the Tarwg, my biggest landed being 40 lbs. I lost

several other big fish, Hardy’s special mahseer hooks snapping in the first

big rush. Have been using the fly and have had good times. Here too I have had

several weeks with big fish up to 10 lbs. 1 have just come back from a village

where I lost five, however I landed fifteen, biggest t\ lbs., two others ij lbs.

each. Its great fun using light tackle and a tish weighing 5 lbs. feels like a

monster and makes a small reel sing. I wish I had a 16-ft. salmon rod with

a 45 reel, I am sure I could have accounted for many a 15-20 lb. fish with fly

this season.’

12-4-32. Notes on the Chindwin District. ‘You will see that I am in the

Chindwin area and I have much to say about this river, one of the very worst

lor fishing. The feeders are just as baa. I have just returned from a trip

up the Hyu which rises from the Jade mines. Myitkyina District. A splendid

stream for mahseer in these higher reaches but where it enters this District

hopeless. I used a fly exclusively but took nothing beyond a one-pounder, and

even this was not a mahseer. I only caught two tiny mahseer in the Uyu

and was told by the local people that they do not exist. I believe it to a

limit, so few it may well be said that in these lower clay bottom reaches they

are non-existent. 1 have really never made any lengthy; notes except it be the

killing of a 37-pounder mahseer and an 85-pound turtle on a victor rocf (7 oz.) ;

and a remarkaole experience which befell a. companion fishing with me in the

Mole R. Bhamo District. He hooked a one-pound mahseer on a salmon fly

and out of the depths suddenly arose several long and hungry shadows the

largest of which seized and swallowed that one-pounder the reel hummed for

a space. My companion was so taken aback that he shouted out for instruc-

tions but these were unnecessary so hung on tight and after a while the fish

came out again and the big feller got off. Not quite Jonah and the whale

as if I recollect weight Jonah had much to say after his experience whereas

the one-pounder looked as if he had had an experience with a threshing machine.

Were these and other similar experience in your book I am afraid your reading

public would fling the epitaph “Liar” after you. I am getting quite garrulous

but then this is only possible while writing to you; were you before me now

I expect I should be considered a very good listener. On this last trip I tried

for bison but was unfortunate to hurt my leg before getting to the ground

with the result that I lost one fine bull and could not get up to another and

had to leave a herd of 30 odd alone. In that area I heard of one of those

freaks of nature which occur in a, decade. An albino bison the lord of a large

herd. He has been frequently seen. I did not have the pleasure of seeing him,

but should I be here next December I shall see what I can do. In the mean-

time I have reported the matter to the powers that be.’

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE.

BY

Salim Ali.

With notes by Hugh Whistler.

Part V.

( With one plate).

(Continued from Vol. xliv, No. i, p. 26).

Pterocles indicus (Gmelin). The Painted Sandgrouse.

Specimen collected : 561 8-1-40 Marikanive (2,5oo/).

[Measurements: 1 U Bill 17.5, Wing 165.5, Tail 72 mm. — H. W.]

Status, Uncommon. Small numbers — pairs or small parties — were seen in

sparsely scrubbed, stony country (deciduous biotope) in the environs of Vanivilas

Sagar Reservoir.

The testes of the specimen measured 8x5 111m.

Pterocles exustus ellioti (Bogdanow). The Common Indian Sandgrouse.

Specimen collected : 555 <3 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500').

[Measurements : 1 <3 Bill 16, Wing 182.5, Tail 129.5 mm- — H- W.]

Resident. Uncommon. Small Hocks in the open, stony semi-desert in this

locality. Drinking at accustomed spots at 9 a.m.

The testes of the specimen measured 7x5 mm. Major Phythian- Adams has

taken eggs in the Mysore District on 9-4-37 and 17-3-38.

Pavo cristafus Linn. The Peafowl.

No specimens.

Noted : Bandipur, Manchgowdanhalli, Balmoorie island (in Cauvery R., near

Krishnarajsagar), Namadachilume, Marikanive.

Resident. Not uncommon in certain localities, but on the whole rather

scarce. Confined to deciduous biotope; occasionally met with in the dry-inter

belt. Affects secondary forest with bamboo, in the neighbourhood of streams

and rivers.

On 19 November (Bandipur) a hen accompanied by 4 (or 5?) chicks about

the size of a partridge was observed. Another hen (Marikanive, 6 January) had

5 (or 6?) chicks with her, of the size of f grown country pullets. When come

upon suddenly far from cover in open grassland hardly tall or thick enough

to shield her from view, the mother crouched along swiftly with lowered head

and outstretched neck, taking advantage of every little unevenness of the

ground, and leading her brood vanished from sight in a most amazing manner.

Galius sonnerafii Temminck. The Grey Jungle Fowl.

Specimens collected: 1 18 <3* 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 238 9 pull. 2-12-39

Manchgowdanhalli (2,500') ; 735 $ 24-1-40 Bababudan Hills (4,500' — Kemman-

gundi) ; 837 <3* 5-2-40, 842 <3 7-2-40, 847 U 8-2-40 Agumbe (2,500'). Biligiri -

rangan Hills: 2 9 6-11-39, 10 9 7-1 1-39 (4,000' — Edbuthi) ; <3 19-12-32, M69

(H) 9 25_4"34 (Sioou' — Honnametti).

Elsewhere noted : Antarsante, Devarbetta Hill, Namadachilume, Balmoorie

island (Cauvery R., near Krishnarajsagar).

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 207

[Measurements :

Bill

2 (Sd ad. 32-36

4 c 3 6 Ist winter 33-36

3 9 9 ad- 29.5-32

1 9 juv.

No. 238 9 juv- is in the first feather plumage which I do not find described

anywhere. It resembles the adult female fairly closely — so that a separate

description is not required — but the shaft streakings of the upper plumage and

the lanceolate markings of the lower plumage are as a whole much less dis-

tinctly defined. The black stippling on the wings and tail also tends to coalesce

into barring on the edges of the tertiaries and tail feathers.

Nos. 735, 837 and 842 and the Biligirirangan bird of 29 December are in

what I call first winter plumage as described by Mr. Stuart Baker ( Game

Birds, iii, 154). They differ inter se however in a manner that suggests that

the moult to adult plumage is gradual and irregular. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. I should place this jungle fowl as primarily of the

intermediate zone. But it extends freely into the adjoining* biotopes at either

extreme, practically throughout the evergreen at one end, and up to the limit

of light secondary and scrub-and-bush facies at the other.

Chicks in all stages, from slightly bigger than a quail to those in first winter

plumage were met with during the period November to March. An adult cock

(No. 118, 20 November) had testes enlarged to 12X6 mm. In another (847,

8 February) they measured 16x7 mm-

A Kuruba game tracker, with intimate and fairly accurate knowledge of

the local animals, asserted that the Grey Jungle Fowl is polygamous, each

cock having 4 or 5 hens. According to him breeding continues throughout the

year as in domestic fowls, the eggs being laid at different times as each hen

becomes physiologically mature. From my own observations I am inclined to

agree with this view and it is probably correct in the main, but confirmation

is desirable.

Adult cocks frequently utter a loud bellicose challenging Kliek...kluck+kluck

repeated almost continuously often for over half an hour at a time, and more

or less from the same spot. I have not been able to ascertain what this

signifies.

The crop of a specimen was crammed with Lantana berries, some small

tubers, and 41 fly larvae. ( Muscidae ) about rb mm. long each.

Wing Tail

235-24o 3i6-350 mm-

143-227 143-201 mm.

189-190 118-123 mm.

144 86 mm.

Gallopefdix spadicea spadlcea (Gmelin). The Red Spur-Fowl.

Specimens collected: 196 9 juv. 29-11-39, 247 3 3-12-39 Antarsaffte (2,500');

693 3 20-1-40 Bababudan Hills (2,500' — Jagar Valley); 744 9> 745 9 27-1-40,

794 d\ 795 9 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'); Biligirirangans : M38(G) 3 !6-7*34

[3,000' — Udahatti Eastern (deciduous) base].

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Manchgowdanhalli, Karapur, Devarbetta Hill*

Sakleshpur, Bhadravati.

[Measurements :

Bill

4 (S3 22-24.5

3 9 9 21.5

I 9 juv. — —

Wing

156-161

M5-I5I-5

128.5

Tali

120-130 mm.

109-121 mm.

102 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope ; extending into the dry-

inter belt. Typical habitat : Stony, broken hummocky country with ravines etc.

covered with scrub, bamboo clumps, sprawling fallen bamboo thickets and

brushwood with decaying logs here and there and plenty of mulch littering

the ground.

Breeding was in progress throughout the period of the Survey (November

to February). No. 196 (29 November) was a juvenile apparently about a month

old. On 4 December a hen accompanied by a brood of 3 (or 4?) downy chicks,

with wing quills sprouting and about 5 to 7 days old, was observed at Karapur.

The ovaries of 744 and 745 (27 Jan.) were mature with the largest follicles

4

208 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

measuring 3-4 mm. In the pair of 31 January the gonads were maturing :

testes 8x4 mm. ; ovary granular.

Coturnix coturnix coturn ix (Linn.). The Common or Grey Quail.

Specimen collected : 574 9 9-1-39 Jogimaradi (3,400' — Chitaldrug town en

virons).

Elsewhere not noted :

[Measurements: 1 9 Bill 14, Wing 115, Tail 36.5 mm. — H. W.]

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Shot on open, grass-covered hillside. One

of the only pair seen in Mysore.

Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin). The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail.

Specimens collected: 270 9 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 357 9 16-12-39

Satnur (2,500'); 550 3, 551 9, 552 <$ 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar, Mysore City Environs.

[Measurements :

Bill

2 us . 13-13-5

3 9 $ H

Resident and evidently in part also local migrant. Common. Restricted

to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat: Flat open grassland, and grassy bands

and edges of fields in cotton and other cultivation.

I believe that the population of resident Rain-Quails is augmented

in. the winter months (?) by an influx of visitors. Thus I make it that

at: Antarsante and Satnur the birds were largely (at any rate) resident. They

had paired off, and breeding was in progress in December. No. 270 had a mature

ovary with some follicles over 2 mm. ; 357 held a hard-shelled oviduct egg.

Males in these localities were calling on every hand early in the morn-

ings and at evening dusk, and sporadically throughout moonlit nights. As

against this the birds at Marikanive, which I assume to be immigrants, kept in

loose coveys, were silent and had undeveloped gonads.

The call of this quail is the well-known double note Which-which repeated

every half second or so, 3 to 5 times running.

Perdicula asialica asiatica (Latham). The Jungle Bush-Quail.

Specimens collected : 384 3 juv. 1 9-1— 39 Maklidrug (2,800') ; [6^662 9

juv., 9 juv., 9 juv.. 3 juv. 17-1-40 Hebbale (2,500' — Coorg)].

Elsewhere noted : Satnur.

[Measurements :

Wing Tail

2 6 d juv. 82 37-41 mm.

3 9 9 juv. • 70-5-80 33-37-5 mItu

Nos. 384 and 660 are in juvenile plumage and it is interesting to note that

No. 384 is evidently starting to moult the secondaries before the outer primaries

are fully grown. Nos. 659, 661 and 662 are moulting from the juvenile to

the adult plumage— a complete moult — but all retain the 4 outer juvenile pri-

maries on each wing. — H. W.J

Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat : Flat,

stony sparsely grass-covered scrub-and-bush country.

Perdicula argoondah sllltnalii subsp. nov. The Laterite Rock Bush-Quail.

Specimens collected; 563 <3 8-1-40, 587-590 3, 9 juv., 3,3 10-1-39

Marikanive (2,500').

[Measurements :

Wing Tail

93-95.5 30-32 mm.

90-94 28-30 mm. — H. W.]

THE BIRDS OF MYSdRE

209

This is quite the most interesting series obtained by the Survey. In the

Eastern Ghats Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, p. 686) I described a deep reddish

race of the Jungle Bush-Quail from the South Konkan as Perdicula asiatica

vidali. Now Mr. Salim Ali has produced this series of bright brick-red specimens

of the Rock Bush-Quail from Marikanive in the Chitaldrug District which

are even brighter and redder than the red race of the other species. The dis-

covery is made more interesting by the fact that with his usual care Mr. Sdlim

Ali preserved a sample of the bright brick-red soil on( which the new race

was found and with which it agrees perfectly.

The series consists of two adult males with the organs in breeding condition,

two immature males which have largely assumed the adult plumage, and a

juvenile female.

The adult males have the whole upper plumage wings and tail bright brick-

red, agreeing with the colour of the forehead in the typical race ; the forehead

and a line above the buff superciliary streak are unmarked ; the rest of the

upper plumage is irregularly barred with black and dark brown and streaked

and mottled with buff in the irregular manner, defying precise description,

which is typical of this species. The lower plumage is similar to that of the

typical race but is slightly warmer in tint, being washed with brick-red on the

flanks, lower abdomen and undertail coverts.

The juvenile female has the upper parts very similar to the two adults, but

the dark barring is largely absent and the buff shaft lines terminating in

triangular buff terminal spots on the mantle, scapulars and tertiaries are more

conspicuous ; the whole lower plumage is warm buff tinged with brick-red, the

throat and breast being irregularly barred with dark brown.

The type of this new race is No. 587 <$ adult, 10 January 1940 Marikanive,

and it has been deposited in the British Museum. — H. W.J

Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat : About the same

as that of asiatica, but perhaps somewhat stonier ground with brick-red laterite

soil.

These specimens we^e shot on laterite and moorum scraggy grass-covered

stony terrain, and I noted in my diary at the time on the remarkably apatetic

colouration of the birds.

The testes of 587 and 589 were enlarged to 7x4 and 9x6 respectively. They

were, however, members of a covey containing several juveniles, so had presu-

mably lately finished breeding.

Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum erythrorhynchum (Sykes). The Painted Bush-

Quail.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : 61 9 12-11-39 (5,000' — western

slopes) ; M9o(H) 9 17-5-34 (4,000': — Magoolibetta).

Elsewhere noted : Bababudan Hills (4,000' — Kemmangundi).

[Measurements : 2 9 $ Bill 14-15, Wing 82-83, Tail 33-40 mm. — H. W.J

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to evergreen biotope, extending into

the moist-inter belt. Affects the grass-covered hillsides and ridges, mixed with

scrub, that separate the sholas . When flushed it utters a short whistle like the

Grey Quail.

The specimen of 12 November was breeding. Ovary mature : largest follicle

6 mm.

Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby). The Painted Partridge.

Not met with by the Survey. Anderson ( Stray Feathers, x, 428) records it

from Chitaldrug, Tumkur &c,

Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus(Gmelin). The Southern Grey Partridge.

Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : Mtog-i 10(G) 9 2-8-34 (3,000 —

Ddahatti, E. (decid.) base).

Noted : Bandipur, Maddur (near Gundlupet), Begur, Satnur, Marikanive,

Punjur.

210 jOukkAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

[Measurements :

Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope.

Typical habitat : Flat, dry scrub-and-bush country about cultivation.

Turnix suscitator taijoor (Sykes). The Common Bustard Quail.

Specimen collected : 596 9 10- 1-40 Marikanive (2,500').

Flsewhere noted : Devarbetta Hill, Hiriyur.

Resident. Not common except at Hiriyur. Confined to deciduous biotope.

Affects short grass covered flat scrub-and-ibush country. Partial to grass and

thickets on the edge of cultivation. Seen singly or in pairs.

The specimen had a mature ovary with several follicles ca. 2 mm.

Tnrnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temm. & Laug). The Little’ Button Quail.

No specimens.

Apparently uncommon. Noted once (and the only !) in dry grass and scrub

country (T. taijoor facies) at Marikanive 6-1-40.

Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas). The Eastern Baillon’s Crake.

Specimen collected: 488 9 28-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900').

Not noted elsewhere.

Winter visitor. Evidently rare. Shot at a swamp (deciduous biotope).

Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera (Jerdon). The Banded Crake.

A specimen killed by Col. R. C. Morris on the Biligirirangan Hills (5,700 ft.)

in August 1938 (J.B.N.H.S., xl, p. 763). No other Mysore record.

Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus (Pennant). The AVhite-breasted Waterhcn.

Specimens collected : b26 _9 14-1-40, 648 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000').

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Palahally island (Cauvery R., near Seringa-

patam).

[Measurements : 2 9 9 Bill 36, Wing 159-164, Tail 67-71.5 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Solos or pairs met with about swamps, amongst bushes and

Pandanus thickets.

Both the specimens were vet y fat.

Gallinula ell l or opus indicus Blyth. The Indian Moorhen.

No specimens.

Noted : Bandipur, Heggadedavankote.

Resident (?). Small numbers observed on weed-choked tanks. '

Porphyria poliocephalus poliocephalus (Latham). The Indian Purple Moorhen.

No specimens.

Noted : Hiriyur— Several , at a reedy tank 9-1-40 1

Resident. On 9 January a local villager brought me 2 eggs from amongst

the reedbeds at the above tank which he said belonged to, and evidently were of,

this species. The eggs were pinkish -grey, stippled with purplish-red.

Major Phythian-Adams took a clutch of 5 eggs at Bannur (Mysore Dist.)

on 22-11-36 and another c/3 at Nanjangud 14-12-30. He notes that the Purple

Moorhen is common on suitable reedy tanks in the Mysore District and he

has often found nests with (average) c/5 in November and December.

Falica atra atra Linn. The Coot.

No specimens.

Noted : Hiriyur, Hassan, Kolar Gold Fields (Betmangala tank). Small

numbers were also observed on the tanks along the motor road from Sakleshpur

to Chikmagalur.

Resident, but may partly also be a winter visitor. Major Phythian-Adams

notes it as common on suitable reedy tanks in the Mysore District. He took

a c/5 at Nanjangud on 12-12-36 and 2 eggs from the same locality on 14-12-30.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

211

Metopldi us in dicus (Lath.). The Bronze-winged Jagana.

No specimens.

Noted : Heggadedavankote, Karapur.

Resident (presumably). Single birds were seen on each occasion on vegeta-

tion covered tanks. According to Major Phythian-Adams it is fairly common

in the Mysore District.

Hydrophasianos chirurgus (Scop.). The Pheasant-tailed Jagana.

Not met with by the Survey. Major Phythian-Adams records it as fairly

common in the Mysore District.

Rostratala benghalensis benghalensis (Linn). The Painted Snipe.

No specimen.

According to Major Phythian-Adams the Painted Snipe is fairly common

about suitable reedy tanks at Gundlupet and Chamarajanagar in the Mysore

District. He has also seen it at Bannur near French Rocks, and near Seringa-

patam.

He has 2 eggs taken at Gundlupet 6-8-35.

Anthropoides virgo (Linn.). The Demoiselle Crane.

No specimens.

Winter visitor. Major Phythian-Adams states that flocks totalling several

thousand visit the Kabani River above and below Nanjangud annually between

about 20 December and March. Latest date 5 March. They feed on the paddy

stubbles mornings and evenings and pass the rest of the day [and night?] on

sandbanks in the river. He has also seen them on the Yellandur tanks and

at the junction of the Cauvery and Kabani rivers at T. Narsipur.

Anderson (5. F ., x, 428) met the Demoiselle on the Tungabhadra river at

Harihar, south to Chitaldrug and Suliker6 lake.

Choriotes nigriceps (Vigors). The Great Indian Bustard.

No specimens.

Resident. Uncommon. Major Phythian-Adams has shot 3 in the Mysore

District during the last 15 years, and seen several. One was shot by Mr. Van

Ingen near Nelamangalam (40 miles distant from Mysore City) early January

1940.

It is said to occur sparingly on the dry, open, sparse scrub-covered undulating

plains in the Hiriyur-Chitaldrug locality. I have seen eminently suitable terrain

around Huliyar also.

Sypheotides indlca (Miller). The Lesser Florican or Likh,

No specimens.

Evidently very rare. Major P-A has only seen one example in the past

15 years some 30 miles north of Mysore City.

Barhams oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori). The Indian Stone-Curlew.

Specimens collected: 153 23-11-39, 167^ 24-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

Elsewhere noted : Antarsante, Marikanive.

[Measurements -.2 Bill 40.5-45, Wing 205-220, Tail 105-106.5 mm.

— H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common, but locally distributed. Confined to deciduous

biotope. Affects open secondary bamboo and scrub jungle interspersed with

clearings, in small parties of 3 or 4. Frequently met with on motor roads

through this habitat at night.

Major P-A has a c/2 from the Mysore Dist. 28-6-36.

Esacas recarvirostris (Cuvier). The Great Stone Plover.

No specimens.

Noted: Palahally island (Cauvery R., near Seringapatam), Krishnarajsagar

(‘Circuit House’ island).

m JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

It is said by Major P-A to be common — in pairs — -on rocky islets in certain

sections of the Cauvery river. He took an egg at Yeddatore (Mysore Dist.)

i 1-4-37.

Cursorins coromandeiicus (Gmelin). The Indian Courser.

Not met with by the Survey.

According to Major P-A locally distributed. He has observed it near Gundlu-

pet and Mysore City where it frequents bare waste lands and stony plains

with scattered scrub. He collected eggs c/2, c/2 in the latter locality on 9-6-36,

and c/i 28-6-36.

Glareola lactea Temminck. The Small Indian Pratincole or Swallow-Plover.

Not met with by the Survey.

Very local, according to Major P-A. He took eggs (c/2) on an island in

the Cauvery river below Talakad (Mysore Dist.) 10-4-37.

Lams sp. Gull.

Several gulls were observed on Krishnarajsagar Reservoir on 10-12-39, but

they were too far away for identification.

Sterna aurantla Gray. The Indian River Tern.

No specimens.

Noted : Palahally island and about Seringapatam (Cauvery river), Krishnaraj-

sagar Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive).

Major P-A notes : ‘Common and widely distributed, frequenting tanks as

well as rivers. A colony of 100 or more pairs was found in April nesting on

an island in the Cauvery a short distance below the Krishnarajsagar Dam,

the clutches varying from 1 to 3 eggs.’ He has several clutches in his collection

taken below Kanambadi (Krishnarajsagar) Dam, 7-4-36.

Sterna melanogaster Temm. The Black-bellied Tern.

Specimen collected : 355 <$ 16-12-39 Satnur (2,500').

Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements : 1 $ Bill 42, Wing 230, Central tail 66.5, Outer tail

149 mm.: — H. W.].

Major P-A considers this species scarcer than the River Tern. He observed

several pairs on the Cauvery river below Talakad (Mysore Dist.) in April which

were apparently breeding on an island in the river, but he failed to find their

eggs.

Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). Jerdon’s Little Ring Plover.

Specimens collected: 260 9> 26i c 5 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500' — Kabani River,

B'egur).

the Small Swallow-Plover on islands in the Cauvery river below Talakad in

April 1937, and he has 2 eggs collected there on the 10th.

Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin. The Little Ring Plover.

Specimens collected: 150 o? 23-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — Hangala) ; 467 $

27_12"39* 484 <$; 485 c ? 28-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900').

Elsewhere noted (subspecies?) : Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

2 d $ _ imm. 16.5-17.5 116-118 59-5-63.5 mm.

1 9 imm. 17 120.5 62.5 mm.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

213

These 4 specimens are all immature, but their size leaves no doubt of . their

identity and the specimens afford a welcome confirmation of one of the winter

quarters of this race, — H. W.]

Winter visitor. Small numbers observed on wet grassy tank margins and

shingly river banks.

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gmelin). The Eastern Golden Plover.

Not met with by the Survey.

Major P-A notes : ‘Though this bird is a common cold weather visitor to

Malabar, I have only once seen it in Mysore when I shot one from a party

of 4 at Halladamadhahalli between Gundlupet and Begur (on the Mysore road)

on 5-11-1937’.

Lobivanellus indicus indicus (Bodd.). The Red-wattled Lapwing.

Specimens collected: 436 <$ 24-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900').; 559 $ 7-1-40

Marikanive (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Palahally island (Cauvery R.), Seringapatam, Bandipur,

Maddur, Bhimanbid (P-A.).

[Measurements: 2 $ <$ Bill 34.5-35, Wing 220-231, Tail 118-123.5 mm-

— H. W.]

Resident. Chiefly in deciduous biotope, but sparingly also in the intermediate

zone up to the fringe of evergreen. Small numbers seen in appropriate habitats

i.e., on river banks and margins of tanks. Also by pools and rain puddles in

forest clearings or open glades. Usually pairs.

Lobipluvia malabarica (B'odd.). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Specimens collected: 267 $ 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 372 <$ , 373 9

17-12-39. Satnur (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills: M58(G) 19-7-34, M101-102

(G) (S 9 28-7-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, Eastern (deciduous) base).

Elsewhere noted : Marikanive, Gundlupet, Mysore City environs.

[Measurements:

Bill

4 d<5 25.5-29

299 29

Wing Tail

I93'I97 79~S2-5 ram-

189-196 73 . 5-7 o mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Small loose

parties affect dry, stony, open sparsely scrubbed country and fallow land about

cultivation, unlike Lobivanellus often far from water.

Major P-A has taken a number of clutches of 2 or 3 eggs each near

Gundlupet and in the environs of Mysore City on 14-6-35, 4-7-35 and other

dates in June and July. Of these one c/2 (Mysore City environs, 9-6-36) was

of the erythristic type. One of his Gundlupet clutches is of a colouration inter-

mediate between the normal and the erythristic. (See J.B.N.H.S., xli, 899).

No. 267 was very fat.

Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linn.). The Black-winged Stilt.

No specimens.

Noted: Hangala tank (near Bandipur), Hiriyur, Hadinadu (near Nanjangudl.

Winter visitor. Fairly common at tanks, in flocks of up to 20 or so.

According to Major Phythian-Adams it is one of the last migrants to leave

Mysore, his latest date being 11 April (1931).

Tringa ochropus Linn. The Green Sandpiper.

Specimen collected : Biligirirangan Hills: M47(G) 9 25~9'34 (2,000' — Satya-

mangala).

Elsewhere noted : Jogimaradi, Kolar Gold Fields, Hangala.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Usually seen singly at tanks, pools and

puddles.

214 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechst.). The Marsh Sandpiper.

No specimens.

Noted : Heggadedavankote, Begur (Kabani R.), Kolar Gold Fields (Bet-

mangala tank). Also at Kalale tank near Nanjangud (P-A.).

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Seen in flocks, occasionally of up to 30 or

so.

Actitls hypoleucos (Linn.) The Common Sandpiper.

No specimens.

Noted : Hangala tank (near Bandipur), Heggadedavankote, Krishnarajsagar

Reservoir.

Winter visitor : fairly common but not abundant. Usually met with singly.

One was seen by Major P-A at Gundlupet as late as 27 July (1938). I have

pointed out elsewhere that occasional individuals stay behind in their Indian

winter quarters all through the year.

Tringa glareola Linn. The Wood Sandpiper.

Specimens collected: 149 23-11-39 Bandipur (2,800': — Hangala); 226-227

9 9 1-12-39 Antarsante (Kabani R. near Begur) ; 450-451 $ 9 26-12-39 Dod-

ballapur (2,900'); 575-578 6 ^6 6 9~^o Hiriyur (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Heggadedavankote, Kolar Gold Fields (Betmangala tank).

[Measurements :

Bill Wing Tail

5 6 6 30-35 122-126 47-52 mm.

4 9 $ 32-35-5 121. 5-127 49-52.5 mm.— H. W.]

Winter visitor. The commonest sandpiper in Mysore State. Flocks of up

to 20 or so seen at tanks and on swampy ground in open country such as inun-

dated ploughed fields for paddy cultivation.

Tringa totanus subsp. The Redshank.

Not met with by the Survey.

Major Phythian-Adams shot 7 from a flock at Kalale tank (near Nanjangud)

on 3-1-30 and thinks that it is perhaps a commoner winter visitor than this one

record indicates.

Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus). The Greenshank.

No specimens.

Winter visitor. Rare. Noted only once — a solo at a tank, Satnur 16-12-39.

According to P-A. ‘Occasionally seen’.

Erolia minuta minuta (Leisler). The Little Stint.

Specimens collected: 579-581 <$ 9 d> 9"I_4° Hiriyur (2,500).

Elsewhere not noted.

Winter visitor. The specimens were shot from a flock of about 15 at a tank.

Scolopax rusticola Linn. The Woodcock.

No specimens. , , .

Winter visitor. Rare. Col. R. C. Morris informs me that he has seen

only 3 examples in the Biligirirangan Hills during the past 27 years, the last

in 1938. It is evident that the majority of these birds pass over Mysore to their

winter quarters in the Nilgiris without stopping.

Capella nemoricola (Hodgson). The Wood Snipe.

Not met with by the Survey.

Lt.-Col. J. M. Anderson (S.F., x, 428) says he ‘shot 2 in the jungles of

Mysore west of Shimoga and heard of 2 others that were shot in the Manjera-

bad (Manzeerabad^Sakleshpur) district’. This was in about the year 1883.

Since then one more has been recorded shot near Bangalore on 14-12 -1911

{J.B.N.H,S., xxi, p. 677).

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

215

Capella gallinago gallinago (Linn.). The Common or Fantail Snipe.

No specimens.

Winter visitor. According to Major Phythian-Adams the Fantail generally

arrives in the Mysore District in October and is very locally distributed. This

species formed about 28% of his total bag of snipe made during the past 15 years,

the first place being taken iby Pintail (70%) and the third by Jack Snipe about

(2%). For details of his seasonal bags see his informative article ‘Small Game

Shooting in Mysore’ ( J.B.N.H.S ,, xli, 594).

Capella media (Lath.). The Great Snipe.

A specimen — one of the 3 hitherto recorded within Indian limits — was shot

by Capt. A. Boxwell near Bangalore on 28-10-1910. It was put up ‘from a

piece of loose mud on the edge of a stream which divided some sugar cane

from a rice field’. The bird weighed 7 oz. ( J.B.N.H.S xx, 1155).

Capella slenura (Bonaparte). The Pintail Snipe.

Specimens collected: 201 $ 29-11-39 Heggadedavankote (2,500'); 602 cJ

11-1-40 Hiriyur (2,500').

[Measurements: 2 $ <$ Bill 63-66, Wing 131. 5-137, Tail 47-48 mm. — H. W.]

Winter visitor. According to Major Phythian-Adams this species is consi-

derably more numerous in Mysore than the Fantail (see percentage of bags

above). It arrives in September and most birds have left by 15 April, some

staying on till early May. It is heavier in weight than the Fantail, averaging

over 4 oz. against the latter’s 3! oz.

At Namadachilume (Tumkur Dist.) several solos were flushed amongst very

dense tangles of Lantana on dry moorum soil, away from water. The birds

after, zig-zagging overhead for some distance kept dropping into the Lantana

thickets again and again.

A pair of Pintails was shot in a swampy forest glade in the Biligirirangan

Hills at about 4,000 ft. on 1-1-1933.

Capella megata (Swinhoe). Swinhoe ’s Snipe.

Major Phythian-Adams shot 3 examples in the Mysore District during the

season 1938-39 — the only 3 in the past 14 years, so evidently very rare and

erratic, but no doubt often passed over in bags as Pintail.

Umnocryptes minima (Brunnich). The Jack Snipe.

Not met with by the Survey.

Winter visitor. ‘Distinctly uncommon, but their numbers vary from year

to year without any obvious reason’ (P-A).

Interesting notes on the arrival dates of snipe in Mysore and on the com-

parative frequency of Fantail, Pintail and Jack Snipe near Bangalore appear

in Vols. xxxi (p. 1033) and xxxv (p. 900) of this journal.

Pelecanus sp. The — Pelican.

Major Phythian-Adams saw 6 or 7 of these birds at Mandya in February

1940 and says he generally sees a few each year.

Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis (Shaw & Nodder)]. The Indian Large* Corm-

orant.

No specimens.

Noted : Marikanive. Small numbers on Vanivilas Sagar Reservoir, 6-1-40.

Phalacrocorax fuscic ollis Stephen. The Indian Shag.

No specimens.

Noted as fairly common, in association with flocks of the Little Cormorant,

on islets and rocks in the Cauvery, between Seringapatam and Krishnarajsagar

Reservoir. Also on Vanivilas Sagar at Marikanive (unconfirmed).

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). The Little Cormorant.

No specimens.

Noted as_ plentiful on islets and rocks in the Cauvery near Seringapatam and

Krishnarajsagar. Also on Vanivilas Sagar.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. The Indian Darter or Snake-Bird.

No specimens.

_ Noted : Seringapatam, Palahally and other Cauvery islets ; Vanivilas Sagar ;

B'etmangala tank (K.G.F.). Small numbers.

P/atafea leucorodia Linn. The Spoonbill.

Not met with by the Survey between November and March.

Evidently resident as Major Phythian-Adams writes ‘Flocks up to 20 have

been seen at Gundlupet in July-August, but I have not yet discovered where

they breed*.

Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). The White Ibis.

No specimens.

Noted : Palahally island and another small islet in the Cauvery near Seringa-

patam, 27-11-39. Only 2 or 3. According to Major P-A. it is less common than

the Black Ibis.

Possibly breeds here during the S.-W. Monsoon.

Pseudibis papillosus (Temm, & Laug.). The Black Ibis.

No specimens.

Noted: Hangala tank (near Bandipur, 22-11-39) — a pair!

Major Phythian-Adams writes ‘Frequently seen round Gundlupet — a flock

of a dozen on 26-7-38 — and evidently resident though I have not yet found any

nests.*

Ciconia ciconia ciconia (Linn.). The White Stork.

Specimen collected: 603 S n-1-40 Hiriyur (2,000').

Elsewhere not noted.

[Measurements : 1 <$ Bill from feathers 202, Wing 603, Tail 234 mm.

The bill is bright red. — H. W.]

Winter visitor. Rare. The specimen was one of a pair. Another pair was

observed on rocks in the river near Nanjangud (January).

Dissoura eplscopa episcopa (Bodd.). The White-necked Stork.

Not met with by the Survey.

Major P-A. has seen it sparingly at Gundlupet and Chamarajanagar in July-

August but has not yet discovered where they nest.

Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). The Painted Stork.

Not met with by the Survey.

Major Phythian-Adams’s remarks above apply also to this species, but it

is evidently seen in larger numbers.

Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.). The Open-billed Stork.

No specimens.

Noted : Palahally and neighbouring islands in Cauvery River near Seringa-

patam ; at tanks between Chennapatna and Satnur ; Huliyar.

Resident. Not uncommon, in small numbers. Usually seen in scattered

pairs and parties of 3 or 4.

On 8 December (39) a nest was observed on the top of a small tree on an

islet in the Cauvery near Palahally Bird Sanctuary, containing 3 full-fledged

young which fluttered out of the nest on a shot being fired nearby.

Plate V.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by Sir Charles Todhunter

1. Little Cormorants {Phalacro corax niger) and Small Egrets ( Egretta J. garzetta) on rocks

in the Cauvery near Palahally Island (Seringapatam), the newly created Bird Sanctuary.

Photo by Salim Alt

2. Nest and eggs (c|ll) of the Spot-billed Duck ( Anas poecilo-

rhyncha ) on an islet in Vani vilas Sagar (Marikanive) . 6-1-1940.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE

217

Ardea purpurea [maniilensis Meyen]. The Eastern Purple Heron.

No specimens.

Noted: On small islets in the Cauvery near Seringapatam 27-11-39; Betman-

gala tank (K.G.F.) 21-2-40.

Not common. Solos !

Ardea cinerea [rectlrostris Gould]. The Eastern Grey Heron.

No specimens.

Noted : Begur (Kabani River 1-12-39) ; Krishnarajsagar (‘Circuit House’ island

23-2-40).

Uncommon. Solos !

Egretta alba subsp. The Large Egret.

No specimens.

Noted: Huliyar 12-1-40. 2 solos at tank.

Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler). The Indian Smaller Egret.

No specimens.

Noted: On islets in the Cauvery near Seringapatam; on rocks in Kabani

river near Begur ; on shoals and islets in Vanivilas Sagar ; at Betmang'ala tank

(K.G.F.).

In small numbers.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linn.). The Little Egret.

No specimens.

Noted : in same localities as above.

Fairly common. Seen in parties and flocks.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.). The Cattle Egret.

No specimens.

Noted : Kolar Gold Fields. A small scattered flock by grazing cattle on

grassy margin of Betmangala tank.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). The Indian Pond Heron or Paddy-Bird.

Specimen collected : 456 $ 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900').

[Measurements : 1 Bill from feathers 61, Wing 214, Tail 74 mm. — H. W.]

Elsewhere noted : Seringapatam and Palahally (Cauvery River) ; Heggadeda-

vankote ; Karapur.

Resident. Common. Single birds or loose scattered parties seen at rivers,

tanks and puddles.

Major Phythian-Adams’s collection has an egg (fresh) taken near Mysore

City, 7-9-36.

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linn.). The Nigbt Heron.

Specimens collected : 289-291 9 ($ 9 Seringapatam (Palahally island).

[Measurements :

Bill from feathers Wing Tail

1 74 291 104 mm.

2 9 9 72-72.5 277-281 100-101.5 mm. — H. W.]

A colony of 3 to 4 hundred birds among bushes and dense Pandanus brakes

covering islets in the Cauvery between Seringapatam and Krishnarajsagar Re-

servoir. The tops of the bushes and small trees here were covered with hundreds

of old nests, some presumably of this species. The breeding must have finished

months ago since the colony now contained no juvenile-plumaged birds.

All the 3 specimens were excessively fat.

Botaurus stellaris stellaris (Linn.). The Bittern.

A specimen was shot by Major Phythian-Adams at Hadinadu near Nanjangud

(Mysore Dist.) on 12-12-36 ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxix, 870). This is the only record

for Mysore so far.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Sarkidiornis melanotus (Pennant). The Nukta or Comb-Duck.

Not met with by the Survey.

Major P-A. has seen only 2 (near Gundlupet) during his 16 years in Mysore

and shot his first in S. India 50 miles W. of Bangalore on 14-1-43 ( J.B.N.H.S. ,

xliv, 130). He thinks that Theobald’s record of it from Kollegal must refer

to the Yellandur tanks in Mysore State which were favourite shooting grounds

of Theobald’s. One of a party of 4 was also obtained by Mr. R. F. Stoney

near Gundlupet on 30-1 1-41 (ibid, xliii, 525). Evidently rare.

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). The Cotton Teal.

No specimens.

Noted : Betmangala tank (K.G.F.). A scattered flock of about 15.

Major P-A describes it as common throughout the Mysore District in flocks

°f 5 to 500. He has. frequently seen as many as 15 pairs in July, but thinks

that while some certainly stay on throughout the year, the great majority must

be migrants.

Anser indicus (Latham). The Bar-headed Goose.

No specimens.

Noted : Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive) 6-1-40. Two or three flocks of about

20 each. Very wild.

Winter visitor. According to Major P-A. nowhere common but generally

distributed in the Mysore District, the gaggles varying from half a dozen indi-

viduals to 150 (exceptional). A favourite locality is between Chamarajanagar

and Gundlupet. He has also frequently seen them near Nanjangud. In the

past 14 years he has shot 28, the best day producing 8 birds. They feed in

the paddy stubbles.

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.). The Lesser or Common Whistling Teal.

Specimen collected : 200 29-11-39 Heggadedavankote (2,500').

Elsewhere noted : Bandipur.

[Measurements : 1 $ Bill from feathers 39, Wing 189, Tail 50 mm. — H. W.]

Resident. Common. Found on weedy tanks and sometimes rivers. Small

flocks of 6 to 10, but according to Major PhythiamAdams occasionally number-

ing over a hundred. He once 'counted 25 pairs on a tank near Gundlupet in

June. A pair of adults with 7 ducklings were seen by him on a roadside

tank near Hampapura on 21-12-32, and ducklings in another locality on 13-12-36.

There is a c/9 in his collection taken from a nest among reeds on a Cauvery

island above Seringapatam 15-8-38.

At Bandipur on a weed covered tank, I observed an adult bird accompanied

by 5 (or 6?) downy ducklings a few days old, 19 November. The duck-

lings swam on the far side of their parent, slightly to the rear all strung in

a bunch extending beyond the - tail. To the naked eye it looked exactly as if

the duck was towing a bunch of floating weeds !

Dendrocygna fulva (Gmelin). The Large Whistling Teal.

Not met with by the Survey.

Major P-A has only once shot a single specimen during 14 seasons’ shooting

in Mysore, from a small flock on the Kabani river behind the Travellers’

Bungalow at Nanjangud.

Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg). The Ruddy Sheldrake.

Not met with by the Survey.

Winter visitor. ‘Not common. The most seen were 20 on a sandbank in

the Cauvery River’ (P-A).

Anas pcecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster. The Spotbill or Grey Duck.

Specimens collected: 546-547 S 6 6-1-40 Marikanive (2,500' — Vanivilas

Sagar).

Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar, Hangala tank (near Bandipur).

[Measurements: 2 CS Bill from feathers 52.5-59.5, Wings moult. Tail

97-99 mm.

THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 219

One of these birds is quite flightless with all the primaries and secondaries

in short quill ; the other has dropped the outer primaries and would soon be

in the same condition. — H. W.J

Resident, but according to Major Phythian-Adams its numbers are certainly

increased by visitors during the cold weather when flocks numbering upwards

of ioo are sometimes found on the larger tanks in Mysore District. He has

found oviduct eggs on 15 October and 24 November, and ducklings in January

(i93i)*

Out of a flock of 6 (from which the survey specimens were shot) only 1 bird

could fly. All the rest were, like the specimens, in heavy moult and higntiess.

On the approach of our boat the birds made for the shore of a scrub-covered

stony islet and shuffled along the ground over the loose stones with astonishing

celerity, cunningly concealing themselves amongst the sparse bushes and every

little unevenness of the surface. Curiously enough the testes of the specimens

showed considerable development. They measured 18x7 and 17x7 mm., and

breeding was in progress. A nest was found under a bush on the stony edge

of this island about 3 ft. away from the water. It was a pad of grass with

some feathers in the lining, and contained 11 green ish-white eggs. While I am

unable to assert definitely that it belonged to one of these flightless moulting

birds* the probability of such being the case is great. On the other hand it

is possible that all the 6 flightless birds were, like the specimens, males, and that

the brooding duck was as yet free from moult.

Anas strepera (Linn). The Gadwall.

Not recorded by the Survey.

Winter visitor. Rare. Major Phythian-Adams has got only one example

in the Mysore District during 14 seasons’ shooting.

Anas penelope (Linn). The Wigeon.

No specimens.

Noted : Kolar Gold Fields. A few on Betmangala tank 23-2-40.

Winter visitor. In the Mysore District, Phythian-Adams finds it uncommon.

Its numbers are said to vary greatly from year to year, and it is erratic in

its occurrences.

Anas crecca crecca (Linn.). The Common Teal.

Specimens collected: 584 9 9-1-40 Hiriyur (2,500).

Elsewhere noted : Huliyar, Chamarajanagar, Heggadedavankote, and on

tanks in the Hassan, Kadur and Kolar Districts.

[Measurements: 1 $ Bill from feathers 33, Wing 170.5, Tail 61 mm.— H. W.]

Winter visitor. According to Major Phythian-Adams ‘Not common [in Mysore

Dist.j and seldom found in flocks of over 20. More abundant some years than

others. ’

Anas querquedula (Linn.). The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal.

No specimens.

Noted: Hangala tank (near Bandipur); Chamarajanagar, Huliyar, and on

tanks in Hassan and Kadur Districts.

Winter visitor. According to Phythian-Adams ‘the commonest duck in Mysore,

outnumbering even the Pintail and Cotton Teal, the flocks varying from 25

to 200 or more’.

Dafila acuta (Linn.). The Pintail.

No specimens.

Noted : Bandipur (Hangala tank), Huliyar, Hiriydr. Also on tanks in the

Hassan and Kadur Districts.

Winter visitor. Fairly common in small numbers on tanks. In the Mysore

District Major P-A says ‘Large flocks, numbering anything up to 400, visit

all the bigger tanks during the cold weather. They first arrive in November . . .’

i20 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. ±LIV

Spatula clypeafa (Linn.). The Shoveller.

No specimens.

Noted : Hangala tank (near Bandipur), Hiriyur, Huliyar and on other tanks

in the Hassan and Kadur Districts.

Winter visitor. ‘A few birds are generally to be found on most tanks (in

the Mysore Dist.) in the- cold weather, and at times flocks of up to a dozen

or more occur’. (P-A).

Aythya ferina ferma (Linn.). The Pochard or Dun-bird.

No specimens.

‘An irregular winter visitor ibut by no means as rare as indicated in ‘Birds

of South India’ (P-A). In January 1938 at a tank near Bannur the same

observer saw a flock estimated as from 3 to 4 hundred in number — the largest

he has seen.

Aythya rufa rufa Linn. The White-eyed Pochard.

No specimens.

Noted: In small numbers on tanks at Hiriyur, Huliyar and elsewhere.

Curiously enough Phythian-Adams seems to have found it very rare in the

Mysore District. His game record for the past 14 years shows only a single

bird of this species shot.

Aythya fuligula fuligula (Linn.). The Tufted Pochard.

No specimens.

Noted : A few on Betmangala tank (Kolar Gold Fields).,

Winter visitor. ‘Somewhat rare’ (P.-A.).

Podiceps ruficollis capensi Salvadori. The Indian Little Grebe.

Specimens collected: 171 cf, 172 pullus 25-11-39 Bandipur (3,300').

[Measurements : 1 <$ ad. Bill 24.5, Wing 101, Tail 33, Tarsus 35.5 mm.

— H. W.j

Resident. Present in small numbers on most tanks. No. 171 was shot off

a nest which besides 172 (downy hatchling a few hours old) contained 4 hard-

set eggs ready to hatch. The nest was a small cone of rubbish in shallow

water amongst sparse floating weeds. When approached, the brooding bird

got up, hurriedly covered the eggs with leaves etc. and dived away from its

proximity.

Major Phythian-Adams has collected c/ 3, c/3, c/i on 12-11-26 and c/3 on

1 1-9-27 near Maddur (GLndlupet).

THE END

ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

FOUND OVER 3,000 FEET.

BY

H, C. Smith, m.b.o.u., F. F. GartHwaite, and

B. Ef Smythies,

Burma Forest Service ,

assisted by

The late Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, m.a., m.r.c.s., m.b.o.u., etc.

(Continued from page 7 2 of this 1 volume ).

Part III,

Woodpeckers.

Remarkably few species of Woodpecker were seen in the area ; the follow-

ing are all more or less common species of the foothills (Pegu Yomas), but

their elevation ranges appear to be more restricted than one might expect.

We saw none of them.

1339. Picus xanthopygaeus. Little Scaly-belliec^ Woodpecker.

1341. Picus viridanus. Burmese Scaly-bellied Woodpecker.

1345. Picus canus hessei. Burmese Black-naped Green Woodpecker.

1352. Picus erythropygius. Red-rumped Green Woodpecker.

(а) 1357. Geciaulus grantia viridis. Southern Pale-headed Woodpecker.

(б) 1372. Dryobates analls lougipenuis. Siamese Pied Woodpecker.

1404. Chrysocolaptes g. guttacristatus. Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker.

(£)1409. Hemieercus c. canente. Heart-spotted Woodpecker.

1413. Macropicus javensis. Great Black Woodpecker.

' Notes .—

(a) Karen Hills 2,500 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

( b ) Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

(c) Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Dr. Heinrich in his paper on the birds of Mt. Victoria comments on the

remarkable decrease in the number of Woodpeckers with increase of height,

and traces it to a corresponding decrease in the number of ants.

1348. Picus chlorolophus chlorolophoides, Burmese Small Yellow-naped Wood-

pecker.

Previous records. — Karenni 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung i^, 1$.

Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung. Not common.

1353. Chrysophlegma f. flavimucha. Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.- — None.

Noted. — ^Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung.

222 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

1369. Dryobates macei atratus. Stripe-breasted Pied Woodpecker.

Previous records. — Karen Hills 3,000-4,000' (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 19, 10.

Noted. — This and the next are the common Woodpeckers of the area, frequently

seen solitary or in pairs in all types of forest.

1379. Dryobates nanus canicapillus. Burmese Pigmy Woodpecker.

Previous records. — Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung i9*

Noted. — Usually seen in pairs, but a party of three was observed at Thandaung

in April.

1383. Blythipicus p. pyrrhotis. Red-eared Bay Woodpecker.

Previous records. — Toungoo hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 •

Noted. — Fairly common and observed up to 7,000 feet. In addition to

the harsh churra-cha-churra-cha-churra call it has a loud piercing cuckoo-like

call of 7-8 notes dropping slightly in pitch at the end; it is a shy bird, usually

seen in bamboo thickets or evergreen, keeping fairly low down and sometimes

feeding on the ground. The large size and massive light yellow bill tinged

greenish are diagnostic ; the red neck patches of the male are conspicuous,

and the female has the head noticeably lighter than the rest of the plumage.

1399. Diuopium javanensis intermedia. Burmese Golden-backed Three-toed

Woodpecker.

Previous records. — Very abundant in Karenni (Oates).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A party of 3 birds was seen in pine forest at 4,000 feet on Nattaung.

1411. Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti, Indian Great Slaty Woodpecker.

Previous records.— Abundant in Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1417, Vivia innominata malayorum. Malay. Speckled Piculet.

Previous records.— Karen Hills 2,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung and partial to

bamboo thickets.

1419-21. Sasia ochracea subsp. Rufous Piculet.

Previous records.— None?

Specimens — Thandaung irf.

Noted.— Seen on Nattaung also, but it is less common than the Speckled

Piculet.

1423. Jynx torquilla subsp. Wryneck.

Previous records. — Karenni, plains and hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Spe cimens .- — N one.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1426. Megalaima v. virens. Chinese Great Banbet.

Previous records. — Karen hills and Papun district.

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 •

Noted. — Common at Thandaung also.

1436. Gyanops asiatica asiatica. Blue-throated Barbet.

Previous records.— Hills east of Toungoo, common (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens . — None.

Noted. — Once on Nattaung at 3>°°b feet on the Kemapyu stream, and

fairly common at Thandaung in May ; probably commoner lower down.

i 'Me birds of the kAren hills and kArenni

TIS

1441. Cyanops duvauceli cyanotis. Blue-eared Barbet.

Previous reicords. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — None seen by us.

1445. Cyanops frankiinli ramsayi. Ramsay’s Golden-throated Barbet.

Previous records. — Karenni, type locality (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung i<S \ Thandaung itf. ,

Noted. — This is one of the characteristic birds of the area and its loud

shout of look-Jigh-up, look-Tgh-up, . . . , is heard throughout the. forests.

Other notes are (i) a single tonk, (2) a tuck-tuck-tuck-kroooooooo call, (3) a

harsh shrill chatter, heard only in April and connected with sexual chases.

It is not a shy bird.

1446. Xantholaema haemacephala indica. Coppersmith.

Previous records. — Chilla, Karen Hills (Fea) ; Karenni (Oates).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Common in Toungoo town, but not seen by us in the higher hills,

where it must be very local and scarce.

1453. Cue ulus canorus bakeri. Khasia Hills Cuckoo.

Previous records. — Abundant on the tableland of Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 (Wing 200 mm. Identified by us provisionally

as C. c. telephonus.)

Noted. — A male was heard calling once or twice on Nattaung, but it seems

to be scarce. The specimen was obtained in the tea estate at Thandaung on

8-10-41.

1455. Cuculus p. poliocephalus. Small Cuckoo.

Previous records. — None nearer than Maymyo.

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 imm. (7 October 1941).

Noted. — We saw no others and did not hear the call at any time. The

specimen was obtained by the path up to Thandaung-gyi.

1456. Cuculus m. micropterus, Indian Cuckoo.

Previous records. — None before 1939.

Specimens. — Nattaung 1^ ; Thandaung 1^ (10-10-41).

Noted. — Fairly common.

1457. Hierococcyx sparveroides. Large Hawk-Cuckoo;

Previous records. — Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Common.

1460. Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor. Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo.

Previous records. — Once near Thaton (Davison).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 $ imm. (20 March), 1 o (7 October 1941).

Noted. — One other was seen early- in May, being mobbed by Iole virescens

as it worked through the understorey in forest. It seems to be a very quiet

bird for a Cuckoo ; its note was not heard once, and for .this reason it is no

doubt largely overlooked.

1463. Cacomantis merulinus querulus. Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None. '

Noted. — The cadence call of this bird is heard all along the Mawchi road

in April, and it is probably the commonest Cuckoo in the area.

[1464-5. Penthoceryx sonneratif subspr. Banded Bay Cuckoo.

This should occur, but there are no records to date.]* 5 — . ,

5

224 Journal , Bombay natural hist, society, voi xliv

1467. Chalcites xanthorhynchus. Violet Cuckoo.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1468. Chaldtes m. maculatus. Emerald Cuckoo.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None this yean

Noted— Observed only on Nattaung. One party of about half-a-dozen birds

was seen in a ponzo, flying from tree to tree and uttering a quick high-pitched

rattle of 5-6 notes, descending slightly in pitch. Such activity is unusual in

this bird, and the bright sunlight showed up well the beautiful plumage. One

other bird was seen sitting sluggishly at the top of a dead tree by the roadside.

1470. Surniculus lugubris subsp. Drongo-Cuckoo.

Previous records . — Karen Hills (Salvadori) ; Karenni (Oates).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 , not examined by Dr. Ticehurst.

Noted.— We saw only the one bird, on a dry ridge in light forest along the

Leiktho mule path ; it seems to be scarce.

[1472. CSamator jacobinus. Pied Crested Cuckoo.

The F.B.I. states that this bird occurs in Karenni, on what authority is

not known.]

1474. Clamator coromaadus. Red-winged Crested Cuckoo.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 •

Noted. — The only bird seen was obtained at 3*000 feet beside the Kemapyu

stream.

1480. Rhopodyfes tristis subsp. Large Green-billed Malkoha.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.— None.

Noted. — Seen occasionally in undergrowth and wet thickets ibdth on Nattaung

and at Thandaung.

1491. Centropus sinensis intermedia, Hume’s Crow-Pheasant.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — N one.

Noted. — A pair was heard calling daily at Thandaung in the tea estate

during April and May and they may have been breeding there.

1495. Centropus b. bengalensis. Lesser Crow-Pheasant.

Previous records. — Karenni.

Specimens. — None;

Noted.— Seen once in the tea estate at Thandaung, early in May.

1501. Psittacula krameri borealis. Eastern Rose-ringed Parrakeet.

Previous records. — Karen Hills, rare (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — The complete absence of all species of Parrakeet was very striking,

and it is curious that these birds* with their strong powers of flight, seem

to avoid the higher hills.

1503. Psittacula cyanocephala rosea. Eastern Blossom-headed Parrakeet.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

the birds of the karen hills and kARen Ni

225

1505. Psittacula himalayana finschii. Burmese Slaty-headed Parrakeet.

Previous records . — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; north of Papun

(Davison).

Specimens. — None;

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1513. Coryllis v. vernalis. Indian Lorikeet;

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1519. Coracias benghalensis affinis. Burmese Roller.

Previous records. — None?

Specimens . — N one.

Noted. — One bird was seen on Nattaung in pine forest at 5,000 feet* 8 April*

1520. Eurystomus 0. orientalis. Broad-billed Roller.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — One bird was seen on Nattaung dose to where the Burmese Roller

was seen, and on the same day.

1524. Merops orientalis birmanus. Burmese Green Bee-eater.

Previous records. — Yado (Salvadori).

Specimens . — N one.

Noted. — A party was noted roosting in a tree near the Circuit House at

Thandaung on 22 October.

1526. Merops superciliosus phillippinus. B'lue-tailed Bee-eater.

Previous records. — Thandaung, nesting (Cook).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Two small parties were seen flying past pine forest at 5,500 feet

on Nattaung. This bird rarely seems to haw-k insects from a perch like thd

smaller Bee-eaters, and is typically seen flying steadily in a fixed direction;

it is a great wanderer.

1528; Merops 1. leschenaulti. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater*

Previous records. — None?

Specimens. — None. • . £

Noted. — This bird is also a wanderer. Several were seen on the telegraph

wire on the road to Thandaung on 15 October, whereas none was seen in

September. They were still in Thandaung when I left on 12 May.

1529. Alcemerops athertoni. Blue-bearded Bee-eater.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens* — None.

Noted. — A pair was seen in bamboos along the Leiktho path on 15 October *

and a bird was heard at 5,000 feet near the Kolo stream on Nattaung,- , In

May it breeds in numbers all up the Thandaung road up to 4,000 feet. All

Bee-eaters seem to be local migrants or wanderers, and little is known of their

movements.

1532. Ceryle lugubris guttulata. Himalayan Pied Kingfisher.

Previous records. — -Hills north of Papun and the higher portion - of the

Yunzalin (Davison).

Specimens.— None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1533. Alcedo atihls bengalensis* Common Indian Kingfisher.

Previous records. — Karenni. ’ * 4

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

Specimens. — None.

Noted.— One seen at 3,500 feet on the Kemapyu stream.

[1549. Ramphalcyon capensis burmanica. Burmese Stork-billed Kingfisher.

This common species does not appear to have been recorded from the

area.]

1551. Halcyon smyrnensis subsp. White-breasted Kingfisher.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

Noted . — One seen at 3,500 feet on the Kemapyu stream.

1555. Entomothera c. coromanda. Indian Ruddy Kingfisher.

Previous records. — None before 1939.

Specimens. — Nattaung i<^.

Noted. — Several birds were seen on Nattaung along streams running through

evergreen, up to 4,500 feet. It is a shy bird and very fast on the wing. Not

seen at Thandaung.

1562. Lacedo pulchellus amabilis. Pegu Banded Kingfisher.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — N one.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1563. Dichoceros b« bicornis. Great Hornbill.

Previous records. — Leiktho (Salvadori) 5 Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — N one.

Noted. — Noted along the Leiktho path in September and May. In June

1939 a bird was seen flying low over Toungoo town, a most unusual sight ;

it must, judging by the direction of its flight, have been crossing from the

Pegu Yomas to the Karen Hills. On 12 November 1940 a flock of 17 birds

was seen collecting to roost at a point on the southern slopes of Thandaung-gyi.

Not seen on Nattaung.

[1567-8. Rhyticeros spp. Wreathed Hornbills.

Both species are likely to occur, but have not been recorded to date.]

1570. AceroS nipalensls. Rufous-necked Hornbill.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens.— None.

Noted.— A bird was seen feeding on fruits high up on a big tree, at 6,000 feOt

in the Kolo stream valley. The bright pale lilac on the face and round the

eye, the grooves on the side of the bill, no casque, rufous head and neck, and

white tail are diagnostic. This was the only Hornbill, and the only one of its

kind, seen on Nattaung.

1580^3. Upupa epops subsp. Hoopoe.

Previous records. — Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — N one.

Noted. — Seen at Thandaung on 13 November 1940.

1586. Harpactes e. erythrocephalus. Red-headed Trogon.

Previous records. — Taho and Yado (Salvadori) ; Thandaung (Cook) ; Karenni

4.000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Seen occasionally both on Nattaung and at Thandaung, up to

6.000 feet. A rather plaintive call of 6-10 notes on a monotone tyaw-tyaw-tyaw

. . . about 2 per second, was heard in May. It is usually a very silent bird.

THE BIRDS OB THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

m

1588. Harpactes oreskios uniformis. Robinson’s Yellow-breasted Trogon,

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — We saw none, and it seems to be scarce outside Tenasserim.

1593-4. Micropus pacificus subsp. White-rumped Swift.

Previous records. — None?

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Seen at Thandaung on 24 March (1940) and 7 October (1941)'.

1602. Cypsiurus parvus infumatus. Eastern Palm Swift.

Previous records. — Karen Hills in August (Salvadori, who described it as a

new form, Cypselus minusculus).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 •

Noted. — Probably a casual visitor from the plains ; it is very common and

resident at Toungoo, but was seen in Thandaung only on 22 March and

10 October.

1605. Chaetura gigantea indica. Brown-throated Spinetail.

Previous records. — Karenni (Lloyd).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Common. Normally seen travelling at a great pace, but a small

party was observed for three days in succession hawking insects over a bare

ridge ; the birds used to arrive at 3-4 p.m. and worked up and down a short

stretch of the ridge, like a party of House Martins, disappearing at dusk.

In flight the white under tail-coverts contrast with the rest of the under-parts,

which appear very black.

1616. Hemiprocne coronata. Indian Crested Swift.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1621a. Caprimulgus macrourus ambiguus. Burmese Long-tailed Nightjar.

Previous records. — None before 1939.

Specimens.- — N one.

Noted. — Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung up to

5,000 feet.

1626. Caprimulgus indicus (hazarae ?). Jungle Nightjar.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Nattaung 2 $ . These may or may not be hazarae, but are

certainly not C. i. jotaka.

Noted. — In Burma this appears to be a scarce and local bird of the higher

hills. It does not occur in the Pegu Yomas, and the onlv recent records are

from Mt. Victoria and Kambaiti (6.800 feet, Myitkyina district). Our speci-

mens were obtained on the top of Sosiko, 7,000 feet, and the bird was heard

calling also in pine forest at 5,500 feet. The call does not resemble a stone

on ice, and is unmistakable once heard : a steady tuck-tuck-tuck . . . very fast

(about 5 per second) without acceleration or retardation, though one series of

tucks may be uttered at a slightly faster or slower speed than the preceding

one. One bird used to start calling at 6-1 Z p.m. from a small dense patch

of trees in which it may have spent the day; it would call for about 10 minutes

quite softly and would finally emerge at 6-25, just as dusk was deepening into

night, with a characteristic deep wock , wock on the wing. It also calls in

the early - morning, ceasing soon after dawn and certainlv not calling after

the sun had risen as the Indian race is said to do (F.B.I.). In the field it

appears blackish, with prominent white spots on the wings and tail.

1633a. Batrachostomus hodgsoni (hodgsoni ?) . Hodgson’s Frogmouth*

Previous records. — Karenni 6,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None,

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Noted.— We were particularly anxious to find this bird, but saw and heard

no signs of it.

1639. Phodilus badius subsp. Bay Owl.

Previous records. — Taho (Fea) ; Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Neither seen nor heard by us.

[1650. Strix o. orientalis. Malay Wood Owl.

The call of a large Owl, believed to be of this species was heard both

on Nattaung and at Thandaung, and seen in bright moonlight on the former

at 4,506 feet. The call is a melodious full-toned who-00-00-00, uttered quickly

with the stress on the first syllable.]

[1663. Huhua nipalensis. Forest Eagle-Owl.

A loud creaking wheezy wail Oo-we-e-e-e-e-you , the first part rising in

pitch and a sudden drop at the you, closely resembling the call sometimes

made by a young Owl of this species kept in captivity, was heard at Thandaung

in May 1941. Wardlaw Ramsay obtained it near Toungoo, and a specimen

was obtained by Mr. H. C. Smith in a forest about 20 miles north-west of

Toungoo.]

1671. Otus bakkamoena lettia. Burmese Collared Scops Owl.

Previous records.— Karen Hills.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Heard calling at the Thandaung Circuit House on 9 October 1941.

1672. Otus spilocephalus latouchii. Eastern Spotted Scops Owl.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Fea, 1 specimen).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1681. Otus sunia modestus. Burmese Scops Owl.

Previous records. — Chialla (Fea).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Heard calling in pine forest on Nattaung at 5,000 feet; the call

is tonk-tonk-tu-tonk, repeated monotonously for long periods ; the Burmese

syllabify it as Kyet-wet-cfiauk-gaung.

1690-2. Glaucidium cuculoides subsp. Barred Owlet.

. Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A very distinctive call was heard on Nattaung at various hours

(7-10 a.m., 7 p.m., and 1 a.m.) at various . elevations from 4,500 to 7,500 feet,

always in the densest evergreen. The call was whooooo-tuck, repeated, a long

drawn out note ending abruptly with a drop in pitch. In the daytime the

-first- note was considerably shortened.. On 23 April I saw an Owlet with

barred light brown upper-parts and no aigrettes ; the chin and throat appeared

unbarred, . and I put it down as of this species. I chased the bird, which flew

into . a patch .of evergreen, whence the note described above shortly issued,

and I also heard it close to the same spot the previous day. We dM not however

bear the rippling call and other calls made by G. c. rufeiscens. The call we heard

Was one of the few we did not succeed in nailing to our satisfaction, and we

therefore, corpmend its study to. anyone else working these hills.

1697. Glaucidium brodei subsp. Collared Pigmy Owlet.

Previous records. — Yado (Salvador!).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not uncommon both op Nattaung and at Thandaung.

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

229

Falconidae. This is a difficult group and the obtaining of specimens largely

a matter of luck. We saw several Eagles on Nattaung which we failed to

identify or obtain; one of these had uniform dark brown under-parts with

yellow legs, and another was a pale greyish-white bird with a white rump ;

they may have been Changeable Hawk-Eagles ( Nisaetus cirrhatus limnaetus)

in different phases, but the birds looked very large. No doubt many species

of Hawks and Eagles occur in the area, but there are few definite records.

[1719. Falco peregrinus subsp. Peregrine Falcon.

I had a good view of a bird which I put down as a Peregrine on the Leiktho

path on 22 October. There are no certain records from our area.]

1740-44. Falco tinnunculus subsp. Kestrel.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay, who describes it as very

common and thought it might breed there).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — One seen at Thandaung on 13 November 1940 over the tea estate,

and 2 or 3 birds in October 1941.

1754. Lophotriorchis kieneri. Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle.

Previous records. — Cook shot one on the top of Thandaung-gyi, the first

of the only two records for Burma.

1767. Haematornis cheela burmanicus. Crested Serpent Eagle.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 o.

Noted. — Seen on Nattaung also ; not uncommon.

1793. Circus melanoleucus. Pied Harrier.

Previous records. — Yado (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A bird in immature plumage was seen on passage in the tea

estate at Thandaung on 8 May.

1796-9. Buteo sp. Buzzard.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — One, if not two, species of Buzzard winter in Thandaung in the

tea estate, the wide open spaces of which are ideally suited to their require-

ments. They were usually seen perched sluggishly in trees or on one of the

enormous granite boulders that litter the estate. Buzzards were also seen

on Nattaung.

1805. Astur badius poliopsis. B'urmese Shikra.

Previous records. — Karen Hills 4,000^ (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Yado (Salvadori),

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — One was seen along the Leiktho path on 24 September.

1810. Accipiter trivirgatus indicus. Northern Crested Goshawk.

Previous records. — Meteleo, Karen Hills (Salvadori); hills north of Papun

(Davison).

Specimens. — -None.

Noted. — Two birds, believed to be of this species, were seen in the tea

estate at Thandaung on 9 October 1941.

1818-9. Pernis ptitorhynchus subsp. Crested Honey Buzzard.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens. — None.

ffpted. — Not seen by us,

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

1840. Sphenocercus a. aplcauda. Pin-tailed Green Pigeon.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori) ; Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — A large party was seen feeding on figs at 4,500 feet on Nattaung,

and birds were seen at Thandaung also.

1841. Sphenocercus s. sphenurus. Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon.

Previous records. — Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 (29-4-41).

Noted. — Not common except at Thandaung in April-May.

The bird shot had a noisy undulating flight like that of a Woodpecker.

1844. Oucula badla griseicapllla. Grey-headed Imperial Pigeon.

Previous records. — Thandaung (Cook). Karen Hills (type locality, Wardlaw

Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not uncommon. I examined a bird that a Karen had just shot

at 5,000 feet on Nattaung in pine forest. The call is click whroom whroom,

the preliminary click only heard at close range, but the other two notes

deep and resounding. It frequents chiefly evergreen.

1852. Chalcophaps i. indica. Indian Emerald Dove.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori) ; Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Seen once or twice but not common. At Thandaung I had the

pleasure of watching a female for several minutes at a range of 6 feet.

1872. Streptopelia orientalis agricola. Indian Rufous Turtle Dove.

Previous records. — Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — One bird shot at Thandaung on 10 October 1941 but not

preserved.

Noted.-— Seen on Nattaung.

1882. Oenopopelia tranquebarica humills. Burmese Red Turtle Dove.

Previous records. — Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

1884. Macropygia unchall tusalia Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsav).

Specimens.-^ -Thandaung 1 9 breeding (30 April), examined by Dr. Ticehurst

and 2r? (May 1941), not seen by Dr. Ticehurst.

Noted. — Not uncommon, but possibly due to persecution thev are very warv

birds and difficult to observe, keeping to the ftree-toos. The call-note is

croo-oom , the second syllable being a booming note audible at a considerable

distance. A rather large dark-coloured Dove compared with the next species,

which is smaller and a brighter chestnut. It feeds on small fruits in the

tree-tops.

1886. Macropygia ruficeps assimiHs. Burmese Little Cuckoo-Dove.

Previous records. — Karen Hills 3,000 feet (Wardlaw RamsayV

Specimens. — Thandaung 2<J. i? (May ioat), not seen by Dr. Ticehurst.

Noted. — Fairly common. Their characteristic note was heard at intervals

throughout the day in May, though the birds themselves were seldom seen.

The call is croo-wuck, croo-wuck, croo-wuck . . . repeated very rapidly 30 times

in 15 seconds with a pause of about 5 seconds and then a repetition. The

croo is only audible at close quarters and all that can be heard from a distance

of 50 yards or more is wuck, wuck, wuck . . . This call is usually uttered

by a bird sitting bolt upright on a branch amongst thick foliage. When

feeding the birds seem silent. A small Dove with a long- tail * and swift flight,

appearing bright chestnut in a strong light,

THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI

231

1904. Gallus gallus subsp. Burmese Junglefowl.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori) ; Thandaung (Cook).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Heard once on Nattaung, and seen or heard occasionally at

Thandaung.

1908. Syrmaticus humiae burmanicus. Burmese B'arred-back Pheasant.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Nattaung i 9 •

Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung. On Nattaung two parties were seen, total-

ling two cocks and five hens, and one of the cocks was heard drumming at

5,000 feet on 16 April. It favours dry pine ridges covered with short grass.

1925. Gennaeus lineatus subsp. Silver Pheasant.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — Thandaung (not examined by Dr. Ticehurst).

Noted. — Several parties were seen in Thandaung in November, April and

May, and it no doubt breeds there. One cock seen on Nattaung.

1964. Arborophila rufogularis tickelli. Tenasserim Rufous-throated Hill

Partridge.

Previous records. — Karen Hills. ^

Specimens. — Nattaung i^.

Noted. — On Nattaung it is common in parties in evergreen and temperate forest

and often seen along small streams. The call is distinctive and carries a long way ;

it starts low and both accelerates and rises in pitch : War war

\ \

war , war

etc. answered by wick, wick , wick, wick . . . Not seen at Thandaung.

1967. Arborophila b. brunneopectus. Brown4>reasted Hill Partridge.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens. — Thandaung i 9 •

Noted. — The specimen was obtained out of a covey of 5-6 birds at 3,500 feet

in a bamboo thicket. Other coveys seen may have been this or the preceding

species.

1981. Francolinus pintadeanus phayrei. Phayre’s Burmese Francolin.

Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Heard calling at Thandaung on 24 September and noted last year

on Nattaung. It seems to call throughout the year.

[2003. Turnix dussumieri. Little Button Quail.

A very small Quail seen solitary on the Leiktho path on 7 October 1941

was probably this.]

2004. Turnix tank! blanfordi. Burmese Button Quail.

Previous records. — Karen Hills (Salvadori) ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens.— N attaung 1 $ .

Noted. — Common in small parties or pairs on dry pine ridges with grassy

undergrowth, and seen at Thandaung in open grassy country round the tea

estate.

2015. Rallina fasciata, Malay Bonded Crake.

Previous records. — Meteleo, Karen Hills (Salvadori, in August).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen iby us.

2025. Amaurornis bicolor. Elwes’s Crake.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — N attaung 1 .

232 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Noted. — Only the one bird was seen, in a small clearing in ponzo where

a spring trickled onto the ground from the usual Karen bamboo aqueduct,

forming a small muddy patch of a few square yards. Elevation 4,500 feet.

2030. Heliopais personata. Masked Finfoot.

Previous records. — Karenni (Lloyd).

Specimens. — None.

Noted. — Not seen by us.

2167. Scolopax r. rusticofa. Woodcock.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Nattaung 1 ^ , i9-

Noted. — One of the sights of Sosiko (7,500 feet) was the flighting of Wood-

cock at dusk from the Wrens’ Paradise out into the open. In early April 6

or 7 birds were seen nightly but by 12 April only one remained, the rest

having presumably migrated in the meantime. Others were seen on the Kolo

and Kemapyu streams ; the former was seen on two days feeding in the bed

of the stream, where it ran through open country with a fringe of trees and

bushes, in the middle of the day. Not seen at Thandaung.

2229-30. Ardeola sp. Pond Heron.

Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay).

Specimens. — None.

Noted.— One bird was seen on the Kemapyu stream at 3,500 feet.

2234. Gorsakius m. melanolophus. Malay Bittern.

Previous records. — None.

Specimens. — Nattaung itf.

Noted. — Obtained on the Kemapyu stream where it runs through evergreen ;

one if not two others were seen on the same stretch but after a day or two

they departed, probably, resenting disturbance.

2239. Dupetor f. flavicollis. Black Bittern.

Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori).

Specimens. — Nattaung !<$.

Noted. — The only one seen was obtained at 3,500 feet on the Kemapyu

stream.

(To be continued )

BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE

GOURAMI ( OSPHRONEMUS GORAMY LACEPEDE).1

BY

C. V. Kulkarni, b.a. (Hons.), m.sc., ph.D.

Piscicultural Assistant, Department of Industries , Bombay.

(Communicated by Dr. S. B. Setna, m.sc., f.r.m.s., ph.D. (Cantab).

(With seven Text-figures),

Contents.

Pages

Introduction ... ... ... ... 233

Acknowledgement ... ... ... 234

Breeding habits of O. goramy ... ... ... 234

Breeding season ... ... ... 234

Material for nest ... ... ... 235

Site for nest ... ... ... 236

Nest ... ... ... ... 236

Embryology and larval development of O. goramy ... 237

Eggs ... ... ... ... 237

Newly hatched larva ... ... ... 238

Two-day old larva ... ... ... 241

Four-day old larva ... ... ... 241

Seven-day old larva ... ... ... 241

Ten-day old larva ... ... ... 242

Introduction.

The cultivation of gourami as a substitute for marine fish where

this is not readily available, is being increasingly undertaken in

tropical countries, including India. Literature on the bionomics of the

fish is thus always growing. Papers describing aspects such as the

nesting, breeding and feeding habits of the fish have, from time

to time, been published by various authors, including Carbonnier

(as quoted by Jones), Gilbert (1894), Jordan (1905), Sundara Raj

(1916), Villadolid (1936), Roxas and Umali (1937), and Jones (1939b

The last-mentioned paper shows that as late as 1939 there was

considerable misunderstanding regarding the nest building habits

of gourami. Further, the papers compiled by the Philippine authors

1 The Genus * Osphromenus' (Commerson) Lac£p&de mentioned by Day (p. 369)

is probably a misnomer. According to Max Weber (p. 344) Lac£p£de described

genus Osphronemus and not Osphrompnus. Osphronemus goramy Lac6p£de

and Osphromenus olfax (Cuv. & Val.) are, however, synonyms and Lac6p£de’s

panic is retained because of its priority.

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Villadolid (1936) and Roxas and Umali (1937) which give exhaustive

information on the breeding of gourami, are not quite complete,

as they omit certain details about the nesting habits and descriptions

of early larval stages. The form described as a newly hatched

larva by Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) is, according to the present

author, a fry 10 days old. Moreover, there are three earlier stages

of the larva which have, apparently, not been recorded so far.

It is hoped that observations recorded in this paper will remove

certain misapprehensions about the earliest stages of the fish and

be of some help in furthering our knowledge of gourami, which

has of late been increasingly popular.

Acknowledgement.

The author takes this opportunity of expressing his best thanks

to Dr. S. B. Setna, Fisheries Officer, for his valuable guidance

and constant encouragement at every stage of the investigation.

Breeding habits of O sphronemus goramy Lacepede.

Breeding Season. — A fairly representative account of the breed-

ing habits of gourami is given by Villadolid, who, in a memoir

published in 1936, observes as follows: —

‘From time immemorial the gourami has been pond-raised in Java. Accord-

ing to Mr. Delsman, of Batavia (Delsman, 1926) the gourami in Java make

their nests nearly the whole year round, but most, frequently in July and August.

He further states that the wet season is the least favourable. According to

Theodore Gill (1874), however, the spawning season of gourami in Mauritius

and Bourbon falls in the autumn (March and April) and spring (September

and October). In the Philippines spawning gourami were first noticed in the

Bureau of Science ponds in April 1930. Gourami reared in the Escudero farm

were reported to have spawned for the first time in September 1934. The

indications are that gourami may spawn at any time during the year.’

Sundara Raj (1916) states that the breeding season in Java is

March and in Madras about May, but in the official bulletin of the

Department of Fisheries, Madras, dated December 18, 1939, he

describes gourami as breeding twice a year, in February and March

and again in September to November. Roxas and Umali (op. cit.)

affirm that the fish breeds throughout the year and Aquino (1935)

also concurs “with them. In Bombay, however, my observations

during the past four vears have shown that the fish breeds through-

out the year except during the monsoon from June to September.

The interruption in breeding may be due to the rapidly changing

levels of ponds at this time, which makes it difficult to build a nest

at a particular depth from the surface. The peak period of breed-

ing being April and May. These observations appear, in some

degree to be corroborated by those of Roxas and Umali (1937), who

state that ‘The peak of the breeding season occurs during the

warm months from March to May’. There is one instance how-

ever, when fry of Gourami were found in one of the ponds in

Bombay as early as November. The fry, which measured about

in. to 1} in. in length, were first noticed in November, 1941.

BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI 235

To attain this size the fry must have hatched at least 2 months

previously, i.e. in August or September. A factor which may

perhaps explain this apparently unseasonal hatching of the fisn

is that scarcely any rain tell after the middle of August. The level

of the pond must nave been almost static and this comparatively

still condition of the water must have induced the fish to build

its nest and to breed earlier than usual.

The varying records of breeding habits, although from different

quarters of the Asiatic continent, are from nearly the same tropical

climatic zone, and provide no obvious reason for the disparity in

the characteristics of the gourami. Even in India there is no

agreement between the records from Bombay and Madras. The

fisli is known not to breed in Madras during the cold weather.

As a matter of fact, the cold weather at Madras is not so sharp

~as to inhibit this activity. If low temperatures were at all to bring

about such an effect, it should have been more pronounced in the

Philippines, where, on the contrary ,_ the fish has been observed to

breed throughout the year. The climate of Bombay does not vary

greatly from that of Madras, and accordingly the habits of the

gourami should manifest greater similarity than divergance at these

two places.

Material for the nest * — Gourami is fairly well known for

its habit of building a nest in the water for the reception of its

eggs. Sundara Raj (op. cit.) who described the habits of gourami,

quoted Jordan’s view (1905 p. 369) that ‘the nest was of a spherical

form, composed of plants,, preferably tufts of a peculiar grass

• {Pamcum jumentorum) which- grows on the surface of the water’.

He gives, however, in the administrative report of the Madras

Fisheries Department for 1932-33 a list of quite different hydrophytes

which are used to build nests. Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) give

yet another list of plants and articles used for this purpose and

state that ‘it (nest) is composed of plants, mud and other available

floating and submerged material’. The authors have rightly noted

that the fish uses for its purpose whatever is available in the

pond. It is unnecessary to introduce in a pond the typical grass

and materials which the gourami might previously have used for

nidification. Once the fish has chosen a particular material, it ah

ways manifests an instinctive preference for it as long as it is

available. This was well illustrated in a tank at Bandra, Bombay

Suburban District, where the gourami always employed hitherto

unlisted material to build nests in preference to other commonly

used plants. Observations of the fish bred in the tank during the

last four years show that gourami manifests a special preference

for long peals and fibres of lotus stocks (Nelumbium sp.) left over

in the pond after the decomposition of the pulp, although the tank

may be and is actually littered with such common hydrophytes as

Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, etc., which are generally recorded as plants

used in nests built by this fish. Probably, the softness of the lotus

fibres, their binding qualities and the ease with which they may

be carried through the water makes the first choice with gourami

for nest building. Ceratophyllum and Hydrilla were used by the

fish to only a limited extent. Ipomea, Pistia J Potamogeton ,

&i(j JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . XLIV

Eichhornia, and Limnanthemum , though available in the pond, were

rarely utilised. These plants, along with some hbrous roots and

tutts of grasses, were used by the fish for nidification in other

ponds, this fact proves that gourami has definite likes and dis-

likes in regard to the choice of material for the building of its

nests. The fish does not, however, limit itself to any particular

material, so that when occasion arises it can build its nest from

whatever material is available.

Site joy the nest. — As the breeding season approaches, the

parents search for a site for a nest. The place selected is generally

at the edge of a pond, but an additional factor in the choice of a

site is that the selected place should have ample free space below

the nest so that the fish can go right below to lay eggs and also

to produce currents in the water by moving it with the fins. For

this reason steeper sides of ponds lined either by irregular stones

and crevices or by firm grass affording support to the nests are

generally favoured. Sides of ponds with gradually sloping banks

are not quite suitable. Such sites, although unfrequented by

people and affording the necessary stillness, were found to have

been disregarded by the fish in preference for steeper sides, although

these adjoined busy thoroughfares. In the Administration report

of the Madras Fisheries Department for 1933-34, Sundara Raj

while describing the habits of gourami in the construction of nests

observes ‘to begin with they scoop a hole in the muddy margins

of the pond among the grass or bulrush’. This habit of making

a hole may as well be for the same purpose of securing space

below the nest as pointed out above. Nests have also been observed

in the centre of the ponds wherever rocks or any other structures

hejd out suitable support near the surface of the water. Nests

have also been found hung on the entangled shoots of Ceratophyllum

right in the middle of tanks, and their secure position in such

surroundings was due to their being intertwined with lotus stalks.

In Java tutts of fibres of palm, Arenga saccharifera are suspended

in ponds to induce the fish to build nests in the tufts. In Madras

the same practice has been reported to be successful at some places

l1 933-34). Roxas and Umali (op. cit. page 442) record nests built

in the floating roots of Eichhornia in a cement concrete tank in

Manila. It should be remembered, however, that such precarious

places as the floating roots would be used by the fish only as a

last resort when nothing better was available. The ready manner

in which the fish adapted itself to the unfamiliar conditions and

exploited them to the utmost advantage was indeed noteworthy.

Nest : — To start with, the parents carry the building material

in their mouths and fix it on the selected spot with the help of

their thick snouts. If a crevice between stones is to serve as a

starting point the material is firmly rammed into it, and additional

material is entangled to form a nest. As with the nests of birds,

the softer material on which the eggs are deposited is placed in

the centre. The nest is generally about half a foot below the sur-

face of water or at times even touches it. The opening is usually

on the lower side or slants slightly towards the centre of the pond.

According to tlie Philippine authors the fish takes about a week to

BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OR THE GOURAMI ffli

build the nest. Sundara Raj’s observations show, on the other

hand, that it takes about a month to complete.

The size and shape of the nests do not appear to be uniform

in all cases and depend mostly on the size of the fish and material

of which it is made. It can, however, be said to resemble a bird’s

nest. Occasionally when the building material is merely - wedged

in between stones on the border to obtain a support, the nest be-

comes more elongated or drawn out and has no particular shape.

If the material is not very pliable and if the support is firm and easy,

the nest becomes compact and shapely. The one observed at Sun-

kesula farm (Madras) in March, 1937, was made of roots of bulrush

and dried blades of grass and appeared quite elegant — almost like

a bird’s nest. ‘The nests’ described by Sundara Raj (1932-33)

‘measure 6 inches in diameter 7 inches in height’. Roxas and

Umali (op. cit.) record bigger nests of about 30 cms. (12 inches)

in length and 18 cms. (7.2 inches) in width, but our observations

showed that most of the Bombay nests were bigger than the Philip-

pine nests and measured on an average about 15 in. in length and

12 in. in diameter and were placed lengthwise in the ponds.

Embryology and larval development of Osphronemus

goramy.

Eggs.-— Eggs are laid in batches. The female goes below

the nest, inspects it, then lies on her broad side, lays a cluster of eggs

and retires. The male waiting close by then discharges his semen

on the eggs to fertilize them and withdraws. This process is re-

peated several times till all the eggs are laid. A few fibres are then

pulled out from the sides of the nest, and the eggs covered with

them, so that they are well protected and no intruder can have

access to them. Both parents guard the nest in turn, inspect the

eggs occasionally and stir the water with their fins to produce

a current to help oxygenation.

Records from the Philippines, as well as from Madras show

that gourami is known to lay about 800 to 1,000 eggs at a time,

but my observations show that the number of eggs laid at a time

may be much bigger. On February 21, 1940, a nest in the Bandra

tank was found to contain about 3,000 larvae, which had just

hatched out, all being nearly of the same age. This observation led

the investigator to assume that the eggs might have been laid

not only by one but two or more females. This assumption

proved, however, to be incorrect as in the subsequent year two other

nests in the same tank on April 17, 1941, had each about 2,200 and

2,000 larvae.. This fact makes it clear that gourami at least in the

pond at Bandra lay eggs prolifically.

The eggs are of a fine lemon yellow colour, glistening remark-

ably on top owing to a quantity of oil at the upper pole, which

occupies more than 1/3 the size of the egg and is comparatively

Very large. The diameter of the egg is about 2.2 to 2.4 mm. Due

to the large quantity of oil in the globule the eggs are buoyant if

left free but being always in the nest they are never seen floating

^38 Journal, bombAy natural hist, society, voi xliv

in the water. They are very soft, delicate and unadhesive. The

egg membrane, being very tender, collapses even if slightly touched

(fig. i. a).

Text-fig. i.— Egg and early embryonic development of Osphronenius gotamy

(Lacepede) X iS.

(a) Egg- (&) Egg with embryonic ridge. (c) Egg with developing

embryo.

‘The eggs hatch in about 10 days’, according to Roxas and

Umali, and in about 15 days according to Villadolid. The time

varies* however, according to the season, being shorter in

summer and longer in winter. Figures ib and ic- in the text

represent some of the embryonic stages. Fig. 1 b shows only the

embryonic ridge being formed, while fig. 1 c represents an embryo

with the cephalic region in the process of formation and the optic

region marked out, The caudal portion is also complete.

N&wly hatched larva. — Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) record

newly hatched fry as being 9 mm. in length and describe it as

follows. ‘A newly hatched fry is about 9 mm. long, the body bein^

BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI 239

somewhat elongated. The head measures 5 times in the total length,

while the eye is contained 3 times in the length of the head. Although

somewhat short, the caudal fin in fully formed. Only the beginning

of the soft dorsal and anal fins are evident as fleshy projections,

there being as yet no distinct ray formation. The pectoral and the

ventral fins are entirely absent, although fleshy indications of the

former are already visible. The pigmentation is still wanting ex-

cept as scattered patches in some parts of the head and body’. My

observations show that the first hatchling of Gourami (fig. 2) is

much smaller and quite different from what has been described

above.

Text-fig. 2. — Newly hatched larva of Osphronemus goramy (Lacep&de) xCa. 20.

Its (newly hatched larva) total length is about 5.3 mm.

It has a comparatively large yolk-sac of about 3 mm. in length and

2.0 mm. in breadth and the latter is closely attached below the head

by the longer axis. The length of the head is contained about nine

times, and the height about 8.5 times, in the total length of the larva.

The anterior end (snout) is almost rounded. The mouth is not

perceptible. The sclerotic coats and the lenses of the eyes are

developed, but there is no pigmentation as yet. The pectoral and

ventral fins are not developed at all. The dorsal, caudal and the

anal fins also are not present, but, in their stead, a thin vertical

fold starts dorsally from about 1/3 the total length of the larva from

the head and is continued venffrally round the caudal end to meet the

yolk-sac at about half the total length. Two or three small chro-

matophores are seen on the dorsal side of the larva posterior to

the head, and numerous ones of the same size are distributed

on the yolk-sac dorsally and posteriorly. These chromatophores

are not visible to the naked eye and can be seen only through a

magnifying lens. The oil globule is yet persistent and is quite

visible, occupying the rear end of the yolk-sac.

A remarkable feature about the newly hatched larva is the manner

of its suspension immediately below the surface of the water. The

larva at this stage assumes a supine position with its tail directed

6

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

upwards and forms an angle of about 30 degrees with the plane of

the water (fig. 3).

Text-fig. 3.— Early hatchlings floating in inverted position (diagrammatic).

The concentration of oil at the end of the postero-ventral side

of the yolk-sac perhaps acts as a buoyant agent which causes the

larva to float towards the surface film of the water. The larva

at this stage is almost quiescent and, unless disturbed, prefers

to remain motionless near the surface. On disturbance it swims

away swiftly in the same inverted condition and again resumes its

original position elsewhere. In the natural environment this

quiescent stage is always passed in the nest and the larva does not

come to the surface of the water in spite of its buoyancy.

Text-fig. 4. — Early hatchlings attached to weeds under water (diagrammatic).

BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI 241

Two-day old larva : — Late on the second day pigment begins

to appear in the eyes. Fleshy indications of the pectoral

fins and a minute slit in place of the mouth are also visible. An

interesting fact noted at this stage was that, despite the buoyancy

due to the oil globule, the larva descended to the bottom of the

observation tank and rested on the weeds, the general appearance

of its position being the same as when it was floating immediately

under the surface film of water (fig. 4).

Cement glands such as those recorded by Jones (1940) on the

head and nape of Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.) and on

Etroplus by the same author (1938) appeared to be absent from

the head of the larva of gourami.

Four-day old larva : — -On the fourth day the larva (fig. 5)

has the usual pigmentation in the eyes and the oral slit is replaced

by a normal mouth. The pectoral fins also have assumed shape,

but there is no ray formation in them.

Text-fig. 5. — Four days old larva of O. goramy (Lac6p&de) xCa 16.

The larva is about 6.4 mm. in total length, with a yolk-sac

of nearly the same size as on the first day. The head is contained

about 8.5 times in the total length and the eye only about twice in

the length of the head. The dorsal, caudal, anal or ventral fins

are not developed. Only the vertical fin fold is present as before.

The position of the vent is somewhat defined. A small pulsating

heart, with coursing red blood corpuscles is visible below the throat.

The chromatophores increase in number and occupy wider areas

on the body.

On the fourth or fifth day the larva corrects its inverted position

and swims in the normal manner of a fish. The movements are

greatly restricted, however, and the larva prefers to shelter in the

entangled fibres of the nest or on the bunches of Ceratophyllum ,

amongst which it remains motionless for a day or two. The duration

of different stages depends on the conditions in the observation

tanks. Some of these stages are earlier if conditions are favour-

able and later, if otherwise.

Seven^day old larva. — The larva acquires after about seven

days a fish-like appearance, with its characteristic snout, eyes,

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

trunk and tail (fig. 6). It is about 7 mm. in length and has an

elongated form.

The yolk-sac is not absorbed, but appears to be partially

incorporated ‘in situ’ in the body of the larva. This makes

the anterior half of the body thick and the caudal portion slender.

The head is contained about 7 times in the total length of the fish

and the eyes are proportionately of the same size as in the former

stage. They are prominent and are oblong as in many larval

forms. The height of the head is slightly more than its length.

The snout is bluntly pointed and is about \ the antero-posterior

diameter of the eye. The height of the body is contained about

3.5 times in the total length. The membranous pectoral^ fins are

clearly marked out. The vertical fin fold has proportionately the

same length as was described in respect of the newly hatched larva

and extends round the caudal end. The positions of the dorsal,

caudal and the anal fins are, however, roughly marked out by the

margin of the vertical fold sinking and approaching the body at

spaces intervening between the fins concerned. The caudal fin

appears to develop more rapidly and the rays appear in the process

of formation. The ventral fins are as yet completely absent. The

Chromatopnores, which have increased both in number and size, are

distributed all over the body, including the caudal region. They are

more numerous on the ventral surface (yolk-sac) and on the head.

The number of these chromatophores is not, however, sufficient

to lend any general colour to the larva which, to all purposes,

appears almost white to the naked eye.

Ten-day old larva. * — The characteristics of the larva (fig. 7)

when it is 9 or 10 days old generally tally with the description

given by Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) of newly hatched fry {vide

infra p. 238. In some respects, however, even their description

would seem to require certain modifications.

BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GO U RAMI 243

The two authors (loc. cit.) record, ‘The pectoral and the pelvic

fins are entirely absent, although fleshy indications of the former

are already visible’. My observations have shown ( vide infra p. 241)

that the fleshy indications of the pectorals are visible on the second

day, when they are quite distinct and well developed. Another

point of difference is that although the rounded abdomen of the

larva appears to these authors as a portion of the original yolk-sac,

yet it would not be proper in my opinion to consider the yolk-sac

as still in existence, because it has by now been almost incorporated

in the body of the larva.

A description of the later stages of Gourami is not included

in these notes as the same has already been fully dealt with by

Roxas and Umali.

References to Literature.

1. Amirthlingam, 1940. — The nesting habits of the Gourami ( Osphronemus

goramy). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xli No. 2 1940 pp. 436 to 437.

2. Aquino Benigno, S., — Goramy culture in the Philippines. Dept, of Agriculture

and Commerce Div. Fish Bull.

3. Day F., 1878-88. — The Fishes of India. London.

4. Day, F., 1889 — The Fauna of British India — Fishes, Vol. II. London.

5. Gilbert, Charles F., 1894. — The breeding of the Gourami. Journ. Bombay

Nat. Hist, viii pp. 435-438.

6. Jones, S., 1939. — On the nesting habit's of the Gourami ( Osphronemus

goramy Lacepbde). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xl pp. 766-72.

7. Jones, S., 1938. — On the origin and development of cement glands in

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. vol. vi B.

8. Jones, S., 1940. — Notes on the breeding habits and early development of

Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.) with special reference to the cement glands

on the early larvae. Rec. Ind. Mus. xlii 2 pp. 269-76.

9. Jordan, D. S., 1905. — Guide to the study of fishes. New York.

10. Roxas, H. A., and Umali, A. E., 1937. — Fresh water fish farming -in the

Philippines— Philip, Journ. Sci. vol. 63 pp. 433-68.

11. Sundara Raj, B., 1916. — Notes on the fresh water fishes of Madras. Rec.

Ind. Mus. xii pp. 249-294.

12. Sundara Raj, B., 1931 .—Osphromenus gourami. Bull. Dept. Fish. Madras.

13. Sundara Raj, B., 1933. — Admi. Rept. Dept. Fish. Madras for 1932-33.

14. Sundara Raj, B., 1934. — Ibid for 1933-4.

15. Thomas, H. S., 1881. — The Rod in India. London.

16. Villadolid, D. V., 1936.— The Gourami its cultivation in the Philippines.

Dept, of Agri. & Com. Manila. Popular Bull. 7.

17. Weber Max & de Beaufort, L. F., 1923.— Fish Indo. Austral. ArcUpel

iv pp. 344-345-

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON

THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

BY

M. Sayeedud-Din,

Prof, of Botany, Osmania University ,

Hyderabad — Deccan.

( With three plates).

( Continued from page 4 77 of Vol. xliii, No. 3).

XI. — PI eliotr opium zeylanicum Lamk.

(Boraginaceae).

SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

H eliotr opium zeylanicum Lamk. Encycl. Method iii, 94 (not of

Wall., nor of H. F. B. I.); Duthie FI. upper Gang. PI., II, 93;

Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras, Pt. v, 896. Syn : Heliotropium panicul-

atum R. Br. Prod. 494 (not of Roxb.); H.F.B.I., IV, 1 5 1 ; Cooke,

FI. Pres. Bomb., V, II, Pt. 1. 212. Heliotropium linifolium Lehm. ;

Wt. Ic. t. 1391.

An erect herb, 1-2 ft. high, with stout root stock and numerous

ascending branches; stem and branches more or less strigose or

sometimes quite glabrous. Leaves alternate, nearly sessile, linear,

very narrow, acute, clothed on both sides with appressed hairs or

the upper surface glabrous, margins recurved. Flowers shortly

pedicellate, in slender simple or forked racemes ; bracts linear, hairy.

Calyx 5-partite, strigose outside. Corolla hairy outside, limb white,

tube yellow; lobes ovate-deltoid, with plicate sinuses between.

Stamens 5, inserted rather low down in the corolla tube; pollen

cylindrical with longitudinal ridges and furrows. Style very short,

stigma conical, a little longer than the style, stigmatic ring con-

spicuous. Ovary more or less perfectly 4-celled, ovules 1 in each

cell. Fruit sub-globose, nutlets hairy on the back, acute at the

apex, (plates I and II). Flowers June to September.

Habitat.

S. Deccan and Ceylon (Hooker, 3) ; not very commbn in the

Bombay Presidency (Cooke, 1); confined to the N.-W. portion of

Gangetic Plain (Duthie, 2) ; very common in Hyderabad, growing in

patches (Plate I, Fig. 1), (Sayeedud-Din, 6).

Distrib. — S. India, Ceylon, Siam and Australia (Hooker, 3).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate

Fig. i. — An association of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.

Fig. 2. — Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IL

Sayeedud-Din : He liotr opium zeylanicum Lamk.

[ For explanation see end of article .

Jo urn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate III.

Sayeedud-Din : — Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.

[ For explanation see end of article .

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS

245

Anatomical Notes.

Structure of the leaf. (Plate III, Figs, i and 3). The epidermis

consists of large cells with their outer walls greatly thickened, and

arched convexly outwards. The stomata occur more on the lower

than on the upper surface.. They do not belong to any special type,

but, according to Strasburger and Vesque (Solereder, 7) they belong

to the Cruciferous type which is frequently obscured. Hence no

special arrangement of the epidermal cells around the guard-cells is

recognizable. The mesophyll consists of palisade tissue on the

upper side and of arm-palisade tissue on the lower. Sabnis (5)

records the same in Heliotr opium supinum , H. paniculatum Linn.,

Trichodesma indicum, and Arnebia hispidissima.

Internal secretory organs occur in the form of cells containing

tanniniferous contents in the middle of the mesophyll.

Oxalate of lime is present in the form of solitary crystals in the

leaf as well as in the axis.

The clothing hairs on the axis and the leaves are unicellular,

elongated, and gradually tapering towards the apex. Their walls

are verrucose, and in many a cystolith-like body is developed in the

basal portion which is bulbous. (Plate III, Fig. 2). Glandular

hairs are not present.

Structure of the axis. (Plate III, Fig. 4). The epidermal cells

are large, with their outer walls thickened and cuticularised. The

primary cortex consists of colourless parenchyma, and chlorenchyma.

The endodermis possesses granular contents. Scattered groups of

stone-cells occur in the pericycle. The pith consists of thin-walled

cells with granular contents.

Conclusions.

The anatomical study of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.. reveals

the following characteristic features : —

1. Stomata do not belong to any particular type.

2. Oxalate of lime occurs in the stem and leaf in the form of

solitary crystals.

3. Cystolith-like bodies are developed in the basal bulbous

portion of some of the clothing hairs.

4. The clothing hairs are unicellular, elongated and verrucose.

Glandular hairs do not occur.

5. Internal secretory organs occur in the form of cells holding

tanniniferous contents in the middle of the mesophyll.

6. The mesophyll consists of palisade tissue on the upper side

and of arm-palisade tissue on the lower.

7. In the axis, scattered groups of stone-cells occur in the

pericycle.

Acknowledgements.

I am thankful to Mr. Sri Ramloo for preparing th£ photograph

and the drawings.

246 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Literature Consulted.

1. Cooke, T. — The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, pt. i, p. 212

(1904).

2. Duthie, J. F. — Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain, ii, p. 93 (1911).

3. Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, p. 151 (1885).

4. Gamble, J. S. — Flora of the Presidency of Madras, pt. v, p. 896 (1923).

5. Sabnis, T, S. — ‘The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian

desert.’ J-I.B., Vol. ii, No. 3, pp. 61-66 (1921)

6. Sayeedud-Din, M. — ‘A further contribution to some of the common flower-

ing plants of the Hyderabad State ; their distribution and economic importance.

Dicotyledons. J.B.N .H.S., Vol. xl, No. 2, p. 204 ( 1938 )

7. Solereder, H. — Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl. Ed., Vol. i,

PP- 554“56i (1908).

8. Wight, R. — leones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, p. 33, t. 1391 (1838-53).

Explanation of Plates I-III.

Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.

Plate I.

Fig. 1. Photograph of an association of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.

Fig. 2. Photograph of a single plant.

Plate II.

Fig. 1. Black and white drawing of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.

(Nat. size).

Fig. 2. Corolla opened out. (x 10).

Fig. 3. Pollen grain, (x 300).

Fig. 4. Pistil with calyx attached, (x 10).

Plate III.

Fig. 1. Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata, (x 300).

Fig. 2. Trichome, showing the cystolith-like body in the basal bulbous

portion. (X300).

Fig- 3- T. S. Leaf, showing, s, secretory cell containing tanniniferous con-

tents. (x 300).

Fig. 4. T. S. Stem, showing, ep, thickened epidermis ; chi, chlorenchyma

In cortex, chloroplasts not shown ; st, stone-cells in the pericycle. (x 300).

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Some more New Lepidoptera from S. W. Iran.

Figures 1-6 are on same scale and show comparative size and shape of various Fars "winter moths”.

Fig. 1. Epitherina rhodopoleos Wli., pale specimen. Fig. 2, 8. Cuc-ullia jaucicola Wilts., type, cN

Fig. 3. Erannis probably bajaria Schiff., ssp. cf- (Fars, November). Fig. 4, 5, 11. Heterobapta

plumellata Wilts., types, cf $ • Fig. 6. (?) Erannis bahmana Wilts., type, c? Fig. 7. (?)

Epitherina pistaccioe Wilts., type , $ . Fig. 9. Hemerophila engys Wli., type, c? (Berserini,

Kurdistan, October). Fig. 10. Eogenes alcides clama Wilts., type, cf underside (Maidan-i-

Naftun, 6.V.1938 : See "Mesopotamian Desert Lepidoptera”, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol. XLII. No. 4. Dec. 1941. p. 833). Fig. 12 (?) Erannis bahmana larva. Fig. 13,

14. Cucullia jaucicola larvae (Fig. 14 also shows food-plant leaf.)

SOME MORE NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM S.-W. IRAN,

WITH THEIR LIFE HISTORIES

By

E. P. Wiltshire, f.r.e.s.

( With a plate).

A previous article (‘New Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xlii, Aug. 1941) introduced various

new species taken in 1940 in Fars, and mentioned that others were

still sub judice. One of these is now here brought forward,

together with three other new species bred from caterpillars found

in Fars in 1941.

The present article, dealing with the life histories of the three

latter, may be considered as No. 6 in my series ‘Early Stages of

Oriental Palearctic Lepidoptera’, of which No. 5 appeared in

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xliii, p. 621, April 1943.

I am indebted for useful advice to Mr. Louis Prout regarding

the three Geometridae here described ; he has examined a paratype

of one of them and seen photos of the others. The genera, to

which the two latter are here tentatively attributed, have not yet

been authoritatively diagnosed; but since there is little doubt that

the species are new, and the early stages can be described and

illustrated, I felt it perhaps permissible to publish the discoveries

to the best of my present ability, rather than, by waiting till the

end of hostilities, run the risk of losing both the material and my

records of it. Present world conditions naturally prevent inter-

national consultation of the sort possible and advisable before such

a publication in peace time.

The present paper, however, by no means exhausts the tally

of new species which could be brought forward from my Fars

material. In particular, I have in mind a Crocallis and an autumnal

Chilena (?), of whose early stages also I have notes and photos.

I omit them here because I have been given to understand by

Dr. Wehrli that W. Brandt has described or will shortly describe

the former, and, in the latter case, because I have not been able to

consult a Bombycid-specialist and I lack a male specimen too.

The plate illustrating the new species here described also illu-

strates the larvae of two of them and in addition illustrates the

types of two previously described species or forms from my col-

lection, and two Fars ‘winter moths’ for comparison with the three

Geometridae here described.

The previous article mentioned in the first paragraph above

should be consulted by readers interested in the floristic character

of the Fars mountains where these discoveries have been made,

Cucullia faucicola sp.n.

In introducing this distinctive addition to the lychnitis-verbasci group of

the genus Cucullia, a few words on the distribution of the group will not be

amiss.

The group is characterised by a similarity in facies of the adult, by the

strictly vernal phenology of the moth, by association of all its members with

yerbascum or scrophularia as foodplant, by the comparatively small difference

248 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

discernible in the male genitalia of its different species, by the specific dis-

tinctiveness of the larvae, "and by the occurrence of distinct species with a

limited range scattered here and there over the wide range of the two com-

monest and most generally distributed species, viz. : — lychnitis Ramb. and

verbasci L.

From India I know of only one species having been previously recorded,

namely stigmatophora Hamps., which is probably a close relative of faucicola ;

the type of the Indian species was taken at Simla. But I am able here to

add for India a second species of this group, namely the common species

verbasci L. which ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific of the Old World ;

I observed its unmistakable larvae on verbascum in Kashmir at 5000 to 7000 ft.

in May-June 1942. For the differences between stigmatophora and the Central

Asian species notodontina Bours. and the Trans-Caspian species Zerkovuitzi

Bours., see Boursin — ‘Contribution & l’Etude des Noctuidae-Trifidae, No. XII’

( Revue Frangaise dJ Ent., 1 (1934). Quite possibly lychnitis also occurs in

Palearctic India.

In the Middle East, the group is represented by both lychnitis and verbasci ,

and a number of more local species : — lychnitis occurs1 from the Mediterranean

coast-level up on to mountains and plateaux of the hinterland, usually accom-

panied by verbasci. These two species have not been noted from the low

lying Mesopotamian desert, which however produces the rare species strigicosta

Bours., so far only taken from the Khaniqin region of Iraq. Both the com-

moner kinds occur in North Persia, but in the south of that country some

climatic factor seems to limit their range, for I failed to find verbasci at all

in Fars, and only found lychnitis in Fars in the 7,000 ft. high region of

Ardekan, which is the southernmost point to which many species distinctive

of the Middle East reach on the Zagros range. Barthae Bours. ranges from

the Elburz range through Anatolia and Syria to Italy. Xylophanat Bours. only

occurs in Central Asia, together with notodontina, while anceps Stgr., originally

described as ranging from Syria and Turkey as far as Turkestan has yet to

be proved to occur so far afield, and at present it is best described as a

species Confined to the high mountains of N. Persia, Syria and Turkey.

Osthelderi Bours. is only known from the Taurus Mts., Turkey. The mention

of the other local Palearctic members of the group that occur further west

is not necessary here.

Faucicola is easily distinguished in the imago from all the foregoing species

and from the more westerly members of the group also by the clear delineation

across its forewing of both the ante-median and post-median lines. It resem-

bles stigmatophora in that the orbicular stigma is clearly visible by its paler

colouring against a greyer background, but differs in that its reniform stigma

is similarly clearly visible. Its larva is also easily distinguished from all the

Midde East species of which the early stages are known ; its nocturnal habits

separate it from all others so far recorded from Persia except perhaps anceps ,

of which the early stages are still unknown ; it is probably extremely local

because of its close attachment to a foodplant of a very specialised habitat.

Male : Fore- wing : — whitish buff, heavily dusted with brown, especially

along the cell, where the reniform and orbicular stigmata are left paler. 1st

line, zigzag, dark brown with a whitish inner edge. Central shade, running

from costa between stigmata, to inner margin, diffuse, regularly curved,

visible throughout its length ; outer line, curving inwards between the nervures,

dark brown with whitish outer edging. Costa, dark grey except for whitish

marks, which continue across the wing as the paler edging of the lines already

described and for whitish dots marking the termination of nervures 10, 11 and

12. Hindwing : — sooty brown; the nervures darker; darker grey towards

the termen. Span : — 41 mm.

Holo -Type: — <d\ hatched 8-2-42 from larvae found in March and April,

1941, in Tang-Ab gorge, near Firuzabad, Fars. (4000 ft.). In coll.m.

The larva is dirty green, infused dorsally with bluish grey. Dorsal line,

yellowish white, interrupted at the somital joints. Subdorsal lines, faint, whitish

green. Spiracles, yellow, black-rimmed, placed just above a yellowish white

line interrupted in the somital joints. Setae, black. Dorsal markings, rudi-

mentary, consisting only of two very faint black commas and four dots on each

somite, arranged transversely to the central line. Head, dirty yellow brown,

with black specks.

SOME MORE NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM S.-W. IRAN

249

Foodplant, a species of Scrophularia with round fleshy dentate leaves and

brittle stems, growing only on vertical cliff faces in gorges at 3000-4000 ft. in

Fars, a zone intermediate between the true desert zone (with date-palms) and

the high mountains and steppes. The larva hides by day in the clumps of this

plant and can be shaken or beaten out into a tray. It feeds at night on the

flowers and leaves.

Like other nocturnal feeders of the group, this larva’s markings are rudi-

mentary and not conspicuous like those of the diurnal feeders of the group

which rest by day on the flowers and whose bright colouring is thought to be

‘warning-colouring’ denoting distastefulness.

Strigicosta , one of its nearest dwelling relatives, is a conspicuously marked

day-feeding larva, to be found on a different species of Scrophularia , which grows

on the tops of low desert hills, at 500-1000 ft., between the Mesopotamian desert

and the Zagros range. Its back is marked with a series of heavy black crosses

(my fuller description of this larva was given by Boursin in his original descrip-

tion of strigicosta, ‘Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Agrotidae-Trifinae, XXIII,

(Mitt. Muench. Ent. Ges. XXX Jahrg. 1940, Heft II).

Heterobapta plumellata n. gen & n. sp.

This genus (type : — plumellata mea) differs from Bapta Steph. ( Aleucis Curt.)

in the pectination of the male antenna. The type cannot be regarded as a

Thera or as an aberrant Erannis because its female is fully winged. It cannot,

either, be put into Wehrli’s genus Epitherina , according to Prout, who has

examined a male plumellata, because Wehrli describes that genus as having a

well-developed tongue and ‘vein SC’long anastomizing with cell’, apart

from a probable difference in frontal prominences and male antennae.

Megametopon Alph., another neighbouring genus, is too little known to attribute

this new species to it. The erection therefore of a new genus for the present

specis is, according to Prout, ‘forgivable’.

In facies, plumellata closely resembles Bapta ( Aleucis ) distincta H.S. ( pictaria

Curt.) ssp : orientalis Stgr. (perhaps a distinct species from distinctata ), but

orientalis and distinctata fly in spring and the males have simple antennae;

plumellata is autumnal. The enlarged photo in the plate gives so good an

idea of this species that a further detailed description is unnecessary here ;

the ochreous forewing is heavily speckled with black and marked by a clear

black elongated cell-spot which is parallel with the outer margin ; the teeth

of the irregularly running postmedian line are also defined clearly in black

in most examples. Antenna : — bipectinated in the 'male, simple in the female.

Otherwise, the sexes closely resemble each other.

Span : — 27-28 mm.

Holo -Type: <$ , Pir-i-Zan woods, (c. 7,000 ft.) 20-10-40. Fars.

Allo-Type : 9 > ditto. Both, in coll. mea.

Para -Types: c3'd'9.9$> Sineh Safid, (C. 6,500 ft.), 27-10-40, Fars.

One of these para-types has been seen by Mr. Prout ; all are in my

collection.

The early stages are not known to me.

(?) Erannis bahmana sp. n.

I should not be surprised if the female of this species proved to be fully

winged, and in that case the species would have to be attributed to Heterobapta

or Epitherina (see above), or a new genus and not to Erannis.

Bahmana can be distinguished from plumellata by its being vernal, and

also, in facies, by the weaker definition of its cell-spot and other markings

and its straighter-running post-median line. It flies at the same time as

rhodopoleos but differs from it in foodplant : — I described the early stages

of rhodopoleos in ( Early Stages of Oriental Palearctic Lepidoptera’ ( Journ .

Bombay Nat. Plist. Soc., April, 1943) ; its foodplants are Prunus and Amy gdalus ;

bahmana is about the same size and shape as rhodopoleos but can be distin-

guished by the starting of the straighter running postmedian line nearer the

apex of the forewing.

Male : — antenna, penicillate. Fore-wing, dirty brownish-white densely speckled

with black, thus appearing grey. First line, indicated by slight grey shades

on the costa and inner margin only. Postmedian line, dentate, with a blackish

250 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

outward point on each nervure, clearest near the apex, where it has a whitish

outer edge, and running fairly straight across the fore-wing. Discal spot

(cell-spot), faint. Termen, black, whitish edged. Fringes, grey, paler basad.

Hindwing, paler grey, with one rather straight dentate line, most clear near

the anal margin. Termen, black, interrupted. Fringes, brownish grey. Under-

side : — both wings, paler, with discal spots faint but traceable ; forewing,

postmedian-line clearly marked in black on costa near apex, where it starts

at right-angles to the costa, then curves parallel to the margin and disappears;

hindwing, postmedian line, dentate, traceable throughout. Termen, interrupted.

Span, 27 mm.

A non-descript, weakly-marked little moth.

Holo -Type: — cf, hatched on 2-2-42 from a larva found at 6,000 ft. on Muk

Pass (Gir-i-Bahman), Fars; (south of Shiraz), in coll. m.

Larva: — slender, grey, with small head; dorsal, subdorsal, and lateral lines,

broad, darker grey, with darker edges. Dots black. A dorsal series of dark

grey ,x marks. Spiracles, white, grey-rimmed, inconspicuous, placed above

a whitish line edged below with a heavy black interrupted line. Underside,

grey-dappled and less strikingly lined and marked, but with a pale sublateral

and ventral line. Head, small, rather flattened, grey, dotted with black.

(Figure 12).

Foodplant, the wild pistacia trees of the Fars steppe- woods ( Pistacia (?)

khinjuk) ; on the leaves.

The larva is full-grown in May ; the moth emerges the following February,

and probably also in March and April at high altitudes.

Several larvae of this species were extracted from the> bill of an immature

Dryobates syriacus, which nests in the wild pistacia trees ; proof, if any were

needed, that this Pied Woodpecker feeds not only on what it may find in

the bark but on what it finds on the foliage of the trees.

Epitherina pistaciae sp.n.

Until a male be forthcoming,, one cannot be sure to what genus to attribute

this striking species. It agrees with rhodopoleos Werhli in season, in general

shapQ, of wings and in the female’s being full-winged, but differs in foodplant

and facies. The bold markings recall a Boarmia and at once distinguish it

from the other Fars spring or autumn moths, rhodopoleos, plumellata, and

bahmana, which resemble each other to some extent superficially. Its larval

structure as well as that of the imago’s thorax, etc., rule out the possibility

of its really being a Boarmia.

Female : — antenna, simple. Forewing, pale buff, freckled with grey in median

field. Basal line, heavy, black, with two sharp angles, one on the cell, the

other actually touching the antemedian line, near the inner margin. Ante-

median line, heavy, black, zigzag, but less extremely angled, and with its

angles not conforming with those of the basal line. Postmedian line, curving

basad between the nervures, which each here bear a fine white dot on the

tooth edge of this line. Submarginal area, heavily shaded with grey, but the

white dentate submarginal line running from apex to inner margin is distinctly

traceable and is placed just posteriorly to a straighter dark shade. Termen : —

a disconnected series of black circumflex marks. Fringes, grey, with a white

middle line parallel to termen, but blacker basad. Hindwing, pale buff, heavily

freckled with grey, more so towards anal margin. First line, darker grey,

vaguely defined ; second line, dark grey, curving basad between the nervures,

and edged outwardly with whitish. Submarginal line, as on forewing,

if rather more interrupted. Termen, as on forewing, but less

interrupted. Fringes, as on forewing. Discal spot, weakly indicated. Under-

side :— whitish buff, freckled with grey, especially in submarginal area near

forewing apex ; discal spots visible on both wings, less clearly marked on hind-

wing. Span : 27 mm.

Holo-Type 9 , hatched on 28-2-42, from a larva found in May at 6,000 ft.

on the Muk Pass, south of Shiraz, Fars.

Larva : — slender, with small head ; green, finely and faintly lined with yellow.

Somital joints, yellow. There is a distincter white sublateral line just below

the inconspicuous yelloxt spiracles. The lips of the anal orifice have a fine

white edge. Head, small, rather flattened, glossy, pale green.

Foodplant, wild pistacia op th$ leaves. Full-grown in May.

SOME MORE NEW LEPIDOPTERA' FROM S.-W. IRAN 251

The Plate.

Besides the above four new species, the plate also shows : — Fig. i. A pale

example of E. rhodopoleos. This species varies considerably, and melanic exam-

ples occur occasionally (I took one at Shapur Gorge on 28-2-41 (3,000 ft.) The

commonest form was illustrated by Brandt in his article which appeared in

the Ent. Rundschau 1938-9; Wehrli’s original description appeared in the same

periodical, in 1938, No. 31 (p. 354).

Fig. 3 is of a species which flies together with H. plumellata but cannot

be confused with any other Fars ‘winter moth’ ; its provisional determination

is a South Zagros race, probably not named yet, of Erannis hajaria Schiff.

The female is wingless, and I have bred several examples of this form. In

captivity its emergence extends from November into January.

Fig. 9 is of the only known specimen of Hemerophila ( Megaly cinia ) engys

Wehrli, of which this rather poor photo was taken by me before transmitting

it to Switzerland, where it still reposes. Being a Zagros autumnal moth,

though from the North Zagros, it may be. useful to readers to have an

illustration of it in this article. The original description appeared in Mitt.

Munch. Ent. Ges. xxix Jahrg. 1939. Heft. 1.

Fig. 10. Eogenes alcides ssp : elama mea ; a preliminary description appeared

in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., December 1941; at the time of writing

(October 1942) I believe the longer description has not yet' been published.

THE PAPAYA, ITS BOTANY, CULTURE AND USES.

BY

L. S. S. Kumar and A. Abraham.

(College of Agriculture, Poona.)

( With four plates).

Carica papaya, commonly known as the Papaya, is a native of

tropical America, where nearly all the other forty and odd species of

the genus Carica are to be found. With increase of facilities in

navigation, the species spread to nearly all parts of the tropical

world and is now a well established fruit tree of importance in most

places where it can be successfully grown. It is believed on good

authority (vide story, 1941) that the papaya first came to India from

Malacca as early as the sixteenth century. At present it is found

in cultivation in all tropical countries and extends into some

sub-tropical areas also in America. Frost completely destroys the

plant; and so it cannot be grown in areas subject to extreme cold

during any part of the year. As an easily cultivated plant with a

very profitable and continuous yield of tasty fruits, having health-

giving properties, the papaya deserves wider recognition in India.

General Description.

The botanical relationship of the genus Carica has been rather doubtful and

it has variously been classified with the families Passifloraceae, Cucurbitaceae,

Bixaceae and Papayaceae, though now it is placed under Caricaceae. The

papaya is a large, almost herbaceous, dicotyledonous plant consisting usually

of a rather fleshy, though firm, erect stem surmounted with a crown of large

leaves. The stem and the leaf stalk are hollow. The plant does not normally

branch unless the main bud is damaged, in which case a few; branches arise,

one each from the axil of any of the lower leaves. The flowers are borne in

modified cymose inflorescences in the axils of leaves. One of the most interest-

ing and at the same time puzzling features of the plant is the production of a

variety of sex types possessing various flower types.

Cytology of Carica.

Chromosome studies on papaya as well as related species of Carica (vide

Kumar and Abraham, 1942a) have shown that all the. investigated species

have a chromosome number of ti = g and 2n = 18 and the morphology of the

chromosomes also suggest close relationship between different species. Studies

in progress in our laboratory on the cytology of the different sex types of

papaya1 have shown no differences in the morphology or behaviour during

cell division of their chromosomes. x

Flowers.

The flower types vary from the male, with a pistillode and ten functional

stamens attached to the tubular corolla, to the female flower with free petals,

functional ovary and no stamens. Various intergrades appear between these,

the hermaphrodite flower with functional pistil and stamens coming mid-way

between the two extreme sex types. The functional flowers have a structure

1 Scheme of research financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate l

Kumar and Abraham — Papaya.

Drawing showing female, hermaphrodite and male flowers. Note the difference

in cross section between the female and the hermaphrodite. In the latter flower

there are five stamens while in the male there are ten.

253

THE PAPAYA , ITS BOTANY / CULTURE AND USES

well adapted for pollination both by wind and by insects. Flowers, and con-

sequently fruits, develop progressively from one foot above ground level to

the apex of the stem. This guarantees a continuous supply of fresh fruits

(except in regions subject to great seasonal fluctuations).

Sex types and flower types.

Papaya is erroneously considered as a dioecious plant. Actually it is

polygamous and there are three main sex types : (i) pistillate or female,

(ii) hermaphrodite or bisexual, and (iii) staminate or male. True monoecious

types are also not lacking, as occasionally we find male plants having a few

female or bisexual flowers at the ends of inflorescences. Higgins and Holt

(1914) described thirteen sex forms in the papaya. But genetical studies and

extensive observations on the flowering characteristics of a large number of

plants in Hawaii have shown that there are only four distinct heritable sex

forms, one pistillate, one staminate and tw;o hermaphrodites (Storey, 1941).

Seasonal effects may cause minor changes in these basic types, and casual

observations on such forms have apparently led to the recognition of a large

number of sex forms.

Pistillate or female tree.

This tree bears only female flowers having functional pistils (see photo,

PI. III). Occasionally late in the season or due to unfavourable conditions

it produces pistillate flowers which drop off. The fruits are spherical and

oblong in shape and usually borne singly in the axils of leaves.

Hermaphrodite I.

This is a type which continuously produces functional flowers, having both

pistil and stamens. Slight variations in the type of flower, however, occurs due

to seasonal change. This variation takes the form of irregularities in the

ovary, with varying distortions of the carpels as a result of which distorted fruits

are formed. Some of the lateral flowers are non-functional.

Hermaphrodite II.

This is similar to the above in flower morphology, but the plants are

summer-sterile. The flowers produced during the summer do not have func-

tional pistils and the male • element is better developed. As a result of this

variation the stem has alternating lengths of fruit-bearing and barren regions.

Staminate or male plant.

The male plant is easily recognised by the long pendulous inflorescences

borne on it and the small flowers with narrow tubular corollas (Plate III).

Occasionally a male plant may bear a few bisexual or female flowers, at or

near the terminal portion of the inflorescences and these may give rise to

a few fruits (Plate V).

Genetics of Sex in Papaya.

Independent investigations carried on at Hawaii by Dr. W. B. Storey,

and at Nelspruit, South Africa, by Dr. J. D. J. Hofmeyr have thrown interest-

ing light on the genetics of sex in papaya. Sex determination has been shown

to be based on simple Mendelian factors. The male and the hermaphrodite

are heterozygous for sex, while the female is homozygous, having 2 doses

of m, the recessive factor for femaleness.

Crosses between female and male give progeny which shows an equal

proportion of female and male. Crosses between female and hermaphrodite

give a progeny with an equal proportion of female and hermaphrodite.

Hermaphrodites selfed gives a proportion of 1:2 of female and hermaphrodite.

The occasional flower with functional pistil enables selfing of the ‘male’ and

this gives a 1 ’.2 ratio of female and males. Hermaphrodites crossed with

male gives progeny showing equal proportion of females, hermaphrodites and

males.

2S4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

From the above summary of the results of genetical studies we see that

the usual condition in nature is pollination of female by males, as the progeny

from open pollinated flowers in plantation with a large number of males gives

a i : i ratio of female to male. From a commercial point, the best cross is

female x hermaphrodite, which gives rise to plants which are all fruit yielding.

Because the hermaphrodite is always heterozygous, no race pure-breeding for

sex could be obtained. The best that could be achieved is to eliminate males

by using pollen from hermaphrodite to pollinate female flowers. For such

artificial pollination, the female flowers should be covered with butter paper

bags in the bud stage and the day the flower opens the stigma should be

dusted with anthers removed from hermaphrodite flowers (also bagged in bud

stage to avoid contamination with foreign pollen). Anthers should be taken

from flowers just prior to opening, as the pollen is shed at that stage. - A

single hand-pollinated fruit of good size may give nearly thousand seeds and

as all the viable seeds would give rise to fruit yielding plants, the trouble

taken to ensure controlled pollination is really worthwhile. But if the demand

for seeds is very large and production of reliable seeds has to be made on

a commercial scale the method suggested below might be followed by com-

mercial nurseries. Grow a small area, say about an acre', of papayas at a

safe distance of at least half a mile from any other papaya plant. Use the

best available seed for the nursery and plant three or four seedlings, one foot

apart, in each pit. As soon as flowering commences remove all the males

and retain as many females and hermaphrodites as possible, keeping only

one plant per pit. After the final weeding of the male plants are over, remove

the few young fruits on the trees retained, as these might have received

pollen from some male pants. The fruits developing after this on the female

plants may be collected for seeds, while the fruits on the hermaphrodites may

be sold off. In choosing the fruits for seeds note the following further points : —

The plant must be vigorous and a good yielder ; the fruit must be of a large

size with good shape and ripening into an attractive colour ; the flesh must

be thick and deep yellow when ripe, and the taste of the fruit must be the

best in the variety. The crop produced from this first- selection will necessarily

be variable though approximately equal numbers of females and bisexuals may

be obtained from the seeds collected in this manner, if no contamination from

stray males has taken place. From the second plantation onwards it is not

necessary to plant more than two seedlings per pit, as the chances of male-

plants appearing decrease with each successive selection. If this method of

selection is persisted in, male plants could be eliminated and a fairly uniform

crop with desirable qualities could be obtained. However, it must be stressed

that for success in this method there should be no male papaya plants in the

near vicinity of the plantation as otherwise wind or insect pollination might

lead to some contamination. The only sure method, is bagging the flowers and

pollinating artificially as described earlier. Another point to be remembered

is that while for seed purposes the best cross is female x hermaphrodite, in

open-pollinated conditions presence of a few male plants guarantees larger

quantities of pollen, which is necessary for good seed setting, which appears

to have some favourable effect on the development of the fruit. So in large

plantations it is best to allow a few male plants also, as this would ensure

better fruit production. Seedlings for these males can be separately raised

from seeds obtained from the occasional, fruits of a male plant. These would

normally give rise to more than sixty per cent, of male plants and a few of

such seedlings can be added on later to the plantation raised from seeds obtained

by controlled pollination.

Fruits.

Papaya fruits are extremely variable in size, shape, colour, flavour, etc.,

and even in the same variety there is no uniformity regarding all these

characters. Generally it is spherical to oblong in shape and is made up of

five carpels fused together by their margins to form a hollow cavity inside

which a large number of seeds with parietal placentation are found. In all

the varieties except the Travancore papaya1 (Kumar and Abraham, 1942b)

1 In the Travancore papaya the whole plant is yellow and the flowers and

fruits are markedly yellow. The leaves are yellowish green and the fruit on

ripening changes to a reddish yellow and has an agreeable flavour.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

A female papaya plant nearly one year old. Due to poor soil fertility and

effect of seasonal variation the upper part is without fruit.

Kurrtuf ana Abraham — Papaya,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate III

9

Kumar and Abraham — Papaya.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Left. A male plant bearing a few female flowers and fruits at the terminal portion of inflorescences predominantly bearing male flowers.

Right. A plant with inflorescences exactly similar to the male inflorescence in appearance, but with all flowers female. The flowers are only

as large as the male flowers but the terminal flower is much larger and usually functional.

THE PAPAYA, ITS BOTANY, CULTURE AND USES

255

the skin of the fruit is green when immature and it turns to a fine yellow

colour with varying tinges of orange or crimson. The colour of the ripe

fruit depends on the climate also. Thus, it is noted that while the climate

of Travancore is quite suitable for a luxuriant growth of the papaya plant,

the fruits when they ripen have a pale green colour with only a tinge of

yellow at the bottom. In a colder and slightly drier climate like Poona the

fruits usually assume an attractive yellow colour on ripening. Similar observa-

tions on the effect of climatic conditions on the colour of the fruit have been

made by Hofmeyr (1939). The taste of the fruit is independent of the external

colour of the skin and it has been also noted that the colour may be improved

by selection. But the market value of fruits depend to a great extent on its

colour.

Culture of the Papaya.

Any well drained soil is suitable for papaya cultivation, though it comes

to its best when grown in deep rich soil. Under the best conditions of soil,

moisture, light, and heat the plants mature at an early age and produce an

abundance of fruits from as low as one foot from the ground. In shaded

jplaces or under less favourable climatic or soil conditions the plants show a

tendency to be slender and the bearing is very poor.

Propagation is entirely done by seeds. Seeds are sown in well prepared

seed beds. The best time to sow the seed is from June to August. Sow the

seeds in rows nine to twelve inches apart and allow one to two inches between

seeds. Then cover the seeds lightly with a mixture of soil and river-sand.

Water immediately after sowing and once a day till the seeds germinate, after

which less frequent watering will suffice. Seeds germinate within a fortnight.

Thin out the seedlings so as to allow 4 to 5 inches between plants. Within

two months the seedlings reach a height of 6 to 8 inches and are ready for

transplanting. The planting pits should be spaced 8 to 10 feet in either direc-

tion (which allows about 500 plants per acre) and should be 2 feet deep and

2 feet on the sides. Fill1 the pits with a mixture of soil and farm-yard manure

in equal proportion and 2 lbs. bone meal per pit. Transplanting should be

done carefully and the seekings shaded till they establish properly. Put 3 to

4 seedlings, one foot apart, in each pit. If seeds used are from controlled

pollination (female |X hermaphrodite) one or two seedlings per pit will do.

Within four to six months plants begin to flower, usually the males coming

to flower earlier. As soon as the earliest detectable male inflorescence is seen

on a plant, cut it off and dig it out without damaging the roots of the neigh-

bouring plants. A dozen male plants per acre is sufficient for normal pollina-

tion, though if a good number of hermaphrodites are present, male plants

are not necessary (see earlier part). Retain only one plant per pit. During

the rainy season care must be taken to see that the water is well drained

off; otherwise whole plantations might be lost due to rotting of the roots.

About two months after transplanting a top-dressing of some easily available

nitrogenous fertilizer such as sodium nitrate or ammonium sulphate should be

given and its application repeated after another three months. If this is not

possible a top dressing of good farm-yard manure may be given every three

months.

Uses of the Papaya.

Papaya is mostly consumed as ripe fruit, either for breakfast or as dessert.

It is a highly nutritious food and is an economic source of vitamins A and C

and of calcium besides possessing smaller quantities of vitamins B and D.

In Hawaii, the country where papaya is extensively cultivated, in addition

to consumption of fresh fruits, some are canned as papaya juice, and quite a

good quantity used for preparation of jam, marmalade, pickle, cocktail, etc.

In Western and Upper India it is usually consumed as ripe fruit, though its

use as a vegetable is well known. In the Bombay market a large-sized ripe

fruit may fetch up to one rupee. In Southern India there is some prejudice

against the fruit, and it is very rarely cultivated ; though in the backyards a

stray plant or two may be occasionally met with. In Travancore also people

have not taken to papaya cultivation though the fruit is generally liked. There

:it is more used as a vegetable, for which raw green fruits are picked. It is

7

256 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

cooked in a variety of ways, the commonest of which is to rerpiove the skin

and seeds and chop the fruit into very small bits and' then boil it, later adding

grated cocoanut, salt and some light spices. It is well known that tough meat

may be rendered tender by cooking it with green papaya fruits. This must

be due to the protein-splitting activity of papain.

Papain.

All the parts of the papaya plant, except the roots, contain a thin milky

latex which flows freely when any part is wounded, but on exposure coagulates

and hardens into a white mass. This latex contains a high percentage of

papain, which is one of the most valuable of plant proteolytic enzymes. Com-

mercial papain is prepared by drying the latex collected by tapping the green

fruits. The method of collection of latex is very simple. Large, nearly mature

green fruits are selected, and three or four shallow, lengthwise incisions are

made on each fruit with a non-metallic knife. Latex flows rapidly and pro-

fusely at first, but coagulation soon checks further flow. The coagulated latex

is carefully scraped off and then dried in the sun. As soon as the latex is

dried and ground into a powder, it should be enclosed1 in air-tight containers,

as exposure to air inactivates the enzyme. Unfortunately, in India no attempts

have been yet made to produce papain on a commercial scale, though immense

possibilities lie in that direction. In 1938, the United States alone imported

nearly 230,000 pounds of papain. Other foreign markets too are available for

papain. The fruits from which papain has been collected are too much scarred

to be of use for marketing, though the taste is not affected. But it could

be used for making jams, jellies, etc. Thus, the collection of papain could be

made more profitable if side by side manufacture of other by-products like canned

juice and pulp, marmalade, jam, etc., could be developed. This is a commercial

possibility which needs careful exploring.

References.

Higgins, J. E. and Holt, V. S. (1914). — The Papaya in Hawaii. Hawaii

Agr. Expt. St. Bui. 32, pp. 44.

Hofmeyr, J. D. J. (1938). — Genetical Studies of Carica papaya I., South

African Dept. Agr. and Forestry Sci. Bui. 187, pp. 64.

Hofmeyr, J. D. J. (1939). — The Culture1, of the Papaya. Farming in South

Africa. Reprint No. 86, pp. 10.

Kumar, L. S. S. and Abraham, A. (1942a). — Chromosome number in Carica.

Curr. Sci Vol. xi, No. 2, p. 58.

Kumar, L. S. S. and Abraham, A.— (1942b). — A new variety of Papaya from

Travancore (under publication).

Storey, W. B. (1941). — The Botany and Sex Relationships of the Papaya,

Hawaii Agri. Expt. Bui. 87, pp. 5-23.

A FEW NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF

THE WORLD.

BY

W. S. Thom.

In this article I propose giving- a brief account of how many

years ago I came upon and shot in Burma my best double-horned

rhinoceros, the species known as Dicer orhinus sumatrensis.

Before doing so, however, I trust I may be pardoned for first

recording somewhat in detail, not only something interesting about

this rare animal, but also a few facts about the other four remain-

ing species of rhinoceros, all of which are as a matter of fact

rapidly heading for extinction.

There are in the world only five species of rhinoceros in existence

at the present time, namely the two species in Africa, both of

which are double-horned, that is to say, the black rhinoceros,

R. bicornis, and the so-called white animal R. simus. Both of

these animals are, as a matter of fact, of a dark grey colour and

stand about six. feet in height at the shoulder. Then there are two

species that are said to exist in Burma, namely the Lesser one-

horned rhinoceros, R. sondaicus, which stands about five feet at

the shoulder or a little higher and is now probably extinct in Burma

and Dicer orhinus sumatrensis , the Sumatran double-horned

rhinoceros, the smallest and the most hairy of all rhinoceroses,

which seldom exceeds a height of more than about four feet six

to eight inches. Finally there is the Great Indian one-horned

rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis , or Rhinoceros indicus as it is

sometimes called. Rhinoceros sondaicus , the Lesser one-horned

animal which must, I suppose, be considered to be the rarest of

all the rhinoceroses was once found in Bengal, Assam, Burma,

Malaya, Siam, Borneo, Sumatra and Java, but there are now pro-

bably only about twenty left in Java, and four or five in a remote

corner of Malaya.

I have never seen this animal R. sondaicus the Lesser one-

horned rhinoceros anywhere in Burma, although I have travelled

and shot over almost the whole of this country, nor have I even

come across any traces of it or even met anyone who had shot

or even seen one. Some years ago it was said by the officers of

the Burma Forest Service to exist in the Kahilu Forest reserve

in the Thaton District of Burma.1 I disputed this at the time and

am still inclined to think, with all due deference to the views of

all of the Forest officers concerned, that they are wrong and that

the only rhinoceros in existence there or anywhere else in Burma

is the double-horned species, namely Dicer orhinus sumatrensis

and that as stated above R. sondaicus is extinct so far as Burma

is concerned. I have not the least doubt that this animal, R. son-

daicus, probably existed in this country for a considerable period

in bygone years but that it has since become extinct.

1 The skull of a Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros ( R . sondaicus) secured from

a decomposing carcase found in this area was sent to us by the Forest Depart-

ment and is now in the collection of the Society. — Eds.

258 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

C. B. C. writing in the Illustrated Weekly of India of March

1939 stated that Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, the double-horned

rhinoceros, once had the same habitat as R. sondaicus, the Lesser

one-horned rhinoceros, except that it was not found in Java; now

however, according to C. B. C. D. sumatrensis survives only in

Malaya and Borneo where perhaps some fifty animals still remain,

but I can state on very good authority that this statement of

C. B. C’s is incorrect as this animal survives also in Burma where

I have shot several of them during the past fifty years, and where

there must be at least forty or fifty more of them still in existence.

In fact I am of the opinion that there were always more of the

double-horned species of rhinoceros in Burma than there ever were

of the single-horned animal, namely R. sondaicus. Probably the

reason for this is that D. sumatrensis have always been more

difficult to get at, being essentially hill climbers invariably found

only in very inaccessible places in the hills, and therefore more

difficult for hunters to get at; whilst R. sondaicus invariably inhabit

the plains and flat country, where naturally enough they are more

easily followed and shot than if they had been inhabitants of the

hills ‘like D. sumatrensis. The latter, namely the double-horned

rhinoceros, is also a much more active, sturdier, and more cunning

animal than is R. sondaicus , but it is also one of the most

harmless wild animals in existence. I consider also that of all

the difficult and exasperating animals to follow through dense

jungle D. sumatrensis easily takes first place.

C. B. C. states also in his article that Rhinoceros unicornis ,

or R. indicus as it is sometimes called, the great Indian one-

horned rhinoceros, was never found outside India, Burma and the

Nepal foothills, and that at the present moment less than two

hundred of these animals still survive in Northern Bengal, Assam

and Burma’. I personally have never heard of this animal’s existence

anywhere in Burma and I do not believe that it ever existed in

this country. In fact I have never met anyone who had ever shot

an R. Unicornis, or even heard of one being shot in Burma.

With regard to the two African species, C. B. C. says , in his

article that the black rhinoceros R. bicornis is still fairly numer-

ous. It is the only species still found in anything like decent

numbers but even it has already died out in certain tracts which

knew it in thousands a few decades ago. C. B. C. also states

that the white rhinoceros, R. simus, is so called from its habit

of wallowing in the white mud of African river beds. It is much

better tempered than the black rhinoceros, feeds on grass instead

of shrubs and lives on open plains,. It curls up its tail on the

rare occasions when it charges and the more frequent ones when

it runs away.’ Its timidity has made it an easy prey to human

cupidity.

In 1936 Sir A. Smith saw nearly two hundred of this white

rhinoceros on a single day’s march in the Transvaal. Several

decades later it was still so common that men like Cotton-Oswell

and Gordon-Cumming — two of the greatest pioneers of African sport

in which category perhaps Selous and Sir Samuel Baker might

also be included — got tired of shooting it. There are now, how-

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 25$

ever, only about a hundred survivors in Uganda, some forty in

Zululand, and a few in the Belgian Congo and the Sudan. They

do not breed until twenty-five years old, and then produce single

tons at intervals of six or seven years. These remarks regarding

the breeding period of the white rhinoceros apply almost equally

to Dicerorhinus sumatrensis , the double-horned rhinoceros, except

that I would say that twenty years is probably nearer the period

when these two animals begin to breed, instead of twenty-five years,

whilst seven months is about the period of gestation, so far as

D. sumatrensis is concerned. I have no doubt the same obtains

in the case of R. sondaicus , the Lesser one-horned rhinoceros, as

well as to its relative the Great one-horned Indian rhinoceros,

R. unicornis!, or R, indicus , so far as the periods of breeding

and gestation are concerned.

It is not generally known by the way that both R. unicornis

and R. sondaicus have so called ‘foot glands’ embedded in the inte-

gument of the foot. In Dicerorhinus sumatrensis the double-

horned animal, however, these glands are absent.

In Africa as in Asia, horn smugglers were responsible for much

illicit rhinoceros destruction. These smugglers used to operate

from the coast buying surreptitiously from those who kill the

beasts, and then ship the horns away in Arab dhows. The traffic

is very difficult to suppress but occasionally a record haul is made.

Only a few years ago for example, five men were detected in an

attempt to smuggle one-hundred and eighty-seven out of Kenya in

one boat.

The Chinese prize the blood as well as the horn of the Burmese,

the Malayan, and the Javanese species wherever found. As a matter

of fact, in all the countries named above, there are only two species

namely the D. sumatrensis, the double-horned animal, and R,

sondaicus, the single-horned rhinoceros, except that as previously

mentioned the last-named is extinct in Burma, so far as I have been

able to ascertain. The Chinese use the blood and horns of the animal

for medicinal purposes as well as for an aphrodisiac, whilst the horns

are sometimes carved into ornaments. Strips of the hide of the

African species are also converted into whips. All rhinoceros horns

are of the same texture, being simply agglutinated hair which, if

cut in a thin transverse section and placed beneath a microscope

exhibit the capillary tubes glued together into a solid body by a

horny substance. There is no material that can equal in toughness

the horn of rhinoceros, and it has always been in request from

time immemorial for various useful and other more imaginary

purposes. The skin of the rhinoceros is exceedingly compact

and dense. When stretched over a block of wood and dried and

then rubbed down with sand paper and oiled, it becomes semi-

transparent like clouded amber, and is also much esteemed when

a square of it is mounted as a top for a tea table. The belief that

a cup formed of rhinoceros horn will detect poison is both ancient

and common and is thoroughly accepted by the Arabs of the Soudan.

The horns of the rhinoceros are not attached to the skull, but

are merely seated upon the hard thick bone which forms a founda-

tion slightly convex, above the nose. The skin is immensely thick

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

at the base of the horns and it appears bristly and rough, to a

degree that would suggest gradual development into horn, which

is actually the case. When a rhinoceros has been killed, and the

head has been exposed in the sun to dry, the horns will fall off

on the third day if struck lightly with a stick, and they expos-

ing the foundation upon which they rested; this closely resembles

the bottom of an artichoke when the prickly leaves have been

removed. Although the horns would appear unsuitable for rough

work, being merely attachments to the skin they are most powerful

weapons of offence.

It has been asserted that the two African species and the Indian

rhinoceros, R. unicornis , all three of which are very bulky animals

and which stand much higher than either D. sumatrensis or

R. sondaicus , will kill an elephant; this is highly probable if

the rhinoceros had an opportunity of striking the elephant in the

stomach or the flank with its horns by an unexpected attack ; but

no rhinoceros would have the remotest chance in actual conflict

with an ordinary full-sized bull elephant as the weight and strength

of the latter would be unmeasurably superior, in addition to the

length and power of the two tusks. Elephants are much afraid

of rhinoceros, but they are almost equally timid with other animals.

A rhinoceros, again, although a sullen stupid brute is usually afraid

of nothing. I am referring of course only to four out of the five

species of rhinoceros and totally exclude D. sumatrensis as it

is quite a harmless animal. We, hunters in the nineteenth century,

were not presumably aware of this until we had been hunting them

for some time.

I possess two small square tea tables made from the hide of. a

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis shot by me, which were mounted

in fumed English oak by Peter Spicer or Leamington, England,

a well known taxidermist. The base or pedestal of each of these

square rhinoceros hide tea tables is composed of a single

foot of the same animal. In the case of one table the hide com-

posing the top has been denuded of the bristles, and polished and

is semi-transparent like clouded amber, whilst the top of the other

table is composed of the natural hide of the animal with the stiff

bristles of hair left on it. I also possess three other rhinoceros

feet that have been mounted by the same taxidermist, two as rose

bowls, and the third as an inkstand.

These articles like other trophies of mine are now no doubt

in the hands of the Japanese with my house and all my other

property including my trophies, negatives, and photographs.

In the nineteenth century nearly every sportsman in India,

Africa and Burma vied more or less with his neighbour as to who

should first shoot the animals with the finest trophies, the result

being that in many cases more animals were shot than was perhaps

necessary. I happen to have the luck to hold five records so far

as Burma is concerned namely (i) tiger, Felis tigris (2) Sambar,

Cervus unicolor (3) Thamin, Cervus eldi} the brow antlered deer

of Burma (4) Goral Cemas goraly and (5) Leopard, Felis pardus.

The fact that I did get these five records does not mean that I

went all out to get them and that in consequence I shot more

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 261

animals than I was entitled to shoot. Not at all. It is a fact

that the shooting- of record heads is entirely a matter of luck and

nothing else. It is of no earthly use trying to tell, an experienced

hunter, that it is anything more. You can boast to yourself, and

to your friends that it is merely a question of perseverance, but it

is nothing of the sort. 1 had a long conversation with the redoubta-

ble F. C. Selous in Perth, Scotland, on the subject of big game

shooting, in the year 1900, when 1 went home on leave for eighteen

months for the first and the last time. He was by the way the

original of Rider Haggard’s Allan Quatermain and one, if not the

greatest, of all African sportsmen ; alas, long since gone west to

the happy hunting grounds. In all the years he hunted big game

in Africa and elsewhere, and amongst all the thousands of animals

he must have shot, never had a single record head or record pair

of elephants tusks to his name.

These exploits of course may easily be decried by the present

generation of sportsmen, some of whom may not have had the

luck to encounter all the thrilling experiences that have fallen to

the lot of old timers such as myself for instance.

A writer in the Burma Police Journal, Volume III, 1940 (see

bottom of page 274) writing about rhinoceros said, ‘I should like

to mention the extraordinary behaviour of two Sumatran rhinoceros

with which I have been in contact during the past two years. In

the first case a Sumatran rhinoceros walked into the middle of

my camp in the Shwe-U-daung sanctuary’. (This sanctuary is

situated in the Ruby Mines District of Upper Burma where I did

a good deal of shooting in the eighties and nineties) ‘at two o’clock

in the afternoon and stopped at a range of ten feet to look at a

camp follower chopping firewood. The rhinoceros showed no

alarm at the sight or scent of human beings. In the second case,

which concerns the rhinoceros I recently photographed in the Kahilu

F'orest reserve of the Thaton District, Burma, it was only after

much shouting on my part, at a range of less than ten yards, that

1 was able to induce the rhinoceros to leave his wallow and within

five minutes of driving him from the wallow he returned again

and resumed his bath. Ah one stage of my attempt to obtain

pictures I approached so close to the animal that I could have hit

him with a long stick, and it is certain that a poacher could

easily have killed the animal with a spear. ‘These experiences’,

the writer goes on to say, ‘incline one to believe, that the rhino-

ceros shooting exploits of nineteenth century sportsmen in this

country’ (namely Burma) ‘were in reality stark butchery and almost

devoid of any skill in tracking or approaching their quarries.’

As I was a nineteenth century sportsman whose exploits so far

as the shooting of rhinoceros was concerned, could in no way be

disputed, I could hardly allow that statement to pass unanswered.

I accordingly wrote to the writer in question who is a forest official

in Burma and asked him whether he included me as one of the nine-

teenth century sportsmen referred to in his article. In his reply

to me he stated that he did not as a matter of fact, include me,

so far as rhinoceros shooting was concerned, and that his own

department (namely the forest department) was not blameless in

this respect, but that he considered that Colonel F. Pollok (the

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol, XLIV

joint author with me of the book, Wild sports of Burma and

Assam which was published by Messrs. Hursh and Blackett in the

year 1900 and which is now out of print) to be one of the most

guilty persons; see the stories of rhinoceros shooting in the book

in question which shooting was almost always done by him from

the back of an elephant’. ‘However, as the writer continues truly

to remark in his letter to me, ‘All the writing in the world will

not restore the rhinoceros population especially the Rhinoceros

sondaicus, the single-horned rhinoceros, which must be considered

to be extinct in Burma.’

I am glad in a way that he concedes this point namely that

Rhinoceros sondaicus does not exist anywhere in Burma even in

the Kahilu Forest reserve, anyway that is what I presume he

means. From the very beginning of the controversy as to whether

there were any of these animals in the Kahilu forest reserve I had

stated that I did not think that any of them existed there at all

now, although I wish it were otherwise, and that I was of the

opinion that the only rhinoceros in existence there now must be

the double-horned species.

Colonel Pollok should not of course have shot rhinoceros in

any country from the back of an elephant, although I have no

doubt they were difficult to get at in Assam as well as in some

parts of India and the foothills of Nepal where there are large

stretches of high dense elephant grass quite twenty and even thirty

feet high which cannot be penetrated unless one is mounted on the

back of an elephant. In Burma of course rhinoceros did not so

far as I am aware enter high elephant grass and therefore in

Colonel Pollok’s days, namely in the fifties and sixties, would easily

have been shot by a sportsman following on foot. As a matter of

fact it is as much an offence for a sportsman to shoot rhinoceros

from the back of an elephant, as it would be for him to shoot an ele-

phant in any country in the world, from the back of another elephant,

the reason being that a vital spot cannot be reached as easily by

a bullet fired from a howdah, or from the pad of an elephant, as

would be the case if the shots were fired from the ground, where

he could put in his shots much more accurately. More animals

are likely to get away wounded by the sportsman firing at them

from unsteady positions such as on a howdah, or on the pad of

an elephant, than would be the case if he had fired at them shooting

from a stationary position on the ground. I regret to say that in

this Way probably Pollok wounded many more rhinoceros that he

never succeeded subsequently in getting. I have never shot any

animals, at any time from the back \ of an elephant, particularly

an elephant, or a rhinoceros, nor did I at any time do any

shooting accompanied by Colonel Pollok anywhere in Burma, Africa,

Ceylon, India or Assam.

Colonel Pollok, who crossed the ‘great divide’ many years ago,

was a well-known sportsman and, no doubt, did a very great deal

of big game shooting in the countries referred to above. He was

a very keen and experienced Shikari and a very good shot, but

he did all his big game shooting in the fifties and sixties when

muzzle loaders even were still in use, long before I came out tO'

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 263,

Burma. The temptation to shoot off the back of an elephant at

any kind of game was naturally enough very great in those days

especially as Pollok always had a large number of Government

elephants at his disposal. As a matter of fact an immense amount

of shooting at tiger and other large and dangerous game was

done in India, Assam, and Ceylon by many well-known European

and Indian sportsmen. In those days moreover there was very

little written or said about the preservation of large or small game

and the formation of game reserves. It is all very well to talk

about these things now a days therefore and condemn or criticize

the shooting exploits of old timers. There is no doubt that a great

many more animals were shot in those bad old days, or shall I

refer to them as the good old days, than now a days, by many

well-known sportsmen shooting in every country in the world.

Many of them also shot some animals from the back of elephants

without realizing they were doing wrong. In the circumstances

therefore a considerable amount of allowance should be made for

their supposed deliquencies in this respect, if needed we can call

them deliquencies.

Now with regard to Rhinoceros Dicerohinus sumatrensis , the

double-horned species, the smallest living rhinoceros in the world

and the most hairy. My shooting of these animals in Burma was

done on foot in the last century by the sweat of my brow, and let

it not be forgotten that I shot them before the year 1917 when

they came under the protection of the law. In the nineteenth

century rhinoceros were so relentlessly pursued wherever they

were to be found throughout the world, for the sake of their horns

and blood, that it was an extremely difficult business following

and tracking up one of these animals to its lair, in Burma at any

rate. They were always so very much on the alert and continually

on the move, and were also usually found in the most inaccessible

places in the hills, except on the very rare occasions on which

they were come upon in their wallows. In a matter of fifty years

of big game shooting I think I came only four times upon D.

sumatrensis, the double-horned species of rhinoceros, in their

wallows, and this after I had carried out, in nearly every case,

very long and arduous treks after them. Now, since these animals

have been protected by law for the past twenty-four years, is it

not reasonable to suppose that they have become in consequence

more tame and unsophisticated than they were before, and that

incidents of the kind such as has been related in the Police Journal

by the writer referred to, were bound to occur? Surely this is

obvious? Cases have often occurred even in the nineteenth century

as well as in the present century when animals have been found and

shot at very close range by experienced sportsmen who have

travelled miles on their tracks and who have also naturally exercised

a great deal of skill in getting so near the animal before shooting

it. This surely does not mean, however, that by so doing, it was

‘sheer butchery and devoid of all skill in tracking and approaching

on the part of the hunter.’

On another occasion in the eighties, after a very hard trek,

I came upon a rhinoceros ‘a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis' lying so

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

deeply immersed in its mud wallow on the Shwe-U-daung range

of hills in the Ruby Mines District of Upper Burma, that although

I was within a few feet of its wallow I was unable to distinguish

which was the head and which was the animal’s hind quarters, and

although I succeeded in shooting it finally, I could easily have

poked it with a bamboo pole before doing so, so utterly oblivious

was it of my presence and the presence of at least three of my

men. It goes without saying that considerable skill in tracking

and approaching so near this animal had to be exercised, and that

therefore, one could hardly say, in this case either, that the animal’s

death constituted sheer butchery, or that it was devoid of all skill

In approaching and tracking.

To revert to some other animals that I have shot at close

quarters. Early one morning many years ago, in 1889 to be precise,

some miles from a place called Wapyudaung a village that is situated

-on the Thabeitkyin Mogok road a solitary bull gaur or bison

standing about twenty hands at the shoulder at which I had fired

and missed at a distance of about fifty yards. I was using a

double barrelled hammerless 8-bore rifle by James Tolley, the

cartridges of which took a charge of ten drachms of black powder.

I continued tracking this animal with my men all day after missing

it in the morning, and finally came up with and shot it dead,

with a right and left, at a distance of only about five yards. It

was standing stock still on a hillock broadside on to me amongst

some bamboo jungle, feeling as weary no doubt as were my hunters

and I. However, had this bull sighted or scented me and my

hunters first, the tables might easily have been turned upon us.

I remember on that memorable occasion, marching all night by

the light of a full moon, and it took me and my companions till

six o’clock in the morning to reach camp. That will give the

reader some idea as to how far my men and I followed the animal

before we came up with it. It was indeed one of the longest and

most arduous treks I have ever undertaken after big game. My

success in bagging this fine twenty hand bull at such close quarters

was entirely due to the skill and untiring perseverance of my hunters

and trackers, and also in part to my own dogged determination

to keep on at it till we came up with the animal once more, or

until the light failed and forced us to give it up, and camp for

the night. The death of this animal could also hardly be described

as being sheer butchery and devoid of all skill in tracking and

approaching.

A well known sportsman from Malaya made a true statement

the other day when he said that as the years pass, the actual

killing of large animals for sport becomes more and more distaste-

ful even to the most ardent followers of big game and although

the urge for the excitement of the chase, may not be at all diminished,

still the climax is no longer accepted with unmixed feelings. Besides

tough and arduous treks become more and more difficult until the

time comes, when ageing muscles will no longer respond to intensive

effort. But one’s energies can still be utilized in a mild form and

one’s active interest in large wild life need not become a memory.

Although I do not consider for a moment that by any means it

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 265

replaces big game shooting, for sheer danger and excitement, may

be photography of large wild animals will fill the blank, and will

provide not only a certain amount of excitement, but also should

be productive of much knowledge of the habits of animals which,

now that the rifle is laid aside, can be watched moving about

without let or hindrance.

I do not wish to imply that wild life photography is an old

man’s recreation, or that it replaces the excitement obtained from

big game shooting, far from it, but it is a recreation worthy of

any one, and can be enjoyed after long jungle journeys are things

of the past — I have heard people refer to those who have given

up the rifle for photography or to hunters who now take an active

interest in photography and wild life conservation as the ‘penitent

butchers,’ an attractive catch phrase, showing the entire ignorance

of those who use it. I believe that unless a man has hunted a

good deal in the jungle he would find the greatest difficulty in

adapting himself to the art of jungle photography. Although the

technique of the sport of jungle photography is the ground work

for the success in either, it must rest on the knowledge of the

jungle and the habits of the animals with which you wish to get

into contact. In other words to be a successful jungle photo-

grapher you should be, or should have been, a successful jungle

hunter.

Rawdon Malet in his well-known book on big game shooting

Unforgiving Moments, says, that Big Game photography is a very

fine sport if indeed it is a sport at all, in the strict sense of the

word. But it is no more a mere, an immediate, alternative, to shoot-

ing, than is watching a grouse’s nest from a hide with a camera,

the immediate alternative, to grouse shooting. They are two

different pastimes, and when not abused, both extremely worthy,

and as it happens readily interchangeable. But to suggest that the

one is ousting the other among the young sportsmen of today is

untrue. Many I think, try to take good photographs on their

shooting trips but the number of young men who say, ‘I will not

take a rifle this time but a camera’ are few and far between. I

deprecate the idea that photography and shooting are identical

except for the click of a trigger or a shutter. They differ funda-

mentally because in the one case, one sets out to kill, a primitive

instinct, in the other to make a picture by modern scientific

methods. I cannot see, however, any chance whatever of humani-

tarian feeling reaching such a pitch in the next hundred years that

killing for sport will cease to be. The desire to take part in blood

sports will not alter. The way in which they are carried out will.

Man is a hunting animal — how often has that truism been made?

Books of the Trader Horn variety find a wide public; films ‘of

the wild’, some of them cruel and unsporting to a degree, draw a

large and enraptured audience. No — there is no sign that in the

next hundred years public opinion will stop the shooting of big

game by fair sporting methods.

I may rebark here that besides shooting several Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis , the double-horned rhinoceros of Burma, which as pre-

viously stated are the smallest and most hairy of all the five species

266 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

of rhinoceroses in the world, I think I can safely say that I have

also seen at close quarters more of these animals in their wild

state in Burma than any other living European or Asiatic sportsman.

I might also add that I could have shot many more of these animals

than I did, as I was given many more opportunities than I availed

myself of.

My experiences of the double-horned rhinoceros over a great

number of years during which period I suppose I have seen between

twenty and thirty of these animals, have been that they are as

active as goats and are also expert hill climbers. They will negotiate

country that neither elephant nor bison could possibly surmount.

Year in and year out I have frequently found them at the tops of the

steepest of hills drinking and wallowing in clear hill streams at

heights varying from 1,300 feet to 1,400 feet, with not a vestige

of mud or muddy water to be found anywhere except in

wallows in low ground at the foot of the hills, miles away near

permanent streams, which proves what I have said before, that

this rhinoceros is an extremely active beast. Another example of

their activeness is that rhinoceros get to their feet when disturbed

and dash away at a much greater speed than would appear to be

possible for such a clumsy looking animal. I found that the double-

horned Sumatran rhinoceros generally fed along steep well wooded

valleys and also along the steep banks of well wooded mountain

streams, most difficult country to get at, as a matter of fact,

so far as the Arakan Hill Tracts District of Burma is concerned.

The majority of these streams at the sources of which rhinoceros

took up their abode are full of rocks, large boulders, high water-

falls, and dense cave and bamboo jungle. In these rocky hill tracts

•there are, with one or two rare exceptions, no mud wallows or mud

baths of which these animals are so fond.

The only other wild animals of Burma that love to wallow in

mud and water, are, the elephant, tapir, pig and sambar, Cervus

unicolor. I noticed, however, that the Sumatran rhinoceros

invariably had their baths in natural pools which had been hollowed

out by the water at the foot of waterfalls. Fine gravel, stones

and rock form the beds or foundations of these pools but there is

no mud as is ordinarily found in most wallows used by D. sutna-

trensis, whilst there is usually about two or three feet of water

in them. When feeding near these mountain torrents, rhinoceros

just bathe where it suits them, that is to say, wherever there is

sufficient water to cover their bodies when they roll about in it.

The approaches to these mountain .pools are in most cases very

steep and inaccessible.

The climbing one has to do also when hunting these animals

in these out of the way hilly localities is really prodigious and

one has to be in the pink of condition to be able to keep going all

day over some of the most trying country to be found any where

in the world. One had often to make long detours to get round

a succession of precipitous waterfalls as it was quite impossible

to ascend or descend most of the beds of these hill streams. My

hunters and I invariably carried about fifty of sixty yards of stout

coir rope to enable us to surmount these waterfalls and steep ascents.

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 267

These remarks apply more particularly . to the ranges of hills which

skirt the Ru, the Lemro, and the Peng rivers in the Arakan Hill

Tracts of Burma where, the D. sumatrensis' is still fairly plentiful

and where the hoarse bark of the ‘gyi’ or barking deer, the hoot

of the gibbon, and the harsh calls of the larger horn bill Dichoceros

bicornis may be heard intermittently from morning till night to

the exclusion of all other sounds.

The only other parts of Burma besides the Arakan Hill Tracts,

and the Ruby Mines Districts where I found D. sumatrensis fairly

plentiful were along the tops and slopes of the Yomah hills, along

either side of the watershed running between Arakan, that is to

say the Kyautpyu and Sandoway districts, and the Thayetmyo

District, but neither in the hills, on the watershed, and slopes be-

tween Arakan and Thayetmyo nor in the Shwe-U-daung range of

hills in the Ruby Mines District did I find these animals in such

inaccessible places as I found them in the Arakan Hill Tracts,

especially among the steep hills which skirt the Peng and Lemro

rivers near Pengwa where the Peng river joins the Lemro. I sup-

pose they had been hunted so persistently and ruthlessly in these

places by the hardy Chin hill tribes who occupy that part of the

world that they were finally driven to occupy these inaccessible

places.

When I was hunting big game in the nineties along the above-

named watershed between Arakan and Burma I noticed that D.

sumatrensis invariably had their wallows at the sources of streams

and in springs as near the top of the watershed as possible. I

noticed this more particularly during the months of September and

October during the rains. Discarded wallows at lower elevations,

dry, during the hot weather, that is to say from the beginning

of March, till the beginning or middle of June are also used again

during the wet weather. A D. sumatrensis may have half a

dozen or more wallows which it knows of and which it visits at

odd times, according to their dry or wet condition, but it does

not necessarily have a daily mud bath. It depends a great deal

on the general weather conditions and whether also a wallow exists

near the ground it happens to be feeding on, but sometimes these

animals also travel long distances to get to a wallow if the weather

is hot and the horse- or gad-flies are troublesome. From the end

of April and onwards until the rains set in, is the worst time for

these pests. A rhinoceros like a pig and a buffalo must have

its bath periodically, be it of mud or only pure clear water. I

have seen elephants rolling about in the mud of a wallow to give

their bodies a coating of it so as to protect their sensitive skins

from the bites of insects.

Rhinoceros often feed on anything green they can get in the

parts of the country about the Peng and Lemro rivers in the Arakan

Hill Tracts. They must have been hard put to it at times to get

anything at all succulent to feed upon in those steep inhospitable

bamboo clad hills. Except for an occasional small patch, here and

there, all evergreen forest in these areas seems to have been destroy-

ed for cultivation purposes by the hill people by their wasteful

-system of felling timber and burning it. If it were not that the

268 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

bamboo is a strong healthy shrdb there would soon be none of

this left either. Nothing can be seen for miles around but the

‘Kayin wa’, ‘bamboo’, Melocanna bambusoides. D. sumatrensis

like most herbiverous animals, however, are very fond of the

flowers and fruit of this bamboo as well as of the young shoots.

A rhinoceros is just like a big pig. It wanders about every-

where, north, south, east and west, as the spirit moves it. Once

it has been disturbed or decides to change its feeding grounds, it

is sometimes almost impossible to overhaul it. It travels at a

quick pace for miles over the most abominable country imaginable,

often in a straight line, until it reaches the desired spot which may

be a luxuriant growth of dense jungle or a wallow.

Rhinoceros make a peculiar subdued, humming, rumbling, or

buzzing sound when submerged in their wallows, especially when

they have had to undergo a long journey during the heat of the

day, or are tired. The sounds are made by the animal through

having a feeling of contentment and pleasure at being immersed

in the cool mud of the wallow. There is no mistaking the sound

once it has been heard. The sound is always the same, it is never

varied. I have heard it as a matter of fact on several occasions

and it has been permanently impressed upon my memory, as well

as upon the memories of my hunters and trackers, for we always

made a point of discussing these sounds again afterwards every-

time we heard them as they were so uncommon. They were doubt-

less made by the animal breathing or passing air through its throat

and nostrils as a sign, presumably, of its pleasure at being immersed

in the cool liquid mud of its wallow after doing a long journey

in the sun. Naturally enough when it entered the wallow the

animal’s body would get cool again very quickly, whilst the coating

of mud with which its body would get plastered after entering

the wallow would protect it at once from the attacks of that dreaded

pest of all animals the gadfly, or horsefly as it is sometimes called.

It is only when they have been disturbed by human agency that

they travel long distances by day, and it is because of an enforced

journey of this kind, during the heat of the day that their entry

into a mud wallow causes them so much pleasure which they give

vent to by making the sounds referred to. At other times rhino-

ceros usually feed and travel at night or in the very early hours

of the morning.

Although I was, I suppose, the first European sportsman to

refer many years ago, in the year 1900 to be precise, to these

peculiar sounds emitted by D. sumatrensis when in their wallows

I see that another writer, (in future in this article I shall refer

to him as the ‘other writer’ when mentioning this and other subjects

on which he and I have touched, and not quite seen eye to eye,

when discussing matters connected with D. sumatrensis, when

referring to this subject in the year 1939, seems to have found

it a little difficult to describe these sounds with sufficient clarity,

and certainly not at all like the sounds heard and described by me.

I will therefore have a friendly exchange of views with him on

this matter in this article. He, I may say, is the only writer

excepting myself who has ever touched on the subject of the noises

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 26$

made by a D. sumatrensis rhinoceros when in its wallow. He,

the ‘other writer’, says, ‘there is a peculiar noise that a rhinoceros

makes when in a wallow. This is a distinctive sound and not at all

like a rhinoceros. The first time I heard it I was with the old

Datok Raja and we could hear a rhinoceros splashing- about in the

wallow but could see nothing-. Presently I heard a noise which

I took to be made by a monkey evidently close to the wallow who

had spotted the rhinoceros and that we must be careful that he

did not spot us too. The old man smiled and shook his head.

That is the rhinoceros, they make that noise when enjoying- them-

selves in a wallow.’ This statement of the Raja’s it can at once

be seen explains everything clearly and agrees with my conclusions

and those of my hunters and trackers that these sounds (although

the description of them as given by ‘the other writer’ are hardly

correct) were uttered by the rhinoceros because the animal was

extremely pleased at being submerged in the cool mud and water

of its wallow. The ‘other writer’ goes on to say that he often

heard that noise on other occasions and was often hard put to

it to believe that it was really the rhinoceros and not a gibbon.

‘The sound (he states) was low and rather plaintive, something

like the low note of a White-handed Gibbon also with a resemblance

to a bird. A noise impossible to describe accurately.’

This is a very vague description, and I am afraid I can hardly

agree that the sounds made by a D. sumatrensis rhinoceros when

in its wallow in Burma at any rate, resemble any noises emitted

by either a gibbon or a bird except by the wings of the

birds as mentioned by me in my book Wild Sports of Burma and

Assam, and further on in this article. The ‘other writer’ does not

even hint as to the kind of noises emitted by the bird referred to

by him or the kind of bird. It is just possible of course, though

highly improbable that the noises emitted by a D. sumatrensis

when in its wallow in the country where ‘the other writer’ hails

from, may differ somewhat from the sounds emitted by the same

species of rhinoceros when it is disporting itself in its wallow in

Burma. Another explanation may be that when ‘the other writer’

heard the sounds emitted by the animal when it was making them

in its mud bath in his part of the world for some reason or other

he did not hear them as clearly as I did when they were being

uttered by the same species of animal when in its wallow in Burma.

In that case naturally enough he would not be able to give as

accurate a description of them as has been given by me.

As I stated before, I was probably the first European

sportsman to write about these peculiar humming and buzzing

sounds made by this rhinoceros when in its wallow. I had heard

it on many occasions and as the sounds had been impressed on

my memory I had no difficulty subsequently in describing them

clearly on paper. All my hunters and trackers also knew them

very well having often heard them in the jungle when out after

rhinoceros and other big game. They had also discussed the matter

among themselves and had heard the sounds described and repeated

to one another so often that they became as familiar with them

as I did, not only through hearing them so often in the jungle

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

myself, but also through hearing them described and explained so

frequently by my men.

If the reader will look at the foot of page 167 of the book

Wild Sports of Burma and Assam by Colonel Pollok and W. S. Thom

and which was published in 1900 and is now out of print, he

will see recorded there the following, ‘Should the rhinoceros be

in his mud bath the sportsman will sometimes be made aware

of the fact by hearing peculiar low, rumbling, humming sounds,

the noise being very similar to that made by a species of large

born bill when soaring through the air, or like the sounds made

by a vulture’s wings when stooping to earth.’ Surely there can

be nothing clearer than this description? Then again on the top

of page 176 of the same book see the sentence beginning with the

words, ‘patience is however usually rewarded in the end, and after

many twistings and turnings, going over the same ground twice,

we came upon fresh tracks and were suddenly startled by hearing

the peculiar low muffled sounds repeated at intervals in our im-

mediate neighbourhood which Maung Hpe my hunter at once

recognized as proceeding from the rhinoceros’. Further on the

same page namely 176, at line sixteen see the sentence beginning

with the words, ‘the peculiar low buzzing or humming noises became

more distinct and as we rounded a rocky ridge which overlooked

a shallow ravine wooded with bamboo and an undergrowth of

prickly cane, a large mud wallow, in a small clearing bordering

the cane jungle, came into view, and in this two rhinoceros were

disporting themselves.

One animal the larger of the two, was standing half in and

half out of the slushy mud ; the other was lying in it half sub-

merged rolling about from side to side and uttering the peculiar

noises which had attracted our attention’. On page 178 of the

same book, line 9, read the sentence beginning with the words

‘whilst in the middle of our well-earned meal we were suddenly

startled by hearing the peculiar muffled, humming sound, already

referred to, and which seemed to proceed from no great distance.

It ought to be apparent from these extracts that I was the first

sportsman to record in detail my impressions of the sounds heard

by myself and my hunters emanating from a D. sumatrensis

rhinoceros when in its wallow enjoying its mud bath.

Has the reader ever heard the low subdued, rushing, humming,

singing, or buzzing sounds made by the feathers of a vultures

wings as they are spread out when the bird is soaring through the

air at some speed and stooping and about to land on the ground,

beside some dead animal ; or an exactly similar noise made by the

air passing through the feathers of the wings of the large horn

bill, Dichoceros bicornis, as it passes over the tops of the trees

In the jungle when soaring overhead with outspread wings? It

is of course the wind passing through the tips of the feathers in

the wings of both birds that causes them to vibrate and produce

the low humming or singing noise one hears, which is so exactly

like the sounds made by the rhinoceros when in its wallow. Perhaps

the reader has not had the same opportunities that I have had of ‘

hearing them, as I have spent much leave and many happy days

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 27f

in the jungle alone with my hunters and trackers over a stretch

of fifty years and was able to see, hear, and experience many

strange things pertaining to the ‘wild’ that have not been vouch-

safed to everyone.

There is no mistaking the sounds which are always alike and

can therefore be easily described. I can only repeat that it is

only when the wings of both birds are outspread and they are

soaring or planing through the air at some speed that the sounds

are made by the feathers of the wings and that these sounds are

identical with the noises made by the rhinoceros when it is in its

wallow. Surely some people must have heard the vibrating noises

made by the wind passing through the wing feathers of the two

birds referred to ; and if they had heard the noises made by the

rhinoceros as well they would immediately have come to the con-

clusion how exactly alike the two sounds were. These noises made

by the rhinoceros when in its wallow besides being an expression

of its satisfaction at being there are also made by the animal when

it is either expelling or inhaling air through its nostrils, mouth,

or throat. It stands to reason also that the animal must make

some noise when clearing it’s nostrils and mouth of mud, as its

head reaches the surface from beneath the mud after it has been

submerging itself in it. It is only when it is carrying out these

performances in the mud that these low deep muffled humming or

buzzing sounds are heard. These sounds as I have stated before

so completely resemble the sounds made by the wind passing through

the wing' feathers of both the vulture and the hornbill when they

are soaring or planing at high speed through the air that I cannot

think of, or find anything else which so completely resembles them.

No other sportsman except myself and ‘the other writer’, to my

knowledge, has ever referred to this subject.

Although the matter is not really of such paramount importance,

I trust I may be pardoned for going somewhat into detail and en-

larging on it to the extent that I have done in this article. My

reasons for doing so were because I was not altogether satisfied

with the description of the sounds emitted by the rhinoceros which

were heard and recorded by ‘the other writer’ in 1939.

With regard to the other noises made by a rhinoceros apart

from those made by the animal when it is enjoying itself in its

mud bath the rhinoceros also1 utters a piercing long-drawn-out

scream when it is about to expire after being fatally shot. When

a rhinoceros is also hard-pressed and has been thoroughly alarmed

by the hunter coming upon it suddenly at close quarters I have

heard the animal dash off at a great speed uttering a succession

of loud whistling, braying sounds, in different keys, not unlike

the braying of a donkey. At other times when I * have followed

and came up with the animal that has suddenly got my wind, it

usually uttered a terrific snort not unlike that emitted by a large

boar or gaur Bibos gaums before galloping off.

Here is another matter on which I regret to say ‘the other

writer’ and I disagree and about which I propose having another

friendly discussion with him in this article in the hope of being

able to convince him that I am right and that he is wrong.

8

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol XtlV

Burman hunters have informed me, and. I have verified their

conclusions, that they can easily distinguish between a male and

a cow rhinoceros when following their tracks by noticing the way

young saplings, creepers, or the branches of bushes have been

twisted by the animal’s horns as it moves along when feeding. My

experience also is that a male or. a cow with short horns cannot do

much, twisting of creepers, twigs and branches as compared with

a male with good sized horns as they cannot get a proper grip

or hold with their short horns and the branches and saplings would

then be more likely to slip off than if the. horns were long. So far

as I have been led to understand from my own observations and

those of my hunters and trackers the more twisted the creepers,

bamboos, and branches appear, the better are the chances of com-

ing upon a male with a good anterior horn.

Another way of distinguishing sometimes between the tracks

of. ia female and a male (there being very little difference in their

size and appearance so far as D. sumatrensis are concerned) is

by carefully noting the position of their droppings or dung. In

the case of a male the ordure and urine will usually be found on

the ground .exuded one behind the other, a foot or two apart, at

least, whereas in the case of a cow rhinoceros they will be found

more or less together scattered over the bushes in the immediate

vicinity at heights of from three to four feet. The urine of a cow

as seen by me on numerous occasions was of a pale pinkish colour.

According* to the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal , how-

ever, it would appear that both sexes urinate from behind and be-

tween their legs for some distance so that the leaves of the sur-

rounding trees and shrubs are sprinkled and it is evident that

both sexes share the habit by which they may become aware of

each other’s presence in the dense recesses of the forests.

The male rhinoceros when twisting bamboos, young saplings, and

creepers with its horns does so doubtless with the object either of

cleaning or sharpening them or simply because of the pleasing

sensation gained by the scratching. Perhaps it may be done as

a challenge, or from cussedness or sheer ‘joie de vivre’. Bison,

or rather gaur, and Tsaing Bibos frontalis , or wild cattle, and

ordinary domestic cattle, often tear up the ground with their hooves

and horns or rub the latter on the branches of trees or saplings

for no apparent reason; as do deer occasionally even when they

have no velvet to get rid of, simply, I take it because the rubbing

sensation pleases them. It may be of course a sex desire.

Burman hunters have often told me that all big game are more

aggressive when the moon is on the increase and nearly full. Many

races in India even believe that a human being is at his or her

best when the moon is fullest.

To continue with the subject of the twisting of saplings and

branches by a rhinoceros when feeding, ‘the other writer’ who also

discussed the noises made by a rhinoceros when in its wallow and

who gave a different description of them from that given by me

has again differed from me as to the sex of the animal engaged

in this wisting work and the why and wherefore of sapling twisting

by rhinoceros in general with their horns when they are on the

NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 273

move, feeding. He, ‘the other writer’, says: ‘A favourite trick of

the rhinoceros when feeding is to get a sapling behind his front

horn and twist it round and round until it is thoroughly decorticated

and covered, with mud from his head. I do not know exactly how

this is done never having caught a rhinoceros ‘flagrante delicto’,

but it is generally supposed this is done by a rhinoceros which has

sufficiently long horns to enable it to twist the sapling between the

two horns’. (This peculiarity of branch twisting by D. sumatrensis

was also referred to by me in my book, Wild Sports of Burma and

Assam and 1 suppose ‘the other writer’ and I are the only two

sportsmen who have ever discussed this subject, as well as . the

subject about the noises made by a D. sumatrensis when in its

wallow.) ‘The other writer’, goes on to say, however, that he

found that this was not the case, for in one instance he was following

a rhinoceros which had twisted a number of saplings but discovered

that it had a very poor and stumpy posterior horn.’ He says further,

‘I believed for the same reason that a female rhinoceros could not

twist saplings, and, when following rhinoceros spoor and finding

twisted saplings, I concluded I was on the track of a male which

had a good horn. I disproved this by finding saplings, twisted

in the approved style by a cow rhinoceros which was accompanied

by a calf. I do not now believe that the length of the horns has

anything to do with the thoroughness of the twistings, and such

indications are. no guide either to the sex of the animal being fol-

lowed or the size of the horns.’ From this it will be seen that

‘the other writer’ and I disagree entirely in the conclusions arrived

at by us. In any case it is not worth continuing the argument

further and, right or wrong, the ‘other writer’ is just as much entitled

to his opinions in this matter as I am to mine. It is obvious,

nevertheless, whatever one may say to the contrary, that a male

rhinoceros with a longish anterior and posterior horn is much more

likely to make a better job of sapling twisting with its long horns

than an animal like a cow rhinoceros or a male with short stumpy

horns, neither of which would allow of a proper grip or hold being

taken of any saplings and branches in order to twist them. They

would in fact be more inclined to slip off. Surely this is obvious.

Anyway I think I have discussed this matter quite long enough.

Besides I daresay my readers have been bored stiff from what

they have already read on this subject as well as on the other one.

The . tracking up of rhinoceros is often very difficult especially

in the hills when the ground is dry and hard or when it is covered

with a thick layer of dead bamboo leaves. Should tracking be

interrupted by a heavy shower of rain the bamboo leaves swell out,

then the front or centre toe nail impressions of the forefeet which

are usually the only marks that are visible on the ground are in-

variably almost obliterated, when the utmost skill of the tracker

is called into play. All rhinoceroses have three toes on the fore

and hind feet unlike the tapir Tapirus indicus which has four

toes on the front and three on the hind feet.

. One rarely comes across a young rhinoceros. During the fifty

odd years I have spent in the jungles of Burma I think I have only

once seen the tracks of a young rhinoceros. Burmese hunters say

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XL1V

that a rhinoceros bends its head to clear its path of obstructing

jungle, and leaves dead logs and branches over its back as it

proceeds. These fall on the youngster following on the heels of

its mother and so kill or maim it. Hence the scarcity. This of

course is a myth and cannot be accepted as a true reason. I

relerred to this subject in the Indian sporting paper the ‘ Indian

Field’ in a long article entitled ‘Notes on the Tapir’, Tapir us indicus

and ‘ Rhinoceros sumatrensis ’ some 35 years ago. The 4 Indian

Field’ became defunct a number of years, ago. The real reason I

suppose why rhinoceros are so scarce is because they have been

so systematically hunted down now for many years past in all parts

of the country where they exist that they have no time even for

breeding. The people are also well aware of the great value

of the animal’s blood and horns. The result is that the male are

shot more frequently Tor their horns which are longer than those

of the females which have small inferior horns; and, as I have

stated before, rhinoceros were never prolific breeders, the female

producing only singletons about one in twenty or twenty-five years,

it can be understood that their chances of producing young ones

are considerably lessened in consequence. Deterioration in horn

development is also probably due to the persistent persecution and

the killing off of better-horned animals and the breeding of poorer

stock. The males consort with the females from the middle to the

end of the rains, that is to- say any time between July and October

whilst the period of gestation is just a little over seven months.

I came upon and shot a very good specimen of D. sumatrensis

rhinoceros on a range of hills bordering the Lemro river in the

Arakan Hill Tracts of Burma at an elevation of above sea level

pf about 3000 feet. I was informed that there was a small pond

or pool of water about two acres in extent which was situated on

the top of a range of steep hills above the Lemro river. I was

armed with a single 500 bore cordite rifle by Westley Richards

which took a charge of 80 grains of cordite. After a fairly stiff

climb through a nasty stretch of leech infested country we came

upon a large pool of water where sure enough I saw a Sumatran

rhinoceros with a good anterior horn standing beside the pool. I

crept up to within twenty-five yards of the animal and let it have

a raking shot through the small of the ribs in the hope that I

would find the lungs if not the heart. The animal lurched for-

ward on receiving the bullet and swung quickly round in my direc-

tion as if to charge. I then moved forward to a position some

fifteen paces from the pool and as the rhinoceros reached the edge

of the water on my side 1 dropped it with a broken shoulder and

finished it off with a third shot. It had a very fair anterior horn

of about sixteen and a half inches in length. The posterior horn

was only from two and a half to three inches long. After my men

had cut up the animal with the idea of returning on the following

day to fetch away all the meat we hurried back to camp which

was reached in inky darkness at about 9 o’clock at night after a

desperate scrumble through the jungle and undergrowth, the leeches

crawling all over us en route in battalions.

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FOODS ON THE LARVAL

AND POST-LARVAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOTH

PRODEN1A LITURA Fb. (LEPIDOPTERA, NOCTUIDAE)

BY

A. C. Basu, m.sc., Calcutta.

( With two graphs).

( University College of Science and Technology, Calcutta).

Introduction.

The larva of the moth Prodenia litura Fb. (Noctuidae, Lepidop-

tera) is an important pest of cauliflower in Bengal ; it is called

kafipokay the cauliflower worm, by the peasantry. In the Tamil

areas of the Madras Presidency the larva is known as arakkan.

The depredation of the larva is not confined to any particular crop

but extends over a number of economic plants and fruits in India

as well as other parts of the world. In Egypt the larva is a great

pest of cotton, and is known as the cotton-worm; in Nyassaland, the

larva chiefly injures tobacco, and is popularly called the tobacco-

caterpillar ; in Rhodesia, it is known as the tomato-caterpillar ; in

Mauritius as the bean-enemy-worm.

The moth P. litura has been the subject of investigation by a

number of authors : Wilcock (1905) furnished a list of hosts devastat-

ed by this caterpillar. Fletcher (1914) gave a short account of its

bionomics, and published a list of plants which might be injured

by the species. Janish (1930) made experiments on this moth under

different temperatures and humidities. Bishara (1934) gave an

elaborate account of the general morphology and bionomics of this

species and also added a list of plants, fruits and flowers which

are injured by the larva of P. litura.

From the list furnished by the previous authors it is seen that

the larva of P. litura can grow on fifty-four different types of

vegetable food-stuffs. So, a knowledge of other plants which are

likely to harbour this pest, will be useful in checking the spread of

its infestation from one plantation to another. I have endeavoured,

therefore, in this paper to furnish a fresh list of hosts which are

subjected to attack by P. litura. Further, since the pests have a

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

wide range of host plants, it is important to know how far the

duration of the life cycle as well as the size of the insect are influ-

enced by the various food-stuffs, other factors such as temperature

and humidity being kept constant.

The present problem was, therefore, undertaken with a view

(i) to supply an additional list of hosts which can be infected by

the larva of P. littira, and (2) to report variations in larval growth

and period, pupal size and period, and the size of the adult

caused by varying the food-stuffs. The feeding experiments were

carried under room conditions during the winter months as well

as under a constant high temperature of 30°C in an insectary fitted

with a temperature-control apparatus. The main food-stuffs used

in the experiments were cauliflower, green banana fruit, mulberry

leaf, fresh cabbage, green papaya fruit, lettuce leaf, and the leaf of

the silk-cotton tree.

Acknowledgments.

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Dr. D. P.

Raichaudhury, Lecturer in Zoology, for his constant help in this

work, and to Mr. D. D. Mukerji, Lecturer in Zoology, for the

general improvements of the paper. I also express my indebtedness

to Prof. H. K. Mookerjee, for allowing me to carry on the work

of research in the University College of Science and Technology,

and financing the necessary expenditure to perform the requisite

experiments ; my thanks are also due to Mrs. D. P. Raichaudhury

who allowed me to collect materials from her garden at Ballygunge

Park.

Experimental.

1. Materials.

The specimens used in these experiments were reared in the laboratory. They

were first obtained in the larval stages from an infected field at Ballygunge

Park. They were also collected from Dhapa, situated on the outskirts of

Calcutta. A few were obtained from cauliflowers sold in the market.

2. Methods .

For raising the stock, the moths were reared in the laboratory for several

generations, the larvae being fed with cauliflower. Round glass jars measuring

4 inches in diameter and 6 inches in depth were used for all the experiments. The

mouth of the jar was tied with muslin. Each jar was thoroughly cleansed and

washed with sodium carbonate solution followed by lysol lotion.

To make a correct operation in the performance of the experiment, special

precaution was taken against any chance of sudden shortage of food by providing

each jar with large quantities of fresh leaves picked from the gardens, also

with chips of the same. Evans (1938) noted that the larvae of Pieris brassicae ,

fed on cabbage leaves which were grown under bad conditions of light, behave

differently from those fed on leaves grown under natural conditions of light,

and Wiggleswortll reported '^(1939) that increase of temperature stiniulates

metabolism . leading to food shortage and death. At the initial stage of the

experiments the food-stuff in each jar was changed twice till the advanced

stage of the larva, when the change was made thrice daily.

)

EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRO DEN I A LIT UR A FB. 277:

Since this species pupates under earth a little below the soil surface as

reported by Fletcher (1914) and Bishara (1934), saw-dust was put at the bottom

of all the experimental glass jars for pupa-formation under artificial condition.

In the experiment No. 1, twenty kinds of vegetable food-stuffs were tried.

Sixteen of these which are not star marked (vide list D) were found growing

in close proximity to the plantation infested by the pest. For drawing this

fresh list (vide list D) of plants subjected to the attack of P. litura larvae,

with the exception of the star marked foods namely radish, apple, nashpati

and papaya (where roots and fruits were fed) in all the cases, experiments

were made with the leaves of the listed host plants. To economise the glass

jars and check the results, the experiments ' were arranged in three sets,

with seven glass jars in each set. A number of twenty larvae of P-. litura were

kept in each jar. The larvae were kept under observation until - the pupal

stage. ~ .

In experiment No. 2 the larvae were fed with the eight kinds of food^

stuffs such as ‘cauliflower, green banana fruit, mulberry leaf, lettuce leaf, cotton

leaf, palam leaf, green papaya fruit and cabbage ; and then the variations, in

the size of the larva with their ages, pupal size and adult size were recorded.

And also the durations of the larval period and pupal period were noted. These

observations are given in different tables (Tables I — VII) and the rates of the

different larval growths have been represented by Graphs A & B.

To conduct the experiment No. 2 under room conditions, twenty-four glass

jars were employed. The jars were put in three different sets, each set con-

taining eight jars. Food of one type was ' contained in three jars, one in each

set, and eight kinds of food-stuffs were altogether tried. The object of having

three sets is to ensure the continuation of experiments, if accidentally specimens

in any one set die for one reason or other. As it was observed ;that if more

specimens are kept in the limited space of a single jar, overcrowding occurs

and they do not thrive well; hence in each of these jars ten freshly emerged

larvae of the same parents were kept. The variations observed in these sets

are given in tables. For comparison of the different larval sizes, they were

measured at an interval of five days, till the larva attained the prepupal stage.

Further, for recording the pupal duration, as soon as the pupae were formed

in the eight respective foods, they were transferred in different jars, but having

identical environmental conditions, and the time at which the imago emerged

was correctly noted. This gave the duration of the pupal life.

To conduct the experiment No. 2 under high temperature the same method

was followed, but with the difference that in this experimentation the larvae

were measured at intervals of four days instead of five, since the rate of the

larval growth was accelerated due to the rise of the temperature. The results

have been tabulated in different tables.

For the different tables, the linear growth of the larvae and the size of the pupae

and imagoes were measured by an ordinary scale. But in case of the newly

emerged larvae which were too small to be measured by a scale, they were

measured by stage micrometer. The different measurements .shown in tables are

the average of ten readings. The full length of a larva and pupa means dis-

tance from tip to tip and the breadth shows the maximum width of the fourth

abdominal segment. In references to the procedures provided by Lefroy and

Howlett (1909) and Fletcher (1914), the body length and the abdominal size

at the greatest diameter of the imago were recorded. And the . expansion of

the wings (fore and hind) was measured from the distal end of the one side

of the wing (fore and hind) to the distal end of the other side of the wing

(fore and hind). The distal width of the individual fore and hind wings was

noted from the greatest distal area of each wing. To have a single standard

of measurement, the fore wing was measured along the subterminal line as

referred by Torre-Bueno (1937) ; and the hind wing was measured from the

greatest width at the posterior terminal area of the hind wing.

3. Observations.

To the list of vegetables and plants, damaged by P. litura, reported by pre-

vious authors (shown here in columns A, B, C) — twenty more are added by

the present author and these are shown in column D. The fact that this insect

also attacks such fruits as apple, papaya, etc. shows the wide range of host

plants.

278 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

List of hosts.

The following is the list of vegetables, foliages, fruits, etc. damaged by

the moth Prodenia litura.

17. Red pepper.

18. Tomato.

19. Grape vine.

20. Sweet orange.

21. Plum.

22. Mulberry.

23. Crysantheraum.

24. Castor.

Writer’s list of additional food-stuffs.

(D)

1. Jamrul {Eugenia malaccensis, Lin.).

2. Karamcha {Carissa carandas, Lin.).

3. Jack tree { Artocar pus inte gri folia, Lin.).

4. Sajna ( Moving a p terygosperma , Gaertn.).

5. Aswatha ( Ficus religiosa , Lin.).

6 . Lettuce ( Lactuca scariola , Li n . ) .

7. Celery {Apium graveolens, Lin.).

8. Cauliflower {Brassica oleracea, Lin.).

9. Shaddock ( Citrus me die a , Lin.).

1 0 . Palam ( Spinacia oleracea , Lin . ) .

*11. Radish {Kaphanus sativus, Lin.)

*12. Apple ( Pyrus ?nalns , Lindi.).

*13. Nashpati {Pyrus sinensis, Lindi.).

14. Aparajita ( Clitoria ternatea, Lin.).

15. Hasna-hena {Cestrum noctutnum, Lin.).

16 . Thusa ( Thuya oriental is , Lin . ) .

17. Ata (Anona squamosa, Lin ).

*18. Papaya {Carica papaya, Lin.).

19. Mango tree ( Mangifera indie a, Lin.).

20. Ashshaeorah {Glycosmis petitaphylla, Corr.).

Are root and fruits,.

the sizes were recorded at intervals of five days

EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRO DEN I A LITURA FB.

279

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GROWTH IN

280 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. XLIV

The effect of different food-stuffs in inducing variation in the larval sizes,

under room conditions are shown in table I. It may be seen from the table

that while the variation on the 5th day of observation is negligibly small,

that on the 10th day is large ; further variations become appreciably large in

the case of cauliflower and cotton leaf. On the 15th day, the increase is

noticeable in four examples— cauliflower, mulberry leaf, lettuce leaf and palam

leaf. These sizes are distinctly larger than with banana fruit, cabbage and

papaya fruit. Further it is worth noting that the largest larval size is attained

in case of cabbage, while papaya comes next. The sizes reached by the larvae

^vhen fed respectively on banana, lettuce and cotton are more or less equal. The

smallest larval size is found with mulberry and the palam. The cauliflower

as diet occupies an intermediate place so far as its effect on size is concerned.

The rate of larval growth is shown in graph A. It may be noted that

the rates of the larval growth as fed on different foods are practically identical

for the first five days. Differences become observable onwards from five to

ten days. During these periods the growth in case of cauliflower is highest,

while it is smallest in the case of cotton. Further it is seen that the lines in

the graph representing the larval growths for cauliflower, mulberry, lettuce and

palam bifurcate at the 10th to 15th as these slope up. On the other hand the

Graph A

Graph A, showing the variations in the rate of the larval growth, in

P. litura, when reared under room conditions (average temp. ig.$°C) on various

foods. The growth means linear size.

rates of growth at this period with papaya, banana and cabbage are com-

paratively small ; hence they shift downwards as shown by the growth lines

in the graph. The line representing the rate of the larval growth in cotton

stands last.

Taple II shows the different sizes attained by the larvae of P. litura

while kept under high temperature, other conditions being equal. This

table shovvs that the variation in the larval sizes on the 4th, 8th, 12th day, etc-,

EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRODENIA LITURA FB.

281

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after 2 days, because these larvae reached the prepupal stage earlier. - Specimen pupated.

GROWTH IN

'

282 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

occurs in proportion to their growth sizes under the room condition, only the

sizes at the different ages of the larvae reared on palam indicate their rapid

growth at high temperature. This table also shows that the larvae maintained

on cabbage attain the greatest size as in Table I, but at the final stage,

the larval size attained with papaya, banana, lettuce, cotton, cauliflower, palam

and mulberry as given in this table (Table II), does not follow the order seen

in Table I. It is also found that at the final stage the sizes of the larvae

are comparatively smaller than the respective sizes noted under the room

condition.

Graph B shows variations in the rates of the growth of larvae, four

days old, reared on the different diets. The rate of the larval growth in this

period is appreciably greater with palam leaf and cauliflower, and less with

banana and cotton. Between the ages of four and eight days, the rates of the

larval growth with cauliflower, lettuce and mulberry are more accelerated than

Graph B

Graph B, showing the variations in the rates of the larval growth in

P. litura, when reared in a high temperature (at 30°C) on various foods. The

growth means linear size.

in other cases. The graph in general coincides with the previous graph

but the lines representing the rates of growth are more straight, specially

the ones representing the rate of the larval growth with cauliflower, lettuce,

mulberry and palam Which slope rapidly up as compared with cabbage, papaya,

banana and cotton. The growth with cotton shows periodicity.

Table III shows the durations of the larval stadium as observed under

the room condition and under the high temperature. In the experiment under

room condition,- the duration of the larval period with cauliflower is the

shortest, while with cotton it is relatively prolonged. Results under high tempera-

ture too follow this order, Here also the margin between1 the larval durations

EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRO DEN I A ElTURA FB.

283

TABLE III

Effect of different roods on duration of larval life of P. litura , under the

room condition (average temp. 19*5®C) and in a high temperature (30°C)

experiments.

respectively experimented with cauliflower and cotton is very broad. It may

be pointed out that as the effect of high temperature the duration of the larval

period is shortened on an average by 7-8 days.

Table IV shows the variations in the size's of the different pupae as

observed under room condition and in a high temperature experiments. In

the experiment under room condition, the largest pupal size is obtained with

larvae fed on cauliflower and next in order come lettuce, palam and mulberry.

TABLE IV

Effect of different foods on the pupal sizes of P. litura , under room

condition (average temp. 19’5°C) and in a high temperature (30°C)

experiments.

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Tot. XLIV

The sizes of the pupae experimented with cabbage and papaya are equal, but

they are larger than with banana, the smallest pupal size being with cotton. Pupae

TABLE V

Effect of different foods on the duration of pupal life in P. litura , under

room condition (average temp. 22*2°C) and in a high temperature (30°C)

experiments.

I Pupal duration in days, under

Room condition ! High temperature

(22-2°C) j (30°C)

Table V shows the durations of the pupal period as observed under

both the experimental conditions. This table reveals that the durations of the

TABLE VI

Effect of different foods on the sizes of the moth, in P. litura , when reared

in a room condition (average temp. 190-22°C)._ *

285

Effect of foods on the pro deni A litura fr.

pupal life .is slightly variable. Under room conditions the duration if pupal

life is shortest with cauliflower, lettuce and palam. The mulberry leaf stands

next in order. The pupal durations with banana, cabbage and papaya slightly

exceed these and are more prolonged with cotton. The results observed in the

high temperature experiment .also, indicate that the shortest duration occurs with

cauliflower, palam, mulberry and lettuce. The durations . of pupal life... with

cabbage, papaya and banana are practically th(e same; with cotton however

it is maximum.

Table VI shows the variations in the sizes of the different moths - as

observed under the room condition, . This table shows, that under such

condition, the largest size of the moth, i's obtainable if reared on cauliflower,

mulberry, _ lettuce and palam. The next sizes are obtained with banana, cabbage

and papaya ; while those reared on cotton are the smallest in size.

Table VII shows the variations in the sizes of the different moths,

observed under the high temperature, other conditions being the same as befoVei

The size of the different moths stands in the same order as ; in the previous

table. Further it is seen that in the high temperature condition the sizes of

the different moths are smaller as compared to those bred under the ordinary- room

condition.

TABLE VII

Effect of different foods on the sizes of the moth, in P. litura , when reared

in a high temperature (30°C).

Finally with regard to time for completing the life cycle, i.e., the period

from the hatching of larvae to the emergence of imago, under the room con-

ditions, was 27 days with cauliflower, 37 days with banana and papaya, '31 days

with mulberry, 28 days with lettuce, 40 days with cotton, 29 days with palam, 35

days with cabbage; while in the high temperature the period covered 18 days with

cauliflower, 28 days with banana, 20 days with mulberry and lettuce, 30 days

with cotton, 19 days with palam, 26 days with cabbage and 29 days with papaya.

It is interesting to note that by comparison with the temperature of room con-

ditions the heat factor has uniformly reduced the duration on an average by

9-10 days.

Discussion.

Certain species of lepidoptera can live on different varieties of food-stuffs,

while others thrive only on some specific plants. The larvae of the moth

P. litura belong to the first category, according to the information given by

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV

Wilcock (1905), Fletcher (1914), Bishara (1934) and the additional list provided

by the present experiments.

To inquire into the influence the various food substances exert on the different

stages of development of P. litura, experimental feeding under room

conditions was arranged during the winter months. But owing to diurnal and

seasonal temperature fluctuations, the investigation was also conducted at a

constant temperature. Further, as the room condition experiments were per-

formed during the winter season they were practically at low temperatures.

It was thought therefore necessary to hold the experiments at a high tempera-

ture too. Now as to the effect of temperature on the life of the moth,

Janish (1930) found that at 29°-30°C, P. litura develops rapidly and reaches its

physiological death within the shortest time. He considered this temperature as

the optimum temperature. Bishara (1934) however reports that high temperature

begins at 28°C. The temperature 3o°C was therefore preferred for the high

temperature experiments.

From Table I and Graph A, it is seen that the course of the larval

development is affected by the different food-stuffs. It is particularly proved

between the two sets of the larval sizes on the 15th day, in Table I. Here

the larger sizes of the larvae fed on cauliflower, lettuce, mulberry and palam food,

are for reaching the last larval stage earlier, due to the rapid growth induced

by the respective food-stuffs. Whereas papaya, banana and cabbage made

smaller size larvae respectively, by prolonging the larval stages due to the

slow growth induced by these food-stuffs. Apparently for these in Graph A,

the lines representing the larval rate of growth in the former set of foods,

between the ages of ten to fifteen days, move quickly upwards, while the

lines showing the larval rate of growth in the latter set of foods in the cor-

responding period, comparatively shift downwards. These facts suggested there-

fore that the food ingredients, needed for the larval growth were' different in

these two sets of food-stuffs. A similar' observation was made by Sattler (1939)

on the nun moth, Lymantria monacha. By feeding the larva with oak, larch

and spruce, the larvae showed rapid development. The rate of the larval growth

slowed down when fed with beach, apple and pine ; while adler prolonged con-

siderably the larval period. Again from the sizes attained by the different

larvae at the last stage in Table I, it follows that the food has a very little

effect on the final size of the larvae. But the fact, that in case of the food

substances such as mulberry leaves, the size dwindled down below the average,

shows however that nutrition does affect the final size. But on careful thought

the explanation suggest itself that the size is n,ot adversely affected, because,

all the different food substances may contain the same essential ingredients

needed for the final size, while the size is affected where these essentials

are lacking in the food-stuffs.

From Table II, it is seen that the high temperature in different food-

stuffs, causes appreciable variations at the age of 4, 8, etc. days. The marked

variations in size of the 4th and 8th day, as compared to results obtained in

the experiment, conducted at room temperature are evidently due to acceleration

of growth induced by high temperature. This is why in Graph B, the lines

representing the different rates of larval growth are' straight in comparison with

those in Graph A. As it is known that heat within the) vital limit increases

the rate of all metabolic processes, and in the developmental stages, the extra

energy is expended on growth which is correspondingly accelerated (U varov 1931,

Wigglesworth 1939), the slight irregularities in the position of the larval last

stage sizes, in the different' food-stuffs in this table, in comparison to Table I,

suggest that in the high temperature experiment the developing larvae did

not utilise the respective food reserves satisfactorily for the rapid larval growth,

due to the rise of temperature. Moreover in general the reduction of the larval

sizes in Table II, in comparison to Table I, is explained by the fact that,

decidedly in low temperature, the percentages of food absorbed and utilised by

the different larvae for building up the tissues, are greater than those at the

high temperature. These are not only theoretical considerations, but facts

proved exactly by U varov (1931) from the results of various authors.

From Table III it is proved that the duration of the larval period under-

goes variations, and this is entirety dependent on the type of food the

larva utilises during its larval period. The quick growth of the larvae with

cauliflower accelerated the usual rate of growth in P. litura, and consequently

the larval duration was shortened; and similarly the reverse effect occurred in

Effect of foods on the prodenia litura fb.

287

the fate of the larvae fed on the cotton leaves and apparently their larval period

is prolonged. Further the general shortening of the larval periods at the

high temperature is accounted for since the food-stuffs remained constant in

both the experiments. U varov (1931) has forwarded a considerable number of

experimental results from different authors. According to him Standfuss (1896)

recorded that, by the application of a high temperature, the larval period of

Lasiotampa quercifolia L. can be shortened from the normal 22-26 to 7-12 weeks.

From Table IV it is seen that the size of the pupae is affected by the

different foods. The pupal sizes in P. litura are therefore solely dependent

on the nutritive effect of the individual food. In view of this table it is proved

that cauliflower stands first, next lettuce, palam, and mulberry ; cabbage and

papaya are equal, but richer than banana; and cotton is very poor. Further

it is seen from the table that the high temperature in general reduces the sizes

of the different pupae from the different foods, in comparison with their respective

sizes noted in the room condition. Again from both the results recorded, it is

interesting to note that the. largest size larva is not the producer of the greatest

size pupa.

From Table V it is seen that the food-stuffs cauliflower, lettuce,, palam and

mulberry have got the greates.t food values for the shortening of the pupal period ;

the food values are ordinary for banana, . cabbage and papaya, and very

poor in the case of cotton, leaves. Further it is seen in this table that there is

a general reduction of the pupal period in the high temperature obviously due

to the rise of the experimental temperature, since the food-stuffs remained

constant in both the experiments.

From Table VI it is proved that the size of the moth depends on the type of

nutrition during its larval period. In view of the present results it is evident that

the best nutrition in P. litura is derived from cauliflower, lettuce, palam and mul-

berry, and then from banana, cabbage and papaya. It is w;orth mentioning that

cauliflower has produced the greatest body length and abdominal breadth of the

moth. Further, the expansion of the fore wings and the hind wings are greatest in

the moths with cauliflower, lettuce and palam, but they are comparatively smaller

with mulberry. Regarding the greatest distal width of an individual fore wing and

hind wing, it is marked that the variations are like the variations in the body

length, abdominal breadth and expansions of the wings. Also it is worth noting the

fact that the greatest size larvae do not produce the greatest size moths, as in

Table I the greatest sizes are found associated with cabbage, but here (Table VI)

with cauliflower. A similar observation has been made by Alpatov (1929) in

his thyroid gland feeding experiment with Drosophila melanogaster Mg. He

found that the larvae in the hog muscle and thyroid are larger than the larvae

in the hog muscle and yeast, but finally observed that the imagos of the former

are smaller than those of the latter.

From Table VII it is proved that in the high temperature, the sizes of

the different moths become more reduced than their respective sizes noted in

the room condition (Table VI) with the respective food-stuffs. As foods remained

constant in both the experimentations, this is certainly due to the heat effect.

While high' temperature has a certain effect on the larva and pupa in their

sizes and durations, now it is seen that it affects also the sizes of the moths.

A brief review of similar results has been forwarded by Uvarov (1931). According

to Uvarov, Titschak (1925-27) in his experiments on the clothes moth, Tinola

bisellella Hum., demonstrated that at lower temperatures, larger and heavier

moths are produced. Similar conclusions as to lower temperatures producing

insects of larger size have been reached by a number of other investigators, e.g.,

Alpatov and Pearl (1929) with Drosophila melanogaster Mg., by Schlottke

(1926) in the case of Habrobracon juglandis Say., by Musconi (1924) with

Calliphora erythrocephala Mg., by Dewitz (1913) with Porihelria dispar L.,

and by Standfuss (1896) with various species of lepidoptera.

Now in ending the discussion it is well to mention that, since it is proved

that the larval growth, larval duration, pupal size, pupal duration and the

size of the moth in P. litura are entirely dependent on the qualities of the

food it utilises during its larval period it would be unwise to criticise or evaluate

the results forwarded by the previous authors such as Fletcher (1914), Janish

(1930) and Bishara (1934).

9

288 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Summary.

1. Experiments were conducted for observing the infestation of the P. litura

larva ; it was noted that the larval food selection was very plastic, including

leaves, fruits and roots.

2. Experiments were also arranged to observe the effect of eight different

foods upon the life of P. litura under the room condition in the winter months

and in a high temperature at 30°C.

It was found that under the ordinary room condition and in the high tem-

perature (3o°C.) experiments, when the larvae of P. litura were fed with

eight different selected foods, they underwent variations in the larval growth,

larval period, pupal size, pupal period and the size of the moths. When fed

with cauliflower, mulberry, lettuce and palam the larval growths were most

rapid, the larval durations shorter, the pupal sizes largest, the pupal durations

hastened, and larger size moths were produced ; when fed on banana, cabbage and

papaya, the larval growths were ordinary, larval durations prolonged, pupal size

medium, pupal durations lingered and medium size moths were obtained ; when

fed on cotton leaves, the condition of the larval growth was very poor, larval

duration much delayed, pupal size very small, pupal duration comparatively

prolonged, and very small size moths were produced.

It was also proved that there was a comparatively rapid larval growth,

shorter larval duration, smaller pupal size, faster pupal duration and a smaller

size moth in the high temperature experiment.

Conclusion.

The larvae of P. litura can devastate seventy-four types of different food-

stuffs.

The larval growth and duration, the pupal size and duration, and the size of

the moth in P. litura are dependent on the type of the food the larva utilises

during its larval period.

Quick growth shortens the life cycle and the processes are more hastened

in the high temperature.

Decidedly low temperature produces bigger size larva, pupa and imago, and

the high temperature has an adverse effect on the different sizes.

The largest size larva in P. litura is not the producer of the biggest size

pupa and moth, but the latter are solely due to the type of ingredients contained

in the food utilised by the larva.

References.

1. Alpatov, W. W., 1929, Proc. Acad. Sc. 15 (7), 578.

2. Bishara, I., 1934, Bull. Soc. Ent. Egypt, 18, 228.

3. Evans, A. C., 1938, Ann. Appl. Biol. 25, 558.

4. Fletcher, T. B., 1914, Some South Indian Insects, Madras.

5. Janish, E., 1930, B. Morph. Okol, Tiere, 17, 339.

6. Lefroy, H. M. and Howlett, F. M., 1909, Indian Insect Life, Calcutta.

7. Sattler, H., 1939, Z. angew. Ent., 25, 543.

8. Torre-B'ueno, J. R., Dela., 1937, A Glossary of Entomology, Brooklyn.

9. Uvarov, B. P., 1931, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 79, 1.

10. Wilcock, F. C., 1905, Year Book Khedivial Agri. Soc., Egypt.

11. Wigglesworth, V. B., 1939, The Principles of Insect Physiology, London.

OBITUARY

HUGH WHISTLER

The death of Hugh Whistler at the early age of 53, is a serious

blow to the study of Ornithology in India, and a great loss to the

Society. He was born in Lincolnshire On 28th September 1889.

In 1909 he was appointed to the Indian Police, and went out to India

in December of that year. His first station was Phillour, and he

afterwards served at Rawalpindi, Ferozepore, Jhelum, Gujranwala,

Ambala, Jhang, Kangra, and Simla; while on short leave he visited

Dalhousie and Kulu, as well as Kashmir. By the time he retired

Whistler had very wide knowledge of the whole of the Punjab and its

avifauna. Wherever he went he noted and collected birds, and the

great store of knowledge he accumulated was communicated to the

Journal and the Ibis. While stationed at Rawalpindi he received

a letter from the late Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, and this was the beginning

of a long correspondence and intimate friendship. This friendship

did much for Whistler, since it was through his acquaintance with

Ticehurst he had his first introduction to systematic ornithology.

In later years he also owed much to his help and guidance, which

was always readily admitted by Whistler. On the other hand, it

was through Whistler that Ticehurst took up the study of Burmese

birds with such valuable results. Shortly after the last War three

of our oldest members, W. S. Millard, Sir George Lowndes, and

the late F. J. Mitchell, agreed amongst themselves to guarantee

the publication of a popular illustrated work on Indian birds, if a

suitable author could be found. Whistler was approached to under-

take the authorship and a happier selection could not have been

made, for he had the requisite knowledge with a plevasing literary

style. The success of the book is shown by the fact that it has

now passed through three editions.

Early in 1925, Whistler married Margaret Joan, second daughter

of Lord Ashton of Hyde. A little later he and his wife went out to

India and for some months were stationed at Simla, and later trans-

ferred to Rawalpindi. In April 1926 he took leave pending retire-

ment, and left India. Two years later he again returned on a visit

to Kashmir with the late Admiral Lynes and B. B. Osmaston.

Shortly after the party had left Srinagar, Admiral Lynes was

recalled home, but he insisted that his companions should continue

with their collecting as originally planned. The trip was a great

success and some of the higher and less known parts were visited.

For the next few years Whistler settled at Battle, Sussex, where

he worked at his birds. Nearly every year both he and Dr. Ticehurst

made short collecting trips to some part of the continent ; sometimes

Mrs. Whistler was included in the party, and when Ticehurst was

unable to accompany them Whistler went alone. When the Society

was carrying out the Survey of the Eastern Ghats, Whistler was

asked to work out the collections. He threw himself wholeheartedly

into the work with the result that his series of papers were practically

a review of the birds of the Peninsula ; he also worked out the birds

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

of the different State Surveys. In 1928 he was approached by the

Society to contribute a series of articles on the study of Indian

birds. To do justice to the subject meant a great deal of prepa-

ration, and few who read the articles realised how much time Whistler

spent in preparing them. But the results, judging by the many

appreciative letters he received, fully justified the trouble. It was

about this time that Ticehurst and Whistler began to write a Hand-

book of Indian Birds. The second edition of the Fauna had several

obvious shortcomings, and in the new work the authors intended

to pay special attention to plumages, differentiation of the sexes,

and distribution. Whistler had hoped to complete the book after

the death of Ticehurst, but his increased civil duties left him little

spare time and only a small part of the work has been completed.

A few years before the War the British Museum and Colombo

Museum had together carried out a survey of the birds of that

island, and Whistler prepared a report on the collections, but

owing to the difficulties during the War he did not live to see

it published.

Hugh Whistler was careful and painstaking in his work, and

had no use for the careless observer or slip-shod worker. He

was always ready to help brother ornithologists, whether a beginner

or a fellow worker. In his civil life in Battle it was the same ;

he was consulted by everyone and was greatly respected by his

large number of friends and fellow councillors. In 1941 he was

elected Vice-Chairman of the Battle Rural District Council, and

was responsible for the civil defence and other matters over a large

part of East Sussex adjoining the Coast. He will be sadly missed

by his many friends both in India and at Home.

N. B. K.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.— AN INTERESTING TIGER SHOOT.

During- my recent visit to Sirmur State, a shooting camp was

arranged for me at Majra about twenty miles from Nahan, the

Capital of the State.

A bait ( pada ) was killed on the night of May the 6th and I sat

upon the machan at 5 p.m. next day. At 7-10 p.m. monkeys began

chattering and the tiger appeared at 7-25 p.m. It was bowled over

with a shot in the neck before it reached the kill. (Female, 7 ft.

11 in.). I sent a shikari early next morning to see what had

happened to the bait and he reported that another tiger had eaten

part of it, so I sat up at 6 p.m. and exactly the same performance

as on the previous day was repeated, monkeys began chattering

at 7-10 p.m. the crackling of twigs announced that the quarry was

near, and the tiger appeared from a different direction at 7-25 p.m.

and it was bowled over with a shot in the middle of its forehead as

it put its head down to the kill. (Male 8 ft. 8 in.). I sent the

shikari again early next morning to see the bait and he reported

that another tiger had eaten part of it. Things were getting too

good to be true, but I took a chance and sat up this time at 6-30 p.m.

As soon as the monkeys began chattering at 8 p.m. I was on the

qui vive, and ten minutes later the tiger showed itself and I tum-

bled him over with a shot in the, same place and in the same manner

as the second animal. (Male, 8 ft. 2J in.). Just for curiosity, I

once again sent the shikari early next morning to see the bait and

he appeared all smiles to say a fourth animat had eaten practically

all of it. As there were fresh pug marks, I sat up but it did not

appear which I put down to there being nothing left of the bait.

In all my vast experience of big game shooting, I have never

come across such an unique incident, and I wonder whether any

person has been fortunate enough to have had such Shikari’s luck

to bag, three tigers, in three successive days, in three shots,

from the same machan, on the same kill, and about the same time.

II.— A BLACK PANTHER SHOT IN SIND.

A fully grown male black panther was shot near Rerhi, a coastal

fishing village about 18 miles S.-E. of Karachi, on the 4th April

Early in April the pi dog's of Bramhyderi, a large fishing village

about 9 miles S.-E. of Karachi, began to disappear mysteriously.

The villagers thinking that a hyaena was responsible organised

a hunt and followed pug marks to a cave in a nullah in the low

hills near Rerhi. Finding the hyaena, as they thought, ‘at home’,

The Palace, Palitana,

September 23, 1943.

BAHADURSINH,

Thakore Sahib of Palitana.

r939-

292 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V ol. XLIV

a mohana of Bramhyderi named Suleiman volunteered to enter

the cave with a light and a length of rope, a common practice in

Sind, to catch the hyaena alive. On entering the cave Suleiman

was badly mauled by the animal inside. He was taken to hospital

but his wounds turned septic and he died of blood poisoning.

In the meanwhile a strong fishing net was placed over the

mouth of the cave and information sent to the police station at

Malir, about 6 miles away. On the arrival of the police, some

zamindcirs and a horde of men armed to the teeth with guns,

spears and clubs the animal was driven out of the cave and shot,

speared and clubbed almost to pieces.

The cave contained besides many old bones the remains of a

freshly killed pi dog.

The skin of the panther which was secured through the courtesy

of Mr. Maqbul Khan, measured 6 feet 8 inches from tip of nose

to end of tail, the tail measuring 2 feet 6 inches.

The skin which was seen by Captain Alec Salmon, h.l.i., shortly

after it came into my possession in April 1939 is now with H. O.

Wood of the Sind Police.

Karachi, K. R. EATES,

July 20, 1943. Indian Police.

F.Z.S., m.b.o.u.

Note. — This, so far as I am aware, is the first record of a black

panther occurring in Sind. According to Sind District Gazetteers,

21 panthers have been killed in Sind from 1896 to 1915, and all

except 2 of these were killed in Karachi district. Since 1920

several panthers have been shot in the Pabh hills in Las Bela State

about 30 miles from Karachi, the last 2 falling to the gun of G.

Grosenbacher on the 24-12-36. As pi dogs were disappearing from

Mangho Pir, about 10 miles north of Karachi in the direction of

the Pabh hills, in March 1939, it is likely that this black panther

was responsible and came from the Pabh hills, moving S.-E. through

broken country to Rerhi where it was killed as related above. The

occurrence of a black panther in Sind or even in the Pabh hills, where

conditions in no way favour melanism, is most remarkable and

indeed a rarity.

K. R. E.

III.— ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOW-HEADED

FANTAIL WARBLER ( CISTICOLA EXILIS TYTLERI

JERDON) IN THE KUMAON TARAI, U.P.

The distribution of this species is given by Stuart Baker ( Nidif .

Ind. Birds, ii, 378) as ‘from the Bhutan Dooars to Eastern Assam,

Bengal, Manipur, Lushai, Chin and Kachin Hills to Yunnan from

the foothills and plains up to about 2,500 feet.’

Lalkua (Kumaon district) is a junction in two senses : it is a

railway junction 14 miles from the well-known rail-head of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

293

Kathgodam ; and it is close to the junction of those two ecologically

very different types of country, the Bhabar and the Tarai. The

Tarai here consists of high grass with a few Semal trees ( Bombax

malabaricum) dotted about, and occasional clumps of high forest.

Two miles along the Forest Department road to Dauli, and just

on the northern fringe of the Tarai, is an open grassy space about

400 yards long by 200 yards wide; it is separated from the road

by a strip of forest about 50 yards wide, and on the western and

southern sides also is bounded by high forest, but to the east the

ground falls away down a bank to the open park-like Shisham

( Dalbergia sissoo) forest fringing the Gola river. The altitude is

about 700 feet above sea level, and the map co-ordinates Lat. 290

03 ft. N. Long. 790 33 ft. E.

It is a quiet and peaceful spot, this grassy cliaor.1 The grass

grows to a height of about 8 ft. during the rains, and then is gradu-

ally burnt back by a succession of fires that sweep through the

area in the hot weather, the last of them as late as the end of May,

or early June; the first showers bring up the young grass amongst

the dead and blackened stems of the previous year. On this fresh

green growth the cheetal love to graze, and there one may watch

them of an evening and listen to the hoarse wheezy mating call

of the stags in the surrounding forest.

It was while watching some cheetal that a peculiar note, unknown

to me, attracted my attention : a soft churr followed after a short

interval by a musical or fluty bell-like note, exactly as described

by Stuart Baker ( Nidif . Ind. Birds ii, 379) except that I could not

detect any ventriloquial quality in it. To my ear it was quite obvious

that both notes were made by the same bird : a tiny bird perched

on a dead grass-stem ; the whole head and under-parts appeared

buff or bleached straw-colour, closely matched by the colour of the

dead grass stem, except for a buffy-brown half collar on the nape

and sides of the neck; the upper-parts were streaked brown and

the short tail blackish. Then the bird took flight and I knew at

once what it was, though I had never seen it before. To explain

how this came about a short digression may perhaps be permitted.

Oates ( Birds of Burmah i , 118) wrote ‘The Golden-headed

Fantail-Warbler’ ( Cisticola exilic equicaudata Stuart Baker)

‘occurs plentifully in the plain lying near the Pegu Canal and

also along the embankment running from Myetkyo to the Tunghoo

Road. It is not universally distributed over the plain, but occurs

in a few places only’. No ornithologist has found it since in the

above area, though Mackenzie is said to have found it breeding

in the Prome district (Nidif. Ind. Birds ii, 381). Stanford, who

worked the Sittang plain, did not meet with it; H. C. Smith and

I spent some days at Myitkyo ( = Myetkyo) in early July 1941, and

though we searched the banks of the Pegu Canal right down to

Waw, and also the embankment running to the Toungoo road,

we failed to discover a single bird. Much of the area that was

high grass in Oates’s day has long since been converted into

paddy fields, and we concluded that C. e. equicaudata no longer

Local term for an open area of grass in the forest-

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

occurs in its old haunts (whereas we were able to prove that

Chrysomma a. altirostris Jerdon, another species found by Oates

in the same area and not since recorded, is still to be found in

some grassy swamps north of Myitkyo). Although our hunt for

exilis proved unsuccessful we had learnt by heart the description

of this bird and its musical note; and here was this elusive species

cropping up where it had no right to be at all, hundreds of miles

from its nearest known haunt, the Bhutan Duars !

I was much puzzled by the pale and bleached appearance of

the bird, very different from the yellow bird depicted in the plate

given in vol. ii of the F.B.I. I first saw it on the 30th May,

and thought perhaps it was moulting and would turn yellow a

week or two later; but when I was next able to revisit the chaor,

on the 8th July, the bird presented exactly the same appearance,

so I reluctantly decided I should have to try and obtain a specimen;

unfortunately I had nothing but no. 6 shot, and spent an extremely

hot 2 hours on the 9th, and again on the nth, before I eventually

succeeded. The two specimens obtained were sent to the B.N.H.S.,

where the Curator kindly examined them and confirmed the identi-

fication as C. exilis ; in a letter he remarks that to all appearances

the birds belong to the race tytleri, but as there are only two speci-

mens available in the Bombay Museum for comparison the race can

only be properly determined at the British Museum.

There were certainly 3, possibly 4, pairs of birds in the chaor,

each with a well-defined territory. The male bird would circle

over his territory in a characteristic flight. The ‘take-off’ would

be straight, but rising steadily for 50 yards or so, after which

the bird commenced to circle, rising steadily to a considerable

height: I estimated 150 feet was about the average. At this height

he would circle for varying periods, ^sometimes for 5 minutes or

more, until he had had enough or until he saw another bird tres-

passing over his territory. In either case the descent was most

dramatic: an almost vertical nose-dive at astonishing speed, so fast

that the eye could scarcely follow him, flattening out when only a

few feet above the earth and returning to his perch with swift

darting erratic flight. Twice I saw him dive at a trespasser, the

first time at a swallow and the second at another C. exilis, and chase

him out of the territory, twisting and turning with great rapidity,

after which he rose again to continue his flight. Normally however

he dropped back to the grass, sometimes down out of sight but at

other times alighting on a conspicuous perch.

Throughout the flight the male utters his characteristic note, a

wheeze or nasal bleat followed after a momentary interval by a

musical note with a noticeable T’ or roll in it; the nasal bleat

is sometimes monosyllabic, at other times bi-syllabic with a drop in

pitch. During the take-off, and again when he ha^ made up his

mind to descend, a series of short staccato nasal bleats on a monotone

is uttered. The soft churr followed by the musical note uttered

from a perch is, I think, an alarm note : a warning to the female

to leave the nest.

This fl ight of -the male may be a display flight, but my impression

was that its main function was to enable him to protect his territory.

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 295

My observations did not extend over a sufficient period to give

reliable data as to the frequency of the flight, but I noted (a) that

there was nearly always at least one bird out of the 3 or 4 on the

wing, and that a bird seemed to rest for about io' minutes between

flights if not disturbed (b) that the flight is carried out both morning

and evening, and probably throughout the day (I visited the chaor

from 9 to 11 a.rn. and from 5 to 8 p.m.).

By g'ood fortune there were 1 or 2 pairs of Cisticola juncidis

breeding in the same chaor , so that I was able to compare the flights

and songs of the two species.

The songs are of course entirely different, that of juncidis being

merely a series of sharp clicks, and no one who has once heard

both could possibly confuse the two. The display flights are also

noticeably different, though the authorities content themselves with

saying that they are much the same; in actual fact the display

flight of exilis is faster, smoother (not nearly so jerky and undulat-

ing), and the circling is done at a considerably greater height. Also

it is generally much more sustained : or so I thought, staring up

at a small speck in a blazing sky for what seemed an eternity, to

mark where the bird eventually came to earth. The flight-action

of exilis consists of a series of very rapid wing-beats followed by

a period with wings closed, giving* rise to a gentle undulation.

The female I saw but seldom. As Stuart Baker writes ( Nidif .

Ind. Birds ii, 380) she usually gets up, flies straight and low for

50 yards or so, and drops back into the grass; but I did on one

occasion see the female rise up to the male in the course of his

display flight and after they had flown side by side for a short

period, both uttering the characteristic note, they both dropped

back to the grass close by, where I shot the female after missing

the male (I assume it was a female, but the specipien was too badly

damaged to be sexed).

It would round off this account to describe the finding of a nest

but in this I failed. By the nth July the grass was dense and

5 ft. high, and it might have taken days to track down a nest; that

the birds were breeding there can be little doubt.

In the first week of August I saw and heard several birds calling

over the high grass east of Kichha station, about 10 miles south

of Lalkua, in an area I had worked carefully in the cold weather

without seeing exilis. It may therefore be a summer immigrant

from further east ; people seldom visit the Tarai (notorious for its

malaria) in the rains, which would account for this species having

been overlooked in this area in the past. I suspect that it is local

but widely distributed in the Tarai during the rains.

Another interesting species breeding in the chaor is the^ Eastern

Moustached Sedge Warbler ( Lusciniola melanopo gon rnimica

Madarasz). According to Stuart Baker many specimens have been

obtained from Etawah, but there seems to be no record of its breed-

ing in the U.P. I saw only one bird, but from the way it fussed

round me with a grub in its bill it obviously had a nest-full of young

closeby. As it worked round me in a quarter circle at a distance

of about 10 yards, scolding gently the while I had excellent views

with glasses at different angles in a good light ^ and although I

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

had never previously seen this species I had no difficulty in identi-

fying it as the Sedge Warbler from its distinctive colouration.

There were several reed-like clumps of grass nearby, and if I had

had the time to search I believe the nest would have been found

in one of them.

C/o Imperial Bank of India, B. E. SMYTH I ES,

Naini Tal, Burma Forest Service.

August 8, 1943.

IV. — -OCCURRENCE OF THE GOLDEN ORIOLE AND

COMMON CUCKOO IN SIND.

Both the Indian Golden Oriole and the Common Cuckoo occur

in Sind at the time of seasonal migrations.

As they rarely come under observation, may I add the following

to the few existing records.

1. Indian Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus kundoo) <S seen at

Jamesabad, Thar and Parkar District, on 16-4-43.

2. Common Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ssp.) specimen obtained

at Samaro, Thar and Parkar District on 13-4-43 d Wing 225 mm.

Karachi, N. H. MENESSE, i.s.e.,

June 5, 1943*. Superintending Engineer,

Eastern Sind Circle.

V.-— THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREY HORNBILL

(TOCKUS BIROSTRIS) AND TICKELL’S FLOWER-PECKER

(PIPRISOMA AGILE?).

Both Whistler and Salim Ali in their books quote that the

Grey Hornbill is absent from the Punjab. Here in Sialkot I have

seen a party of 6 on several occasions. The birds are very fond

of a peepal, which has four bees’ nests suspended from its boughs,

and also of a species of fig tree in the Kashmir Residency Garden

in which a pair nested. The tree had two holes of sizable pro-

portions for the hornbill, the bigger and better hole was occupied

by a couple of mynahs. Try as they would, the pair of hornbills

could not oust the mynahs from the possession, of their home.

Eventually the hornbills gave up and became quite content with the

second best hole. I -left Sialkot while the hornbills were nesting.

Again, in both of the books of the above-quoted authors, I find

that they exclude this part of the Punjab in their distribution para-

graph of Tickell’s Flower-pecker. I have been watching these

. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

297

birds through my glasses for some time and they conform to

Whistler’s description in every degree. Salim Ali’s book shows

a Thick-billed Flower-pecker and the birds here are not like it,

not having that thick bill. Whenever I approach to get a closer

view the bird, which is purely arboreal, becomes shy and flies to

the far side of the tree. Being a very active little bird I find it

extremely difficult to watch. One pair has built a nest 5 feet from

the ground ; and the female I have frequently seen sitting on

the eggs looking out through the entrance. I put forward the

suggestion that the Canal which passes close to Sialkot may be

responsible for attracting the birds to this part of the Punjab, as

the country round here is not so dry as it used to be,

12TH Frontier Force Regt., R. G. HUTCHINSON,

Sialkot, Captain.

Punjab,

May 28, 1943.

[According to the Popular Handbook the Grey Hornbill ( Tockus

birostris) is absent from the Northern and Western Punjab. The

species, however, occurs in the more easterly and better wooded

districts of the Province. Whistler himself records it from

Ludhiana and Ambala in his papers on the birds of these districts

published in our Journal. Salim Ali’s statement that it is entirely

absent from the Punjab requires modification. The same applies

to the Tickell’s Flower-pecker which normally is absent from the

drier areas of the Northern and Western Punjab, but occurs in the

more easterly districts particularly those contiguous with the

Himalayan foot hills. From the author’s remarks it is not certain

if P. agile is the species referred to. — Eds.]

VI.— THE EUROPEAN COMMON PARTRIDGE (. PERDIX

PERDIX) IN PERSIA.

Some time ago I sent you the skin of a European Common

Partridge obtained by Capt. G. L. Sawdaz in Persia last year and

in confirming the identification, you asked for further particulars

as regards the locality where the specimen was procured. In this

connection Capt. Sawdaz now writes as follows: — -

‘I was then at a place in Kurdistan variously called Senandaj,

Sinneh and Senna. In the map in the B.N.H.S. Journal illustrating

the article on Birds of N.-W. Persia it is marked as Senna and

appears to be in the Province of Ardelan which is well south of

Ajerbaijan, the only locality mentioned in the B.N.H.S. Journal.

The actual specimen I sent you was shot about 5 miles east of

Senna. There were 4 or 5 coveys in some cultivation in a valley.

I shot 8 birds myself one day including the one I sent you. At

2 96 JOURNAL t BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

that time I was periodically travelling ioo miles or so along all

the roads radiating from Senna and I saw partridges in all directions

though never many.

On one occasion I shot one bird out of a good sized covey on

top of a 7,000 ft. pass about 80-90 miles west of Senna — well above

4he Chukor line. Senna itself was about 4,500 ft. to the best of

my recollection.

There is no doubt that the Common Partridge is fairly common

all over that area, as my observations were mostly made from

the road and there must have been many more in the less disturbed

places. ’

I hope the above further information regarding the occurrence

of the Common Partridge in Persia and its distribution will be of

interest.

17 Store Road, J. A. CERGH.

Ballygunge,

Calcutta,

July 2, 1943.

VII.— DESCRIPTION OF CHICK, IN DOWN, OF

THE SIMLA HILL PARTRIDGE ( ARBOROPHILA

TORQUEOLA MILLARDI).

As this stage of the above does not appear to have been de-

scribed it may not be out of place to describe one which came into

my possession this year. It was taken on May 30th when it was

not more than a day old.

Description. — A broad band of chestnut base of bill (where it

is pinched in near) to the nape where it is 12.5 mm. ; a broad

bulf supercilium extending down the side of the neck. A blackish

brown streak from posterior corner of the eye, broadening out over

the ear coverts. x

Back, to extremity of body, dark brown mottled lightly with

red brown.

Side of body, including wing, mottled dark and lighter red

brown.

Chin and throat pale buff. A band across breast dark brown

mottled with buff and grey which also spreads along the flanks.

Abdomen pale buff.

Bill : upper and lower mandibles yellow except across the nostrils

where it is horn. Legs and feet dusky yellow. Iris deep reddish

brown.

Simla, A. E. JONES.

July 28, 1

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 299

VIII.— LOCAL MOVEMENTS OF THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE

FRANCOLINUS PICTUS— AROUND BOMBAY.

In the April issue of Journal Mr. Humayun Abdulali has

asked for notes from other shikaris regarding the scarcity now-

adays, of the Painted Partridge around Bombay District. I agree

with Mr. Hayes’ remarks for in many days spent after this bird

in the last three seasons I have found him much more elusive than

when I was last shooting in Bombay in 1928, and my best bag has

been three couples. However, I have noticed they are obtainable

in the bazaar up to the month of May and it would appear that

the ‘paraphernalia’ which Mr. Hayes bumped into around Kardi

may after all be the cause of the scarcity of birds.

I would also mention that when I visited a bungalow about

a fortnight ago I had the painful experience of seeing 14 partridges

in an old fowl house and was told they were being fattened up.

There had been 22 and they came in baskets from a district not

far away and this in the month of June ! ! !

Hornby Road, Bombay, • F. C. D. OGDEN.

June 25, 1943.

IX.— BANDING OF LESSER FLORICAN ( SYPHEOTIDES

INDICA) IN BHAVANAGAR STATE, KATHIAWAR.

Although many ornithologists have written a considerable amount

about the habits and distribution of the Lesser Florican ( Sypheotides

indica) there is still much more to be learnt about this little bustard,

such as, the migration routes and where it goes after leaving its

breeding areas. We know that the florican does not go beyond

Indian limits and yet we do not know precisely when and where

it- spreads out, and which route it takes.

With His Highness the Maharajasahib’s eager wish to study

migration and subsequent factors concerning the lesser florican, I

had had the opinion of Mr, S. H. Prater, Curator of the Bombay

Natural History Society on this scheme. He promptly agreed to

the suggestion and furnished me with rings and data in order to

band florican.

Banding or ringing is the scientific method of studying bird

migration, age of birds and also habits. This is a hobby which

naturalists and sportsmen should undertake and it is my earnest

appeal to those who regularly shoot this game bird ‘out of

season’ to make a study of them so that we may obtain adequate

data to enable us to learn local migration routes in different parts

of the country.

I have so far had the pleasure of banding 100 florican this season

with copper rings having a code number B. F. 1 onwards. I shall

therefore be glad if any member who may from now on shoot or

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

trap any of these ringed birds will kindly inform me, or the Curator,

Bombay Natural History Society. Next year I have a plan to band

many more birds with aluminium rings bearing the inscription

‘INFORM MAHARAJA BHAVANAGAR B.H.F. i’ onwards. More-

over, I keep a detailed account of each bird banded in a proper

Register. I do hope others by seeing what we are doing will

take interest and commence banding this interesting bird instead

of mercilessly destroying it during the breeding season (May to

October). I wish to quote E. C. Stuart Baker who states in Fauna

of British India, Birds, Vol. vi, page 71 : — ‘This is one of the Indian

Game-birds which requires most rigid protection, as it is constantly

shot and harassed during the breeding-season’.

I am grateful to Mr. Prater for having supplied me with the

necessary aluminium rings and instructions for banding in the

correct way.

Bhavanagar, K. S. DHARMAKUMAR SINHJI.

September 4, 1943.

X.—WHIMBREL AND FIDDLER CRABS.

We were watching a flock of whimbrel (Elephanta Island, Bombay

Harbour, 10 Jan. 1943) on a mangrove-bordered mud-shore, swarm-

ing with fiddler-crabs ( Gelasimus sp.) of all sizes.

The bird caught the crab by its ‘fiddle’, lifted it up into the air

and then sharply jerked its head. The fiddle broke off, and the

whimbrel then methodically dropped the fiddle, picked up the owner

and swallowed him ! The place was littered with inedible claws.

The size and shape of the whimbrel’ s beak also appeared to help

it to extract the crabs from their holes.

The ease with which the crustacean discards its claws and limbs

is often quoted as an adaptive device to help it to escape. In this

case the crab is hoisted on its own petard !

French Bridge, Bombay 7, M. R. RAUT.

September 15, 1943.

XI.— THE MOULTING OF DUCK AFTER ARRIVAL IN

INDIA.

In ] .B.N.IT.S. xlii, p. 444, Mr. Salim Ali has referred to com-

mon teal and shoveller being rendered completely flightless due to

moult, at Bharatpur, during October.

In X’mas 1933, I was shooting at an irrigation lake in the

Nasik District. The quality of the shooting and the scarcity of

guns over the huge area resulted in pot shots being taken at young

spotbill in the ‘flapper’ stage. My notes record that a female

wigeon, similarly obtained was moulting primaries on both wings

and unable to fly. I have shot at the same place (but not before

MISCELLANEOUS notes

3oi

December) on several occasions subsequently, but have not come

across another instance. At Bharatpur this appears to be an annual

and regular state of affairs well known to the local people.

Bombay, HUMAYUN ABDULA LI.

September 15, 1943.

[On p. 365, Vol. xxiii of the Journal Capt. Logan Home recorded

a female Shoveller shot at Nowshera, N.W.F.P., with wing quills

in moult and unable to fly. — Eds.]

XII.— DUCKS OF KAIRA DISTRICT.

We have been shooting ducks fairly regularly in Kaira district

for some thirteen years and have kept notes on our bags. This

list of ducks for our locality may be of some interest inasmuch

as no previous list has been published for this district.

The waters of this district suitable for ducks consist of several

large artificial irrigation tanks. The quantity of water in these

tanks is dependent on the annual rainfall, and in some seasons

the water is very low. Most of these tanks, even the largest are

dry, or practically so for a few months before the rains break.

(This is of interest as it would indicate that the ducks indigenous

to India, and listed here as occurring in our district must- be, at

least in part, local migrants; coming into the district to breed,

after the monsoon breaks.). Following a good heavy monsoon

the duck shooting is excellent; after a light monsoon, the reverse

is true. The first of the migrants to arrive are the blue-winged

teal, and these in large numbers, sometime in the second week

of October. They and the common teal are the last to leave

about the middle of March. The average bag consists of blue-

winged teal, common teal, and white-eyed pochard in larger num-

bers ; and a fair number of pintail and gadwall.

The following is our list of ducks recorded in Kaira District: — -

Nukhta or Comb-Duck ( Sarkidiomis melanotus Pennant) Fairly

common, as long as the tanks are well filled. They disappear later

in the season.

Cotton-Teal ( Nettapus coromandelianus Gmelin) — Rare. Only

three recorded; a drake and two ducks shot at Pariaj, Dec. 12,

1942. (The party consisted of eight guns, and the total bag was

121 ducks.).

Grey Lag Goose [Anser anser Linn.) — -Rare. A flock of six

seen at Pariaj, Dec. 30, 1931. Two shot by D.S.P., Kaira, on

Jan. 15, 1932, at Pariaj. Three shot at Chitersumba, Dec. 24,

r939-

Lesser Whistling Teal ( Dendrocygna javanica Horsf.) — Com-

mon early in the season as long as tanks are well filled.

Brahminy Duck ( Casarca ferruginea Pallas) — Not rare. A few

to be found along Mahi and Sabarmati rivers and occasionally

around the larger tanks.

Mallard ( Anas platyrhyncha Linn.) — Rare. Only an occasional

straggler seen in the district ; while they seem to be a bit more

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ILIV

common just north of our district in the neighbourhood of Ahmeda-

bad. (Saw a duck and a drake in a large mixed flock of duck on

a tank near Ahmedabad, March 20, 1940). Saw a drake and

two ducks at Pariaj, Nov. 29, 1941. One duck shot at Gobhlaj,

Dec. 24, 1942.

Spotbill ( Anas poecilorhyncha Forster) — Fairly common. A few

to be seen at any time as long as tanks are well filled.

Gadwall ( Chaulelasmiis strep eras Linn.) — Common.

Wigeon ( Mareca penelope Linn.) — Rather rare. A few are seen

and shot each season, but never in any numbers.

Common Teal ( Nettion creccci Linn.)— Common ; however, not

as plentiful as blue-winged teal.

Pintail ( Dafila acuta Linn.) — Lommon. Difficult to shoot as

they are the first to rise to a great height and move off to other

waters.

Blue-winged Teal ( Querquedula querquedula Linn.) — Very com-

mon— rperhaps the most plentiful in the district, with the white-

eyed pochard a close second in numbers.

Shoveller ( Spatula clypeata Linn.) — Common.

Red Crested Pochard ( Netta rufina Pallas) — Rather rare. Only

seen in small numbers in some seasons.

Pochard ( Nyroca ferina Linn.)- — Common.

White-eyed Pochard ( Nyroca rufa Linn.) — Very common.

Nadiad, HERSCHEL C. ALDRICH, m.d.

Kaira District,

September 20, 1943.

XIII.— THE ARABIAN LARGE-CRESTED SEA TERN

(STERNA BERGII VELOX) BREEDING OFF THE SIND

COAST.

Hitherto the nearest known breeding ground of this magnificent

tern has been recorded as Astola, an island off the Mekran coast

near Ormara.

For the past three years, if not long*er, fairly large colonies of

the Arabian Large Crested Sea Tern have been breeding on suitable

islands off the Sind coast at the mouth of the Kajhar creek, which

lies about 10 miles, as thd crow flies, west of the Seer Creek,

separating Sind from Kutch.

In May 1934 while looking for favourable flamingo breeding

ground I came across numbers of this tern ‘packing’, a sure sign

of breeding, on sand banks near Kajhar creek but it was not till

June 1941 that I was able to send out a trusted man, who returned

with several very ‘high’ birds and about a dozen fresh eggs, all

that were unbroken out of a basket which contained about 60 eggs.

The following year I secured about a score of eggs which were

taken on the 14th June and this year I received 64 eggs taken on

the 20th June. The man reported that hundreds of birds were

breeding and that many eggs were taken yearly for food by

mohanas from Kutch,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

303

The eggs were laid in mere scrapes in the sand. The nests

contained either i or 2 eggs, all of which were perfectly fresh. The

eggs as a series differ in no way from those taken at Astola off

the Mekran coast.

XIV.— THE HATCHING OF A MUGGER ( CROCODILUS

PALUSTRIS).

I am writing to you of a recent unusual experience I had while

in company on shikar with Captain I. S. Durrad, also of the

staff of this School, as I think it may be of interest.

In May this year we were camped at Devikop forest bungalow

about 20 miles from Hubli on the Hubli-Yellapur Road (Kanara).

Below the bungalow there was quite a large jhil which does not

dry up during the summer. Between the bungalow and the water

and about 70 yds. from the water there was a small experimental

teak plantation. The Forest Department were working in this

plantation putting in teak seeds. One of the coolies engaged on

this work was digging when he came across a nest of about 20

crocodile eggs. We opened one and found a fully formed young

crocodile which would probably have been born in a few days*

a. matter of interest I kept one. On return to Belgaum I put

this egg into a cup on a shelf in my sitting room and forgot

about it. I had been back here three weeks and was having my

breakfast one morning when my bearer came and said there were

noises coming from the egg. This was quite correct, and I realised

there was a live crocodile in the egg. I then put the egg in a

biscuit tin and placed it in a warm place ; the noises continued

for several days and a very small crack appeared in the shell.

When I saw this I took a knife and removed some of the shell.

I then put the egg back into the tin and the next morning had a

look but it was still in the same condition. I had another look

an hour later and the crocodile was born fully formed and full of

life. He is now in his natural surroundings.

Officers' Training School, C, BONE.

Belgaum, Conductor .

June 8, 1943.

XV.— SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF THE ‘RECORD MAHSEER’.

In the April issue of the Journal (Vol. xliii, No. 4, pp. 662,

663, 2 pis., 1943), Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton gave some interesting-

details, with excellent photographs, of two large specimens of

Mahseer, 119 lbs. and 110 lbs. in weight respectively. Both were

Karachi,

July 20, 1943.

K. R. EATES,

Indian Police,

F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

10

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

caught in the Mysore State, the larger from the Cauvery River

and the other from the Cubbany (Kabani) River. In view of their

record size and the interest they are likely to excite among anglers,

I propose to deal here with their taxonomic position and assign to

them a specific name.

In part xvi of the series of articles on ‘The Game Fishes of

India’, ( Journ ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xliv, pp. 1-8, 1943) I have

dealt with the systematic position and geographical distribution of

the two species of mahseer described by Sykes (Trans. Zool. Soc.

Loud., Vol. ii, pp. 349-378, pis. lx-lxvii, 1941) from the Deccan.

Evidence was adduced to show that the high-backed mahseer of

the Deccan waters is Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes.

Jerdon (Madras Journ. Lit. Sci., Vol. xv, pp. 302-346, 1849)

assigned Kilche of the Cauvery, a fish that ‘grew to an enormous

size’, to Barbus megalepis McClelland, while Thomas (Rod in India,

3rd Ed., pp. 22, 23, London: 1897), following the nomenclature

suggested by Day (Fish. India, p. 573, London : 1878) named his

‘Bhwanny Mahseer’ or ‘ Bombin’ , a much deeper and more high-

backed mahseer than the others, Barbus tor (Hamilton). Recent

investigations have, however, definitely shown that both these forms

are referrable to Sykes’s B. mussullah. The excellent photographs,

reproduced in Col. Burton’s article, leave no doubt that his ob-

servations deal with the high-backed mahseer of the Deccan, and,

therefore, the correct scientific name of the record mahseer is

Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes. The only other mahseer found

in the Deccan and the Peninsular waters is Barbus (Tor) khudree

Sykes. The difference in form of the two species is clearly shown

in the coloured drawings reproduced with my article referred to

above.

1, Deodar Street, S. L. MORA,

Ballygunge, Calcutta, Director of Fisheries, Bengal.

June 18, 1943.

XVI.— STRANGE BREEDING HABITS OF THE CICHLID

FISH (ETROPLUS MACULATUS).

Although the Cichlid family of fishes is widespread throughout

the rivers of Africa and South America, the family is represented

in India by only two species, both confined to ‘the southern coastal

belt. A difficult fish to observe, Etroplus does not take well

to aquarium life and no detailed description of its strange breeding

habits has come to the writer’s notice.

The writer has been fortunate in that two pairs of Etroplus

maculatus bred in his aquarium in Poona. On both occasions it

was possible to observe the process in every detail. Here are

the particulars : — -There is a preliminary courtship in which both

sexes put on the most gorgeous breeding colours — the body turns

a brilliant canary yellow — the anal arid ventral fins become deep

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

305'

black. There is a large dark spot centrally situated on the side

of the body — the eye turns red and is partially surrounded by a

crescent of brilliant iridescent blue.

By nature attractive in shape, with vertically flattened body and

perky fins, this fish, male and female is a really striking sight at

breeding time. Having put on their wedding garments, the pair pro-

ceed to investigate the aquarium for possible enemies — other fish are

pushed about and bullied no matter what their size — reven the owner is

not immune — a finger dipped into the aquarium invariably receives a

painful nip — doubtful looking plants, possible hiding places of

enemies, are investigated in detail. If suspicious, the fishes just

root them up. Finally a clear belt is made round the site selected

for spawning. The female now protrudes her ovipositor — rather

like a small thorn near the vent. The actual site for spawning —

the glass side of the aquarium is carefully picked clear of all

impurities — -algae and debris. Whilst the male stands guard, the

female swims up to the site — she moves up vertically, her ovipositor

just touching the glass and ejects a number of eggs — generally two.

These eggs are dark in colour, the size of a pin’s head and are

attached to the glass hy a gelatinous thread approx. 2 mm. long ,

so that they can move freely in all directions. Having fixed her

eggs, she darts over to the male, who is on sentry-go, and gently

nudges him with her snout — he turns and sails over to the spawn-

ing site, whilst she takes over the duties of sentry, facing away

from her mate and exhibiting every sign of ferocity.

The male having reached the eggs, sails upwards across the

site. His body trembles violently as he ejects his milt over each egg

in turn. He now returns to sentry duty, whilst the female again

ejects a couple more eggs. So the process goes on until approxi-

mately 150 eggs are deposited. The site chosen is in the angle

of the aquarium, close to the bottom. The eggs, each anchored

by an individual thread, resemble a black curtain fringe. The fishes

now take it in turn to fan the eggs — For this purpose they use their

pectoral fins, moving up and down over the spawning site. Whilst

one fans the other does sentry-go, keeping all intruders at bay.

The sentry has to be relieved at times and there never seems to be

any misunderstanding about this — the fish that fans moves over,

nudges its companion and takes over, whilst the releived sentry

moves back to fan the eggs. Occasionally fanning is stopped for

a few moments, whilst the fish picks some algae off the glass or

some debris off the bottom of the tank.

Forty-eight hours after spawning the fishes take it in turn to

dig a hole in the aquarium sand. This is done very thoroughly.

Quite large pebbles are rolled out — smaller ones are carried by

mouth and dropped some distance away. When the hole is dug

to their satisfaction, and when it has been thoroughly cleaned,

one fish remains on sentry go whilst the other proceeds to the

spawning site. The eggs are taken in the m^utfq two or three

at a time — a gentle pull releases the retaining thread — they are

now carried in the mouth to the crater in the sand and gently

dropped in. When all have been so transferred, the fish are much

happier. The pair find it quite an easy matter to safeguard the

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

young by sitting on top of the hole and fanning. All the time

there is a great fussiness about sanitation. Both fish constantly

peck about in the sand. If debris is found, it is picked up and

spat out in the far corner of the tank. The digging of holes

continues daily and the eggs are constantly changed from one site

to another. This extreme cleanliness is evidently intended to

prevent fungus disease which would, in less clean surroundings,

attack and kill the eggs.

By the end of the fourth day a constant waving motion is

noticed amongst the eggs — the young are hatched out but are

still attached to their yolk sacs. They look just a mass of tiny

helpless creatures, scarcely recognisable as fish — the parents keep

up their unremitting care, refusing ordinary food. If, however, any

live insect, mosquito larvae or the like is introduced into the tank,

it is immediately snapped up. They appear, at this stage, to only

eat in defence of their young. Another fish of their own size or

even bigger, if introduced, will be attacked viciously and killed if

not removed. On the eighth day exactly, the young fish start to

swim. Early efforts are supervised by the parents, who use their

pectoral fins to sweep the babies gently about. Enterprising

youngsters are sternly repressed. If one strays from the flock,

he is seized in the parent’s mouth and brought back to be spat

out well into the centre of the crowd.

Each baby fish has its daily bath ! This is done by the parents

taking individual babies into their mouths. They are rolled round

and round inside and then ejected clean as a new pin. Parents

keep their young in a compact mass and cruise along the bottom

of the aquarium picking at algae and turning over smaller pebbles

rather in the way a hen scratches for her chickens. To keep the

young alive at this stage is a problem. They must have live

animalculae, minute rotifers and the like — these are obtained by

sweeping a net of fine bolting* cloth in any neighbouring pool —

the dirtier the better ! Infusoria of this nature when introduced

into the aquarium look like minute specks of dust. The young

eagerly devour them and grow rapidly. Certain types of animalculae

seem to be not good for the children, so are disposed of by the

parents. Throughout this period the parents retain their beautiful

colours and are most affectionate. One often sees them gently

rubbing sides, the nearest they can go to a caress. They appear

so proud of their children — -so ready to give their lives if necessary

in their defence — so keen on cleanliness and the health of the

babies — True exponents of infant welfare. Every item set forth

above has been seen and noted at the time by the writer. Apart

from whatever addition it may make to the knowledge of the breed-

ing habits of our Indian fishes, it has been a delightful experience

for the observer.

Ganeshkhtnd, Poona,

June i, 1943.

H. J. RICE,

Lt.-Col.

Army Medical Centre .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

307

XVII.— A NOTE ON THE TRANSMISSION OF MALARIA AT

KETTI, NILGIRI S, 6,300 feet.

Towards the end of September, 1941, there occurred at St.

George’s, Ketti, what Dr. Russell, then attached to the Malarial

Institute of India, described as ‘an unique outbreak of malaria’.,

Out of the 235 children in the school there were seven cases of

malaria (blood smears showing P. falciparum 5, P. vivax 3, one

showing both species).

In early June of 1936 two other cases had occurred among the

children and at the same season this year a member of my staff

contracted the disease (all blood smears showing P. vivax).

In the October epidemic the possibility of relapses must be

considered in four cases, as three of the children had originally,

but not recently, come from the plains. None of them, however,

had been out of Ketti since February, and the fourth child had on

one occasion been down to the jungles at Kallar, though only for

a short time during the day. The remaining children had been

living in Ketti for some years, one of them never having been away

from the hills1, and the rest not having descended below 6,000 ft.

during their residence in Ketti.

Regarding the cases of 1936, both the children had lived in

Ketti for a considerable period : one had not been below 6,000 feet

for several years, but the other may have returned to his home

on the plains for the Christmas holidays, so must be considered

as a possible relapse. In the case recorded in this year the patient

had spent part of January in Madras. Malaria was possibly con-

tracted there as the patient had not been near the streams and

marshes mentioned below and also had been v^ell bitten by mosquitoes

in Madras, a focal point of infection being the presence in the

neighbourhood of evacuees from Burma.

Of these ten undoubted cases of malaria it is evident beyond

any reasonable doubt that the disease was transmitted to four at

Ketti and in all probability to five of the remaining six.

Furthermore, Dr. K. I. Simon, the Ketti doctor, informs me

that he has come across frequent cases of malaria among the

Badaga population of the Ketti Valley. Of these numerous cases

the possibility of relapses, or of the disease having been contracted

elsewhere and having developed in Ketti, can be ruled out in eight

instances, as I am assured that these patients never had occasion

to leave the Ketti Valley. Blood smears were taken in only four

cases but these were all positive for malaria and the remaining

cases were all typical and responded to injections and oral admini-

stration of quinine.

Details of these eight cases were as follows : —

10a

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The maximum altitude for the transmission of malaria in these

hills was hitherto considered to be 4,000 ft., this being a fairly

constant boundary : but here is evidence of transmission at, or

above, 6,000 ft.

The weather directly preceding the outbreak of 1941 was extremely

wet and without high winds, on account of which the density of

Anophelines was high. The older children, among whom the out-

break exclusively occurred, had been practising for their annual

sports on the sports ground which is situated at the lowest point

of the estate adjacent to the junction of two streams which are

bordered at some places by marshy ground. The children had

been returning from this field at dusk and it seems probable that

the infection was contracted then.1

Of the eight above-mentioned village cases six were Badagas

who lived close to the stream and the swamps.

Shortly after the outbreak of 1941 painstaking collections of

Anopheles larvae and imagines were made by Dr. Russell and his

staff with the following results : — -

All the adults were dissected and found negative.

Owing to unfavourable weather conditions the collections were

scanty. A. cnlicifacies is a known carrier on the plains wherever

it has sufficient density and is, I believe, a new species at this

altitude. A. fluviatilis, the common carrier on the ghats, was not

observed. None of the others is a known carrier in the Nilgiris,

but A. jeyporensis has been known to transmit malaria elsewhere.2

What then is the cause of this transmission of malaria at an

unprecedented altitude? Two solutions are suggested below or a

combination of both may solve the problem.

The first is a solution suggested by Dr. Russell.

During 1941 more than 2,000 labourers, many from malarial

districts, were imported to Aruvankadu, between two and three

miles from Ketti, and it seems possible that with such ample oppor-

tunities for infection the local Anophelines may transmit malaria.

In this respect it should be noticed that in November .of 1941 two

cases of malaria were observed among adults in Aruvankadu who

had not been out of the village for some years and another case

was observed in the neighbouring township of Wellington at 6,000 ft.

It is of course quite probable that there have also been other cases

in neighbouring villages which have not been reported.

1 Since the introduction of Summer Time; there has been no occasion for

children to be near the stream at, or after, dusk and no cases of malaria have

' been recorded among them.

2 Bainbrigge Fletcher, Some South Indian Insects, 1914.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

309'

Whether this solution explains the occurrence of numerous cases

in the entirely unconnected valley of Ketti is doubtful but it certainly

fails to explain the cases previous to 1941,

The Ketti Valley below the school slopes gradually for 2\ miles

in a southerly direction to Kateri, whence it enters a valley which

descends rapidly to the Bhavani Valley at 1,100 ft. The Bhavani

River continues in an E. N. Easterly direction to debouch onto the

Mettupalaiyam Plain some 9 miles distant. The whole of the lower

region is highly malarial.

It is noticeable that the cases of malaria have occurred just

before and just after the S.-W. monsoon season when the main

wind currents come from the E. and N.-E. respectively. It seems

probable that the wind currents strike the entrance of the Bhavani

Valley and ascend that and the Ketti stream, reaching Ketti as

a southerly breeze. This is certainly my experience of the lower

wind currents at these seasons from observations taken near the

head of the valley. Such wind currents would doubtless encourage

mosquitoes of low elevation habitat, such as A. culicijacies , to

ascend the valley. At these times of the year they would find the

Ketti Valley favourable to mosquito life as it is particularly pro-

tected, warm by day and night, and damp and marshy.

What we may term the ‘non-malarious seasons’ correspond to

the S.-W. monsoon season when strong N.-W. (sic) gales blow

somewhat against the direction of the valley, the winter, when the

nights are cool, and the warm dry period from mid-February to

mid-April.

In support of this theory I may state that I have caught certain

varieties of butterflies here at those seasons when the upper wind

currents flow from the E. and N.-E. whose appearance at the

altitude of Ketti is most unusual. The foodstuff of the larvae of

some of these species is not found anywhere nearer than several

thousand feet lower than Ketti.1

It is worth observing that the flora of Ketti is quite normal for

the altitude, but this is easily explained by the rough S.-W. monsoon

weather and the cool winters.

In conclusion, malaria would seem to be endemic in the Ketti

Valley. Is it not possible that the transmission of malaria occurs

as a combined result of favourable lower wind currents up the

valley at certain seasons, mild wet weather before and after the

monsoon, and the protected nature of the valley? When these

conditions are combined to an exceptionally favourable degree, as

in September of 1941, may we not expect a minor epidemic?

1 I have observed the following species of butterflies at Ketti whose appear-

ance at this altitude is most unusual.

Bindahara phocides moorei : March.

Byblia ilithyia : September.

Charana jalindra macarita : early June.

Nacaduba dana dana : April.

Leptosia nina nina : February.

I have observed no unusual species during the S.-W. monsoon.

Ketti, Nilgiris,

September ro, 1943.

M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH,

m. a. ( Cantab )

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

XVIII.— BUTTERFLY MIGRATION.

( DANAIS MELISSA DRAVIDARUM AND EUPLOEA C. CORE)

During a trip I noted many interesting things new to me,

on one of them I would like further information. Perhaps you

can help me. It concerns butterflies. In early July I watched a

migration of butterflies for eight days, a continuous stream passing

at the rate of thousands a minute, all heading west, and stretching,

to my knowledge, ten miles on either side of Kolar town. In sheltered

places they hung on bushes in such numbers as to weigh the

branches down. They were all of two varieties, one black with

pale blue spots, the other sooty black with white spots on the

edge of the wings and both had a wing span of about three inches.

Have I seen something unusual or is this a common happening in

this .area.

July 20, 1943.

Your letter and Journal have arrived for which many thanks.

What a pity I was not aware you wanted details and specimens

of butterfly migrations. I took very few notes at the time and

could easily have sent you ten thousand specimens. I cannot add

much to the details I have already given you. The exact dates

were July 5th to 12th and the flight was in progress when I arrived

in the district and ended on the 12th. I was able to observe them

the whole time as I was driving a car backwards and forwards

every day over the 20 miles. The flight never ceased during day

light but I did not see one on the move after dark. There was a

strong S.-W. breeze blowing the whole time with occasional heavy

showers and they were flying into the wind between ground level

and 1 2 ft. The two species were in about equal numbers. Under

the trees and bushes where they were resting, the ground was littered

with wings, never a complete specimen, just single wings. Had

something been feeding- on them? I did not take any specimens

from the flight but am enclosing one of each species which I caught

in Bangalore today. Fromxthe illustrations in the Journal I should

say that they are D. septentrionis and Euploea core. A friend has

told me today of driving for about six miles through a flight of

the same two species about 40 miles east of Kolar on the Madras

road on May 5th this year.

No. 1 Coy. 3rd I.A.F. Signals, W. L. FRENCH.

September 9, 1943.

[The specimens received were identified as Danais melissa

dravidarmn Frnh. and Euploea core core Cr. — Eds.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

311

XIX.— INSECTS IN FRUIT EATEN BY BIRDS

Comment on the supposed frugivorous habits of Woodpeckers.

On page 122 of the August number of the Journal is a record

of woodpeckers eating berries on trees with an editorial note re-

marking that a frugivorous diet is unusual in these birds. It is

possible that the individuals observed were essentially insectivorous

for the berries may have contained insect larvae. Further observa-

tions would be interesting.

The fruits of some trees are very badly attacked especially by

weevils. Some years ago my small son, in Mussoorie, discovered

a tree of Machilus duthiei, with a great number of berries, all of

which, so far as we could find, were attacked by Drepanoscelus gard-

neri Mshl., a weevil with a very peculiar looking larva indeed.

Incidentally there is a great deal that is unknown about insects in

fruits and seeds of forest trees and I should appreciate samples

sent to my address.

Forest Research Institute, J. C. M. GARDNER,

Dehra Dun, * Forest Entomologist.

September 22, 1943.

XX.— A TRIP TO THE YALA SANCTUARY.

On September 17th I started from Colombo at 6-30 a.m. with

Major M for Yala Sanctuary — 180 miles away on South East Coast.

We went in M’s Ford 8, loaded with kit and with petrol (for which

coupons were obtained with difficulty) and arrived at Tissamaha-

rama at about 3-30 p.m. and filmed a small crocodile in the huge

tank there. Shortly before Tengalle we passed into the ‘dry

zone’ where the country changed completely into thorn scrub exactly

like Coimbatore with rocky bare hills like Mysore. There were many

ibis, spoon-bill, cormorants and divers on the tanks. We arrived

at 5 p.m., over a rough jungle track at Palatupana where the

Sanctuary Warden lives. This is outside the sanctuary. I went

out with M and the local Excise Commissioner to watch for ele-

phants coming to drink in the tank behind the bungalow. Just

before sunset a three-quarter-grown bull elephant arrived and walked

over the bund to drink. I walked up to 25 yards and exposed

.20 feet of film before he became suspicious, remounted the bund

and after standing there for some time while- I filmed him at close

quarters decided to make off into the jungle.

On the 1 8th we motored another 12 miles over a very rough sandy

track between almost impenetrable thorn jungle, with the sea behind

and jungle covered sand dunes on the right. The next land is the

South Pole ! The only difference between the Sanctuary and the

surrounding jungle is a reinforced concrete notice board pulled to

pieces by elephants. This could probably be remedied by a black

notice board. It was hot and dry with a strong wind blowing.

We saw several wild buffaloes in a wide tank and some wild pig

on the shore. I crawled up to the latter through a thorn jungle

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

to 20 yards and took several feet of film, and afterwards made

some long- range movies at one of the buffalo bulls who seemed

undecided whether to charge or not. ^Vfter this the Sinhalese tracker

advised sitting in a hide of a few branches by a half dry jungle

pond. A small family of spotted deer came down and drank while

2 or 3 wild buffaloes crashed away out of the mud as we approached

the pond. After going another 4 miles we stopped at another jungle

pond where I sat behind a few branches under a thorn tree while

M and the tracker took the car on to Yala bungalow. While I

was still breaking small loop holes for the camera in the screen of

branches, I heard a rush over the dry leaves and a crash behind

me and the next moment a fine panther descended on my water proof

coat spread out beside me, so near that I could have touched him

with my hand. He gave one grunt before I could move and vanished

to the right in a couple of heavy bounds. I could see as he went

that he was one of the big, forest type of panther with a beautifully

marked skin. It appeared to me that he had heard me breaking

the twigs, had seen the top of my topee and had mistaken me for

a new type of deer. He had rushed me from about 15 feet and

had presumably realised at the last moment that I was a man,

and so had swerved off.

After half an hour 2 bull buffaloes arrived and drank and the

bigger bull wallowed. I took 25 feet of film at. 50 yards. After

another half hour a small sounder of wild pig arrived, one with a

litter of tiny squeakers. These were trying to take ‘tea’ while their

mother was in the water. She was very patient with them. The

pig drank and wallowed and later a young bull buffalo arrived and

was filmed and at about 5 p.m., a sambhur stag (horns about 32

inches) drank and wallowed about 20 yards away. He was duly

filmed also as he stood on his hind legs to eat berries of a tree.

I walked back to camp about 6 p.m.

On September 19th we went up the Menik Ganga (River of

Gems) for two or three miles through grand jungle reminiscent of

the Wynaad. We made a hide of branches under a shady tree

and filmed buffalo and pig which cam'e within 20 yards at times

to drink and wallow in the river running in shallow streams through

sand and rocks. After a few hours we shifted our hide upstream

and threw a few branches together under a tree, whence I issued

to film spotted deer — -a small herd at close quarters — and to stalk

a boar in his wallow at 30 feet. A small herd of buffaloes came

and settled down in the water within 30 yards. After half an hour

the wind changed and they advanced snorting on the hide, while

1 filmed them up to 15 yards away. Finally they crashed off. There

are literally hundreds of wild buffalo on this river, some of them

remarkably fine bulls with thick curving horns who stand and glare

and snort before crashing away to the jungle from their pools in

the river. They are supposed to be dangerous but we never had

a charge, though at times one seemed imminent. They make less

noise than bison when galloping away into the jungle. A wild

sow was seen in the distance with a family of 5 tiny striped squeakers

not more than 8 inches high following her through water and

over sand banks in a compact little mob. About 4 p.m. we started

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

313

slowly back and after half a mile walked right into a fine bull

elephant drinking below the bank. I walked up to 15 yards, so

close that I could only film him in sections, as his head alone more

than filled the view finder. Finally he got our wind and turned and

shuffled off to the forest on the opposite bank at a great pace.

Afterwards we saw at least 20 baby crocodiles all less than a

foot long, pouring in a mob off a fallen tree into a pool and diving-

down to holes in the banks below water. Shortly after I stalked

a small crocodile about 8 feet long to within 15 yards and filmed

him before he slipped into the water. The trees in the heavy jungle

along the banks are magnificent, huge trunks 8 or 10 feet in dia-

meter in some cases.

On September 20th we went again up the Menik Ganga but saw

very little, the day being over cast after rain in the night. Several

small crocodiles slid into the water and I eventually stalked one to

about 40 yards and filmed him. I now have only 10 feet of film

left out of 250 feet. The trees on the river are alive with horn-

bills, the large kind with the upper casque on the bill, paradise

flycatchers, kingfishers (both the common and the white-breasted)

and all kinds of small song birds besides parroquets. We bathed in

the evening in a pool of the river below the bungalow keeping a watch

for crocodiles of which there are several big ones in the river. Last

night we beared elephants trumpeting and screaming in the forest

on the far bank and two wild buffaloes walked past the bungalow

within 5 yards of our camp beds, as we found by their tracks this

morning.

On September 21st we went back to Polatupana and on the

way visited the ‘Panther Pond’, Rukinawala, with M, the warden

and his head tracker. As we approached there were five buffaloes

and several wild pig in the water and pea fowl and a herd of spotted

deer on the shore, all drinking together. After seeing the panther’s

tracks the warden’s opinion was that the panther had lain watching

me at a few feet range for some time and then had deliberately

attacked, but was put off by a thick thorn bough at my back,

and being disconcerted by this had failed actually to strike me and

had made off. This is just possible from my own knowledge of tigers

and panthers, but the incident is interesting as an actual experience of

how a panther stalks and rushes a deer.

On arrival at ‘P’ we went down to the end of the lagoon with the

tracker and motor driver, where there is a big sand bar with boulders

and the surf on the far side, and caugth some crabs for dinner. I

noticed tracks of deer in the sand along the shore,

After returning to the rest hut a Buddhist Votary, under a vow

to live in the jungle, came past and we called him in and asked

him about his life. He was very simple and cheerful and asked

for nothing. He apparently lives among the animals and says that

in the rains if he lights a fire before a cave where he shelters,

the bears come up and sleep on the far side. He has apparently

wandered all over Ceylon. He was very grateful for some cheroots

which he said were as good to him as food.

I picked up a small Star-shell Tortoise to take back to Colombo

as a pet. Later in the evening I went to try for another picture of

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XLIV

elephants at the tank but nothing came before dark, though later

in the night several elephants were trumpeting and roaring in the

water close to the hut. It is noticeable that Ceylon elephants appear

much shyer than those in S. India. This may be due to the large

number shot as alleged ‘rogues’ — I have heard of residents shooting

20 or 30 elephants — all, or nearly all, tuskless.

On September 22nd we started back at dawn and came without

incident out of the dry zone to Tangalle where I filmed hawks

bill turtles (from which tortoise shell comes) swimming in the clear

blue water up to the beach below the rest house. M got a man

to pull several lumps of white and pink brain coral off the reef for

me. We got back to Colombo safely at 5 p.m.

Base P.O., H. G. ROSSEL,

Colombo, Lt.-Col.

May 26, 1943.

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EDITED BY

Rev. Fr. J. F. CAIUS, S.J..F.L.S., S. H, PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S..

and C. MCCANN, F.L.S.

VOL. XLIV

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 3 Coloured Plates, 30 Black and White Plates,

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/

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL1V

No. 3

Page

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XVI.

By N. L. Bor, M.A., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M.B. Raizada,

M.sc. ( With o?ie coloured , three black and white plates and

th ree text-figures) 315

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish

in India. Part VI. By A. St. J. Macdonald. ( With

four plates and two text-figures) 322

Notes on Some Indian Birds. Part VIII. By E, H. N.

Lowther, m.b.o.u., f.z.s. ( With twelve plates).,. 355

A Black Leopard, an ordinary Leopard and a good

Bull Tsaing. By W. S. Thom 374

Where the Rainbow Ends. By Lt.-Col. R. B. Phayre, m.c.

( With two plates) 380

Occurrence of Birds in Madura District. By Edward G.

Nichols 387

New Records of Fish from Poona. By M. Suter, d.sc 408

The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera. Part XII. By

D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s 415

Some Whale Sharks and Sun Fishes captured off Cey-

lon. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala, m.a. (Cantab.), a. m.

(Harvard), f.c.p., f.l.s., f.z.s. ( With a plate and two text-

figures) 426

The Estuarial Flora of the Godavary. By V. Venka-

teshwarlu, M.sc. {With a map and 2 plates) 431

Notes on the Flowering Plants of the Billigiri-

rangan Hills. By Edward Barnes 436

Biological Notes on Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne and

its Parasites in S. India. By P. N. Krishna Ayyar and

V. Margabanau. {With 2 graphs) 460

Obituary : —

Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse 466

Miscellaneous Notes •

I. Occurrence of the Lion in Persia. By Lt.-Col.

G. F. Heaney..... 467

II. Tiger Claw marks on Trees, By E. S. Simon.... 467

III. Wild Dogs attacking a Tiger. By W. Connell... 468

IV

Contents of volume xllV

Page

IV. Elephants at Salt Licks. By P. D. Stracey, i.f.s.. 471

V. Additional Notes on the Birds in Betul District

and surrounding areas in the Central Provinces.

By C. Hewetson, i.f.s 471

VI. Late Breeding of the Common House Crow

( Corvus splendens splendens). By S. N. Sen 474

VII. On the occurrence of the Rufous-bellied Crested

Tit ( Lophophanes rubidiventris ) in the Simla

Hills. By A. E. Jones 474

VIII. Food of the White-breasted Kingfisher {Halcyon

smymensis fused). By S. N. Sen ... 475

IX. Green Pigeons in Swamp. By Capt. J. A. Hislop. 475

X. The Common Flamingo (JPhoenicopterus ruber ).

An Appeal 476

XI. Notes on the Evening flight of Geese and Duck.

By Major-General G. de La P. Beresford 477

XII. Moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By

R. E. Parsons 478

XIII. The * Courtship ’ of the Monitor Lizard ( Varanus

monitor ). By Salim Ali {With a plate) 479

XIV. The Breeding Habits of the Cobra {Naia tripu-

dians Merrem) and the Green Whipsnake ( Dry -

ophis mycterizans), By E. S. Simon.. 480

XV. A Note on Rana crassa Jerdon, with extension of

its range. By J. L. Bhaduri 481

XVI. Further locality records of Rana hexadactyla

Lesson in Bengal, with brief notes on its Tad-

poles. By J. L. Bhaduri 484

XVII. Sap-drinking Butterflies. ByM. Suter, d.sc 486

XVIII. Black Ants raid honey bees. By K. R. Eates,

f.z.s., m.b.o.u 488

XIX. Dragonflies in' migration on the West Coast of

India. By V. M. Vasu 491

XX. The Castor Plant {Ricinus communis Linn.) and

Lepidopterous larvae. By D. G. Sevastopulo,

F.R.F.S.. 492

XXI. Hunting Wasp preying on Butterflies. By Capt.

J. A. Hislop 492

XXII. Re-occurrence of the House Spider {Heteropoda

venatoria) in the field. By T. V. Subrah-

manyam, b.a 493

XXIII. Flowering of Strobilanthes . By J. L. H. Williams. 493

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL1V v

Page

XXIV. The ^Genus Brachystelma. R. Br. An addition

to the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. By

C. McCann, f.l.s. ( With a ptate) . 494

XXV. Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. By H. Santapau, S.J.

( With a plate ) 496

No. 4

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs.

Part XVII. By N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc. f.l.s., i.f.s., and

M.B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured, 4 black and white

plates and 3 text-figures) 499

Materials for the Ornithology of Afghanistan. By

Hugh Whistler... 505

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish

in India and Burma. Part VII. By A. St. J. Macdonald

(With 16 text-figures) 520

The Butterflies of the Nilgiris. By M. A. Wynter-

Blyth, m.a. j(Cantab)... . 536

A Sketch of the Botany and Geography of North

Burma. By F. Kingdon-Ward, b.a., f.r.g.s., f.l.s., etc. 550

Occurrence of Birds in Madura District. Part II. By

Edward G. Nichols... 571

Miscellaneous Notes

I. A Black Jungle Cat from Karachi and the Panther

of Sind. By R. I. Pocock. 585

II. Jackals attacking Deer in Ceylon. By Lt.-Col.

R. C. Morris... 585

III. The Eastern Range of the Himalayan Brown Bear.

(Ursus arctos isabellinus ). By R. I. Pocock.*. 585

IV. Bear Hunting on the Wular Lake. By Major-

General G. de La P. Beresford. 586

V. Breeding Season of the Indian Sambar. By A. A.

Dunbar Brander. 587

VI. The Larger Deer of India— A correction. By R. I.

Pocock... 587

VII. Malformed Horns of the Gaur (Bibos gaums). By

Van Ingen and Van Ingen (With a photo) 587

VIII. Observations on the Elephant and other Mammals

in the Anamalai Hills of Cochin. By Capt.

C. R. Stonor 588

vi

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV

Page

IX. Bearded Bee-eater ( Alcemerops athertoni) in the

Central Provinces. By C. Hewetson. 592

X. A Record of Hodgson’s Frogmouth ( Batrach

ostomus jave?isis hodgsoni) and the Cochin

China Spinetail ( Hirundapus caudacutus ssp.)

from Northern Burma. By B. E. Smythies. 593

XI. Note on the nesting of the Himalayan Swiftlet

( Collocalia iuciphaga). By Col. E. A. Glennie... 593

XII. The Mystery of Bird-4 Anting’ (Reproduced from

Country Liie , November 5, 1943). By Frank

Lane 597

XIII. Egg-laying period of the Common Indian Monitor.

By J. D. Romer 600

XIV. A good Method of weighing fish which are too

heavy for a Spring Balance. By A. P. Millard.

( With a diagram) 600

XV. Some interesting Butterflies, By M. A. Wynter-

Blyth, m.a. {With a coloured plate) 601

XVI. A New Variety of Papaya Carica papaya var.

{lava from Travancore. By L. S. S. Kumar

and A. Abraham. ( With 3 photos) 602

XVII. The Flowering of Strobilanthes, By Fr. H. Santa-

pau, s.J 605

\

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XLIV

Nos. 3 and 4

Page

Abraham, A. ; A New Variety

of Papaya Carte a papaya var.

flava from Travancore ( With

three photos) .. 602

Ali, sXlim ; The Courtship of

the Monitor Lizard ( Varanus

monitor). {With a plate) ... 479

An Appeal ; The Common Fla-

mingo ( Phoenicopterus ruber) 476

Ayyar, P. Krishna and

Margabandu, V. ; Biological

Notes on Sinoxylon Sudani -

cum Lesne and its Parasites

in S. India. ( With two graphs) 460

Barzes, E.; Notes on the Flo-

wering Plants of the Billigiri-

rangan Hills 436

Beresford, Maj.-Gen. De La

P. ; Notes on the Evening

Flight of Geese and Duck ... 477

Bear Hunting on the Wular

Lake 586

Bhaduri, J. L. ; A Note on

Rana crassa Jerdon, with ex-

tension of its range 481

; Further

locality records of Rana

hexadactyla Lesson, in Bengal,

with brief notes on its Tadpoles 484

Bor, N. L., m.a., d.sc., f.l.s.,

i.f.s., and Raizada, M. B.,

m.sc. ; Some Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs. ( With

one coloured plate, three black

and white plates and three

text-iigures. Part XVI ... 315

Some Beautiful Indian Clim-

bers and Shrubs, ( With one

Page

coloured , and four black and

white plates and three text-

figures. Part XVII 499

Brander, A. A. Dunbar;

Breeding Season of the Indian

Sambar... 587

Connell, W.; Wild Dogs attack-

ing a Tiger 468

Deraniyagala, P.E.P., m.a.

( Cantab ), a. m. ( Harvard ),

f.c.p., f.l.s., f.z.s.; Some

Whale Sharks and Sun Fishes

captured off Ceylon. ( With a

plate and two text-figures) ... 426

Eates, K. R., f.z.s. ; Black

Ants Raid Honey Bees ... 488

Flamingo, Common {Phoeni-

copterus ruber) . An appeal. 476

Glennie, Col. E. A. ; Note on

the nesting of the Himalayan

Swiftlet {Collocalia fuci -

phaga) 593

Heaney; Lt.-Col. G. F. ; Oc-

currence of the Lion in Persia. 467

Hewetson, C., i.f.s.; Addi-

tional Notes on the Birds in

Betul District and surrounding

area in the Central Provinces. 471

■ ; Bearded Bee-

eater {Alcemerops athertoni)

on the Central Provinces ... 592

Hislop, Capt. J. A. ; Green

Pigeons in Swamp 475

; Hunting

Wasp preying on Butterflies... 492

Jones, A. E. ; On the occur-

rence of the Rufous-bellied

Crested Tit {Lophophanes

rubidiventris) in the Simla

Hills

• f •

• ••

474

viii

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Page

Kingdon-Ward,F., b.a., etc. :

A Sketch of the Botany and

Geography of North Burma... 550

Lane, Frank ; The Mystery of

Bird- Anting.’ Reproduced

from Country Life, Novem-

ber 5, 1943) 597

Lowther, E. H. N. ; Notes on

some Indian Birds. ( With

twelve plates). Part VIII ... 355

Macdonald, A. St. J. ; Circum-

venting the Mahseer and other

Sporting Fish in India. ( With

four plates and two text-

figures). Part VI 322

; Circum-

venting the Mahseer and other

Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. (With sixteen text-

figures) . Part VII 520

McCann, C., f.l.s. ; The Genus

Brachystelma R. Br. , An addi-

tion to the Flora of the Bom-

bay Presidency. ( With a

plate) 494

Millard, A. P ; A Good Method

of weighing fish which are

too heavy for a spring balance.

( With a diagram) 600

Morris, Lt.-Col. R. C. ; Jackals

Attacking Deer in Ceylon ... 585

Nichols, E. G. ; Occurrence of

Birds in Madura District

Part I 387

Part II ... ... ... 574

Obituary

Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse i 466

Parsons, R. E. ; Moulting of

Duck after arrival in India ... 478

Phayre, Lt.-Col. R. B., m.c. ;

Where the Rainbow Ends.

{With two plates) ... ... 380

Pocock, R. I. ; A Black Jungle

Cat from Karachi and the

Panther of Sind ... ,.. 585

— — — ; The Eastern

Range of the Himalayan

Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos

isabellinus) 585

; The Larger Deer

of India — A Correction ... 587

Page

Romer, J. D. ; Egg laying

period of the Common Indian

Monitor 600

Santapau, Fr. H., s.J.; Venti -

la go bombaiensis Dalz. ( With

a plate) 496

; The

Flowering of Strobilan-

thes 605

Sen, S. N. ; Late Breeding of

the Common House Crow

( Corvus splendens splen-

dens 474

; Food of the White-

breasted Kingfisher ( Halcyon

smyrnensis fusca) 475

Sevastopulo, D. G., f.r.e.s. ;

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera. Part XII ... 415

The Castor Plant ( Ricinus

communis Linn.) and Lepi-

dopterous larvae 492

Simon, E. S. ; Tiger Claw Marks

on Trees ... ... ... 467

— ; The Breeding

Habits of the Cobra ( Naia

tripudians Merrem) and the

Green Whipsnake ( Dryophis

mycterizans) 480

Smythies, B. E.; A Record of

Hodgson’s Frogmouth ( Bat -

rachostomus javensis hodg-

soni) and the Cochin-China

Spinetail {Hirundapus cauda-

cutus ssp. from Northern

Burma ... 593

Stoner, Capt. C. K. ; Observa-

tions on the E’ephant and

other Mammals in the Ana-

malai Hills of Cochin 588

Stracey, P. D., i.f.s. ; Ele-

phants at Salt Licks 471

Subrahmanyan, T. V., b.a.;

Re-occurrence of the House

Spider ( Heteropoda vena -

toria) in the field 493

Suter, M., d.sc. ; New Records

of Fish from Poona 408

— — ; Sap-drinking

Butterflies ... ... ... 486

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

ix

Page

Thom, W. S. ; A Black Leopard,

an ordinary Leopard and a

good Bull Tsaing 374

Van Ingen and Van Ingen;

Malformed Horns of the Gaur

{Bibos gaur us) t {With a photo) 537

Vasu, V. M.; Dragonflies in

Migration on the West Coast

of India 491

Venkateshwarlu, V., m.sc. ;

The Estuarial Flora of the

Godavary. ( With a map and

two plates) 431

Page

Whistler, Hugh ; Materials

for the Ornithology of Afgha-

nistan 505

Williams, J. L. H. ; Flowering

of Strobilanthes 493

Wynter-Blyth, M. A., b.a.

(Cantab) ; The Butterflies of

the Nilgiris 536

Some interesting Butterflies.

( With a colour plate) 601

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME XLIV

Nos. 3 and 4

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XVI. The Christmas Flower ( Poinsettia pulcherrima

Grah.)

Plate The Christmas Flower ( Poinsettia Pulcherrima

Grah.) New Forest, Dehra Dun

Plate Do. do. do.

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India

Fig. 2. Stone lashed between the jaws of a split

Bamboo. (For rescuing a hook from a boat in

8 or 10 ft. of water)

Notes on Some Indian Birds. Part VIII

Nest of the Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosus

Temm.) 88 ft. above ground

White-necked Stork (Dissoma episcopa Bodd.)

Black-necked Stork ( Xenobrynchus asiaticus Lath.)

Spoonbill {Platalea leucorodia Temm.)...

Common Grey Heron ( Ardea cinerea Linn.)

Eastern Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea manillensis

Blanf. and Oates)

Sarus Crane ( Antigone antigone Linn.)

Pheasant-tailed Jacana ( Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Scop.)

Bron ze-w1 in ged Jacana ( Metopidius indicus Lath.)...

Little Grebe or Dabchick (Podiceps ruficollisV roeg)

Chestnut Bittern (Ixebrychus cinnamomeus Gmelin) .

Black-winged Stilt ( Himantopns himantopus Linn.).

Where the Rainbow Ends

Plate I. Rainbow and Brown Trout ...

Plate II. A. One of the Kulgam Trout Streams and

B. the Tank at the ancient Moghul gardens at

Verinag

Some Whale Sharks and Sun Fishes captured off Ceylon

Plate I. A. Caudal fin of Whale Shark taken at Kalutara,

Ceylon

B. Pectoral fin of Whale Shark taken at Kalutara,

Ceylon ... ... ...

Page

315

320

321

327

328

332

333

357

360

361

362

364

365

368

370

371

372

373

380

381

428

LIST OF PLATES

The Estuarial Flora of the Gadavary

Plate I. Map of the Lower Godavary...

Plate II. Fig. 1. Xylocarpus obovatus A. Jus.

Fig. 2. Ceriops Roxburghia?ia Arn.

Fig. 3. RhizoPhora mucronata Lamk.

Fig. 4. Sonneratia apetala Buch-Ham.

Plate III. Fig. 5. Bruguiera cylindrica W. & A.

Fig. 6. ,, conjugata Merr.

Fig. 7. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.

Fig. 8. Sarcolobus carinatus Wall.

Fig. 9. Caesaipinia nuga Ait.

Fig. 10. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb.

Fig II. Aegiceras corniculalum Blanco.

‘Courtship* of the Monitor Lizard ( Varanus monitor)

Plate Courtship

The Genus Brachystelma R. Br.

Plate Brachystelma laevigatum

Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz

Plate

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XVII. Fiddle-leaved Jatropha ( Jatropha panduri folia

Andr.J

Plate {Jatropha panduri folia , Andr.) New Forest, Dehra

Dun.

Plate Do do. do.

Plate Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. New Forest, Dehra Dun.

Plate Do. do. do.

Some Interesting Butterflies

Plate Fig. 1. Pathysa nomiust Esp. (Aberration)

,, 2. Do. do. (Typical)

,, 3. Argynnis lathonia issoea, Db. (Melanism)

,, 4. Do. do. (Typical)

,, 5. Melanitis phedima varaha , M. (Aberration).

xi

Page

432

433

479

495

497

499

502

503

504

5(5

601

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XLIV

Nos. 3 & 4

Page

Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco

PI. 3, Fig. 11 ... ... 433

Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagono-

tepis McClell

Fig. 3 523

( P untins ) carnations

Jerdcn

Fig. 1 521

( Puntius ) chagunio

(Flam.)

Fig. 4 524

chillinoides

McClell

Fig. 2 522

cur mu c a

(Ham.)

Fig. 6 525

- — — filamentous

(Cuv. & Val.)

Fig. 7 ... 526

sarana (Ham.)

Fig 5 525

( Tor) khudree var mala-

baricus

Fig. 8 ... 527

Barilius ( Opsarius ) bola (Ham.)

Fig. 14 533

tileio Hamilton

Fig. 15 534

Bibos gaurus-W.a\ formed horns of

Photo 588

Brachystelma laevigatum

PI 495

Bruguiera cylindrica

- conjugata

PI. 3. Figs. 5 & 6 ... 433

Butterflies

PI 601

Caesafpinia nuga Ait.

PI. 3. Fig. 9 433

Page

Carico popaya var. travancorica

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

xiii

Page

Monitor Lizard

PI. Courtship of .. 479

Poinsettia pulcherrima

PI. XVI 315

Pis 320, 321

Rainbow Trout, See Front.

Rhizophora m ucronata

PL 2. Fig. 3 432

Sarcolobus carinatus

PL 3. Fig. 8 433

Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne

B ostrychid emergence

and incidence. Figs. 462

Sonneratia apetala Buch-Ham

PI. 2. Fig. 4 432

Trout Rainbow

PL I. Rainbow and

Brown Trout 380

Pl. II. Kulgam Trout

Stream and Tank at

Verinag 38]

Ventilago bovibaiensis

PI 49?

Whale-Sharks and Sun Fishes

Fig.l. Map of Ceylon. 427

PL 1. Caudal and pect-

oral fins 428

Fig. 2. Ranzania laevis . 429

Xylocarpus obovatus A. Jus.

PL 2. Fig. 1 432

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

Andrographis serpyllifolia

Aneochtochilus elatior

Anguilla bicolor

Anisochilus camosus ...

dysophylloides

Anisomdes ovata

Anotis monosperima

quadrilocularis

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoui

— nilghiriensis

richardi

rafulus malayensis

similis

- — thermophilus ...

Antidesma

Apatura parisatis atacinus

Appias indra shiva

Appias paulina wardi ...

Aquila clanga

— - rapax

Arachnothera longirostra longirostra

Ardisia solanacea

Argya caudata caudata

_ — - — — huttoni ...

malcolrai

subrufa

Argynnis hyperbius hybrida

„ — > lathonia issoea

Argyreia cuneata

— nellygherrya ...

— sericea

Arisaema barnesii

Leschenaultii .

peltatum

— — tortuosum

Artamus fuscus

Artemisia parviflora

Arthocnemum indicum

Artocarpus integri folia...

Asio flammeus

Asota caricse

Asparagus gonociados ...

— racemosus ...

Aspidoparia morar

Page

448

455

430

449

420

443

405

420

546

539

540

582

407

445

391

517

391

548

601

446

459

98, 472

444

434

451

580

417

457

409, 410

INDEX OF SPECIES

xvi

INDEX OF SPECIES

xVii

406

. 406

407

419

. 440

583

584

583

584

58 i

531

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica

lotenia ...

minima

— zeylonica

Cinnamomum camphora

Cipadessa baccifera

Circaetus ferox ... ...

■ gallicas

Circus aeruginosus

— macrourus

— ■ — - melanoleucus ...

— ■■ pygargus,

Cirrhina cirrhosa

xviii

INDEX OF SPECIES

Costus speciosus

Crepis acaulis

Crinum lati folium

Crotolaria calycina

— dubia

laevigata

mysorensis

— ovalifolia

umbellata

Cryptolepis Buhanani

Cryptotegia grandiflora

Cuculidae

Cuculus canorus

micropterus

Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis

Cupha erymanthis maja

Curculigo orchioides

Curcuma neilgherrensis

pseudomontana

Cuscuta reflexa ...

Cyanosylvia sueicica

Cyanotis arachnoidea

cristata ...

fasciculata

_ — - — tuberosa

— — villosa ...

Cynbidium aloi folium

Cynanchum pauciflorum

Cynoglossum denticulatum var. ze

lanicum

Cynthia erota saloma ...

Cypsiurus parvus

Cyrestis thyodamas indica

Dalbergia spinosa

Danais aglea aglea

Datura

Decaschistia crotonifolia

Deilephila nerii

Delias eucharis

Dendrobium heterocarpum

— — — — macrostachyum

— nanum

- nutans

Dendrocitta leucogastra

vagabunda

Dendronanthus indicus

Denis uliginosa

Dermochelys coriacea ..

Desmodium gangeticum

— — — - evrans

parvula

Page

456

444

457

440

445

408

473

576

396

548

457

456

447

472

458

45g

458

453

445

446

548

579

547

433

541

420

439

420

539

452

390

514

390

404

433

427

441

Desmodium laxiflorum

— polycarpum

Scalpe

triquetrum

Dicaeum concolor concolor ...

erythrorhynchos erythr

hynchos

Dichoceros bicornis

Dichoptera cuneata

Dicrurus coerulescens coerulescens

longicaudatus

rnacrocercus

Didymocarpus tomentosa

Dillinia retusa

Dioscorea bulbifera

oppositifolia

— pentaphylla

tomentosa

Diplocentrum recurvum

Discophora 1. lepida

Disperis neilgherrensis

Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus

Doleschallia bissaltide malabarica

Dopatrium junceum

Dorstenia indica

Dracaena terniflora

Drosera peltata

Dryobates hardwickii cinereigula

m. mahrattensis

Dryophis mycterizans

Dumasia villosa

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis

Dysophylla auricularia

Elaeagnus Reloga

Elanus coeruleus

Elephantopus scaber

Elephas maximus indicus

Elettaria Cardamomum

Elymnias hypermnestra caudata

Embelica officinalis

Emberiza melanocephala

Emilia scabra

sonchifolia

Entada scandens

Epipogum nutans

Erechthites valerianifolia

Eremopteryx grisea grisea

Ergolis ariadne indica

Eria baccata

Dalzelli

INDEX OF SPECIES

2

INDEX OE SPECIES

XX

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxi

Melothria perpusilla

Merops leschenaulti

orientalis —

superciliosus javanicus

Meyenia Hawtayneana

Michelia Champaca

Micropternus brachyurus

Micropus affinis

— melba bakeri ...

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa...

— p. psaroides

Microtarses poioicephalus

Mieranthus oppositifolius

Milvus migrans ...

Mirafra affinis ceylonensis

- — ■ javanica

Miscrostyiis sp

— - — - stocksii

■ — ■ - vericolor ...

Mola mola .

Mollugo pentaphylla

Molpastes cafer cafer

leucogenys bumii ...

— — leucotis...

Monochloria vaginalis

Monticola cinclorhyncha

— solitaria

Motacilla alba

cinerea

citreola

flava beema

— maderaspatensis

Motacillidae ...

Munia malacca malacca

Munronia Wallichii

Murraya exotica

Musa superba

Muscicapa parva albicilla

Muscicapula pallipes pallipes

— — rubeculoides

tickellise tickelliae

Musssenda laxa ...

Mycalesis anaxias anaxias

Myophonus horsfieldii

Myriophyllum intermedium ...

Myriostachya Wightiana

Mystacoleucus ogilbii

Mystus aor

bleekeri

montanus

Naia tripudians

Page

... 442

... 577

473, 577

... 577

... 448

... 438

... 575

... 579

... 393

... 518

... 393

... 448

... 583

... 406

... 452

... 429

... 442

... 393

... 518

... 458

395, 472

... 395

... 404

... 473

... 402

... 440

... 456

... 395

... 396

... 443

... 542

... 395

... 442

... 434

... 409

409, 401

... 480

INDEX OF SPECIES

xxiii

Rana hexadactyla

tigrina

Randia Brandisii

Ranunculus Wallichianus

Ranzania

— laevis

Raphidophora pertusa

Ratufa indica maxima

Rauwolfia densiflora

Reidia floribunda

Remiz coronatus

Remusatia vivipara

Rhinacanthus communis

Rhineodon typus

Rhizophora mucronata

aemulorum ...

agapetum

apodectum

arizelum

asperulum

Beanianum

Beesianum

bullatum

— butyricum

calcipbila

calostrotum ...

campylogynum

cephalanthum

cerasinum

chamaetortnm

— ■— chrysaeum

— chrysolepis

crassum

— crebreflorum ...

— — crinigerum

decorum

— Delavayi

— — dendricola

dendrocharis ...

eclecteum

eriogyrum

eucbaites

— — — — facetum

— — — • — fulgens

— — Genestierianum

— habrotrichum

— — - — hylaeum

hypalepidotum

— — imperator

* insculptum

— kasoense

Page

484

480

443

438

428

429

459

591

445

451

516

459

449

426

432

571

5 7\

XXIV

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page

Rhododendron keleticum 571

Kyawi 571

— — leptolhrium 571

, magnificum ... ... 571

— — — manipurense 571

,. martinianum ... ... 571

— — megeratum ... ... 571

megacalyx 571

-• microphyton ... ,. 571

micromeres 571

. myrtilloides ... ... 571 j

neriiflorum ... ... 571

■ niphargum ... ... 571

__ — notatum ... ... 571

. — — — pankimense 572

. — — praestans 572

protistum ... ... 572

pruniflorum 572 ;

— pumilum ... ... 572

- — — repens 572

_____ rhaibocarpum ... 572

riparium 572

— — — saluenense 572

— — seinghkuense ... ... 572

selense 572

— — — sidereum 572

simsii 572

— sino-grande 572

sino-nuttallii 572

stenaulum 572

— — Stuartianum 572

— * suaveolens 572

Taggianum 572

— tanas tylum 572

- — — tarorensese 572

— telopeum ... ... 572

— tephropeplum ... ^72

timeteum ^72

trichocladum 572

— triflorum 572

— tsarongense 572

_____ vaccinioides 572 j

vesiculiferum 572

— virgatum 572

— — xanthostephanum

(aureum) 572

Rhopocichia atriceps bourdilloni ... 392

Rhopodytes viridirostris ... ... 576

Rhynchosia cyanosperma 441

— rufescens 441

Rhynchostylis lati folia 454

Ricinus communis

Riparia concolor

— rupestris

Rita hastata

— — puvimentata

Rohtee vigorsii

Rubia cordifolia ...

Rubus ellipticus

fulvus

Ruellia Beddomei

Rungia parviflora

Saccolabium ierdonianum

— — -- — - — pulchellum

sp. nov. ...

Salicornia brachiata

Salmo gairdnerii ... ...

— iridens

— — irideus

■■ rivularis

shasta

Sanogyps calvus

Sarcolobus carinatus ...

Sarcostemma Brunonianum

Satyrium nepalense

Saxicola caprata nilgiriensis

Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata

Schefflera stellata

Wallichiana ...

Schiomatorhynchus nukta

Schoenicola platyura ...

Scilia indica

Scutellaria Colebrookiana

violacea

Senecio corymbosus

— Edgeworthii

intermedins

Sesuvium Portulacastrum

Shuteria vestita

Sid a shombi folia

Slderidis yu

Siegesbeckia orientalis ...

Silonopangasius childrenii

Sinoxylon sudanicum ...

Sitta-caesia cashmirensis

frontalis

Sitla frontalis frontalis

• l.leucopsis

neumayer subcoeruleus

tephronota

Smilax aspera

prolifera

index of species

XXV

xxvi INDEX OF SPECIES

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Vol. XLIV, No. 3.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV , No. 3

Page

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XVI. By N. L. Bor,

m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With i coloured,

3 black and white plates and 3 text-figures) ... ... ... 315

Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India. Part VI.

By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With 4 plates and 2 text-figures) ... ... 322

Notes on Some Indian Birds. Part VIII. By E. H. N. Lowther, m.b.o.u.,

f.z.s. (With 12 plates) ... ... ... ... ... 355

A Black Leopard, an ordinary Leopard and a Good Bull Tsaing.

By W. S. Thom ... ... ... ... ... ... 374

Where the Rainbow Ends. By Lt.-Col. R. B. Phayre, m.c. (With 2

plates) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 380

Occurrence of Birds in Madura District. By Edward G. Nichols ... 387

New Records of Fish from Poona. By M. Suter, d.sc. ... ... 408

The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera. Part XII. By D. G.

Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. ... ... ... ... ... ... 415

Some Whale Sharks and Sun Fishes captured off Ceylon. By

P. E. P. Deraniyagala, m.a. (Cantab.), a.m. (Harvard), f.c.p., f.l.s.,

f.z.s. (With a plate and 2 text-figures) ... ... ... ... 426

The Estuarial Flora of the Godavary. By V. Venkateshwarlu, m.sc.

(With- a map and 2 plates) ... ... ... ... ... 431

Notes on the Flowering Plants of the Billigirirangan Hills. By

Edward Barnes ... ... ... ... ... ... 436

Biological Notes on Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne and its parasites in *

S. India. By P. N. Krishna Ayyar and V. Margabandhu. (With 2

graphs) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 460

OBITUARY : —

Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse ... ... ... ... ... ... 466

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I. Occurrence of the Lion in Persia. By Lt.-Col. G. F. Heaney. 467

II. Tiger Claw Marks on Trees. By E. S. Simon ... ... 467

III. Wild Dogs attacking a Tiger. By W. Connell ... ... 468

IV. Elephants at Salt-Licks. By P. D. Stracey, i.f.s. ... ... 471

V. Additional Notes on the Birds in Betul District and surround-

ing areas in the Central Provinces. By C. Hewetson, i.f.s. 471

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

CONTENTS OF VoL XL/V, No . 3

Late Breeding of the Common House Crow ( Corvus splendens

splendens). By S. N. Sen

On the occurrence of the Rufous-bellied Crested Tit ( Lopho -

phanes rubidiventris ) in the Simla Hills. By A. E. Jones.

Food of the White-breasted Kingfisher ( Halcyon sniyrnensis

fused). By S. N. Sen ...

Green Pigeons in Swamp. By Capt. J. A. Hislop ...

The Common Flamingo ( Phoenicopterus ruber ) An Appeal ...

Notes on the evening flight of Geese and Duck. By Major

General G. de La P. Beresford ...

Moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By R. E. Parsons.

The ‘Courtship’ of the Monitor Lizard ( Varanus monitor ).

By Salim Ali. ( With a plate ) ...

The Breeding Habits of the Cobra ( Naia tripudians Merrem)

and the Green Whipsnake ( Dryophis mycterizans ). By E. S.

Simon

A Note on Rana crassa Jerdon, with extension of its range.

By J. L. Bhaduri

Further locality records of Rana hexadactyla Lesson in

Bengal, with brief notes on its Tadpoles. By J. L. Bhaduri.

Sap-drinking Butterflies. By M. Suter, d.sc.

Black Ants raid honey bees. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Dragonflies in migration on the West Coast of India. By

V. M. Vasu

The Castor^ Plant ( Ricinus communis Linn.) and Lepidopterous

larvae. By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. ...

Hunting Wasp preying on Butterflies. By Capt. J. A.

Hislop

Re. Occurrence of the House Spider (H eteropoda venatoria) in

the field. By T. V. Subrahmanyam, b.a.

Flowering of Strobilanthes. By J. L. H. Williams ...

The Genus Brachystelma R. Br. : An addition to the Flora of

the Bombay Presidency. By C. McCann, f.l.s. (With a

plate) ... ... ... ....

Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. By H. Santapau. s.j. ( With a

plate )

Page

474

475

476

477

478

479

480

481

484

486

488

491

492

493

494

496

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XVI

The Christmas Flower

POINSETTIA PULCHERRIMA Grab.

(£ nat. size ).

TO MEMBERS

It is regretted that owing to present-day conditions

there has been unavoidable delay in publishing this

Journal. Every effort is being made to maintain the

standard of the Journal and to issue it to members as

regularly as possible.

The Index to Vol. XLIIS, Nos. 3 and 4, has been lost

at sea and will be published later.

EDITORS

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1944. Vol. XLtV No. 3.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

BY

N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s^

Forest Botanist

AND

M. B, Raizada, m.sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist ,

Forest Research Institute , Dehra Dun .

Part XVI

[Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 2 (1943), p. 163),

( With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates and 3 text-figures )»

{ Euphorbiaeeae.

Pliny relates in his Natural History how this family got its name.

It appears that the medicinal plant, now known as Euphorbia

officinaruni, was called euphorbea by King Juba of Numidia, in

honour of his favourite court physician Euphorbus.

This enormous family, which contains about 200 genera and more

than 4,500 species, extends over the whole of the surface of the

earth with the exception of the arctic regions. The characters of

the family are as follows : — ?

The family includes large and small trees, undershrubs and herbs.

Some species are succulent and resemble the genus Cereus of the

Cactaceae. The juice is often milky, opaline or watery, sometimes

acrid. The leaves are alternate, rarely opposite and whorled, petioled

or sessile, nearly always simple, rarely trifoliate or pinnate, entire,

8id JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol JiUV

toothed, lobed, varying considerably in shape, texture and indumen-

tum. Inflorescence various, usually made up of unisexual flowers,

often very inconspicuous, gathered into heads or profusely paniculate.

Calyx of valvate or imbricate sepals are completely absent. Petal's

absent or rarely present and sometimes united ( Jatropha ). Stamens

1-1,000 ; filaments free or connate. Anthers 2-eelled, sometimes 3-4

celled, erect or indexed in the bud, opening lengthwise by slits rarely

by pores; rudimentary ovary usually present in the male flowers.

Ovary superior, mostly 3-celled, styles free or united at the base,

often again divided and papillose above ; ovules solitary or paired in

each cell, pendulous from a funicle which is often enlarged. Disk

usually present, circular or of separate glands. Fruit a capsule or

drupe. Seeds often decorated with a fleshy appendage called a

caruncle.

The family is remarkable for a peculiar type of inflorescence

called a cyathium which is often, and quite pardonably, mistaken by

students for a single flower. In its typical form it consists of an

envelope containing inside a number of stamens and a stalked 3-

celled ovary. If each stamen is examined carefully with a lens it

will be seen that it consists of a short stalk upon which is joined

a filament carrying the anther cells. This structure is to be regarded

as a single flower consisting of a single stamen seated upon a

pedicel. Calyx and corolla are entirely absent.

ries and coloured floral bracts

Fig. i.—A. Inflorescence of E. Bojeri: are certainly adapted for cross-

A typical cyathium showing one female fertilisation.

in the tropics. In the evergreen forests the members of the family

occur as lofty trees, shrubs and climbers. In the drier parts of the

tropics they occur as out-and-out xeromorphs, resembling some cacti

in form. A number of species of Euphorbia belong to the latter

At the micropyle end of

the ovary is to be found a

fleshy growth called the

obturator, another peculiarity

of this family. The obtur-

ator is a placental outgrowth

whose purpose is to assist in

conducting and to nourish

the pollen tube. It disappears

after fertilisation.

Fertilisation is believed to

take place mainly through the

agency of Diptera, but there

is little doubt that many other

insects assist in the process.

Some plants are anemophilous ;

but those that possess necta-

flower surrounded by many male

flowers. B.

of a filamem ,JHH ^uvio,

upon a pedicel ; there is no floral

envelope.

As already stated this

family has representatives

over almost the whole of the

surface of the earth, but it

reaches its greatest luxuriance

SOME BEAUTIFUL iEDIAN CUMBERS AND SHRUBS

3i?

class and anybody who is familiar with the drier parts of India will

remember the arborescent forms of this genus, which are so con-

spicuous on the arid foothills of the Punjab and United Provinces

and in other parts of Central and North-western India. These

species of Euphorbia, with their prickly fleshy stems full of a white

milky juice, are favourite hedge-plants in the more arid parts of

Longitudinal section of the ovaries of two species of Euphorbiaceae showing :

A . — obturator.

B. — placenta.

C. — ovule.

The obturator is an outgrowth of the placenta and serves to guide the pollen

tube to the micropyle.

India. Their prickly stems and branches protect them from sheep,

cattle and camels, and in heavily grazed areas they are often the

only vegetation left upon the ground ; so that in certain parts of

India they come to form a characteristic community of vegetation.

Euphorbia antiquorum , a leafless thorny representative of this class*

which is found all over India is known as ‘ Maharrik sha ’ in Sanskrit,

apd is mentioned in the Old Testament.

Euphorbiaceous plants are the source- of numerous substances

and raw materials without which it is difficult to imagine life as

we know it today. In the first place comes natural rubber which

is obtained almost exclusively at the present time from the South

American tree Heuea brasiliensis. The ‘Para’ rubber of commerce

is that produced from this tree and it forms about 85 per cent of the

world’s trade in this substance. Another tree of importance in

this respect is Manihot glaziovii which is the source of Pernambuco

or ‘Ceara’ rubber.

m JouMAL, bo Mb Ay natural hist, society, v0i. xliV

A close relation of the last named species is the Cassava or

Tapioca tree, Manihot utilissima, which is of great importance in

South America, its home, in parts of Africa, and in the Naga Hills,

Assam on account of the swollen roots which contain a large quantity

of starch. The remarkable fact about the swellings is that they

contain sufficient hydrocyanic acid to render them extremely

poisonous. This poison is liberated by the action of an enzyme

on a glucoside, phaseolunatin, particularly when wilting occurs.

Thus a fresh root which is free from hydrocyanic acid may be-

come deadly poisonous if allowed to become stale. When a tuber

is boiled the enzyme is destroyed and the hydrocyanic acid being

soluble in water is carried away. As the acid is found chiefly in

the cortical layer, peeling the tubers removes the danger of poison-

ing to a large extent.

Another plant of importance is the tree Emblica officinalis , the

myrabolan tree. The fruit of this tree is much used in India where

the juice of the fruit is taken internally for dyspepsia, dysentery

and as a diuretic. It is used externally for conjunctivitis. Re-

cently it has been discovered that the fruits of this tree are very

rich in Vitamin C.

Castor oil is obtained from Ricimis communis, another member

of the family. It is believed that its native home is in Africa but

it is cultivated for its oil in all the warmer parts of the earth. Besides

the oil the castor oil seeds contain a very poisonous substance which

is called ricin. Ricin is the substance which causes death when the

seeds are eaten, its action being that of a coagulant in the blood.

It is known that death has followed the eating of four seeds. The

German chemist, Ehrlich, discovered an interesting fact about this

poison. When ricin is introduced into the blood stream an antitoxin

(antiricin) is produced in the blood, so that the body can acquire a

certain immunity towards the poison. It is now known that several

other substances as well as the bacterial toxins act in the same way.

Fowls appear to be unelf ected by the poison and horses can consume

considerable quantities of it. Castor oil is used (apart from its use

as a purgative) as an illuminant and as a lubricant for aero engines

where its viscosity and low freezing point render it particularly

valuable.

Several other species contain poisonous elements in the seed or

latex. Excoecaria agallocha , a seashore shrub or small tree, contains

a substance in the juice which can blister the skin and has been

known to cause blindness. The most poisonous of them all is said

to be the ‘machined’ tree, Hip po mane mancinella, which is a tall

tree of Tropical America. As was the case in other poisonous trees,

this particular species was credited with the most extravagant pro-

perties by early explorers of the nineteenth century. For example,

to sleep in its shade meant death, and even to go near it was certain

to cause erysipelas if nothing worse. AH these fables were dis-

proved by one brave soul, J. Jacquin, who stood naked under the

tree for several hours and took no harm.

A number of species of the Euphorbiaceae are cultivated in

gardens, either for the striking colour of the floral bracts or for

their variegated or handsome foliage.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

319

Key to the Genera

i. Euphorbia.

... 2. Jatropha.

PART I

1. Euphorbia Linn.

A very large genus, the majority of the species of which are

herbs, but there are a few shrubs, some of which are grown in

gardens. All species possess a copious milky juice. The leaves are

alternate, opposite or verticillate, stipulate; stipules often glandular or

spiny. Inflorescence of cyathia which are entirely male or sometimes

dioecious. The involucre is cupular or campanulate, often provided

with nectar-secreting glands, and containing the closely packed male

flowers, each consisting of an antheriferous filament jointed on a

pedicel. Interspersed are a number of sterile pedicels usually

lacerate or hairy. The stamens are 4-30 or even more in number.

The anthers are two in number, i-celled, one on either side of the

tip of the filament, at first depressed, eventually erect at dehiscence.

Female flowers seated on a pedicel, naked, 3-lobed, 3-celled; one

ovule in each cell ; ovules pendulous ; styles three in number, con-

nate or not, dividing above, into two stigmatiferous arms. Fruit

a capsule consisting of three cocci.

Key to the Species.

Stem spiny and prostrate : flowers without

long red bracts.

Stem spineless, erect ; flowers supported by

long red, pink or white bracts.

Euphorbia Bojeri Hook.

Crown of Thorns.

(named in honour of Wenzel Bojer, 1800-1856, an Austrian botanist

who wrote a flora of Mauritius).

Description. — -A low sprawling shrub with long-spined, livid-

coloured, fleshy branches and small leaves. Spines on the branches

in pairs up to 1 in. long or more, very sharp. In between each pair

of thorns is a reduced branch which bears pairs of small spines t/8 in.

long. In between each pair of small spines a leaf is developed.

The spines may therefore be regarded as stipules. The leaves vary

much in size, from .25 in. to 1 in. long, obovate-oblong, smooth

and glabrous, green with a narrow border or red on the margins,

entire, apiculate at the apex, attenuate at the base.

The inflorescence is compound and consist of cyathia grouped

dichotomously and seated upon glabrous peduncles which emerge

from the axils of the uppermost leaves, The peduncle is divided into

... E. Bojeri.

... E. pulcherrima

(Poinsettia)

Flowers contained in a bowl-shaped structure :

no calyx or corolla.

Flowers with a distinct calyx and conspicuous

red corolla.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

two successively three times and the cyathia are seated upon the

ultimate peduncles. Each cyathium is supported by two, petaloid,

crimson, orbicular, apiculate bracts

which have become fused to the in-

volucre in their lower part. The

orbicular or broadly elliptic bracts

are glabrous and smooth and are

a deeper shade of crimson inside

than out, and are .3 in. broad by

.25 in. long-, often emarginate at

the tip instead of apiculate. The

involucre itself is about .1 in. long

and bears at the top margin five

broad, rounded glands which are

almost parallel to the long axis.

Alternate with the glands is a scale,

reddish in colour, and laciniate on

the1 margins.. Inside the involucre

there are many male flowers, in all

stages of development, interspersed

with hairy organs which look like

sterile stamens. The male flower

consists of a pair of anthers attached

to a filament which is jointed to a

pedicel. The ovary is glabrous,

sessile, and is wholly concealed

within the involucre, 3-celled, 3-lobed,

with one ovule in each cell. Styles,

three, connate for half their length,

each divided at the apex into a pair of

short stigmas.

Flowers .- — Practically throughout the year. Does not set fruit

in this country.

Distribution.— A native of Madagascar, very common in gardens

throughout the country.

Gardening — A small xerophytic under shrub, armed all over its

stem with sharp, long spines. The red bracts and the green leaves

on the sinuous spiny stems are very striking. It is well suited for

a ‘rock-garden’, in dryish soil and in exposed and sunny situations.

It will, however, grow anywhere but thrives best in a mixture of

charcoal, leaf-mould and brick rubble. Propagation by cuttings.

Poinsettia pulcherrima Grah. (Euphorbia pulcherrima. Willd.)

Christmas flower.

(pulcherrima in Latin means ‘most beautiful’).

Description. — A shrub reaching 10 ft. in height with a thick

short trunk covered with brown bark and numerous slender, un-

branched, green branches. Sap copious, milky. Branches cylin-

drical, smooth and glabrous, green, bearing alternate leaves. Leaves

petiolate (petiole 2.5 in. long, slender, curved, smooth and glabrous,

crimson on the upper surface), stipulate (stipules glandular), up to

Photo by M. N. Bakshi

The Christmas Flower.

Poinsettia pulcherrima Grab.

New Forest, Dehra Dun

I? pins ettict t>ulcberri ma Grab.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

321

6 in. long by 2-3 in. broad, ovate-lanceolate or elliptic in outline with

1-2 blunt teeth on either side, acuminate at the tip, cuneate or even

rounded at the base, smooth and glabrous above, covered with short

hair on the lower surface; mid-rib reddish above.

Inflorescence terminal to the branches, consisting of groups of

cyathia on stout peduncles supported by bracts, which are usually

of a beautiful crimson colour but they may be pink or even white.

Bracts oblanceolate in shape, acuminate at the tip, long attenuate

at the base, up to 6 in. long by 1-1.5 in. at the widest part. Cyathium

seated on a stout peduncle; .25-. 5 in. long, ellipsoid-truncate in

shape, smooth and glabrous, obtusely 5-ribbed, lower three-fourths

green then banded with yellow and finally crimson at the laciniate

mouth, or entirely orange on the gland side, decorated at the side

with a large compressed conical gland, orange in colour; upper half

inside covered with silky, multicellular hairs, glabrous in the lower

half. Inside the cyathium there are many male flowers packed

closely together, many sterile male flowers, one or no female

flowers, and none to several sterile female flowers. The

male flowers consist of one stamen, the glabrous filament

of which is jointed to a glabrous pedicel, there is no

floral envelope. The two 1 -celled anthers are, before dehis-

cence, depressed on either side of the tip of the filament. After

dehiscence they come to stand erect like a pair of discs at each

side of the tip of the filament. The sterile male flower consists

simply of a filament ending in a reddish tip and covered with multi-

cellular woolly hairs. The female flowers consist merely of an ovary

jointed to the tip of a glabrous pedicel; ovary hairy or glabrous,

eventually erect and thrust out of the involucre, 3-celled, uniovulate;

styles 3, joined almost for the whole of their length and then each

divided into two stigmatic lobes. Sterile females on glabrous

pedicels.

Flowers. —Cold season.

Distribution. — Native of Mexico and Central America, now one

of the most commonly cultivated plants in gardens.

Gardening.— A A tall, unarmed, soft-wooded shrub, 8-10 ft. high.

It bears during the cold weather knobs of insignificant flowers sur-

rounded by deep crimson floral bracts (with variations to shades of

pink or even white) which are the chief ornamentation of this plant.

It is important among ornamental shrubs as it flowers at a time

when practically very few flowers are available in the garden. It

is suitable for planting in the open in all areas and is not particular

as to its soil requirements. It should be rigorously cut back after

flowering, since it is on the current years shoots that the flowers are

produced. It is a popular plant for the Christmas season. Readily

multiplied by cuttings.

Euphoria pulcherrima Wild. var. alba Hort. is a variety with

cream-coloured bracts but comparatively of little beauty.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING

FISH IN INDIA.

BY

A. St. J. Macdonald,

( With 4 plates and 2 text-figures).

(Continued from page 205 of this volume)

Part VL

Mahseer Fishing in Assam and the Dooars.

Varieties of Mahseer and other sporting fish in Assam (1), Goalpara and

Kamrup districts (2), Darrang district (3), Lakhimpur and Sadiya Frontier

Tract (4), Sibsagar district (5), Nowgong district (6), Garo Hills (7), Sylhet and

Cachar (8), Lushai Hills (9), Manipur (10), Peacock’s account of Sarasati —

Garo Hills (11), Laour on Puna Teet — From The Angler’s Hand Book (12),

Notes by Gyles Mackreel (13), Anonymous account on Darrang district (14),

Notes on Cachar by Mr. Cooper (15), Further notes on Cachar by Mr. Ewing

(16), Notes on Manipur (17), Notes on dark variety of Mahseer (18), Fairweather’s

notes on Mahseer in Bengal and Assam Dooars (19), Notes by Mr. O. M.

Martin (20), Mr. Ritchie’s notes on fishing the Teesta river (21).

Assam is a province of hills and mighty rivers, and is, with

Burma, the best suited for mahseer in the Indian Empire.

It is intersected from the north-east to the south-west by the

great Brahmaputra, which takes in along its course the many fine

tributaries from the north, rising in Bhutan, and those rising in

the Garo, Khasi, Rengama, Naga and Patkai hills from the south.

Further south, the Barak or Surma with its many smaller tri-

butaries drains the districts of Cachar and Sylhet, all good mahseer

water.

It has not come within my good fortune to fish in this province,

so I am unable to offer any first-hand notes. I had hoped to solicit

the aid of one of the resident anglers, to write a chapter on the

excellent fishing enjoyed by the local community, but my attempts

failed. So that what should have proved to be one of the most inter-

esting chapters of this book, must now simply be the compiled notes

of a few fishermen, who have so generously contributed notes within

their own experience.

The hill tracts are almost entirely given up to tea growing, and

have in consequence a fairly large European community of planters,

amongst whom are a number of keen anglers. Some of the best

rivers are protected or leased by clubs, so that before anyone intends

visiting the water, he should first of all make full enquiries, and get

the goodwill and permission of the local club.

From correspondence I have had, it would appear that unless

one did this, or had a friend to help, it would be difficult to get to the

best water, as boats and transport are almost impossible to obtain,

the best places being considerable distances from rail and road head,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER

323

The fishing-, though excellent, has become a monopoly of the local

community, and it would hardly be worth while undertaking a long

rail journey, for any but those fortunate in having friends to help.

I am indebted to Mr. Giles Mackreel for the excellent plate of

the teeth of the mahseer, with his interesting notes and photos of

fish. He records similar types of mahseer from Assam, to those

listed by me, in the Burma chapter, pt. V. His notes on the teeth

of the different types of fish, are both interesting and instructive. I

am also most grateful to Messrs. Cooper and Ewing for their inter-

esting notes covering years of experience. It is interesting to note

how the opening up of the country has affected the fishing in certain

rivers, over a period of years. I also thank the gentleman who has

sent me the note on fishing at Darrang, but who prefers to remain

anonymous.

Last but by no means least, I have to thank Mr. Inglis for allow-

ing me to reproduce here certain articles from his excellent journals of

the Darjeeling Natural History Society.

I have listed for convenience, and purely by the aid of the

Gazetteer, the districts with the larger rivers in them. Perhaps if

this book runs to a second edition, anglers will correct or send me

up-to-date notes on water within their own experience, so that I can

include them in a chapter on Localities.

1. Varieties of Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in Assam. —

The Mahseer in Assam attains a great size, and appears in many

varieties, or more correctly in conspecific forms, as we learn from

Dr. Sunder Lai Flora’s interesting articles ‘The Game Fishes of

India’ in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journals, Vols. 41

and 42.

Besides the Mahseer, the Bokar [B. hexagonolepis) frequents

most of the rivers, and affords excellent sport on fly, with the sporting

little Barilius bola (Indian Trout) and the Butchwa ; besides these

all the big Silurids are represented, common amongst which are the

Goonch, Silund, Wallago attu, and Tangra. In the tanks the

Rohu, Mirgil, and Catla are taken, along with the Murrel in his

weedy haunts.

2. Goalpara and Kamrup Districts.— In the west the Gadadhar

river bounds the district, and is formed by the two Bhutan rivers,

the Raidhak, and Muchu. The Goalpara district is further inter-

sected from north to south by the Champamati, and two other smaller

rivers (names of which are not available). The Manas is a stream

of considerable size and is snow-fed, and must be excellent up in

the hills and at junctions with feeder streams.

‘A number of rods go up the Manas each year, and usually have good results.

But others are doing immense damage.3 * 5

3. Darrang District. — The Dhansiri is a stream of considerable

size and must have excellent water in the hills. The Bhareli is a

snow-fed river that joins the Brahmaputra in this district and in

size is equal to the Manas.

‘Mahseer are to be found in the Boanuddy which is the boundary river between

Kamrup and Darrang. They are found in large pools in the gorge near the

Bhutan border. They are also found in the Borelli near Tezpur and the Manas-

Ip the latter rivers they run up from 40 to 60 lbs,’

324 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V 61. XLIV

4. Lcikhimpur District and Sadiya Frontier Tract. — N. Lakhimpur

itself is on the Ranga, and about 10 miles from the hills.

‘Here two rods fishing caught a 50 pound Mahseer on Xmas day on a No. 8

spoon.’

Further east the Subansiri, a large stream, flows through the

district and is fed by many large tributaries in the Miris country.

‘This is a very fast river and contains some huge fish. I got a 26 pounder

in March and then my boat was upset in a rapid, and I lost all my rods and

tackle. Two Europeans have been drowned in it, in comparatively recent years.

There is a forest bungalow at Dabing Mulch, and a number of rods go up every

}'ear. Silvery and beautiful.’

Further east we come to the Sadaya frontier tracts which have

probably the biggest water in the province, and where enormous

fish lurk in the waters of the Dihang Sesiri, Dibang, and Luhit rivers.

‘The Dihang is really the upper water of the Brahmaputra, huge fish can be

seen in some of the gorges, but there are sheer cliffs to the water’s edge. The

water is not cold.’

In the south or left bank the Noa Dihang and Buri Dihang join

in, with the Disang and Jhamdi.

5. Sibsagar District — 'The Dhansiri is the largest river flowing

through this district, and should offer good sport above Dimapur on

the A.B.Ry. Besides this there are other smaller streams that provide

sport with small fish.

‘Notably the Doiang which can be joined from Jamguri station A.B.Ry.’

6. Nowgon 2 District. — The Jumna which rises in the Rengma

hills has provided excellent sport with small fish, also the Kaoili.

Lumding is a convenient railway station for this water, from where

trekking must be done.

7. Garo Hills. — There are a number of rivers that rise and hold

good fish in these tracts. Chief among which are the Krishnai

which flows north and the Bhogi, Kangsa and Someswari which

flows south. All excellent Mahseer rivers (from old notes).

8. Sylhet and Cachar. — 'The Surma or Barak, with its tributaries,

drains these districts and affords excellent sport in the higher and

iungly reaches to the members of the fishing club at Silchar, who

lease the river from the Government to protect it from poaching.

This club protects the Loobah, Barak and Jumtrapai rivers.

Sunamganj is on the Surma, and it is from near here that Laour

is reached on the Punateet. (See notes from ‘The Angler’s Hand

Book’.)

q. Lushai Hills. — Here some excellent rivers run and very good

fishing is to be had almost without exception in the Dheleswari, Sonai,

Tipai, Kaladan and Langai Rivers (but no recent notes are available).

10. Manipur. — Good sport can be had with fair sized fish, in the

Barak, Northern Hills; in the Thopal Eastern Hills ; and in the Chakai

Southern Hills. Large Mahseer are to be had in the Barak and its

larger tributaries the Idang and Makru in the Western Hills.

‘The largest fish taken in recent years was a 56 pounder, caught- by me

(Gyles Mackreel) on a Myitkyina Macdonald spoon, in December 1928.’

The Manipur river itself rises in the north of this state, and

after running into a large lake (Loktak Lake) flows south and opt

pf the State ipto the Chin Hills apd Burrnp.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER

325

Besides the rivers I have mentioned there are many others of

which only local knowledge can assist, and the ways and means of

getting to them, must of necessity be obtained locally.

The notes in parentheses are by Mr. Gyles Mackreel, and the

note on Boanuddy by J. L.

11. Recent Notes on fishing and localities in Assam and the

Dooars hy F. Peacock , Esq.

‘Garo Hills, 36 miles north from Mymen singh railway station.

River Sarasati near a place called Durgapur, the best fishing to be

had about 22 miles from Durgapur between two villages, Ryuk and

Seejoo, and about 2 miles beyond the latter place. The water is well

known in the neighbourhood. The best way to reach the water is by

rail from Calcutta to Goalundo, hours ; thence by steamer to

Narayangunj, iof hours, thence by rail to Mymensingh, 7 hours.

From Mymensingh to Durgapur is a road good for driving part of

the way and for riding the whole way. The place was visited in

February with good results. In 1877, 48 fish, weighing 877 lbs., or

over, an average of 19 lbs. per fish, were killed by two rods Jn

days all Mahseer. The best way to fish is with a spoon, from a boat

moving. On hooking a fish it is best to land and play him from the

shore. ’

12. Laour , Assam from ‘ The Angler’s Hand Book*.—' ‘The river

is called the Punateet and runs out of the Khasia hills at Laour. To

get to it, you have to branch off at Sunamgunge (on the Soormah)

and go by boat to a village called Elamgao ; here you can get

dingies and boatmen to take you up the gorge, where vou must rough

it in a grass hut. It is a beastly unhealthy place. Every time I go

there all my servants are knocked over with fever. I got it once,

but on that occasion I was there for 6 weeks. *

‘ Extracts from my Diary

Natural History Society, Vol. VIII, No. 1 of the June issue of 1933.

‘When I left the Military I was fortunately posted to Svlhet. In this

district Ommaney, mentioned in Thomas’ “Rod in India’’, made his

fabitlous bags of Mahseer. I soon found out the best places, they

were the Ponatite at the N.W. corner of the district where the

river debouched into the plains through a lovely gorge in the Sunam-

gunj sub-division. I shall never forget my amazement, when I

- Probably means the Somes>yari.

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

first gazed on this fisherman’s paradise. There was a huge pool,

several hundred yards long, now and then I saw the red fin of a

Mahseer protrude above the water and the Chilwa scuttled along

the water as one of those fish rushed for them. ’

‘Consequence was that after each mighty rush, traces and line

gave way and I lost all my fish and most of my spoons. I threw

away the remainder of that tackle and ordered a new lot from Hardy,

Manton and Luscombe. On my next visit to this place I got some

nice fish and secured a Goonch ( Bagarius yarellii ) of 67 pounds with

which I had great fun.’ ‘This Ponatite was a fascinating place. In

the higher reaches the cliffs rose abruptly from the water’s edge and

the rocks assumed all sorts of fantastic shapes. On some of them

I noticed writings in Urdu and visited a wonderful cave, full of bats.

The higher reaches are difficult for boats as there are rapids, up

which a dug-out cannot pass. There is also no path along the edge

to reach the pools beyond, a folding boat is of no use, so the Mahseer

is safe in those higher pools. Hard by the Ponatite is the Tangour

Haor, which at one time swarmed with Sambhur, Hog-deer, Pig,

Buffalo and Tiger, but like all places in India the game has been

decimated by Zamindars, and slaughter during heavy floods.’

‘Mr. Gyles Mackreel writing of this River, points out that the

course of time appears to have changed the name of the Ponatite.

He writes “I think this must be the ‘Gohairi ’ or the ‘Piyain’ of

modern maps.” 9

13. Notes by Mr. Gyleg Mackreel. — ‘The only rivers I have fished

personally are Loobah, Barak & Tepi, Kinshyiang, Goomra, Toorsa,

Jaldacca, Malangi, Soobansiri. The Loobah runs up into the

Khassia Jaintia Hills, past a tea garden of the same name. As the

fish pass up and down there is fair fishing in the lower reaches, but

the Mahseer all make for the top, and in Oct. and Nov. one will

hardly get a fish down below, as those that are going down have

gone, and the ones remaining are three days’ journey up into the

hills. I have been up several times and my best fish is a 32 pounder.

They run larger, as I have found two of the short gilled variety

killed by Otter which must have been over 50 lbs when fresh as they

weighed nearly that putrid. You will see, the gills are far shorter

than the common Mahseer. My theory is that it is a bottom feeder

that lives, when large, on crabs and large water snails as the teeth

are quite different to those of the ordinary Mahseer. I am having

a photograph made to show this difference and will send it to you.

Is it a big carnatic carp?f I have caught these up to is lbs. but

never bigger. In Assam the carp is called the Boka. It fights very

well indeed. In Cachar and Sylhet they call it the Maugri. Ihe

Mahseer being the Mahoal and the variety of Mahseer I have marked

X being the Pukki ranga. This latter fish is (vour copper fish?)

deep and thick. It does not seem to go above 20 lbs., or at any rate

* Between Mr. Peacock’s note, and Col. Wood’s it should he possible to locate

the famous spot, and further notes prove interesting. Neither the ‘Gohairi’ or

the ‘Pivain’ are mentioned on my maps. .

+ This is B. (Tor) tor (Hamilton). 'The common grey normal type is B, lor

putitora , as identified by Hora,

Jcurn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

' CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

327

to take a spoon when over that weight. It is a beautiful bronze

above, with red fins. The one in my photograph has thick red lips,

but 1 have caught a fish that seemed exactly similar but with ordinary

lips. I have found that the Carp all have teeth similar to those in

the big fish on the unprinted film, i.e. one huge molar and the usual

number of small teeth, the older the fish the more these teeth are

ground down. In the Pukki ranga the teeth are the same. In' the

ordinary Mahseer the teeth are sharp, even in big fish. This I think

points to the diet, fish and vegetable matter very largely in the

ordinary long, gilled Mahseer, crustaceans, etc., in the case of the

others. (The lips enlarged through turning over stones in search of

Crabs, etc. ?) Huge short gilled fish are occasionally caught on a it a in

tiie Brahmaputra at Amingaon and Gauhati. One caught last year

weighed 90 lbs. This was the Boga pitia or white Mahseer of the

Assamese as distinct from the Lai pitia or ordinary (red) common

long gilled Mahseer. What the Boga pitia is like when small I do

not know. I have never caught a big one; and when small he may

be the Carp or the Pukki ranga both of which are rather like your

Chocolate Mahseer. ’

‘I am going off on a two months fishing holiday in Oct.-Nov.

and will then send you, or the Bombay Natural History Society,

whichever you like, skins of the various types. I will simply take

the insides out and stuff them with salt and straw. I will of course

send the description of the colour of the eyes, etc.

‘Loobah. This river runs into the Khassia-Jaintia Hills. On

entering the hills one comes to a huge gorge pool some three quarters

of a mile long. This is full of huge rohu, etc., but I have never taken

a big Mahseer out of it although it looks ideal. Upstream from this

pool the river ascends the hills in a series of rapids and pools.

About 8 miles into the hills it becomes the Lunar. The latter forms

a series of lime-stone pools and rapids and has no very big fish in it

in the cold weather. The other branch, called on the map the Luka

but locally the Singlai, dries up at the junction for a matter of some

three quarters of a mile, as the river enters a cave higher up and

flows under ground for that distance, joining the Lunar and the

Loobah under the surface of the latter. This means that fish that

have not passed over this barrier while it is still under water in

September, remain above for the whole of the cold weather. There

are some fine pools, but otter are very plentiful, and the fish get

killed off as the water drops. The best fishing is therefore as soon

as the water clears in October. Carp are very plentiful and take

a fly readily. One rod took 39 fish in one day, nearly all on fly and

averaging about 4 lbs- My best bag, fishing with a No. 7 spoon

was 13 fish in two days averaging 11 lbs. At that time one could

have got a very large numerical bag by the use of a yellow spider or

small fly spoon as the smaller fish were taking very readily. I took

one coal black Mahseer weighing 1 1 lbs. The tips of the fins were

£old'

‘The Kinshyiang is the name given to the Jadhukata where this

river enters the Khassia Jaintia hills not far from the border of the

Garo Hills. This river had not been fished for some years when

I went up it at Christmas 1931. This was the worst time to go as

the lower reaches had all been poached, and netting was in progress

JOURNAL, BOMBAY nAtuLaL Hist, society, Voi. XLi V

in the upper reaches, when 1 got there. I have applied J&r Government

protection for this river. 1 found one good pool where the poles for

netting were lying ready. It was full of good Mahseer and on Xmas

day and Boxing day, with the temp, at about 390 and the water like

ice, 1 got 11 fish averaging 20 lbs. the best fish was 41. There were

some very large fish to be seen but I had not got any dead bait and

could not get Hold of any, and I was fishing with spoon all the time.

A No. 7 gave the best results, heavily leaded to get to the bottom.

All these nsh were the ordinary long giiled red finned mahseer. They

fought well. ’

This river is difficult of access and 1 used 100 gals, of petrol

getting there and back in a motor boat ; and one is liable to get all the

way there and find the pools have been cleaned out by poachers.

The Subansiri is a direct tributary of the Brahmaputra in North

Lakhimpur. It is fished by the Local Government Officials and by

Planters in Assam. It is very fast and contains some large fish.

One has to hire dugouts from the local Miris who are far from

trustworthy. On my last trip some of these experts upset a dugout

in a bad rapid and I lost all my rods and reels and a 12 bore gun.

Mr. Aitken of Tezpur, a well known Assam sportsman, hooked a

huge fish the following day but it broke him after 40 minutes without

having shown itself. The lower pools of the river are rather a

favourite fishing' ground for people who want to fish in comfort, as

there is a forest bungalow on the river bank. The fish are therefore

quite used to all kinds of baits and spoons being trailed from behind

a boat and act accordingly. The fishing trips seem to become river

picnics. Knowing this I thought I would try something that the

tish had not perhaps seen recently so I mounted 3 six inch fish in a

spinner so that they appeared to be swimming in echelon together.

The result was a 26 and a 16 pounder in half an hour from water

that 7 rods had been fishing a few days before with no result. A

fluke:’ Probably. But worth trying again.

The Toorsa and Jaldacca are both Dooars rivers. The typical

Dooars Mahseer seems to be golden brown backed, silver belly, and

orange or pale lemon fins. A lovely fish. The other fish is the

‘ Kut.lL which is very much like the Assam carp and is probably the

same fish under slightly different conditions. He is like your Choco-

late mahseer to look at but only goes up to 10 lbs. I am told. My

best is 8 lbs. 1 will send you a picture of one, side by side with a

Mahseer. He has the flattened teeth of the carp.

The Barak is a finished river. Poached from end to end. Two

years ago 500 Lushais came down and netted and poisoned all the

pools within a few hours of Silchar, dried the fish and went off into

the hills again. Ichabod ! The river used to be full of magnificent

fish and my best bag was thirty pounders and a number of smaller

fish in one day.

‘The last time I went up I got one four pound fish, and the trip

entailed 8 days leave and cost about Rs 300. *

‘The Malangi used to be good but the Toorsa has now cut into

it and all the shingly pools are now sand and the fish do not stay.

The Goomra is a small river in the Cachar hills parallel with the

Kalain. It holds fish up to 8 and 10 lbs. in the late rains, but in the

cold weather there is nothing big to be taken.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

Fig. i. — Teeth of Mahseer in Assam. Illustrating the sharp teeth of the large-

headed variety, and the blunt teeth of the short or small-headed variety.

big 2.— Variation of the teeth of the varieties of Mahseer in Assam, as observed

by Mr. Gyles Mackrell. (The short gill or small heads have blunt teeth. The

long-head or the ordinary variety stand alone in sharp pointed teeth.)

CIRCUMVENTING the MAJtisEER

ll am afraid this is very disjointed but I will endeavour to write

vou more later. ' The Manas is one of the famous Assam rivers.

It is in a game reserve and a special permit is required. 1 am going-

up this year but as yet I have no first hand knowledge of it. It is a

direct tributary of the Brahmaputra, like the Rydak and Sankhos.

‘5-8-’32 1 send you some photographs of fish teeth. The point is

that the long-gilled Mahseer seems to stand alone as far as teeth go.

lie is the only one with the sharp teeth. The big short gilled fish (1

sent you a film of a 50 pounder and I took a photo last month of a 64

pounder but it was in a part of a cine picture and 1 have not had a

print made yet) the short gilled fish has blunt teeth with the one big

molar. The carp or Cutli of Assam, the Dooars and Sylhet (Assam,

Bo lia, Dooars Katli , Cachar and Sylhet Maugri) all have the blunt

teeth. So has the copper fish and the thick Upped fish. The black

Mahseer (simply a melanic example of the true long gilled variety)

has teeth, scales, etc., exactly as the ordinary coloured one. By

black Mahseer I mean black. Tou will see one in one of my pictures.

‘I was talking to a man who came down the Manas recently

from the upper reaches in Bhutan and he tells me he watched them

catching Mahseer there with strips of a scaly gourd off the trees.

He was not a fisherman, but he had photographs of the fish, I have

caught them on a scaly spoon but seldom.

* Up the Sonai, Cachar, one fisherman finds the best thing to use

is a No. 8 spoon with a treble mounted on a 7 in. length of gimp.

The shank is bound with a little red wool. The fish come short at

the spoon in gin clear water and seem to suddenly see the little

red thing spinning at the end of it and go for it. I have tried it

once and caught a fish, but personally 1 prefer my treble in the

centre of my spoon and one flush with the end.’

14. Darrang, Assam . — By an Angler who prefers to remain

Anonymous, 7-6- ’32. Darrang, on the north bank of the Brahma-

putra holds some very fine rivers, and water can be found to suit

the taste of any fisherman. Tezpur is the only town in this district

and is approached by a daily service of river mail steamers up and

down the Brahmaputra from Amingaon ; these steamers continue up

stream past Tezpur, touching at various Ghats or Mukhs, to the

terminus Kokilamukh; reference will be made later to the various

Ghats at which the intending' visitor should disembark should he

wish to visit a particular river. I would say at the outset that it is

useless to come to this part without a full camping outfit. Stores

can of course be obtained in Tezpur, and there is ample accommodation

to be had either in the dak bungalow or the floating residential

flat at Tezpur ghat. From this temporary base, the intending fisher-

man would have to make arrangements to approach the Bhoroly

river, which is the largest in Darrang; I would advise him; in fact

it is essential to write to the Political Officer, Balipara Frontier

Tract, Charduar, 'Lokra P.O., which is some 20 miles from Tezpur,

informing him of his desire to fish and shoot on the Bhoroly. As a

matter of fact a Fishing and Shooting Association is in the process

of formation in this district, and should it become a going concern,

the Political Officer would put the visitor in touch with the Secretary.

In any case the next move should be to Charduar from where a

‘political’ road runs for 22 miles into the foot hills practically along

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: X L1V

the banks of the Bhoroly. Either of the above gentlemen would

help the visitor to obtain dug-outs, without which it is useless to

attempt to fish this river. One boat for each fisherman is definitely

necessary, for which he will have to pay at least Rs. 3 per day ; the

IViiris who work and hire the boats are very knowledgeable as to

the best water and times to fish; also as regards the game, which at

certain times is plentiful in this part; I should make it clear that

atter leaving Tezpur, which can be done by rail to Balipara, within

a few miles of Charduar, the party should be entirely selt-supporting

and camping out will be the order of the day, as there are no dak

bungalows or shops in this direction, after Tezpur. The way, par

excellence , of working this part, or the whole of Darrang tor that

matter, would be to bring a car, preferably with a trailer for baggage ;

every river would then become accessible, especially the Bhoroly,

as the ‘political’ road is always in excellent order, the fisherman is

then completely independent of that terror in Assam, and probably

elsewhere, the gharry-walla. I strongly urge this course to be

adopted should any one think of a fishing trip in Darrang-. Presum-

ing the party to have safely got into camp on this river, with the

requisite numbqr of boats, they will find plenty of good pools wherein

the only method of fishing is by trolling. Anything up to 60 lbs.

(I am speaking of Mahseer), may be expected, while for this a No.

7 or 8 spoon is the usual thing and a local secret is to attach a piece

of red wool or ribbon to one’s spoon; live bait is also a successful

lure. Good spinning water will be found every quarter mile or so

Fly fishing is not much use on this river, but up its tributaries, especi-

ally the Namri, a fly fisherman will obtain good sport, I treat on

hy fishing separately however as the Bhoroly is essentially a trolling

and spinning river, but subsequent remarks on fly fishing, would

apply to most of the tributaries. The Bhoroly is affected by snow

water after about the first week in May. The best times to fish

would be from November on to March. The first month or two

1 believe to be the best; but the latter period, if not quite so good

for fishing, is balanced by the better prospect of seeing game, any-

thing from bison and buffalo down to barking deer may be met

with ; and if the party hire an elephant, which would be quite possible,

some very good big game shooting could be obtained; in any case,

a fairly heavy rifle should be part of one’s equipment. As all this

country is within the Balipara Frontier Tract administered by the

Political Officer, his permission must be obtained before any shooting

or fishing is contemplated.

‘Another typical river of Darrang, also in the Balipara Frontier

Tract, and one of which I have far more intimate knowledge, is the

Boroi ; a small stream issuing from the Daffla foot hills. It is far

smaller than the Bhoroly. This again is quite easily accessible by

car, either by road from Tezpur, some 55 miles, or by disembarking

from the steamer at Gomirighat, but there are no dak bungalows

worthy of the name, nor is it possible to obtain stores, Tezpur being

the nearest place. The Boroi is a delightful river, wooded banks,

short rapids, many deep pools, and as one goes up stream, the river

runi through beautiful gorges. This river is ideal for fly fishing,

both from the banks and more especially from a boat; after a little

practice it is quite easy to stand up in the dug-out, and drift down

circumventing the mAhseer

331

one of the beautiful gorges casting a fly on the water which laps

the precipitous sides. The fish, which 1 believe to be true Carnatic

carp, local name “Boka,” can sometimes, when feeding, be seen on

the surface, and it is wonderful sport to select a large one and put the

lly over him. 1 have caught up to 16 lbs. on a very light fly rod. You

can sometimes see the hsh lazily open its mouth and gently suck in

the fly, then a quick strike and away he goes. Sometimes these

fish take a lure with a rush, but more generally as above described,

then again the rapids hold large mahseer, easily up to 40 lbs; and

some very pretty sport, spinning, with anything from a No. 6 spoon,

can be had. A fly spoon in some of the lesser rapids sometimes

produces good baskets ; altogether the streams in Darrang of this

type provide some delightful fishing. December is not a good month

tor these smaller rivers, I would say late October, if the cold weather

has set in early, and November and February-March, especially the

latter, as these smaller streams are unaffected by snow water. All

through the hot weather good fishing may be had, provided there

is no thunder about, which seems to send the fish clean off the feed*

As regards fly, No. 6 hooks Limerick scale. The Coachman is a

never failing lure, also the Zulu, in fact any sea-trout fly will do,

mounted on a Salmon cast, with about 100 yards of line.

‘The fishing rivers of Darrang may therefore be divided into two

categories, A and B.

A. The Bhoroly, a river suitable for a large party and fairly easily

worked, within reach of Tezpur, if the party is provided with a car;

and B., the Boroi ; a typical example of which I have described,

suitable for one hand or at most two, where they must be entirely

self-supporting ; but again not too inaccessible if the party have a

car. It must be understood, although I have not marked them on

the sketch map, that the district is thickly dotted with tea gardens,

all round Tezpur and east to the Boroi, beyond which there are a

few gardens, and the intending visitor may safely rely on getting

help and advice from the planters.’

‘40 miles further east lies the district of North Lakhimpur in

which several fine rivers are to be found, but. of which I have no

personal experience. One in particular, the Subansiri, which is far

larger than the Bhoroly, is I believe a wonderful river for large

Mahseer. On the whole the Mahseer and Boka (Carnatic carp) are

the two principal fish to be found in all these rivers ; the latter takes

fly well, also spoon, the former is essentially a fish to be caught on

the spoon, and only occasionally takes a fly.’

The Bhoroly is a large snow-fed river suitable for a party

of 3 or 4 rods, and approached as above described.’

B. ‘The Bor Dikrai, although a tributary of the Bhoroly,

deserves to be classed by itself, or rather in the Boroi class.’

‘Borgang river and its tributary the Dikal. Means of approach

either by road from Tezpur or by river steamer to Behalimukh, or

Kathnibrai ghat, P.O. Borgang ; suitable for 1 or 2 rods, boats

not essential but would be very useful. Good big game shooting,

no dak bungalow.’

The Boroi. Means of approach by road from Tezpur or steamer

to Gomirighat, P.O. Halem , suitable for 1 or 2 rods, boats essential ;

good big game shooting. ’

2

m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

15. Notes of Fishing in Cachar by Mr. Cooper. — Mahseer fishing

in Assam Cachar. I have done some little during the last 30 years.

My personal experience only, extends to one district of Assam-Cachar

and before dealing with the headings you have given in your question-

naire— -I must explain that there is practically no good fishing to be

obtained without making an expedition up one of the various rivers

into the hills in Manipur Lushai country. This means that one must

have boats and a crew, with outfit and generally the use of a motor

boat to cover the lower reaches of the river, if one is to get to one’s

fishing water in a reasonable time. You will therefore understand

that it is difficult for any one not a local resident to make a bandobasi

to get to the best water as there are no roads or accommodation of

any sort when one gets there. In my young days, the smaller

rivers used to provide us with very good fly fishing in October

and November and one could reach these on a horse; but increasing

population, cultivation, and netting, have made these rivers hardly

worth a visit. I will therefore confine my remarks to rivers that I

have fished in recent years. Those are the Barak with its tributaries

the Jheeri and Tepi; the Sonai, the Loobah — the higher reaches of

which are leased from Government at a nominal rent and protected

as well as possible by the Surma Valley. Angling Association

during the cold weather months.’

‘An expedition starting up any of these rivers would have. to

outfit in Silchar, which is anything from 50-100 miles from the best

water. Membership of the Surma Valley Angling Association can

be obtained from the Secretary at Rs. 10 per annum. None of the

rivers are snow fed.’

‘The Barak holds big fish, which are caught by trolling or spin-

ning— with a dead bait or spoons from No. 7-9. Most of the big

fish are caught trolling and one rarely gets anything over 15 lbs.

spinning. (Probably because Anglers do not fish deep enough. A. M.)’

‘The Tepi is, . early in the season, good for fly and small spoons,

big fish caught spinning have been rare in recent years. The Jheeri

is far the best river for fly — those I have been most successful with

Yellow Spider, Claret and Mallard, Blackamore, all large size. Fish

up to 15 lbs. are caught spinning. All fly fishing is done from a

boat. The Loobah can be reached by boat from the Surma and is

probably the easiest to get at, it also holds fish up to 50 lbs. both

Spoon and Fly do well at the right time. ’

The Sonai. ‘Some excellent bags have been made up this in

recent years chiefly by Mr. Ewing, the Secretary of the Surma Valley

Angling Association. Like other rivers in Cachar one must be

prepared to camp and travel 3 or 4 days in small boats before getting

into really good fishing water.

‘All these rivers fish best as soon after the water clears as possible

i.e. ^November and December — -the Barak which is a larger river,

1 have done well on in February.’

‘One can generally shoot enough for the pot in the way of

jungle fowl, pigeon, odd duck, an occasional deer and serow.

Gharial are still fairly numerous on the Barak. Dense jungle down

to the river bed makes stalking impossible. Very unhealthy, and

feverish between November and March.’

Plate III

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. i. — Two ordinary Barak Ma'hseer : 30 lbs.

Fig. 2. — The Barak record : 56 lbs.

Length 49J ; Gill 29J.

A snap out of Mr, Cooper’s Notes.

Fig. 3. — Short gill Mahseer : 30 lbs.

Cachar and Sylhet : ‘Pukki Ranga’

Flattened Teeth,

Jouni. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IV

(2) A stone lashed between the jaws

of a split bamboo. (After smoothing

the edges with a knife.) Very useful

in 8 or 10 feet of water to rescue a

hook from a .boat,

(t) Opening gorge of the Loobah.

tlRCUk VENTING THE MAhsEeE

333

‘Supplies can be obtained from the Manager, Cachar Club, who

could possibly arrange for boats and men; but as you will gather

from what 1 have written before — this is not an easy bandobast for

any non-resident, or to be undertaken unless one has a month or

more to spare.

‘There are two or three distinct varieties of Mahseer caught,

also what is locally known as a “Carnatic Carp” the Boka of Assam.

Butchwa up to 2 lbs., also take a fly well at times.’

‘Bags' Barak. In 1928 two of us landed 51 fish weighing 388 lbs.

in live days actual fishing — largest fish 56 lbs., which is a record for

the river. In 1931 we only managed to land 35 fish weighing 185 lbs.

largest 15 lbs. in about the same time.’

‘Jheeri. In 1930 two of us in 5 days actual fishing landed 104

fish averaging just under 3 lbs. — all mine except one 12 pounder were

caught on 10 ft. rod, on Flies.’

‘I cannot give you any recent “bags” on the Sonai or Loobah.

Mr. C. E. Ewing has done very well up the former, i but in recent

years the Loobah “bags” have been very poor and it becomes

necessary to go higher and higher every year to get good fishing,

which adds considerably to the expense and time required. ’

‘I doubt if you will find in these notes much to encourage any

one to make an expedition into Cachar for fishing purposes, but

trust they will be of some interest to you. I fancy the country and

fishing are very much like Upper Burma on the other side of the

watershed, but are being ruined from a fisherman’s point of view by

increasing population.’

16. Burt her notes on the Cachar District by C. E. Ewing , Esq.f

3-5- ’32. — ‘My personal experience only extends to one district ot

Assam-Cachar and 1 have only experience of fishing one small river,

the Sonai, a tributary of the river Barak. Mr. W. E. D.

Cooper, I understand, is writing you regarding fishing prospects

in other rivers in Cachar of which he has had considerable experience,

so I will confine myself to the Sonai river which I know best.

Before dealing with the details of the Sonai river, I would like to

say that good fishing is only obtainable by several days journey up

the river from Silchar and no organisation exists whereby outsiders

can receive help in arranging boats, crews, etc.; and boats are

essential, as no other means exist whereby one can reach the fishing

waters. With the increase in population more land is being opened

up along river banks, which means that one has to go further and

further up the rivers each year to reach good undisturbed fishing

water. ’

‘The Sonai is a small river rising in the Arrakan Hills, its course

South to North, when it eventually joins the river Barak at Sonai

Mukh, 12 miles from Silchar. This river suffered badly during the

severe floods in 1928, from landslides but is improving again

gradually. The best time of the year for fishing is between the

months of November and February; during the rains the river is

high and extremely muddy. I have had very good sport indeed

on this river for several years. Dense jungle growing down to the

river bed makes fishing only possible from a boat. Fly fishing,

with Yellow Spider, Clavet and Mallard, and Blackamore, and

underhand casting with spoons (Nos. 7 and 8) have been found to

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLlV

be most successful. Being only a small river it does not hold very

big fish, the largest landed was a Mahseer of 26 lbs., but several

have been caught between 12 and 20 lbs. The only draw-

back to the river is that it abounds with snags — trees and logs

that have slipped down into the river in the course of years, and

any angler going up this river must be prepared to lose a lot of

fisli and tackle, so should have a good supply with him. The biggest

bag made was in 1925 when two of us landed 100 fish weigffing

550 lbs. in 5 days actual fishing — the largest fish 26 lbs. To an

Angler who is not out for big fish lots of sport can be had with

fish of 5 to 20 lbs. in the Sonai. The fish obtainable in this river are

Mahseer, Carnatic Carp, Butcha and Fresh-water Sole.

‘There is also lot of shooting available — jungle fowl and

pheasants, pigeon, and duck and deer, both sambhur and barking.

1 have had very good shooting- indeed up this river and can usually

secure more than one’s requirements every day for the pot. In

fact for expeditions up this river take little in the way of stores and

rely on success with the gun.

I doubt whether you will find in these notes much to encourage

any outsider to make an expedition up this river, but I trust that

these notes will be of interest to you. ’

‘ Locality . Cachar Rivers. Silchar is the jumping off-place for

all of these, viz. : — Barak, Jhiri, Sonai and Loobah which are the

principal protected rivers under the Surma Valley Fishing Association

of which Mr. C. E. Ewing of Chingoor T. E., Binnakandv P.O.,

is Secretary. ’

‘Barak. This is the largest river and rises in Manipur. Small

boats can be engaged in Lakhipur, distance by road from Silchar

18 miles and by river about 50, taking 2 or 3 days for small boats

to get there. There is a rest house at Lakhipur, also a post and

telegraph office. The best plan is to go by motor car or lorry

to Lakhipur taking all kit and stores, which can be purchased at

very reasonable prices at the Cachar Club Stores; stay the night

in the rest house and start off early in the morning. There are

good ‘camping places’ but it takes 3 or 4 days to get to the fishing

parts'. Once away from Lakhipur there are no post offices or rest

houses. All information can be had from the Secretary of the

Cachar Club. The best months for fishing the river are November

to February.’

‘There are large Mahseer in this river and the record Mahseer

was about 60 lbs. (Gyles Mackreel’s 56 pounder). Most of the pools

give beautiful spinning, and the long ones can be trolled as there

are few snags.’

‘It takes 8 days to get to the Hatti Rocks which is usually as

far as boats go, but it is possible to go beyond and the keen man

is well rewarded. ’

‘Jhiri. This is a tributary of the Barak half a day beyond

Lakhipur; but the bed is filled up very much with sand and very slow

progress is made. It affords excellent Fly Fishing. October and

November are the best months, as after that the water is short.

The remarks given, under Barak about arrangements apply here.’

‘Sonai. This is another tributary of the Barak and goes into

the Lushai Hills. Good catches have been made and there is

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

335

excellent spinning-, but is spoilt by the number of Snags. The same

remarks apply as given for the Barak/

‘Loobah. This is a very interesting tributary of the Barak and

unsurpassed for scenery. October and November are the months

as water is short later on.’

‘Boats can be arranged at Loobacherra by the manager of Loobah

T. E., Kanaighat P.O. Stores can be provided at Silchar and then

kit can be taken by train to Badarpurghat Station and by a 200

maund boat to Loobagnat where fishing boats are arranged.

‘Two days up the river the junction of the Singli is reached and

if there is plenty of water the Singli will give good fishing.’

‘The Loobah is blocked by large rocks and the scenery is magni-

ficent: both tributaries go into the Cassiya Hills.

‘There is good Fly Fishing to be had, chiefly Carp on “Yellow

Spider”.’

‘Mahseer and Carp are the only fish in these rivers except a very

occasional trout. Any kind of spoon will do.’

17. Notes on Manipur f 13-4-’ 32. — A correspondent from Manipur

State writes as follows : — ‘I am afraid I am not a fisherman and

cannot give you much assistance.

‘There are no really big rivers in Manipur. Small “Bofea” Caro

(Assamese name) and a few Mahseer can be caught in the Barak

(Northern Hills), Thoubal (Eastern Hills), and Chakoi (Southern

Hills,) and in some of the tributaries of the Barak in the South

Western Hills. Best bait fly, small spoons or dead bait. Large

Mahseer can be had in the Barak, and its larger tributaries, the

Irang and Makru, in the Western Hills.’

The following notes are very kindly sent to me by the Curator

of the Darjeeling Natural History Museum (Mr. Inglis) from his

excellent journal.

These interesting notes deal with most of the varieties of fish

to be taken, though some confusion arises in expression, by the

different contributors, and it is as well to list the correct names of

the fish referred to.

(1) The Greyhound type of Mahseer of Assam, my ‘Golden

Mahseer’, is identified by Hora as the Putitora Mahseer ( Barbus

tor ) putitora (Hamilton).

• (2) The short gilled Mahseer as shown in the illustration of 30

lbs.. ‘ Pukki Ranga ’ is identified bv Hora as the Tor Mahseer

Barbus tor tor (Hamilton).

(3) The fish known as the Boka or Katli by some, and referred

to as the Carnatic Carp by others, is Barbus hexagonolopis, probably

my ‘Chocolate Mahseer.’

18. Notes on a dark variety of Mahseer bv E. O. S. (Journ.

Darjeeling Natural History Society , Vol. VI. No. 2. Oct. 1931). —

The sketches show : — -( 1) The head of an 8| lb. fish of the dark

variety of Mahseer reduced to half size for comparison with the

sketches of ordinary Mahseer sent recently. This is a thick lipped

fish. (2) An outline sketch to scale (A) of an 8 lb. ‘greyhound’

Mahseer (above), and the 8^ lb. dark fish below.

I comoared the dark fish with other Mahseer (‘greyhound’ and

‘ordinary’) at the same time (Sankos, 22nd February 1930) and with

Kath. The impression which this comparison made on me, at the

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

time, is best described by saying that: — If the dark fish had been

compared with a Mahseer alone, it might have been taken for a

Fig. i. — Head of Mahseer (dark variety) x^. This is a thick-lipped specimen X -J.

Fig. 2. — A. Outline of ordinary Mahseer, 8 lbs. B. Outline of dark variety;

8-| lbs. x§.

(, Journ . Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Society Vol. VI, No. 2, Oct. 1931-)

Katli and if with a Katli alone it would undoubtedly have been pro-

nounced a Mahseer. The dark fish, in other words, is in appearance,

as nearly as possible, half way between what we believe to be the

typical Barbus tor and what we believe to be Barbus hexastichus.

The dark fish, or this specimen at any rate, was in shape far

more like a Katli than a Mahseer. The fins were partly the yellow

of the Mahseer and partly the slate colour of the Katli — the general

colour of the fish was intermediate but the eye was golden, as in

the Mahseer; only one spot on one iris was copper as in the Katli,

but this may have been blood-shot, There were no tubercles on the

upper lip.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

337

’I do not remember to have seen this variety with thick lips

before, and this is one of the reasons which makes me believe that this

is a seasonal sexual change. My other reasons are: —

2(i) That in fish which seem exactly alike in all other respects, the

mouth parts of one may be swollen out of all proportion.

(2) That, I think but am not sure, I have only seen these thick-

lipped fish caught late in the season from February onwards.

O’Donel, however, says he has caught them in the Nunai River as

early as November.

(3) That thick-lipped fish usually have a lot of red on the fins.

This apparently does not apply to the dark variety.

3That the swelling is not uniform in different thick-lipped fish.

The lips are always thickened but in some fish the swelling extends

to the snout while in others it seems to affect the Tower lip more,

causing a sort of flap of flesh like an imperial. A still more pro-

nounced type, which I have never seen myself, has these flaps

apparently on both lips, as shown in one of the illustrations facing

page 32 in Thomas’ ‘Rod in India’.

At present I feel that the distinction between what I have called

‘Greyhound’ and ‘ordinary’ Mahseer is a far less fundamental one

than that between either of these varieties and the dark form — but

possibly further observations, on the rivers, may cause me to change

my opinion.

I should be very glad of the observations of other fishermen.

E. O. S.

[The head of a ‘greyhound’ type of fish may be seen on page

89, Vol. IV, No. 4 of this Journal. — -Editor].

19. Mahseer Fishing in the Bengal and Assam Dooars, hy C. E.

S. Fair-weather, I.P. ( Journ . Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Sac., Vol. VI, No.

4, April 1932). — Mahseer have no shaply defined spawning season

like salmon and trout. They are, as the late H. S. Thomas ('Rod

in India ’ by H. S. Thomas, i.c.s.) said, like the barnyard Fowl :

they lay their eggs a few at a time and they are never in better

condition than when spawning or looking for an opportunity to

spawn.4 It is this search for spawning grounds that regulates our

fishing seasons. Mahseer can be caught at any time of the year,

provided one knows where they are to be found, but the other im-

portant proviso is that in order to catch them the condition of the

river must be suitable. It is hardly of any use fishing for Mahseer

1 The ‘Copper’ variety have modified thick lips. See illustration in Burma

chanter.

•2 This is the thick lip variety.

3 I have taken some hundreds of these thick-lipped fish, in all sizes from \ lb.

to 40 lbs., and in every month from Feb. to Oct. from the Mahl River and

Thelum in the north-west along the Himalayas, through Nepal to Burma, but I

have never yet seen one with, so pronounced an adipose extension, as shown by

Dr. Day’s plate produced in the ‘Rod in India.’ The plate of the Thick lip

Mahseer in the Burma Chapter is representative, and there is no ‘flap’ or adipose

extension on the upper lip, at least I have never seen one. A. M.

4 I disagree with Mr. Thomas that Mahseer. are1 * 3 4 at their best while spawning.

In late April and May in some rivers, when the main spawn begins, fish will

be taken that offer no sport whatever. T say ‘Main spawn’, because all the

varieties of fish are then found giavic]..

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

(except with live bait) unless the water is clear — the clearer the

better. Unless one can see the pebbles on the bottom in four feet of

water, fishing- for Mahseer is likely to be a heart-breaking business.1

I refer of course to spinning- for Mahseer.

The Mahseer, according- to such observations as anglers have

been able to make, apparently requires certain conditions for

spawning.

( a ) The water should be warmer than that of the usual glacier-fed

river.

(b) The water should be shallowish and sheltered. In the big

rivers like the Teesta, Sankos and Monas the water is cold, even in

the plains, for a considerable distance below the gorges. These

ri'vers begin to rise early in April when the snows melt; Mahseer

which have found the shallow backwaters among the chars (miles

below the gorge) — -ideal places for spawning — now find the chars

submerged and begin to move up towards the hills, where they find

excellent spawning grounds in the various hill streams which have

begun to flow again with the early rains. These small streams too

are warm, coming off the hot sides of the lower ranges of hills.

The fish apparently travel up these small streams to spawn when a

spate comes down and drop back to the main river when the spate

clears off.

The Teesta. The Mahseer hang about round the mouths of the

Sevoke, Kalijhora, Reang and Gill Jhora, which run into the Teesta.

There are perennial spawning places. As I said above, fish are there

to be caught all the time. The difficulty is to find the water in proper

trim. The Teesta itself is foul and unfishable from April until

January or February and it remains clear only for a few weeks

before the snow water again begins to come down. When, however,

there is a break in the rains, the small hill streams clear and where

they join the Teesta there is a belt of clear water for a considerable

distance before it merges into the Teesta and gets ‘sicklied over with

the pale hue of chalk’. In this belt of clear water one can catch

really good fish. It may happen that one gets a spell of rainless

weather in July or August but one can never count on this. The

best season therefore is from mid-September onwards, when the

rains are beginning to stop and the hill streams are yet still fairly

full and clear. The peculiar thing about these large rivers like the

Teesta, Sankos and Monas is that away from the mouths of tribut-

aries Mahseer are very hard to find. This is particularly the case

with the Teesta but the Sankos and Monas, too, away from tribut-

aries, are almost impregnable except under the most favourable

conditions. The fish move upwards as soon as these rivers rise in

April and move down again from the end of September. In the early

season, March-April, the only mouth worth fishing is Reang. There

is sufficient water here to keep the fish. In the September season

they are good, i.e. there is enough clear and warm water flowing’

in the river to attract the spawning fish. As I said before, one can

fish all the year on the Teesta but conditions from July to mid-

1 This has not been my experience, and I am inclined to agree with Mr. Martin,

though clear water is of course the best,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

339

September are so uncomfortable and uncertain that few people would

care to bother: torrential rain, wet jungle, fever, leeches, etc. and

the difficulty of choosing a time when the small stream is likely to

clear. For those living at a distance this is impossible.

Fishing these tributary mouths is not very exciting. There is

only one spot fishable, and generally out of 12 days fishing one

has 5 or 6 blank days. When one gets a fish it is usually a good

one and puts up a tremendous fight, aided by the full force of the

Teesta current. No flimsy tackle is any good here. One needs

almost 200 yards of line — ‘Y’ stout Tiger traces and a stout rod

and line. For rod a Hardy’s, Murdoch or something similar is

about right. Spoons up to 3" or 4" seem best, although I have

seen some pretty sport on a Castle Connel Salmon rod — gut trace

and fly spoon. This latter at Sevoke : at Reang and Kalijhora,

however, one needs to hold the fish a bit harder. On a really good

day, if two rods get 3 fish from the pool in the morning and perhaps

one or two in the evening they have done very well indeed : next

day they will probably come back from the river with nothing but

a brace of backaches.

The Sankos. On the Sankos conditions are very much the same.

There is a bund 011 the Sankos to the north east of Sankos Tea

Estate, where a side stream comes in. Morning and evening one

can get 2 or 3 fish and good fish too. About \ mile below this spot

a small overflow runs into the river again and here too a few fish

can be had. I have however fished many other pools on the Sankos,

where there is no tributary of warm water running in, without finding

any traces of fish. Opposite Barabisha there is a tributary which

comes in from the Assam side of the Sankos — some great catches

have been recorded here, I believe.

The Monas. On the Monas my experience was the same. Away

from the streams of warm water running into the big river, fishing

seemed a mere waste of energy. Where, however, one did find a

good spot with a ‘run in’, the fish seemed to lie about in shoals —

large fish. It is however not much use trying to fish the Sankos or

Monas before February unless one knows a place where a good

stream of clear water runs in. These two rivers are also not so

accessible as the Teesta.

JThe ideal fishing conditions are: —

(1) A clear sky.

(2) No wind.

(3) Good clear water.

2Wind is the Mahseer fisherman’s worst enemy. I attribute

the difficulty of fishing these big rivers chiefly to the howling wind,

which blows almost ceaselessly down or up the river day after day.

On these rivers the wind starts generally about 9 or 10 a.m. and in

the most favoured spots one should be on the water just after dawn.

1 For ideal conditions, yes ! ! I took the largest Mahseer I have caught

(75 lbs.) during a thunder storm when a gale was blowing.

2 This occurs in N. India and Burma, too, on the large rivers, but blows

down stream in the morning and up stream in the evening. The days are quite

often calm. It is known as the ‘Dadu\

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The wind starts about 9 or 10 a.m. and does not drop till about l-J

hours before dusk. These last hours are generally good. From

10 a.m. till 3 p.m. one’s best plan is to eat and sleep. To fish

is mere waste of energy, as the fish seem to go right down the mo-

ment the wind starts.

It will be gathered from the foregoing that I am not particularly

enamoured of these big rivers.

The most enjoyable fishing of all is in the smaller rivers like the

Jaldaka, Torsa, Rydak, Champamati and the Aie. They all have

their peculiarities but they have the advantage of being fishable from

the gorges far down into the plains until sand and shingle give way

to mud. One can fish with a light rod and fly spoon or use a medium

rod — spinning reel and 2 " or 2J" spoons, or both alternately, wander-

ing down from pool to pool.

The Jaldaka and Torsa. The Jaldaka and Torsa have not fished

well for years. This is due, I think, to excessive netting in the

lower reaches and poaching in the higher reaches. The fish too are

very shy. In the Jaldaka ‘Catli’ seem to predominate. The ‘Catli’

(Assam Boka.) is of the carp tribe, like the Mahseer. He has a

smaller mouth and smaller scales, while the iris of his eye is red and

not yellow like the Mahseer’s. He takes a fly spoon well.

Some good fish have been taken at the junction of the Jaldaka and

Murti above Ramshahi Hat. The Jaldaka was a famous river at

one time but nowadays I would never make a special trip there

to fish.

The Torsa is a fairly big river and does not clear properly before

November. By that time the weather is getting too cold for the

best fishing. When one is getting good Mahseer fishing, one is

generally in a ‘lather of sweat’. If one is not, then conditions are

not at their best. The Torsa has not fished well from all accounts

since it left its old bed, which runs past Madarihat Railway Station.

I have not heard of any one making any good bags for a long time.

Mr. Webb of Hasimara Tea Estate, I believe, catches good fish

during the rains with a live bait picketed. Spinning of course is im-

possible at that time. The Torsa can be fished from either Madarihat

or Nilpara Forest bungalows.

The Malang. At Nilpara there is a fascinating little stream

called the Malangi, where one can have a really good time with a

trout rod, fine gut trace and small fly spoons — fishing is not too

easy, as the banks are heavily wooded. Surprising bags of fish

up to 5 lbs. or over can be made.

The Rydak. The Rydak is one of the best streams I know. It

can be fished from Bhutan Ghat (at the gorge), from Dumpara Ghat

(on the Jainti-Kumargram Road) or farther down at Teamaree Ghat.

It does not clear much before November but excellent fishing can

be had from then onwards until the snow water comes down again

in Aoril. It holds very good fish up to 40 lbs. — fish of 7 to 10 lbs.

are fairly common. In November-December-January, the reaches

below Bhutan Ghat are better but when the river level falls in

February, March, April, the best fishing is above Bhutan Ghat in the

deep rocky pools of the gorge. One requires a medium spinning

rod — the best spoon seems to be about 2 ins, or 2|- ins,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

341

The movements of Mahseer in this river are fairly well known,

owing* to the fishing- trap used by the Bhutias. Every year they put

a slanting barricade across the river, which allows the water to get

past gradually through the slats but keeps back all fish of any size.

These soon find themselves at the end of the barrier, where the water

is led on to a platform of split bamboo; there the fish are left high

and dry. If they are not dry, then the Bhutias, who kill them in

thousands, soon see that they are dried and taken up the hill for food.

They intercept the fish in this way just after the rains when they

are making their way down to the chars and other spawning places.

Fortunately for the fish and for other fishermen it is not always

possible for the Bhutias to get this trap across in time to intercept

all or even most of the fish. Still, the destruction is immense and

I consider that the Rydak is beginning to deteriorate rapidly. I

cannot of course say how long this fish trap has been used by the

Bhutias. This trap is called a ‘teep’ and there are two places where

it is generally located — about 3 miles and 5 miles respectively above

the boundary line. This trap, I am sure, has a lot to do with fishing

conditions in the Rydak, which fluctuate astonishingly. On ‘my

last visit to the Rydak I found no trap at the lower site. I did not

know then about the upper site. While I was fishing there a friendly

Bhutia came along and told me that ‘teep’ had been fixed at a site

higher up and that none of the big fish could get down below it.

He offered to take me to some fine pools above the ‘teep’ and

seemed to think that I was only wasting time below. The Rydak

however will always get a certain number of fish from the Monas,

into which it flows; the number of fish coming up depends a great

deal on the angle at which it strikes the Monas, whether it runs

in over shallows or whether it runs into the deep side of the Monas.

As these conditions vary from year to year, this is another important

reason for fluctuations in fishing conditions.

Till 1923 both channels of the Rydak joined at Teamaree Ghat

but in that year the Eastern Channel thrust its way across country

directly towards' the Monas and threw up a large bank of shingle bet-

ween itself and the Western Channel. Since then fishing has never

been so good. Apparently the mouth of the Western Channel used

to provide a better entry for fish. In 1923 the Western Channel

almost dried up, so that fish which had dropped down must have

found the entrance silted when they tried to get up again. There is

a similar case to this in the Isla and the Tay in Scotland. The mouth

of the Isla used to present a direct line to incoming salmon and sea

trout, and many, if not most, of the fish used to go up the Isla in

preference to the Tay.

The mouth of the Isla was then artificially altered, so that

nowadays not more than one or two fish seem to enter the Isla.

The Champamati. Another delightful river as we proceed east-

ward is the Champamati. It is about half the size of the Rydak. It

does not clear properly until Christmas. The best months are March

and April. Mahseer up to 25 lbs. are caught now and again but the

chief sport is got with ‘Cutli’, which in this river are the finest fight-

ing fish I have met in India. At Ranikhata a 2 in. gold and silver

spoon seems best but down below at Gorubasha an all silver 2\ in.

spoon seemed to do best. The average for bcfth Mahseer and ‘Cutli’

342 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

seems to run about 4 lbs. The ‘Cutli’ spin round at such a rate and

twist up mounts and traces so badly that I had to contrive a mount

attached to the spoon ring- with a swivel. This seems the only

effective way of dealing- with these doughty fighters. The banks are

heavily wooded, and casting is not always easy but some very

fascinating- fishing can be had with a light rod and fly spoons used

with a dressed silk line. Hardy’s 11 ft. ‘Wye’ rod (for Sea trout

and small salmon) seems about right for this work. For spinning,

the Corbett No. 1 rod is most suitable here.

The Aie. Still moving eastward one comes to the best river of

•^11, the Aie, which provides about 30 miles of the most delightful

fishing in a succession of runs and pools. The best of the fishing

(about 14 miles) lies in the forest area from the gorge down to

Burree Jahr. The water of this stream is distinctly warm. It clears

almost invariably from mid-October or immediately the rains cease.

It is almost impossible to have a blank day on this river. The fish

are not very big — the biggest I ha\Ie heard of are about 21 and 22 lbs.

rPerree caught a fish over 30 lbs. in a pool known as Perree’s pool

Editor']. Later on I will give a few sample catches. The fishing

is best in October-November before the cold winds start. If the

rains are late one should fish the upper reaches in October-Novem-

ber, as the bigger fish are now down much more than 10 miles from

the gorge by then. In February, March, April one must fish either

near the gorge and above Dausri or well below Burree Jahr, as the

river between Dausri and Burree Jahr disappears in the hot weather

completely. Where one starts to fish this river in the hot weather

two days spent exploring' are not wasted, as owing to frequent

changes, of bed one can never be quite certain where one is to find

the fish. This applies however to most of these Indian hill rivers.

Indian rivers have their good and bad days just like the more

civilized streams of the West. All the fish seem to make up their

minds at the same moment to stop biting. The theory is that this

is due to some sudden deficiency of oxygen in the water. This defi-

ciency may be due to several causes : —

(a) Low barometric pressure, which causes a sudden decrease

of oxygen. 1

(b) A heavy fall of rain, which washes dead leaves and 'rotten

vegetation into the river.

(c) Snow water, which drives out oxygen.

Lack of oxygen paralyses the fish and they simply lie still under

stones on the bottom.

In such conditions Mahseer very often leave deep pools and go

into the shallows, where the water rushing over boulders and pebbles

is slightly aerated. They also lie right up under a waterfall. These

observations are purelv guess work and are meant only to provide

some sort of Rule of Thumb to guide one to likely spots on a ‘real

bad day.*

When a wind is blowing it is no use fishing on wide wind-swept

stretches of river — -seek sheltered corners, if they are to be found.

As one moves along from corner to corner one can pick up a fish

here and there and can spot likelv places when travelling up the

river which one can fish when conditions are more promising.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 343

Now as regards the kind of sport one can expect. I give below

a few extracts from my records : —

No. of No. of

Some 8 catches, which would be considered quite good days on the various

rivers.

1919 — Friday 31st October — Aie(Burree Jahr) 32 fish weighing 89! lbs. and lot

about 20 others.

1924— March (early) — Peddie’s Catch— Aie (Hatishar).

(1) Ma — 20-5-4-li-l-l-f-l|-6-li.

(2) ,, — 22-21-3-3-3-1-f.

1920 — Thursday -March 1st — Monas — 1 Mahseer — 37

1 „ -15

1 ,, —16

1 „ -5

1 „ ~ 1

Total ... 5 ,, —74 lbs.

1920 Friday March 2nd — Monas

Mahseer — 19-19-41

Total 3 Fish = 42! lbs.

1921— vSunday October 9th— Teesta (Reang)

Mahseer — 16-14

Total 2 Fish = 30 lbs.

It22 Wednesday September 27th— Teesta (Sevoke)

Mahseer— 2-4-6-3-1-3-64-2

Total 9 Fish = 31 lbs. '

1922 Tuesday October 3rd— Teesta— 2 hours fishing (Savoke) (afternoon)

Mahseer — 18-8-3-2 =4 fish = 31 lbs.

1923 November 28th — Rydak (Teamaree Ghat)

Mahseer— 26-61-6-4-3-2-1

Cutli— 4-3!

Total 10 = 56 lbs.

1925 February 24th — Rydak (Bhutan) (Ghat)

Mahseer — 40-38-6!

Cutli ... 3!

Total 4 = 88 lbs.

1927 — February 23rd — Champamati [Gorubhasa]

Mahseer — 9!-9-4-2-2 ) 11 fish.

Cutli- 7-54-3-2-2 f 49! lbs.

1927 — November 3rd — Champamati [Gorubhasa]

Caught by Nelson — 1 Cutli = 25 lbs.

[This is a specimen Cutli for this part of the

world. ]

344 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATukAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV

Champaraati— My figures not worked out. But in April 1926, 5 rods

[Godden, Hulton, Bor, Brunbes, Burke] got 147 fish = 450 lbs. in 4 days. A.L.

Godden himself got 67 = 220 lbs. in these 4 days on 73 Victor Rod with fly

spoon.

Champati [A. L. Godden]— Best day 17 = 85* lbs.

20. Note on Mr. Fairweather's Fishing Notes by O. M. Martin.

[Joiirn. Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Soc.} Vol. VI, No. 4, April 1932). — I

don’t agree that very clear water is necessary for Mahseer fishing.

All the Mahseer I have caught in the autumn have been caught in

water in which the pebbles could not be seen more than a foot deep.

When the water got clearer than this, the Mahseer refused to bite.

I caught one fish of 12 \ lbs. on a spoon in very muddy water at

Reang this October. I got two fish and lost another at Singla

in water by no means clear in the same month. The water

should be (1) warm and (2) not too muddy for the Mahseer to see

the spoon.

I believe that the Mahseer in the cold weather start to take

when the water temperature rises and that a sudden drop in

water temperature puts them off their feed at any time of the year.

They also go off condition after spawning — as other fish do.

They are in better condition in November than they are in October

and are at their best in March-April — ^at least in the Teesta and

Rungneet. They are so vigorous in March at Singla Bazaar that

they will on occasion jump out of the water like salmon.

Darjeeling,

i6-i2-’3i.

21. My. Ritchie's Notes on Fishing on the Teesta River. Complete

Summary of the Teesta River.

Nat. ITist. Soc.y Vol. VI, No. 1,

Total fish caught

266 fish weighing 2,269* lbs.,

best fish 54 lbs.

Summary by Localities.

Rungneet-Teesta Bridge portion

Riyang Area

Kaliihora

Sevoke

Duars and Jalpaiguri portion

1909-1930. ( fourn . Darjeeling

June 1931).

Average weight

per fish,

(in lbsd

8.5 '

7* lbs.

5

6 lbs.

4 * lbs.

14* „

Circumventing the mAiisee.r

346

Average weight

Spoon ... 236 fish 1,649* lbs. best 54 lbs. 7.0

Natural Bait ... 9 ,, 156 ,, ,, 40 ,, 17.3

Artificial Baits ... 4 ,, 71 ,, ,, 35 ,, 17.8

Atta ... 17 „ 393* „ ,, 45* ,, 23.2

Spoon Analysis.

346 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Spoon Analysis ( cont .)

No. 1\ or 2\ ins. size —

silver-scaled and copper

No. 8 or 24 size —

all silver

silver-scaled and copper

silver and copper

brass and silver

silver and brass

brass- scaled and silver

No. 84 or 2f ins. size-

all silver

No. 9 or 3 ins. size-

all silver

silver and brass

brass and silver

silver-scaled and copper

No. 10 or 34 ins. size-

silver and brass

all silver

No. 11 or 4 ins. size-

all silver

all scarlet

Spoon Summary.

Light spoons, Nos. 3 to 7

Heavy spoons, No-. 74 to 11

Best Days.

Oct. 10, 1930. Riyang.

Aug. 23,1921.

Oct. 8, 1930. ,,

April 4, 1925. Jalpaiguri.

Dec. 8, 1925. Sevoke.

Oct. 14, 1928. Riyang.

Oct. 12, 1930.

Oct. 6, 1930.

Average weight

per fish.

2 fish 23 \ lbs, best 14f lbs. 11.6

104 fish 407 lbs. best 144 lbs. 3.9

132 ,, 1,242| ,, ,, 54 ,, 10.2

2 fish of 31 and 24 lbs.

1 ,, 54 lbs. 1

2 ,, 35 and 124 lbs.

1 „ 45| lbs.

8 ,, 41 lbs. best 7 lbs.

2 ,, 36 and 5 lbs.

2 ,, 244 and 154 lbs.

1 ,, 39 lbs.

Recent Fishing.

Result of a month’s fishing at Riyang, September 15th to October 14, 1930.

13 fish weighing 307f lbs., best fish 39 lbs.

Average weight per diem 10.6 lbs.

Average weight per fish 23.7 lbs.

Total fish hooked — 31, or an average of about one per diem.

Number of fish lost — 18.

Number of absolutely blank days (no sign) —7.

Best day — 55 lbs. (24 and 31). Next best — 174 lbs. (124 and 35.)

Maximum number of fish hooked

on any one day (not mere rises)— 3.

Large Mahseer. Altogether 42 fish of 15 lbs. and over were

taken, viz., 54, 45i, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 344, 33J, 334, 32, 32, 31,

30 J, 2 9I, 28, 244, 24, 24, 23, 23, 214, 20, 20, 19!, 194, 19, 1 84,

184, 18, 18, 18, 164, 164, 16, 16, 15J, 154, 154, 154, 15 & 15. Of

these two (454 & 32) were caught at Jalpaiguri and Barnes Ghat,

and two (37 & 18) at Kalijhora. The rest were all caught at Riyang.

tlkCU M f ’ E iV T1 N G THk MAHSMk

347

As regards localities for large fish, Riyang is certainly the best.

There are perhaps larger fish at the Rungeet junction, but they are

not there at the time the water is clear, at least I have never clone

any good at that time. In the spring when the water is still clear

the fish have not yet come up from below, and by the time the water

has cleared in the autumn the fish have passed down. The Rungeet

is similar to the Teesta and remains permanently dirty during the

high water season. I think it likely that anyone trying this spot

in May, June, August and September with atta or live-bait would

stand a good chance of booking some enormous fish. The water

would always be too dirty for spinning at that time. Heat and

rain are also further drawbacks. Nevertheless I believe the biggest

fish in the river are to be had there at that time.

Large Mahseer may be occasionally taken at Kalijhora in the

autumn, and also at Sevoke in September, but at the latter place it

is then impossible to follow the fish down the bank and anything

over 15 lbs. will usually clear the reel out and break away. I have

been broken at Sevoke in September many times and never succeeded

in landing anything big there. Large Mahseer may also be taken

on atta at Jalpaiguri and Barnes Ghat during April and the first

week in May, and smaller fish at other times. I have never tried

there during the autumn.

It is not much use trying for large fish in the hill section of the

river during the clear water season. The best fishing is at the

mouths of the tributaries when the Teesta itself is dirty and there

is a sufficient head of water in the tributary to give- a good stretch

of clear water in the Teesta below the mouth of the tributary.

Large Mahseer should be sought when they are passing down in

the autumn, and the largest fish are the last to pass up but the first

to pass down. Late spring and early autumn are therefore the best

times for big fish.

Summary of Light and Heavy Fishing

Average weigh!

per fish

Fish under 15 lbs. 224 fish 1,214* lbs. best 14* lbs. ... ... 5.4

Fish of 15 ,, 42 „ 1,055* „ 54 ... ... 25.1

and over.

Summary of ilie Rungeet * Teesta Bridge portion of the Teesta River ,

1909-1929

Average weight

per fish

lota! Caught

6 fish weighing 35f lbs. best fish 14* lbs. ... *.. 5$

By Localities

Rungeet River. 3 fish 28 lbs. best l4f lbs. ... ... 9.3

,, Junction, 2 ,, 5 ,, ,, 3* ,, ... ... 2.5

Teesta Bridge. 1 ,, 2f,,

By Years

1909, 1 fish of 2f lbs.

1918. 1 ,, ,, 3* „

1919. 1 „ „ 12 „

1921. 1 „ „ If „

1923. 1 „ „ 14 „

1929. 1 „ „ 14* „

3

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

By Months

March. 4 fish 20* lbs. best 14* lbs.

April. 1 „ 12 „

November. 1 ,, 3* ,,

By Baits

Spoon 5 fish 33 lbs. best 14| lbs.

Atta 1 ,, 2 1 ,,

Spoon Analysis

No. 5 or 1* in. size-

silver and brass

No. 7 or 2* ins. size —

silver-scaled and copper

No. 8 or 2* ins. size-

all silver

No. 9 or 3 ins. size

1 fish of 1$ lbs.

1 *, „ 14* lbs.

2 „ ,,12 and 3* lbs.

1 „ „ 1* lbs.

Best Days

March 16 1929. 1 fish of 14* lbs.

April 19 1919. 1 ,, ,, 12 „

Large Mahseer

None.

Summary of the Riyang area of the Teesta River 1918 -

Total Caught

133 fish weighing 1,481* lbs. best fish 54 lbs. ...

By Localities

Gil Jhora Mouth. 3 fish

Rilli Mouth. 6 ,,

Riyang River. 14 ,,

Riyang Mouth.

Area 97 ,,

23* lbs. best 14* lbs,

13* „ ,, 4* ,,

19* , , , , 8 , ,

99

9 9

Average weight

per fish

... 5.1

... 6.6

... 7.8

■1930

Average weight

per fish

... 11.1

... 8.6

... 3-5

... 4*7

... 6‘S

... 16*4

... 19*4

... 13 0

... 13*6

... 7.9

... 2.2

... 1.4

... IV 3

1141*

54

‘cik'CUM ‘vEfcTlk'G THfc MAHSEeM

Lower Pool

and Reach.

Timber Pool near

21st mile.

12 fish 274f lbs. best 39 lbs.

1 9 „

By Baits

Spoon

Natural Bait

Artificial Bait.

Atta

112 fish

8 „

3 „

10

980

151|

64

286

lbs. best

Recent Fishing

Please see third page.

Spoon Analysis

No. 3 or 1 in. size-

all silver

No. 4 or 1| ins. size-

all silver

brass and silver

No. 5 or li ins. size-

all silver

brass and silver

No. 5|- or If ins. size-

brass and silver

all silver

No. 6 or If ins* size

No. 7 or 2 ins. size-

silver and brass

No. 8 or 2-1 ins. size-

all silver

silver-scaled and copper

silver and copper

brass and silver

silver and brass ,,

No. 9 or 3 ins. size —

all silver ...

silver and brass

brass and silver

silver-scaled and copper

No* 10 or 3i ins. size-

silver and brass

No. 11 or 4 ins. size —

all scarlet

Best Days

54

40

35

39

lbs.

Average weight

per iish.

... 22.9

8.8

18.9

21.3

28.6

i fish of jr lb,

!*

3i

8 lbs.

of

i lb.

>,

14

45f

best 9f lbs.

2 fish

1 „

3 JjL

1

5$ lbs. best

i i i

4 1 lbs.

if

of

b.

647*

54

2 fish 13

1 „ 1

1 „ 5j

2 33

lbs. best 9 lbs.

23

7 fish 146i lbs. best 38 lbs.

26-?

lbs

m

1.5

3,3

1*9

7 fish 40f lbs, best 14J lbs, 5.8

36 fish 40 If lbs. best 38 lbs.

12 „ 151f „ „ 54 ,,

3 ,» 18 1 ,, >, 14 ,,

9 ,, 68f ,» ,, 25 j.,

2 I, 7 ,, j, , 6f , .

62

10.4

8.8

21.0

13.3

Summary of the Riyang Area of the Tees ta River. 1918-1930,

Large Mahseer. Altogether 38 Mahseer of 15 lbs. and over

were taken, viz., 54, 39, 38, 36, 35, 344, 33f , 33a, 3

3i

3°t> 29I,

350 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. xLlV

28, 24^, 24, 24, 23, 23, 2 i£, 20, 20, 19J, i9i, 19, 18, 18, i6|,

16^ it>, ib, i5f, isi, 15J, I5i> !5 & I5*

The best times of the year for large Mahseer are from the middle

of April to the middle oi May, when the fish are passing up, and

again from the middle of September to the middle of October when

tney are passing down, and the autumn fishing is decidedly

the better of the two. I have had no recent experience of the spring

fishing, but there is not much water in the tributary at that time

and it is soon eaten up by the Teesta. In the old days there was a

good deep pool and run at the mouth, but with the present choked-up

mouth it is doubtful whether there would be sufficient clear water in

the Teesta, the Teesta itself at that time being dirty. The 54-lber.

caught in August was a stray fish and should not be taken as a

guide.

The time taken in landing most of these large fish was very

much under the regulation time of a minute to the pound. This is

usually the case at Riyang, where large Mahseer do not put up the

fight that might be expected of them. There is, however, one time

in the year when exactly the opposite is the case, and that is during

the latter half of September, when the very largest fish appear to

be on the move and the water is still high and current swift. Anyone

hooking a fish of 30 lbs. and upwards at that time will find it quite

the exception to land it. Even an experienced hand will lose two

out of three. The beginner has absolutely no chance. I lost quite

a number of fish at this time this year (1930), and on one occasion

had a fish on for exactly an hour (16-20 to 17-20 on the 23rd Sept.),

which took me quite a long way downstream, when the hook broke

on my attempting to put on a greater strain, not being able to

follow any further, and not having up to then made any apparent

impression on the fish. During the whole of that time I never once

saw the fish, although I was most of the time opposite and slightly

below him, so that he was fighting a very strong current in addition

to my pull on him. In September, 1921, I also lost a number of

very large fish and had the almost identical experience of having

one on for exactly an hour. The period referred to above lasts about

a week and occurs in the latter half of September when the water

is still high. Once the water falls, a marked change takes place

and matters go from one extreme to the other, quite large fish being

landed in a disappointingly short time.

Seasons . It should be remembered that this is. the hill section

of a river, and the fish are mostly ‘travellers’, Riyang being merely

a port of call on their annual voyage up and down the river for

spawning purposes. They pass up in the spring during the period

when the river begins to permanently rise till the rains are well

established ; and they pass down again in the autumn during the

period when the rains begin to break up till the river has permanently

settled after the rains. In the height of the monsoon they are mostly

as high up the hill as they can get, and in the middle of the dry

season they are mostly in the rapids and pools clear of the hills. It

is therefore not much use starting to fish in the spring till the river

has become well disturbed from its dry season setting and begun

to permanently rise or continuing to fish in the autumn once the

river has permanently fallen and become settled. It is also not much

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

351

use fishing" in the height of the monsoon, or in the middle of the

dry season. Fish may occasionally be caught at these periods, blit

such are not the ‘seasons’ for the locality.

Reflection on these facts should dispel the not uncommon fallacy

that it is no use B fishing one day because A has ‘cleaned the place

out’ the previous day. A fresh lot of fish may have arrived. In

fact it will be found that even when the fish are most on the move

there are days on which there are practically no fish about. The

reason is that those that were there have moved on while a fresh

lot have not yet arrived.

In the dry season, however, when the fish have settled in localities

mostly clear of. the hills for their dry season home, it is of course

different. One man can ‘clean the place out’ for another who follows.

As I have stated elsewhere in these notes the largest Mahseer are

the last to pass up in the spring but the first to pass down in the

autumn, and the best times for really big fish are therefore late

spring and early autumn. Anyone who is keen on beating my

54-lbs. at Riyang is advised to try, either as late in the spring as the

conditions will permit (the very end of the spring run is the time)

or as early in the autumn as the fish first begin to appear (the very

start of the autumn run is the time.) These periods vary a bit with

the season. The former is seldom before the first week in May

and may even run into the beginning of June. The latter is almost

always in September, seldom before the middle of the month, and

usually about the third week. As I have said before, the 54-lber.

caught in August was a stray fish, which is clear from the fact that

it was a female fish with roe and therefore still going up to spawn,

and not an autumn fish returning.

Summary of Fishing at Kalijhora Teesta River. 1909-1925

Average weight

By Years

1909. 2 fish 10£ lbs. best 7£ lbs.

1916. 1 „ m „

1918. 1 „ m ,,

1919. 1 ,, „

1921. 4 ,, 261 „ „ 12 „

1925. 4 „ 76 „ „ 37 „

By Months

Mar. 4 fish 28k lbs. best 14| lbs. 7.1

Aug 4 ,, 26J „ ,, 12 ,, 6.3

Oct. 4 ,, 76 ,, ,, 37 „ 19.0

Nov. 1 ,, Hi ,,

By Baits

All on spoon.

Spoon Analysis

No. 6 or If ins. size —

brass and silver ... ... 1 fish of 12 lbs.

No. 8 or 24 ins. size —

Total Caught

13 fish weighing 142^ lbs. best fish 37 lbs.

per fish.

, 10.9

all silver

brass and silver

silver-scaled and copper

5 fish 40 lbs. best 14| lbs

2 1 » 10* ,, „ 6 ,,

2 ,, 37 „ 13 „

352 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoZ. XLIV

Average weight

per fish

No. 8* or 2f ins. size-

all silver ... ... ... 2 fish 26 lbs. best 18 lbs. 13,0

No. 9 or 3 ins. size—

silver-scaled and copper ... 1 fish of 37 lbs.

Best Days

Oct. 3, 1925 1 fish of 37 lbs.

Oct. I, 1925 1 ,, „ 18 ,,

Large Mahseer

Two fish of 37 and 18 lbs.

Summary of Fishing at Sevoke , Tees fa River. 1913-1929

Total Caught

104 fish weighing 495 f lbs. best fish 14* lbs.

By Years

Average weight

per fish

4.8

Spoon Analysis

No. 3 or 1 in. size—

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

353

No. 5! or If ins. size— -

ail silver

brass and silver

No. 6 or If ins. size —

all silver

silver and brass

brass and silver

No. 7 or 2 ins. size-

all silver

silver and brass

copper and silver

No. 7! or 2\ ins. size—

silver-scaled and copper

No. 8 or 2| ins. size-

all silver

silver and brass

silver and copper

silverrscaled and copper

» brass and silver

brass-scaled and silver ...

No. 8! or 2f ins. size —

all silver ... ...

No. 9 or 3 in. size —

all silver

silver and brass

Best Days

Average weight

per fish

lbs. best 7 lbs-.

„ 111 „

„ „ HI „

Large Mahseer

None were landed. These fish are usually on the move in the

autumn, when the Teesta is high and the fishing is all at the mouth

of the Sevoke river and just below. At the end of the run there

is a heavy rapid in the Teesta and a crumbling bank, full of snags

and covered with jungle. A fish of 15 lbs. and over will usually

be able to get into this rapid, when it clears the reel out and breaks

away, it being impossible to follow down the bank. I was broken

some six or eight times in this way and never succeeded in landing

any fish of 15 lbs. and over.

The mouth of the tributary in the autumn of 1930 was much

higher up the Teesta than it has been for many years and there is

now much more room below the mouth for landing fish, but I did

not fish at Sevoke in 1930.

Summary of the Dnars and Jal aiguri portion or the Teesta River. 1909-T26 .

Total Caught

Average weight

per fish

If fish weighing 1141 lbs, best fish 45| lbs, ... ••• H'4

354 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

No. 11 or 4 ins. size-

all silver ... 1 fish of f lb.

Best Days

April 5, 1925 ... 1 fish of 45| lbs.

April 30, 1912 ... 1 „ „ 32 ,,

Large Mahseer

Two fish of 45| and 32 lbs.

(To be continued)

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS.

BY

E. H. N. Lowther, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

VIII — By Tank and Jhil.

( With 12 plates from photographs hy the author).

( Continued from page 401 of Vol. xliii. No. 3).

A tank or pond, formed by the earth having- been removed to

make the homes of the simple folk that constitute the majority of

India’s four hundred millions, occurs on the outskirts of many a

village throughout the length and breadth of the land. Overlooking

these tanks one or more large trees frequently have their roots —

generally pipal, banyan, tamarind or nim. To these, often, a

number of species of birds resort for nesting purposes, as soon as

the south-west monsoon breaks, towards the end of June. Where

one village gives sanctuary to openbill storks, with, perhaps, some

cattle egrets and pond herons nesting on a neighbouring tree, another

is favoured only by white ibises, while a third may act as host to

one or two pairs of grey herons and darters, and a few spoonbills,

A fourth, again, may have its trees tenanted by a number of species,

including little cormorants, little and lesser egrets and, later, a

considerable colony of painted storks.

It is at ‘heronries’ such as I have described that my observations

have been made and my photographs taken; and if these miniature

heronries lack the grandeur of such famous waterfowl breeding

haunts as the Keoladeo Ghana in Bharatpur State, they possess

this advantage that the observer, having fewer species before him,

is in a better position to watch each more closely than might be

the case if there were several. Withal he will find that he has

not a single dull moment, that something is happening the whole

time, whether he be studying the birds with field glasses from the

comfortable ease of a charpoy kindly produced for his special benefit

by some villager, or photographing them from the shelter of a

hide.

But let us go back a little; let us try and obtain a picture of

what the Indian plains look like, feel like, at this season of the

year ; of how the average mortal fares.

It has been a real ‘corker’ of a hot weather and the maximum

shade temperature recorded 122.6 degrees. At times the loo —

the burning, scorching- wind so dreaded in the United Provinces —

has blown throughout the night as well as during the long hours

of daylight. Indians have been going about with cloths to their

faces, mouth, ears and nose stuffed up so that the heat shall not

enter into their bodies. No wonder the oldest resident is said to have

remarked that he had not known a hot weather like unto this during

the fifty-five years he has lived in our station. The countryside is as

356 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoZ. XL/F

bare and brown as can be ; not a blade of grass for the painfully lean

kine, many of which succumb to these famine conditions. Ponds and

jhils have long since dried up and a number of sarus cranes whose

beats are familiar to us, have betaken themselves elsewhere, possibly

to the river’s margin; there, I fear, to eke out a frugal living.

Other marsh birds also are absent from their wonted haunts. Man

too has been hard put to it and many a good soul — European as

well as Indian — has been removed from our midst by the Great

Reaper.

We tell ourselves this cruel heat cannot last; we look forward

with the keenest anticipation to the 25th of June when (so the Old

Stagers say) the monsoon may be expected to break. At last, when

we are at the extreme end of our tether, clouds gather, and on the

24th afternoon the rain comes down in buckets and continues to

do so till the late evening. (The Old ’Uns knew what they were

talking about, after all). For the next two days we are treated to

real monsoon weather and where before the countryside looked the

abomination of desolation, everything is now a lovely, fresh green,

and the new-grown grass soon provides luscious keep to starving

cattle. Man no longer suffers the tortures of prickly heat as he did

a few days ago, and once more is fit to applv himself with zeal to ‘the

daily round, the common task’. The altered weather conditions have

not passed unnoticed by the feathered world either — even in our

gardens a marked change is at once noted. Where previously the

ashy wren-warbler slid about quietly in the bushes, he now pro-

claims his presence ; and there is a ring in his notes which sug-

gests the joy of living. Tailor birds to-fweet-to-'eweet louder than

ever, and pied mynahs add their cheerful notes to the bird chorus.

The house crow more than any other species hails with unalloyed

delight the advent of the monsoon. At once he and his mate have

busied themselves with domestic duties and on all sides now their

stick nests are to be seen.

But it is not of garden birds I would write : let us instead

visit one of the heronries described earlier, one that has been in

existence for years and was referred to manv decades back in

Hume’s Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. It is occupied entirelv

by white ibises, of which there cannot be less than one hundred

oairs in residence. But the ‘mighty tamarind tree’ of which Major

Bingham wrote, no longer exists. We are told it was blown down

twenty-five or thirty years ago, since when the white ibis have

made their nests on two pipal trees on either side of the Grand

Trunk road, on the outskirts of the village: such is the attach-

ment of this species to an old breeding haunt. We learn also

that the tree in question was used bv these birds for nesting pur-

poses right up to the end and that it crashed in the cold weather

when the ibis were no longer concerned with family cares : which

was fortunate, as if they had been nesting at the time the pro-

bability is that this village would have been abandoned by the

birds as a breeding haunt.

Before we reach our ‘ibiserv’ we know we must be in the

neighbourhood of one because numbers of birds fly across our

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I

Photo by E. H. N. Lowther

Nest of the Indian Black Ibis.

Pseudibis papillosus Temm.

88' above ground.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

357

field of vision with twigs in their beaks. On arrival at the site

we find that although nesting operations are well in hand not a

single ibis is sitting* on eggs. We note that the fine sticks or

twigs with which the nests are being made, are almost always

brought in by one bird — from some distance too, methinks, as they

are from babool trees, of which there is not an example within a

considerable radius of the village — -while the other remains at the

nest, to incorporate each addition in the structure. Very rarely

both birds bring materials to the nest ; even then only one seems

to be concerned actively with its construction. The majority of

nests are in the most exposed parts of the tree, open to the sky ;

quite a few, however, rest on the lower branches, and are there-

fore more sheltered.

When next Ave visit the breeding colony we do not see

a single pair of ibises engaged on nest construction.

On every nest — they are small for the side of the bird, about ten

inches in diameter — -the females are now sitting hard, their mates

often besides them, but absent in the majority of cases, the loose

skin below the chin vibrating at an alarming rate in this humid, hot-

house atmosphere. Inspection of a number of nests shows that they

each contain three eggs, very light green in colour, without any mark-

ings, in size about 2*5" x 1*7".

The garb of some of the ibis at this colony interests us greatly.

Two males, with white-feathered necks, stand by their wives. Can

it be that the white ibis does not acquire the adult plumage until

after the second or third moult? Or are these birds of the year,

born in South India, where nesting takes place very early in the

year? Another bird has a bare, red triangular marking on the

head, the feature so characteristic of the black ibis. Yet another

has the head completely red.

The white ibis, though normally an unusually silent species, is

guilty of producing at the nesting tree a subdued, asthmatic grunt.

The young too, like young egrets and the young of the different

species of heron, keep up an incessant, quickly repeated, chick-

chick chatter throughout the live-long day, and even during the

hours of darkness ; in the latter case this portends the arrival of

a parent with food. When well-feathered the call becomes a piping

squeal, uttered at meal times. The young are fed by regurgitation,

the parent bringing the black-looking* food up to the tip of the

mandibles and giving this very tenderly to the callow brood. When

they are a little older the chicks help themselves to the ‘pigeon’s

milk’ by putting their bills into the adult’s beak and obtaining

what they want at its base. This seems rather a rough process

and the attempts of three young ones to feed simultaneously can

obviously prove painful to the old birds, judging by the manner

in which the parent ibis sometimes turns its back on the offspring

and hurriedly leaves the nest, after a youngster has made an extra

violent jab to obtain more food.

The nestling white ibis has a white downy body, black head

and neck, pink feet, and the slightly curved bill similarly coloured.

The young, when they go out into the world, lack the red mem-

brane under the wing, the feature so characteristic of the adult,

358 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

One might imagine that as the white ibis is such a marsh-loving

species the black ibis must be similarly inclined. Such, however,

is not the case, the two species going their different ways. True,

in the winter months the black ibis is often to be seen in canal

beds, where the squidgy silt seems to provide it with an abundance

of food, but normally it haunts fallow land and the edge of cultiva-

tion, subsisting either on insects, or on any grain it can pick up.

I have even seen it seize a frog. In their breeding arrangements

also the two species differ, the black ibis nesting singly though it

is not averse to other species making their homes in the same tree.

Nor is the presence of water necessary for this purpose — indeed the

nest is usually built well away from marshy ground, though it is,

perhaps, most often placed on some seesum tree by a canal bank.

It is constructed from fine twigs, has a marked depression and is

invariably built at a great height — that figured here was eighty-

eight feet from the ground. The eggs, usually three in number,

are very pale blue in colour and average 2.4.5" x 1*7,/ ’m size.

Not only do the white and black ibis differ in their nesting and

with regard to their general habits but there are marked differences

inter se. Whereas the white ibis has the head and neck devoid of

feathers, only the head and nape are bare in the case of its black

relation. The black ibis’ head, moreover, has pitted or tattooed on

it, a large, deep red triangular mark. In addition its legs are brick-

red in colour and it utters a screaming, clanging note, both when

flying and perched. At the roost this species is sometimes very

noisy.

The next heronry we visit is occupied mainly by openbill storks,

of which there must be at least forty pairs nesting on the old

banyan tree.

As storks go the openbill is a small bird, standing about two

and a half feet in height. At the beginning of the breeding season

the plumage is white, with much black in the wings, and the

tail black also, the black glossed dark green and purple. About

a fortnight or so after the eggs have hatched, the white begins

to change to a sullied grey. The legs are long and of a flesh

colour. But it is the bird’s bill which is most striking and unlike

anything we know — -when it is closed it is open ! This is not

really the case, of course, as the tips of the mandibles meet.

The bill, however, has the appearance of being open of the

prominent gap from about its centre to nearly the tip of the

mandibles.

Even now we do not know why the openbill stork’s beak is so

fashioned.

The openbills are all incubating their eggs and either give us a

dirty look as we examine them closely with the glasses, or take no

notice of us. From time to time a member of the colony comes in

to the nesting tree, dropping its legs and then opening and depress-

ing the tail before finally settling. Owing to a gale that is blowing,

one alights too "near a neighbouring* lesser eg'ret’s nest, whose out-

raged owner quarks menacingly and then jabs its dagger-like bill

at the trespasser, who is glad to remove his offending presence, to

fiyoid real trouble. Both sexes incubate by day, the one off duty

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS ^59

frequently standing by the nest and preening itself very thoroughly

for long minutes at a stretch. Then, otten, the bird departs

suddenly, sometimes merely to fly in wide and ever increasing circles

over the heronry, or disappearing out of sight, probably to attend

to the ‘inner man’.

The nests are considerably larger than those of the white ibis

and differ also from those of that species in being lined with lumps

of dry grass, or small twigs with leaves still attached. These are

added to from time to time as incubation advances ; more particularly

does this occur during the fortnight after the young first make their

appearance. Up to five eggs are laid, creamy-white at first but

soon turning to a muddy-brown.

After the eggs have hatched a tree tenanted by a number of

nesting openbills is most emphatically one to avoid, especially on a

wet day; the branches and foliage are then covered with guano and

the stench is over-powering.

Painted storks nest later than the majority of species dealt with

in this article, the time of their breeding depending on whether the

monsoon is a bad or good one; if the former, the pelican-ibis (as

the bird was known in Hume’s time) begins to build its nest high

up in a pipal tree about the end of August. When the rains have

been good, nesting operations are deferred for a fortnight or three

weeks, so that we may expect to find young in the nest even during

the first half of December. Sometimes, however, the monsoon fails

completely. When this has been the case, I have known spoonbills

and painted storks, as well as white ibises and sarus cranes, make

no attempt to bring up families. Of course, it may be argued that

the birds betook themselves elsewhere, where conditions were more

favourable for nesting purposes. I am sure such was not the case

as there was no falling off in numbers among the resident birds

during the months that they should have been nesting, throughout

a long stretch of country extending roughly from Benares to Delhi,

with which, for many years, I was thoroughly familiar.

It is nothing unusual to find thirty or more painted storks’ nests

in the one tree. These are about the same size as those of the open-

bill. Some are considerably smaller. The nests are made of fine

twigs, and almost, invariably lined with long*, coarse grass or weeds

which the birds pull up from the shallow water or its margin. Both

sexes share in building the nest, incubating the eggs and feeding

the young. Three, four or even five eggs are laid, dull white in colour

and about 2.S" x 1.9" in size.

I have photographed the painted stork by the simple if trying

method of climbing a nesting tree and chasing the bird about with

a reflex camera, but the pictures obtained are not particularly

pleasing, lacking that something which makes all the difference

between a good and a mediocre picture. It is far more satisfactory

to study the bird from a hide super-imposed on a lofty machan built

up against a convenient tree, a remark which applies equally to all

these tree-nesting marshland species. The construction of a suit-

able watch-tower will involve considerable labour and expense, but

the trouble taken will be amply repaid by the results obtained and

the observations made possible from the hiding tent.

3(50 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLlV

Painted storks return quickly to their nests and can be studied

at ease. What a pulse-quickening picture the bird presents as it

arrives with a crash to feed its young — -no grunt, no vocal sound,

thoiigh often the mandibles are clapped together particularly if the

mate be at the nest, when both birds sometimes bow to each other

and then raise their bodies and heads, perhaps repeating the per-

formance two, three or four times before assuming a nonchalant

pose. The young, who in the meantime have been attending to

their toilet, lighting among themselves, or just doing nothing, now

galvanised into action, worry the adult bird, bobbing up and down

and spreading their wings. Soon their wants are attended to, the

parent stork putting its bill down so that the tips of the mandibles

rest on, or almost on, the floor of the nest. After a little effort,

when the bill is opened wide, giving the impression that the bird is

going to be sick, up — or should I say down ? — come a dozen or more

chilwa or other small fry which are promptly swallowed whole by

the young. Should, however, the catch have been something more

substantial, a nine- or ten-inch sized fish for instance, greater effort

may be required to disgorge the meal. The wings then come into

play a good deal, while the bill is opened wider and the neck shaken,

before ‘vomiting’ occurs. A great scramble ensues for the prize,

which changes from beak to beak frequently, before disappearing

down a storkling’s throat, not however, without some difficulty.

Then, satisfied, the fortunate youngster rests on its tarsi till the

ample repast has been well and truly digested. Sometimes it happens

that in the competition to secure such a fine mouthful the fish is

knocked over the nest. Though lost to the young birds it must

not be supposed that the parent stork’s angling has been a fruit-

less venture as Chamar children wait for and collect these ‘bless-

ings from above’ .and eat them, thereby demonstrating that very

little is allowed to be wasted in this ‘Land we live in’. Mongooses

and pi dogs too take their quota of the windfalls, the storks making

no effort to retrieve any food that drops overboard.

We have two other resident storks, the white-necked and the

black-necked. Neither nests in colonies, though the former some-

times shares the same tree with egrets or even an odd grey heron.

Its nest, usually built at a considerable height from the ground,

is a flattish structure of sticks and twigs, with leaves often

used , as lining. Three to five eggs are laid, of the usual stork

colour.

In northern India, white-necked storks’ nests with fresh eggs

may be found towards the end of May. The breeding season is

prolonged, as 1 have come across hard-set eggs at the end of

July, and young* still in the nest, two months later, I cannot say

from personal knowledge whether both sexes incubate but they

both certainly help in constructing the nest and later feeding the

young. Feeding time — when the young are well grown there is

often an interval of two or three hours between meals— is anxiously

looked forward to by the storklings, and either parent, as soon as

it alights at the nest, is set on by the young who endeavour 10

grasp the adult’s beak what time the old bird does its best to

‘bring- up’ from its capacious maw a pish-pash of digested remains

Plate II

White-necked Stork

Black-necked. Stork

NOTES ON stiME INDIAN klRpS 36 1

bf frogs, iish, possibly a snake, and other such savoury items.

When the photograph reproduced here was taken the five young

ones were almost ready to leave the nursery. They were not fed

individually, the brownish-looking ‘porridge’ regurgitated by the

adult being deposited instead in tne bed of the nest. Unappetising,

indeed revolting though it looked to me, the young, obviously,

considered the meal provided ‘good tucker’, judging by the manner

in which they jostled each other to get at it; in fact the way they

‘scrummed’ would have done credit to a first class ‘rugger’ side.

The black-necked stork is a large and remarkably handsome

bird, black and white in general appearance, with much green

and purple glossing, long coral-coloured legs, and a colossal black

beak — about twelve inches in length. It does not nest around

village tanks but on the summit ot some gigantic pipal tree stand-

ing oy itself in the middle of cultivation, frequently at a considerable

distance from water. The nest, a huge affair, three to five feet

in width, is made of quite substantial twigs, with finer twigs

and dry grass for lining, the twigs and branches invariably of a

thorny nature. Three to five creamy-white eggs are laid, in size

about 2. 90" by 2.10".

The photograph of the black-necked stork alighting at its nest

having earned some notoriety — it was hung at the International

Exhibition of Nature Photography held towards the end of 1935

at the South Kensington Natural History Museum, London, and

appeared in Nature in the Wild (Country Life) which was advertised

as containing the World’s finest nature photographs — -it will not

be out of place to explain how it was obtained.

The nest was situated exactly sixty feet from the ground, and

was built on the crown of a pipat tree growing alongside the Lower

Ganges canal a few miles distant from Etawah. An upturned table

was secured at the top of the tree, on a level with the nest and

only seventeen feet away from it. This served both as a platform

for myself and the camera, and provided the necessary supports

for the hide.

The tent, camouflaged on the outside with branches from the

tree, was left in situ for a number of days before photography was

attempted.

In all I spent twenty-eight hours, spread over a period of five

days, studying and photographing this black-necked stork. During

the whole of my vigil the male neither visited the nest nor were

the young fed at all. (It is a simple matter to distinguish between

the male and female ; the latter has a lovely golden-coloured eye,

while the male’s is dark brown, almost black). The female stood

on the nest throughout, not once attempting to brood. Certainly

she flew away occasionally, as a rule after I had made enough

noise to awaken the dead ; otherwise she did exactly nothing

except watch her two children playing on the nest — tug-of-war

with a very dead and dried-up frog.

Not far away, on another pipal tree, was a Pallas’ fishing eagle’s

nest. On the rare occasions that the black-necked stork was

absent from her nest, the male eagle circled round the stork’s

free and twice I had to go all out to prevent it removing one of

36i JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV

the young- storks. The presence of only two nestlings was pro-

bably due to the eagle having previously carried off one or more

of the squabs.

My observations lead me to believe that young black-necked

storks are fed only between sunset and sunrise. Probably both

parents share in this task.

As one watches a party of spoonbills working a strip of shallow,

inundated ground, the slightly open bill sweeping right and left

alternately, one cannot help regretting that this species no longer

breeds in Britain. It did so, in the Fenland, until about three

hundred years ago, and to this day nests regularly in Holland.

Why then did the bird desert its ancient breeding stronghold in

East Anglia? It is difficult to believe that this was due to drain-

age—the excuse too often put forward to explain the disappearance

of a rare species. Far more likely the spoonbill’s disappearance

as a British breeding species was due to persecution during many

generations at the hands of our forefathers, the memory of which

has been handed down through the centuries. Clearly the ‘good

old days’ were ‘not good enough’; which is a pity as the spoon-

bill is a grand fowl. It is, however, shy and does not allow of a

close approach when feeding. For this reason it is often passed

by for one of the commoner marshland birds. If, however, we

carry a pair of binoculars regularly we soon discover how generally

the spoonbill occurs in suitable country.

In Holland, and elsewhere in Europe, the spoonbill builds its

nest on the stumps of last year’s reeds, only one or two feet above

the water ; with us, however, the bird makes its nursery on the tops

of tall trees, as it did in England before, I believe, sometimes at the

edge of a village tank, on other occasions in more remote parts, but

invariably; in well-watered areas. It breeds in colonies which may

be large or consist of only one or two dozen pairs.

The breeding season is late, from the middle of August till the

end of October. The nest is a large stick affair, with a considerable

depression, and is usually lined with coarse grass. Three or four

eggs are laid. These are white when fresh, with some sepia

markings, but often become soiled from the mud adhering to the

spoonbills feet after foraging expeditions.

To sit in a hide, with half a dozen spoonbills before one, less than

fifteen feet away, is a thrilling experience. Both parents incubate

the eggs and feed the young who are clothed in thick, white down

and have the bill and legs flesh-coloured. The bill, though some-

what swollen, shows no signs of becoming spoon-shaped and is not

yet unduly long in proportion to the size of the head. Like other

‘blondes’ the nestlings are affected by the heat. This probably

ciccounts for one of the parents invariably standing over the young

during the first ten or fourteen days of their lives, while the other is

absent in search of food. The adult spoonbill’s arrival at the nest

is heralded by a great rush of wings accompanied by a grunt, a

grunt different in tone from the asthmatic effort of the white ibis.

The young, who indulge in much squealing and have for sometime

been soliciting without success the other parent, now become even

rpore vociferous. Soon their pressing demands for further rations

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate IV

Photo by

Spoonbill.

Platalea leucorodia Temm.

E. H. N. Lowther

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

363

are met. The new arrival lowers its head and allows the young

to help themselves, each in turn, to the tasties secreted at the base

of the bill.

All the food is not delivered at once, but is given in two or

three helpings, with a distinct interval between each. Occasionally

it is dropped on to the floor of the nest. What its nature is I

have not been able to ascertain, but it seemed to be ‘very

liquid. ’ A spoonbill I photographed dribbled all one very hot after-

noon till I felt inclined to say, ‘get away, old man, get away\

Another spent a good half an hour spring-cleaning, again and again

picking out something from the floor of the nest. This was thrown

with a jerk over the shoulder, and as it left the tip of the long bill

burst into a cloud of dust. A third, a male, occupied much of his

time bringing beaks full of grass to the female. These were grate-

fully received by her and incorporated in the nest which contained

three small young.

1 have not photographed the small cormorant from a hide,

the few pictures I possess of this species having been obtained by

the method deprecated when dealing with the painted stork. There

is therefore very little I have to say concerning its private life.

Two or three dozen pairs may on occasion be found breeding in

these small village heronries in company with white ibises, openbill

storks and lesser and little egrets. Always they seem entirely

engrossed in their own affairs and appear to find life well-worth

living, judging by the gusto with which they shake themselves

and Tap their wings after feeding the young who, along with

baby darters, are the timidest creatures 1 have come across. The

diet given seems to consist entirely of small fry, more diminutive

even than chilwa.

In Kashmir, as in Britain, the grey heron builds in colonies,

but nowhere on the plains have I come across more than two nests

of this species on a tree though it usually breeds in company with

numbers of white ibises, spoonbills and other species, with whom,

however, it does not otherwise concern itself. Always the very

top of a high tree seems to be selected for the nest site so that

photography from a hide is not an easy matter.

I was fortunate with a grey heron I once worked on as the camera

was rather above the level of the nest; in consequence, instead of

looking beyond on to a brazen sky, we are presented with a vista

of fields and crops and distant trees. It was a particularly sticky

day that I spent in the tent, and although I felt sorry for myself,

for at one time I almost collapsed frpm suffocation, my sympathies

were even more with the baby herons who could not have been more

than three or four days old and felt the heat greatly during the old

birds’ absence. The young had been fed about half an hour before

I went into hiding at 9, and were not visited again by either adult

until 3-30 p.m. When, therefore, the female alighted at the edge

of the nest, the young showed their annoyance at this long neglect by

darting- their bills savagely at the parent who, not to be intimidated,

responded several times in like manner. Neither, however, touched

the other. After a few minutes of this display of bad temper harmony

reigned and the adult ‘brought up’ a number of tiny fry which were

4

3(>4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLlV

deposited on the floor of the nest. Pieces were torn oft' these and

given very tenderly to each of the three nestlings who, satisfied for

the time being, were then shielded from the fierce heat by the mother

bird standing between them and the sun, she even spreading out one

wing to afford them greater ease. Later, two of the young ate on

their own initiative, tearing off small pieces just as the parent had

done. The third member of the family, rather smaller than the

others, was again fed by the old heron. No attempt was made to

give a whole fish, small though they were, to the young.

In the same tree was another grey heron’s nest containing

five' young almost ready to fly. In addition to gasping with the

heat they spent much of their time wandering about among the

branches in the immediate vicinity of the nest, always, however, re-

turning to their home as soon as they sighted either parent. Invariably

the latter announced their return by calling frank. Once at the

nest, the male and the female were immediately mobbed by their

offspring, the young reaching up and ‘stroking’ the parent’s bill —

rather roughly at times, it must be admitted. I did not obtain the

impression that as a result of this action they expected to have the

food put into their hungry mouths; rather I felt they were helping

the old bird to part with the meal — a number of small fish usually,

and a frog as well on two occasions. One youngster seemed to

take no part in ‘stroking’ the parent heron’s bill: instead it kept

its head well down in the nest while the tamasha was being enacted

and was usually the first to make contact with the regurgitated food.

Whether this was the reward of intelligence or of being the dullard

of the family, its end was tragic. A veritable ‘bun scramble’ ensued

as the food was dropped into the nest, everything being gulped

whole. Once a large fish was brought up. The competition to

obtain it was keen. In the end, however, it was knocked over the

side of the nest. The young were very upset at having lost this

treat, and as they gazed dismally down towards the ground below

1 laughed so incontinently that the old heron opened its wings in

a hurry and left in alarm, uttering its familiar call as it departed.

Although common about jhils and marshy places the purple heron

can quite easily be overlooked on account of the manner in which it

‘freezes’ when danger threatens or its haunts are invaded. There

are records of this species making its home in trees, but the purple

heron breeds normally in remote, dense reed beds, a number of

reeds being bent over to form a platform as it were, on which the

nest proper is built. This is of considerable size and is made of

fine, thorny twigs wrenched from babool and other similar trees

by the birds themselves. There is a fair depression to hold the three

to five large light greenish-blue eggs, these often resting on pollen

from bulrushes and ‘cotton’ from sarpat grass.

Only one breeding haunt of this species is known to me, and

that confined to about twelve pairs of birds. The stagnant water

in which the reed bed is situated was alive with leeches, and a

miserable time my shikari and I had when erecting the sleeper

crib from which the bird was eventually photographed, two or

three of these scourges seeming to attach themselves to us for

every one we succeeded in removing.

The purple heron sits closely, but is of an inquisitive disposition :

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate V

Photo by

Common Grey Heron.

Ardea cinerea Linn.

E. H. N. Lowther

Tourn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate VI

Photo by

Eastern Purple Heron

Ardea purpurea manillensis Blanf. & Oates.

E. H. A7. Lowther

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

$65

which fact lead to my discovery of its breeding colony. A railway

embankment rather overlooks the site in question, and while I was

examining it through the field glasses, one long bill and neck, and

then others, peered cautiously over the waving reed tops, the better

to watch me. Very attenuated they were and by most people the

birds would have been mistaken for the bulrushes surrounding

them.

Young purple herons, like the young of the different species

of bittern, wander about a great deal among the lower parts of

the rushes during their parents’ absence, probably in order to avoid

the direct rays of the scorching sun. Invariably, however, they

rush back to the nest on the arrival of the old birds. Great care

should be exercised in approaching them as all are capable of

inflicting serious wounds with their long, dagger-like bills. My

shikari received a nasty gash in the hand from a young purple

heron as a result of not exercising due caution.

The night heron appears to be distributed very irregularly.

Round about Calcutta it is common, and almost every evening at

dusk the bird may be seen as it makes its leisured way from its

diurnal roosting haunts — usually quiet, well-timbered areas — to

the feeding grounds, while its loud and far-reaching call — quark —

is familiar to all bird lovers. In other parts of Bengal too the

species is general, as also it is in many districts in Bihar, In Delhi

1 used to see it regularly about the public gardens at nightfall ;

but in those parts of the United Provinces with which I am best

acquainted the night heron is decidedly rare, and I cannot remem-

ber having found a single nesting coiony there.

When stationed at Dhanbad in the iVfanbhum district, Bihar,

the opportunities afforded of watching this species were legion as

about eighteen pairs established a breeding colony in my garden.

Nest construction commenced with the setting in of the soum-west

monsoon, both sexes helping to build the nest which was constructed

from fine twigs torn from neighbouring trees. The nests, which

were somewhat flimsily constructed, were invariably well shaded and

never contained unore than three light greeny-blue eggs each. Both

the male and the female were seen to incubate, and the nestlings

were clad in long scraggy hairs of a shade I failed to note and which

I cannot now remember.

The young were fed at long, irregular intervals during the day,

but it was at sundown, and throughout the night and early morning,

that their appetites were chiefly catered for. The noise that they

made when hungry or being fed — chick-chick-chick , repeated

time and again— had to be heard to be believed. Many a sleepless

hour we spent on their account, but as we listened to the chattering

my wife and I could visualise exactly what was happening in the

tree tops.

The stench at a nesting colony is appalling because of the

decaying fish and other animal matter that falls from the nests,

and it speaks volumes for our love of birds that we allowed the

night herons to return year after year to breed with us.

About five miles from our ‘house on the hill’ was another nesting

366 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

colony of this species — -one of considerable size. Here breeding

started earlier and the young invariably left the nest a fortnight or

so after the rains commenced.

Young night herons when they leave the nest look a drab-grey

and brown — not unlike young terns and gulls at the same age — and

give no indication that they will soon don the fine garments their

parents wear — white underparts, greenish-black back, grey wings,

black nape and crested crown, with white streamers from the latter

falling along the back, and that bibulous red eye so characteristic

of the bird.

Cattle egrets, little and lesser egrets', also pond herons, alias

paddy birds, frequently breed together or near one another ; and

there is nothing concerning the nidification of one which does not

apply equally to the rest. All build flimsy twig nests with a slight

depression in which are laid three to five spotless greeny-blue eggs.

In all four species both sexes help in constructing the nest, but as

has already been recorded of the white ibis, more often one bird

brings the material while the other’s business is to incorporate it in

the structure. In every instance both sexes also share in incubating

the eggs and feeding the young. During the breeding season all

four species don the most wonderful ‘ospreys’ or aigrettes.

Many people seem to experience difficulty in identifying the

different egrets. The following particulars will, it is believed, help

to name each correctly : — -

Little egret — plumage pure white but beak black at all times.

In the breeding season has a drooping crest of two narrow plumes

and grows long ‘aigrettes’ on the back as well as the breast.

Lesser egret — plumage pure white at all seasons; bill black in

breeding season but yellow, with a dark tip, at other times. In

the breeding season also the facial skin is a vivid green or bluey-

green. Then too the bird wears a long train on the back and long-

plumes on the breast.

Cattle egret — in the non-breeding season the plumage is pure

white, but when nesting the bird acquires long golden-buff delicate

plumes on the head, neck and back.

Beak yellow at all seasons.

Pond heron — in the non-breeding months is of an earthy-brown

colour when at rest, when it harmonises remarkably with the

floating vegetation which it usually haunts. In flight appears almost

entirely white.

In the breeding season the back becomes a beautiful maroon

in colour and from it grow hair-like plumes of the same shade,

while a long white drooping crest is also worn.

The bill is black at the tip, yellowish in the centre and blue at

the base.

The large egret, not referred to hitherto, cannot be confused

with the other species as not only is it appreciably larger, its size

approximating to that of the grey heron, but it is a recluse in its

habits.

On the 13th of September one year I spent a most entertaining

day in my hiding tent photographing lesser egrets at their nests.

There .were two nests before the camera lens. Each was the home

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

■367

of four young ones and in both cases one squab was noticeably

smaller than the rest of the family. The larger young ones spent

much time wandering' about amongst the branches close to their

nests but at once returned to them when either parent arrived.

All possessed nasty tempers and jabbed fiercely with their dagger-

like bills at other young birds which ventured near, on one occa-

sion even attacking an adult openbill stork. The young appeared

to be fed unnecessarily carefully, each in turn, the runt ushally

last of all. The method employed was different from that adopted

by the spoonbill, the lesser egret putting its bill down the young

one’s the latter in turn seizing the parent’s bill with its own. As

a result it was not possible to judge the nature of the food. The

beak of the young bird when almost ready to leave the nest was

seen to be yellow but with a greenish tint at the base; and the

feet and skin about the abdomen greenish in colour. More interest-

ing still, I noted that now, at the end of the nesting season, the

bill of the adult was black at the tip but otherwise dark yellow,

that is to say it had taken on the non-breeding aspect before

nidification was ended. Other interesting things I saw this day

were numerous thefts of building material from neighbours nests

while the latter were absent, and the manner in which those birds

that had small, and even large young, renovated and strengthened

their nests from time to time.

One word of advice to those who would visit these heronries.

Crows are ever present, to rob both eggs and small young ones

from nests from which the owners are absent if even for a minute

or two. Therefore take a gun with you always, not with the okject

of discharging it, but in order to frighten away the crows and

so give the egrets, etc., a better chance to bring up their families.

Crows are far more afraid of a gun than are egrets.

There is one other bird that haunts village ponds that we cannot

fail to observe. Already, by its loud diabolical grunts, groans and

chortles, it has made itself known to our ears, but being a shy

species the white-breasted waterhen only emerges from the bushes

at the tank’s edge when human peace and quiet reign. Then it

makes its nervous way along the water’s margin, twitching its

tiny tail to show the brick-red underparts. Otherwise the white-

breasted waterhen is of a dark slate colour above, with white face,

neck and breast, and the abdomen the same colour as the under-

tail coverts. The breeding season is from the beginning of July

to the end of August, and the nest, which is made of light twigs,

lined with rushes, is commonly built in the thick bushes surround-

ing a village tank, often only two or three feet above the water

though more than once I have seen a nest situated quite ten feet

from the ground. Four or five eggs are laid, smaller and of a

lighter shade than those of the moorhen, but otherwise generally

resembling the eggs of that species.

Those who have attempted to photograph the moorhen at its

nest in India agree that it is a foe worthy of their steel. To my

mind the white-breasted waterhen is an even more difficult subject

and the few pictures I possess of the bird are among the most

treasured in my collection. The individual I photographed invaria-

bly approached the nest in a very stealthy manner and always

368 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

made its way up to it from the water under the bush, climbing

gradually to the nest.

The chick of the white-breasted waterhen is a delightful creature

clad in black down and is not only surprisingly active but the young

family are wizards at diving and dispersing when hunted.

We have now made contact, as it were, with almost all those

species which nest in colonies around many a village tank, and

with some others also. Let us then proceed to a jhil, or lagoon,

which, dry or almost so, during the hot weather, now, at the begin-

ning of August, holds water three or four feet deep. In parts a

fine crop of wild rice waves its feathery tops some few inches

above the water, while in another direction an aquatic creeper spreads

its convolvulus-leafed tentacles over the mere’s surface. On the

far side of the jhil is a small island — really the remains of a narrow

bund or bank. On this a sarus crane, largest of Indian birds, is

incubating her two greenish- white eggs blotched slightly with

brown. The nest is a collection of weeds and rushes. For a radius

of twenty feet around the island there are no signs of vegetation ;

it is clear the saruses have pulled it up for their nest — we have

actually seen them, or rather the male only, busy on the job else-

where. He first clears the immediate vicinity of the nest of all

the rice or other weeds, breaking them off under the water and

throwing them in the same movement over the shoulder in the

direction of the nest. At this early stage the female does not

have to leave the dry ground, she just picking up what has been

cast almost at her feet, to lay the foundations of the nest. Later,

as the male’s task takes him further away from the bund, when

the vegetation he has pulled up lies in the water, his mate wades

into the element and carries the weeds to the nest, a matter in

which he also takes his fair share. But just as the male does not

appear to take any part in the actual making of the nest so too

we have not observed the female assume her partner’s role in

tearing up the weeds required for the nest. Both sexes certainly

incubate — we have watched the ‘change over’ take place — but our

watchings go to show that this task is mostly performed by the

female.

In the LTnited Provinces the sarus is a common species and a pair

are to be seen in the vicinity of most large stretches of water, and

often in cultivation where, it is feared, the birds must do a consider-

able amount of damage to the ripening crops. During the hot

weather too, manv foregather by our larger rivers. Wherever found

they are a notable asset to the landscape. Their slow, rhythmic

flight is the poetry of motion, while the loud trumpet-like call,

uttered both on the wing and from the ground, and during the hours

of darkness as well as by day, never fails to excite even the most

blas4 of human beings. And who is there who is not enthralled

by the sarus’ courtship display, when he and his wife, standing

opposite each other, bow to one another and jump excitedly up and

down, the while opening wide their enormous wings and closing

them again, and uttering the far-reaching note to which we have

already referred? This display may be witnessed also when incuba-

tion is taking place, sometimes when the male arrives af the nest to see

Tourn. Bombay Mat. Hist. So c

Sarus Crane

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

369

how matters are progressing-, but more particularly when both

birds return to the nest after the female has been disturbed from

it, 'and find their eggs are still there. Verily are they Darby

and Joan, and it is in the fitness of things that the sarus is a life-

paired species.

There is another display by the sarus which may be seen during

the chota barscit and the last days of the hot weather, a performance

which seems to express more than anything else the joy of the

devoted lover when his betrothed names the wedding day. A

sarus calling in the distance may provide the necessary urge, or

it may be human intrusion, or the sight of his wife at the far end

of a maiclan. Whatever the cause, the male opens and closes his

wings, jumps up and down, calling as he does so, and then runs

some distance — not the somewhat awkward mien of the bird sham-

bling away when alarmed, but a smooth, gliding movement as

though he were taxi-ing on ice. This beautiful performance may

be repeated two or three times in as many minutes, the bird some-

times running about in any direction but ending up where his wife

is, when she also may join him in this ‘sliding’ act.

By virtue of its size alone the sarus demands our first attention,

and continues to do so far some time ; but even while the binoculars

are glued to the bird strange avian calls are wafted to our receotive

ears; although, at first, we imagined there was no other bird life

on the jhil. When, however, we finally tear ourselves away from

viewing the sarus — -can we ever really do so? — we soon spot a black

and white bird about the size of a chicken, with a long cock-like

tail, apparently walking the water’s surface. Then it springs into

the air, uttering a musical me-onp. The refrain is taken up by

others also. They are pheasant-tailed ja^anas. The abnormally

long claws and toes which the water-pheasant (as it is often called)

possesses cause its weight to be distributed over a large space, thus

enabling the bird to walk with ease on the weeds amongst which

the nest also is built — usually a sketchy collection of rice stems and

weeds. Four eggs, deep bronze in colour and shaped like pegtops,

are laid. Their lower surface often rests in the water. The only

wav to photograph birds nesting in such situations is to dig four

stakes deep into the mud and on these erect a platform at water level

the next day, covering the whole with weeds. On the third day

the tent can be put up, the uprights stuck into holes bored for the

purpose in the planks. The work must be done graduallv as if the

pheasant-tailed ja^ana should become alarmed the odds are she

will build another nest a few feet further away and remove the eggs to

it. This is accomplished by the egg being pressed between the bird’s

bill and breast and the ja^ana walking backwards with them to the

new nest.

It is important that the uprights for the machan be dug deep

as otherwise with the weight of the photographer on it the whole

may, in the course of a couple of hours, topple over: as happened

on one occasion with me when, apart from receiving a very good

ducking, I damaged the camera considerably in mv efforts to

extricate myself from the tent.

From the hide one obtains a very good idea of the beauty of

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XL1V

the water-pheasant as she proceeds to the nest — -it is believed that

the female alone incubates. Particularly noticeable are the slaty-

blue bill, rather paler at the tip, the pale bluish-grey-coloured legs

and feet, and the lovely golden-yellow band down the back of

the neck, bordered narrowly with black to separate it from the \

white of the head and fore-neck.

We, in India, are fortunate in having with us, in the moister

parts of the country — Bengal, Bihar and Oudh, for example — another

lily-trotter, as the jaqana is called in East Africa : the bronze-winged

jacana. Viewed from a distance the bird appears all black but

when seen at close range one realises how handsome it is with

its bronze-coloured wings shot with green, chestnut rump and

stumpy tail. Otherwise the plumage is black glossed with purple. In

addition there is a conspicuous white line from the eye to the nape,

and the bill is of a striking tri-colour, red, green and yellow.

More retiring than the pheasant-tailed jacana, with a note I can

only liken to a piping squeal, this species is somewhat crepuscular

by nature and frequents the more weedy parts of a jhil, amongst

which it builds a floating nest after the manner of its kind. This

is more substantial than that of the pheasant-tailed jaqana. Four

eggs are laid, very handsome objects, dark olive-brown with ir-

regular black hieroglyphics and scrawls much like Arabic writing.

On one occasion I had a strange experience while dealing with

the bronze-winged jaqana. The bird’s nest was about seven feet

away from the lens and I had taken four or five photographs when

the roller blind cord came away in my hand as I was resetting the

shutter — the second time this happened that season. Cursing my

luck I decided to ‘wait and see’, to watch the bird’s behaviour and

learn (if I could) whether both sexes incubate. The more I gazed

on the bronze-coloured wings and the green and purple glossing,

the more certain I became that no photographic plate could give

even a fair idea of the different shades in the jacana’s plumage : I felt

that once again the reward for my labour would only be another set

of glary-white pictures giving a totally wrong impression of the

bird’s colouring. While still pondering the matter and wishing I

had waited till the sun was obscured before attempting photography,

my thoughts were broken upon by a buffalo wading into the water

about twenty yards away, and the resounding whacks of a child

upon another animal. This made the jaqana sit up at. once.

Presently she slipped off the nest but went only a short distance

before squatting down in the weeds, amongst which she became

almost totally immersed. After a few minutes she returned to her

eggs. When the offending buffalo got up to go away, once more

the bird left the nest. More buffaloes came and went, to the

accompaniment of much childish shouting. Many times did the

bronze-wing leave the nest, sometimes in a hurry, on other occasions

in not such great haste ; as often she returned to it. Each time

this happened the bird looked more annoyed than before. When,

however, four or five buffaloes arrived and three children competed

with one another as to which could make the most noise, the confusion

created was more than the jaqana could bear : with her beak she

pushed one egg after the other into the water and then tore the

.PLATE Vlil

Pheasant-tailed Jagana

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IX

Photo by E. H. N. Lowther

Bronze- winged Jagana

Photo by

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

371

nest to pieces and threw the weeds forming it in every possible

direction.

A delightfully attractive whinneying note proclaims the presence

of the dabchick. The bird is obviously in a straggly reed bed but

presently comes out into the open water, swimming and diving

alternately. Its nest is a floating pile of dead and decaying aquatic

plants, moored usually amongst rice stems, reeds or rushes, wher-

ever the growth is not too heavy. Few would suspect that this

collection of dead weeds is a bird’s nest. Five to seven eggs are

laid, much pointed at both ends and white when first laid but shortly

turning to a dark brown colour owing to the soggy state of the

nest material. Once, on the Rhotas plateau in Bihar, I came on a

nest containing eight eggs. Normally this species breeds singly,

and usually the eggs are covered over with a pad of weeds kept

handy for the purpose whenever the dabchick leaves the nest, but

in 1931, near Shadipur in Kashmir, on a piece of water about half

a mile square, I counted no less than eighty-three nests containing

eggs of the little grebe. During the three days that I spent on

this lagoon, I noticed forty-one cases where the birds made no

attempt to cover their eggs : it was not that the birds were taken

by surprise and had no time to cover them — it was a perfectly

open stretch of water and I could be seen all the time from the instant

I embarked on the tiny shikara from which the census was made.

In a number of instances I observed the dabchicks leave their nests.

I attributed this departure from the normal to the total absence of

crows here. Kites certainly flew overhead but were feeding on

small fish which basked on the water’s surface and often on the

lotus leaves.

The dabchick approaches its nest by a series of dives, the bird

having a good look round each time it comes to the surface.

Finally, instead of clambering up onto the nest, the bird heaves itself

upon it, a matter in which very great energy must be expended.

On one occasion a little grebe I was photographing was somewhat

reluctant to return to the nest. The arrival, however, of a beautiful

male Hodgson’s yellow-headed wagtail on the sodden pile very soon

brought the dabchick to her eggs, accompanied by the equally hurried

flight of the wagtail which had already started uttering its twittering

notes, perhaps to express satisfaction at finding such a fine landing-

ground on the lake’s expansive surface.

In no book that I have redd can I remember reference being

made to the ivory-coloured marking which appears in the breeding*

season at the base of the upper and lower mandibles of both the

male and female dabchick. This is verv clearly brought out in

the photograph reproduced here.

Another species which builds a floating nest moored to weeds

in open water is the whiskered tern. Very common in summer in

the Vale of Kashmir, this tern also breeds in the United Provinces

where I found a nesting colony in the Etawah district, and in Bihar

where three or four breeding jhils are known to me. It is greatly

given to stealing building material from neighbours nests, and

Qolonel B. T. Phillips tells me he has seen the bird upset a whole

372 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

clutch of eggs into the water when removing a lily stem from

another whiskered tern’s nest.

In the dense reed beds yellow bitterns and chestnut bitterns

pass their secluded lives, only leaving them by day if absolutely

compelled to do so. The chestnut bittern is considerably darker

than its yellow cousin and is distinguished from it also by the

absence of black in the primaries and secondaries, and by the yellow

bittern possessing in addition a black crest and having some black

on top of the head. Both species are rare in the United Provinces

but not uncommon in Bihar ; in Bengal they occur more numerously,

particularly the chestnut bittern.

The thick reed bed mentioned earlier in which I discovered a

small nesting* colony of the purple heron was also the home of a

pair each of chestnut and yellow bitterns. I failed to locate the

former’s nest but succeeded in finding that of the yellow bittern.

(This was in the Etawah district). A number of reeds had been

bent down to form the base of the nest. On this base were pieces

of reeds and rushes, woven cunningly, the whole making a pad

about seven inches in diameter. Over the nest other reeds were

drawn together, to create an awning, the eggs thus being invisible

from above. The nest contained five eggs of a very pale skimmed-

milk-green colour.

I have photographed both these species at the nest but found

them comparatively uninteresting subjects ; both sat very tight and

obviously trusted to the remarkable manner in which they faded

into their surroundings, to avoid detection. When, however, my

shikari came to let me out of the tent, the birds walked very

quietly off their nests on his close approach and made good their

escape by keeping to the reeds just above water level. Not on

one single occasion did Pokhi hear them moving* away.

Many other species of marsh birds there are, some common,

others not so general. A few of these I have photographed and

have found the nests of others. But it is not my intention to write

of these as already this article has assumed alarming proportions

and I can almost hear the Editors asking whether I am unaware

of the fact that there is a paper shortage. Nevertheless as earlier

on I quoted a nesting site of the white ibis referred to in Hume’s

Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds it will not be inappropriate to

conclude by recording my experiences when photographing another

water-bird, the black- winged stilt, at the Sultanpur salt works

about thirty-five miles south of Delhi, almost the only nesting

haunt of this species known for very many years and concerning

which elaborate details are also given by Hume in his classic.

These works have since the time of my visit been closed down and

I like to feel I was probably the last ornithologist to study the

stilt here. The time of my visit was the 31st of May, IQ23. The

technique of salt manufacture is not known to me but what I saw

were numbers of large, shallow evaporating pans about 150 feet

or more square, separated from each other bv narrow strips of

ground about two feet wide. On these the stilts had their nests,

slight depressions lined with tiny pieces of kanker and each con-

taining four eggs, very similar in appearance to those of the red-

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XI

E. H. N. Lowther

Photo by

Chestnut Bittern

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Gmelin.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc Plate XII

Lowther

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

373

wattled lapwing but rather smaller. Most of the birds, I was told,

had already hatched off. Anticipating a long day, I had arranged

to catch the 5 p.m. train from Garhi Harsaru back to Delhi, but

so confiding was the bird near whose nest I put up the hiding tent

that by 12-45 I had used up all the plates with me. Then it was

that I decided to make a bid for the train due to leave in fifteen

minutes time. Not only had I to dry my feet and put on my boots

and stockings, but the camera and tripod, and the hide, had to

be ‘put away’ ; and we were a mile from the station. My shikari

and I shared the load and ran the whole way, but when I presented

myself at the booking office for our tickets not a word could I

articulate; consequently dear old Pokhi had to explain instead.

The mineral water vendor on the train, seeing my condition, placed

half a dozen bottles of lemonade in my compartment and brought

in ice at every station. All these and many more were finished

before we reached Delhi, but it was not until after breakfast the

next morning that my thirst was quenched ! Of course, I know

now that I was very, very near collapsing from heat exhaustion,

as apart from the run I had spent two hours in the tiny tent. Hume

says the temperature of the stilt’s nest at this time in the full

sun probably averages 140° Fahrenheit, but then, as Noel Coward

observed : —

* Mad- dogs and Englishmen

Go oat in the mid-day sun’ .

A BLACK LEOPARD, AN ORDINARY LEOPARD AND A

GOOD BULL TSAING

BY

W. S. Thom.

Leopards were fairly plentiful round my camp and I had to keep

a careful eye on my two bull terriers, especially when it got dark, to

see that they were not carried off. The villagers residing in a small

village of about twelve houses not far from where my camp was situ-

ated in the jungle, informed me that quite a number of their dogs,

as well as some of their pigs and calves, had been killed by leopards.

The pug* marks of two leopards that had been seen in the vicinity of

the village on being examined by me appeared to be about the same

size; so I came to the conclusion that a couple of these animals must

be hunting in pairs.

I had left my headquarters to go out into the wild on a

month’s shoot to see, as I had not shot anything for a long time, if I

could account for a good bull Tsaing ( Bibos banteng birmanicus) the

true wild cattle of Burma, as well as bag a leopard or two. I was told

that there were several herds and some good bulls among them.

Some very fine solitary bulls had also been seen feeding on the

neighbouring low-lying bamboo-covered hills and ridges, but that

they were all very wary and difficult to get at, especially when lying

up in thick cover during the heat of the day. Most sportsmen who

have had any experience of Tsaing and Gaur ( Bibos gaums), are

aware that a solitary bull gaur is much easier to stalk than a solitary

bull tsaing. The success or otherwise of a stalk depends a good deal

on whether the ground that is to be covered is damp or dry; whether

one’s trackers, and the sportsman himself are experts at the game;

whether they understand the art of travelling through the jungle as

noiselessly as possible until near enough to shoot the quarry in a

vulnerable spot. What is of the utmost importance however is that

the wind must be carefully tested and should be entirely in one’s

favour till the shot is about to be fired. I need not go into details of

this kind as most sportsmen with any experience of big game shoot-

ing know how to cover the ground without making any noise when

tracking up an animal. Needless to say the sportsman’s sight and

hearing should also be very good. When out after big game, my

senses were always at the utmost tension especially when about to

fire at an animal that I had been stalking, whilst I could invariably

tread as noiselessly as a cat when moving through the jungle. Years

of practice and experience of big game shooting brought my sense of

smell, touch, hearing, sight and my tread to a very acute and highly

developed condition.

My weapons on this shoot consisted of a single 500-bore high velo-

city rifle by Westley Richards taking a charge of 80 grains of cordite,

a 423 Mannlicher Schoenauer magazine rifle, and a double 12-bore,

hammerless ejector shot-gun with S,S,G. buckshot cartridges,

BLACK LEOPARD, OkDY. LEOPARD, GOOD BULL TSAING 375

1 have used many different kinds of weapons when shooting'

large and small game in Burma from the year 1887 to the end of

the year 1940 and their use always gave me very great pleasure. Let

me describe some of them in this article. Three of these weapons

seldom, if ever, failed me when in a tight corner. They were a

double hammerless 8-bore Paradox, a double hammerless 8-bore rifle

and a single trigger 577 ejector rifle by Westley Richards which took

a charge of 100 grains of cordite. The two 8 bores each took a

charge of 10 drachms of black powder. Later on 1 came into posses-

sion of a single take down 577 cordite rifle by Westley Richards

which took a charge of 100 grains of cordite. This was a very

serviceable and perfect weapon. I could sprint a hundred yards

carrying it easily in one hand as I ran to overtake any animal that

I had wounded. Then I owned a double hammerless 303 Lee

Enfield rifle, sighted up to 300 yards. This was a most accurate

weapon for all thin-skinned animals such as sambar, serow, goral,

barking deer, pig, wild dog. On several occasions I also accounted

for several leopard and bear with this weapon, using soft nose as

well as service bullets. What a wonderful weapon the 8-bore Paradox

was to be sure. 1 seldom failed to bring down any animal with

my first shot. The conical bullets used in the cartridges of this

weapon were heavy and they invariably set up beautifully. Only on

one occasion, did 1 fail to bring down at once a bull that I had fired

at. I was walking alone ahead of my men along a ridge, on the

water-shed on the top of the Yoma mountains, which overlooks

Arakan and Thayetmyo District at a height of about 4,000 feet.

Away down in the valley I could see the steamers coming up and down

the Irrawaddy river on my right and on my left the sun setting with a

glitter over the sea on the Arakan coast miles away. Then I

came suddenly on a solitary bull gaur, a very large animal, which

was walking in my direction along the ridge. When it saw me it

stopped dead and threw up its head. The animal was then about 30

paces from me. I fired at what I took to be its chest with the

Paradox, but the animal turned round as if on a pivot and

galloped off at a great pace for a distance of about 400 yards as if

it had not been hit. Then suddenly after hitting the burnt stump

of a large tree it collapsed with a crash, stone dead. I found after-

wards that my bullet had hit the animal’s nose and after travelling

down its gullet had lodged in its stomach after badly raking its

lungs and internal organs. The bullet was afterwards picked out

and handed to me by one of my men when the animal was being

cut up. The double 303 Lee Enfield was, as I have stated before,

a perfect weapon for most animals except elephant, tiger, gaur, and

tsaing. As a matter of fact, it really was not quite good enough for

leopard, sambar or bear. I got two bull gaur and a tigress also with

it. Those were however special occasions and picked shots. In

the case of the two gaur I used cartridges loaded with service bullets.

The tigress was shot with a single cartridge and a soft nose bullet,

the latter passing through both its lungs. It is not however, what

a weapon will do on certain occasions, but what it should do on

every occasion, and a good big ‘un’ is always better than a good

little ‘un’. I also possessed a beautiful 236 W.S.N. magazine rifle

which accounted for a good many thin-skinned animals such as

37ci Journal, ho MR A y Natural hist, society, Vol. xLi v

serow, goral, pig, barking deer and wild dogs. I had at different

times, two double 12-bore hammerless ball and shot guns both of

which took a charge of about 4I drachms of smokeless powder,

these weapons are all right when used in beats, when the jungle is

being driven for such animals as bear, pig, sambar, leopard and

barking deer, but they are not powerful enough for tiger, although

1 bagged the record tiger of Burma at Smbo in the Myitkyina

District using one of them. It was what is known as a ‘Cosmos'

ball and shot gun by Cogswell and Harrison but, as I have said

before, it should never be used on a tiger, and certainly not on

elephant, gaur or tsaing as the powder charge is quite insufficient,

it is quite a different matter when a 12-bore magnum ‘Explora’ gun is

used on some of the large animals as it is a very powerful weapon

witn a powder charge good enough to kill most animals.

One night at about 9-30 p.m., when about to turn into bed, a

Burman hunter from a neighbouring' village arrived at my camp

to inform me that a leopard had attacked one of his dogs tne same

night at about 7-30 p.m. The dog had escaped with a nasty

scratch along its back which it received as it leaped into the house.

Although several persons had heard the dog yelp loudly once, no

one had seen it or the leopard. I informed the shikari that I

would see what could be done on the following day. Next day 1

decided to have a machan erected at a spot near a thicket about 250

yards from the village — a site which .1 had chosen before. I hung

up a leg of a doe sambar, killed several days before by wild dogs,

which my men had brought in. It was hung from a stout branch

with a strong piece of rope, about ten to twelve feet from the ground.

At about 5-30 p.m., armed with my 12-bore shot gun and S.S.G.

cartridges and the 423 magazine rifle I entered the machan alone, it

was not more than about eight feet above the ground. At about

7 p.m., when the light was just beginning to fade, a magnificent black

leopard stepped out of the thicket and began walking slowly towards

the bait, lucking its tail from side to side. When it got exactly

beneath the bait, it stopped. The animal then began to sniff the

surrounding air uttering a succession of peculiar purring sounds, al ter

which it lay down on all fours in a crouching position as if about to

spring on the meat hanging above its head. I did not wait to see

any more and let the animal have one shot from the 423 with a soft

nose bullet, which got it luckily through the vertebrae of the neck.

The animal, on receiving the shot turned a complete somersault and

remained perfectly still except for a few spasmodic movements of its

tail. It certainly was a lucky shot to have hit it where I did, and I

was just going to get down from the machan to inspect the dead

animal when, to my utter surprise, two ordinary leopards sprang

out of the same thicket. After trotting up to the dead animal

together they sniffed at it once or twice and then looked up at the

sambar’ s leg that hung so temptingly above their heads. After reading

this some people might be inclined to think that I am drawing the

long-bow and making up this yarn. Well believe it or not as you

like. I finished off one of the two leopards with one shot from the

choke or left barrel of my 12-bore shot gun. The choke took a

number of the S.S.G. buck shot together which entered the brain

of the animal through its left ear. The black leopard turned out

Black LEOpAkb, ordy. leopard, good bull tsAing ■£??

to be a very fine male measuring G\" in length. The second

ordinary leopard bagged by me taped ^ 3" in length and, as it was

the cold weather at tne time, both animals nad very nne coats. When

the villagers and my hunters arrived on the scene and saw the black

leopard tney were very astonished but all of them agreed that this

must have been the animal that had killed and carried oft their calves.

Tsaing, the true wild cattle of Burma, are very fine game looking

animals for their size, a good bull often standing as high as seventeen

hands at the shoulder. I have shot quite a number of old bulls

during the past 50 years of my stay in Burma, some of them with

very tine heads. I have found irom the many experiences I have had

with these fine animals that, when wounded or at bay at close quar-

ters, they are never really as pugnacious or as dangerous to tackle as

some ot the solitary bull gaur ( Bibos gaums ) tnat i have shot,

in fact I have had more narrow escapes from death through being

charged and struck by the horns of wounded gaur than from any bull

tsaing. I do not believe either that a bull tsaing, although generally

speaking a more active animal, can travel any faster when charging

tnan a bull gaur. I am inclined to think in fact from the many

experiences 1 have had, that a bull gaur when it means business, ancl

is really charging after being wounded, usually travels much taster

than a bull tsaing. To say also that a bull gaur seldom charges at all

is utter nonsense, i have been charged by them on four separate

occasions, two of which nearly finished me oft. I have no recollec-

tion of ever having been charged in a business-like manner by a bull

tsaing. Although I have been in several nasty situations with

several wounded animals. I have always considered a wounded bull

gaur to be very dangerous indeed when it is being followed up.

1 nere is not the slightest doubt about this in my opinion. Experience

has shown me that a wounded gaur is more likely to charge a sports-

man that is following him up than an unwounded animal, although I

remember very well being charged on two occasions by two solitary

bulls that had got my wind and had not even been seen or fired at by

me. Some solitary bull gaur are of course more cantankerous and

savage than others. It often depends on whether the animal is a

cunning old stager, or a bull that has been made cantankerous and

fierce through having been fired at and wounded frequently by

Burman hunters using inferior weapons, or whether it Las- been

attacked by tigers on different occasions and is therefore always on

the look out lor danger and ready to charge on hearing anything

approaching it. I once shot a very savage old solitary bull gaur that

was minus its tail, and blind of its right eye. I was tracking him on

foot as he was about to cross the railway line into the Pidaung plain

in the Myitkyina District of Burma. Some gangway linesmen, or

railway coolies, coming along the line disturbed him, so he turned

back along his tracks and was passing me at about 15 paces, I being

on his right or blind side. I was using a single take down 577

rifle by Westley Richards burning 100 grains ot cordite. He tried

to get at me though floored him with my first shot- — a soft nose

bullet which passed clean through his body, but as I happened to

be on his blind side, where he was unable to see me, I dropped

him again with a second shot clean through his body, but as he

struggled hard to regain his feet to get at me I killed him with a

’M JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol XLIV

third shot which got him in the neck. It took a lot of doing- of

course, and I thought at one time that it might be able to get at me.

1 certainly was a bit shaken when it was all over. I had opened out

a fresh tin of twenty 577 cartridges that morning so they were fresh

and in splendid condition. A twenty hand bull gaur sometimes takes

a lot of lead before he can be properly accounted for, unless he is hit

in the right place with the sportsman’s first shot. I consider that

next to a wounded tiger, and then a wounded leopard, no more

dangerous animal can be followed on foot than a wounded null gaur.

it is very difficult to choose the best bull tsaing when one comes

upon a herd as there may be two or three good bulls equally worth

snooting. It is necessary for the sportsman to bring a powerful

pair of binoculars with him to discover at once which animal carries

the best head. It does not necessarily follow that the biggest animal

in a herd possesses the finest pair of horns. I have shot some very

big gaur running up to 20 hands, and also some very large tsaing, and

found that they had indifferent heads, whilst other animals, gaur

of 18 and 19 hands, had very much finer heads. The same

remarks apply to the size of the tracks of an animal that a

sportsman may be following up. I have tracked several solitary

bull gaur as well as tsaing that had enormous tracks and then

found that their heads were most disappointing. This is the case

however more often with gaur than with tsaing. I may be wrong

of course, but the conclusions arrived at by me is that what an

animal gained in the size of its body it seemed to lose in the size

of its horns.

My men turned up one morning and informed me that they had

come upon the tracks of a herd of about thirty tsaing and asked

me whether I would follow them. I agreed to do this taking only

my single 500-bore cordite rifle, which took a charge of 80 grains

of cordite. After following up the tracks till about 6 p.m. we came

upon the herd scattered over a ridge covered with dwarf bamboo

jungle. Some of the animals were feeding on bamboo leaves, others

were cropping the grass. I picked out with my binoculars two

good bulls. They were standing alone together apparently doing

nothing for they certainly were not cropping the grass or browsing-

off the bushes, or feeding on bamboo leaves. I could see them

shake their heads occasionally and whisk their tails from side to

side though there did not appear to be many flies about, it being

then the cold weather, but a good many flies always follow herds of

gaur as well as tsaing throughout the year. In the hot weather and

beginning of the rains gad flies worry these animals dreadfully. I

once came upon a solitary bull tsaing trotting along through the

jungle. He passed without taking any notice of me, at a distance of

only about ten yards, surrounded by a dense cloud of gad flies that

were punishing him dreadfully, for he shook his head from side to side

as he covered the ground. I killed him with one shot using an 8-

bore rifle. The bullet passed through both his lungs.

Fortunately for my hunters and myself the wind was in our

favour as we approached the two bulls standing alone. I only

had two trackers with me. The fewer followers you have when

following an animal the better, especially when approaching such

wary animals as tsaing. Well to cut a long story short, I managed

LEOPARDS And is AIN G 37§

to get within about forty yards of the two bulls and then let the

one that appeared to have the better horns a raking shot forward

through the small of the ribs with a soft nose bullet from the 500

bore. The animal stumbled and lurched forward slightly on receiving

the shot as if it were coming down, but recovered at once and

made off followed by the other bull. The rest of the herd dashed

away in different directions on hearing the report of my rifle. It

took my trackers and I another hour and a half steady tracking

before we came up with the wounded animal, which beyond shak-

ing its head and snorting at us, could not do anything as it had

been rendered more or less hors de combat. I then finished the

bull off with a second shot which perforated both lungs and brought

him to the ground after he made a gallant effort to keep himself

from collapsing. The bull’s horns were well corrugated and taped

70 inches from point to point across the forehead. I saw the

companion of the dead bull standing under a bamboo clump not

more than 150 yards from where my trackers and I were standing,

alongside the animal I had shot. I had no desire however to shoot

another animal as I considered one good bull accounted for in a

day’s shoot was quite enough, in spite of my trackers’ earnest request

that I should shoot this animal also. All that Rurman villagers,

hunters, and trackers usually think of when they accompany a

European sportsman on a shoot is how much meat they can become

possessed of at The end of a shoot. Nothing would please them

more than shooting half a dozen tsaing in a day and allowing to

carry off all the meat.

39 Lytton Road,

Dehra Dun.

5

WHERE THE RAINBOW ENDS.*

BY

Lt. Colonel R. B, Phayre, m.c. (Rtd.)

'Great big1 fish of a variety unknown to us, with red cheeks like

those of an English master.’

This was the somewhat astonishing report sent by an old

Sinhalese village fisherman to the Secretary of the Ceylon Fishing

Club, after some strange fish had been breaking up the villagers’

lines, tackle and nets at a spot many miles below the Club waters.

These fish were subsequently identified as ‘Rainbow trout/ with

which the upper waters had been stocked. To reach the lower

waters, they had to negotiate a series of most formidable falls, in-

cluding leaps of ioo feet, while in some places, the river dropped

1,530 feet in 800 yards.

What is the exact definition of a rainbow trout? These elusive

fish, which have a mysterious habit of disappearing completely,

have always been the subject of great interest and controversy

among keen anglers. Even the experts disagree. Although screeds

have been written on the salmon, brown trout and sea trout, there

is surprisingly little literature on the subject of the rainbow, and it

is worth while examining some of the evidence on the subject.

Origin. — The rainbow originated in the River McCloud, a tri-

butary of the Sacramento in California. The indigenous fish was

known as Salmo shasta , This trout was purely a non-migratory

river fish and it is important to note that it has about 160 scales

along the lateral line, and 63 vertebrae.

In the same river there was another very similar fish, known

as the steelhead ( Saltno rivularis ) or gairdnerii, but described by

some writers as S. widens and also widens. It is definitely an ana-

dromous fish, i.e> it is migratory, like the salmon and makes its

way down to the sea* The count of scales along the lateral line

comes to approximately 130, with 60 vertebrae. Dr. Kendall,

the scientific assistant to the United States Department of Fisheries,

described shasta and rivularis as ‘two entirely separate fishes’, but

others disagreed.

Up to two pounds in weight, it took an expert to differentiate

between these two species.

Accepting the statement that these two species are distinct and

Interbreeding took place, the hybrids also produced progeny but

on a reduced scale and inferior to their parents* These hybrids were

termed by some writers S. widens. In habits and appearance they

more closely resembled the steelhead (migratory) than S> shasta

(the purely river and nommigratory fish).

* Reprint from July 1943 No* of United Service Institute journal (India)

by Courtesy of the Editor*

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

RAINBOW TROUT. BROWN TROUT,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate II

One of the Kulgam trout streams (formerly the preserve of H.H. the Maharajah

of Kashmir) : some very heavy rainbow and brown trout have been killed on these

beats.

The rank at the ancient Moghul gardens . at Verinag containing springs which feed

the trout stream of that name,

WkkRE THE RAINBOW ends.

381

Dispersion,— Rainbow were first exported from the U.S.A. to

the United Kingdom in 1882, They also went to other, countries

in Europe and to the Dominions, and reached New Zealand, Ceyion

and India. It is quite possible that among them were the true

S. shasta, but many must have been the cross between N. shasia

and the steelhead. The same stories of mysterious disappearances

came in from all these countries. Many admitted that tney were

battled, so all sorts of theories were put iorward to explain how

they eifected their vanishing trick, when they appeared to be thriving

in suitable localities.

Further reports were received later from the countries which

had imported these so-called rainbow. Germany, for example, des-

cribed them as voracious feeders which, having cleared out all the

natural food in a pool, would move downstream in search of more

food. They did not, however, appear to suspect any migratory

tendencies to be connected with a natural move towards the sea.

[a) Notes from the United Kingdom confirmed that they were

heavy feeders and ate nearly twice as much as the brown trout ;

consequently, if brown trout and rainbow inhabited the same pool,

the brown trout stood a small chance of thriving; (h) their livers

were about three times larger than those of the brown trout; ( c ) given

favourable conditions, they gained in weight about one pound a year ;

(d) they did best in alkaline water; (ej when netted in, they did

their best to escape; (/) they were aftected by very cold water and

invariably tried to escape, they have been known to bury themselves

in the muddy bottoms where many died, either from suffocation or

from the effects of marsh gas ; (g) they did quite well in water of

about 770, a temperature that would probably kill brown trout (other

writers do not agree, and consider that 7ou is reaching the danger

mark); (h) the average life was about five to six years, when tney

were inclined to go blind. Several have been dug out of the mud

in this condition or caught in nets among the weeds.

Most keen anglers will be able to quote cases from their personal

experience regarding the complete disappearance of these fish from

a favourable locality a year or two after stocking. The writer recalls

a stream-fed lake of about five acres in England, which, had a good

food supply, but was very deep and cold. It was stocked with

rainbow from Blagdon and did reasonably well for two. seasons;

after this the fish began their vanishing trick, so the lease was ter-

minated. Curiously enough, three seasons after the vacations, orie

rainbow of about 2 lbs. was taken on a fly.

A friend of the writer diverted a small stream running through

his garden into a series of small pools, erecting wire netting at the

exit from the garden. Although on high ground near a moor, and

thus rather cold, the site was a sunny one; rather shallow with a

rocky bottom. Besides natural food, artificial food, . such as snails,

shrimps, insects and liver, was supplemented. It. was stocked- with

a strictly limited supply of 9-inch, rainbow.. The owner amused

himself by inviting his guests to catch one on a .fly. . for. lunch. The

rate of growth was far higher than mentioned in para, (c) above,

some of the fish attaining 7 lbs. in .weight in 2 J years. No casualties

from natural causes were observed. It was always a matter of

interesting conjecture as to what was going to happen to rainbow

3*2 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol xLlfr

after they attained a weight of over 7 lbs. Unfortunately, the sudden

sale of the property, owing to the untimely death of the owner,

prematurely terminated the writer’s observations.

the most illuminating and fascinating account of rainbow culture

in the East comes from the pen of Mr. Philip Fowke, a former

Superintendent of the Ceylon Fishing Club Hatcheries in Newara

Ehya, whose research work regarding rainbow places him in the

very highest rank of pioneers.

The author gratefully makes acknowledgment to him for his

kind permission to disseminate some of the valuable information

which he has discovered after years of study and practice. The

facts are of such importance that every reader who is interested

in rainbow is strongly recommended to acquire his masterly pam-

phlet, reprinted from the ‘Ceylon Journal of Science,’ Section C.

Fisheries, Vol. VI. Here are a few salient facts: — -

Although brown trout were introduced into Ceylon in 1882, rain-

bow were not imported until 1899 and 1902. They were bred success-

fully at heights ranging from 7,200 feet to 5,800 feet; below the latter

height they were affected by the heat, and it has been found that

they will not breed freely below 5,500 feet.

They thrived well, and four years after their introduction, large

numbers of really good fish were being killed on fly. They then

moved to Lake Gregory, which checked their downward progress

and, from the lake, went up to the smaller streams to breed. Those

fish, however, which had ready access to the river passed away

downstream. In 1903, in the same lake, the biggest rainbow killed

(on a worm) was 10 lbs. 9! oz. Another, found partly eaten by an

otter, was judged to be 18 lbs., but its weight was not officially

recorded as it could not be properly weighed. The conclusion drawn

was that the more or less pure S. shasta were content to stay in the

rivers, whereas the Steelhead variety invariably made for the sea

when they had attained a weight of about 5 lbs.

Later, indisputable evidence was received that large rainbow

(so-called) were being caught miles away in the lower reaches of the

rivers down to 1,500 feet, negotiating as they went most formidable

falls in which one would expect a fish to be dashed to pieces. The

point is that they survived ; consequently, it may be assumed that

these fish would have little difficulty in overcoming the rapids of

such rivers as the Beas or Jhelum, where the dangers would be

infinitely less, even during the heavy spates; besides which the tem-

peratures, especially during the cold weather, would be considerably

lower than those pertaining in Ceylon.

It has already been mentioned that scale and vertebrae counts

of Dr. Kendall were: —

(a) True (river) rainbow (S. shasta) lateral line count of scales

160 — vertebrae 63; ( b ) steelhead scale count 130— vertebrae 60.

In order to test the new theory, Mr. Fowke went to the Natural

History Museum, South Kensington, and asked the authorities to

show him a marine-run steelhead trout; he was shown a perfectly

preserved Ceylon ‘rainbow’ trout ! He next asked Mr. Donald Carr

to give him a scale-reading of some of the famous rainbow at

Blagdon* The lateral line count of scales given was 139, 139, 140,

140 and one of 145. Finally, he sent three Ceylon rainbow for

WHERE THE RAINBOW ENDS

383

scientific examination; the result of the scale count was 138, 127-128

and 132- 134, with the vertebrae never more than 60.

To check this point, Mr. Fowke wrote to America asking whether

the so-called rainbow in Ceylon were not really steelheads. The

reply confirmed that it was very difficult to differentiate between the

two, up to a pound or two in weight, but that the average size of

the true steelhead seldom exceeded 6 to 8 lbs. in weight. This

confirmed Mr. Fowke’s experience, for he put the weight of the

average river (Ceylon) rainbow at 6 lbs., and had been unable to

trace any river rainbow being taken over 7 lbs.

The result of these tests seems to prove that all these so-called

rainbow were really steelheads, hence their migratory propensities.

Mr. Fowke also mentions that, in 1935, Dr. H. S. Davis, of the

U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, wrote to him saying that they were rearing

several strains of rainbow in America, hoping to establish one

whose habits would be no more migratory than those of the biown

trout. If this enterprise succeeds, it should be very interesting

indeed to all fishermen. Unfortunately, in these days it is very

difficult to get up-to-date information in India, but it is quite possible

that these experiments may have been crowned with success. Should

this be the case, it would be interesting to stock some virgin water

with these non-migratory rainbow. All evidence received hereto-

fore seems to confirm that hybrid stock having any connection

with the steelhead rapidly adopts migratory tendencies until the

whole stock is lost, unless it inhabits some land-locked lake.

If this theory is correct, then the very distinctive markings of

the steelhead should make recognition an easy matter, even to un-

sophisticated villagers. Further, if these fish really are going down

to the sea, stocks put down in Kashmir, Kulu, the Nilgiris and

elsewhere should be filtering into the larger rivers of India, and

already may have been netted hundreds of miles away from their

hatcheries.

In order to produce further evidence, the writer corresponded

with various Game Wardens and Pisciculturists in India, to whom

he makes grateful acknowledgment for the trouble they have taken

in sending him the following details.

Kashmir . Characteristic disappearance was observed, although

rainbow did well in the deep pools near the stewponds at Harwan

Hatcheries up to from 5 lbs. to 7 lbs. In certain streams where

they were put down, they were prevented from moving downstream

by grids and gratings. In such cases the fish became emaciated,

and some deformed. In other cases they did well, fish of from

4, lbs. to 5 lbs. being taken. There was a tendency for them to

move down to the deep, low-level lakes (such as the Dal, Anchar

and Wullar lakes). Some of the Kashmir stock was sent to Kulu.

The opinion of Mr. G. M. Malik, m.sc. , the Pisciculturist at the

Achabal Trout Culture farm, is that the Kashmir rainbow resembles

5. gairdnerii. This point was confirmed when a specimen was sent

home to Mr. J. R. Norman of the. British Natural History Museum.

Confirmation has later been received that the so-called rain-

bow is being caught miles below the streams in which they were

liberated or bred. In 1942, one rainbow of 3 lbs. was caught on

rod and line three miles below Barn mull a ; consequently the com

384 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol XL1V

firmatory evidence which was anticipated, is now coming to hand.

Further enquiries are, however, being made, and it is hoped that

in a few years’ time, much more data will become available.

Scale counts of rainbow at Achabal and Harwan gave the

following details: (a) Lateral line: vary from about 132 to 138.

( b ) Vertebrae 60. These figures have been taken from the measure-

ments of a large number of fish at both the above hatcheries.

Nilgiris .—In the Nilgiris the same difficulties were encounter-

ed in breeding brown trout as those experienced in Ceylon, name-

ly the spawning* of the hens never synchronized with the milt of

the cock fish; consequently rainbow were introduced.

l am indebted to Mr. P. W. Davis, M.c., i.f.s., Hon. Secretary of

the Nilgiris Game Association, for the following notes : —

‘Regarding migration, it may be assumed that rainbow do (or

did) get over the falls into the Bhavani and Moyar rivers, but —

as purely negative evidence counts — I believe that no trout has

been picked out of the rivers in the low country. There are also

mahseer in both the above rivers which eventually join the Cauvery

and flow across Southern India to Tanjore. I doubt that the Nilgiri

trout finds its way very far to the sea. The Pykara Hydro-Electric

Works now tend to prevent any fish getting below, as they are

held in the Mukerti and Glen Morgan Reservoirs.

“I and a Committee member, separately, counted the lateral

(line) scales of two fish — one a 2-pounder and the other about lbs.

The extraordinary thing is that they came out differently ! The .scale

count of the larger fish was 126 or 127 and the vertibrae count was 61.

The smaller fish was more difficult, even under a glass, as scales were

small and indistinct, but different counts totalled 147 and 149

(vertebrae not mentioned.)

‘Mr Fraser, for many years Fisheries Superintendent of the

Nilgiris Game Association, writes to me:

“I took it (scale count) up with the experts in California, and

we sent sample fish to California in formalin for identification. I

cannot, however, remember the number of scales, but there is no

doubt that the fish, in the Nilgiris rivers is the ‘steelhead '-—Salmo

irideus . ” *

Kulu. — -To Mr. T. Tvson, of Katrain, one of the best-known

resident fishermen in Kulu, and who has long experience of those

waters, I am grateful for the following notes:

‘Years ago, I fished the river (Beas) almost down to Mandi,

but caught no trout of any description below Bajoura (about 12

miles below the fishing reserve).

‘Rainbow have now practically disappeared from the Beas. Up

to about 12 vears ago, I occasionally caught them around Katrain,

but during the whole of the last season (1942), T don’t think any

were landed in the fishing reserve.

‘From my experience of rainbow in Kulu, the fighting Quali-

ties of the species gradually deteriorated. Years ago, shortly after

they were introduced into the Beas. one could almost invariably

“sense” a Rainbow while playing it. In more recent years, however,

there was very little to distinguish its fight with that of a brown

trout. 5 (A most interesting observation; corroboration fr°m other

waters would be of value, — yl ufh or.)

WHERE THE RAINBOW ENDS 385

i I also appreciate the help given me by Dr. Hamid Khan Bhatti,

m.SC.j Ph.D., Game Warden of the Punjab, who writes: —

‘It has been found that rainbow trout does not exist in the

lower reaches of the River Beas beyond the Kulu Valley. It is,

therefore, doubtful whether these fish have made way to the sea or

have otherwise disappeared. The lateral line count is 134.

‘It is sad to relate that a very heavy flood swept through the

Valley in August, 1942, and killed thousands of trout, both in the

river and in the hatcheries. The extent of the damage was very

marked throughout the 1943 season and again in March 1944. ’

Travancore. — Mr. W. S. S. Mackay also kindly sent some very

interesting notes on the High Range Angling Association of which

he is Honorary Secretary.

This is a purely private Association, and is not open to the public.

As in other places in South India and Ceylon, brown trout having

failed (introduced 1906) owing to the male and female not coming

into season together, rainbow were introduced from stock taken

from the Nilgiris, and also from Ceylon. Some of this strain ori-

ginated from Germany, New Zealand and Kashmir, so there is a good

mixture of blood. Mr. Mackay states that the scale counts have

never exceeded 140, and that the fish are steelheads and not rainbow.

There have been considerable losses of stock in the past, as these

trout seemed to make their way down to the warmer waters of the

foothills, and to die there. Lt.-Col. Stockley, however, states that

rainbow will live in waters at 2,000 feet in Africa.

There were the usual setbacks and failures at the initial stages,

but Mr. Mackay relates that when these rainbow were put into a

small pond or lake, where the food supply was good, they had a

phenomenal increase in weight from 2 lbs. to even 3 lbs. a year;

but they ceased to rise to fly after the first year and usually died

prematurely. They did very well in clean, running water where

there was plenty of space. Their voracious and migratory tenden-

cies were very marked.

Mr. Mackay attributes the failures in breeding to the high tem-

peratures, it being clearly established that they would not breed well

much below 5,000 ft. They did well, however, at Hamilton’s Plateau

(7,500 ft.), and Mr. Mackay has now had the satisfaction of hatching

out his own trout. Some nice fish are being taken weighing from

3 to 5 lbs. Mr. Mackay, later, sent me a photograph of a two-vear-

old rainbow, length 25-! inches, girth 15J inches, weight 8 lbs. This

seems to be very exceptional growth. He remarked that the fish

was spawn-bound, and picked up dead. An Air Force officer records

that some rainbow were being taken in a river above which was a

waterfall having a sheer drop of 400 ft., only the upper waters had

been stocked, so this falls into line with the reports emanating from

Ceylon.

Here, then, is some of the evidence on the rainbow-steelhead

controversy, regarding which the reader can draw his own conclu-

sion s.

Probably a great deal more could be discovered concerning the

migration of these so-called rainbow. Members who are keen

anglers are scattered over the length and breadth of the country.

It seems quite possible that, if enquiries were made on rivers perhaps

386 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

hundreds of miles below preserved trout waters, they might result in

the identification of these wanderers, either after being trapped

in the village nets, or even caught on rod and line. If such an

event did occur, it would be of considerable interest to other anglers,

and a communication to the author would be greatly appreciated.

The problem to be solved is: where does the rainbow end? The

answer seems to be : in the sea, if he can ever get there — poor devil.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT,

BY

Edward G. Nichols.

This is the first attempt to make a list of all the species of birds

known to occur in Madura District, South India. The books on

the subject are all vague with regard to distribution and relative abun-

dance and altitudinal range, I hope these notes, which are a digest

of many volumes of notes, will help compilers of future books to be

a little more specific on. some of these matters.

Madura District has seen few ornithologists. The great pioneer

of South Indian birds, Dr. T. C. Jerdon, seems to have visited

Madura City once or twice on his way from Trichinopoly to Tiru-

nelveli, but he did not stop to collect here. Rev. S. B. Fairbank

and Capt. Horace Terry did good work collecting on the Palni

Hills, and the former also took a few specimens on the plains.

Mr. Salim Ali’s Travancore Survey worked along our western border,

and from his list I have borrowed all records for Kumili and for

Periyar Lake and its environs, because Madura District has about

half a mile of shore-line on the lake at a place called Thekadi near

Kumili. Others who have done bird work in the District and whose

specimens or records have helped me are : Major Campbell, on the

Palni Hills in the 1830’s; J. P. Cook, on the Palni Hills, at Kuruva-

nutthu, and at Thekadi from 1893 to 1896; R. F. Stoney, at Kodai-

kanal in 1899, and on the plains in 1903-4, 1915, and 1917; Dr.

C. B. Harrison, at Madura in 1907 ; S. H. Prater, on the High Wavy

Mts. in 1917; and C. McCann, on the Palni Hills in 1921. There

are some local specimens in the Zoology Dept, of the American

College, Madura. Mrs. Cantlay has sent me a good list of species

observed on the High Wavy Mts., and various friends have given

me occasional sight records. My own observations started in 192 1-3,

mostly at Kodaikanal. Since 1930, I have lived on the plains, stay-

ed at Kodaikanal several weeks each year, and visited briefly most

parts of the District. In my spare time I have accumulated all the

records I could with the use of binoculars.

Madura District is in the middle of Tamil Nadu. It extends

from 90 3P to io° 44' North, and its southern point is for a bird

only 102 miles from Cape Comorin. On its eastern side it is at

one point only 42 miles from Palk Bay. And its western point is

58 miles from the Indian Ocean.

While they are not sharply cut off from one another, there are

different kinds of bird habitat in the District, which we may dis-

tinguish as follows :

1. The Coromandel plains sweep into Madura District from

the north and east and south, and flow like a dry sea around the base

of the hills. Roughly two-thirds of the District is plains, almost

flat, but rising gently from 300 ft. above sea near Tirumangalam to

oyer 1,300 ft. at Kudalur in the Kambam valley. There is very

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLI V

little difference between the bird-life in different localities on the

plains, but four kinds of habitat may be noted :

(a) For a large part of each year, the plains are fairly dry.

Trees of many kinds are thinly scattered over them. The rainfall

averages as low as 26 inches at Palni, and much of it falls from

September to November. A bird partial to the dry plains only, is

the Yellow- wattled Lapwing.

(b) There are small areas of scrub jungle and bushy waste-land

on the little hills that rise here and there out of the plains, and at

the base of the large mountain masses. Most of the birds of the

dry plains are found in the scrub jungle in numbers, but the latter

is particularly the home of the Jungle Warbler, the Malkoha, the

Jungle Quail, and the Gray Partridge.

(c) Next there is the wet zone. If the north-east rains are

good, much of the area of the plains comes for the season temporarily

under this head, and all the irrigation tanks will have water in them

for three or four months. But, the rains are irregular, and so the

best place to look for the wet zone is on the lower Vaihai plains

near Madura City, which is served by the Periyar irrigation system

from about June 15th to March 15th every year. The wet rice fields

attract such birds as the Streaked Warbler, the Greater Spotted

Eagle, and the Marsh Harrier.

(d) A few large tanks within the irrigated area have water in

them for more than nine months of the year. Toward the end of

this period, they have a thick growth of lotus, water-weeds, and

sedges. Most of the water-birds naturally seek out such places, and

there we find the Water Hens, Cormorants, Storks, large Herons,

and Teals. But I have not yet found a heronry in the District.

2. Leaving the plains, we start up through the dry hill slopes ,

including the lower slopes of the Palni Hills where trees are small

and few, and also the Varusha Nadu or upper Vaihai valley, the

Andippatti Hills, the Sirumalai slopes, and the lower hills flanking

the Sirumalai. Peculiar to this zone are the Sirkeer Cuckoo and

the Pea Fowl.

3. Higher up, we come to the tropical rain-forest. It surrounds

Periyar Lake at the south-western corner of the District, and occurs

on the High Wavy Mts. It folds itself around the slopes of the

Kannan Devan Hills High Range, where Madura District includes

a corner of that range. From there north-eastward there are larger

or smaller blankets of forest on the Palni Hills, but the Lower

Palnis, on their 4,000-foot plateau, show the forest at its best.

And it jumps across the ten-mile gap of plains to rest again on

the summit of the Sirumalai. Where it is cultivated, this zone

has plantations of plantains, coffee, cardamoms, oranges, tea, etc.

Birds peculiar to it are numerous ; the Spotted Babbler, the Gold-

fronted Chloropsis, the Black-naped Flycatcher, the Malabar Wood

Shrike, the Racket-tailed Drongo, the Fairy Bluebird, the Grackle,

and the Trogon, are a few of them.

4. Finally, there are the temperate hill-tops. From about 5000'

up to the highest level in the District (8724' on the edge of the

Kannan Devan Hills) there are open downs varied with small

patches of woods called sholas. The rainfall is 65 inches yearly at

389

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

Kodaikanal. To this zone are confined such birds as the Kodai-

kanal Laughing* Thrush, the Shortwing, the Blackbird, the Red-

headed Warbler, the House Swallow, the Jungle Nightjar, and the

Painted Quail.

Considering the variety of life-zones in the District, it is not sur-

prising to find that 331 species occur here out of a possible total

of about 490 species in the whole of South India. Our great de-

ficiency is in water-birds, for Madura District has 77% of the land-

birds of South India, but only 45% of the water-birds.

The number of species found at each elevation in the District is

approximately as follows :

5,000' and above ... 141

3,000' to 5.000' ... 187

1,000' to 3,000' ... 195

Plains ... 204

Out of our 331 species, I guess that 210 are permanent residents

in some part of the District, 109 are winter visitors, and 2 (the

White Ibis and Black-necked Stork) are summer wanderers. Of

the winter visitors, some are water-birds that breed in winter, and

so the number of species that breed in the District is probably over

220. There are curious gaps in my records of some of the Munias

and Swifts, which may perhaps leave the District for part of the

year.

The length of stay of our winter visitors varies greatly. A few

species have been noted only in passage to and from Ceylon or

Tirunelveli District, and these swell the figures for March. It is

surprising to find that in an area so near the Equator the majority

of winter visitors spend 5J months in Madura District, from mid-

October to the latter part of March. The total number of winter

visitors found in the District during each half-month is:

In the following list, the English names are the briefest I could

find to distinguish the birds in our District from one another.

Tamil names have been printed only once, but apply to several

species in most cases. If a species has no Tamil name next to it,

the next previous Tamil name may be found applicable. The most

helpful man on this suhiect is Mr. Bonavis Bonnell, m.a., Lecturer

in Zoology at Madras Christian College.

In each case where I have used the third scientific name, I have

done so to indicate that specimens have been taken in Madura

District and the subspecies has been determined, Since the pub-

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

lished lists are not always clear on this point, I cannot vouch for

the accuracy of the determination in all cases. If no specimen from

Madura District has been scientifically determined, I have added a

note to show the nearest place where the subspecies has been deter-

mined from specimens.

Records in parentheses are those from nearby Districts which

improve upon the Madura District records, either in altitudinal range

or in duration of stay.

The following ‘farthest south’ records are found in this list:

Gray Babbler, Redstart, Orphean Warbler, Wire-tailed Swallow,

Short-toed Lark, Singing Bush Lark, Griffon Vulture* and Tawny

Eagle.

Corvus macrorhynchus. Black Crow. Tamil : Andan kakai, Karun kakai.

The subspecies is probably culminatus, which has been secured in Salem

Dist. and in Travancore.

Plains, and around Thekadi, 3000'. Fairbank also found this crow around

some of the villages of the Upper Palni Hills as high as Vilpatti, 5800 1. (In

the Nilgiris up to 7200'.)

Resident.

It ranks 8th in abundance among the plains-birds, and is about one-fourth

as numerous in my records as the House Crow. It avoids dense jungle, but is

more a bird of the open country and the edge of the village. Its voice is lower

in pitch than the House Crow’s.

Corvus splendens. House Crow. Maniyan kftkai.

Specimens of splendens have been taken in Trichinopoly Dist., and of

protegatus in Travancore.

Plains only. (It ascends the Nilgiri hills.)

Resident.

Ranks first among the plains-birds. It is found not only around houses,

but also in remote fields and along the shores of tanks.

Deodrocitfa vagabunda parvula. Indian Pie. Val kakai.

The subspecies vernayi has been taken in Salem Dist., and I suspect our

plains-birds belong to it.

Plains, and lower hills as high as 5000'.

Resident.

Fairly common, wherever there are sizable trees. As many as 10 may be

seen together. Its trumpet-like calls are various, most often of 2 or 3 ascend-

ing notes : ku-hee or ku-lo-hee.

Dendrocitta leucogastra. Southern Pie.

J. P. Cook took a specimen at Thekadi, 3000'. (In other districts, it occurs

in damp forests up to 5000'.)

Parus major stupae. Gray Tit. Pattani kuruvi.

From iooo' up to 7000/ in all the hills. (From sea-level at Madras.)

Resident.

Rare, usually found in tree-tops on the edge of forest. Its clear, loud notes

are somewhat less shrill than a Sun-bird’s, usually 3 notes in a phrase. '

Machlolophus xanthogenys travancoreensis. Yellow-cheeked Tit.

From 3000' to the top of the western hills. (Down to 2000’ elsewhere.)

Resident.

Fairly common, in parties up to 10 in number, in trees. Its notes are loud

and cheerful, usually of 3 syllables, much like the Gray-headed Flycatcher’s in

quality.

*P|-obnbly Long-billed Vulture ( G , indicus) Eds.

dccuihtkkCE of birds in Madura district

391

Sitta frontalis frontalis. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Pasai edukira kuruvi.

Hills, from the base (Fair bank), to the top.

Resident.

Common in forests of the lower hills, fairly common at the top. Often

found in groups of about 12, on the bark of large trees.

Garrulax delesserti. Wynaad Laughing Thrush. Pun kuruvi ..

The late Mr. F. Dawson found a nest near Pillar Rocks in 1935, and was

sure that the bird was a Laughing Thrush without a white eyebrow, J have

only one imperfect observation, also above 7000'. (Occurs in thick forest at

all elevations in other districts.)

Trochalopterum jerdoni fairbanki. Kodaikanal Laughing Thrush.

Western hills, from 3500' up. (As low as 3000' in the Anaimalais.)

Resident.

Abundant, ranking 3rd among Kodaikanal birds. Rev. S. B. Fairbank dis-

covered this subspecies at Kodaikanal in 1867. It skulks in thick shrubbery.

The notes are loud and ringing. The laugh is a deliberate har, har, liar. . . A

common call is ku-hi-yu , repeated several times. A low-pitched scolding resem-

bles that of the Red-whiskered Bulbul.

‘ Turdoides somerviilei malabartcus. Jungle Babbler. Thavittu kuruvi ,

Pandri kuruvi.

1 Birds of the eastern plains are noticeably paler, and probably belong to

the race orientalis, which has been taken in Mysore.

, Plains, and up to 6100' in the hills. (In other districts up to 6500'.)

Resident. Terry found a nest at Pallangi, 5500'.

Fairly common. Flocks of about 7 are found where there are plenty of

shade-trees and bushes on the plains. In the lower hills I have seen flocks

of about 25. On the plains, 1 have heard little screams, and a series of

squeaky whistles in descending scale. In the hills, the notes are much louder

and harsher, and remind one of fruit-bats.

Argya eaudata eaudata. Long-tailed Babbler.

Plains, and up to 1200' in the hills. Found near Atthur, near Nilakottai,

and scattered from these points south-westward to the foot of the High Wavy

Mts. (As high as 2500/ in Mysore.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in flocks of about 10, in scrub jungle or rows of bushes bet-

ween fields.

Argya malcolmi. Gray Babbler.

Lower Palni Hills, from 2800^ to 5000k This is the southern limit of the

species.

Resident.

Fairly common. Terry obtained a specimen on the northern slope near

Palni. In small flocks in open bushy places.

Argya subrufa. Rufous Babbler.

A specimen has been taken at Thekadi, 3000k Bunker and I saw three at

Pallangi, 5400k (In other districts it is resident from 200k)

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii travancoreensig. Scimitar Babbler.

Possibly our Sirutnalai birds belong to the form maderaspatensis , which has

been taken in Salem Dist.

From 1500' to the top of all the hills.

Resident.

Common at Kodaikanal. Found in underbrush and the lower branches,

in thick forest, often in parties of about 5. The 3 or 4 notes on the same pitch

are almost Barbet-like in tone. The call is a rattling note louder than that

of the Laughing Thrush.

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . NLIV

Dumetia Jiyperythra albogutaris. White-throated

From 1200' up to 4600' in the Palni and Sirumalai Hills- (In other districts

it occurs lower, and also as high as 6ooo'.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in small groups in dense thickets. 1 have heard a clear

whistled song of 7 notes, a tittering call, and a soft tac.k-tack like two

pebbles tapped together.

Chrysomina sinensis, Yellow-eyed Babbler.'

Specimens taken in Salem Dist. belong to the typical sinensis.

From the base of the hills up to 3800'. (In the JNilgiris as high as 0500k)

Resident.

Uncommon, but a little more common than the White-throated. Found in

parties of up to 8 birds, in scrub jungle. I have heard a low-pitched twittering

warble, some clear Iora-like whistles, and a low chirping.

PeUorneum rulicepg. Spotted Babbler. Saruhunni kuruvi.

Travancore specimens belong to the race granti, but those from Salem Dist.

are of the typical ruficeps.

From the base of the hills up to 6200k

Resident.

Fairly common. They are shy birds, seen singly in thick undergrowth usually

on the ground. A common call: ‘I’m right here’, is tiresomely repeated, like

an Iora. A song consists of loud clear notes in descending scale : ‘He did, he

did, he did do that’, repeated two or three times.

Alcippe poioicephala poioicephala. Quaker Babbler.

In the western hills from 2200' to 6000k (From the plains to 7000’ in other

districts.)

Resident.

Fainy common in my records, common on the High Wavy Mts. according

to Mrs. Cantlay. As many as 8 together, among the branches on the edge of

dense forest. The song is a cheerful, clear warble of about 10 notes, almost

oriole-like. ‘ ; - ?■■■■•

Rhopocichla atriceps board il look Black-fronted Babbler.

Hills, from iooo' to 5oook (In other districts as high as 6000k)

Resident.

Uncommon, found in groups of about 12, in dense thickets.

Aegithina tiphia multicolor. Iora. Mdmbala chittu.

The Central . Indian race, huinei , has been taken in Salem District) and

probably occurs on our plains.

Plains, and in the hills as high as 4800k (In other districts. as high as

55QP-)

Resident.

Common, in shady trees.

Chloropsis aurifrons. Gold-fronted Chlorppsis. Pachai kuruvi.

Salim Ali took specimens of the Ceylon race, insularis, in Travancore;

Western hills, from 1800' to 4000k (Elsewhere, from 200' to 4500k)

Resident. -

Rare, in thick trees.

Chloropsis jerdouL Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Plains, and up to 4800' in _ the hills, where Fairbank obtained a Specimeri

•and I also "have observed them well.

■ ' : Resident. -- - - ; ...

-Uncommon. Found usually in small flocks ill groves of -mango and other

thick trees.

Occurred ck ok kikbs in maHura bisikict

f\ imtcOis i uioidcs gancesa* Karuppu kondai kuruvi. Black Bulbul.

Western hills, from 2400' up to the hill-tops. (In other districts, as low as

the foot of the hills.)

Resident.

Common, in flocks of up to 40, in the tops of tall trees far from houses.

One call often heard is : chirp, chee-chee-chee.

Molpastes cafer cafer, Ceylon Bulbul. Kondai kuruvi.

Plains, and up- to 6500' in the hills near Kodaikanal.

Fairbank, Terry, and Dawson found it occasionally at the top..

Resident.

Abundant, ranking 4th among our plains-birds. Found wherever there are

small trees and bushes.

Otocompsa jocosao Red- whiskered Bulbul.

Specimens from Rameswaram and Travancore indicate that our subspecies

is juscicaudata.

At all levels on the hills only. (In Ramnad and Chingleput Districts it

occurs also at sea-level.)

Resident.

Abundant on the higher hills, being first on the, list at Kodaikanal. More

numerous than the Ceylon Bulbul in most places in the lower hills. At the

base, I have found it rarely in winter. Occurs in bushes in open places;

lole icterica. Yellow-browed Bulbul.

From 1000/ to 7200/ in the hills. (A specimen has been taken at sea-level on

Rameswaram Island by Biddulph.)

Resident.

Fairly common, in flocks of about 40, in tree-tops in forests.

Pycnoootus xantholaemui. Yellow-throated Bulbul.

Lower Palni Hills, from 2000' to 4000'. (As high as 5000' according to

Stuart Baker.)

Probably resident!

I had a good observation of a group of 4 in thick undergrowth on Sep. 18.

Rare.

Pycaonotus guiaris. Ruby-throated Bulbul.

Western hills, from 2400' to 3500'. (Records in other districts range front

the foot of the hills up to 3750'.)

Resident.

Rare, in thick undergrowth. ....... — ^

PycnotlotUS luteofus luteolus* Whited-browed Bulbul. Manjat- kondai kuruvi.

At Palni, I have seen this species on the plains 5 miles away from the

foot of the hills. On the thinly-wooded slopes of the Sirumalai, it is found

nearly up to 4000'. (Occurs at sea-level at. Madras.)

Resident.

Common in dense scrub, though it avoids observation by staying in the

center of bushes. The whistled notes are loud, tumbling,;, almost - explosive.

Microtarsus poioicephalus. Gray-headed Bulbul.

On the .Palni Hills between 2400^ and 3500 .{ (From 2000' to 40007 in

other districts.)

Resident.

Rare.. I have only 3 records, in the densest thickets.

Brachypteryx major albiventris. Shortwing. Kurun Jettai kuruvi.

From 5400' to the top of the Palni Hills. (In. Travancore. . it ..uccyrs . as low

as 3 Q0CL. )

- Resident. - .

394 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xiiv

Fairly common at Kodaikanal, where Rev. S. B. Fairbank discovered the

subspecies in 1867. It occurs in dense forest, in bushes, rarely higher than

10 feet above the ground. About sunset it comes out into the open more.

The song is higher and lighter than the Blackbird’s. In contrast with the

tame, mechanical effort of the Nilgiri Flycatcher, the Shortwing’s song is wild

and woody.

Tarsiger brunnea brunoea- Blue Chat.

My own record was at 1400' on the slope of the Lower Palni Hills. Salim

Ali took a specimen at Kumili, 3000'. (In other districts it occurs up to 5000'.)

Winter visitor. My record was on April 10. (Elsewhere it stays from

mid-October to May.)

Rare.

Saxtcola caprata nilgiriensis. Tied Bush Chat. Kallu kuruvi.

Specimens of the typical caprata have been obtained in Salem District, and

so it may occur in the north-eastern part of Madura District.

1 have seen birds on six occasions on the plains as low as 700', between

July 7 and September 12 only. Otherwise, it is confined to the hilltops, and

the open grassy slopes. (In Chingleput District, this species is found at sea-

level all year.)

Resident on the hills.

Abundant at Kodaikanal, ranking 6th in my records. Rare below 4000k

Phoenicurus ochruros. Redstart.

A specimen from the Nilgiris is assigned to the form rufiventris.

Plains, and up to 2800' in the Lower Palni Hills. (2900' in Mysore.)

Winter visitor, from Nov. 4 to Feb. 1. This is the southern limit of the

range.

Kare. The call is a rapid series of about 6 chattering notes with a little

squeak in them.

Saxicoloides fulicata futicata. Indian Robin. Kan kuruvi .

Fairbank secured a specimen at the eastern base of the Palni Hills. The

Pondicherry form, ptymatura, may perhaps occur on the plains in the eastern

part of the district.

Plains, and up to 2000' in the hills. (Up to 6000/ in other districts.)

Resident.

Common, especially in scrub jungle. The song is of 4 to 8 notes, shrill

whistles gliding into each other, more wiry and less varied than the Magpie-

Robin’s.

Gopsychus saularis. Magpie-Robin. Pdtkdri kuruvi.

Specimens from Salem District belong to the typical saularis, while those

from Rameswaram and Travancore belong to ceylonemis.

Plains, and up to 7000' in the hills, where a few are found at Kodaikanal.

Resident.

Common at the foot of the hills and in the lower hills, rare on the plains.

Found among heavy trees in well-watered places.

Kittacincla malabariea. Shama Thrush. Solai pddi .

Specimens from Salem District and from Travancore belong to the typical

form. / , .

Between 1000' and 2000k (Stuart Baker says 4000 is the upper limit.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in damp, dusky glades,— for example, along the pilgrim path

on Alahar Malai. The song has the strength and vivacity, and much of the

sweetness, of the Nightingale’s.

Tardus simillimus bourdiUooi. Blackbird. Harm kuruvi.

Palni Hills birds have the bill orange-red, the. eye-ring a little duller, and

the legs dusky-orange. Mr. Whistler says they are nearer to the Travancore

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 395

than to the Nilgiri race, simillimus. Dr. T. C. Jerdon said he had a speci-

men given to him by Major Campbell, who shot it on the Palni Hills, which

did not differ from the typical simillimus. Terry thought he observed also

the ' Black-capped subspecies, mahrattensis, and this is possible as a winter

visitor, because specimens have been taken in Travancore.

From 3000' to the top of the hills. (In other districts down to 2500'.)

Resident.

Abundant on the higher hills, ranking 9th at Kodaikanal. Found in trees

near houses, and also in remote sholas. One form of song begins with

5 descending notes at intervals of half a tone. Often there is a combination

of a long syllable next to a short one, as coo-leeee or Eva.

; >

Geokichla wardii. Pied Thrush.

From 4000' to 7000' on the western hills. (May occur also on the plains.)

Noted only in March in migration. (Judging by records from other districts

it should be found in October on its southward journey. Till April 7 in Mysore.)

Rare.

Geokichla citrina. White-throated Thrush*

The subspecies cyanotis has been taken in Salem District and in Travancore.

With S. K. Bunker, I saw one singing in a cardomom forest at 4200' in the

Lower Palni Hills. (From 2oof to 5000/ in other districts.)

Probably resident.

The song is clear, loud, and vigorous, with some phrases very high-pitched.

Oreocincla dauma neilghiriensis. Mountain Thrush.

Western hills from 5000" to 7000'. (From 2000' up in the Nilgiris.)

Resident. Terry found a nest at Kodaikanal on June 7th. Mrs. Cantlay

heard one singing on the High Wavy Mts.

Rare. I have seen only one.

Monticola cinclorhyncha. Blue-headed Thrush.

Western hills, from 3000' at Thekadi up to 7800' near Kodaikanal* (Down

to 2000' in N. Kanara.)

Winter visitor : October 23 to February 29. It should stay from early

October to March 25.)

Rare.

Monticola solitaria. Blue Thrush.

Travancore specimens belong to the panaoo race.

From 900' to 7000' in the hills. (I have seen it at sea-level at Cape

Comorin.)

Winter visitor, from September 28 to April 6, the latter by Bates. (April

21 is the departure date in Travancore.)

Rare. Single birds are fond of perching on rocks on the open slopes.

Myophonus borsfieldii. Whistling Thrush. Sikdram.

Western hills, from 1500' to 7500'. (In Travancore it occurs down to

500'.)

Resident.

Very common on the High Wavy Mts., according to Mrs. Cantlay. Fairly

common along streams in the lower hills elsewhere.

Muscicapa parva albicilla. Red-breasted Flycatcher. I pidippon.

Plains, and up to 7000' in the hills.

Winter visitor, from October 26 to April 4.

Rare in my experience, but Biddulph found it frequent. It is seen making

short dashes from the lower branches of trees in open places. I have heard

a long, somewhat squeaky, whisper-song ; also, a low chattering trill ; and a

double cluck like hitting together two stones.

6

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HlST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV

Muscicapula paiiipes palUpes White-bellied Flycatcher.

I have a few records in a dense grove along the Vaihai River near Karup-

patti, elevation 500', from November 10 to February 14. In the lower hills it is

found as high as 5500'. (Outside our district it has been noted as high as

6ooo'.)

Resident in the hills.

Uncommon, in undergrowth in thick woods. The song is high-pitched,

so emphatic it is a little squeaky, divided into phrases of as many as 9 notes.

I have heard 2 soft, tremulous notes, the second slightly lower in pitch ;

also a double call a little like the nasal call of the Paradise.

Muscicapula rubeculoides. Blue-throated Flycatcher.

The typical form has been obtained in Travancore.

I have seen only one bird, at 1500' on the northern slope of the Lower

Palnis, April 10. It was in woods, close to the ground. (In Ceylon it occurs

on plains and hills.)

Migrant. (Arrives in Ceylon in October.)

Muscicapula tickelliae tickelliae. Indian Blue Flycatcher.

1000^ to 5400^, and Fairbank recorded it also at the top of the Palni Hills.

(Elsewhere, it has been found down to 200' elevation.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in thick bushes in or hear forests. Its shrill song consists of

8 or 10 notes, a little richer in tone than the Gray-headed ’s, with a tendency

to rise toward the end.

Eumyias albicaudata. Nllgiri Flycatcher.

From 4200' to the top of the western hills. (In other districts it occurs

as low as 2000'.)

Resident.

Common at Kodaikanal, in the lower branches of large trees, and in

bushes in sholas. The call is a series of 4 or 5 sharp chip's.

Alseouax latirostris. Brown Flycatcher.

Plains, and up to 5000' in the hills.

Winter visitor, from July 29 to April 10 and rarely resident.

Fairly common, in trees. I have heard a weak whisper-song full of trills

and squeaks. The call is 3 or 4 chick’s in rapid succession, or a small, shrill

squeak.

Alseonax ruficaudus. Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.

Salim Ali took a specimen at Thekadi, 3000'. (In Travancore, the range

is from 2000^ to 3500' elevation, and the stay is from November 27 to

February 28.)

Alseonax ffluttui. Layard’s Flycatcher.

Specimens from Travancore are assigned to the typical race.

I have one probable record, in the Lower Palnis on April 10. (In Travancore

from 200' to 5500', between October and June.)

Ochromela nigrorufa. Black and Orange Flycatcher.

Western hills, from 4500' to the top. (As low as 2500' elsewhere.)

Resident.

Fairly common, in undergrowth in dense woods.

Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis. Gray-headed-- Flycatcher.

From 2600' to the top of the hills. (In other districts down to 1000'.)

Resident.

Common. Active in the middle branches and open glades of forests. The

head is not gray but dark-blue.

397

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

T.chiirea paradisi paradisi. Paradise Flycatcher. Val kuruvi.

Winter specimens from the Nilgiris have been assigned to the Himalayan

form, leucogaster.

Plains, and as high as 5500', where Terry found it at Pallangi. (In other

districts as high as 8ooo\)

Winter visitor, from September 21 to April 13. (September 18 to April 23

in Tanjore District.) In July and August I have found a few at the base

of the Sirumalai and Alahar Hills, where it is probably resident.

F'airly common, wherever therQ are shady trees. I have heard a song of

6 or 8 notes, somewhat low-pitched and squeaky. The call is a low, grating,

nasal note : queenk.

Hypothymis azurea styani. Black-naped Flycatcher. I pidippon.

Western hills, from 1200/ to 4300^. (In other districts from the plains up

to 5000'.)

My records fall between March 30 and June 22, but it is probably resident.

Uncommon, in thick undergrowth in forests. The song is clear but not

loud, consisting of about 8 notes, of which the 7th is the highest and most

emphatic. The call is a loud, excited, double squeak.

Leucocirca aureola. White-bro.wed Flycatcher. Visiri kuruvi.

Specimens taken in S. Arcot and Travancore belong to the race compres -

sirostris.

Paini Hills from 2700' to 4200'. (In other districts up to 6000^.)

Probably resident.

Rare, on thinly-wooded slopes.

Leucocirca pectoralis. White-spotted Flycatcher.

Specimens from Salem District and the Nilgiris belong to the typical form.

Terry called this far from common in the Putthur valley on the north

slope of the Paini Hills, but Mr. Whistler thinks this observation is unlikely

to be correct. (Up to 6000' in the Nilgiris.)

Lanius vittatus. Bay-backed Shrike. Kichdn kuruvi.

Plains, and up to iooo' on Naha Malai. (In Mysore as high as 3300'.)

Resident.

Fairly, common, especially among thorny bushes in dry open places. The

grating, scolding note is not as loud as the Rufous-back’s.

Laoius schach caniceps. Rufous-backed Shrike.

At all elevations.

Resident.

Common in open places, most numerous in cultivated areas on the piains

and in the upper hills. Seen mating on February 12 ; young birds well grown

on March 18.

Lanius cristatus. Brown Shrike.

The typical form has been taken in Salem District and in Travaneorefi

Plains, and as high as 7100' in the hills.

Winter visitor, from August to April 23. (April 27 in other districts.)

Fairly common, especially during migration, when as many as 10 may

be seen in a day. Perches conspicuously in open places. The harsh scolding

notes are louder and more persistent than the Rufous-back’s.

Hemipus picatus picatus. Pied Shrike.

Western hills from 2000' up. (Down to 500' in other . districts.)

Resident.

Fairly common, in tree-tops in forest. As many as 6 in a flock. ;

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola. Malabar Wood Shrike.

. 'Western hills from 2400^ to 4500^. (In districts to the west, it occurs from

the plains to 6000'.)

&>8 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society , Voi. xliV

Resident.

bncommon, in flocks oi: about 12, in thick trees. The call is of 2 whistled

notes followed by a. soft snarl on a lower pitch.

Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana. Small Wood Shrike.

Plains, and up to 1200' in the hills. (Elsewhere up to 5000'.)

Resident.

Fairly common in leafy trees, singly or in small groups.

Pericrocotus llammeus. Orange Minivet. Pot kuruvi , Mdmbala kuruvi.

Western hills, from the base to the summit. (Down to 200' elevation in

Travancore.)

Resident.

Common in the lower hills, fairly common at Kodaikanal, rare at the

base. Flocks are found in tree-tops in forests.

Pericrocotus peregrinus. Small Minivet.

Salem District specimens are the typical peregrinus, but those from Travan-

core are malabaricus.

Plains, and up to 5000' in the hills.

Resident.

Fairly common, in flocks of about 10, in tamarind and other leafy trees. In

flight, they give a constant chorus of high, feeble whistles.

Lalage sykesi sykesi. Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike.

Plains, and up to 4000' in the Palni Hills. (7000' in the Nilgiris.)

Winter visitor, from October 24 to April 14.

Rare resident. (Arrives October i5 at Tambaram.)

Fairly common in shady trees. The call is a lazy, buzzing snarl.

Graucalus javensis. Large Cuckoo-Shrike.

Specimens of the subspecies macei have been taken in Salem District and

in Travancore.

Plains, and up to 4000' in the Palni Hills, the latter according to Fairbank.

Probably resident. In the hills my records are from Jan. to July, on the

plains from November 12 to Feb 13. (Biddulph observed one on Rameswaram

in October.)

Uncommon, in trees. I have heard a call somewhat like a paroquet’s.

Artainus fuscus. Swallow-Shrike.

Plains, and at any elevation on the hills.

Resident.

Uncommon on the plains, fairly common between 4000' and 6000' in the Palni

Hills. Flocks of about 12 perch on open branches and soar in the open.

Dicrurus macrocercus. Black Drongo. Kari chan , Karuvattu vdli.

The subspecies peninsularis has been taken in Trichinopoly District, on Ram-

eswaram, and in Travancore.

Plains, and open slopes up to 4000' in the Putthur valley according to Terry.

(On the Nilgiri plateau it is probably a winter wanderer.)

Resident on the plains.

Abundant on the plains, ranking 3rd in my records. Terry found it common

on the slopes of the Palni Hills. Found in open country on conspicuous perches.

Dicrurus longicaudatus. Gray Drongo.

Plains, and hills as high as 7100'.

Winter visitor, from October 5 to March 30.

Uncommon, in mango groves, scrub jungle, and forests. The song, ku-kwik.

ku-ku, kwik, is less varied than the other Drongos’.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

399

Dicrurus coerulescens coerulescens. White-bellied Drongo.

Most records from the foot of the hills up to 4300'. (To 7000" in other districts.)

Resident in the hills.

Uncommon, usually found in scrub jungle. The notes are sweeter than the

Black’s, but not as loud or pleasant as those of the Bronzed.

Chaptia aenea malayensis. Bronzed Drongo,

Western hills, from the base to 5000'.

Resident.

Fairly common, in moderately heavy forest and along roads.

Dissemurus paradiseus maiabaricus. Racket-tailed Drongo. Erutthu valan,

Kondai kari chan.

Hills, between 2000' and 4000'. (Up to 7000’ in the Nilgiris.)

Resident.

Fairly common, but not as numerous as the Bronzed. Found in open spaces

under the leafy roof of the forest. Some of the notes are squeaky, but others

remind one of the Magpie-Robin or even the Shama.

Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens. Great Reed Warbler. Kosu kattai, Nunni

chirai.

Plains, and up to 6100' in the western hills.

Winter visitor, from September 24 to May 2. (Resident in Ceylon.)

Fairly common in bushes near water.

Acrocephalus dutuetorum. Olive Reed Warbler.

Plains, and up to 7000^ at Kodaikanal.

Winter visitor, from August 27 to April 20, but Terry’s Putthur specimen

was taken on June 26.

Fairly common, and more generally distributed than the preceding, in

grain fields as well as near water. Though not as loud as the chattering

calls of the Great Reed, the notes of the Olive Reed are more emphatic than

the similar calls of the Tree Warbler.

Orfhotomus sutorius. Tailor-bird. Thaiyal chittu , Pon chittu.

Specimens from Rameswaram and Salem District are placed in the Indian

race, guzurata, but those from Travancore' are closer to the Ceylon race,

sutorius.

Plains, and up to 5500' in the hills. (To 8ooo' in Ceylon.)

Resident.

Common in scrub jungle and plantations on the hills. Found only in moist

places on the plains.

Cistlcola exflis erythrocephala. Red-headed Warbler. Vayalan chittu.

Upner Palni Hills above 5500^. (As low as 3500^ in Mysore.)

Resident.

Fairlv common on grassy downs where there are few cattle, as around

the Kodaikanal reservoir. The first syllable is a nasal note like the twanging

of a taut rubber-band ; this is followed by a sweet double whistle.

Cisticola juncidis salimalil. Sveaked Warbler.

In the Wynaad and eastern plains, cursitans is the subspecies found.

Plains, and Salim Ali obtained the Travancore form at Kumili, 3000'. It

is possible that Terry also saw this species near Kodaikanal. (In other dis-

tricts as high as 7000'.)

Resident.

Fairly common, almost always seen in rice fields,

400 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Foh XLJF

Frankllnia gracilis albogularis. Gray-breasted Warbler. Kosu kattai, Nunni

chirai.

From 2700' to 4800' in the hills, and also one uncertain record on the

plains near Dindigul. (From sea-level in Geylon it ranges up to 5000' in

Travancore.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in tall grass or bushes near jiungle. The song is a series of

loud single chirp’s.

Schoenicola platyura. Broad-tailed Warbler.

Western hills, from 3000^ at Kumili up to 6800^ at Kodaikanal.

Resident.

Rare, on steep bracken slopes.

Hippolais caligata. Tree Warbler.

A specimen of the typical form has been taken at Cape Comorin.

At all elevations.

Winter visitor, from September 3 to April 30.

Common, in trees and shrubbery, usually singly. I have heard a low-

pitched, tuneless, chattering warble. The calls are a low chack, a chatter,

and a throaty rattle.

Sylvia hortensis. Orphean Warbler.

The subspecies jerdoni has been taken at Bombay.

I have observed several well, in scrub jungle on the plains near Them,

October 5 to March 22. This is the southern limit of its winter range.

Phylloscopus afflnis . Yellow-bellied Warbler.

5500' to 7100' on the Palni Hills. (As low as 2800^ in Mysore.)

Winter visitor, November 16 to April 25.

. Fairly common in some seasons, in trees. The call is a chack somewhat

like a Tree Warbler’s.

Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus. Greenish Warbler.

The Green Warbler, trochiloides , has also been taken in Salem District and

Travancore.

Plains and hills at all elevations.

Winter visitor, September 21 to May 20. (The Green Warbler has been

collected in Travancore in July.)

Common in tree-tops, especially during migrations. The song is a loud,

clear warble, ‘willowy, willowy, willowy*, up to about 16 notes.

Phylloscopus tnagnirostris. Large-billed Warbler.

Salim Ali found it at Periyar Lake, 3000'. (In other districts, from 2000'

to 4000'.)

Winter visitor. (November 15 to March 7 in Travancore.)

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis. Large Crowned Warbler.

Western hills, from 3000' at Kumili up to 7000' at Kodaikanal. (In Salem

District it has been recorded also on the plains.)

Winter visitor, from February 28 to April 21. (Arrives November 19 in

Mysore.)

Rare, in trees.

Prinia socialis socialis. Ashy Warbler.

Plains, and up to 7000' in the hills.

Resident.

Fairly common in grain-fields on the plains, common on bracken slopes

just below Kodaikanal,

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

401

Prinia sylvatica sylvatica. Jungle Warbler.

Plains, and up to 4700' in the Palni Hills.

Resident.

Common in scrub jungle at the base of the hills, rare elsewhere. A loud

triple note repeated several times, more emphatic than the similar double note

of the Tailor-bird.

Prinia inornata franklinii. Indian Warbler.

Specimens of inornata have been taken in Trichinopoly District-

Plains, and up to the top of the hills.

Resident.

Very common in grain-fields on the plains, and also on bracken slopes on

the Palni Hills. The song is rougher and more insect-like than that of the

Ashy; is usually starts with a little click : tlik. . . .

Irena puella puella. Fairy Bluebird. Pana kdra kuruvi.

Western hills, from the base up to 4200^. (To 5000/ in other districts.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in tree-tops in thick forest. The notes are loud and clear.

One bird repeated, ‘chip her’, over and over.

Orioius oriolus kundoo. Golden Oriole. Manjal koluppan.

Plains, and up to 4400' in the hills. (In other districts as high as 6000'.)

Winter visitor, from October 24 to April 13. (From September to June in

Cochin State.)

Fairly common, in trees along roads or in gardens. The song is a clear,

liquid rendering of the name ‘oriole’, but there are often 5 syllables and

some harsh notes as well. A single grating note is the one most often heard

in winter.

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatensis. Black-headed Oriole.

Hills, from the base up to 5000'. (From sea-level at Madras it ranges up

to 7000' in the Nilgiris.)

Resident.

Fairly common in heavy trees. A common call may be written krark.

Gracula religiosa indica. Grackle. Naiydndi kuruvi.

2500' to 5000^ in the hills. (Found also in the low country of Ceylon.)

Resident.

Common in tree-tops in plantations and light forest. In addition to the

loud clear cries, there are conversational notes which sound like Donald Duck’s

voice in the talkies !

Pastor roseus. Rosy Starling. Surai kuruvi, Cholam batchi.

Plains, and up to 3000' at Kumili.

Winter visitor, from October 21 to April 12. (In other districts the species

arrives in August and stays until May.)

Dense flocks contain up to 400 birds, and are found in open country and

fruiting trees. Fairly common.

Sturnia malabarica malabarica and S. m. blythii. Gray-headed Myna.

Specimens of both subspecies were taken by Cook at Thekadi.

Winter visitor to the plains from November 6 to March 10. (The Northern

form stays until April 9 in Travancore.) Probably the Southern form, blythii,

is resident at Periyar Lake.

Compact flocks are found in trees, like Starlings. Uncommon. In winter,

the commonest call is a mild single whistle, a little tremulous.

Temenuchus pagodarum. Brahmany Myna. Pdppatthi ndhanavay.

Plains, and occasionally on the High Wavy Mountains up to 5000'. (In

the Nilgiris the upper limit is 7000'.)

402 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Foh XL/F

Resident.

Fairly common in the Wetter portions of the plains, sometimes near houses.

Flocks of up to 60 are sometimes seen with Rosy Starlings in winter. The

song is soft and rambling, made up mostly of pleasant, warbling notes.

Acridotheres tristis tristis. Common Myna. Nahanavay.

Plains only. Fairbank thought that this species was common about villages

in the Lower Palnis at 4000', but I have found only Gray Mynas there on

frequent visits. (In Coorg the Common Myna wanders up to 3750' in company

with Gray Mynas in winter.)

Resident.

Second only to the House Crow on the plains, about houses and in remote

fields. Its falsetto laugh is a little sharper than the trill of the White-breasted

King- fisher. The syllables kee^dle often recur in the song.

Aethiopsar fuscus. Gray Myna. Kattu nahanavay.

The subspecies mahrattensis has been taken in Salem District and Travan-

core.

From 1000' at the foot of the hills, up to 7600' at Kodaikanal. In 1023

the species had not yet reached Kodaikanal but was found at Kavunji, 6400'.

By 1931 it was found as high as there are houses at Kodaikanal. (In Travan-

core it occurs down to sea-level.)

Resident.

Fifth in abundance in my Kodaikanal list, and abundant also in the lower

hills. It is a bird of villages and open places more than of jungle, and nests

in buildings as much as the Common Myna does. The notes are rougher and

less pleasant than those of the Common.

Ploceus phUippinus philippinus. Weaver-bird. Thiikkanan kuravi, Thonganat-

than.

Plains only. (The Travancore form ascends the hills to 3000'.)

Resident.

Common in many places, usually nesting in colonies, in coconut or thorn

trees. When grain is ripe, flocks of weavers give employment to many small

boys. Seen building nests from June 27 to September 19. Carrying flying

termites to nests on October 7. The most distinctive of its notes is a long,

wheezy whistle, as if the bird were drawing its. breath in.

Munia malacca raalacca. Black-headed Munia. Thinai kuruvi.

On the plains, at Dindigul and near the base of the Palni Hills ; and as high

as 7000' in the upper Palni Hills.

Resident, probably mainly in the hills. My plains records are on March 23

and between July 27 and Nov. 28.

Uncommon on the plains, fairly common according to Terry on the lower

slopes of the hills toward Palni, rare on the upper hills. In flocks in grain

fields. The flight-call is a triple chirp ; another note is a mild, plaintive, little

ink .

Uroloncha striata striata. White-backed Munia.

From 1000' in the rice fields at the base of the hills, up to 4700'. (From

the plains to 6000' in other districts.)

All my records fall between February 14 and November 20. Probably resident

in the lower hills.

Fairly common, in flocks of as many as 40.

Uroloncha kelaarti jerdoni. Rufous-bellied Munia

Plains, and up to 7000' at Kodaikanal.

Probably resident. I have seen only three flocks on the plains, in June,

December, and January. My records on the hills are in March, May, and

June.

Uncommon, in flocks up to 20. Call : a high-pitched, nasal squeak.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

403

Uroloncha tnalabarica. White-throated Munia.

Plains, and up to 6500' at Kodaikanal.

Resident. Seen building nests on Feb. 13.

The commonest of the plains-munias, occurring in flocks of as many as

60 birds. More fond of dry fields than other munias. Its notes are a twittering

cheeping, a plaintive little whistle, a sharp chip, and a triple chirp.

Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer. Spotted Munia.

Plains, and western hills as high as 6600'. (In the Nilgiris it occurs up

to 7000'.)

Resident. Seen carrying nest material from May 19 to August 27.

Fairly common, especially near water. The call is a brief, mild, rather

husky whistle : t’hee.

Amandava amandava. Red Munia.

The typical form has been taken in Mysore.

5500' to 6900' in the Palni Hills. (As low as 2000/ in Mysore.)

My four records and Terry’s one were all between April and June.

Rare. The largest flock contained 20 birds. I have heard a high-pitched,

musical twittering, and a husky squeak.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. Rose Finch.

3000' to 8000' on the western hills. (Also on the plains in other districts.)

Winter visitor, from February 1 to May 1. (Other districts, November 22

to May 2.)

Rare. I have heard a thin squeak gliding upward.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthocollis. Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Plains, and up to 900' on the Naha Malai. (Ascends to 4500' in other

districts.)

Resident.

Fairly common, in trees in farming areas. Flocks of hundreds gather in

ripening grain fields.

Passer dotnesticus. House Sparrow. Ur kuruvi, Adaikala kuruvi.

Specimens from Trichinopoly District and Travancore are of the race

indicus.

Plains. Fairbank recorded the species in villages up to 5000', but I have

not seen it above 1200' in the hills. (Occurs at all elevations in the Nilgiris.)

Resident.

Ranks .fifth in abundance among the plains birds. Found about houses

except when large flocks raid the grain-fields.

Riparia rupestris. Crag Martin. Thahaivildn kuruvi, Ney kuruvi.

Terry saw some at Putthur, about 6000' elevation in the Palni Hills. I have

only one doubtful record. (As low as 2000' in other districts.)

Perhaps a rare winter visitor.

Riparia concolor. Dusky Martin.

At Dindigul Rock, elevation 900', on the Naha Malai, and in the western

hills up to 6850'. (At all elevations in Travancore.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in groups of about 12 birds. The call is a soft grating sound.

Hirundo rustica. Eastern Swallow.

Subspecies gutturalis has been taken in Travancore.

Plains, and hills up to 1150' only. (In Mysore it occurs as high as 2900'.)

Winter visitor, from September 1 to April 19.

Common, flocks of thousands being seen on wires in October and April.

404 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Hirundo javanica domicola. House Swallow.

3000^ to the top of the western hills. (As low as 2000/ in other districts.)

Resident.

Common, ranking 10th in order of abundance at Kodaikanal. Often nests

on verandahs.

Hirundo smithii. Wire-tailed Swallow.

A specimen from the Nilgiris belongs to the race filifera.

Plains only. (In other districts it occurs up to 5000'.)

Winter visitor, December 20 to March 19.

Rare. I have seen it near Madura City, which seems to be the southern-

most record of the species.

Hirundo daurica. Red-rumped Swallow.

The subspecies erythropygia has been taken in Trichinopoly District and

Travancore.

Plains, and as high as 6000' at Top Station. (In other districts as high as

8000'.)

Resident.

Uncommon, but sometimes as many as 60 in a flock, over towns or in wild

places. I have heard a loud, low-pitched note like che&r , and a sparrow-like

chirp, and a more nasal queenk.

Motacilla alba. White Wagtail. Vannatthi kuruvi, Kulatthu kuruvi.

The race dukhunensis has been obtained in Travancore.

Plains only, at Dindigul and Batlagundu. (Up to 5000' in other districts.)

Winter visitor, December 1 to March 4. (Arrives in November in other districts.)

Rare, beside tanks.

Motacilla maderaspatensis. Pied Wagtail.

Plains, and up to 7500' in the hills.

Resident.

Fairly common at tanks and ponds. When there is no water elsewhere, they

enjoy even the iron water-tanks at railway stations. The clear whistled notes

are sometimes run together rapidly in a brilliant song.

Motacilla cinerea. Gray Wagtail.

The race caspica has been taken in Salem District and Travancore.

All elevations.

Winter visitor, from August 27 to May 7. On the plains, it occurs chiefly

during migrations. (In neighbouring districts, August 21 to May 22.)

Common on the hills.

Motacilla Hava beema. Gray-headed Wagtail.

A local specimen seems to be beema , the Blue-headed, race. The Grey-

headed, thunbergi, and the Short-tailed, simillima, have both been taken in

Travancore.

Plains. (J. B. Primrose saw a flock of the Short-tailed at 5000' in Travan-

core.)

Winter visitor, September 15 to April 26.

Abundant in wet fields. Flocks contain up to a thousand birds. I think

most of them are Gray-headed. The notes are rougher than the clear, shrill

whistles of the Gray Wagtail, and also a bit plaintive.

Motacilla citreola. Yellow;-headed Wagtail.

Specimens of M.c. werae have been taken in North Kanara.

Plains, at Batlagundu, December 20. (Up to 2000' in other districts.)

Rare winter visitor.

Dendronanthus indicus. Forest Wagtail.

3000" at Kumili up to 7000' at Kodaikanal. (As low as 200/ in Travancore

and Cochin.)

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

405

Winter visitor. My only record is October 23. (Arrives September 19 in

Mysore; departure date in Travancore is April 21.)

Rare.

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit. Pul kuruvi.

5200' to the top of the Palni Hills. (As low as 2000' elsewhere.)

Winter visitor, October 25 to May 4. (Arrival date outside our district is

September 19.)

Fairly common under thick trees into which it flies when alarmed.

Anthus nilghiriensis. Nilgiri Pipit.

4000' to the top of the Palni Hills. (Down to 3000' in Tinnevelly District.)

Probably resident.

Fairbank and Terry called it common and secured specimens, but I find it

hard to identify. Found on the open downs.

Anthus similis. Rufous Pipit.

The typical form has been taken in Travancore.

6000' to the top of the Palni Hills, according to Hume, but neither Fairbank

nor Terry found it here. I have only 3 probable records, above 5500^. (In

Travancore it occurs as low as 3500'.)

Probably resident.

Rare. In 1937, I called this species fairly common, but I now think most

of the Kodaikanal birds are Indian Pipits.

Anthus richardl. Siberian Pipit.

Specimens of the typical form have been taken in Travancore.

Plains only. (Also in the hills in adjacent districts.)

Winter visitor, October 21 to April 12. (In other districts until May.)

I suspect it to be fairly common, but do not often dare to identify it unless

native pipits are present for comparison.

Anthus rufulus malayensis. Indian Pipit.

Specimens were taken by Fairbank. The form found on the plains is more

likely rufulus , specimens of which have been taken in Salem District and on

Rameswaram.

Plains, and as high as 7000' at Kodaikanal.

Resident.

Common in grassy meadows and open fields. The song is a series of 5 to

20 clink's, often given in flight. The call is a thin, high whitsle.

Anthus thermophilus. Daurian Pipit.

Plains only. (As high as 2500^ in Mysore.)

Winter visitor, from November 22 to March 27.

Uncommon, on the ground in fallow fields and waste places, in flocks of

about 20.

Alauda gulguta. Sky Lark. Vanambadi.

Specimens of australis have been taken in Travancore, and of gulgula in

Ceylon.

On the plains, it is found throughout the better-watered parts of the Vaihai

and Kambam valleys. On the hills, it occurs on grassy hill-tops.

Resident.

Fairly common where found on the plains, common on the downs on the

upper hills. The song has trills, long-drawn whistles, rapid staccato passages,

metallic clinks, all in a continuous stream of sound lasting several minutes,

during which the bird is fluttering slowly upward on a slant.

Calandreila brachydactyla. Short-toed Lark.

The subspecies dukhunensis has been taken on the Godavari delta.

Plains, near the Vaihai River. This is the southern limit,

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Fairly sure records extend from October 31 to March 8.

Uncommon. I have several times seen large compact flocks that were

too shy to approach. I have heard a brief song of 6 or 8 chip's, slightly musical.

The call is a single, soft, querulous note.

Mirafra javanica. Singing Bush Lark.

The race cantillans has been taken in Bhopal.

Plains, where I have one record near Viruppakshi, latitude io° 28'. (Stuart

Baker says the species occurs as far south as Travancore, but Whistler finds

no definite records south of Mysore.)

Winter visitor, February 12.

Mirafra affinis ceylonensis. Madras Bush Lark. Pul vanambadi.

The specimen which Fairbank secured at Periyakulam belongs to the Ceylon

raee, but the birds of our eastern plains may be affinis, the eastern Madras form.

Plains. (In other districts as high as 5000'.)

Resident.

Common in open grassy fields. The song consists of about 12 thin notes

on one pitch.

Qalerida malabarlca. Crested Lark. Kondai vanambadi.

5500' to 7500' on the Palni Hills. (As low as 2000^ in other districts.)

Resident.

Uncommon, on open downs.

Ammomanes phoenicura. Rufous-tailed Lark. Vanambadi.

The typical form has been taken in Trichinopoly and Coimbatore Districts.

Plains, and small hills up to noo'. My southernmost record is at Kalluppatti

near Tirumangalam. (Rameswaram is the only place where the species has

been recorded farther south. As high as 2800^ in Mysore.)

Winter visitor, September 12 to April 19. (Biddulph’s Rameswaram records

cover the period from May to October, suggesting that our birds migrate east-

ward to the coast during the southwest monsoon. Resident in Mysore.)

Uncommon, found in dry, rocky places, often singly. I have heard a flight-

song of about 10 syllables, a bit husky and low-pitched. The calls are a sweet,

thrush-like tee-hoo, and a low, husky whistle, and a low chirp.

Eremopteryx grisea grisea. Ashy-crowned Lark. Manal vanambadi.

Plains, and up to 1200' on rocky hillocks. (In Ceylon it occurs up to 7000'.)

Resident.

Common on the ground in dry places. A prolonged, mournful, clear whistle,

together with a sweet little trill, make up the song, given while the bird soars

and dips over a limited area.

Zosterops patpebrosa nllgiriensis White-eye. Kannadi kuruvi.

Specimens of the race salimalii have been taken on the Shevaroys.

1200' to the top of all the hills. (In Ceylon it occurs also in the low

country.)

Resident.

Abundant on the upper hills, coming second only to the Red-whiskered

Bulbul. Common on the lower hills. One flock at the foot of the hills in

December. Found in flocks in trees and bushes. The song is a very light,

fairy-like warble with a slight huskiness in it.

Cinnyris lotenia. Maroon-breasted Sunbird. Pun chittu , Then chittu.

Plains. (Elsewhere the species occurs up to 5500^.)

Fairbank secured a specimen years ago at the foot of the Palni Hills on

June 5, and I saw one at Dindigul on November 26.

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica. Purple Sunbird.

Plains, and as high as 5300' in the hills. (To 8000' in the Nilgiris.)

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 40?

Resident.

Common around flowering trees and bushes. ,

Cinnyris minima. Small Sunbird.

2400' to 7200' on the western hills. (In Travancore the species descends to

the toot of the hills.)

Resident in the lower hills. At Kodaikanal all my records come after

May 13.

Fairly common. The call is a shrill chirp.

Cinnyris zeylonica. Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Plains, and into the hills as high as 7000' at Kodaikanal.

Resident, at least on the plains.

Very common on the plains, fairly common on the lower hills, one record

at Kodaikanal. I have noted as . many as 60 in a day.

Arachnothera longirostra longirostra. Spider-hunter.

1300' to 7000' on the western hills. (On the west coast it is also found in

the low country.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in undergrowth near the edge of forest. The call is a loud,

shrill cheep.

Dicaeum concolor concolor. Plain Flower-pocker. Fun kotthi.

On the plains, I have one record at Periyakulam, 3^ miles from the foot

of the hills. It occurs at all elevations on the western hills.

Resident.

Very common, ranking 7th among Kodaikanal birds. Found in tree-tops,

especially where there are parasitic plants. In addition to its familiar check

calls, it sometimes gives a rapid series of tick's.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos. Pink-billed Flower-pecker.

Plains, and Fairbank collected one on the side of the Palni Hills. I have

seen a few at 6900' at Kodaikanal.

Resident.

Fairly common in thick trees. I have heard it give a high-pitched series

of notes like mouse-squeaks.

Piprisoma agile. Thick-billed Flower-pecker.

Specimens of the typical race have been taken on the Nilgiris and in

Travancore.

Plains, and lower hills up to 4000'. (In other districts up to 7000'.)

Resident, but March 16 is my only plains record.

Rare.

Pitta bracbyura. Pitta. Am mani kuruvi.

Plains, and up to 5000' in the hills. (To 7000' on the Nilgiris.)

Winter visitor, from October 10 to April 10, but Mrs. Cantlay reports that

cne spent most of a hot season in her garden on the High Wavy Mountains.

Rare, on the ground near thick trees.

(To be continued)

NEW RECORDS OF FISH FROM POONA.

BY

M. SUTER, D. SC.

In the last April issue of the Journal (Vol. xliii, No. i, pp. 79-91,

1942), Capt. A. G. L. Fraser, I.M.D., published the first part of his

account of the fishes found in the waterways at Poona, and, besides a

general account of the extensive collections made by him in 1936-1937,

gave descriptions of localities with lists of fishes collected from each.

Dr. S. L. Hora very kindly sent to me the type-scripts of the remain-

ing two parts3 of the series and suggested that I should supplement

Fraser’s list by making further collections of fishes from different

localities at various seasons. I was further informed that special

efforts should be made to collect small, bottom-dwelling forms from

among the rocks. Although Fraser had collected representatives of

54 species, including Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton) which was collect-

ed but not sent to the Indian Museum for determination owing to the

large size of the specimens obtained, the expectation of ample

scope for further collecting was fully justified by the 17 new records

of species from this area.

In the course of my collecting, the following localities were

repeatedly visited :

1. The part of the Mutha river between Kadhakwasla Lake and the village

of Wadgaon, forming a stretch of about 3 miles of rocky oh gravelly runs

alternating with pools of some size. The banks of the latter are partly loamy,

partly rocky, the bottom being mostly hard and often bouldery. The right

bank is covered with heavy bush and tree vegetation, partly orchards, whilst

the left bank is more open. Some of the pools are fairly weedy along the

banks.

2. The part of the Moola river between Fitzgerald bridge and the village

Kharadi, about 4 miles further east;^ this being in the main a rocky and

bouldery stretch, with several broad pools, shallow in the dry season and

intersected by little rocky runs.

3. The stretch extending between a point 1 mile above the confluent of

the Bliima and Moola rivers to Wadgaon village, some 5 miles east of the

confluent, i.e., downriver. This region is a succession of large and partly

deep pools, united by shallow runs and ending in the great pool of Wadgaon,

over 2 miles long and 100- 150 yards wide, after which the river runs through

a rocky chasm or ‘Khund’ about a mile long. Through this the river runs

with a terrific turmoil during the rains, but, at the time of my visit, this

rocky part was SQ dry as to be unsuitable for collecting.

The banks on this stretch are high and much eroded by floods. They are

partly composed of sandy loam, partly they are Deccan trap rock, and the

bottom is sandy in parts, rocky or bouldery in others. The high banks are

fairly densely covered with babul jungle, interspersed with such typical Deccan

plants as Cappari* aphylla, Cassia auriculata, Cryptotegia grandi flora , Ficus

glomerosus, Nim and Tamarind, the latter forming shady groves, planted by

the Forest Department.

The dry weather shoreline shows the usual mixture of Tamarisk, sedges, lillies

and coarse grass. There is little aquatic vegetation, as this would be swept

off annually by the floods.

4. A visit was paid to the Indrayani river at Kalumbre village, below the

sacred pool of Dehu, a fish sanctuary teeming with large carp and mahaseer.

These have since been published in Vol. xliii, No 2 of the Journal (p. 218).

NEW RECORDS OF. FISH FROM POONA 409

It may be stated at the very outset that no attempt at general

collecting was made in the localities i and 2; this having already

been done by Capt. Fraser. Attention was, however, focussed on the

procuring of species not contained in his collection.

Locality No. 1 produced Barillas gatensis (Cuv. and Val.), new to

Poona, Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) as well as Glyptothorax madras -

patanum (Day) and Osteochilus nashii (Day). The latter two were

mainly procured by dismantling, under a net, large heaps of stones

or ‘killas’ laboriously built by the local Kolis. Cirrhina reba (Ham.)

was also collected here, as well as Garra gotyla (Gray),.

Locality No. 2 yielded the interesting novelty Mystus bleekeri

(Day), numbers of Glyptothorax madraspatanum (Day) and a speci-

men of Nemachilus evezardi (Day), several examples of Nemachilus

anguilld Annandale were also collected in this stretch, all being

supplementary to the Fraser collection.

A general collection, yielding over 40 species, was made in the

locality No. 3, as the large and deep pools were expected to provide

an asylum for many species, which habitually retire from the

vicinity of Poona, where rivers become very shallow after the rains.

This assumption proved to be correct, in as much as. the pools

were found to be well stocked with large specimens of various

Labeos, notably Labeo kawrus (Sykes), Barbus jerdoni (Day),

Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes), Murrels., Proeutropiichthys

taakree (Sykes), Rohtee vigorsii (Sykes), Bagarius bagarius (Ham.),

and plenty of various Chelas and Rohtees, all of which were caught

in large numbers. Curiously enough, Wallangonia attu (Block) did

not materialise, but is undoubtedly present.1

From the point of view of my collection, the locality yielded the

following interesting species :

Garra bicornuta Rao, Schismatorhynchus nukta (Sykes), both

very uncommon and curious fish; Glyptothorax annandalei Hor a

and Mystus montanus (Jerdon); all in rocky and bouldery situations

where there was a flow.

The pools contributed Aspidoparia morar (Ham.), Labeo ariza

(Ham.), Labeo kawrus (Day) and Laubuca laubuca (Ham.) as addi-

tional novelties. Mystacoleucus ogilbii (Sykes) occurs in numbers.

Mystus montanus frequents rocky places, where it is said to

reach enormous size. The local Kolis have traditions of epic fights

between such giants and the local croc, here called ‘soosir’, which

they relate with great jgusto. The local opinion attributes the

cause of these contests to competition for the possession of under-

water caves, of which both these monsters are said to be fond.

The pools are richly stocked with Rita hastata (Val.), Rita

pavimentata (Val.) and large Mystus aor (Ham.); but this season

few Mahaseer were caught, all of the stocky and high backed type,

now classified by Dr. Hora as a separate species, Barbus (Tor)

mussullah (Sykes.).

The gravelly runs yielded specimens of the two Barilius already

procured at Poona and large numbers of Nemachilichthys ruppelli

(Sykes) and Nemachilus anguilla Annandale.

1 It fias since been collected. (M.S.)

410 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

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4i2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

The material was very kindly examined by Dr. Hora thus

permitting the compilation of the list of species supplementing

those contained in (Japt. Fraser’s collection,

Species marked with an asterisk (*) are novelties, not having-

been previously recorded from the Poona region ; the others, though

not obtained by Fraser, are already known to occur in these waters.

I am aware that this number does not cover the entire fish

fauna of Poona, which may yield further surprises, quite apart

from being known to embrace various species not yet collected by

Capt. Fraser or by myself. I allude, amongst others, to such species

as Barilius evezardi Day, Rasbora rasbora (Ham.), Barbus parr ah

Day, Nemachilus moreh (Sykes) and other previous records.

Significance of new finds.

My attention was drawn by Dr. Hora to the zoo-geographical

significance of some of the species collected, especially of the novel-

ties now recorded for the Poona region, which enable a hydrographic

link to be established with some far distant regions.

Alluding to such species as Osteochilus' nashii (Day), Barilius

gatensis (Cuv. & Val), Garra bicornuta Rao, Glyptothorax annandalei

Hora, Mystus montanus (Jerdon), Dr. Hora pointed out;

‘Your collections have brought to light an organic palaeo-hydrographic con-

nection between the faunas of the bombay section of the Ghats and its

southern portion. From a zoo-geographical point of view it is of very great

interest indeed and supports the views I have been recently expressing regarding

the origin of the fauna of Peninsular India.’

Commenting on the distribution of certain species collected by

Capt. Fraser, Dr. Hora and Mr. Misra remarked :

‘The occurrence of Schizmatorhynchus Bleeker and Mystacoleucus Gunther

is of special significance; besides in the Western Ghats, the former is found

only in the Malay Archipelago, while the latter is found in Burma, Siam,

Malaya, etc., but nowhere else in India. These two genera show the Malayan

affinities of the fauna of this part of the Western Ghats. Labeo boggut (Sykes)

has also been recorded from tfie Malaya, but this requires further confirmation.’

The extended distribution of Laubuca laubuca (Ham.) and

Mystus bleekeri (Day) gives further support to these views.

It is intended to continue collections and eventually to draw

within their scope the headwaters of some of the local rivers in

the Ghat region, where interesting material might be expected.

Remarks to Dr. Fraser's articles on Fishes of Poona.

The following comments and addenda to these articles may be

of some interest:

Part i. Fish of Lake Fife. The secret of catching mahaseer

in this lake is to drag a 2-3 inch spoon through a shoal of fish, as

they chase chilwas on the surface.. They do this most often on a

calm day before noon and after 4 p.m. Mere blind trolling is not

conducive to results, besides being extremely boring.

I have caught mahaseer upto 12 lbs in this lake and seen larger

ones. Catches of netting by fishermen I inspected consisted of the

following : Barbus (Tor) khudree , Barbus dobsoni-jerdoni , Rohtee

vigor siit W allagonia attu. Chela phulo and Chela boopis, Labeo

boggut and Cirrhina reba. Murrel are also present.

NEW RECORDS 6t FISH FROM ROOF A . 413

Floating aquatic plants in the Mutha-Moola rivet'.

Water cabbage (, Pistia stratiotes) and water hyacinth (Pptenderia

eras sipes) sometimes form compact meadows above dams and rocky

places, or in quiet bays, but get swept away by the iirst monsoon

tlood.

Number of species in the region. r

I agree with Dr. Fraser that the number of 143 species, said

to be recognised by local fishermen, is highly exaggerated. These

men often nave separate designations for juveniles and adults, and

make other arbitrary distinctions.

The total number of species is probably well under 100.

Pari 111.

Chela. Judging by many catches of professional netters during

a period of 8 years, Chela phulo is the most abundant species and

is often caught by many hundredweights. This is never the case

with Chela clupeoides.

After a violent thunderstorm these fish swim about in dense

shoals on the * surface in a semi dazed condition, f together with

other fish, when very large catches are made by netters. The fish

are very distressed and are finally washed ashore in a dying corn

dition in many hundreds. On such occasions I have found amongst

the defuncts quite large specimens of B. kolas , B. dobsom-jerdoni f

B. sarana and W allagona attu as well as various labeos,

Danio aequipinnatus , Past) ora daniconius and Barbus lie to are

numerous in pools of the Mutha river 5 miles below the lake. Here

Barbus ticto is generally pale golden yellow with bright red fins,

and often a bright pink gloss over the body,

Garra mullya is indeed a very common bottom fish, but the

designation Nukta mullya does not correctly apply to it, but to

Garra bicornuta and sometimes is used also for Garra gotyla .

Schismatorhynchus nukta (Sykes). The Indian name would be

more correctly spelled Dotondee i.e. ‘two-mouthed’ from ‘tond’ =

mouth.

This remarkable fish is indeed not common. It frequents by

preference very bouldery spots with some current, where they are

very difficult to net. Its maximum weight appears to be about

3 lbs. Old males can be very gaily coloured, every scale having a

bright pale pink gloss and an apple green margin. Some of the

scales may have a bright red centre. The tips of the snout and of

the nose are bright vermilion and the inside of the ‘Schisma’ is

also bright red. The upper parts of the liead are dark purple and

the sides of the head have zones of lemon yellow and apple green,

with a golden gloss on the gill covers, a remarkably gaudy com-

bination*

Cobitidae. Most of these appear to dig themselves into fine

gravel with the greater part of their bodies, and are there often

caught in large numbers by the ‘locals’ who pronounce their taste

as excellent, but complain about their intestines being often full

of sand.

Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes). These fish retire with

various others after the monsoon floods into large pools 30-40 miles

414 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NLIV

below Poona, where I have seen specimens weighing upto 15 lbs.

They will occasionally take a spoon.

Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) I have observed these in lake Fife.

The commonest name for this fish is ‘Kutta’.

Ambassis ranga. Is very common below Fitzgerald bridge when

the river is in flood. The pools of the Mutha river hold this fish

at any time in fair numbers.

Acknowledgments.

Above all, my gratitude is due to Dr. S. L. Hora for very kindly

examining and classifying the material collected, in spite of his

heavy and pressing engagements, and for much valuable advice and

information.

Warmest thanks are also due to Mr. S. H. Prater, Curator,

Bombay Natural History Society, whose valuable advice and help

were ever readily given.

Most of the success in practical collecting is due to my shikaree

Haribhao Koli, whose expert knowledge of the habits and habitat

of the local fish is considerable, and whose help in securing the

willing co-operation of local fishermen was invaluable.

j | ^ ; ■ i;mgm ;mm- | B *Hg

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

BY

D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s.

Part XIL

( Continued from page 87 of this Volume)

RHOPALOCERA

pAPILIONIDAE

Graphium doson Fldr., eleius Fruhs.

Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 364, pi E,

figs. 2, 2a. 1890.

Moore, Lep. Ind.f v, 1 and 4, pi. 467, figs. 1, xa, pi. 468. figs. I,

1 a. 1903.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind.y Butterflies, ii, 107. 1907,

Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr . Rhop.y ix, 96. 1909.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind.y Butterflies, i, (2nd edit.), 222, pi. t,

figs. 20, 21. 1939.

Half-grown larva—Head honey colour. Body a velvety nigger

brown, rather darker at the beginning of the instar and paler at the

end. A sublateral white stripe from 6th to anal somite, where the

stripes on each side are joined by a wide transverse band. Thoracic

somites each with a black, short-branched, subdorsal spine. 12th

somite with a white, short-branched, subdorsal spine, but closer

together than the thoracic series. Legs nigger brown. Prolegs

and anal claspers white. Venter pale nigger brown from 1st to 6th

somite and whitish thereafter. Shape with the thoracic somites much

swollen, the 3rd largest, and then tapering towards the tail.

Penultimate instar-— -The spines on the 2nd and 3rd somites

unbranched, otherwise similar to previous instar. The colour

often a pale bronzy green.

Full-grown larva— Head pale bluish green, slightly retractile.

Colour leaf green, a sublateral white stripe from 6th somite back-

wards, but not joined by a transverse bar across the anal somite.

Legs, prolegs and venter pale bluish green. A distinct sublateral

fringe of short, white bristles. Spiracles whitish edged by a fine

black line. Shape similar to previous instars, but the spines on the

1st and 2nd somites absent and that on the 3rd reduced to a raised

black dot in the centre of a black-ringed, yellow spot. 1st somite

with a transverse black line across the osmeterium pouch, which is

slightly angled subdorsally. Osmeterium pale bluish green and only

extruded reluctantly. Some larvae are a distinct bronzy green, in

which case the tubercles on the thorax ^nd anal somite seem slightly

larger.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Shape

head truncate, with a very short conical projection in front of each

eye. Thorax with the keel developed into a forward-pointing horn,

extending frontally to above the front edge of the head. A slight

projection at the origin of the wing cases. Body fairly wide across

the wing cases and then tapered to the cremaster. Colour pale

watery green. A dark purplish median line from the posterior edge

of the head to the apex of the thoracic horn. A raised yellow line

from the tip of the thoracic horn along the upper edge of the wing

case and then continued to the cremaster as a sublateral line.

A slightly curved, whitish, subdorsal line from the cremaster to the

origin of the thoracic horn, where the two lines join, this line edged

above with dark green which gives it the appearance of being

raised. The cuticle very coarsely and deeply punctate, the punctures

above the sublateral lines filled in with dark green and forming

faint, oblique, dark stripes between the sublateral and subdorsal lines,

the punctures on the dorsum also filled in with dark green but not

forming stripes. A pupa found wild under the coping' of a white-

washed wall, had the ground colour a greenish-grey, the subdorsal

and sublateral lines brownish purple, the oblique lateral stripes brown-

ish purple, an indistinct brownish purple dorsal line and brownish

purnle specks on the head, thorax and wing cases.

Food-plant — Polyalthia longifolia W all, and Michelia champaca L.

Talbot gives Cinnamomum, Polyalthia and other Anoriaceae.

Described from a number of larvae found in Calcutta in October

1942, one of which pupated 13-X-42 and a female emerged 24-X-42.

The first of the two references of Moore is for the Southern

Indian and Ceylonese race, then known as jason Lv the second is

for the race axion Fldr. from Kumaon to Burma. Jordan’s description

applies to the species generally, and is as follows : —/Larva black

or green, the spines of the mesonotum absent and those of the

third pair reduced to tubercles. Pupa varies in colour according*

to its environment ; angles of the head distinctly projecting, thoracic

horn bent forwards, gradually pointed, the tip itself rounded, the

carinae of the horn sharp and straight.’ The same description bv

Davidson & Aitken is quoted under eleius by Talbot and under jason

by, Bingham, this is as follows: — -‘larva very like that of G.

agamemnon L. , but the second pair of spines is entirely wanting and

the third pair, which in agamemnon is rather long, curved and sharp;

is reduced in this species to mere knobs encircled with a black ring.

The colour is generally black or smokv until the last moult and then

dull green, inclining to rusty brown on the sides, but some of our

specimens remained quite black till the end. Pupa — the distinguish-

ing mark of the pupa is again in the frontal horn, which is straight

as in agamemnon, but directed forward instead of being almost

erect. Its colour is normally green, but varies with that of the

object to which it is attached.’ Bingham adds, under axion. that

the larva and pupa are very- similar to those of jason, but that Moore

figures the larva with a red lateral spot on the 3rd segment. Talbot’s

figures, are not very life-like. My pupae were formed on leaves

and on the dark, rusty sides of a large tin, but, in spite of the

remarks quoted above, all were pale green.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

417

Lycaenidae.

Chilades laius Cr., laius.

Moore, Cat. Lep. E. I. Co., i, 21, pi. 12, fig", ia. 1857.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 366. 1907.

Pupa of the usual Lycaenid shape, short, head and anal end

obtuse, the thorax and abdomen rounded with a slight depression

between the two. Formed on a leaf of the food-plant on a mat of

white silk and supported by a girdle. Colour bright leaf green, a dark

dorsal line on the abdomen, pro-thorax with a median black streak,

a black dot in the centre of the meso-thorax and another lateral

dot above the edge of the wing case, a lateral black dot on the

meta-thorax and 1st abdominal somite above the edge of the wing

case. Spiracles white.

Described from a pupa found in Calcutta 12-X-42, from which

a female emerged 18-X-42.

Bingham, quoting a description by de Niceville, writes Pupa

green; of the usual Lycaenid shape, with a dorsal and lateral series

of somewhat obscure conjoined brownish spots on the upper-side.

Attached to the underside of the leaves of its food-plant in the usual

manner.’ My specimen was attached to the upper surface of an

orange leaf.

HETEROCERA

Arctixdae.

Asoia caricae Bsd. ( alciphron Cr.).

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 402. 1938.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 295. 1941.

Although the pupa of this species is usually formed in a slight

cocoon on, or just below, the surface of the soil, in October 1942 in

Calcutta I found a number of pupae in slight cocoons in spun-together

leaves of the food-plant; in several instances these spun-up leaves

contained two pupae in the one cocoon.

My original description of this pupa is somewhat brief, a fuller

one is as follows. Pupa dark reddish brown, very shiny. Noctuid

in shape. The cremaster consisting of a transverse row of four

very short spines, with a second row of four spines, considerably

further apart, behind the first row. These spines barely visible with-

out a lens.

Lymantriidae.

Lymantria nigra Moore.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records , iii, 194, pi. iv, figs. 32, 33.

1939.

Head dull black, marked with dull greyish brown on the vertex

on each side of the median suture, and in the middle of, and on the

lower edge of, each cheek; the clypeus containing a dull pink line.

3ody browpish grey, 4 double black dorsal line from the 5th to anal

418 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

somite, and an oblique black subdorsal line on each somite from 4th

to 12th. 2nd and 3rd somites each with a velvety black, transverse

dorsal fold, edged behind with very short crimson bristles mixed

with longer black ones. 1st somite with a pair of blue-grey dorsal

warts armed with black bristles and a subdorsal tubercle tufted with

long, blue-black, simple hairs, a fringe of pale buff hair projecting

over the head. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series of four

dorsal blue-grey warts armed with black bristles immediately behind

the dorsal fold. 4th to nth somites each with a dorsal pair of small

blue-grey warts, a larger subdorsal wart posterior to the dorsal pair

and a lateral wart, all armed with black bristles. A lateral and sub-

lateral series of brownish grey tubercles tufted with longish plumose

and simple pale brown hair. 12th somite with a backward pointing

fringe of pale brown hair. A pale diamond-shaped dorsal mark

extending from the posterior half of somite 7 to the anterior portion

of 9. Dorsal glands black. Spiracles greyish brown ringed with

black. Legs pale greyish brown. Venter and prolegs brownish

grey tinged with greenish. Under a lens the ground colour is seen

to be marbled with darker and paler.

Pupa in a few netted threads of brown silk. Dark reddish brown,

the wing cases darker. Head, thorax and the dorsum of the abdomen

thickly clothed with curly buff hair, intermixed on the head, pro-

and meso-thorax with red-brown. Wing cases bare. A subdorsal,

lateral and ventro-lateral series of tufts of short whitish hair on the

abdominal somites. Thoracic spiracle set in a large black spot.

Cremaster a stout spine terminating in a cluster of golden-brown,

hooked bristles.

Food-plant Maneo ( Mangifera indica Linn.).

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta xi-xi-42, pupated

14-X1-42, and a female emerged 2X-XL42.

Porthesia xanthorrhoea Koll.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records , iii, 205. 1938.

Head black, the clypeus outlined with white and with a trans-

verse white bar above the mouth parts. 1st to 3rd somites deep

yellow. 1st somite with a double longitudinal black dorsal streak,

a subdorsal black tubercle tufted with longish black hair, and a sub-

dorsal black band. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black dorsal line, a

subdorsal series of short transverse black streaks, and a transverse

series of six warts tufted with short black and grey hair, the two

centre and the outer warts yellow, the others grey. 4th somite black,

with two orange subdorsal spots, slightly humped — 4he hump sur-

mounted by a double tuft of short black hair, a black subdorsal wart

tufted with black hair. 5th somite similar, but without the orange

subdorsal spots and the hump and wart giving rise to palmate white

scales instead of black hair. 6th to 10th somites orange with a

black dorsal line and indistinct black subdorsal stripe, a subdorsal

and lateral series of black warts armed with palmate white scales

and a few black hairs, nth somite similar, but with a broad black

band across the dorsum and the warts without white scales. 12th

somite orange with a black dorsal line and subdorsal spot, a trans-

verse fringe of long black hairs. A sublateral series of scarlet warts

from the 2nd to nth somite, with a fringe of outward pointing o-rey

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

419

hair. Dorsal glands red. Legs black banded with whitish. Prolegs

yellowish. Venter yellowish with a blackish median stripe.

Pupa in a cocoon of orange-brown silk mixed with larval hairs.

Colour yellowish brown, the thorax somewhat darker and with a

diffuse subdorsal stripe from 4th to 9th somite. 4th to 7th somites

with a double subdorsal series of swollen blotches. Spiracles black.

Food-plant — Lager sir oemia indica L. in captivity.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 20-X-42, spun

24-X-42, and a female emerged i-xi-42.

Euproctis lunata Wlk.

Forsayeth, Trans. Ent. Soc., pi. 14, figs. 5a-c. 1884.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind ., Moths, i, 474. 1892.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records , iii, 206. 1938.

Head brownish olive, marked with white above the mouth parts.

Body blackish. A broad white dorsal stripe with a black median

line, interrupted between the somites, from the 6th to nth somite,

an interrupted pinkish lateral and whitish sublateral line, the latter

much broader on the 10th and nth somites. A transverse white

dorsal band on the 12th somite, xst somite with a dark red sub-

dorsal tubercle tufted with grey hair and a dorsal fringe of grey

hair projecting over the head. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse

dorsal series of four greyish warts tufted with forward-pointing grev

hair. 4th and 5th somites slightly humped dorsallv and with paired

dorsal tufts of short black hair, a broad white subdorsal stripe on

these somites only. 6th somite with a double dorsal tuft of white

hair. 6th to 10th somites with a subdorsal series and 4th to 11th

with a lateral series of small black warts bearing very minute orange

spines and longish blackish hairs. A sublateral series of reddish

pink warts tufted with grey hairs forming a fringe from 1st to nth

somite, nth somite with a small dorsal tuft of white hair. 12th

somite with a transverse fringe of grey hair. A few minute white

spines scattered throughout the white dorsal stripe. Dorsal glands

white. Legs pink. Prolegs and venter pinkish grey.

Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair and spun in a

leaf. Olive brown, the abdomen tinged with blackish except for a

dorsal stripe on the 3rd to 7th abdominal somites. Clothed with short

brownish hairs except on the wing cases.

Food-plant — Carissa carandas L. Gardner gives Terminalia

tompntosa W. & A. and Cinnamomum camphora F. Nees.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 16-X-42, spun

18-X-42, and a female emerged 29-X-42.

Hampson’s description is ‘larva brown, with anterior, posterior,

and lateral tufts of long hair; thoracic somites with dorsal quadrate

white marks; the third somite with paired dorsal tubercles; fifth to

anal somites with paired dorsal quadrate white marks. Spins a hairy

cocoon on twigs.’ Gardner’s description deals mainly with structure.

Sphingidae.

Acker ontia lachesis F.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl.} ii, 6, pi. 77, figs, lb, ic. 1882-83.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 68. 1892,

420 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, _ Vol XLIV

Mell, Biol. u. System . dey Sudchin. Sphing. , 10, pi. xxi, fig. i,

pi. xv, figs, i, 2. 1922.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces , x, 526. 1928.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit,. Ind., Moths, v, 56, pi. i, figs. 1, 2, pi.

vii, fig. 8, pi. xiii, fig. 1. 1937.

Head green with a broad black lateral stripe. Body yellowish

green, venter and subspiracular area bluer. 4th to 10th somites with

oblique lateral stripes, composed of an upper violet stripe shading

into blue above and a lower cream stripe shading into yellow beneath

the posterior stripe continued faintly to base of horn. Dorsum from

4th to 10th somites dotted with dark blue along the middle of the

secondarv divisions. Legs black. Prolegs same as venter. Spiracles

black. Horn fairly thick basally, tapering to a point, downcurved

slightly with the end curved strongly upwards and forwards, studded

with large tubercles, colour yellowish green shading into yellow at

the tip. The thoracic somites with the secondary rings forming

dorsal ridges, most pronounced on the 2nd somite.

There are also brown and yellow forms of the larva but I have

not met with them in Calcutta.

Puna in a hollowed out subterranean cell, the walls apnarently

secured by pressure as there is no trace of silk. Dark mahogany

brown, the wing cases and venter slightly paler. Proboscis sheath

short and with prominent transverse ridges. Spiracles on the 8th

to 10th somites with a ridged patch immediately in front of them.

Meta-thorax with a pair of dorsal, pear-shaped, sunken patches sur-

rounded by a raised ring. Cremaster black, the dorsal surface with

large raised warts, terminating in two inwardly curving spines.

Both the larva and pupa make a squeaking noise.

Food-plant — -Bell & Scott give the following : — Ery thrina spp. ,

Jasminum spp., Nyctanthps arbor-thstis L. , Tpomaea son., Solamim

sop., Datura, Nicotiana Tabacum L., Tecoma grandidora Loisel.,

Stereospermum, Spathodea campanulata Beauv., Lantana Camara L. ,

Stachvtarpheta indica Vahl., Tectona grandis L. , Vitex Netrundo L. ,

Clerodendron spp., Callicarpa arborea Roxb., Coleus , Colebrookia

oppositifolia Sm., Anisomeles ovata Br. , Antidesma.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta i8-ix-42, buried

2o-ix-42, and a female emerged n-x-42.

Moore’s figure is much too blue-green in colour. Seitz’ descrip-

tion is ‘adult larva green, yellow or brown, with thick white oblique

stripes bordered with blue, not being contiguous, however, on the

mesodorsum’. Hampson states that the ‘larva differs from styx in

having blue streaks above the yellow ones’.

Deilephila nerii II

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc ., xl, 407, 1938.

Yellow form — Head and ground colour of body mustard vellow.

The ring of the ocellus on the 3rd somite deep purple shading* into

paler, instead of dark blue, the blue stripe below the Dale lateral line

verv bright. A slip-fit fuscous suffusion above the lateral line and

rather more noticeable suffused fuscous patches below. Legs bri°*ht

rpagenta. Prolegs and yenter distinctly suffused \yitfr fuscops. Th?

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 421

white spots on the lateral and dorsal area ringed with olive instead

of dark blue.

Two larvae out of a batch of some thirty-five bred from ova in

darkness and in very crowded conditions in Calcutta in November

1942. This form is evidently very rare and is possibly produced

by unsatisfactory conditions, as these were the only two bred out of

several hundred larvae reared during the last eighteen years.

Bell & Scott write : — ‘In another form of larva the ground-colour

of head and body ochreous, with fuscous-grey oblique lateral patches

on segments 6 to 12; ocellus darker than in the green form and

ringed with black ; true legs black. There are also forms with

intermediate colouring.’

The larvae of this species were extremely common in Calcutta

in November 1942 and a few were found which had the legs blue

and the usual green colour replaced on the abdominal somites, with

the exception of a narrow stripe above the lateral line, a ring round

the spiracles, the venter, and claspers and flap, by pale blue grey.

Bell & Scott describe the typical larva as having the 1st somite

soiled green, the 2nd, 3rd, 12th and 13th bright yellow and the rest

of the body bluish green suffused with glaucous except on the venter,

but all my previous larvae have had the green colour almost uniform

all over.

Hippotion boerhaviae F.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Inci., Moths, i, 86, fig. 50. 1892.

Hamps., III. Het ., ix, 56, pi. 175, fig. 1. 1893.

Mell, Biol. u. System, der Sudchin. Sphing.y 281, pi. ix, figs. 19,

20, pi. xix, figs. 1, 2. 1922.

Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces , x, 564. 1929.

Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind . , Moths, v, 425, pi. v, figs. 9, 10, xi,

12. 1937.

Head dark olive brown. Body dark olive brown, streaked minutely

with darker except on the 1st to 4th somite. A black dorsal line from

1 st somite to base of horn. A diffused pinkish buff subdorsal stripe,

almost obsolete from the posterior part of the 3rd somite to the

posterior edge of the 10th, then stronger and less diffused to the

base of the horn and thence to the end of the anal flap. A very

diffused pinkish buff sublateral stripe from 1st to 1.1th somite. 4th

somite with a large subdorsal ocellus, almost straight above and very

convex below, consisting of a black pupil shading into chestnut brown

above and with a few white dots on the upper part, the whole sur-

rounded by a creamy line, broader above and narrower below, and then

by a black ring. 5th to 10th somites each with an oval subdorsal

ocellus, the lower edge more convex than the upper, consisting of a

purple brown spot with a transverse horizontal buff bar, ringed with

black. A darker patch immediately above each ocellus, the edges

diffused and shading into the general ground colour. 5th to 10th

somites each with a pale buff subdorsal dot on the posterior portion

just above the level of the ocelli. Horn straight and pointing back-

wards, short, thin, pale greyish buff, the tip cream. Legs pinkish.

Venter and prolegs slightly paler olive brown than the dorsum and

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol XLIV

sprinkled sparsely with white dots. Spiracles whitish. The thoracic

somites slightly tapered.

Pupa in a slight cocoon spun among litter. Pinkish bone colour,

speckled from dorsum down to the spiracles with olive brown. A

diffused olive brown dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites. Meso-

thorax with a diffused olive brown subdorsal spot. Venter speckled

with black, the speckling more concentrated on the ventro-lateral

area and forming a broad stripe. Spiracles black and set in small

black spots. Leg and wing cases rather pinker than the rest of the

body, the wing cases with a stripe composed of black specks along

the costal edge and extending on to the leg sheaths, and with rows of

black dots along the veins, a diffused greyish black stripe along the

outer margin. Tongue case projecting slightly ventrally and rather

more frontally. Cremaster a long, stout, black spine with tip

minutely bifid.

Food-plant — Boerhaavia repens L. Bell & Scott give, in addition,

Impatiens balsamina L., Knoxia mollis W. & Arn., Spermacoce spp.

Glossostigma spathulatum Arn., Boerhaavia diffusa L. My specimens

refused cultivated Impatiens.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 21-X-42, pupated

26-X-42, and a female emerged 8-xi-42.

The references to previous descriptions of the early stages are not

easy to follow. Hampson, in the Illustrations of Heterocera, gives

a recognisable figure under the name of theylia L., but also figures

under the name of rafflesii Btlr. the same larva as is figured by

Bell & Scott in their fig. 9, but which they suggest is a different

species. It is not rajflesiif whose larva is also figured by Hampson,

but under the name of vinacea Hamps. The food-plants of both

theylia and raffle sii are given as Rubiaceae of several species. In

the Fauna, Hampson repeats the descriptions given in the Illus-

trations, but groups them all as forms of theylia. Seitz gives a

very incomplete description and mentions Morinda umbellata (Rub-

iaceae) as food-plant. Bell & Scott give a rather washy figure of

the usual brown form and the resulting pupa, and also' a figure of

the so-called black form, which Hampson, as mentioned above,

figures as rafflesii , with its pupa ; they suggest that, in spite of the

apparent similarity of the imago, it is really another species in view

of the larval and pupal differences, but no description is given. In

the description of the brown form, they mention that all the ocelli

have a crescent of pale blue above the upper edge and that there is

a round blue supra-spiracular spot on segments 6 to 11. My speci-

mens did not exhibit these. The pupa is described as ‘livid bone

colour’.

*

Noctuidae. (

Sideridis yu Guen. ( exempta Wlk.)

Head olive brown. Body olive brown, with an underlying orange

tint, minutely speckled with darker. A diffused orange subspira-

cular stripe, edged above from 1st to 6th somite with white, starting

as a broad line on the 1st somite and gradually narrowing until it dis-

appears on the 6th. A double subdorsal series of white specks from

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA iM‘

the 2nd to nth somite, on the 2nd and 3rd somites these specks in

a transverse line, from the 3rd to 10th with an anterior inner and

a posterior outer pair, on the nth somite with the anterior and pos-

terior pairs in line with each other. 12th somite with one sub-

dorsal speck. A supra-spiracular and spiracular series of similar

specks. All these specks giving- rise to a single, very short, black

bristle. Spiracles black. A dark purple-brown spot just above the

base of the 2nd and 3rd pairs of legs. Legs greenish tinged with

brown. Venter and prolegs similar to the dorsum but slightly paler.

Shape stoutish.

The larva is quite different to that of any other Sideridis or

Leucania that I have seen or read of, as there are not even traces

of longitudinal stripes.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cell. Bright orange chestnut

with traces of a darker dorsal stripe. A dark, dentate, transverse,

dorsal ridge on the anterior edge of somites 7 to 10. Apex of abdomen

blackish, rugose, with a few short spines. Cremaster a stout spine

with bifid tip,

F ood-plant— ^Grasses.

Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 18-X-42, buried

25-X-42, and a male emerged 5-xi-42.

Ilattia octo Guen.

Gardner, Indian Forest Records , vi, 274. 1941.

Head green, with a few minute black specks. Body green, a

very fine, irregular, double,, whitish, dorsal line, a similar subdorsal

line and another similar line just above a narrow whitish lateral stripe.

Legs green. Venter and prolegs green, the first two pairs obsolete,

A few fairly long single black hairs. Shape long and slender.

Becomes tinged with purple before pupation.

Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Slender. Colour olive

brown, the thorax and wing cases more tinged with olive, a dark

dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites, the intersegmentai rings

darker. Cremaster a double spine.

Food-plant —Amaranthus sp, Gardner gives Chertop odium album

L., so would possibly eat other members of the families Amarantaceae

and Chenopodiaceae.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 22-X-42, buried

23-X-42, and a female emerged 31-X-42.

Gardner, after giving the structural characteristics of the genus,

gives the following description : — ‘ Head and body green, sometimes

with a darker line above the spiracular level along the body; legs

pale; spiracles pale with a fine dark rim. The granules on the head

not as sharply defined as in natalisN Length about 23 mm,’

Symitha nolalella Wlk.

Head yellowish green. Body pale green with traces of a dark

dorsal line. A double dorsal, a subdorsal, a double lateral, and

a sublateral series of whitish specks giving rise to single, longish,

white hairs. A pale spiracular line between the two lateral series

of specks. Legs and prolegs pale green.

The larvae live semi-gregariously on young shoots of the food-

plant, which they cover with a slight silken web.

m Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Vot. xLi V

Pupa in a canoe-shaped cocoon of pure white silk, the top flattened

and surrounded by an erect fringe of short, coarse threads. Pale

green, an olive-brown dorsal stripe from head to cremaster, the

intersegmental rings also olive tinged. Later the ground colour turns

to whitish and the dark markings become chestnut. Apex of ab-

domen blunt, with three dark chitinous teeth laterally. Spiracles

chestnut. Cuticle coarsely punctate.

Food-plant — r Lagerstroemia Flos-reginae Retz. and L . indica' L.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 4-X-42, spun

6-X-42, and a male emerged 12-X-42.

Polydesma umbncola Bsd.

Head dark brown with a pale, inverted, wide-armed, V-shaped

mark. Body mottled with dark and pale brown, the colour actually

consisting of dots and streaks on a creamy ground. The pale areas

distributed as follows: — -a dorsal stripe on the first three somites;

a dorsal blotch on the posterior portion of the 4th somite; a dorsal

stripe, somewhat irregular in outline, from the posterior half of the

5th to the anterior halt of the 7th somite; a similar dorsal stripe from

the posterior half of the 8th somite backwards; and the subdorsal

and lateral areas of the 8th and 9th somites. A blackish dorsal

V-shaped mark on the forepart of the 4th somite, and the pale dorsal

stripe on the forepart of the 5th somite with a blackish line

on either side. A double blackish spiracular line, below which the

colour is slightly paler, nth and 12th somites with very small,

black, paired, dorsal tubercles. Legs pale brown with wide rings of

dark. Venter and prolegs greenish, the first pair reduced slightly.

Spiracles black. A few short colourless hairs arising from dark

specks. Rests with the fore part of the body slightly humped.

Pupa in a thin cocoon of tough, rather papery, white, silk, spun

in an angle of the box in captivity and covered with a leaf ; in nature

possibly in a chink in the bark of the tree on which it has fed. Pale

chestnut, so thickly covered with white bloom that the colour is

obscured. Shape slender. Cremaster a small bunch of hooked

spines.

Food-plant— A Ibizzia sUpulata Boiv.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 15-X-42,. spun

18-X-42, and . a male emerged j-xi-42.

Fodina pallida Guen.

Head pale green. Body pale green. A whitish dotted dorsal

line, a whitish subdorsal line and a double whitish dotted lateral line.

1st to 5th and nth somites each with a black dorsal dot on the

anterior portion, the 1st somite with an additional black dot below

the origin of the subdorsal line. Spiracles whitish with a brown

speck at the lower end. A few short black hairs. Legs and prolegs

very pale green. Anal claspers rather long. The dorsal and lateral

dotted lines fade when completely full fed, and the larva turns purple

before pupation.

Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Dark purplish

brown, the ventral area of the abdomen slightly paler. Thorax and

abdomen rather coarsely punctate. Cremaster two down curved

THE PARLY STAGES OP iPDlAti LEPibOPi'ERA -Y25

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta r8-ix-42, buried

2 i-ix-42, and a female emerged 2-X-4 2,

Pyralidae.

Glyphodes unionalis Hbn.

Head yellow green. Body jade green, a dark dorsal and a white

spiracular line. 2nd somite with a minute black subdorsal speck.

A few colourless hairs. Legs and prolegs colourless, glassy. .Lives

in a silk-lined, folded leaf. As in most green Pyralid larvae, it is

probable that the skin is unpigmented, the colour being due to the

Dlood, fat and contents of the intestines shewing through.

Pupa in a slight cocoon between leaves. Olive brown, the wing

cases and venter greenish. A distinct raised dorsal keel on the

anterior abdominal somites. Cremaster a stout spike armed with

minute hooked spines.

F ood-plant-— J asmine.

Described from a lull-fed larva found in Calcutta 2o-ix-42, pupated

2i-ix~42, and a male emerged 27~ix-42.

Glyphodes vertumnalis Guen.

Head yellow, mouth-parts black. Body blue-green, a white

spiracular line, below which the body is yellower. The blue tint

chiefly due to the contents of the intestines. 1st somite with a black

dorsal plate with a median pale green line. 2nd and 3rd somites

each with one anterior and two posterior raised black dorsal spots

with a subdorsal spot between them and a larger spot external to

the subdorsal, two spots immediately above the spiracular line. 4th

to nth somites each with two pairs of black dorsal spots, a lateral

and sublateral, also a ventro-lateral spot situated at the base of the

prolegs on somites 6 to 9. 12th somite with a large round black

dorsal spot, a lateral and a sublateral. Anal plate edged with black and

with a black streak across the base. Legs whitish ringed with black

basally. Venter and prolegs yellowish. All the black spots raised.

Except for the black spots the skin is unpigmented, the blood and

fat are yellow, and the blue-green colour of the living larva is due

to the contents of the intestines. Lives in a silk-lined, folded leaf.

Turns yellow before pupation.

Pupa in. a slight cocoon either in chinks of bark or under the

coping of a wall near the food-tree. Chestnut brown, paler on the

venter. Leg and proboscis sheaths projecting slightly beyond the

wing cases. Head produced into a slightly upturned snout.

Cremaster a stout spike terminating in a few hooked spines.

Food-plant — Tabvrnaemontana coronavia.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta i5-ix>42, pupated

i7-ix~42 and a male emerged 25UX-42.

(To he continued)

SOME WHALE SHARKS AND SUN FISHES

CAPTURED OFF CEYLON.

BY

P. E. P. Deraniyagala, m.a. (Cantab.), a.m. (Harvard),

F.C.P., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

Director of Museums, Ceylon.

( With one plate and two text’ figures)

The present article briefly describes some captures of whale

sharks and sun fishes of the family Molidae from the vicinity of

Ceylon.

The earliest record of what is probably the whale shark is by

Baldeus a Dutchman who had travelled extensively in the East.

In his book of travels (1671) he states that the waters around Ceylon

abound in various fishes and among’ the forms mentioned are ‘Galleon-

fishes, Sharks, Grades’, etc. The first named might well be the

Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus Smith, which has recently attracted

considerable attention (Gudger 1934, and Prater 1941).

Rhineodon typus Smith

On 1 6th January 1942 the local press described the capture of a

large spotted shark ‘about 25 feet long and weighing nearly two

tons’ from off Kalutara on the west coast of Ceylon. Some days

later a collector of the Colombo Museum who was sent out to

investigate returned with the following information: —

The shark, a male, was captured at about 150 yards from the

shore in a seine net at 11 a.m... on 15th January 1942. The animal

was noosed and towed to the estuary of the Kalu ganga and thence

down the lagoon to Katukurunda by fifty men. The head was as

large as that of an ‘elephant’ with a mouth resembling the slit in

a Tetter box’, the jaws were toothless. The intestines contained

quantities of minute shrimps (probably Euphausiids) massed into

boli. The depth of the sea at the site of capture is about 2 fathoms.

No shark of this species was known from Kalutara before, but the

writer saw a specimen about 15 feet long by the road side near

Beruvala about 8 miles south of Kalutara, in December 1930. The

dried pectoral and caudal fins of the Kalutara specimen were ob-

tained on the 30th of January. They were bluish brown with white

spots ; the pectorals were more strongly spotted than the caudal

and white below. A pectoral fin measured 3 feet 5 inches along

the outer edge and was 2 feet 1 inch wide across its base. There

were 13 spots along the longest part of the fin, 11 spots along its

broadest part (pi. I. 6). The caudal ha was 5 feet 3 inches along

WHALE SHARKS AND SUN FiskES I CAPTURED OFF CEYLON 4,27

its upper lobe, 2 feet 7J inches along its lower lobe, the tips of the

lobes were 5 feet apart. Its spots were fewer and less prominent

than on the pectorals, the most conspicuous being 18 in a row

along the upper lobe and lateral to the vertebral column (pi. L a ).

Comparison of these measurements with those given by Prater

(1941) suggests that the specimen was about 24 feet long.

The body ridges of Rhineodon and its pigmentation of white

spots on a slate background are somewhat reminiscent of the

oceanic leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Linne) while the

arrangement of the white pigment into alternate transverse bands

and rows of spots occurs on such oceanic Pisces as tunnies and

certain sail and spear fishes which are never taken in shore seines.

The entry of whale sharks into shallow water and the fact that

specimens have been rammed by vessels at considerable distances

a

428 - jaU.RNAL , BOMBAY -NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV

from Ceylon are of interest. With two exceptions the various

individuals noted from Ceylon (Prater- 1941) were taken in water

under 20 feet deep. The locality where a 40-foot specimen was

rammed by the Japanese ship ‘Katori Maru’ en route To Singapore

was described by Captain Matsukura in the daily press {Daily

News , August 6, 1935) as follows : — ‘We left Colombo on the after-

noon of July 9th at 2.30 p.m.; the following day I was having my

siesta in my cabin. We were about 300 miles out in the Indian

Ocean. Suddenly I heard a noise which seemed to come from

beiow.’ . . . ‘Presently I discovered it was a large fish, about 40 feet

long, and with a big gash just behind its head. ’ . . . ‘From the symme-

trical shape of the tail and the sharp fins we could tell that it was

not a whale but a tiger shark. Also the fish was turned on its

side and 1 saw the gills’. Doubtless the captain termed the fish a

tiger shark owing to its markings. The other such occurrence was

on November 23, 1932, when the Dutch ship ‘Johan van Oldebarne-

velt’ struck a whale shark in lat. 70. 5' N., long. 770. 51' E., about

150 miles west of Colombo (Gudger 1937). A study of the , steam

ship routes shows that both occurrences are approximately between

6° and 70 N. latitude. The first collision would be in water oyer

2000 fathoms deep, the second in water between 1000 and 2000

fathoms deep.

All whale sharks from the coastal waters of Ceylon were captur-

ed or noted between January and March. Those from the deeper

waters off Ceylon were noted in July and November.

The list is as follows — January— 3 sharks*

February— 2 do,

July— 1 do.

November— 1 do.

December — 1 do. (Beruvala)*

Although the whale shark exceeds 50 feet in length individuals

over 22 feet are rarely taken from the coastal waters of either

India or Ceylon.

The ramming of two individuals in July and November at 300

miles to the east, and 150 miles to the west of Ceylon respectively,

suggests that the shark is not uncommon in the deeper waters of

the tropical Indian Ocean. The fact that one of these specimens

was 40 feet long suggests that generally only adolescents about

20 feet long venture close to land. These are probably attracted

by the unusually rich supply of plankton resulting from the monsoon

rains.

y**' ' ~

Family Molidae.

This family comprises three monotypic genera ; of these the genera

Ranzania Nardo 1840 and Mola Cuvier 1798 are known from Ceylon

...waters and have been captured in February, May,, and June.- The

number of individuals known from Ceylon is five; three of these are

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate I.

B. Pectoral fin of Whale Shark taken at Kalutara, Ceylon.

WHALE SHARKS AND SUN FISHES CAPTURED OFF CEYLON 429

Rumania. , one is Mola , the fifth which was taken- off Colombo in;

1885, was unidentified. . . :

Fig. 2. kanzahia taevis - captured oft Pesalai, - north west Ceylon in 1941,

Drawn by P. Deraniyagala from a photograph and cast.

Ranzania laevis (Pennant.)

Whitley (1933) has shown that this is the correct name for

the truncate sunfish. If this species is to be subdivided into sub-

species the ‘forma typica’ is the Atlantic fish, and the Indian Ocean

form is Ranzania laevis varius (Shaw).

In 1798 Pennant described a specimen from Ceylon as Batistes

truncatus in the Outlines of the Globe , vol. i, p. 213. On May xoj

1910, a specimen (66.04 cm.) 26 inches long, (33.02 cm.) 13 in.

deep was captured in Kayts harbour, north Ceylon (Pearson 19! t)

and on February 6, 1941, another 580 mm. long, 320 mm. deep,

With a head length of 230 mm. distance from tip of dorsal to tip

of anal fin 550 mm., was captured off Pesalai, north west Ceylon

(fig. 2). It was photographed by the Colombo Museum and a cast

obtained.

Mola mola (Linne.)

The specimen in the Colombo Museum was taken off Chiiaw to

the north west of Ceylon in June 1914 (Pearson 1914). Its dimen-

sions are as follows : — *

Standard length 740 mm., depth 550 mm., head length 210 mm.,

distance from tip of dorsal to tip of anal fin 1270 mm. As this fish

430 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

is known to attain to a length of eight feet and a weight of 1200

pounds, the Ceylon specimen is an immature individual.

Conclusion.

The general tendency for immature specimens of oceanic fishes

to enter the coastal waters of Ceylon needs further investigation.

If they are transported from common spawning grounds as newly

hatched young, as in the case of the eel Anguilla bicolor , this line

of enquiry is likely to yield results of value regarding the move-

ments of the nektic fauna of the Indian Ocean.

References to Literature.

Baldeus, P. 1671. — A description of East India , Coasts of Malabar and

Coromandel and of the Empire of Ceylon, Chap. LI., p. 826 (English Edition;.

Gudger, E. W. 1934. — The Geographical Distribution of the Whale Shark

( Rhineodon typus). Proceedings of the Zoological Society , London, Pt. 4.

Gudger, E. W. 1937. — A Whale Shark rammed by a Steamer off Colombo,

Ceylon. Nature , March 27.

Prater, S. H. 194:0 — The Whale Shark ( Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian

Coastal Waters. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society , xlii, No. 2.

Pearson, J. 1911. — A Sun Fish caught near Jaffna. Spolia Zeylanica, vii,

p. 208.

1914.— -Administration Report of the Director , Colombo Museum .

Whitley, G. 1933. Studies in Ichthyology, No. 7. Records of the Australian

Museum , xix, No. 1, p. 108.

Explanation of Plate.

Plate I — -Fins of Rhineodon typus Smith from Kalutara.

a . Caudal, b. Pectoral.

Jearn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Plate S

Venkateshwarlu—Map of the Lower Godavary.

THE ESTUARIAL FLORA OF THE GODAVARY.

BY

V. Venkateshwarlu, m.sc.,

Department of Botany , P. R. College , Cocanada .

( With a map and two plates ).

Introduction.

Hooker (5) remarks : ‘The four chief estuarial floras of India

occupy the deltas of the Ganges, Irrawady, Mahanady and Indus ;

but minor ones, notably those of the Kistna and Cauvery, occur at

intervals commonly -along- the eastern shores, more rarely on the

Western.* The estuarial flora of the Godavary } which Hooker, how-

ever, omits to mention, consists of a number of mangroves with an

undergrowth of perennial woody climbers, followed by the halophytes

on the exposed mud-flats towards the landside.

The Lower Godavary branches into the Vasista Godavary and the

Gowtamy Godavary, and the mangrove forests are the gifts of the

latter (Cornwall, 2). These forests are situated on muddy flats

formed owing to the silting activity of the Go'wtiamy Godavary for

over a century and more, before it reaches the sea at Coringay once

called the Coringa Bay. (Plate I).

There is a sort of zonal distribution among the species of the

mangrove forest. The pioneer species are Avicennia alba and A.

marina which pave the way for the species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera,

Ceriops, Sonneratia, etc. The species of Lumnitzera, Aegiceras

and Excoecaria prefer shallower waters towards landside. Finally,

the bare and the much-exposed regions are occupied by the halophytic

Chenopodiaceae. The undergrowth of plants is made up of the

spinous Dalbergia, the prickly Caesalpinia and the twiners, Derris

and Sarcolobus. The network of the canals is lined by Acanthus

ilicifolius and the- tall grass Myriostachya Wightiana (Plates II & III).

As quite a number of details regarding many of the mangroves

have been long ago given by the late Fr. Blatter (1) repetition will

be avoided in the following description.

Systematic Account.

In the following list of twenty-six plants which have been arranged in their

respective families I have as far as possible given their vernacular names, and

have also added a few notes on their economic importance, even though these

plants are mainly valuable to people of the localities as fuel.

1. Rhtzophoraceae.

1. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk., F.B.I., ii, 435.

Syn : R. Candelaria W, & A.

Vern. Names : Uppa-Ponna (Tel.) ; Kandal (Tam.).

Habit : A glabrous evergreen tree of the swamps buttressed by long stilt roots,

forming more or less the outermost fringe of the vegetation towards the sea.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Uses : The bark is brown, with vertical clefts, and is used as a valuable

tanning material; wood is hard and is an excellent fuel.

2. Ceriops Roxburghiana Arn., F.B.I., ii, 436.

Vern. Names : Gatharu (Tel.); Chiru Kandal (Tam.); Goran (Hind.).

Habit : A small evergreen tree with many buttresses at base and rounded scaly

reddish pneumatophores.

Uses : The bark yields a good red-orange dye which is used for colouring the

fishing nets of the local villagers to make them last long ; the wood also serves

as a good fuel.

3. Bruguiera conjugata . Merr.

Syn : B. gymnorhiza Lam., F.B.I., ii, 437.

Vern. Names' Thuddu ponna (Tel.-)-; Kankra (Hind).

Habit : A rather large evergreen tree with a short stout rugose radicle and

kneed* pneumatophores.

Lises. : Wood red, extremely hard, used for building and fuel. The radicles

form an article of diet for the local villagers.

4. Bruguiera cylindrica W. & A.,

■ Svhs : B. c ary ophyildides Bh,

Bg malabarlca Arn.-, F.B.I., ii, 438.

Vern.. Name : Vurudu (Tel.).

Habit: A small tree of the tidal forests.

Use : Wood useful as fuel.

II. V ERBENACF.AE.

5. Avicennia officinalis Linn.. F.B.I., iv, 604.

Vern. Names: Nalia Mada (Tel.); Upatha (Tam.); Orei (Mai.).

Habit: A small tree with leaves obtuse at. apex, elliptic-oblong or obovate,

attenuate at base ; anthers exerted ; capsule ovoid.

6. , Avicennia alba Be.

Svn : A . o fficinalis van alba. , C. B. Clarke., F.B.I., iv, 604.

Vern. Names : Vilava Mada, Gundu Mada (according to Gamble J. S.) (Tel.).

Habit: A shrub with leaves lanceolate, very acute or acuminate; capsule when

young conical and beaked, when old ovoid,

■7. Avicennia marina Vierh.

1 Vern. Names. : Mada (Tel.) ; Venkandan (Tam.).

, Habit : A . large, shrub with leaves acute at apex, anthers included, capsule-

ovoid.,' ' ...

The various species and varieties of Avicennia form the bulk of the mangrove

forests here and make up the principal source of the supply of fuel in these

regions. The flowers of A* officinalis are chewed along with betel leaves by

the local people.

8. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn., F.B.I., iv, 589.

Vern. Names: Pisung (Tel.); Pinchil, Sangam (Tam.); Batraj (Hind.).

Habit: A straggling shrub occurring among the- plants of the tidal forests.

III. SONNERATIACEAE. ,

9. Sonneratia apetala Buch.rHam., F.B.I., ii, 579.

Vern. Names: Kalingi (Tel..); Marama (Tam.),.

Habit : A moderate-sized evergreen tree, giving out upright round excrescences.

10. Sonneratia acida Linn, f., F.B.I., ii, 579.

Vern. Names : Pedda Kalingi (Tel.) ; Blatti, Thirala (Mai.).

Habit : A small evergreen tree With large' showy pink-petalled flowers and

large ^depressed : globose fruit.

<lourn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe.

Plate II

[For explanation see end of article

Joorn, Bombay Naf, Hist. Soc- Plat® III

ur>

I

Venkateshwarlu — Estuarial Flora of the Godavary.

THE ESTUARIAL FLORA OF THE GO DAY ARY

433

IV. Meliaceae.

11. XyJocarpns obovatus A. Juss.

Syn : Carapa moluccensis Bedd., FI. t., F.B.I., i, 567.

Vern. Names: Chenuga (Tel.); Somunthiri (Tam.); Pussur (Hind.).

Habit : A moderate-sized evergreen tree with stout and flat excrescences

resembling those of Heritiera fomes. The fruit is a large globose 4-celled capsule.

Use : Wood dark-red and valuable.

V. COMBRETACEAE.

12. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd., F.B.I., ii, 452.

Vern. Names : Kadavi (Tel.) ; Tipparathai (Tam.).

Habit: An evergreen tree of shrubby growth with rather small leaves and

white flowers.

Uses: Wood hard, greyish brown with a darker heartwood, used as posts

and fuel.

VI. Myrsinaceae.

13. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco.

Syn : A. majus Gaertn., F.B.I., iii, 533.

Vern. Names: Guggilam (Tel.); Narikandam (Tam.); Halsi (Hind.). -

Habit : A common and pretty small tree with white flowers and an elongate

curved fruit 1 in. long.

Use : Mostly used for fuel, and the wood, it is said, burns quickly when raw.

VII. Euphorbiaceae.

14. Excoecaria A gal loch a Linn., F.B.I., v, 472.

Vern. Names : Thilla (Tel.) ; Tilai (Tam.) ; Komatti (Mai.).

Habit : A dioecious evergreen tree.

Uses: The latex of this plant is poisonous and causes blisters on the skin,

and if it falls in the eyes brings about blindness. Due to the excessive smoke that

issues' out while burning it is not so much valued as fuel.

VIII. Acanthaceae.

15. Acanthus ilicifolius Linn., F.B.I., iv, 481.

Vern. Names : Alchi (Tel.) ; Hargosa (Hind.).

Habit : A gregarious shrub with spinescent leaves reaching 5 ft. in height

lining the tidal creeks.

IX. Leguminosae.

16. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb., F.B.I., ii, 238.

Vern. Name : Chillingi (Tel.).

Habit: A stiff, often climbing shrub with small white flowers and the tips of

the branches modified into spines, which are said to be poisonous.

17. Derrls uliginosa Benth., F.B.I., ii, 241.

Vern. Name : Nalla Theegi (Tel.).

Habit : A large evergreen climbing shrub with rose-coloured flowers and rather

large leaflets.

18. Caesalpinia nuga Ait., F.B.I., ii, 256.

Vern. Name : Mulutige (Tel.).

Habit : An evergreen prickly plant.

Uses: Pods, roots and leaves- medicinal. . .«» v,

434 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fol. XLIV

X. Asclepiadaceae.

19. Sarcolobus carinatus Wall., F.B.I., iv, 28.

Vern. Name : Pala boddu theegi (Tel.).

Habit 1 An evergreen twiner with fleshy follicles.

Use : The fleshy fruits are edible.

XI. Boragxnaceae.

20. Heliotropium Curassavicum Linn., Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras, Pt. v, 896.

XII. Aizoaceae.

21. Sesuvium Portulaeasfriim Linn., F.B.I., ii, 659.

Habit : A fleshy prostrate rooting stout stemmed herb.

XIII. Chenopodiaceae.

22. Arthocnemum indicum Moq., F.B.L, v, 12.

23. SaHcornia brachiata Roxb., F.B.I., v, 12.

24. Stiaeda marltlma Dumort., F.B.L, v, 14.

25. Suaeda nudiflara Moq., F.B.T., v, 14.

XIV. Gramineae.

26. Myrlostachya Wightiana Hk. f., F.B.L, vii, 327.

Habit : A tall grass reaching 6-10 ft. in height, and lies on the edges of the

creeks.

Use : The leaves are used for thatching.

Acknowledgements.

I am indebted to Mr. P. Nagabhushana Rao of our college for all the drawings

in Indian ink. My thanks are due to Mr. S. N. Chandrasekhara lyyar, Lecturer

in Botany, Agricultural College, Coimbatore, and to Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, m.sc.,

ph.D. (Edin.), Curator of the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, for

identifying some of mv collections sent to them. Above all I am much obliged

to Prof. M. Sayeedud-Din, m.a., b.sc., f.l.s., Head of the Department of Botanv,

Osmania University, for kindly going through the manuscript and offering useful

suggestions which have been incorporated in this paper.

Literature Consulted.

1. Blatter, E., S. J. — ‘The Mangrove of the Bombay Presidency and

its Biology.’ J.B.N.H.S., vol. xvi, No. 4, pp.

644-656 (1905).

2. Cornwell, R. B. — The working plan of the Lower Godavary, (1937).

3. Kirtikar, K. R., & — Indian Medicinal Plants, (1918).

Basu, B. D.

4. Gamble, J. S. — Flora of the Presidency of Madras, (1915-31).

5. Hooker, J. D. —1 sketch of the Flora of British India , (1906).

6. Hooker, J. D. — The Flora of British India, vols. 1-7, (1875-1897).

Explanation of Plates I- — III.

The Estuarial Flora of the Godavary.

Plate I.

Map of the Lower Godavary .

THE ESTUARIAL FLORA OF THE GOD AV ARY 435

Fig. io. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb.

Fig. ii. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco.

NOTES ON THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE

BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS.

BY

Edward Barnes.

The Billigirirangan Hills are situated at the S.E. corner of the

Mysore Plateau. They may be described approximately as consisting

of two ridges rising to nearly 6,000 ft., running north and south,

and surrounded by lower hills. The western ridge slopes down

on the west to an undulating plateau a few miles wide and about

4,000 ft. in elevation, locally known as the Malaikadu; this, after

again rising in places, falls to the Mysore Plateau (Chamrajanagar

District). The eastern ridge is longer, rather higher and more com-

plex than the western, a number of spurs running out to the east. It

falls on the east to an extension of the Mysore Plateau in the Kollegal

Taluk of the Coimbatore District. There is a gap in this ridge at

Bella ji. Politically these hills are about half in Mysore State and half

in Coimbatore District, the border running on the north along the

western ridge and on the south along the eastern ridge, and crossing

the valley near Moskal.

On both ridges above about 5,000 ft. there are considerable areas

of shola and short grass. The valley between the two ridges is

largely filled by dense evergreen forest, part of which has been planted

with coffee. The Malaikadu and most of the rest of the area at and

below about 4,000 ft. is covered with deciduous forest with areas of

coarse grass and some evergreen forest along the streams. The

lower parts of the eastern and northern slopes are very dry. Apart

from the five not very large coffee estates, these hills are almost un-

inhabited. A few Sholagars make clearings in the forest and raise

crops, and timber is extracted from the more accessible areas, but

much of the country remains virgin. The sparsity of population is

due to the fact that except for the areas above about 4,500 ft. the

whole reeion is malarious and infested with elephants.

The Billigirirangan Hills are a little over a hundred miles from

the west coast, but between them and the sea, that is between the

Nilgiris and Coorg, the Western Ghats are not high. Consequently

these hills receive a considerable amount of rain and much mist during

the S.-W. monsoon period. They are about 140 miles from the east

coast and they receive also the N.-E. monsoon rains. In addition

there are frequent thunder-storms during April and May. The first

three months of the year are dry, but on the higher parts of the

hills a rainfall of 60 to 80 inches is distributed through the rest of

the year.

References to these hills in botanical literature are extremely few.

Parts of these hills are included in the area covered by the collections

of Mr. C. E. C. Fischer, which were described by Fr. E. Blatter in

his Contribution to the Flora of North Coimbatore (/. Bomb. Nat.

Hist: Soc., Vol. xviii, No. 2, 1908). This contribution, however,

although giving elevations at which plants occur, does not give exact

FLO WERING PLANTS OF THE BI LL1 GIRI RAN GAN HILLS 43?

localities and covers a much wider and more diversified area than the

Billigirirangan Hills alone.

The collections on which the following- notes are based were made

during- the hot weather of 1938 and 1939 and during short visits in

September and December. No attempt was made to form a complete

collection of the plants of these hills, but special attention was paid

to a limited number of groups of plants such as the Monocotyledons

other than grasses and sedges, and the Geraniaceae, Gentianaceae,

Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae. Most herbaceous plants found

in flower were collected, but trees and ferns could not be dealt with.

The following abbreviations have been used in the list : — Mai. =

Malaikadu, the area of deciduous forest at about 4,000 ft. on the West

of the hills. Pun. Gt. ^Punjur Ghat. This ghat runs from Punjur

(c. 3,000 ft.) at the foot of the hills on the north to Bedaguli (c.

4,500 ft.) at the north end of the valley between the two ridges. Dod.

= Doddasampagi Reserved Forest, but only the portion between

Honnametti and the Big Tree was visited (3,000-3,500 ft.). E. si. —

eastern slopes of the eastern ridge (5,000-3,000 ft.): Dup. — near

Dupabari on the eastern ridge (about 5,200 ft.). At. = Attikan. on

the western ridge (about 5,500 ft.). (K) refers to the fact that

specimens of the plant were sent to Kew where they were identified,

or their identification by the writer confirmed, by Mr. C. E. C. Fischer

or (in the case of the orchids) Mr. Summerhayes.

The following statements appear to be justified by this partial

survey of the flora of these hills. The area is remarkably rich in

orchids. Sixty-six species of orchids were collected in flower, or

have subseqpently flowered on being transplanted to the writer's

garden at Tambaram (Chingleput District, South India), and a num-

ber of others were found, but their identification is uncertain as they

have not been seen in flower. Further, two or three which seem

to be new species have been sent to Kew for identification and des-

cription, but owing to war conditions work on them has had to be

postponed. This means that more than one-third of the known S„

Indian orchids occur in this small area. Other epiphytic plants such

as Aeschynanthus Perrottetii, Hoy a pauciflora, Procris Wight? aria,

Peoeromias and numerous ferns and club mosses also occur profusely.

Ferns in general appear to be very abundant. Parasites of the

Loranthus and Vis cum genera are very noticeable. On the other

hand marsh plants appear to be rather scanty. Soecies of Xv ns ,

Imfiatiens rufescens , J. chinensis, Drosera rotundifolia, D. indica,

snecies of Torenia and most of the common Utricularias were not

found in spite of careful search. In view of the limited elevation of

these hills it is not surprising that such plants as Rhododendron

nilagiricum, Rosa Leschenaultiana , Anemone rivularis and Geranium

nobalense should not occur, but it is remarkable that such common

plants as Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Cotoneaster bixifolia, Berberis

tinctoria and all shrubby species of Osbechia should be absent. This

is the more remarkable in view of the fact that these plants are

common at lower elevations and in drier situations on the neighbour-

ing Nilgiri Hills, and of the fact that manv alpine plants such as

Genfiana ppdicillata, Drosera peltata) Pedicularis zeylanica, _ C4X0-.,

pegia pusilla, Parnassia mysorense and Viola serpens are common "

on the Billigirirangans. ^

438 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

The serial numbers given after some species (e.g\ Thalictrum

saniculae forme DC. . . 1979) refer to mounted specimens in the

writer’s herbarium.

Ranunculacece.

Clematis

1. C. gouriana, Roxb. Bel. fl. Dec.

2. C. Wightiana, Wall. Margins of sholas, At., Honnametti, fl. Dec.

Thalictrum

1. T. saniculaeforme, DC. (K) On shaded wet rocks, At., fl. Sept. 1979.

2. T.Dalzellii, Hook. (K) On wet rocks, At., Miskatikal, fl. Sept. 1983.

Ranunculus Walilchianus, W. & A. In sholas on both ridges, fl. May. Apparently

the only buttercup on these hills.

Dilleniaceae

DUIenia retusa, Thunb. At.

Magnoliaceae

M Schells Champaca, Linn. Doddasampagi in moist deciduous forest.

A gigantic tree of this species, doubtless hundreds of years old, is venerated

by the Hindus and is a place of pilgrimage from the Rangaswami temple on

Bellikal Betta at the north end of these hills.

Menispermaceae

Stephaaia japonlca, Miers. Common, evergreen forest, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. Dec.

Ciggampelos Pareira, Linn. E. si. fl. June.

Cmciferae

Cardamine

1 . C. afrlcana, Linn. At,

2. C. htrsuta, Linn.

Vtolaceae

Viola serpens, Wall. Common, sholas 5,000 ft. and above, fl. and caps. May.

The only violet collected on these hills.

Bixaceae

Cochloipermusn gossypium, DC. Below Bel., fl. Dec., near Punjur, caps.

April.

Polygalaceae

Polygala

1. P. arillata, Ham. Common, evergreen forest above 4,500 ft., Moskal, fl.

and fruit Sept.

2. P. rosntarinifolia, W. & A. Common, grassland 4,500 ft., and above, fl.

May, Sept. Plants may be 20 in. high.

3. P. chinensis, Linn. Pun. Gt., 3,500 ft. fl. May.

4. P. persicariaefolia, DC. Devakeri, Mai., amongst tall grass, fl. Sept.

Near Pun., fl. April.

Portulacaceae

Porfuiaca oleracea, Linn. Dup. 5,000 ft., fl. May.

.FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAn HILLS 439

Hypericaceae

Hypericum

1. H. mysorense, Heyne. 4,500 ft. and upwards, fl. May.

2. H. japonicum, Thurb. In marshes, 4,500 ft. and above, Moskal, fl. May.

Malvaceae

Sida rhorabifolia, Linn. Mai., Dod., caps. Dec.

Urena lobata, Linn. Mai. fl. Dec.

Kydia calycina, Roxb. Common, Dod.

Decaschistia crotonifolia, W. & A. Pun. Gt. 3,500-4,000 ft., fl. June, Dec., caps.

Dec.

Hibiscus

1. H. Abelmoschus, Linn. E.sl. 3,000 ft., fl. June, Sept.

2. H. angularis, Mast. Miskatikal, fl. Dec.

3. H. Solandra, L’Herit. N.sl., deciduous forest 3,000-4,000 ft., fl. and caps.

Sept.

4. H. lampaS, Cav. Mai, caps. June.

Bombax malabaricum, DC. Common, Dod., fl. April.

Sterculiaceae

Helicteres Isora, Linn. Below Bedaguli, fl. Sept.

Eriotaena Hookeriana^ W. & A. (K) Open deciduous forest, Mai. fl. June*

caps. Dec. 1978.

Buettneria herbacea, Roxb. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. May.

T iliaceae

Grewia tilisfolla* Vahh Common, Pun. Gt., Dod., Mai., fl. June,

Linaceae

linum mysofense* Heyne. Common, grassland, fl. Sept.

Geraniaceae

Oxalis corniculata, Linn. Throughout the ared.

0. pubescens, H. B. & K. and 0. latifolia, H. H. & K. hdve run wild, and ate

especially prolific on and near the two higher estates, Attikan ahd Honnametti.

Biophytuth

1. B. €andoUeanume Wl Frequent above 4,000 ft., Dod., fl. Mdy, June, Sept.

2. B. Reinwardtii, Edgw. & Hook. f. E.sl., fl. Sept. 2193.

lmpatiens

1. !. scapiflofa, Heyne; Common on wet rocks and branches of trees exposed

to the S.W. monsoon at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept. Some flowers seen in May.

2. I. cuspidata, Wt. Frequent in sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, Honnametti,

Dup., fl. and caps. June, Sept. Fl. slightly fragrant.

3. I. Balsamloa, Linn. Common 4,000-5,000 ft. Mah, At,, Bel., fl. Sept.

4. I. fruticosa, DC. Slopes of Kataribetta at 5,000 ft.}# Nagamanpadabetta

at 5,500 ft., fl. Sept.

5. LGoughii, Wt. Along streams on the eastern ridge, 5,000 ft. and above*

fl.’ Sept.

m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Rutaceae

Murraya exotica, Linn. Common in sholas, E. ridge 5,000 ft., fl. May.

Petals up to 1.25 ins. long. (F.M.P. gives .5 in.)

Alalantia

Meliaceae

Munronia Wallfchii, Wt. Common in moist deciduous and evergreen forest

4,000 tt., fl. and fruit May.

Cipadessa oaccifera, Miq. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. May.

I cacinaceae

Mappia

1. M. oblonga, Miers. Near Bel., fl. June. Flower foetid.

2. M. tonivntoia, Miers. Dod., fl. June. Leaves simply tomentose beneath,

corolla yellowish-green strigosely hairy, very foetid.

Celastraceae

Euonymus dichotjmus, Heyne. Near Bedaguli, fl. May.

Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus rugosa, Lamk. Common in grassland and deciduous forest 4,500 ft.

Citaceae

Ampelocissus

1. A. tomeotosa, Planchi. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft. Mature flower and fruit not seen.

2. A. araneosa, Planch. Near Bedaguli, fruiting Sept.

Cissus pallida, Planch. Common in deciduous forest, E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. June.

Cayratia .

1. C, pedata, Juss. Dup., fl. June.

2. C. tenuifolia, Gagnep, At.* fl. May.

Leea crispa, Linn. A large herbaceous shrub. Leaves rather furry and

not glabrous as stated in F.M.P. Petals green, column white, anthers purplish.

A very conspicuous element in the undergrowth in deciduous forest of the

Malaikadu, fl. June. 1986. •

Sapindaceae

AUophyllus Rheedii, Radik. 4,500 ft., fl. May.

Sccbidce&£: ‘ . . ; ■ ; _ : .

Meliosraa Arnottiaoa, Wqlp, Dup., fl. May.

Leguminosae

PapiUonatae ...

Crotalaria — • ..

1. C, ovali folia, Wall. At., grasslands, fl. May and June. - . :...

2. C. umbellata, Wt. Mai., caps. Dec. (7 seeds).

3. ,C. mysorensis, Roth. Mai., fl. Dec.

4. C; calycina, Schwank. Gr. 4. At. grasslands, caps. Dec/ ’' ..V '

C. diibja,.. Grah..Dod,,. fl. Dec^

fl, C. laevigata, Lamk. Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft., fl. Sept., Mai., fl. and caps. Dec,

FLO WERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 441

Indigofera pulehella, Roxp, Mai., E.sL, fl. Dec.

Tephrosia tlnctoria, Pers. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft., fl. Sept..

Smithia

1. S. gracilis, Benth. (probably) Marshy places in grasslands, fl. Dec.

2. S. hirsuta, Dalz. Summit of Anaibetta, fl. May.

Pycnospora hedysaroides, R. Par. Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft., Mai., fl. May.

Alysicarpus racemosus, Benth. Grassland near At., caps. Dec.

Desmodium

1. D. laxlflorum, DC. Dod., fl. Dec.

2. D. Scalpe, DC. At., fl. Dec.

3. D, triquetrum, DC. Mai.

4. D. gaogeticum, DC. Mai., Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft. in undergrowth, fl. May.

White-flowered, stamens 9+1.

5. D. polycarpum, DC. (probably) var. trichocaulon, Bak. Mai., . fl. Sept.

6. D. gyrans, DC. Mai., fl. Sept., pods Dec.

Shuteria vestita, W. &. A. Mai., fl. and pods Dec.

Dumasia villosa. Dp. At., fl. Sept.

Butea Irondosa, Koen. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. August.

Phaseolus Mungo, Linn. Mai., pods Dec.

Atylosia rugosa, W. & A. Grasslands 5,000-6,000 ft., fl. Sept., pods Dec.

Rhynchosia

1. R. rufescens, DC. Mai., fl. and pods Dec,

2. R. cyanosperma, Benth. Mai., fl. Dec.

Flemingia

1. F. strobilifera, R. Br, Mai., fl. Dec.

2. F. Grahamiana, W. & A. Fl. Dec.

3. F. nilgheriensis, Wt. Rataribetta,' fl. Sept.

Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb. Dup., Moskal, Mai., fl. May.

Sophora glauca, L'esch. Common 4,000 ft. and above, fl. May.

CAESALPINOIDEAE

Caesalpinia sepiaria, Roxb. Pun. Gt., margins of sholas 5,000 ft:, fl. Dec.,

pods- May and June. . . .. 'L, .. y. . : . .. .

Cassia

C. hirsuta, Linn, (or laevigata?) near Bedaguli, fl. and pods June, Sept.

2. C. Leschenaultiana, DC. Grasslands 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. - •

Baubinia variegata, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft.,- fl. Dec.

M IMOSOIDEAE • '

Entada scandens, Benth. N:ear Bedaguli. ■-

Acacia concinna, DC. Pun. Gt. Bedaguli, fl. June. c.-..-.: -

Rosaceae . _ . . _

Rubus

1. R. fulvus, Focke. Common, margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. and 'fruits

May, June. ........ _

jduRNAL, BOMBAY NATukAt HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLlh

2. R. ellipticus, Sn. Common, margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fruit Dec.

Saxifragaceae

Parnassia mysorensc, Heyne. Very common in wet places amongst rocks

above 5,000 ft., fl. June-Sept.

Crassulaceae

Kalanchoe

1. K. glandulosa, Hocket, (K) Mai., on rocks, fl. Dec, Identified by C. E. C.

Fischer, but calyx lobes divided to base. 2087.

2. K. olivacea, Dalz. At., on rocks, fl. Jan. Calyx and corolla lobes with

short curved tails.

3. K. Bhidei, T. Cooke. Below Bel., on rocks, fl. Dec. 2078.

4. K. laciniata, DC. (K) E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. Dec. 2089, 2091. Leaves with three

leaflets only.

Droseraceae

Drosera peltata, Sm. Very common, grassland and on wet rocks, 5,000 ft.

and above, fl. June, Sept.

Haloragidaceae

Myriophyllum intermedium, DC. Attikan Tank, Devakeri, fl. Dec. 2003.

Combretaceae

Terminalia crenulata, Roth. Moskal, Mah, fl. May.

Myytaceae

Eugenia brad eat a, Roxb. ?, below Bedaguli, fl. May.

Mclastomaceae

Osbeckia cupularig, Don. Grassland, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept.

Onagraceae

Jussieua suffruticosa, Linn. In marshes and along streams, 4,000 ft., Dod.,

below Bedaguli, fl. and ®eed June.

OeQataera rosea, Ait. A very common weed at 5,000 ft.

Passifloraceae

Passiflora edulis, Sims. Run wild and very common above 4,000 ft. Climbing

to and pendant from the tops of tall trees on edges of sholas. Ripe fruit May-

Sept.

Cucuvbitaceae

Tdchosantbes villosula, Cogn. (K) Dup., fl. Sept., Bel., fl. May, 1980-3.

Nand. At., fl. May.

Byronopsls laciniosa, Nand. At., fl. May.

Melothria

1. M. perpusilla, Cogn., Dup.-Moskal, fl. June.

2. M. amplexkautis,Cogn. At., fl. May.

3. M. leiosperma, Cogn. (probably) Dup., fl. Sept.

Begoniaeeae

Begonia malabarica* Lamk. Frequent along streams in evergreen forest at

4,500 tt., fl. May and June.

Aizoaceae

Mo.lugo pentapbyUa, Linn. Devakeri, 5,000 ft., fl. May.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 443

Umbelliferae

Hydrocotyle javanica, Thunb. Sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. May, June, Sept.

Buf-kurutn vir^atum, W. & A. Margins of sholas, 5,000 ft, and above, At.,

fl. May.

Plmpindla monocia, Dalz. Grassland, Dup., fl. Sept.

Heracieuw Candolle anum, Gamble. Grassland, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept.

Araliaceae

Schefflera

1. S. stellata, Harms. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. June.

2. S» Wallichiana, Harms. Dup.

Caprifoliaceae

lonicera Leschenaultfi, Wall. Dod., Mai., fl. June.

Rubiaceae

YVendlandia Noloniaoa. Wall. Common, margins of sholas, grasslands at

4,-5,000 it., fl. May.

Oldenlandia

1, 0. herbacea, Roxb. Dup., fl. Sept*

2. 0. dichotoma, Koen. Forest undergrowth and grasslands, 5,000 ft.,

Devakeri, fl. June-Sept.

Anotis

1. A . quadriloeularis, Benth. & Hook. Devakeri, fl. Sept.

2. A. monosperma, Benth. Kataribetta, fl. Sept., above Dup., fl. May.

Flower white.

Ophiorrhiza hirsukila, Wt. Moist banks in evergreen forest, 4,500 ft., fl. May.

Usuany semiprostrate and herbaceous, sometimes erect and sufirutieose. 1949.

Mussaenda laxa, Hutch, (or glabata?) In thickets along streams in deciduous

forest at 4,500 It., fl. and fruit June.

Chumelia asiatica. O. Kze. var. rigida, Gamb. Margins of sholas, E. ridge,

fl. May.

Randia Brandish*, Gamble. Common, deciduous forest 3,000-4,000 ft., fl.

and iruit May and June. Flowers first white, then bright yellow.

Knoxia

1. K. mcllis, W. & A. Mai., fl. June.

2. K, Wightiana, Wall.

Plectrcnia didyma, Kurz, var. umbellata, Gamb. Shola forest, 5,000 fti

Ixora Notoniana, Wall. Shola forest, fl. May. , Flowers red on trees in the

open, e.g. near summit of Anaibetta, white on those in sholas.

Pavetta

1. P breviflcra, DC. var. glaberrima, Brem. Dod., fl. May. Very fragrant.

2. P0 tomentosa, Linn. Common, open deciduous forest, 4,000 ft., fl. May.

Psychotria

1. P. Thwaitcsii, Hook. f. Common in sholas, Dup. fl. May. Calyx lobes

very small and oblique.

2. P. elongala, Hook. f. Common, sholas 5,000 ft., Dup., fl. May.

3. P. bisulcata, W. & A, Sholas, 5,000 ft., fruit June.

9

1-44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLlV

Chasalia curviliora,Thw. Sholas E. ridge, fl. May and June. 2138.

The mechanism for cross-fertilisation is interesting. The corolla tube is long

and the lobes are short, valvate and bright yellow. On first opening, the lobes

remain attached at their tips but separate below so that there are 5 wide slits.

The 2-lobed stigma is opposite these slits but the anthers are within the upper

part of the tube. Later the corolla lobes separate completely and become recurved

and the tube splits for some distance down one side. The anthers that thus

become exposed then curve outwards.

lasianthus coffeoides, Fys. Dup., fl. May.

Borreria

1. B. sfricta, K. Sch. Fl. Sept.

2. B. ocymoides, DC.? Caps. June.

Rubia cordifolia, Linn. E.sl., fl. Sept. At., fl. Dec.

Compositae

Vernonia

1. V. Monosis, C. B, C. Very common in sholas on the eastern ridge, 5,000

ft*, fl. April, seeds May.

2. V. divergens, Edgw. Common, fl. Dec.

3. V. einerea, Less. Common, fl. May.

Elephantopus scaber, Linn. Mai.

Conyza stricta, Willd. Grasslands, 5,000 ft*, fl. Sept.

Blumea membranacea, DC. Fl. Dec.

Laggera alata, Sch.-Bip. Fl. Dec,

Blepharisperina subsessile, DC. Pun. Gt., 3,00c) ft., fl. June*

Anaphalis

1. A. subdecurrens, Gamble. Kataribetta, fl. Sept., May.

2. A. Lawii, Gamble. Grasslands, Dup., fl. Sept., Dec.

Helichrysutn buddleioides, DC. At., fl. Dec.

Vicoa indica, DC. Mai., fl. Dec.

Siegesbeckia orientalis, Linn. Dod., Mai., fl. Dec,

Spilanthes acmella, Murr. Mai., fl. Dec.

Bidens pilosa, Linn. A very common and troublesome weed, 4,000-5,500 ft.

Trldax procumbens, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft.

Artemisia pafviflora, Buch. -Ham. Very., common on grassland, fl. Sept., Dec.

Emilia

1. E, scabra, DC. Anaibetta and other hilltops, 5,500-6,000 ft., fl. May.

2. E. Sonchifolia, DC. Grasslands, 5,000 ft., fl. Sept.

Notonia grandiilora, DC. E.sl., 4,000 ft.

Senecio

1. S. Edgeworthii, Hook. L Slopes of Kataribetta, 5,500 ft., fl. May. Mai.

on rocks, fl. Dec.

2. S. corymbosus, Wall. At., fl. Dec.

3. S. intermedius, Wt. At., fl. Dec.

Crepis acaulis, Hook. f. Anaibetta.

Erechthites valerlanifoiia, DC. Dod. below Honnametti, fl. May.

F LOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 445

Guizolia abyssinica, Cass. Cultivated by the Sholagas and run wild.

Eupatorium giandulifera has invaded the western ridge, especially common

near Honnametti and At., 5,000 ft. and above.

Campanulaceae

Lobelia

1. L. trigona, Roxb. In marshes, Bel., Dod., 11. May and June.

2. L. trialata, Buch.-Ham. On wet rocks, Moskal, Devakeri, Honnametti, 11.

Sept. 1920.

3. L. oicotianaefolia, Heyne (probably var. tricbandra C.B.C.) In deciduous

forest, Mai., fl. Dec.

4. L. excelsa, Lesch. On the borders of sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, At.,

May, Dec. Leaves glabrous above, softly hairy below, corolla tube purplish,

lobes white or yellowish.

Cephalostigma flexuosum, Hook. f. Mai., 11. Dec.

Campanula fulgens, Wall. Frequent in grassland, east ridge, 5,000 ft., 11. Sept.

Myrsinaceae

Ardisia solanacea, Roxb. Common, evergreen forest along streams at 4,000 ft,

Dod,, Moskal, 11. May, Dec.

Sylnplocdceae

Sympiocos splcata, Roxb. Common iii sholas, Dup*, fl. June,

Oleaceae

Jasminum

1. J. Rottlerianum, Wall. Near At., fl. May.

2. J. Ritchiei, C.B.C. Mah

3. J. brevilobum, A. DC. fl. Sept.

4. J. flexile, Vahl. Mai., 11. Dec. Very sweet-scented,

Linocera intermedia, Wt. Pun. Gt., 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. June.

Olea giandulifera, Wall. Sholas, At.

Ligustrum Perrotetti, A. DC. Common on margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. May.

Apocynaceae

Rauwoifia densifiora, Benth. Margins of sholas, At,

Aganosma cymosa, G. Don.

Asclepiadaceae

Cryptoiepis Buehanani, R. & S. Common above Bedaguli, 4,500 ft*, fl. May*

Holostemma annulare. K. Schum. Pun. Gt., 4,000 ft., fl. Sept.

Cynanchum pauciflorum, R. Br. Near Honnametti, 11. Dec. (probably ; follicles

not seen).

Sarcostemma Brunonianum, W. & A. E.sl», Gundimala up to 5>00° ft-, fl. Sept.

Has a heavy scent.

Tylophora

1. T. fasiculata, Ham. Grassland near At., fl. May.

2. T. capparidifolia, W. & A. At., 11. June.

Hoya paucitlora, Wight. Common on . shola trees 4,500-5,500 ft., fl. May,

seeds Sept. 2223.

Hoya pendula, Wt. ? Dup., fl. May.

446 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XUV

Ceropegia

1. C. pusilla, W. & A. Common on the eastern ridge 5,000-6,000 ft. usually

in rock crevices on hilltops, Kataribetta, Dup., fl. May and June, follicles Sept.

1876-7.

2. C. ffmbriifera, Bedd. Mai. 4,000 ft. in pockets of earth on slab rock,

E.sl. below Dup. 5,000 ft., fl. June, 1874-5, 2220. The flowers are described as

solitary in F.M.P. There is a peduncle with two buds only one of which matures.

Corolla lobes bright green insiae, outside and up to about 3 of the tube dark

purple, tube outside light green, glab. inside dark purple with vertical white

stripes.

3. C. elegans, Wall. Mai., fl. Sept. 2105.

4. C. candelabrum, Linn. E.sl., fl. Sept. 2221. Corolla lobes greenish-

yellow below, purpie at tips, ciliate within.

Carailuma (Boucerosia) lasianiha, N.E. Br. Amongst rocks at 4,000-5,000 ft.

E. sl., fl. June. Flowers not strictly umbelled, but inflorescence repeatedly

branched so as to form a head. Bracts slender cylindrical ciliate on upper 1/3,

yellowish. Corolla at back glabrous subgiossy, white at centre deepening to

crimson almost black at tips of lobes, upper surface crimson-black velvety with

straggling hairs, outer surface of corona cream, lobes and inner surface blackish-

crimson. Smell very offensive.

Loganiaceae

Fragraea obovata, Wall. Common and conspicuous in sholas, 4,000-5*000 ft,,

fl. May, June.

Gardneria ovata, Wall. Common on margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. May.

Gentianaceae

Exacnm bicolor, Roxb. Common and conspicuous in grassland, 5,000 ft., fl.

Sept. Caps. June. Corolla white and purple.

Gentiana pedicellata, Wall. var. Wightii, Kusn* Common, grassland at

5,000 It. and above, fl. June, Sept.

Canscora

1, C. diffusa, R. Br. Western slopes, 4,500 ft., fl. Dec.

2. C. decussata, Roem and Sch. Mai., Pun. Gt., fl. Dec.

Swertia

1. S. minor, Knobh Frequent in short grass above 5,000 ft., fl. Sept, Flolvers

blue.

2. S. angustifolia, Buch.-Ham. var. pulchella, Burk. Mai. 4,500 ft., fl. Dec.

Petals white marked with dark blue, scale of nectary green.

3. S. tfichotoma, Wall. At. on grasslands, Petals smaller than given in

F. M.P. but acuminate. No scale on nectary.

4. S. corimbosa, Wt. At. 5,000 ft., fl. Dec.

Boraginaceae

Trichodesma zeylanicum, R. Br. Near Dup., fl. Sept.

Cynoglossutn denticulafum, A. DC. var. zeylanicum C.B.C. Common,

deciduous forest and margins of sholas, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. June.

Convolvulaceae

Argyreia

1. A. cuneata, Ker.-Gawl. Common Pun. Gt., fl, May.

2. A. nellygherrya, Choisy. Pun. Gt. 4,500 ft., fl. June. Flower rose-purple*

3. A. sericea, Dalz. & Gibs. Dup., fl. Sept. 2,222.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIR1RANGAN HILLS 447

Cnovolvulus flavus, Willd. Common on grassland near Dup. 5,500 ft., fl. May,

Bel.

Cuscuta reflexa, Roxb. Common on Strobilanthes, At., fl. Dec.

Solanaceae

Solanum

1. S. nigrum, Linn. Dod., fl. May.

2. S. dentkulatum, Blume. Margins of sholas, E. ridge, fl. May.

3. S. giganteum, Jacq. Common, margins of sholas.

4. S. torvum, Swartz. E. ridge, 4,500 ft., fl. and fruit May.

5< S. indicum, Linn. Pun. Gt., fl. May.

Scrophulariaceae

Limnophila

1. L. hirsute, Benth. Marshes near Bel. 4,500 ft., fl. May. 1987, 2108.

2. L. gratioloides, R. Br. var. elongafa Benth. At. pond 5,000 ft., fl. Dec.

2075.

Dopatrium funceum, Buch.-Ham. Devakeri, fl. Sept.

Vandellia pedunculate, Benth. In elephant swamps near Dod. 4,000 ft., fl.

June. 2107.

Ilysanthes

1. 1 hyssopioides, Benth. Pool near summit of Anaibetta (5,700 ft.) Devakeri

(5,000 ft.), fl. May, Sept. 2118.

2. I. veron Icaefolia, Urban. Common along streams 4,500-5,500 ft., fl. May,

Sept. 1951, 2109.

Buchnera hispida, Ham. Common, deciduous forest 4,500 ft., Mai., fl. Dec.

2069, 2070.

Striga

1. S. lutea, Lour. Common amongst grass throughout the area, fl. June, Sept.

2. S. euphrasioides, Benth. E.sl. 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. Ismail form). Pun.

Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. Sept, (very scabrous form up to 13 ins. high).

Sopubia trlfida. Ham. Common amongst coarse grass at 5,000 ft., fl. June,

Dod., fl. Mav. This plant does not appear to have been recorded as parasitic.

An examination of the root system of a number of plants found on these hills

showed it to be a root parasite on cotton grass and several other grasses.

Pedicillaris zeylanica, Benth. Common, grasslands at 5,000 ft., fl. Sept.

The plant found is the diffuse form with white or very pale pink flowers ; the

erect form with deep pink flowers does not appear to occur.

Calceolaria tnexicana, Benth. is common in damp places above about 4,000 ft.

Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia

1. U. uliginosa, Vahl. Moist places in grassland, fl. June, Sept.

2. U. gramlnifolia, Vahl. Margin of stream, Moskal, fl. June, Dec.

3. U. striatula, Sm. On wet rocks, Moskal — At., fl. Sept.

Gesneriaceae

Aerchynanfhus Perrottetii, A. DC. Very common on trees in sholas at 5,000 ft.

and above, fl. Sept., caps. Dec. Corolla tube scarlet, lobes dark purple marked

with yellow : glandular hairs on margins of lobes only.

448 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Didymocarpus tomentosa, Wt. In rock crevices on hilltops, 5,000 ft. and above,

fl. May, caps. June.

Klugia Nntoniana, A. DC. Along streams at 4,000 ft., and above, Bedaguli,

At., fl. May, Dec.

Bignoniaceae

Radermachera xylocarpa, K. Schum. Mai., fl. April

Acanthaceae

Thunbergla fragrans, Roxb. Common, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. June, Sept., Dec.

Meyenia Hawtavneana, Nees. Pun. Gt. at 3,500 ft. on stony hillside, fl. May,

ripe caps. Sept. Three forms with differently coloured corollas were found grow-

ing together: (1) tube orange, lobes white; (2) tube orange, lobes violet; (3) tube

orange, lobes mauve.

Ruellia Beddomei, C. B. Clarke, Pun. Gt. 3,500 fit., fl. Sept. Not previously

reported from S. India.

Mieranthus oppositsfolius, Wendl. Dod., fl. Dec.

Strobilanthes

1. S. Kunthianus, T. And. Very common in grassland at 5,000 ft. and above.

Considerable areas of grassland are almost completely occupied by this plant.

2. S. pulneyensis, C.B.C. Frequent as undergrowth in sholas and evergreen

forest at 4,500 ft. Dod., Bel. General flowering June 1938, plants dead 1939.

3. S. Heyneanus, Nees. Common in sholas and evergreen forest, growing with

the above. In full flower Sept. 1938.

4. S. luridus, Wt. Forming a dense undergrowth in many sholas at 4,500-

5.500 ft. Not seen in flower in 1938 or 1939.

5. S. foliosus, T. And. (probably, not in flower). In shola forest above

5,000 ft. forming an impenetrable undergrowth and becoming a small tree.

Andrographis

1. A. ala fa, Nees. Near Pun., fl. April.

2. A. Neesiana, Wt. Pun. Gt., 3,000-4,000 ft., fl. June.

3. A. iineata, Nees. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. June. Margins of sholas 5,000 ft.,

fl. Dec.

4. A. serpyllifolia , Wt. Pun. Gt. 3,000-3,500 ft., fl. May, June.

Barleria

1. B. involucrata, C.B.C. Margms of sholas on both ridges Nees. var. elata,

C.B.C. at 5,000 ft., At., fl. Dec., Dup., fl. Sept. A very beautiful shrub up to

10 ft. high in favourable places.

2. B. sp. (very near B. Gibsoni, Dalz., K.i Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. Sept. Corolla

tube 1*5 in. or more, dark purple, white at base, more or less dilated below and

narrowlv funnel-shaped above, finely glandular, lobes quite white, ovate *75 in-

long. A branching undershrub up to about 2 ft. high.

3. B, Morrisiana, Barnes and Fischer (Kew Bull. No. 10, 1939) Pun. Gt.

3,000-3,500 ft., fl. April and May. Leaves dull green above pale below, mid-rib

reddish, margin reddish hispid. Stem dark red sparingly hispid. Outer pair

of calyx lobes reddish-brown, green near mid-rib. Corolla tube white, lobes mauve,

5 stamens all fertile, pollen profuse.

Asystasia viofacea, Dalz. Margins of sholas 5,000 ft. Along streams 4,000-

4.500 ft., fl. and caps. May and June. Flowers mauve. The leaves often have

crenulate margins and it is very difficult to decide whether this plant should be

classified as A. violacea, Dalz. or A. crispata, Benth.

Rungia parviflora, Nees. var. pectinata, C.B.C. Mai., fl. Dec,

Dichoptera cuneata, Nees, Mai., fl. June.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 449

Justicia

1. J. Belonica, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft., fl. Sept.

2. J, nilgherrensis, Wall. In dry stony ground, Pun. Gt. 3,000-3,500 ft., fl.

and caps. May and June.

3. J. procumbens, Linn. (?) Mai., fl. Dec.

4. J. simplex, D. Don. (?) Dup., fl. Sept. ; Mai., fl. Dec. Diffuse, silvery hairs.

5. J. diffusa, Will. Dup., fl. June.

Rhioacanthus communis, Nees. Deciduous forest, Mai., fl. Dec.

Verbenaceae

Lantana indica, Roxb. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. May.

Stachytapheta indica, Vahl. Bedaguli, stream bank, fl. Sept.

CalHcarpa ianafa, Linn. Common on margins of sholas on .both ridges, 5,000

ft., fl. May.

Clerodendron

1. C. serratum, Spreng'. Common in deciduous forest, 4,000 ft., fl. June.

2. C. infortunatum, Linn. Common on margins of sholas, At., Sept.

Vitex altissima, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft., fl. May.

Labiatae

Orthosiphon diffusus, Benth. Pun. Gt., 3,500 ft., fl. May, Sept.

Flectranthus

1. P. nilgherricus, Benth. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. Dec.

2. P. Coetsa, Buch.-Ham. Very common in grassland at 4,500-5,000 ft.

In places the grassland has been densely invaded.

3. P. coleoides, Benth. Mai. in moist places, 4,000 ft., fl. Dec.

Coleus

1. C. barbatus, Benth. Anaibetta, 5,500 ft., fl. Sept.

2. C. malabaricus, Benth. Dup., fl. Dec.

Anisochilus

1. A. carnosus, Walk Mai., on rocks in deciduous forest, E.sl., 3,000 ft., fl.

Dec.

2. A. dysophylloides, Benth. Hilltops above Dup., fl. Dec.

Pogostemon

1. P. pubescens, Benth. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. Dec.

2. P. speciosus, Benth. Mai., fl. Dec.

Dysophylla aurieularia, Blume. At., fl. Dec.

Scutellaria

1. S. violacea, Heyne. In sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. May-Sept.

2. S. Coiebrookiana, Benth. (K) At. and the western slopes in grassland, fl.

Dec. 2074. Flowers crimson.

Leucas

1. I. zeylanica, R. Br. At.

£. I, monfana, Spreng. (K) Bel., fl. June. A shrubby plant up to £ ft. high.

450 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

3. I marrubioides, Desf. (K) Below Bel., fl. Sept.

4. I. hirta, Spr. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fi. Sept.

5. L. prostrata, Gamble. Dup., fl. May.

GomphoEtemma Heyneanum, Wall. var. Rottleri, Prain. Mai., fl. Sept.

Amarantaceae

Celosia sp. Devakeri.

Banalia thyrsi.ljra, Moq. Dod., fl. May.

Polygonaceae

Polygonum

1. P. plebejum, R. Br. Devakeri, fl. April.

2. P. glatrum, Willd. Devakeri, in water, fl. May.

3. P. barbatum, Linn. Near Punjur, fl. June.

4. P. flaccidum, Meissn. Mai., Dod., fl. May.

5. P. punctatum, Buch.-Ham. Devakeri, fl. Sept.

6. P. chinense, Linn. At., fl. May, Sept., Dec.

Piperaceae

Piper hymenophyllum, Miq. Marshes near Bedaguli, Mai., At., fl. May, June.

Peperomia

1. P Heyneana, Miq. Dup., At., fl. June. (or Wightiana in F. N. C. ?)

2. P. portulacoides, A. Dietr. Bedaguli, fl. June.

3. P. dindigulensis, Miq. On rocks along stream below Bedaguli.

Elceagnaceae

Elaeagmrs Keloga, Sch. Margins of sholas, At., fl. Dec. Very sweet-scented,

Loranthaceae

Loranthus

1. L. Wallichianus, Sch. Dod., fl. June.

2. L. intermedius, Wt. Dup., fl. May.

3. L. cordffolius, Wall. Below Dup., fl. June, on Grewia tilaefolia, Vahl.

4. L. bracteatus, Heyne. E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. June on Grewia sp.

5. L. tomenfosus, Heyne. Dod. On Viscum orbiculatum which was on

Pavetta tomentosa.

6. L. recurvus, Wall. Dup.-Moskal, fl. Sept,

7. L. courtallonsfs, Gamble. Dod., Dup., fl. June on Grewia tilaefolia, Vahl.

8. L. neelgberrensis, W. & A. Dup., fl. Sept.

Elylranthe lon:ceroid:s, Engler. Mai., fl. May, on Grewia tilaefolia, Vahl.

Viscum

1. V. orbicu!a*um, Wt. (?) Dod., fl. May, on Pavetta tomentosa. Most

flowers of triads 9 only, occasionally one S in centre of triad, and other two

flowers not open. Used as host by Loranthus tomentosus.

2. V. angulafum, Heyne. At., fl. June, on Olea glandulifera., Wall.

3. V. articulatum, Burm. var. dichotomum, Kunz. Dimbam Ghat, fl, April,

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 451

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia

1. E. cristata, Heyne. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. June (erect form 10 ins. high).

2. E. Rothiana, Spr. On margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. May.

Bridelia retusa, Spreng. E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. April.

FhyHanthus, simplex, Retz. E.sl., fl. Sept.

Re'dia floribunda, Wt. Banks of stream below Bedaguli, fl. May.

Embelica officinalis, Gaertn. Common up to 5,000 ft.

Breynia patens, Rolfe. Pun. Gt., fl. May.

Gfoch'dian velutinum, Wt.

Blschoffa javanica, Bl. Used as shade for coffee.

Mallofus Beddotnef, Hook. f. Fl. May.

Homonoia riparia, Lour. Stream bed near Bedaguli, fl. May. A small shrub

2-3 ft. high.

Acalypha bracbystacbya, Hornem. At,, fl. Sept,

Moraceae

Ficus

1. F. Arnotfiana, Miq. E.sl. between rocks, 4,000 ft.

2. F. glomerata, Roxb. Common in sholas, At^ Receptacles mature Sept.

Artocarpus integri folia, Linn. Sholas, 5,500 ft., At. apparently wild.

Oorstenla indica, Wt. At., fl. Sept

Urticaceae

Girard’nla zeylanica, Dene. Dod. in swamps, fl. Dec.

Procrs Wight'ana. Wall. At., fl. Dec. Growing on trees, the stems be-

coming flaccid and hanging down in the dry months.

Pilea irinerva, Wt. Along streams in sholas, Dod., Dup., fl. June.

Burmanniaceae

Burmannia caelestis. Don. In marshy places, not frequent, Moskal, fl. June,

Sept., Dec. 1967, 2064. Flowers blue, stems up to 4,5 ins. long, sometimes

branching from near the base.

Orchidaceae

Oberonia

1. 0. iridifolia, Lindl. var. denticulata, Hook. f. On shaded branches of

trees along streams at about 4,000 ft., Mai. Bedaguli, fl. Sept., caps. June.

1931, iq 39. F’owers have pedicels as long as the ovaries, and are not sessile

as stated in F.M.P.

2. 0 verflcillata. Wt. On exposed branches of trees at 5,000 ft., Devabetta

slopes, fl. Sept. 1930.

3. 0. Brunon’ana, Wt. Common on trees and shrubs at 5,000 ft. At., fl.

Sept, and later. 1940. The leaves are usually very thick and dull brownish.

4. 0. Lindleyana, Wt. On branches of trees in sholas at 5,000 ft., At., fl.

Sent. 2083. 2104. Sepals, petals and lip straw-coloured excent the concave

hemispherical disc which is orange-bro\yn. 1 Transplanted to Tambaram, where if

flowered Dec., Jan.

452 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL FUST . SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

Microstylis

1. M. versicolor, Lindl. Common in sholas at 5,000 ft. upwards, fl. Sept.

Plants are usually scattered but in places dense patches were found occupying

exclusively several square feet of ground.

2. M. Stocks!!, Hook. f. In sholas at 5,500 ft. Dup,, fl. June, caps. Sept,

1906. Flowers pale amber,

3. Microstylis sp. ? On big rock on Attikan-Moskal bridlepath, fl. Sept.

Sepals and petals dark crimson to liver-coloured; lip bright chrome yellow,

column pale yellow. Scape bright purple. Bracts purple becoming green at

tip. Capsule purple.

Liparis

1. L. platyphylia, Ridl. In deciduous forest, western slopes 4,000-5,000 ft., fl.

Sept. 1902. Sepals and petals pale orange, lip dull orange to pale olive green,

surface dull except for a glossy central area, Flowers somewhat unpleasant-

smelling.

2 L. Wightlana, Thw. In rock crevices on summit of hill on east ridge,

5,500 ft., fl. Sept. 2181-2. Scape dark crimson, square with 2 smaller ribs

on each face. Leaves bright green. Sepals and petals very pale green or yellow ;

lip dull purplish, central area glossy and greenish, calli green. Pokki Betta,

fl. Aug., lip yellowish-gieen.

3. L. odorata, Wt. (Lindl.) Indeciduous forest, western slopes, 4,000-5,000

ft., fl. July, caps. Sept. 1880-81. Sepals, petals and lip liver-coloured to dark

crimson ; column whitish,

4. L. atropurpurea, Lindl, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1961. Belagi, At., fl. Aug.

Common.

Dendrobium

1. D. nanutn, Hook. f. At. Very common at 4,500-5,500 ft. on branches

of isolated trees especially Wendlandia N otoniana , fl. June-Sept,, caps. June. 1927-

Sepals and petals white. Mid-lobe of lip greenish with a white-fringed margin,

a pale green strap-shaped palate with a toothed end running along the upper

side of the claw and ending near the middle of the lobe ; side lobes greenish

spotted and veined purple, margins toothed. Flowers honey-scented.

2. D. nutans, Lir.dl. On branches of trees on margins of sholas on the eastern

ridge at 5,500-5,800 ft., fl. April and May. 1883, 2126. Sepals and petals deep

yellow, lip orange, with 3 wavy ridges.

3. 0. macrostachyum, Lindl. On trees near Moskal, 4,500 ft., fl. May. 1884.

Sepals and petals pale greenish-yellow, lip yellowish with crimson veins, margin

fimbriate, hairy on veins. Flowering stems covered with the silvery grey-veined

leaf bases. Flowers scented.

4. D. heterocarpum, Wall. Frequent throughout the area on tree trunks at

4.500- 5,500 ft., fl. Dec. and Jan. 1939, 2076-7, 2082. Sepals and petals pale

yellow or greenish-yellow, disc of lip covered with chocolate or brownish-purple

gland-like hairs with round white tips. Flowers very delicately sweet-scented.

Flowers only on branches from which the leaves have, disappeared, 2 or 3 at a

node, very shortly racemed.

Bulbophyllum

1. B. fusco-purpureum, Wt. Very common on branches of trees in shola

forest, at 5,000 ft., fl. May. 1897. Sepals dull yellow and purplish, lip dark

purple, lighter on under side, lateral petals purplish. Pseudobulbs up to 7 cms. X

4 cms., leaves up to 19 cms. X 5 cms.

Cirrhopetalum

1. C. fimbriatum, Lindl. Locally common on rocks and branches of trees at

4.500- 5,000 ft. Moskal, Devakeri, fl. April and May, caps. June. .1911-12, 1925-6.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 453

Scape purplish with two scarious bracts. Lateral sepals dark crimson to liver-

coloured; dorsal sepal and petals similar in colour but fimbriations yellowish or

greenish. Lip concave or longly boat-shaped, almost black on the margin, be-

coming pale greenish near the centre. The lateral sepals of older flowers may be

dull yellowish flushed with dark crimson by bleaching.

2. C. Gamblei, Hook. f. Common on shaded tree trunks at 4,-5,000 ft.

Moskal, At., Dup., fl. May and June. 1934-5, 1936-7. Some plants have the

sepals, petals and lip all clear lemon yellow, others have the large lateral sepals

yellow and the dorsal sepal and petals heavily streaked with brownish-crimson,

and other plants have all the sepals and petals heavily marked with dull crimson.

Pseudobulbs finely wrinkled, yellowish to dark green, glossy. Flowers have a

carrion smell which suggests fly fertilisation.

3. Ce Proudlockii, King and Pantl. Near Moskal, fl. June. 1993.

Chrvsoglossum

1. C. maculatum. Hook. f. East ridge along streams in shola at 5, <00 ft.

Bel. fl. May and June. 2127, 2130, 2149. Grows in association with Calanthe

Masuca. Sepals and lateral petals green spotted purple, lip white, mid-lobe acute

with margins turned in, spotted purple, side-lobes erect, spotted purple, base of

mid-lobe with a raised palate with 2 keels, narrowing and becoming 3-keeled below,

claw auricled, mentum yellow, ovary green.

Eria

1. E. baccata, Lindl. Verv common on branches of trees and rocks at

5,5oo-6,ooo ft. on both ridges, fl. June. 1941.

2. E. Dalzelli. Lindl. At., fl. Aug.

3. E. nana, A. Rich.

4. E. polystachya, A. Rich. Frequent on tree trunks at about 5,500 ft. on

both ridges, fl. Sept. 1891-2. Sepals and petals pale straw-coloured. Lip with

deep yellow margin and 4 dark brown ridges on upper surface.

5. E. pauciflora, Wt. Frequent on tree trunks 5,000-5,500 ft. on both ridges,

fl. Sept. 1914-5. Often grows in very large masses extending for several yards

up the trunk or along the larger branches of trees. Sepals and petals pure white.

Lip cream-coloured with a raised yellow Y on the upper surface.

Coelogyne

1. C. odoratissima, Lindl. Dup. Flowers not seen. Identified by its

characteristic pseudobulb and leaves.

2. C. nervosa, A. Rich. Frequent on trees on both ridges at 5,000 ft. and

above, fl. June-Sept. 1913.

Calanthe

C. Masuca, Lindl. Frequent in sholas at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. June-Sept.

Scape and inflorescence up to 120 cms. long. Lip bright purple, petals and

sepals white flushed with purple, calli on lip orange becoming reddish-purple.

Eulophia

1, E. pratensis. Lindl. Amongst grass at 5,000 ft., Dup., fl. June. 2174.

Not common.

2. E. nuda, Lindl. In deciduous forest at 4.000-4,500 ft., fl. April and May.

1989. There appear to be two colour forms of this species : (1) corolla yellowish-

green. sepals and,, to less extent, petals marked purplish Jbrown on back, spur

and lip yellowish-green, disc pale purple, only slightly tubercled on veins ; (2)

sepals and backs of petals dull, dark purple, inner side of petals and disc of lip

bright purple to pink, lower part of lip pale, spur more acute.

Cymbidium

. C. aloifolium, Sw. Eastern slopes 4,000-4,500 ft., June, caps. June. 2145,

2150. Sepals and petals cream-coloured with a brownish-red median stripe. Side

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol NLIV

lobes and apical part of mid-lobe of lip dark crimson, basal part pale yellow,

whole surface velvety. Leaves thick, erect, bright green, glossy. Bracts at

base of scape pale brown.

Geodorum

G. densiflorum, Sch. In evergreen forest 4, 000-4, 500 ft., Mai. Bedaguli, fh

June. 2154, 2197. Sepals and petals pale mauvish-pink, lip broadly boat-shaped,

margin of lip purplish-pink, disc yellow, laminated.

Polystac'hya

P. purpurea, Wt. Frequent on trees and rocks 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. May and June.

Luisia

1. L. tereti folia. Gaud. Frequent on trees, E.sl., Pun. Gt. 4,000-4,500 ft.,

fl. and caps. June. Sepals and petals gree-nish-yellow ; lip yellow heavily

blotched dark purple, the side lobes and base becoming almost completely purple.

2. L. tenuifolia. Bl. E.sl. 4.500 ft., fl. June. 2144. Basal part of lip tri-

angular, very dark crimson, glossy; apical part fiddle-shaped heavily mottled

deep crimson on a whitish ground, velvety. Sepals and petals dull greenish-

yellow, lateral sepals with pointed concave tips,

Rhynchostylis

R. latifolia, Fisch. ? Moskal, on trees 4,500 ft., fl. Oct., caps. Sept. 2151.

Leaves 9.5x2. 5 cms. oblong slightly unequal at tip, thick and fleshy, very

slightly keeled. Spikes dense-flowered, flowers sessile, base of ovary in a pit in

the spike, about 4 mm. long. Sepals ovate brownish -green on back, two lateral

sepals keeled. Lateral petals pale green. Scrotum pale green, epichyle triangular

with a large conical appendage on underside, white with crimson calli above and

a pit between the calli.

Chilochista

Co pusilla, Sch. ? On small branches of trees and shrubs in shola and damp

deciduous forest, 4,500-5,000 ft. Dup., Bedaguli, fl. April-May. 2162, 2176.

At the beginning of the monsoon rains a few lanceolate leaves up to about 1 in.

long develop.

Aerides

1. A. cylJnd"?cum, Lindl. Very frequent on trees At.- Bellaji 4,000-5,000 ft.,

fl. May. 2110. Mid-lobe of lip vellow blotched purple, side lobes white streaked

purple. Sweet_scented. Transplanted to Tambaram, where it flowered Jan._

2. A. rfngens, Fisch. Frequent, E. si. on trees at 4,500-5,000 ft., fl. July.

2198. Flowers white,

Vanda

V. parviflora, Lind,? Dod. on trees, 4,000 ft., caps. May. 2146.

Saccolabium

1. S. Jerdonianum, Reichb. Evergreen forest below Honnametti on trees,

fl. Sept., caps. June. 1894-6, 1966. Bracts not longer than pedicel and ovary,

spur often as long as the lateral sepals. .

2. S. pulcheflum. Fisch. Frequent Moskal-Bedaguli on trees, fl. May-

Sept. 1928. Transplanted and grown at Tambaram, fl. Dec. Sepals and petals

green outside, inside pale green heavily mottled brownish-crimson lip white

with a yellow centre, mentum whitish with pale reddish markings. Column

reddish brown, ovary pale green.

S. so; nov. East ridge at 5,500 ft. on trees in shola, fl. Sept., caps. Dec.

1889, 1890.

Diplocentrum

D. recurvutti, Lindl. Very frequent throughout the area at 4,000-5,000 ft. op

frees, fl. May and June, caps. Dec. 1933?

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE B1LLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 455

Aneochtochilus elatior, Lindl. Frequent in sholas on the east ridge at 5,000 ft.,

fl. Dec. 2071. Sepals olive green on back, whitish within, becoming brownish

near tip. Petals and lip pure white. Spur .white-streaked green. Ovary olive

green and brownish.

Zeuxine

Z, longilabris, Benth. Near Bedaguli in deciduous forest. Open flowers not

seen.

Nervilia

1. N. biflora, Schltr. Near Cubbongundi in bare patches amongst tall grass

in open deciduous forest 4,5oo ft., fl. May. 2112. Scape and sheaths purplish-

brown. Sepals and petals pale cinnamon. Lip almost white below, heavily veined

with purple above, mid-lobe folded along a median line so as to form a keel on

the upper surface. Sepals and petals fully expanded during the day, folded round

the lip at night. Sweet-scented. The leaf appears a month or so after flowering.

Upper surface of leaf yellowish-green mottled with bright green and brownish-red

in the hollows to uniformally dull dark purple, under-surface purplish. Two

reddish ovate cataphyls at the base of the very short stem. Tuber white.

2. N. Aragoana, Gaud. Frequent at 4,000-4,500 ft. in deciduous forest. Mai. ,

Minchiguli, fl. April and May. Leaves June and later. 1932, 2113, 2115. Scape

and bracts white to purplish. Sepals and petals greenish-yellow at base, side

lobes whitish with dark purple veins, mid-lobe with longish white and purple

hairs on upper surface. Ovary 6-keeled yellowish-green, keels purplish.

3. N. monantha, Blat. Frequent throughout the area from 4,000-5,700 ft. in

open patches amongst tall grass in shola and moist deciduous forest, fl. May,

caps, and leaves June and later. 1904.1905, 2114. Scape purple to brownish-

green. Bracts pale. Sepals and petals pale green above, tinged with dull purplish-

brown below. Lip whitish, fimbriations and hairs violet or purple. Cinnamon-

scented.

Epipogum

E. nutans, Reichb. f. Dod,. Mai., 4,500 ft., fl. May. 1898, 2142.

Habenaria

1. H. barbata, Wt. E.sl. 4,000 ft., Moskal 4,500 ft,, fl. Sept. 2199.

2. H. digitata, Lindl. var. foliosa, Hook. f. Amongst grass on both ridges

at 5,000-5,500 ft., fl. June-Sept. 1878, 1907. Leaves pale green beneath. Lateral

sepals quite white, dorsal sepal green. Petals and lip white near middle be-

coming green at tips. Has an unpleasant sour smell.

3* H* sp. nov. At. in evergreen forest, fl. July-Sept. 2194, Leaves very pale

below almost white-glaucous, upper surface yellowish-green, margins finely waved,

tip curled back.

4. H. rarifbra, A. Rich. Frequent on rocks at 5,000-5,500 ft. and descending

on the eastern slopes to about 4,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1908-1909. Plants from lower

altitudes are larger and have much more fleshy leaves than those from higher

elevations.

5. H. plantaginea, Lindl. Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft., E.sl. in bamboo thickness,

3,500-4,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1896.

6. H. longiealcarata, A. Rich. Common in grassland at 4,500 ft. and above,

fl. Sept.

7. Hi Heyneana, Lindl. Common in marshy places in grassland at 5,000 ft.

and upwards, fl. Sept. 1900-1901. The lateral petals and lip are quite white; lip

and petals turn yellow before fading and whole flower dries 'blackish.

8. H» affiois, Wt. Locally common in tall grass in open forest, Moskal, Mai.,

fl. Sept. 1916-17, 1922-3. Dorsal sepal grass-green, rest of flower light yellowish-

green. Flowers slightly fragrant.

im> JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. XLIV

9. H. ovalifolia, Wt. E.sl. in deciduous forest, 4,000 ft., Mai. 4,500 ft., fl.

Sept. 2183.

10. H. Perrottetiana, A. Rich. Very frequent in grassland at 5,000 ft. and

above, Dup., fl. Sept. 1899. Sepals green; petals and lip yellow, column whitish-

green.

Peristylus

1. P. spiralis, A. Rich. Very frequent in wet places in grassland at 5,000 it.

and above, fl. Sept. 1910.

2. P, aristatus, Lindl. In evergreen forest at 5,000 ft. At., fl. Sept. 1893.

3. P. Stocksii, Krzl. Sholas At., fl. Sept. Whole flower green, spur paler.

No scent noticed.

4. P. goody eroldes, Lindl. In deciduous forest at 4,000 ft., E. si., Mai., fl.

Sept. 1903. Sepals yellowish-green; petals and lip white; spur yellowish; ovary

pinkish-brown. Cinnamon-scented.

Plantathera

P. Susannas, Lindl. Frequent in tall grass. At., Dup., Mai., fl. Sept.

Satyrium

5. nepalense, Don. Pink-flowered form frequent in grassland at 5,000 ft.

and above, fl. Sept.

Disperis

D. neilgherrensis, Wt. Very frequent in deciduous forest and tall grass at

4,000 ft. and above. Dod., Mai., E.sl., fl. May and June. 1879. Lateral sepals

mauvish-pink ; petals and dorsal sepal deep pink becoming brownish, veined

purplish.

Zingiberaceae

Qlobba bulbitera, Roxb. Common in undergrowth in moist deciduous and ever-

green forest, 4,000-4,500 ft., Mai., Bedaguli, Bel. E.sl., fl. Sept. 2200.

Curcuma

1. C. neilgherrensis, Wt. Very common in grassland above about 4,500 ft.

fl. May. 1885.

2. C. pseudomontana, Grah. Evergreen forest, 4,000-4,500 ft., Bedaguli, fl.

May. Only overed flowers seen.

Hedychium coronarium, Koen. In marshes at about 4,500 ft., Mai., Bedaguli,

fl. June, caps. Sept. Most plants are white-flowered and have villous calyces,

but the yellow-flowered form also occurs. 1886-7.

Zingiber

lo Z» Zerumbet, Sm. In deciduous forest at 4,500 ft., Minchiguli Valley,

caps. Sept.

2« Z. officinalis, Roec. Deciduous forest, apparently wild. Dod. Flowers

not seten.

3. Z. Gassumunaf, Roxb. Frequent amongst tall grass at 4,500-5,000 ft., fl.

June, caps. Sept. 1882.

Cosfus speciosus, Sm. Mai. in moist forest. Flowers not seen.

Elettaria Cardaffiomutn Maton. Cultivated in evergreen forest and may

also be wild.

Musaceae

Musa Superba, Roxb. On rocky slopes near Bedaguli. Leaf with about 80

pairs of prominent veins, midrib channeled above, rounded and red below, oily.

Haemodoraceae

Ophiopogon intermedius, Don. Very common in sholas and evergreen forest,

4,500 ft. and above, fl. June-Sept. 1942.

P LOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 457

Iridaceae

Beiarncanda cliinensis, Lehm. (K) Devakeri, fl. Sept. A not very common

plant from the Far East that has run wild.

A maryllidaceae

Hypoxis aurea, Lour. Frequent on grassy slopes at 5,000 ft. and above, fl.

and caps. May. 2201-2.

Curculigo orchioides, Gaertn. Common throughout the area, fl. June-Sept.

Crinutn latiiolium , Linn. Amongst rocks, E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. April. 2141.

Pancratium parvum, Dalz. Common on grassy hilltops of the eastern ridge

5,000-6,000 ft. and extending down the Punjur Ghat to 3,500 ft., fl. April, caps.

May. 1974, 2072, 2124-5.

This plant is leafless when in flower, the leaves appearing a little later

and persisting during the moister months. Only one peduncle is produced by

each bulb in a season, and there are 2-4 flowers to a ’peduncle. The flowers

open in the late afternoon and wither next morning. This nocturnal flowering

and the long slender corolla tube (up to 10 cms. long) suggest pollination by

moths. Usually the flow;ers on the same plant open singly on successive days

but sometimes two flowers on the same peduncle open together. The flowers

are dimorphic ; in some the style is short, the stigma being near the base of the

staminal column ; in others the style is long and extends up to 2 cms. above the

mouth of the staminal column. Each plant has flowers of one form only. Plants

at lower elevations have much longer and stouter peduncles than those on the

hilltops. ;

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea

1. D. bulbifera, Linn. Common, Mai., Pun. Gt., 4,000-4,500 ft., fl.. Sept.

Female plants much more robust. Bulbils in axils large, leaf cordate, perianth

lobes pinkish. In this genus the direction of twining is regarded as a constant

character. This species . normally twines to the left. At least one specimen

collected by the writer was twining to the right.

2. B, tomentosa, Pun. Gt., 3,500 ft. , E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. June.

3. D. pentaphylla, Linn. E.sl. 4,ooo_4,5oo ft., caps. Sept.

4. D. oppositifolia, Linn. Common, deciduous and evergreen forest, 4,000-5,000

ft. New leaves end of April.

Liliaceae

Asparagus

1, A. racetnosus, Willd. Mai., E.si., Bedaguli, fl. May.

2. A, gonociados, Bakers. At., fl. May.

Srnilax

1. S. aspera, Linn. Common, Mai., Pun. Gt., 4,000-4,500 ft., fl. June-Sept.

2. S. prolifera, Roxb. Near Moskal, fl. Dec.

Qloriosa superba, Linn. Common, Mai., Pun. Gt., 4,-4,500 ft. , fl. June-Sept.

Drac&oa terniflora, Roxb. In evergreen forest at 4,000 ft. Dod., fl. and berries

May.

Lilium neelgherrense, Wt. Growing in striking profusion amongst tall grass

on the western slopes at 4,000-5,000 ft. Also in grassland on the eastern ridge at

5,000 ft. Fl. Sept., caps, shedding May.

Chlorophytum

1. C. malabaricutn, Baker. Moist deciduous forest Pun. Gt. 3,500-4,000 ft.

fl. May-Sept. Not typical. Leaves falcate, 1.5 ins. wide, glaucous. Anthers

and filaments about equally long. Perianth lobes 5-nerved, -33 in. long.

458 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

2. C . laxum, R.Br. Common, grassy slopes and hilltops, 4,500*5,000 ft.

fl. May. 1921.

Sell la ind.ca, Baker. E.sl., Pun. Gt. 4,500 ft., fl. May.

Iphigenia indica, Kunth. Frequent throughout the area 4,000-6,000 ft., fl. June.

Pontederiaceae

Monochoria vaginalis, Presl. var. plantaginea, Solms.-Laub. Devakeri, 5,000

ft., fl. June-Sept. 2143.

Commelinaceae

Commelina

1. C. clavata, Clarke. Very common along streams and in moist places

in grassland at 5,000 ft. and above. FL May, Sept., Dec. 2134.

2. C, attenuata, Koen. 4,000-4,500 ft., fl. Sept.

3. C, benghaknsis, Linn. E.sl. 4,500 ft. and below, fl. Sept.

4. C. obliqua, Ham.* In swamps in evergreen forest at 4,500 ft., fl. Dec. 1975,

2067. Leaves up to 6 cms. wide. Seeds oblong, surface smooth, black with

grey crusty patches.

5. C, unduiata, R.Br. var. setosa Clarke. E.sl., 4,000 ft. and below in

rock crevices, fl. May.

6. C. Kurzii, Clarke. Very common amongst grass and in thickets at

4, 000 J3, 000 ft., fl. May, Sept., Dec. Plants at lower levels semi-erect and about

2 ft. high.

7. C. indehiscens, Barnes. In swamps in evergreen forest, 4,000 ft., Minchi-

guli Valley, Bedaguli, fl. and caps. June. Resembles C. beng'haJensis but produces

cleistogamous flowers and underground capsules.

Aneilema

1. A. dimorphum, Dalz. Amongst grass 4,500-5,000 ffl, and caps. Sept. 3

stamens with filaments bearded about the middle, anthers dark purple with line

between the cells ; 3 staminodes with cream-coloured 3-knobbed anthers and

light purple practically unbearded filaments. 3 petals mauve, 3 sepals brownish

purple.

2. A» spiratum, R.Br. Pun. Gt.

3. A» sinicum, Lindl. Common in grassland at 5,000 ft. Fl. May, Sept.

4. A. giganteum, R Br. Mai. amongst tall grass in moist deciduous forest

at 4,500 ft., n. and caps. Sept. 1947-8.

5. A. paniculatum, Wall. Common amongst moss in hollows in rocks,

usually on hilltops, 5,000-6,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1946. Plants not exceeding 5 cms.

high. Sepals red, petals mauvish-blue. Filaments naked. Anthers dark red

with black margins. Staminodes with white 3-knobbed heads. Pollen cream-

coloured.

6. A. montanum, Wt. In swamps and along streams in evergreen forest

at 4,500 ft., fl. May, June, Sept.

7. A. ovalifojum, Hook. f. Dod., fl. May.

Cyanotis

1. C. cristata, Sehult. f. 4,000-5,500 ft., fl. Sept.

2. G. tuberosa, Sehult. f. Very common amongst grass 4,500 ft. upwards, fh

April, Dec. 2205. At 4,500 ft. in tall grass it attains a height of about 3 ft.

3. G. villosa, Sehult. f. Common in evergreen forests and shola 4,500 ft. up-

wards, fl. June, Sept.

4. C. arachnoidea, Clarke. Common between rocks and in grassland oil

hilltops 5,000-6,000 ft., fl. June, Sept. 1943. Leaves red, short and blunt at tip.

C. fasciculata, Sehult. f. Between rocks at 5,000 ft., fl. Sept.

F LOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 4 60

Juncaceae

Juncus prismatocarpus, R.Br. Devakeri, 5,000 ft., fl. May.

Palmaceae

Phtenix humilis, Royle, var. pedunculata, Becc. Common in grasslands

up to 5,000 it., fruiting May.

Caryota urens, Linn. In shola forest at 5,000 ft. At.

Calamus Gamblei. Dec. Frequent in evergreen forest 4,000-5,000 ft. Dod., fl.

and Ir. May and June-

PancLanaceae

- Panda ms tectorius, Soland. In swamps at 4,000-4,500 ft., unripe fruit June.

Flower not seen.

Araceae

Lagenandra toxicaria, Dalz. var. ilarnesii, Fisch. In streams and marshes

in evergreen and deciduous forest 4,500 ft., ♦Mai., near Bedaguli, fl, June. 1950,

1968. b heaths with 2 keels. Chamber and base of limb whitish, upper part of

limb dull pate greenish, tip dark .brownish-green, inside limb pinkish with purple

processes, inside of chamber dark purple with darker lines. Stigmas white dusted

brick red.

Colocasia antiquorum, Schott. In swamps, Dod., Mai., E.sl., fl. June. Leaf

blades up to 24x14.5 ins. Spathes 12 ins. long.

Remusatia vivipara, Schott. Frequent throughout the area above 4,000 ft.

on rocks, in forks of trees and in the ground. Fl. about March.

Arisaema

1. A. tortuosum, Schott. Frequent throughout the area above 4,000 ft.

2. A. Ltschenauitii, Bl. Frequent in shoias on the western ridge and in the

Doddasampage evergreen forest at 4,500 ft. and above; less frequent on the

eastern ridge.

3. A. narnesii, Fisch. Same distribution as (2) and more common than it

in the Doddasampagi Forest. 2139, 2140. The plants of this species growing

round Bellaji have long, stipitaie flat leaflets giossy below, long acuminate

tips, numerous veins and a very clear intramarginal vein. Peduncle and petiole

green with some dark purple mottling, cataphyns dark purplish green with some

rather obscure scarlet mottling.

4. A. peltatum, Fisch. In shoias on the western ridge.

All the above plants flower in May and June and form ripe berries in Sept,

and Oct.

Amerphophailus mysorensis, Fisch. and Bar. Bamboo forest, Pun. Gt.

3,500 It., fl. April, berries ripen June. Peduncle 18 ins. long, mottled pale

and olive green. Spathes purple, glossy. Lowest 1 in. of spadix with female

flowers, ovaries spherical, yenowish green, stigma irregularly spherical a little

smaller than ovaries, buff-yellow warty. One row of neuters consisting of rounded

spongy bodies much larger than the ovaries. 2\ ins. of male flowers, anthers

4-celied opening longitudinally, corrugated and warty, tapering upwards.

Raphidopliora pjrtusa, Schult. Climbing on large trees in evergreen forest,

Moskai, fl. Oct.

Lemnaceae

Lenina polyrrhiza, Linn. Dod., in swamps.

Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon

1. E. Thwaitesii, Koett. At., fl. Sept.

2. E. melaleucum, Mart. At., fl. Sept.

3. E. CoLinum, Mart. ? Moskai, fl. June.

19

BioLogicAl notes on sinoxYLon subAmtMM

LESNE AND ITS PARASITES IN S. INDIA.

BY

P. N. Krishna Ayyar and V. Margabandhu,

Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore.

( With two graphs .)

Introduction.

In November 1935, in the course of an investigation into the

possibilities of the biological control of Pempheres affinis Fst., the

senior author had occasion to collect a few Bostrychid adults from

tunnels especially bored into the stems of green cambodia cotton

plants taken directly from the field. These were sent to the Imperial

Institute of Entomology, London and were identified as Sinoxylon

sudanicum Lesne. Little did the author suspect, at the time, that

the insect would have such an intimate bearing on the problem in

hand, as revealed by subsequent studies.

Bostrychids as a group appear to have attracted little attention

in S. India in the field of Agricultural Entomology. They are known

to be of great economic importance as borers of various kinds of

wood. Apart from brief references to their biology and habits from

time to time by Forest Entomologists, comparatively little is still

known or has been published on the subject. Although special

studies on this economic group would, therefore, be highly desirable,

it has not been possible for the writer to do so. But some useful

observations in the course of other studies have been made from

time to time during the last four or five years on one of the economic

species namely Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne and it is the purpose of

this paper to present a connected account of the same, so as to

supplement what is already known of the species.

Review of previous knowledge

Sinoxylon sudanicum was first described by Lesne (1896) and

further in 1906. In spite of its common occurrence in S. India,

it seems that little is known of its biology or habits. The

first record of the species in South India appears to be by Fletcher

(1914) who says that its life history is not known. He suggests its

probable occurrence in the .whole of South India particularising

Bellary, Coimbatore and Chingleput. According to him it

attacks dry stems of Agathi, dead Cambodia stalks, and almost

any dry soft wood. Gardner (1933) has described and figured the

mature grub. The latest reference is by Beeson and Bhatia (1936)

who record it as widely distributed in Bengal, Bihar, Bombay,

Central Provinces, Madras, Mysore, Punjab, Sindh, United Pro-

vinces, and N. Africa. Their list of host plants includes Acacia sp.,

Albizzia sp., Balanites roxburghii, Bamboo, Butea frondosa, Casua-

rina sp., Dalbergia sp., Ficus palmata, Mallotus sp., Mangifera

■in o Logical notes on sinox ylon su danicu m lesne ,46i

indica , Pongamia glabra , Pfosopis spicigera , Quercus sp., Rhus parvi-

jlova , Shorea robustaf ierminaiia tomentosa , and several unidentified

woods.. They also record that the emergence period is prolonged,

40% of the population emerging in May and 4370 in April, June and

July with a suosidiary pean at the end of juiy and They, in fact,

make out mainly two broods in a year.

Economic Status of the species in S. India.

The discovery of this insect as a useful and abundant alternate

host of an important Bracomd parasite Spatnius cntoiaus 61 the

cotton stem weevil served to bring it into prominence in S, India,

its presence is a common phenomenon in the weakened or wilting

green plants, of cambodia. Almost every wilting plant in the heid

may show its tunnelling, and this becomes prominent in the season

October to January wnen considerable numbers of cotton plants are

killed or weakened by stem weevil attack. At the close ol Tie Teuton

season, the cotton plants pulled out and stacked from April to August

display heavy miestation which serves to bring about a conjunuiiy

in ureedmg throughout the year. It may be evident, thereiore, thac

the conditions of cambodia cultivation provide exceptionally lavOuiable

facilities for breeding and multiplication, it is no wonder, then,

that the insect, in virtue of its habits and abundance, constitutes an

excellent alternate host for an important stem weevil parasite.

Description. The adults are robust beetles of a deep brown to daik colour,

varying in lengtii irom nun. io 5 mm. As is uie case wun must oosury-

chitls me body is ol a cylindrical lorm.

1 he sexes are so simnar that it is very difficult to distinguish the males

from me females except by the smaller size of the lormer. Trie only character

by wmcn these may be distinguisned lies in me compaiative length ot me silky

bands on the internal aspect of me posterior tarsi. These iians appear to oe.

somewhat longer in the mate than in me iemaie.

.Numerous counts ol daily collections have been made to ascertain the pro-

portion of the sexes, and it has been observed that me lemaies invariably out-

number the males.

Activity.

The beetles do not appear to be active within the cages but for the incessant

and untiring tunnelling of the stalks. On sunny warm days, particularly late

in the afternoon the adults can be seen hying from a distance and dashing

against large wire gauze out-door cages filled with cotton staiks. iheur acti-

vity appears to be governed by temperature and sunlight. They seem to

possess great powers of flight although they seldom take to their wings even

when exposed indoors, but have often been seen to crawl from staik to : staik.

Their powers of flight are of great importance for dispersal and spread of

infestation. Their activities, are best observed near large out-door wire gauze

cages containing cambodia cotton .< stalks. They are seen flying from afar

and fluttering about the cages. -After dashing against the cages they can

often be seen rolling on the ground beside the cages. Detailed observations

have been made continuously for several months to determine the time of

their greatest activity. Records of daily collections in relation to the prevail-

ing weather conditions have been maintained for the months of June July" 1936,

September-October 1936, December 1936 and January 1937 (vide table

and curve appended) which will afford an insight into their behaviour 'during

different hours of the day.

The hours of greatest activity as seen from the maximum hourly catches

appear to be. between 4 and 5 p.m. in the evening. The adults' : are seldom .seen ,,

in the forenoon or after 7 p.m. Their activity commences by about 2 p.m. and

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

attains the maximum by about 5 p.m. after which a definite decline can be noted.

Bright sunshine seems to be an important factor inducing flight and activity. The

BOSTRYCHID EMERGENCE

DURING DIFFERENT HOURS OF THE DAY

catches during dull weather have been extremely poor. The adults boring into

stalks inside cages also display the same tendency on bright sunny days; the

adults may be seen resting inside on the sides of the wire gauze cage facing the sun.

The daily collections made in December and January are depicted in the

form of a curve.

BOSTRYCHID INCIDENCE IN 1936 DEC,

It may be seen that there are two peaks comparatively well marked, one of

which is about the 19th and the other about the 27th of December. The adults

BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON SINOXYLON SUDANICUM LESNE 463

commenced to appear in larger numbers towards the end of the month ; out of

about 788 collected more than 500 were obtained during the last week of the

month. In January there was a distinct fall in the collections as seen from the

figure 314 for the whole month with a maximum of 38 per day as against 128 of

the previous month.

Number of Generations.

Beeson and Bhatia (1Q37) have recorded only two broods in the year

under North Indian conditions. Systematic observations for nearly four years

have revealed the occurrence of four distinct broods under South Indian con-

ditions. As judged from the length of life cycle undar these conditions it Is

possible to have even five generations per year. The biggest is obtained

in September-October when large quantities of pulled out cotton stalks of

the previous season are available for breeding. Another generation which

ranks second in magnitude occurs in December- January when plenty of suit-

able breeding material may be available in the shape of wilting cambodia

plants. Others have been recorded in April-May and in July-August when

systematic collections of adult beetles have been made.

Congenial Conditions for Attack.

It has been observed that normal cambodia plants in a vigorous state of

growth are not suitable as hosts of Sinoxylon. The other extreme of unsuit-

ability is reached in the case of plants completely dead and dried up which

are also equally unattractive to the insects. Between these two extremes

there is a wide range of conditions under which the host is suitable for

successful attack. A number of trials to test the conditions of suitability was

carried out. Two lots of cambodia plants — one consisting of 100 plants and

another of 50 - plants — pulled out from the field were exposed in the open

near the cages on 7th December 1036 for attracting the beetles. On the

third day of exoosure the first attack by the beetle was observed and the

material continued to be attacked for about 23 days, i.e. till the 28th of the month.

No fresh attacks were observed after that date, though the observations were

continued up to the 1st January of the next year.

Another lot of 82 uninfested plants nulled out on the 24th of November,

was exposed on the 5th of December. The attack was observed on the 7th and

i’t continued up to the 10th with no further attacks after that date. Several other

lots of plants in different stages of wilting were also experimented with and the

results were in conformity with previous observations. In one lot of plants with

the bark peeled off, the infestations were not as numerous as in others. It will

be seen from these trials that while certain conditions, particularly moisture

contents, render plants suitable, no pathological conditions are needed tq make

the plants attractive.

Number and Nature of the Attacks.

Detailed observations were made regarding the nature of infestations in a

collection of qi attacked planks. In 76 cases the entry was through nodes, in 7

cases the tunnelling was a little away from the nodes, and in 8 cases the entry

was effected on or about the hypocotyl region. In some cases the beetle prefers

to attack the cut ends of Stalks. The insect also bores into leading side branches

of plants. Regarding th£ number of attacks, out of Q3 plants examined, 86

showed single attacks, the remainder having double attacks. In all cases of

double attacks the tunnels were seen bored near each other indicating that

males of the species make separate entrance holes only occasionally.

The Course of Tunnelling.

The female beetle commences its operations by gnawing a neat circular

aperture often through the bark or rarely at cut ends, and throws out heaps

of saw dust. The tunnel may be at a varying angle from the surface. This

entrance tunnel descends deep into the stem and enlarges into a neat roomy

chamber known as the pairing chamber from which two or three narrower

tunnels branch off generally encircling the stem the outer surfaces of which

464 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

are covered only by the thin bark. Slight deviations from this typical example

have .been encountered and these are illustrated in the figures attached. The

male either utilises the same entrance aperture or constructs another close

to it and communicating with the same. Not infrequently two females or

even three have been observed in the pairing chamber. A bit of stem with one

entrance aperture, a pairing chamber and two egg tunnels when examined revealed

one dozen newly formed adults, six pupae, two full-grown larvae, six shrivelled

up and dead larvae.

Life History.

Accurate1 determination of the life cycle with the rate of growth and dura-

tion of the several stages is extremely difficult in the case of these wood

borers and therefore only approximate estimates of the same have been

attempted.

Immature Stages.

Copulation has been noted on several occasions and has been seen to occur

repeatedly, the process lasting roughly for a minute. Oviposition has not

been observed nor has any estimate of the egg capacity been made. The

female after eating Out an egg tunnel round the stem, deposits its eggs at

the bottom of the tunnel. Fertilised females caged with uninfested cotton

stalks on 7-9-36 were examined on 17-9-36 and early stage grubs of approxi-

matelv one or two days growth were observed in larval galleries. The con-

struction of the egg chamber roughly occupies three to four days.

The grubs on hatching feed entirely on the wood and eat out larval

galleries along the long axis of the stems. These galleries are filled with

wood duSt and excreta and the grubs themselves are seen buried in the dust.

The egg and larval periods were roughly determined from data obtained as

follows: — Fresh cotton stalks were caged .with mated females and the material

was examined at intervals to note the development of the grubs. The average

period occupied varied between 30 and 32 days. The white curved grubs

are somewhat active in their movements and go into pupation in a slightly

enlarged 'neat chamber.

The puna is white in colour and has a similar shane as the adult. The

duration of the pupal stage was determined by the isolation of mature pupat-

ing grubs. The period occupies roughly 13 to 14 days.

Life Cycle.

The data on entire life cvcle are presented in the table below. Copulating

pairs of adults were introduced into cages containing wilting cotton stalks

and the first appearance of adults was recorded.

The life cycle period averaged about 48 days. The longevity of adults was

tested by means of a few trials and this ranged from 4 to 23 days averaging

12.6 days.

BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON SINOXYLON SUDANICUM LESNE 465

Host Plants.

With a view to test the comparative attraction exercised by different

host plants a series of experiments was carried out. Stalks of other species

of plants such as Acacia, Agathi and Mango were presented along with those

of cotton in cages having Bostrychid adults. Among 30 stalks of Acacia only

eight showed attacks. The adults apparently find it more difficult to tunnel

into these than in cotton and do not traverse to any distance beyond their

own body length. Agathi stalks supplied were left entirely untouched. Other

trials where Agathi stalks alone were presented to the beetles yielded the

same results. Mango stems showed better results in that three stalks out of 30

exposed displayed attacks. The beetles in this case seem to tunnel with greater

ease than in Acacia. The adults appear to live for about a month when left with

mango or cholam stalks. The striking preference to cambodia cotton shown by

these insects was also apparent from various observations made in outdoor cages,

wherein various other plants such as Urena lobata, country cottons, Bam-

boo, Triumfetta plants, several species of Sida and Hibiscus were kept on

several occasions, the beetles were never observed to be attracted to such cages

but were found fluttering about or resting on the cambodia cotton cage alone.

Parasites.

Pediculoides ventricosus Newpt. : — This globular mite was a regular source

of trouble in laboratory cages. These often suddenly appeared and devoured

the immature stages of the beetles together with any parasite larvae attack-

ing them.

Spathius critolaus Nixon : — This Braconid which is an important parasite

of the grubs of the cotton stem weevil finds an excellent alternate host in

these Bostrvchids. The parasites confine their attentions to the advanced

grubs of Sinoxylon. They attack mature grubs, also medium-sized grubs.

Generally one egg, sometimes two eggs are placed externally on the

grubs after their complete paralysatiqn. The larva that hatches feeds, grows

and consumes the entire contents of the host before cocooning in the host

tunnel. The life cycle varies from 13 to 24 days. The males have a shorter

life cycle than the females. The Bostrvchid was, therefore, utilised as an alternate

host for mass breeding of these parasites and five to six thousand parasites have

been bred in the course of four years.

Various other species of parasites of the genus S-bathius. particularlv

Spathias sp. near labdacus, and three undetermined chalcidoids have been observed

to be parasitic on this host.

Acknowledgements.

The writer wishes to record his thanks to the. assistants and fieldmen of

the. scheme who have all contributed to the collection of data presented in

the paper. Particular mention has to be made of Mr. V. Margabandbu, who

has taken great pains in making hourly collections during December tq-^6

and January 1937. The writer wishes to record his gratitude to the Indian

Central Cotton Committee for making these studies possible bv financing the

Scheme and to the Government Entomologist and Cotton Specialist for afford-

ing facilities.

References.

Beeson, C. F. C. and Bhatia, B. M. — Indian Forest Records. Ent. series

2 : 223 (1936.1

Fletcher, T. B. — Some South Indian Insects (1914).

Gardner, J. C. M. — Indian Forest Records. 18 and 19 : 18 (1933.)

Lefroy, H. M, — Indian Insect Life (1909),

OBITUARY

LT.-COL. A. H. MOSSE.

It is with regret that we record the death of Lt.-Col. Arthur

Henry Eyre Mosse, c.i.e., of 45, Birling Road, Tunbridge Wells,

which occurred on Wednesday week at the age of 65. Since he

came to reside in the town on his retirement eleven years ago,

Col. Mosse was a well-known personality, and when volunteers

were asked for service in the A.R.P. early in 1938, he immediately

put himself at the disposal of the authorities and became Head

Warden of the South Group, a position he held until a few months

ago, when he relinquished the work for health reasons. A very

efficient officer, he was popular with everyone connected with the

Group, and to mark their appreciation of his many valuable ser-

vices, his colleagues made him a presentation on his retirement.

The fourth son of the late Deputy Surgeon-General Mosse,

C.B., c.m.g., Lt.-Col. Mosse was educated at King’s School, Canter-

bury, Bedford School and the Rova.1 Military College, Sandhurst.

He joined the Indian Army in 1897, and in the same year was

attached to the Durham Light Infantrv, and in the following year

to the 104th Wellesley’s Rifles. In 1901 he volunteered his ser-

vices for famine relief in the Great Famine, and from that date

he joined the Indian Political Service, serving in Aden and the

Western Indian States as Political Agent. Towards the end of his

service he was Vice-President of the Bhavanagar State Council

during the minority, and in 1931 officiated as Agent to the

Governor-General in the Western Indian States. During the Great

War he served in Mesopotamia in the Judicial Department at

Basrah, and was mentioned in dispatches. He retired in 1932 and

was awarded the C.I.E. in the following year for his services as

Vice-President of the Bhavanagar State Council.

On coming to reside in Tunbridge Wells, Lt.-Col. Mosse became

District Head of the Soldiers’, Sailors ’ and Airmen’s Help Society.

He was a Fellow of the Zoological Society and a member of the

Bombay Natural History Society. While in India and Somaliland

he was a big-game hunter. A great naturalist, he was especially

interested in entomology. He published a book on his Somali ex-

periences, and wrote many articles and short stories and was a fre-

auent contributor to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society. Much sympathy has been extended to his widow, son

and daughter in their bereavement.

Ex ‘ Times*, 22nd April 1943.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.— OCCURRENCE OF THE LION IN PERSIA.

When I called to see you on my way through Bombay about

a year ago, I mentioned that one of the surveyors working in S.-W.

Persia recently had seen a lion. I promised to' send you a few

more details. Here they are: —

On 22nd May 1942 Jemadar Lai Khan, belonging to an Indian

Field Survey Company engaged on survey work in S.-W. Persia,

saw a lion about 40 miles north-west of Bizful. He had a squad

of two signallers and four sepoys with him at the time and they

all saw it. As the animal was only about 80 yards away I do not

think that there was much chance of its identity being mistaken.

In addition to his own men Jemadar Lai Khan had three local police-

men with him belonging to the Persian gendarmerie.

The Jemadar described the lion as about 5 feet in length from

the nose to the base of the tail, and greyish -yellow in colour. It

had no mane. He reported that he ‘shot at it but could not hit it’.

I think that it was near this place that the late Sir Arnold

Wilson saw a lion a few years before the last war. I would be

interested to hear whether any other lions have recently been

reported from this area. So far as I know no others were seen by

troops of the Persia-Iraq Force, up to the time of my leaving the

Force last Spring.

Survey of India,

Murree.

December 30, 1948.

[It would appear that lions still occur in the wild and moun-

tainous region around Bizful in South-west Persia. The last-reported

occurrence from this area was that made by a party of American

Engineers in 1930 and recorded in this Journal (Yol. xxxv, No. 3,

p. 672). — Eds.]

IL— 1 TIGER CLAW MARKS ON TREES.

With reference to the note on the above subject by Major R. C.

Morris on page 656 of the Journal, Yol. xliii, No. 4, I wish to

record that as Bunbar Brander has observed in his book, The Wild

Animals in Central India , it is a habit of tigers to sharpen or clean

their claws on , trees. But Bunbar Brander qualifies this habit

‘to be more an individual peculiarity constantly practised, rather

than a general habit occasionally practised, as where the marks

on trees are seen they are usually numerous and made by the same

animal whereas miles of jungle containing tigers may be devoid of

all signs of the habit*. I have very often observed the tigers kept

in the zoo at Trivandrum, when let out from their cages into an

adjoining spacious open-air arena (securely enclosed by high iron

G. F. HEANEY,

Lt.-Col.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST., SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

fencing) .going straight for the trees therein and tearing the hark

with their claws vertically downwards. The open-air enclosure

has been so constructed as to correspond as much as possible to

the natural habitats of the wild animals, with numerous trees

at different stages of growth with an undergrowth of bushy shrubs

and guinea grass, rockeries, caves and a watershed. The trees

include Eugenia javanica, Mangifera indica , Trewia nudiflora, Pelto-

phorum fcrrugineum, Swietienia macrophylla and S. mahogani, all

of which have the claw marks in abundance on them. The topmost

mark on any tree is just over 8 feet from ground level. Unfortu-

nately there is no Arjan (Terminalia arjuna). There is however

a Rubber tree ( Castilloa elastica) which is, but for one or two

stray marks, invariably left alone. Plantain trees ( Musa sp.) have

been torn off and destroyed by these animals.

It might be mentioned in this connection that unlike lions,

cats, or dogs, which have a habit of scratching the ground with

their claws, the tigers seldom have been observed to make use of

the ground for sharpening or cleaning claws. Tree-climbing among

tigers might be individual peculiarities, for, even though many

of the trees mentioned above have branches within easy reach

below the 8 ft. height reached by the claws, none of them have

been seen perched on any of the branches.

ZobLOGiCAL Gardens,

Trivandrum. E. S. SIMON.

November 1, 1948.

HI.— WILD DOGS ATTACKING A TIGER.

( Story told to me by Barldya, shikari, and his brother and

confirmed by the Range Officer.)

Soon after sunrise I spotted vultures circling in the distance,

so mv brother and I set off to invesigate.

After half an hour’s brisk walking we arrived at Kapra Nala

which at this point is about 80 feet wide and except for a small

water hole, quite dry. The nala for the greater part of its course

runs between verv steep banks, but just here it opens out and its

bed is level with the banks. On the opposite side of the nala and

about 50 yards from it rise two hills about 200 to 800 feet high

separated from each other by a very narrow ravine, full of long

green grass and shaded by large trees — an ideal spot for a tiger

to lie up after a hearty meal.

At the edge of the water hole we found traces of a recent

tragedy — disturbed soil and blood stains. It was easy to read the

story— a tiger had crouched in a patch of long grass and pounced

on an unsuspecting sambhur when it came for a drink. Very

cautiously, we followed the trail made by the tiger dragging the

animal and eventually located the body in a clump of bamboo at

the mouth of the ravine.

In the meantime the vultures had collected, but instead of

settling round the carcass they alighted on the trees, an indication

ihpt the tiger was nearby,

Miscellaneous notes

469

My brother and I were arguing whether we should go back to

the village and collect a few men to scare off the tiger so that we

could collect what meat was left, when he drew my attention to a

movement in the long grass half way up the hill on the right.

We watched carefully and saw something red. My brother whis-

pered to me bahri (barking deer), but I told him to be quiet

and then we saw another and another and still another, until on

that hill alone we counted 12. It then dawned to me that they

were not bahri but wild dogs, and we decided that we better

withdraw. To our horror we found a dog stationed alongside the

path we had come bv and then discovered that we were surrounded.

We immediately climbed un a large fig tree and sat very quiet.

We had never heard of wild dons attacking men before, but we

knew that if thev treed any animal they would surround it for

several days until hunger or weakness caused the animal to leave

its shelter and then of course its fate was sealed.

From up the tree we had a verv clear view of what happened.

The dogs were stationed about 30 vards apart along both hills

facing the ravine, as well as on the farther side of the nala. Al-

too-ether we counted 22 dogs. The strangest part about their

behaviour was their absolute silence and when one moved, all

moved, eraduallv closing in.

Suddenly with a snarl a tiger appeared and the do^s closed in

still further until there was a ring of them round him, about

An.HO faat in diameter. They were apparently driving him int0

the bed of the nala where he could get no cover, but where their

paws couM get a firm footing, with no obstructions such as twigs or

scrub. This was very evident from their action. When the tiger

faced the wav thev wanted him to go, the line of dogs withdrew

but closed in behind, but when he faced the opposite wav, they

stood up to him, bunching together and making stiff -legged rushes

of a few feet.

The dogs however left a large mahowa tree out of their calcula-

tion, for when the tiger saw it he made for it with a rush scatter-

ing the dogs in his way. He gained the shelter of the tree and

sat down with his back firmly against it and his tail curled round

over his fore-paws. The dogs closed in round the tree until the

nearest was within 10 feet; the maioritv crouched on their haunches

with heads between fore-feet as if content to plav a waiting-game.

There were three or four half -grown pups which frisked round

plaving with each other.

For the first half hour the tiger sat quietly merely snarling

occasionally, but then he began to lose his temper and gave vent

to a couple of full-chested roars; but its only effect on the dogs

was to make a few of them prick their ears.

The tiger then fell to lashing his tail, but one of the pups slipped

round to the back of the tree and gave it a painful tweak. This

brought the tiger round with a roar, he let loose with a ‘hay-maker’,

the pup threw itself on its back, paws in the air, slipped between

the tiger’s legs and got away uncratched. This move left the

tiger’s flank and rear uncovered, and a full-grown dog leaped in

from the left and snapped at the tiger’s neck, just behind the ear,

4ft) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLl V

It was slow in its get-away with the result that it received a blow

on the ribs which hurled it 10 feet away, stone dead.

The tiger sat down again, but presently the Mood from the bite

in its neck started to trickle down his chest. This made him very

uncomfortable and when he could no longer endure it he lowered

his head to lick the blood off. This momentary inattention cost

him dear, as the instant his eves were off them than the whole

pack rushed in and a few hectic seconds followed; the tiger was

completely hidden under a mass of snapping struggling dogs, they

fastened on to him everywhere biting and tearing. It is impos-

sible to give an accurate description of the struggle as all the eye

could see was a seething mound of red, with glimpses of yellow

and black. The dogs suddenly withdrew leaving five of their num-

ber dead or seriously iniured. The tiger had fared very hadlv —

one eve was closed, the corner' of his mouth torn away, his ears

in tatters and numerous gashes all over his hody. The most seri-

ous iniurv seemed to be to his right fore-paw as he was unable

to Mace it on the ground.

The dogs reformed their circle, but this time much closer; and

whereas at first they waited for the tieer to make the first move

they now started making tentative rushes and kept the tieer on

the alert. This continued for nearly an hour and due to loss of

blood the tiger was fast losing strength. Ana, in the dogs rushed in

and there was another confused struggle. When the dons drew off

this time the tiger was in very bad shape and it was with a great

effort that he kept himself erect. Presently his head began to

droop and again the dogs attacked, one fastened on to the tiger’s

throat and although immediately beaten to a pulp, its jaws re-

mained locked and its hold could not be broken. In a supreme

effort the tiger reared up on its hind legs with the dead dog still

at its throat and others draped all over. Even with this glimnse

we could clearly see that he had been disembowelled; he topoled

over backwards and was immediately covered with dogs, there

were a few more convulsive struggles and all was still.

At this stage my brother and I slipped down from the tree

and went back to the village. We told our story and collected a

crowd and returned to the scene of the fight. By the time we got

there the dogs had gone, leaving the vultures in possession. All

that was left of the tiger was bones, sinews and a few tufts of

blood stained fur. We counted twelve dead dogs and could see

where others had dragged themselves away.

A few years ago when there was a reward paid for wild dogs they

were so rare that we did not see their foot-print for several years.

Now the reward has been abolished and they have multiplied

to such an extent that hardly a week goes by without our district

being raided.

J. Connell & Co.,

Erere Boap, Bombay. * W- CORNELL.

October 15, -1943,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 47 i

IV . — ELEPHANT S AT SALT-LICKS.

On one occasion I took two ‘Ivoonkie ’ elephants to a salt-lick

at the foot . of the Aka-Dafia Hills on the north bank of the Brahma-

putra Biver and they at once started to eat greedily of the grey

earth, kicking great lumps out of the hill-side with their feet and

putting them into their mouths. It was with the greatest diffi-

culty that we could tear the elephants away from the spot. On

another occasion my Government elephant refused to touch any

of the earth at another lick at the foot of the Bhutan Hills. Why'/

It seems that elephants eat the earth only when they, are so in-

clined or are in need of a purge.

There are two kinds of licks in Assam, one known as ‘pungs’

and the other as ‘mati-kolais’. The former are found at the foot

of hills, invariably where a land-slip has occurred and the weathered

soil extends as a talus or cone-like, grey slope up to 100 feet or

more. Water oozes out from the base and the place is obviously

visited by all manner of animals, preference being shown for the

freshiy exposed surfaces higher up. ‘Mati-kolais’ are found on the

plains, generally on the south bank, and resemble large white-ant

hills, the sides and bases of which have been scraped away until

a large shallow pit or hollow is formed in which water collects.

Here the soil is much more clayey and yellow in colour, as com-

pared to the grey, sandy earth of the ’pungs’. Some licks are

more attractive to animals than others in the same neighbourhood,

and the location of stockades for catching elephants depends on this

fact.

P. D. STB ACHY,

I.F.S.

V.— ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BIEDS IN BETUL

DISTBICT AND SUBBOUNDING ABEAS IN THE

CENTBAL PROVINCES.

I contributed a paper in Yol. xli, No. 2, of this Journal in 1939,

and since then I have continued to keep notes about the move-

ments of different species. As these notes have been continued

for five years, they can be taken as a fairly reliable guide. I have

extended the observations to the adjacent district of Amraoti (the

Melghat), and the Hoshangabad District .to the north. The infor-

mation is both positive and negative, and will help to determine

the limits of spine species in Central India, of which the present

records shew only a generalised distribution across India.

Sitta frontalis, the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Widely distributed but not com."

mon m the deciduous forest.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes, the Deccan Scimitar Babbler. Also widely

distributed in the forest. It was recorded in all months of the year, and is a

resident species. It is usually found in pairs, and not in parties.

Chloropsis aurifrons, the Golden-fronted Chloropsis. Kecorded once in Betul.

Several birds were seen frequently in Chickalda (Melghat) in the hot weather

of 1942.

Tezpur, Assam.

October 6, 1943.

472 Journal, bombAY NATURAL hist, society , Voi. XUV

Pycnonotidae Bulbuls. Only tAvo species, Molpastes cafer Linn, and Oto-

compsa, jocosa Binn. have been recorded in this part. Molpastes leucog&dys has

been recorded again from Nagpur by the Curator of the Museum. I mentioned

it m my previous list, but I nave not recorded it from any other locality yet.

Cercomela fusca Bfytli, the Brown Bockchat. Quite common in Hoshangabad

town on tne banns of the Nerbudda. This is probably the southern limit or tins

species.

Cyanosylvia sueicica Linn., the Bluethroat. Not recorded in my previous list,

but is quite common.

Kittacincla raalabarica Scopoli, the Shama. Still not been recorded from these

forests, but the Curator of tne Nagpur Museum informs me that they obtained

a pair in the Balaghat district.

Turdus simillimus Jerdon, the Nilgiri Blackbird. Discovered to be a migra-

tory species. It arrives in the localities which it favours in April and leaves

in October or November. It is confined to the higher elevations, and is quite

settled in its habits seeming to occupy the same areas each year. The num-

bers seem to vary from year to year wmch is what one would expect in a migra-

tory race. There are many interesting points to be settled. The birds appear

in considerable numbers, and s.omeone must lose their own birds; the race of

these birds must be decided. \Vhether the birds reported from other localities

in the Vindhyan hills and at Mount Abu are also migratory is to be recorded.

Mooticola cinclordyncha Vigors, the Blue-Headed Bock Thrush. I have

recpraea a single bird m March 1940. It is not a regular visitor to this part

of India.

Eumiyas thalassima Swainson, the Verditer Flycatcher. A fairly common

winter visitor to the higher parts of the Satpuras.

Terpsiphone paradisi Linn., the Paradise Flycatcher. Migratory as reported

in my previous paper. The dates of the mam occurrence are March-Apnl to

the rams. Some buds are seen in the rains, and an occasional bird in the cold

weather. There are records of birds breeding in the hot weather, but ivhether

all birds are breeding or some are passage migrants cannot be decided yet.

Hemipus picatus Blanf. and Oates, the Black-Backed Pied Shrike. This bird

was seen in Cninaida in 1942 in the hot weather. I have seen individual birds

once or twice each year. It may be said to occur regularly but is rare. I

have seen it at ail times of year, and it is a resident species.

Pericrocotus speciosus, the Scarlet Minivet. One of the most constant mem-

bers of the forest community, while P. peregnnus is the species of roadside

mango topes and groups of trees m cultivation. P. erytHropygius, the White-

beilied Minivet, is a less common- species which is common in some years and

rare or absent in others. Lalage syksii. , the Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike, is

probably a summer visitor. The common and resident species is Graucalis

javensis.

Artamus fuscus Vieillot, the Ashy Swallow Shrike. Has not been recorded

again.

Oriolus orioius, the Golden Oriole. A summer visitor to the Satpura hills,

but i cannot say hotv far this migration extends. 0. xanthorms is the common

and resident species of the forest and hills.

Sturnidae. As I mentioned before, the distribution of the mynahs is local.

Achdotheres trisits, the Common Mynah, and Temenuchus pagodarum, the

Brahminy Mynah, are the common species. An occasional flock of the Bosy

Pastor {Pastor rosejus) are seen; and this year there were some flocks of the

Grey-headed Mynah, Sturnia malabanca. The Jungle Mynah ( Aethiopar fuscus )

does not occur in these hill ranges.

In Hoshangabad I have found a few Pied Mynahs, Sturnopastor contra,

Ploceidae. Stictospiza formosa is the most interesting species of this group

I have seen this species only three times in five years, and each time to the

west of the district near the Nimar border. It is evidently a very local species

gud may be looked for in the Nimar and Khandesh areas. Of other species of

Miscellaneous Notes

473

this family Uroloncha striata is quite a common forest species. U. punctulata

is also quite a frequent bird.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis Burton, the Yellow-throated Sparrow. Observed to

be migratory. Tlie general rule is for flocks of birds to appear in December-

January. By February the birds are broken up into breeding pairs, though

some small parties possibly non-breeding birds are still seen. The flocks re-

assemble in May, and seem to disappear in early June-July. They are hot

seen commonly until December, but some flocks may be seen at times. The

birds are present in very large numbers in the breeding season, and it is a

genuine migration.

Emberiza tnclanocepbala Scopoli, the Black-headed Bunting. A passage

migrant m February-March. I have still failed to record it in any other monad.

Motacillidae, Motacilla alba is the commonest of the migratory birds arriv-

ing eany uctober and leaving in March When they first arrive they are in

large numbers, but many pass on and they are then very wild, never still, and

quite diherent from tlie staid individuals who settle down for the winter. M .

jiava appears more commonly in j anuary-r ebruary. M. cmereq is a iorest

resident, and is usually found solitary even m the depths of the forest. JLt

arrives the earliest miu-beptember, and leaves very late, mid-April to early

May. This year 1 saw a lew specimens of M. citrecua, tne lenow-neaded Wag-

tail, but it does not seem to be a regular migrant to tms part of inaia.

Pitta brachyura Linn., the Common Pitta. One of our regular migratory

species wincn nests m our forests, it arrives in late May anu leaves to w arns

tne end of October.

Picus vittata, Vierll, the Little Scaly -bellied Green Woodpecker. Found to

occur quite commonly in the fbrestss one other woodpecker also occurs, but

i nave still failed to identify it witnout doubt. It is prooably Cur ys acuta pies

tesmms Bodd., the Black-bacKed Woodpecker.

Merops orientaiis Latham, the Green Bee-eater. A true local migrant,' desert-

ing tne -betui plateau from July to September. The dates were i eg mar each

year and even in 1941 wnen we nad pour rains the oirds remained aosent. The

extent of this migration is not determined yet. M. super cuiusus , t he Blue-tailed

Bee-eater, did not occur in netui, but occurs m BLosnangabad.

Hemiprocne corooata Tickell, the Crested Swift. A very common species of

the lores us.

Cucuiidae, The extent to which cuckoos are migratory is not worked out

fully yet. The liawk-Uuckoo is definitely resident in this part of the Central

Provinces. The Tied Crested Cuckoo is equally certainly migratory; the birds

arrive about the middle of June or the break oi tne rams. Tney leave m Sep-

tember, but young birds may be seen later. The Ivoel, I consider almost cer-

tainly to be migratory but mere may be localities wpere they stay tnrougnout

the year. The ixoei nas been noted as eany as the first week in March, but

not later than the end of September. The Cuckoo, Cuculus canorux, arrives

according to my observations at tne beginning of May and has not been noted

later than the middle of September. Tney are most common fir dune and July.

Cuculus micropiernus, the Indian Cuckoo, is more a forest species. The bird

occurs most commonly in May and June. The status of this species is more

dnficult to determine, as the bird is smaller and is inconspicuous, and. keeps to

the crowns of trees and- is rarely seeh. 1 nave only noted it in the period

May to September, and then chiefly on the strength of the call. One other

cuckoo is found, and this is almost entirely a bird of the forest as far as my

observations extend; this is the Indian Plaintive Cuckoo, Cacomantis merulinus.

1 have noted it only in the rains, June and July.

In Betui District water birds are uncommon, but tins summer

being transferred to Hoshangabad on the Nerbudda I found a

large community on the sandbanks of the river. Most of the birds

had finished breeding by the beginning of June. The species found

M JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

were Terns, Sterna aurantia Gray, the River Tern, Sterna melano-

gaster Ternmink, the Black-bellied Tern and Sterna albifrons', the

Tittle Tern; the Indian Pratincole, Glareola lactea, Temminck;

the Ring Plover, Gkaradrius dubius Scopoli; the Spur- winged

Plover, Boplopterus duvaucellii; several other species came to teed

but were not resident, such as storks, egrets, idis; rather unusual

were a large colony ot sarus cranes which ted tor the most part

on the bare wheat and gram fields, and on the edge of tne river.

These birds all disappeared on the break of the rams.

Hoshangabad, C.P. C. HEWETSON,

November 11, 1943. i.f.s.

VI. — LATE BREEDING OE THE COMMON HOUSE CROW

(COHVUS SPLENDENS SPLENDENS).

On the 6th October last my attention was drawn by the per-

sistent cries of a house crowT (Corvus splendens splendens ) winch

were being responded to by what sounded like the raucous call of a

young koei ( Ludynamis scolopaceus scotopaceus ). I spotted the

two birds and found that my guess was correct. The next day I

noticed the crow feeding the koel. It was fully hedged but the

tell-tale brownish spots left no doubt about its age. it could have

left the nest only recently. According to Stuart Baker, 0. splen-

dens. splendens breeds in May, June and July in its north-western

range (Fauna of British India, Birds, Vol. i, p. 33). It seems

therefore unusual for a Delhi house crow to hatch a koel so late.

I wonder whether the continuity of monsoon conditions has any

thing to do with this late breeding. A pair of mynas (Acridotheres

tristis tristis) have also hatched their young this year late in Sep-

tember in my bungalow. The chick left the nest on the 3rd

October for the first time. But young mynas of the same age are

found all over this place following the parents and clamouring to

be fed.

Imperial Record Department,

New Delhi. S. N. SEN.

October 13, 1943,

VIE— ON THE OCCURRENCE OE THE RUEOUS-BELLIED

CRESTED TIT (LOPHOPHANES RUB1D1VENTRJS) IN

THE SIMLA HILLS.

As the information regarding the distribution of this rare Tit in

the Fauna, 2nd ed., Vol. i, p. 85, is extremely scanty it is worth

recording that a specimen, ‘one of a pair’, was obtained by Mr.

H. C. Smith, of the Burma Forest Service, on April 25, 1943, at

Kalabagh, 11,000 ft. on the ‘Chor’ (sometimes spelt ‘Chaur’)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

476

mountain in Jubbal State. This is probably somewhat contiguous

to tile locality irom wmch tne Pmwiii specimens, as cited in the

Fauna, 2nd ed., came irom.

Mr. Smith very kmdiy presented this specimen to me which

is now in my collection.

Simla, 1943, A. E. JONES,

VIII.— FOOT OE THE LW HITE -B DE A STED EINGEISHEK

(HALCYON ■SMYHNLNblS FUSCA).

Writing of the habits of the Indian White-breasted Kingfisher

(Halcyon smymensis fusca ) btuart Taker says: ‘Its principal

articles of diet are undoubtedly grasshoppers and locusts, Dut will

eat almost any living tiling not too large to swallow' (-birds, Fauna

of British India, Vol. iv, p. 2/0). 1 hardly imagined that this

kingfisher preyed upon small bircts until 1 saw it actually seize

ana eat one (on .December 6, 1943). I could not identify its

victim, but it looked like a North Indian White-eye. The bird

was still alive wnen the kingfisher carried it to its perch and a

few knocks against the percning branch put a quietus to it. It

seemed to be too large to be swallowed at a gulp and the kingfisher

went on striking it continuously tor twenty minutes or more m its

characteristic manner. It would shift the body from the head to

the tail before starting each fresh set of knocking. So far as I

could observe, repeated knocking did not perceptibly reduce the

size of the prey, borne of the contour feathers were of course dis-

lodged but the tail and wing feathers were not affected. Most

prooabiy the meat and the bones lost their toughness, before the

body was finally swallowed head foremost. The tail feathers stuck

out for a few seconds and the kmghsher flew to a neighbouring

tree and began to sun itself without apparently feeling any need of

a drink.

New Delhi. S. N. SEN*

December 7, 1943, Keeper of the Imperial Records .

IX.— GDEEN PIGEONS IN SWAMP.

I read with interest Major Phythian -Adams ’ note on Green

Pigeons in a Swamp. While passing through the Amring Eorest

Deserve on the banks of the Kopili Diver in Assam (Nowgong Dis-

trict) I came on a fairly large area of lalang grass and shrubs con-

taining several pools to which elephants were frequent visitors.

The soil was sandy and there were several bare patches of sandy

clay and mud where barking deer, sambar, etc. had left many

trails — in other words a sort of salt lick.

On trees around and in the area there were hundreds of Imperial

pigeon, and many other kinds of pigeon and doves. Erom one of

the sandy patches, a fairly damp spot, I flushed about a half a

dozen green pigeon of some sort. I noticed it because I have

never before seen a green pigeon on the ground except for the

Punai Tanah of Malaya.

4,!g Journal, bom'bay natural hist, society, Hu ku¥

On my next visit at this place, with several guns, a green pigeon

was shot on the ground at a water hole. Not knowing the Indian

pigeons well, I could not identify it, but I noticed that it was

slightly larger than the common green pigeon and that its feet

and legs were bright yellow instead of red.

I saw no Imperial Pigeon (two kinds were shot) on the ground,

but it was noticeable that were none to be found at other open

grassy places in the area.

I note with interest also that green pigeon are not found in

the coastal area referred to by Major Phythian-Adams. In. Malaya

I have shot many birds in mangrove swamps and on islets near the

shore.

Post Box 1020.7,

Calcutta.

November 17, 1943.

X.— THE COMMON FLAMINGO (. PKOENICOFTERUS

RUBER) : AN APPEAL

Surprisingly little is known and on record concerning the sea-

sonal and local movements, breeding biology and life-history of this

interesting bird in India. Its only known breeding grounds within

our limits he far out within the vast salt-encrusted expanses of the

Great Bann, north of Kutch in Western India. Here the birds seem

to breed erratically, apparently not more than about once in 3 years

on an average. Their principal requirement seems to me that the

nesting ground be covered by a shallow stretch of water at least

during incubation and until the chicks are able to run about. In some

years, at the appropriate season the water level is suitable and

large concentrations of birds — 7 to 8 thousand in 1943 according

to one informant — collect on the area to build new nests or repair

the old ones. The shifting movements of the surface water in the

Great Bann are capricious and seem to be largely influenced by

the direction and force of the prevailing winds. Thus it happens—

apparently not infrequently — That, even after the monsoon and

otner requisite conditions have been favourable, the water sudden-

ly recedes from the proximity of the nest colonies or ‘cities’ leaving

them high and dry. As soon as this occurs — apparently both while

nesting has not yet commenced in earnest and even after incubation

is well advanced and the- eggs just hatched or hatching, the adult

birds forsake the nest ‘cities’ and vanish from the neighbourhood

more or less completely.

What we desire to learn is: Where do these birds go? Whether

they shift elsewhere to breed? Whether when they first arrive at

their nesting grounds they are physiologically ready for breeding?

Whether being so they are capable of skipping a season or a number

of seasons at will?

The undersigned would be grateful if members, and others in-

terested and having the opportunity, will kindly communicate any

observations they may make concerning the comings and goings of

flamingoes in their area, giving season, date and the approximate

numbers seen from time to time. Also any other general informa-

J. A. HISLQP,

Ga'pt.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

477

tion they may be able to obtain regarding food, habits or behaviour.

In the interest of scientific accuracy it would be desirable for

them to state whether their information is based on personal obser-

vation, surmise, local testimony or hearsay evidence, as the case

may be.

30, Pali Hill,

BandrA (Bombay Suburban Dist.). SALIM ALL

December 11, 1943.

XL— NOTES ON THE EVENING FLIGHT OE GEESE

AND DUCK.

At a certain fixed time before or after sunset wild fowl on a

day sanctuary suddenly get off tiie water and fly round and round.

Geese and duck may do tins at the same time or at different times.

If there are no night feeding grounds attached to tiie sanctuary

birds settle down after the evening ‘roll calL.as it were.

If there are mgiit feeding grounds birds go to tnem either direct

from ‘roll caiL or after an interval if they are apt to be disturbed

on tlieir feeding grounds.

Tiie arrival at mgiit feeding grounds is governed by the extent

to which they are disturbed tnereon.

Disturbance, to affect birds, has to be deliberate in the shape of

shooting, netting or hawking or possibly the presence of human

beings or cattle. Birds do not object to ordinary traffic in the

proximity of dwellings if they are not deliberately mteriered with,

In Persia 1 have seen duck remain on water in D arrow ^uts along

the railway while trains go past. At Hygam Jheei in Kashmir

duck stay all day within 20 yards of the bund and villages on the

bund regardless of constant traffic : they are teal, shoveller, a few

mallard, and odd pochard. I have never seen gadwall or pintail

there.

Night feeding grounds are reconnoitered especially by geese and

occupied if free. Shooting dr even the presence of anyone on a

feeding ground if persisted in makes duck leave it. Birds are very

sensitive to regular disturbance but adjust their arrival to overcome

it if the ground has any particular attraction. In a dak jungle

near Pah bit a, about 30 miles from Delhi, there is a shallow rect-

angle of clear water of about 5 acres literally teeming with snails.

Duck and geese are always found there; and no matter when you

shoot it up, you will find them back again inside half an hour.

Duck and geese leave their day sanctuary by the same route ancl

with the punctuality of the B.B.G. news bulletins. No amount

of shooting on the edges of the day sanctuary affects the time or

the route of flight, but birds go over higher to avoid being shot up.

The brighter the moon the higher the flight. In snow, rain or

fog, some, but not ail, birds flight low.

The majority of the teal flight only a few feet above the ground

preferring avenues along streams or over ground clear of trees. It

has been noticed that teal crossing from Spain to Africa in a storm

fly within a few feet of the waves going right down into the trough

and, as it were, riding the crests.

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V

Snow or the freezing of still water upsets and, in fact, misses

the flight programme 01 many birds on a sanctuary, but there are

some wmcn no not change their daily flight routine. When a noise

taxes place you get two-way traffic instead of one way owing to the

change not being adopted by ail — the hour of flight is generally kept

tile same. Heron are even more punctual arid regular in their

flighting than duck and geese.

An example oi persistence in flighting was that of pack after pack

of geese leaving tfle Jtiokra preserve near Srinagar from about 8 a.m.

tiii il a.m. over the poplar avenue on the mam road from Bara-

mulia to Srinagar. It was a common thing to see up to a dozen

guns lined up blazing away at the geese going over like formations

of air crait. The percentage of kins to shots fired was very low

because tne birds were practically out of shot and killed only by a

chance penet or brought down owing to a broken wing. Wounded

birds were numerous, and there was always a collection of villagers

on foot and mounted on ponies on the look out for any that fell in

the distance. The reward for retrieving a bird varied with the dis-

tance. One brougflt in by a horseman from a mile or more cost

practically the Srinagar game dealer's price. The poplar avenue

navmg become very oid and badly affected by borers has been recent-

ly cut down opposite Hokra. it will be interesting to see if the

geese now go over lower or whether they will still adjust their

neignt to something at which No. 4 shot was irritant rather than

letnal.

There is no doubt many shooters are misled. By the way visi-

bility oi flighting birds varies from a large number of causes such

as the height, speed of flight, amount of daylight still left, cloud,

moisture oi the air. It is sometimes said any bird you can see

flighting is within range. This is most misleading because at one

stage oi the waning fight you see only birds that are a good 100

yams off. Again you kiil a bird thought to be a long shot only to

flnd from the density of pellets in it that it was in reality a near

shot, it .is true that., if you are sitting over a small patch of feed-

ing ground the birds you see as they alight are within shot as also

are birds walked up on a feeding ground. It is possible, for inst-

ance, to get mallard in this way walking over some very favourite

night haunt and taking a snap shot as the bird appears as a black

spot for a moment, but this is hardly true flighting. In a true

evening flight the shooter has also to take into consideration the

varying size of birds, teal low down look much the same as big

duck twice as high up.

XII.— MOULTING OF BUCK AFTER ARRIVAL IN INDIA.

I was very interested in Miscellaneous Note No. XI in the

current issue of the Journal (Vol. xliv, p. 300) regarding the moult-

ing of duck after arrival in India since I also came across an

instance of this some years ago at a village called Tadunia on the

Srinagar, Kashmir.

December 30, 1943.

G. PE LA P. BERESFORP,

Mjajor General ,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Photo by

Courtship of Monitor Lizards.

Salim Ali

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

479

Simen river in the Sadiya Frontier Tract in Assam when the

‘Gam’ (Headman) of the village brought me an immature male

pintail duck which was unable to fly due to moulting. This was

in J anuary so far as I remember and the Gam told me he had

chased the duck and caught it with his hands when it was exhaust-

ed. He also mentioned that he frequently caught duck in this

way during that time of the year. I kept the bird for a consider-

able time in company with a winged brahminy duck which I

secured also but eventually they both died. Incidentally the

smaller types of duck have not got separate names amongst the

Abor tribesmen but the brahminy is called Ramkong while geese

generally are called Permit? Puiong and the general name for duck

is PA jap.

‘Hoped ale*,

Shillong, Assam.

January 1, 1944.

XIII. — THE ‘COURTSHIP’ OF THE MONITOR LIZARD

(VAR ANUS MONITOR).

(With a plate).

The accompanying photoeraohs were taken bv me at Chaduva

in Kutch on August 17, 1943. The monitor lizards concerned

were rather over 2 ft. long each. One of them, with the tail -tip

missing, was the heftier of the two and the more aggressive. Him

I assumed to be the male, the other the female. Ostensibly the

lizards were engaged in an ‘all-in’ wrestling match, and many of

th§ir grips, catches and throws were surprisingly human. The

commonest manoeuvre was to stand un on their hindlegs, clasp-

ing each other firmly about the neck and shoulders, and then

with a sharp sideways jerk of the head to knock the other down — <

sometimes tossing it completely over. The victor, who invariably

happened to be the ‘male’, now appeared to try and twist the pos-

terior end of the ‘female’ round into a position suitable for copula-

tion. The struggle, which was interspersed with much bloodless

biting on the neck behind the ear, lasted without result for over

an hour and a half. Both combatants were panting heavily and

were visiblv exhausted. Occasional pauses occurred only when the

female — who seemed to be more timid than the other — walked away

upon mv auoroaching closer with the camera. The male seemed

unperturbed by my proximity, at one time under 4 feet. On these

occasions the male did not follow or attempt to chase her but

stalked slowly over the ‘ring’ nose to ground, body raised to full

height, as if smelling. After retreating a few yards, and within

the space of 2 or 3 minutes the female, though she had appeared

to be having the worst of the encounters all along, returned to

‘Hefty’ and the bouts recommenced. This circumstance is enough

to suggest that it could, not have been a serious fight but some sort

of rough courtship that was in progress. After the ungentle

handling the female had received it is hard to imagine her return-

ing to the fray of her own accord when she had such a glorious

opportunity for escaping. Although ‘Hefty’ had apparently been

R. E. PARSONS,

Indian Police.

480 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST-. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

winning the whole time he was the first to show signs of exhaustion,

arid soon afterwards was completely done up. In the final stages

the female took hold of his foreleg in her jaws and shook it violently

from side to side two or three times, just as a terrier shakes a rat.

Upon his still continuing inert she left him with what seemed a

frustrated and disgusted sneer, eloquent of much damaging reflec-

tion upon his virility! She then deliberately waddled off up a

sloping bank and into the shrubbery. It took some minutes for

‘Hefty* to recover himself when he too walked away dejectedly in

a different direction and with no attempt to follow her.

It would be interesting to learn from some one who has studied

the habits of Monitor Lizards whether this was in fact some court-

ship proceeding and whether such ordinarily leads up to mating.

33. Pali Hill, Bandra. SALIM ALI.

December 7, 1943.

XIV.— THE ...BREEDING HABITS OF THE COBBA (NAIA

TRIPUDIANS MEBBEMV AND THE GBEEN WHIP SNAKE

(. DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS).

Am on <? other snakes not dealt with in my earlier note on ‘the

Breeding Habits of Some Snakes*1 there are two, the cobra and

the green whinsnake, of which T have been subsequently able to

collect some interesting data. With regard to the cobra, I find

that there is some difference in the matter of the mating and the

egg-laving seasons from those mentioned by Major Wall. Another

feature T observed, and to my knowledge unrecorded, was that one

of the female cobras swallowed- some of its eggs.

One specimen in the zoo laid 13 eggs on March 5, 1943. Four

davs later, another one laid 22 eggs. Both these cobras have

been kept in cantivity for a long time and each had its mate in

the same cage all along. Even at the time of the female voiding

its eggs, the male snake was found coiled up along with it. It

might be probable that the presence of the male is helpful to the

other in getting out the eggs, since each egg was brought out bv

muscular action similar to that exerted by these reptiles in swal-

lowing their prey.

This habit among cobras of association between male and female

individuals during reproductive processes even after the fertiliza-

tion of the ova has been observed among breeding cobras at

the Belle Vue Zoological Gardens, Manchester.2 There the male

and the female have been recorded to take turns in incubating the

eggs.

The eggs of the first snake in the present instance were of uni-

form size, whereas those in the other clutch were of different sizes!

The cobras moved away from the clutch ori the second day after

laying. The eggs began to shrink on the third day. These snakes

were kept in the cages with their eggs, and it was thus that the

snake which laid 22 eggs happened- to devour a dozen of them

1 J.B.N.H.S., vol. xlii, p. 553.

? Ptog. Zool. Soc., Tjondon (1931), p. 1413,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

481

in one day. This was on the fifth day after laying. The remain-

ing eggs decayed after a few more days.

Major Wall mentions that ‘the usual month for the deposition

of eggs is May’ (J .B .N .H .S ., 1913, Yol. xxii, p. 551). In this

instance it was early in March. A hatchling of this species was

caught at a place near Trivandrum and brought to me in the second

week of May. It was below a foot in length and evidently not

more than a few~ days old. Taking the period of incubation to be

just over two months as ascertained at Parel, the mother might

have deposited the eggs in the month of February.

A Green Whipsnake ( Dryophis mycterizans) was caught in the

grounds of the Zoological Gardens on May 4, 1943, and was kept)

in one of the cages of the reptile house. Though without a mate

since its capture, it gave birth on October 23 to 9 young ones

born alive and 1 undeveloped embryo in its egg envelope. The

young when bom measured 11.4 inches.

The period of gestation for this species has not been definitely

ascertained. Ferguson who in 1891 recorded the breeding habits

of this snake (J.B .N.H.S., Yol. x, p. 6) put the minimum at

59 days. Wall (J.B .N.H.S., Yol. xvi, p. 548) records the instance

of an allied species D. prasinus , which having remained in the

London Zoological Gardens without male companionship for nearly

two years and five months, gave birth to 8 young. In the pre-

sent case (D. mycierizans) a minimum of 172 davs or nearly six

months had elapsed since it had been mated. This long period

for gestation might be explained by assuming either that this period

must be comparatively longer for the ovoviviparous snakes than

for those which are oviparous, or that the fertilisable period of the

spermatozoa of these reptiles is of long duration and therefore ferti-

lisation of the ova may take place after a long interval.

Zoological Gardens,

Trivandrum. E. S. SIMON.

November 10, 1943.

[A pair of cobras have been seen mating on January 2, 1944;

the same pair again mated on the 4th. The female of this pair

laid 17 eggs on March 5, thus bringing the duration of gestation

to 62 days. — E.S.S.]

XY. — A NOTE ON BAN A CRASSA JERDON,

WITH EXTENSION OF ITS RANGE.

Rana crassa Jerdon.

Rana crassa Jerdon, Journ., Asiat. Soc., Bengal, xxii, p. 531 (1853).

Rana crassa, Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc., London, p. 199 (1871).

Rana tigrina, part, Boulenger, Fauna Brit. India, p. 449 (1890).

Rana tiprina. part, Annandale, Mem. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, vi,

pp. 122-26 (1917).

Rana crassa, Annandale and Bao, Rec. Ind. Mus., xv, p. 35 (1918).

Rana tigrina var. crassa, Boulenger, Rec. Ind. Mus., xv, pp. 51-58 (1918).

Rana crassa, Annandale, Rec. Ind. Mus., xv, pp. 61-63 (1918).

Rana tigrina var. crassa, Boulenger, Rec. Ind. Mus., xv, p. 66 (1918).

Rana tigrina var. crassa, Boulenger, Rec. Ind. Mus., xx, pp. 20-21 (1920). 1

1 Other synonyms of this frog are given on p. 17, under forma typica ,

482 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoZ. XLIF

There has been much discussion with regard to Rana tigrina

and its allies, especially in reference to the systematic rank of

Jerdon’s frog Rana crassa (Boulenger, 1918, and Annandale, 1918).

Boulenger (1918) holds that R. crassa should be given the status

of a variety of the typical R. tigrina Daud., since the distinction

between the two is a perfect parallel to that between the typical

R. esculenta and the var. lessonae. Annandale (1918), with all

deference to Boulenger’s contention, gives it the status of a true

soecies. In spite of its structural and ethological differences from

R. tigrina , s.s., as pointed out by Annandale, Boulenger (1918,

n 66, and 1920, pp. 20-21) firmly adheres to his former contention

of considering it a variety of the typical R. tigrina.

During the months of August and September, 1948, my nunil

Mr. A. N. Choudhury, b.sc., brought me a number of snecimens

of this frog from the irrigated rice-field of Garia, very near south

Calcutta. He also obtained a few voung specimens from the Boval

Botanic Gardens, Sibnore, near Calcutta. Farther, Mr. B. M.

Biswas, another punil of mine, was fortunate enough to catch a

single female snecimen from a way-side ditch in Hasua, a village

in the Gaya District, Bihar, on October 15, 1948. The collection

is made up of a dozen specimens, 5 miDs and 7 females. My

thanks are due to Messrs. Choudhury and Biswas for handing over

the snecimens to me for studv.

External characters. — -The differences which separate R. crax*a

from the tvnical R. tigrina , as noted by Boulenger (1918 and T920),

are noticeable in my specimens in certain respects. Annandale

(1918) has laid considerable stress on the structure of the inner

metatarsal tubercle, and in this respect I fully agree with him.

The difference in the structure of the metatarsal tubercle of R. crassa

and R. tigrina, s.s., lies not so much in the shaoe and size, as in

its pronounced shovel-shaped character in the former species. In

living snecimens I have found it to be fairly sharp on its free concave

edge. This structure can be superficially comoared with that of

R. breviceps Schneider. In all my specimens the tibio-tarsal arti-

culation reaches between the tympanum and the eve.

Sex characters. — An examination of the reproductive organs

reveal that most of the specimens are juveniles. In some males,

however, the nuptial pads are feebly developed and their surface

is finely granular. The vocal sacs are external and are shaded

black, but they are without any longitudinal folds as present in the

forma typica of R. tigrina (Boulenger, 1920, p. 18). It appears

from the cases recorded so for that mature males must be smaller

in size than females.

Coloration . — Boulenger (1920) notes that a yellow vertebral

streak is frequently absent, and that black spots on the gular region

are present in some specimens. Annandale (1918, p. 62) observes.

The colour of living specimens from Madras is similar to that of

R. tigrina , but much duller, a dull brown being substituted for the

greens and yellows, and with the exception that the throat is spot-

ted with black/ The coloration in my specimens is, however, quite

characteristic, and differs a good deal from that of the typical

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

483

Calcutta forms of R. tigrina. The yellow vertebral streak is total-

ly absent, and the large black spots on the gular region are present

in all the specimens at my disposal. Further, a few black spots

are frequently seen to extend irregularly over the pectoral region

and very rarely over the abdominal region. The median gular spots

frequently tend to be connected 'together in such a way as to form

a more or less longitudinal bar running from the chin to a little over

the pectoral region. In specimens preserved in formalin the black

spots faded to a dusky colour. The ground colour of the dorsal

surface varies somewhat individually. No doubt it is much duller

than that of the typical R. tigrina, as noted by Annandale (1918).

The black spots of the dorsum get obscured against a dusky ground

colour in most of the specimens, -while in those with a dull brown

ground tone these spots are fairly pronounced. Attention may here

be drawn to the apparent similarity between its dorsal colour pat-

tern and that of R. cyanophlyctis collected from Calcutta. Fur-

thermore, a parietal fleck, whitish in appearance, is clearly visible

between the eyes, while it is almost obscured in the typical

R. tigrina, as it is placed on the yellow vertebral streak passing

over the head.

Tadpole.—^ Annandale and Rao (1918) and Annandale (1918,

pp. 62-68) have assigned two tadpoles obtained from Madras (town)

to this species, and showed their slight difference from the typical

R,. tigrina tadpoles. Unfortunately I could not obtain any tad-

poles of this species, from Calcutta.

Measurements of seven specimens of R, crassa in my collection

are given here.

Measurements in millimetres .

1— -6, Suburbs of Calcutta (Bengal) ; 7, Hasua (Gaya District, Bihar),

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Distribution . — Boulenger (1920) gives, the distribution of R. tig-

rina var .crassa, as Benares and Agra in the United Provinces,

Chandbally in Orissa, Madras town, Malabar and Ceylon. This

includes the distribution recorded by Annandale and Bao (1918,

p. 35) and Annandale (1918, p. 63). Now, the find of R. crassa in

the suburbs of Calcutta as well as in Hasua is very interesting in

that it not only adds another Rana to the provinces of Bengal and

Bihar, but also bridges over the gap in the distribution of this

species. It thus gives R. crassa a continuous range from south to

north, passing through Bengal and Bihar as far as the United Pro-

vinces.

Conclusion .■ — Unless specimens which intergrade between R.

crassa and the typical R. tigrina could be discovered, as supposed

and believed by Boulenger (1918 and 1920) to be present, R. crassa

should stand as a distinct species; for it can be readily distin-

guished from the typical R. tigrina by its shorter hind-limbs and

well-marked shovel-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle, and by its

different coloration and peculiar burrowing habits. Further, since

the range of its distribution overlaps that of R. tigrina, s.s ., it

may be taken as an additional piece of evidence of considering it

specifically distinct (vide Annandale, 1918, p. 59).

Zoology Department,

University of Calcutta, JNANENDBA LAL BHADUBI.

35, Ballygunge Circular Boad,

Ballygunge, Calcutta.

November 29, 1943.

XVI.—^UBTHEB LOCALITY BECOBDS OF

RANA WEXADACTYLA LESSON IN BENGAL,

WITH BBIEF NOTES ON ]JTS TADPOLES.

Previous to 1920, Rana hewadactyla Lesson was known only

from South India and Ceylon (Boulenger, 1920). Its occurrence

in Bengal and probably also in the Punjab (Bhaduri, 1933) and in

the Bombay Presidency (McCann, 1934) considerably extends its

range, and proves that it is fairly widely distributed. Its rarity is

due to its secretive nature helped by its thoroughly aquatic habits

and concealing coloration.

Ten large specimens of this frog were caught from a well in

Sonarpur near South Calcutta in the month of December, 1942.

During last September and November, 1943, a large series of this

frog and its tadpoles was obtained by Mr. Satyadeb Mitra, a pupil

of mine, from a pond at Konnagar, about nine miles from Calcutta.

Further, 2 male specimens ^vere also collected by another pupil

of mine, Mr. Sudhir Chandra Mallick, from a pond in Duilla in

the Howrah District, some eight miles south-west of Calcutta.

He was, however, unable to obtain any tadpoles. To both my

pupils I offer my hearty thanks. The entire collection consisted

of 12 females, 13 males and 20 tadpoles. - 4

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

485

R. hexadactyla, as it appears from the source of collection,

could not be obtained from all ponds of the areas mentioned above.

It always remains concealed in old ponds amongst a rich green

aquatic vegetation. A bright leaf -green colour of the dorsum with

the primrose yellow vertebral streak in the living specimen is so

characteristic that it leaves no room for mistaking it for anv other

Ran a that inhabits Bengal. Juvenile specimens measuring 30-60 mm.

in length from snout to vent have black markings on the abdomen

and on the ventral side of thighs. Except the throat the ventral

side of some of the large specimens is stippled with black spots.

In males the inflated vocal sacs are not extensive and are without

any pigmentation.

Tadpole. — Tadpoles of R. hexadactyla were collected from the

same pond at Konnagar whence the adults were obtained, on Sen-

tember 22, 1943. They are fairly large individuals in which the

hind-limbs are not quite fullv developed.

Tadpoles of R. hexadactyla were first described and fi mired by

Ferguson (1904) from Trivandrum. Annandale and Rao (1918) gave

brief notes on, and three figures of, tadnoles collected from some

localities in South India and Cevlon. Boulenger (1920^ examined

tadpoles from Cochin only. From the accounts and figures nub-

lished by the above authors it. will be seen, inter alia, that the dental

formula is very variable.

The largest individual in my collection measured onlv 9.4 mm.

from tip of snout to origin of hind-limbs. The head and bodv are

broadly ovoid as seen from above. Mouth is small and subterminal.

The lips are fringed with small papillae on the sides. There are

two rows of horny teeth in the anterior lip, the outer is marginal,

while the inner second row is broadly interrupted in the middle.

There are three continuous rows in the posterior lip, the outer is

short and marginal, the inner two rows are of equal leno-th and

moderately long. The dental formula, 1:1 +1/3, is ascertained by

an examination of a large number of individuals in my collection.

It should be noted that some of the tooth rows are ant to fall off

completely. Especially this occurs in the inner second row of the

anterior lip in several specimens; the dental ridge belonging to this

row is, however, clearly visible. Previous authors have noted only

a single row in the anterior lip. In the posterior lip one of the rows

may be without any teeth, or there may be a break in the middle,

giving the appearance of an interrupted row. Probablv this early

or accidental shedding of teeth has led the previous authors to give

different dental formulae. Beaks are broadly edged with black and

are very minutely serrated. The upper beak is wide and broadly

crescentic, while the lower is Y-shaped, as usual. The large num-

ber of coils of intestine is discernible through the transparent skin.

The anus is median and placed on the subcaudal crest, as noted bv

Ferguson (1904). The sinistral spiracle is not tubular, and is

directed backwards and upwards, visible only from the lower side.

The: tail is acutely pointed, with subequal crests; the upper crest

is much deeper and strongly arched in the middle; the lower crest

is 1.5 to 2 mm. deep running uniformly throughout the length of the

tail. The tail, as a whole, looks like a sabre. Patches of black

pigment are scattered oyer the dorsuni, tail and hind-limbs.

486 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

The measurements of two individuals in which the hind-limbs

have sprouted with toes fairly differentiated are given : — -

Measurements in millimetres.

References.

Annandale, N., and Narayan Eao, C. K., ‘The Tadpoles of the families

Eanidae and Bufonidae found in the plains of India’, Rec. Ind. Mus., xv, p. 34,

pi. ii, figs. 2, 2a, 2 b (1918).

Bhaduri, J. L., ‘A Note on the Occurrence of Rana hexadactyla Lesson in

Bengal’, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxvi, pp. 514-16 (1933).

Boulenger, G-. A., ‘A Monograph of the South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian

and Australian Frogs of tlie genus Rana1, Rec. Ind. Mus., xx, pp. 10-12 (1920).

Ferguson, H. S., ‘A List of Travancore Batrachia’, Journ., Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc., xv, p. 500, pi. A, fig. 2 (1904).

McCann, C., ‘Occurrence of the Six-Toed Frog ( Rana hexadactyla Lesson)

in the Bombay Presidency’, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxvii, p. 742

(1934).

Zoology Department,

University of Calcutta, JNANENDRA LAL BHADURI.

35, BallyGunge Circular Road,

B ALLYGUNGE , CALCUTTA .

November 29, 1943.

XVII.— SAP-DRINKING BUTTERFLIES.

Since the middle of November a large tree of Cassia grandis in

my garden has been discharging a frothv, sticky and sweet smelling

sap from numerous small orifices in the bark of the trunk, from

nearlv ground level to about 12 ft. above.

This secretion is highly attractive to various insects, manv of

which keep visiting the tree regularly during the hours of sunlight

and even afterwards.

The following visitors were observed and identified:

1. Rome very small brownish ants. '

2. Very large numbers of flies, chieflv the obnoxious ‘bluebottle’.

< 3. Numerous wasps, mainly the rather formidable and hornet-like Vesya

cincta and Vespa orientalis. Luckily for the observer they were not at all

aggressive.

Some brilliantly blue Sphegids were also in evidence.

4. Various and interesting butterflies.

5. A small number of small moths after dark.

The following, in the order of their frequency, are the butterflies observed

as sap drinkers : —

Melanitis leda ismene Cr.

Charaxes fabius fabius F.

Rriboea athamas agrarius Rwin,

MISCELLANE O US NOTES

487

Euthalia garuda meridionalis Fruh.

Kaliima pmlarchus horsjieldi Koli.

Lethe roima migiriensis Gruer.

Mycalesis mmeus poiydecta Cr.

Yptiiima philomela Johannsen.

Curetis thetis Dry.

Tajuna cippus cippus F.

Melanitis ismene was by preference a late afternoon caller, emerging mainly

from a dense hybiscus hedge, covering a wall at the back of a pain near the

Cassia. They frequently formed dense clusters of over a dozen individuals over

a sap onnce and so provided the observer with a good opportunity to appre-

ciate the amazing diversity of their undersides in respect of ground colour

and markings.

Tney usually sat fairly tight and were not easily disturbed and the part of

the trunk not more than 3 ft. above ground-level seemed to suit them best.

The swift and sturdy Char axes jabius began at 2 p.m. to cliase each other

in and out of the foliage of the upper branches, often indulging in twirling

‘dog lights’ high over the tree. They are fond of bas&mg on leaves, telephone

wires and rooi tiles, from which coigns of vantage they may be seen darting

pugnaciously at such innocent passers by and waylarers as Tapilio agamemnoti,

anstolochiae and demoteus, taking a wicked deiignt in enasing them otf.

Once well settled down to sap fabius is a very tight sitter, so that they

could repeatedly be observed from no further than 2 ft., without getting in tne

least .aiarmed, provided the approach was carefully and slowly made.

They very seldom’ settled below 3-4 ft. from tne ground and did so without

many preliminaries, after taking a few swift turns round the trunk.

Eriboca athamas, never as numerous as Ch. Jabius, was decidedly shy, and

mostly kept high up in the tree. It never seemed to descend for a drink of

sap before 2 p.m. and mostly preserved a degree of wariness even when drinking.

On two occasions athamas settled less than a foot from the ground and

they almost always preceded this by a wlhriing flutter within a narrow compass.

Much to tiie regret of the observer the beautiful Char axes imna never ap-

peared, although the recent finding of two wings of this butterfly on a path m

the ‘.Cmpress Gardens’ had raised hopes of a visit.

Kaliima horsjieldi was seen on iive occasions. It seemed to materialise as

if by magic, without any approach being observed, and invariably at 3 p.m.,

punctually, settling fairly low on the trunk after the briefest flutter. On three

occasions Kaliima immediately folded its wings and began to drink, whereas

this was on the two other occasions preceded by a brief indulgence in basking,

during which the beautiful colours of its upperside Hashed and glittered in the

sunhgnt. It was not at all shy when drinking.

The little Curetis thetis hashed and darted amongst the foliage, frequently

basking on the upper side of a leaf, or settling with closed wings on the under-

side for a rest.

Curetis seldom came to sap and males appeared to be far more numerous

than females.

Euthalia garuda loved to bask on sunny spots on the bark and did not drink

much sap. It was generally very wary.

Lethe nilgiriensis , Mycalesis poiydecta and Ypthima philomela were but in-

frequent visitors, also not uncommon in the locality.

Of Tajiiria cippus a single male individual was observed drinking.

Such a concourse of happy tipplers could not fail to attract

another type of visitor with more sinister intentions. Indeed several

small birds were noticed, lurking close by and making darts at the

flies. The tailor bird and an olive drab warbler, as well as the red-

start, were often seen.

A large gekko was generally ambushed under a leaf and several

Galotes lizards greedily gobbled up flies without apparently much

disturbing the survivors.

A very large preying mantis was a regular caller, conspicuous

enough to the human observer, but evidently not so to other visi-

tors, which it seemed to have little difficulty in catching.

488 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLLV

It was once seen calmly devouring a line Charaxes fabius, whilst

to the amazement of the observer a second Char axes settled not

more than 4 inches from the site of the tragedy. It stayed there

and preened itself, evidently without being conscious of anything

untoward, and quite witiiout fear of its dangerous neighbour.

Would this indifference reflect on the limited intelligence of the

butterfly or on the faculty of optical perception of these insects?

Poona. M. SUTEB,

October 10, 1943. d.sc.

X VIII . — 43 LACK. ANTS RAID HONEY BEES.

I have read of ant wars and once witnessed a ‘battle royal J

between. large red and black ants on the trunk of a gutar tree on

tne mayvja ac iyzabad, but, before witnessing the incident I am

about to relate, l had. not Heard of ants waging war on bees.

About six months, ago a swarm of small honey bees settled

on a Tranciscea busn in tne garden and afforded me excellent oppor-

tunities to observe tnem at work at very close quarters. Petunia

and Jaequemontia blooms were their favourite liowers and at tlie

time death and destruction came upon tfiem, their home was quite

a respectable size.

Watering tne Eranciscea twice daily, when water was available,

and tne lew snowers of rain ixaracni was blessed with during the

so-caned monsoon did not appear to worry tnem much ana they

never attempted to attach tne malt when he created an artificial

downpour ana literally drenched the T raneiscea and the hive with

his watermg-can.

Un tne afternoon of the 3rd October (Sunday), I noticed consider-

able movement on and about the hive. fViany bees were Hying

cioseiy around tne comb, while others were hying up, but quiciny

settling again. The surface of the hive had the appearance of

perpetual motion, rising and falling m a series of jerny upheavals

ana unauiations. The bees as a mass appeared very agitated and

restless.

A closer inspection showed that numbers of large black ants

were raiding the bees. Scores of ants were moving up and down

the trunk of the shrub, to and fro along the branch to which the

comb was attached and along small branches which almost touched

the hive at many places..

Ail the ants were moving either towards the hive or returning

from it. On the earth immediately below the shrub were hundreds

of ants scurrying about, many carrying away dead bees, whilst

others pounced upon bees falling from the hive, hurt or at death

grip^ with ants, and polished them off, carrying away the dead

bodies in triumph.

Ants taking part in the main attack ran on to the hive either

singly or several at a time, each ant striking viciously right and

489

Miscellaneous notes

left with its nippers at tlie masses of bees swarming all over them,

often one, two or even three bees stuck to an ant in a desperate

struggle, falling to the ground in a confused heap, only to be pounc-

ed upon by one, two or more of the ants scurrying about on the

ground below.

In most cases both ant and bee or bees, as the case happened

to be, fell to the ground struggling, the bees doing their best to

sting the ant, wlncfi refused to release the bee first laid hold of,

from its vice -like grip.

Many a small ant with head and nippers less formidable than

those possessed by the large ones, was bodily carried away by a bee

taking to flight no sooner the ant fixed on to* it.

While some ants invaded the hive as related above, others, most-

ly great big fellows with huge heads and nippers, took up positions

on small branches and twigs almost touching the hive and struck

viciously at bees coming within range of their formidable jaws as

the bees heaved about cue comb m agitated masses. Many a bee

was missed, as the ants appeared to be alraid to get to close grips,

but those fairly struck, fell to the ground and were grabbed and

knied by ants apparently detailed for mopping up operations below.

At times a bee struck by an ant, clung on to the ant and born tell

to the ground together, as a rule however the large ants on this

sniping duty played great havoc and killed many bees beiore they

suduemy retired or leu to the ground along with a victim.

1ms feature of sudden retirement wnnout any apparent reason

was aiso noticed among the ants which attacked the comb iosen.

ine attack appeared to contuse and agnate the bees rather

than anger them, i tw bees left the comb ana those trial did, settled

agam quickly and continued their restless, agitated movements

on the hive, it was only when an ant or ants got on to the comb

that the bees got really angry, even then few left the comb, but

whenever an ant got hold of a oee, as a rule other bees came prompt-

ly to the rescue and viciously attacked the ant, holding on to it and

trying to sting it. Yv he oner any succeeded m doing so, 1 cannot

tell. 1 saw no dead ants, but did see at least one ant, which fell

to the ground holding fast to a bee, with two other bees sticking on

to it, crawl away anve but very sick, after the mopping up ants

had disposed of the bee brought down by tins ant and the two others

sticking on to it.

- At times an ant on the comb was attacked by the bees no sooner

its presence was detected, but few ants lost any time once on the

hive and commenced snapping at the bees no sooner they got

amongst them.

Few ants appeared any the worse for bee stings, that is if they

were actually stung, but numbers appeared quite groggy after

being at close grips with the bees and made their way down the

branches of the shrub slowly and apparently painfully.

Others attacking the comb rushed off it and bolted down the

shrub without apparent reason, except that they had been in the

thick of a general melee, out of which they appeared only too happy

to escape.

m Journal, bOmbay kArukAL hist, society, Voi. xtiv

Tiie raid had been in progress about 20 minutes after I had first

observed it and many scores of bees had been killed by the ants,

when, without apparent reason, hundreds of bees left the comb,

buzzing all round and above it, a few alighting on me, my un-

protected face not being two feet from tire comb, but not one

attempting to sting, perhaps because I remained perfectly still,

knowing tnat the least movement on my part would bring the

angry swarm about my own ears.

Tiie buzzing around continued for about three minutes, when,

as suddenly as the flying around started, the bees still on the comb

left it in one great swarm, which after circling a few minutes

over tiie garden flew off, leaving the comb, on which there were

a lew stragglers and some young Dees, to the mercy (?) of the ants.

The anis soon discovered that the bees had left the hive and

scores crawled over the comb eating the honey or attacking the

young bees left behind, many of which were pulled out of compart-

ments in the comb, killed and carried olf. doling bees with per-

fectly formed wings but unable to fly, tried to protect themselves

by violent buzzing when attacked by an ant. Occasionally an ant

was fngntened oft by this means; but once the ant seized its prey,

the buzzing had no effect at all.

In a short while not a bee was left alive. About 50 ants conti-

nued to explore the hive, many entering the honey compartments

m the upper part of the comb to eat the honey, as they came out

in reverse gear with bulging bellies.

At this stage I left them to it and eased my cramped limbs.

At h p.m. when I again visited the hive, about three hours after

1 had first observed the raid, only about a score of ants remained

on the hive, some so gorged and distended that they could hardly

crawl, a few on the snrub and a few’ crawling about on the ground

below. Not a dead or a maimed ant could 1 find, if any had been

killed by the bees they were probably carted off by other ants,

though 1 did not see any ants carrying oft anything but dead bees.

1 removed the comb and secured nearly half a tea cup of very

fine, aimost white honey.

The hive had still hundreds of sealed larva compartments which

the ants had not touched. Had I left the hive alone it would

have been interesting to see what the ants did with the larvae

and how they got them out of their sealed compartments.

I was sorry later that I removed the hive, as I would have liked

to have seen what the ants did with the bee grubs. Probably they

would have torn open the sealed compartments and carried off

the larvae as they did the dead bees.

As apparently the bees were unable to cope with the ants, I

wonder if they realised instinctively that they would be exter-

minated if they did not abandon the hive; and how the Queen

bee left the comb, whether she was forced to do so by the other

bees or whether she did so herself, realising that something was

seriously wrong at the hive. I did not see her leave the comb,

but she probably did so when the main swarm left the hive in a

mass.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

491

The black ants had a nest only a few yards away in the com-

pound wall, which also provides a home for several garden skinks,

one a very large one.

Why the ants, which had lived peacefully in close proximity

to the hive for months, suddenly attacked the inoffensive bees,

is a mystery. Was it hunger, the need for a winter larder or just

Ants’ ‘Kultur’!

Karachi. K. R. EATES, f.z.s., m.b.o.u.,

October 15, 1943. Indian Police.

XIX.— DRAGONFLIES IN MIGRATION ON THE

WEST COAST OF INDIA.

While yachting in the Porbandar harbour one afternoon in the

middle of the last month I saw dragonflies and several snecies of

butterflies living low over the sea and heading towards the land.

The dragonflies were far more numerous than the butterflies. On

our return to the dock at sun-set I saw millions’ of dragonflies

gathered over the dock area, some hovering, some clinging to

whatever they could catch hold of, and more dragonflies were yet

pouring in from the direction of the sea. Till noon that day a

moderately strong and hot land wind was blowing which changed

to a cool sea breeze in the afternoon. It is possible that the hot

and strong land wind might have driven them to the sea. That

night it rained and most of the dragonflies, exhausted as thev were,

perished within the next twenty-four hours. The unusually good

rain last monsoon accounts for the presence of so many species

of butterflies in this otherwise dry region, but I wonder what made

the dragonflies congregate in such a vast number. Do they migrate

after the fashion of locust swarms? I have seen dragonflies always

solitary or in pairs in my garden.

Porbandar. V. M. VASU.

November 15, 1943.

[Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, in his recently published volume on

‘Odonata’, Fauna of British India , Vol. i, p. 2, refers to the migra-

tory flights of dragonflies, which like many other insects are much

given to such movements, though the habit appears to be confined

to but a few species. Col. Fraser writes: ‘The larger species

depend on their own powers of flight for their journeys, but the

smaller and weaker species rely entirely on the upper air currents.

Migratory flight is usually in a direction from east to west, but

during October and November vast numbers of the smaller species

may be seen flighting northwards up the west coast, their emer-

gence appearing to coincide with the draining of the paddy fields

12

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

prior to harvest.’ The assemblage of dragonflies seen by the writer

of this note during October on the west coast was possibly such

an emergence. — Eds.]

XX.— THE CASTOB PLANT ( RICINUS COMMUNIS LINN.)

AND LEPIDOPTEBOUS LAEYAE.

The following is a list of the Lepidopterous larvae found on the

lower leaves of a single Castor plant, growing in a Calcutta garden,

on October 8, 1943: —

Bhopalocera.

Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore (Nymphalidae). — Large

numbers varying in size from newly hatched to full grown. Also

numerous ova and two pupae.

PIeterocera.

Trypanophora semihyalina Koll. (Zygaenidae). — One, full grown.

Pericullia ricini E. (Arctiidae). — Two, about three-quarters

grown.

Lymantria ampla Wlk. (Lymantriidae). — At least a dozen, in

the first and second instars.

Trabala visknu Lef. (Lasiocampidae). — Two batches newly

hatched, probably about 40.

Altha nivea Wlk. (Limacodidae). — Half a dozen, about half

grown.

Thosea tripartita Moore (Limacodidae). — Two, very small.

Achaea melicerte Drury (Noctuidae). — About ten, in the first,

Second and third instars.

Calcutta. D. G. SEYASTOPULO,

October 9, 1943. . f.r.e.s.

XXI.— HUNTING WASP PBEYING ON B UTTEBELIE S .

The antics of a certain snecies of meat-eating wasp amused me

considerably in the jungle there. Species of Castalius ( Nacaduba

congregatus ) on the ground were favourite prey. The usual pro-

cedure was to fly around and dive at the flies one after the other,

usually without much success, but when the wasp got on the ground

and stalked them, suddenly pouncing, it occasionally got one. I saw

one such wasp hanging on like grim death to a large P. memmon

S , which Battered its way over bushes, etc. , limping and struggling,

eventually shaking the wasp ofl.

The amount of flesh they can remove from a pigeon carcase in

a short time is amazing.

Post Box 10207, Calcutta. J. A. HISLOP,

November 17, 1943, Capt ,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

493

XXII.— RE. OCCURRENCE OE THE HOUSE SPIDER

(. HETEROPODA VENATOR! A) IN THE 'FIELD

Two days ago while sitting on one of the benches arranged ' along

the bank of tne backwater between Sion and Nuria, I nappened

to roil from under my feet a stone which exposed a moderately

large spider. At first I was glad at the thought it might be some

Mygaiomorphic or Lycosid spider but when I watched it closely

it nad ail tne appearance of tiie Common House spider. On being

disturbed it was just attempting to scurry along the trunk of a

Tkespesia populnea tree standing by the side (perhaps its perma-

nent Dome). Haying no other contrivance I caught it in the folds

of my kerchief and carried it home. Dropping the specimen in

a tube containing spirit I examined it with my pocket lens — defi-

nitely a common Heteropodid only. I once again examined all

• the external morphological details which I give below: —

Colour, muddish brown.

Length of carapace, about 9 mm. Length of abdomen, about

11 mm.

Tirst pair of legs, 43 mm.

Second pair of legs, 48 mm.

Third pair of legs, 38 mm.

Fourth pair of legs, 41 mm.

The specimen was a male one. The palpal organ was well

developed whose tibial apophysis was prominent ending in a semi-

circle with two teeth.

The above are all (especially the last one) characteristics of

Heteropoda venato7‘ia, winch is a common house spider, distributed

all over the world particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.

Heteropodids .of held habits are there. For example, H. sepunctata

is an outdoor spider , resembling H. venatoria in many respects.

But it is for the first time I have come to see a H. venatoria in the

field.

I am sending the specimen in question per bearer. Will you

please, confirm that it is H. venatoria? Kindly also let me know

if the above information about the occurrence of this species is a

new one.

T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM,

C/o The Cement Manufacturing Co. of India Ltd., b.a.

Esplanade House, Waudby Road,

Eort, Bombay.

December 20, 1943.

XXIII.— FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES.

A note in the Journal on Sifobilanthes flowering has prompted

this belated record from the Nilgiris.

m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLl V

There was a big gregarious flowering of 8. kunthianus on the

southern side of the Niigiri plateau from the months of June to

October 1942. The flowering was at its height, and at its best, in

July /August.

The area which flowered was very considerable. It covered

Thiashola Estate and its surrounding country, Carrington Estate,

Kinaconnie village, Melkundah village, Kilkundah village to the

edge of Bikkerti village, Chamraj Estate, and along the Ooty/

Kundah Road to two- miles beyond Devashola village.

With Thiashola Estate at one end, and the point beyond Deva-

sliola village at the other, the distance by road is some 24 miles.

The extent of this flowering was snmewhere approaching a block

of the hills 20 miles by 20 miles square. Much of this area carried

a dense growth of 8trobilanth{es on open hill sides and was a

sheet of blue. The western end flowered first, and the flowering

followed a processional course east and north; that at the northern

end being a month to six weeks later.

The howering produced a huge invasion of the big rock bee,

which builds exposed combs. There were several hundreds of these

combs hanging on the Grevillea shade trees of 100 acres of coflee

near here. Tne honey taken from these nests was the best I have

ever tasted in India. It wTas thick and black — The colour of black

treacle. It had a strong and distinctive flavour, slightly reminis-

cent of heather honey, and granulated in a short time when kept.

These bees undoubtedly followed the Strobilanthes flowering,

as there have been no nests here at all this year, though the country

is full of the usual annual flowers and flowering trees.

Thiashola Estate,

Kilkundah P.O., Nilgiris. J. L. H. WILLIAMS.

October 9, 1943.

XXIV,— THE GENUS BRACHYSTELMA R, Br. : AN ADDI-

TION TO THE FLORA OE THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

( With a plate).

In the Flora of British India [vol. iv (1833), pp. 64-66], Sir

J. D. Hooker recorded seven species of the genus Brachystelma :

three of these were originally described by Wight under the genus

Eriopetalum ; one was described by Beddome under the genus

Ceropegia; and the remaining three were described by Hooker him-

self. Before describing the Indian species Hooker made the fol-

lowing remark: — ‘The following descriptions are all very imper-

fect/ In some instances the description is based on a drawing,

or but a single flower! Such is the position with regard to the

species of this singular genus'. T. Cooke has not recorded any of

the species of this genus as occurring within the limits of the

Bombay Presidency as comprehended in his Flora.

As I am attempting to revise the genus Ceropegia , I have asked

all my friends, who are likely to lend a helping hand, to keep a

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Brachystelma laevgatum Hooker /.

(l) Entire plant; (2) Bud, enlarged; (3) Flower; (4) Corona, lateral view;

(5) Corona, top view ; (6) Pollen-mass ; (7) Leaf.

MISCELLANEOUS notes

49 o

sharp look out for tubers of Ceropegia , among them (not the Cero-

pegiasl) was Mr. Salim Ali. During his recent ornithological sur-

vey of Rut oh. State Mr. Ali obtained some tubers of Ceropegia.

Soon after I had put the respective tubers in pots, they sent up

fresh shoots, sufficient to allow me to identify them. One of the

tubers presented a bit of a puzzle, as I soon saw it was not that

of a Ceropegia. After a little head racking (I had never seen this

plant before) I discovered it to be a species of Brachystelma — *

B . laevigatum. Hook. /. is the species to which it answered best,

as in all the other species, the flowers are too large. I now give

a fuller description taken from the living plant and also reproduce

the generic description for those to whom Hooker’s work is not

readily available.

Genus: Brachystelma E. B. Bot. Mag. (1822), t. 2343.

Erect or twinging pubescent or glabrous herbs with tuberous

roots. Leaves opposite, sometimes very narrow or minute. Flowers

few in axillary sessile umbels or solitary, pedicels very slender.

Corolla (in the Indian species) rotate; lobes 5, elongate, valvate.

Corona short adnate to the column, annular, variously 5-10 lobed

or toothed, lobes or teeth erect or incumbent on the anthers.

Column very short; anthers ovoid, tips inappendiculate, retuse;

pollen masses one in each cell, sessile globose, erect, one margin

pelucid. Stigma nearly flat. Follicles slender, smooth. Seeds

comose. (Hooker /.).

Brachystelma laevigatum Hooker /. FI. B.I., vol. iv (1883),

p. 65.

Eriopetalum_ laevigatum , Wight Contr. (1834), p. 35; Wall. Cat.

8149; Dene, in DC. Prodr., vol. viii (1844), p. 646.

‘F. laevigatum (Wight.) corolla segmentis linearibus margine

undulatis fere glabris tubo subduplo longioribus, corona stammea

gynostegium aequante.’ (Descr. ex. Contributions.).

Gomphdcarpus laevigatus Ham.

Description. — Tuber 40x20 mm., depressed. Stem slender,

erect, minutely puberulous, up to 45 cm. high, flaccid. Leaves

minute below, increasing in length upwards, acicular, or somewhat

subulate, erect, or ascending, minutely puberulous with somewhat

glandular-based hairs on both surfaces, up to 30: x 1-1.5 mm.

Flowers in sessile umbels of 3-4 flowers in each, pendulous; pedicels

filamentous, 7-10 mm. long, minutely puberulous, enlarging in

fruit; calyx 5-partite, divided to the base, segments ovate-lanceo-

late, apex subacute, softly hairy. Corolla rotate, petals 5 x 1.5 mm.,

lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, apex subacute, red-purple in the

basal i, the remainder ochreous, tinged with purple, finally becom-

ing entirely purple on fading, exteriorly dull green, margins some-

what hyaline towards the apex, reflexed. Corona two seriate,

saucer-shaped, the outer composed of 5 bifid lobes, the teeth sub- -

acute, glabrous; between the bifid lobes arise 5 longer teeth from

the margin of the ‘saucer’ which bend inwards and over the

anthers; the margin of the saucer and the lobes are coloured red-

purple, the lower portion is translucent white; the inner corona is

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY N AMORAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

formed of the 5 green oblong anthers curved downwards towards

tiie stigma. Pollen-masses waxy, yellow, with a hyaline wing,

caudicte purple. Ptigma flat, green. T oiliclcs not seen.

Locality. — Chaduva, Ivutch (S. Ali in Herb. McCann 4933 !).

DistriouUon, . — -India, INoroiiern Oudii (H./.), Hutch.

Field notes. — The whole plant is a glaucous green or often tinged

with purple. The tubers are edible.

Note. — -In the corona of this plant we . find one of the links in

the cnam towards the formation of the corona in the gehus Cero-

pegia. in Hracnysteuna the outer corona is “apparently composed

oi lo teeth: 10 of which are formed by the Dif urea cions of the

5 outer-coronal lobes as seen m Ceropegia: and, of 5 longer teeth

arising from the margin of the coronal ‘saucer’. In the genus

Ceropegia it is these 5 longer teeth, which become elongated

and unite with the anthers thus forming the so-called inner-corona

or processes in that genus. In Brachystetma the inner-corona is

formed by the anthers which are not adherent to the processes;

the processes partly cover the anthers as will be clearly seen in

fig. o of the. plate illustrating Brachystetma. It is not my desire

to pursue the development oi the corona m the Asclepiadaceae ,

but merely to draw attention to the transition noticed.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. CHABLES McCANN, f.l.s.

MMrck 30, 1944.

XXV. — YEN TIL A GO BOMBAIENSIS DALZ.

( With a plate).

Ventilago bombaiensis, Dalz. in Hook. Bot. Journ., iii, 36.

There seems to be a good. deal of confusion regarding the identity

of this plant, due principally to the fact that the fruit has not

been seen or has not been fuily described up to the present. Both

Cooke (FI. Pres, of Bomb., i, 239) and Talbot (For. FI., i, 293)

confess that they have not seen the fruit. Gamble gives a very

meagre description of the fruit : — ?

‘Calyx-tube saucer-like, embracing the base of the nut, wings with golden

velvety pubescence’ ( Flora of Madras, p. 218).

Dalzell & Gibson give the following description of the plant: —

‘Branchlets, petioles and flowers covered with fulvous tomentum; leaves lan-

ceolate acute at the base, unequal, acuminated at the apex, crenated, crenatures

with callous points, glabrous on both sides, shining; flowers fascicled in the

axils of the leaves, shortly-pedicelled. Chorla Ghaut: flowers in February.

This species is distinguished from the preceding (i.e. V. madraspatana Gaertn.)

by the very different inflorescence, while the costal veins in the leaf of the

preceding! are double in number, and form a much larger angle with the midrib.’

(Bomb. FI., p. 48.).

Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. has so far been collected from

Chorla' Ghaut by Dalzell; from Devinana Ghaut and Castle Bock

by Gafnmie and Sedgwick and Bell working independently; Bed-

dome also mentions it frorn the moist woods in Wynaad at 3,000 ft.

?•

■-

■- -

;

-

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Santapau — Veatilago bombaiensis Dalz.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

497

Becently we have collected it on several occasions from Khan-

dala, where it is very common in some parts. The Blatter Her-

barium possesses abundant material of this plant; besides the.

specimens of Sedgwick and Bell [Sedg. Herb. nos. 3400, 6909 (I),

6909 (II)], we have the following specimens collected in 1943 and

1944 from Khandala, viz. nos. 1847, 1848, 1849, 1936, 1937, 1938,

1939, 1940, 1941, 2137, 3502, 3503, 3504, 3505, 3506, 3507, 3508,

3509, 3581. It, is worthy of note that this is the only species of

Ventilago to be found in the. dense jungle at the foot of Echo

Point, at an altitude of 1,200 ft.

V. bombaiensis is not a tree, but a lofty climber, very similar

in habit to V. madraspatana Gaertn. There is a specimen of the

former plant climbing over the top of Beils chmiedia fagifolia var.

Dalzellii Meissn., which is one of the tallest trees in that part of

the forest. Stems dark, bluish-green, longitudinally striated and

with long internodes; young parts fulvous pubescent.

Leaves up to 11.5x4.5 cm., acute or acuminate, crenate, the

crenatures ending in a callous, reddish point, shining and deep

green above, paler and dull below; main nerves 3-6 pairs, each

nerve forming an angle of about 30° with the midrib, with a rufous

hairy gland in the axil between the midrib and each of the main

nerves. Base conspicuously unequal to subequal, acute or sub-

acute or nearly rounded. The larger size of the leaves with fewer

nerves, the angle between the midrib and lateral nerves and the

presence of the rufous hairy glands in the axils of the main nerves,

unmistakably distinguish the leaves of this plant from those of

Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn.

Blowers small, greenish yellow, • about 4 mm. diam., 6-12

fascicled together in the axils of leaves towards the ends of the

branches; many of the flowers seem to fail to reach the fruiting

stage, and this is why at maturity there is only one or two fruits

in the axils of most leaves. The flowers are shiny with large

amounts of nectar/whieh lies exposed to' the surface above the disc.

The illustrations given by Talbot (For. FI., i, 290, figs. 172 and

173) under the title of Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn., belong to

V. bombaiensis Dalz. (except for the fruit drawn on the top right-

hand corner of fig. 173, which is. truly that of V. madraspatana) ;

in our Khandala specimens, V. bombaiensis has flowers in small-

fascicles in the axils of the leaves; V. madraspatoma has flowers

in large terminal panicles which are usually leafless ; and this is

why we say that the illustrations given by Talbot must be assigned

to' V. bombaiensis.

Fruit. A one-seeded nut of. about 8 x 7.5x4 mm., laterally

compressed, supported at the base by the persistent, saucer-like

calyx, and prolonged into an oblong-lanceolate wing of up to

60x15 mm.; wing not constricted above the nut, as is the case in

V. madraspatana Gaertn., but gradually tapering from the middle

towards both ends, apex rounded, terminated by the remains of

the style, base slightly twisted just above the fruit, SO' that this

forms an angle of about. 45° with the main plane, of the wing.

There is one main nerve along the middle of the wing running

to the apex, with a number of fainter nerves which run almost

parallel from the base to about half way up and then anastomose

498 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

freely among themselves. Colour of the ripe fruit brown, that of

the wing being much lighter than that of the nut. Both nut

and wing are pubescent with fulvous pubescence. Seeds one in

each nut, 10x6.5x3 mm., of about the same colour as the nut,

surface rough, base of the seed tapering to a point, apex gradually

becoming thinner and occasionally with a slight twist correspond-

ing to the twist in the base of the wing.

The fruit was collected at Khandala on the slopes below Echo

Point at an altitude of 1,200 ft., on April 19 and 30, 1943, also

from the ground in the forest on the slopes below Elphinstone

Point on June 8, 1943. Flowers were seen and collected below

Echo Point on December 30, 1943, and January 16, 1944.

St. Xavier’s College,

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, l8 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EPITORS : J. F. CAIUS, S. H. PRATER AND C. MCCANN, 6, APOLLO STREET,

FORT, BOMBAY

Bombay.

January 29, 1944.

H. SANTAPAU, s.j.

Vol. XLIV, No. 4.

AUGUST, 1944.

Price , Rs. 12 net*

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

EDITED BY

S. H. PRATER, O.3.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., C. McCANN, F.L.S. AND

SALIM ALI

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

London Agents :

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY/,

212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE,

LONDON, W.C. 2.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV, NO. 4.

PAGE

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XVII. By N. L. Bor,

m.a., d.sc., F.L.S., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured ,

4 black and white plates and 3 text-figures ) ... ... ... 499

Materials for the Ornithology of Afghanistan. By Hugh Whistler ... 503

Circumventing the Maiiseer and other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma. Part VII. By A. St. J. Macdonald. ( With 16 text-figures ) ... 520

The Butterflies of the Nilgiris. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. (Cantab.) 536

A Sketch of the Botany and Geography of North Burma. By F. Kingdon-

Ward, b.a., f.r.g.s., f.l.s., etc. ... ... ... ... ... 550

Occurrence of Birds in Madura District. Part II. By Edward

G. Nichols. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 574

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I. A Black Jungle Cat from Karachi and the Panther of Sind. By R. I.

Pocock, p. (585). II. Jackals attacking Deer in Ceylon. By Lt.-Col. R. C. Morris,

p. (585). III. The Eastern Range of the Himalayan Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos

isabellinus). By R. I. Pocock, p. (585). IV. Bear Hunting on the Wular Lake. By

Major-General G. de la P. Beresford, p. (586). V. Breeding Season of the Indian

Sarnbar. By A. A. Dunbar Brander, p. (587). VI. The Larger Deer of India —

A Correction. By R. I. Pocock, p. (587). VII. Malformed horns of the Gaur

( Bibos gaums). By Van Ingen and Van Ingen. ( With a photo), p. (587).

VIII. Observations on the Elephant and other Mammals in the Anamalai

Hills of Cochin. By Capt. G. R. Stonor, p. (588). IX. Bearded Bee-eater

( Alcemerops athertoni) in the Central Provinces. By C. Hewetson, p. (592).

X. A Record of Hodgson’s Frogmouth ( Batrachostomus javensis hodgsoni) and

the Cochin-China Spinetail Hirundapus caudacutus ssp. from Northern Burma.

By B. E. Smythies, p. (593). XI. Note on the nesting of the Plimalayan Swiftlet

(Collocalia fuciphaga). By Col. E. A. Glennie, p. (593). XII. The Mystery of

Bird-‘ Anting’ (Reproduced from ‘ Country Life November 5, 1943). By Frank

Lane,, p. (597). XIII. Egg-laying period of the Common Indian Monitor. By

J. D. Romer, p.^ (600). XIV. A Good method of weighing fish which are too

heavy for a spring balance. By A. P. Millard. (With a diagram ), p. (600). XV.

Some interesting Butterflies. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. ( With a coloured plate),

p. (601). XVI. A New variety of Papaya Carica papaya var. flava from Travancore.

By L. S.'S. Kumar and A. .Abraham. (With 3 photos), p. (602). XVII. The

Flowering of Strobilanthes. By Fr. H. Santapau, s.j., p. (605).

NOTICE TO MEMBERS

The Nature Calendar for 1945 issued by

the Society will be available by the end of

September. Price Rs. 3 (Price to members

Rs. 2-4-0). Packing and postage extra.

114 (6) Apollo Street, J. L. BERNARD,

Bombay, 8th September 1944. Honorary Secretary ,

Bombay Natural History Society.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate XVII.

Fiddle-leaved Jatropha.

JATROPHA PANDURIFOLIA Andr.

(Nat. Size.)

TO MEMBERS

he recent Paper Control (Economy) Order of the

rnment of India compels the Society to limit its

al to an issue of 120 pages inclusive of iliustra-

} cover and index. We express our regrets to

(ers and to contributors, publication of whose

:;s is necessarily delayed.

EDITORS

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1944. Vol. XLIV. No. 4.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

BY

N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s.,

Forest Botanist ,

AND

M. B. Raizada, m.sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist ,

Forest Research Institute , Dehra Dun.

Part XVII

( Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 3 (1944), p. 321),

{With 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates , and 3 text-figures).

Part II

2, Jatropha Linn.

This large genus comprises some 160-170 species and contains

some ornamental plants which are cultivated in our gardens. In it

are to be found trees, shrubs and herbs, the latter frequently with a

thick perennial rhizome. The leaves are alternate, petiolate or some-

times sessile, lobed or cut in various ways, glabrous or pubescent,

often glandular.

The inflorescence is a terminal cyme, the female solitary and

terminating all axes, the male lateral. The flowers are unisexual,

found on the same, or on different plants, often with calyx and

petals. Sepals 5, imbricate, often more or less joined together.

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV ]

Petals 5, imbricate, free or joined together into a five-lobed tube,

sometimes absent. The disk may be entire or divided into five

glands. Stamens usually about io, often in two series, the outer

series seated upon the petals. The filaments are often joined to-

gether. The anthers open by longitudinal slits. In the male flowers

there is no rudimentary ovary. The ovary is 2-5-celled with

a solitary ovule in each cell. The styles are joined together at the

base, shortly divided into 2 branches. Capsule dehiscing into 2-

valved cocci. The endocarp is crustaceous and the seeds (bear

a caruncula.

Many species of the genus are graceful plants with pretty foliage

and brightly coloured flowers. A number of them, therefore, are

cultivated in gardens in the tropics.

Apart from the striking flowers the species of the genus are

remarkable for possessing poisonous substances in the sap or seeds.

One or two species protect themselves from browsing animals by

the possession of stinging hairs of peculiar construction. Each

hair consists of a single large cell expanded at the base and elongat-

ed above, ending in a small knob which is bent to one side. The

wall of the hair at the bend is extremely thin and the slightest

touch is sufficient to break off the head, leaving a sharp oblique

point. The sharp oblique point will penetrate the skin of men and

animals and the pressure from the expanded end of the hair injects

the contents of the hair into the skin. The principal contents of a

hair are formic acid but there are also present some other substances

resembling unorganised ferments or enzymes. The formic acid

gives the burning sensation but the ferments act as a poison.

Jatropha curcas Linn., a native of America, is not a garden plant

but is well known in India where it is frequently grown as a hedge,

being easily raised by cuttings or from seed. The sap of this plant

is used by Naga children, when diluted with water, for blowing

bubbles. The juice also has some repute as a fish-poison. The

leaves are used medicinally in a variety of ways, the juice being a

styptic and rubifacient.

It is the seed, however, which has made this plant notorious on

account of the many cases of poisoning which have occurred after

eating it. The seeds contain a toxalbumin which is rich in oil.

The poison is an albuminoid called cur tin. The absence of any un-

pleasant taste when eating the fruits makes the plant a dangerous

one when children are about.

. The oil which can be extracted from the seeds is put to a variety

of uses. It is inflammable and burns without smoke. It can be

made into soap and is used in wool-spinning.

Key to the Species

Stem much swollen at the base.

Stem not swollen at the base.

Leaves entire, fiddle-shaped.

Leaves lobed.

Lobes 5 ; petiole, leaves

and stipules glandular.

Lobes 5-1 1 ; leaves etc.

not glandular.

... /. podagrica.

... /. pandurifolia.

... /. gossypifolia.

... /. multi fida.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

501

Jatropha podagrica Hook.

Gautemala Rhubarb; Gouty-stemmed Jatropha.

(Podagra is a Latin word meaning ‘gouty’, and refers to the swollen

base of the plant.)

Fig. i. — Jatropha podagrica Hook. ,xj.

Description. — A shrub 2-3 ft. tall. The base of the stem is

grotesquely swollen as are also the bases of the branches. The

branches are soft and succulent, deeply scarred where the leaves

have fallen away. Each of the more recent scars has two stipules,

one on either side which persist for some time after the leaves have

fallen. These stipules are broad and are deeply cut into setaceous

lobes, sometimes glandular. The peltate leaves which are seated

on succulent pedicels up to 1 ft. long are 1 ft. long or less

by 8 in. wide, 3-5-lobed, perfectly glabrous, green above, glaucous

beneath. The lobes are entire, somewhat ovate in shape.

The cymose inflorescence is borne on an elongated, succulent, light

green peduncle ; branches and pedicels red ; flowers unisexual ; male

and female flowers in the same inflorescence. The female flowers

are borne in bracts on the branches of the inflorescence. The calyx

is cup-shaped, 5-lobed; lobes erect; petals 5, 0.3 in. long, orange-red

or scarlet, spathulate, slightly joined together at the base; ovary

ovate, seated on a fleshy disk with five glands : style short, divided

into several green stigmas. Male flowers much more numerous

than the female and above them. Sepals and petals as in the female

.'502 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

flowers. Stamens 6-8, seated in a yellow disk, furnished with 5

yellow glands; filaments red, 1.5 in. long; anthers yellow, hastate

0.1 in. long. Fruit a capsule up to 1 in. long, green, 3-celled, with

one seed in each cell, ellipsoid in shape, depressed at both ends.

Flowers. — Chiefly during the rains. Fruits cold season.

Native country. — -Indigenous to Panama, now common in

gardens throughout India.

Gardening. — -A peculiar gouty-stemmed under-shrub having

cymes of rather pretty scarlet flowers. Suitable for a rockery.

Propagated b}^ division or seed.

Jatropha pandurifolia Andr. (/. hastata Griseb.)

Fiddle-leaved Jatropha

(. Pandurifolia is Latin for ‘with fiddle-shaped leaves’)

Description. — A shrub up to 6 ft. tall with slender, graceful

branches. Branches greenish-brown with prominent lenticels.

Leaves alternate, stipulate, petiolate, fiddle-shaped, shallowly cordate

at the base, where there are 3-4 glandular teeth on each side, up to

4 in. long by 2 in. wide, smooth and glabrous dark green on the upper

surface, paler or with a purplish tinge below. Stipules small,

subulate. Petioles up to i-| in. long. Inflorescence a small terminal

cyme; peduncle purple or purplish-green, slender. Male and female

flowers on different plants. Male flowers: calyx small, cup-shaped,

5-lobed, purplish-red in colour 1-2 in. long; petals spathulate 0.25-

0.5 in. long, scarlet, twisted in the bud, with a covering of short,

white hairs inside at the base; stamens 8, often 4 long, 4 short;

filaments joined in a column, red ; anthers reddish-yellow, hastate.

Disk present, glandular, 5-lobed. Female flowers : calyx as in the

male flower but longer. Petals and disk the same as those of the

male flower. Ovary ovoid, glabrous, attenuate into a column at the

summit; styles three, bifid from the middle into filiform branches.

Fruit a capsule, purplish-green in colour.

Flowers. — Practically all the year round but chiefly during the

rains. Fruits ripen cold season.

Native country.- — Native of Cuba. Commonly cultivated in the

Tropics of both hemispheres.

Gardening. — A pretty, rather slenderly branched shrub with

fiddle-shaped leaves and bright crimson flowers. It is desirable to

prune the plant severely during the cold weather in order to prevent

it from becoming scraggy. Readily propagated by cutting's or by

seed.

Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.

Bellyache Bush.

( Gossypifolia is Latin for ‘with leaves like the cotton plant’).

Description. — A shrub up to 6 ft. tall with rather soft, succulent,

brownish-green branches, much scarred where the leaves have fallen

away. Leaves up to 6 in. long, 6 in. wide, petiolate, stipulate, 3-5

lobed, of a deep purplish-red at first, afterwards green ; lobes elliptic-

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

m j| ■

^MBMI

-Photo by

Jairopha pandurifolia, Andr.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

M. N. Bakshi.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by

Jatropha pandurifolia, Andr.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

M. N. Bakshi.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

503

acute; petioles up to 4 in. long-, colour of dried blood, covered on

the upper surface with glandular hairs branched from the base and

mixed with simple hairs; stipules of glandular hairs branched

from the base. Margins of the leaves ciliate with simple, white

hairs and also furnished with gland-tipped hairs.

Inflorescence a terminal cyme seated upon a short, thick, dark-

red peduncle. Male and female flowers on the same plant or on

different plants. Calyx .25 in. long, consisting of a short cup with

5 lanceolate, gland-margined lobes. Petals, hardly longer than

the calyx lobes, dark red, crimson or purplish in colour, pale at the

base, broadly obovate in shape; tip rounded. Ovary globular-ellip-

soid, smooth, seated on a glandular cup-shaped disk; style-column

short; stigmas three, each dividing into two rugose plates.

Stamens 6-8; anthers horse-shoe shaped, crimson; filaments pale,

connate in a central column issuing- from a glandular disk. Fruit

a capsule .4 long 3-furrowed, truncate at both ends. Seed

greyish-red, marbled with black, bearing a caruncle.

Flowers and Fruits. — Chiefly rainy season.

Native country.— Native of Brazil, cultivated or naturalized in

various parts of India and Burma.

Gardening. — -A shrub with 3-5-lobed leaves ; easily recognised by

the stipitate, yellow, viscid glands which cover the leaf margins,

petioles and stipules, and by the small red flowers in glandular

corymbose cymes. Easily raised from seed. It is deciduous in the

cold season.

504 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Economic and Medicinal uses. — The seeds of this plant are said to

be eaten by doves and fowls, although they contain much oil which

is a drastic purgative and emetic. A decoction of the leaves is used

as a blood purifier and for venereal diseases. The root has some

repute as an antidote for snake bite (Standley).

Jatropha multifida Linn.

The Coral Plant or Physic Nut.

( Multifida is Latin for ‘much divided’ and refers to the palmately

divided leaves the lobes of which are often again divided).

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by

Jatropha gossypifolia, Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

M. B. Raizada.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. 505

Description . — A shrub or small tree with thick soft branches.

Leaves long petiolate, deeply divided in 5-1 1 lanceolate-acute, linear

or elliptic-acute lobes, the lobes often again lobed, green above,

often pale-pink below, green at maturity. Stipules short, subulate,

branched. Petioles a foot long or more, smooth and glabrous.

Inflorescence a many-flowered, long-pedunculate, terminal cyme,

branches slender, reddish in colour. Male and female flowers on

the same plant. Calyx gamosepalous, shortly 5-lobed ; lobes short,

rounded at the tips. Petals five, oblong or broader above, rounded

at the tips, red or purplish, .2 in. long. Stamens 8-10; filaments

connate for a short distance; anthers linear Disk cup-shaped;

glands prominent. Ovary seated on the disk, three-celled. Fruit

a capsule, obovate in shape, smooth, yellowish, about 1 in. long.

Flowers and Fruits. — Chiefly during the rains.

Native country. — -Native of South America, commonly cultivated

in gardens throughout India.

Gardening . — -A handsome garden plant with rather pretty foliage

and coral red flowers. Propagated by seed.

Economic and Medicinal uses. — The leaves are said to be cooked

in Mexico as a vegetable. The yellow sap is used in Brazil for the

treatment of wounds, and the roasted seeds for fevers and venereal

diseases. The seeds are purgative like those of many other species.

(To be continued)

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN.

BY

Hugh Whistler (Deceased).

Part I

The starting point of this note on the Birds of Afghanistan is to

be found in a collection of about 250 birds made in Afghanistan

for the British Museum by Sir Richard Maconachie during part of

his tenure of the responsible post of British Minister in Kabul. Sir

Richard Maconachie is not and does not claim to be an ornitholo-

gist. He was, however, on leave in England in 1932 and hearing of

his presence in London Mr. N. B. Kinnear and myself asked him

if he could do anything to procure a series of birds from Afghanistan

for the British Museum. We had long had our eyes on that country

and thought of various expedients for throwing some fresh light

on the ornithology of an interesting area so close to India and

Baluchistan. Sir Richard was .very sympathetic to our aspirations

and he was finally kind enough to agree that if some arrangement

could be made for a skinner he would do his best to procure a

representative series of birds for the British Museum. A skinner

was in due course trained and provided, largely through the good

offices of Mr. H. W. Waite, Indian Police, a keen student of

Punjab ornithology, and to cut a long story short some 250 birds

were collected in Afghanistan in 1933 and 1934, mostly from the

neighbourhood of Kabul, though the official visits of members of

the minister’s staff to other parts of the country added some inter-

esting species to the list.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The British Museum entrusted the identification of this collection

to myself and kindly asked me to write a note on it for publication.

I have therefore seized the opportunity to make this note as com-

prehensive as possible by including- in it the scattered information

available on the subject of the Birds of Afghanistan in the hope

that it may be useful to other workers to have a convenient summary

of the present state of our knowledge and in the still greater hope

that this paper may inspire some of the various western officials

now resident in Afghanistan to profit by their opportunities and

study the birds of the country in earnest. Afghanistan has hitherto

shared with Turkestan the fate of being a kind of ornithological

waste paper basket for Continental Asia. These two countries

have been added almost automatically to the distribution of any

species whose range, habitat or breeding quarters have been im-

perfectly known and this tendency has naturally confused rather

than improved our knowledge. I hope in the following papers

not to write any full account of the birds of Afg-hanistan — that is

impossible in the present state of our knowledge — but at least to

indicate what species are known to occur in the country and what

information is available as to their distribution and status. It will

then be incumbent on any future writer to disclose the source of

his statements if he desires to be taken seriously in using Afghanistan

to cover the deficiencies in our knowledge of any species.

There is no need to describe Afghanistan here. The main fea-

tures of the country can be obtained from any Encyclopaedia and

I cannot amplify them. In view of the fact, however, that the bound-

aries of the country have, especially in the South-east, been varied

since the earlier papers, hereinafter listed, were written, I should like

to make it clear that I have followed the present political boundaries

of the country, the more particularly because records from places

like Chaman, spoken of by earlier writers as being in South Af-

ghanistan, have already been summarised by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst

in his excellent paper on British Baluchistan (Journal Bombay N. H.

Society , 1926-27). I have, however, allowed myself some latitude

over the localities round the Hamun-i-Helmund, partly because I

have failed to find whether some of them are on the Persian or

Afghan side of the border and partly because in dealing with a

drainage basin of this type one may be satisfied that a record from

one side of the boundary is illustrative of the area generally.

This pfiper has undergone many vicissitudes. It was nearly

ready for the press when I learnt that Colonel Meinertzhagen was

proceeding to Afghanistan and I delayed it to include a summary

of the results of his expedition which were exceedingly valuable.

The paper was then redrafted but held up again on the news that

Mr. J. L. Chaworth Musters was going to collect mammals for

the British Museum in Afghanistan and would also collect birds.

Mr. Musters returned about the beginning of the War and it then

transpired that he had brought no birds from Afghanistan and the

delay had been unnecessary.

The Battle of Britain and the consequent evacuation of much

of the collections in the British Museum have prevented my examin-

ing critically a number of specimens listed hereafter or necessary

to elucidate various points : in spite of this and because further col-

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. 507

lecting in Afghanistan must necessarily now remain in abeyance

for an unknown period I have thought it better to publish the paper

as it stands. It will then be ready, when peace comes once again

and men have leisure for scientific work, to furnish a resume of

our existing knowledge and a starting point from which some future

ornithologist can write a proper account of the Birds of Afghanistan.

In conclusion my thanks are due to Dr. Baini Prashad of the

Indian Museum for the willing help he has given me by turning up

and furnishing information on a number of Afghan specimens in

the Calcutta Museum. Mr. N. B. Kinnear was not only behind

the original inspiration of Sir Richard Maconachie’s collection on

which this paper was primarily based.. He has in addition provided

me with much information about the various officers who made the

early collections in Afghanistan and given me much other help

in the preparation of the paper. For all of this I am under a great

debt of gratitude to him.

Before proceeding to enumerate the species of birds known to

occur in Afghanistan and the information available about each of

them, I have thought it desirable to give a list of the various books

and papers which I have been able to consult for the purposes of

this compilation. These papers are somewhat numerous but a care-

ful examination of them will show that what information there is

comes largely from the borders of Afghanistan. Little or nothing

is known of the birds of the heart of the country or of the greater

part of the Hindu Khush and its associated ranges, an area which

must prove of the utmost interest. This literature is as follows,

arranged in chronological order with some notes on the contents

of the different items.

1843. Vigne, G. T. — -A Personal Narrative of a visit to Ghuzni,

Kabul and Afghanistan and of a residence at the Court of Dost

Mahomed with notices of Runjit Sing, Khiva and the Prussian

Expedition (London, Routledge).

[P. 136 contains an account of the ‘Churk Falcon’ commented

on by Blyth in his notes to Hutton’s paper].

1847. Hutton, Captain Thomas. — Rough Notes on the Orni-

thology of Candahar and its neighbourhood [with some additional

information on the Birds of Afghanistan — by E. Blyth, Curator

of the Asiatic Society etc., etc.] Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal , 1847,

vol. xvi, pp. 775-794-

[Captain Hutton was originally in British service but during

the First Afghan War saw service in the ‘Pay and Commissariat

Department of Shah Soojah’s force’. His heavy duties prevented

his making many observations, for he was ‘generally at the desk

from sunrise to sunset’, but he succeeded in producing a useful list

of 128 species. To this Blyth added some notes and described

Athene bactriana as new. In an earlier number of the Journal

Blyth had already described Malacocercus huttoni, Carpodacus

crassirostris and Melanocorypha torquata.

Here reference may be made to .Sir Alexander Burns whose

drawings are mentioned in. this paper by Blyth. Sir Alexander

Burns, the brilliant traveller and political officer, was deputed in

1836 to proceed with Dr. Lord to Kabul, as Commercial Aeent.

While there he employed a native artist to make drawings of birds.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Some time previous to 1840 the drawings, together with notes by

Dr. Lord, were presented by Government to the Asiatic Society of

Bengal. The drawings were very crude and notes of little value, but

nevertheless the Council of the Society decided to publish them and

arrangements were made for the drawings to be lithographed.

In the meantime Edward Blyth had arrived in Calcutta to take

up the post of Curator of the Society’s Museum, and the notes were

handed to him to prepare for publication. He, realising that the

publication of the drawings and notes would only bring the Society

into disrepute, apparently did nothing. The Secretary brought the

matter before the Council and a stormy correspondence ensued which,

however, came to an end by the death of the lithographer and the

financial difficulties of the Society. The work was never published,

but a few copies of the plates were bound, one of which is in the

Linnaean Society. Blyth, in his notes on Captain. Hutton’s papers,

refers to the species figured and also a small number of skins presented

by Burns to the Society’s Museum.]

1854. Horsfield, Thomas and Moore, Frederic. — A Catalogue

of the Birds in the Museum of the Hon. East India Company. Two

volumes (London, W. H. Allen).

[This is important for the information it- contains about the

Griffith collection.

William Griffith was a young doctor in the service of the

Honorable East India Coy. and in addition to his medical quali-

fications was an excellent botanist. In this latter capacity the

Company had employed him on two occasions and, shortly after

his return in June 1838 from Bhutan, where he had accompanied

the mission of Capt. Pemberton as medical officer and botanist,

he was ordered to join the army of the Indus, then preparing to

invade Afghanistan. His instructions were to accompany the army

and report on the natural products of the country. From Calcutta

he travelled via Cawnpore to Loodhiana, where he arrived on 10th

December 1838. He immediately commenced collecting, not limiting

his activities to plants, but including mammals, birds and fishes as

well. On his way down the Indus he shot at Shikarpur the types

of Phoenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides Horsf. & Moore, and Dry-

obates scindeanus Horsf. & Moore. Leaving the river he marched

with the army through the Bolan Pass to Quetta, and on to Khan-

dahar, thence to Ghuznee, — was present at the battle on 23rd July —

and finally reached Kabul on 12th August 1839.

Twelve days later Griffith joined a small force which was pro-

ceeding to Bamian via the Hajigak Pass. At ‘Topekee’ 12,000 ft.

twelve miles from Bamian, he shot a ‘Chukor ' Ptarmigan’ Tetrao-

gallus h. himalayensis and also reports Chukar (Alectoris), See-see

( Ammoperdix ), and Rock Nuthatches ( Sitta ) seen on the way. From

Bamian the force marched south to the upper waters of the Helmund

river and then returned to Kabul. Leaving again early in October

Griffith travelled via Jagdalak, Futtehabad, Sultanpore and the

Khyber Pass to Peshawar, arriving there on 7th November.

Anxious to visit other parts of the country Griffith obtained

permission to accompany a column which was leaving Jalalabad for

Kunar, on the Kunar river, a tributary of the Kabul river. Kunar

was reached on 15th January 1840, and next day an attack was

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN . 509

made on a hostile fort, but owing- to the heavy rains damping the

gunpowder it was unsuccessful. Three days later the fort was

evacuated and by 16th February the country was considered quiet

and the troops returned to Jalalabad. Griffith, however, remained

behind with Capt. Macgregor, and after some time at Pashat he

went with that officer on 2nd March to ‘Chugar Serai’ (Chaghan

Serai). Through Capt. Macgregor’s influence he remained there

alone with his servant until the end of April, when, owing to disturb-

ances j he had to return to Jalalabad. While at Chaghan Serai he

visited Otipore and Bharowl, on the borders of Kafiristan. At Pashat

he obtained the type of Ruticilla rufogularis Moore ( = Phoenicurus

erythronotus erythronotus ) and at Bharowl Q rites leucogenys Moore

( = Aegithaliscus leucogenys ). At the last named locality a female

Monal was brought in to him and along with it the first known

example of Pucrasia macrolophus castaneus Gould.

During his stay in the valley Griffith records the arrival of many

migrants, but owing to his limited knowledge it is not always pos-

sible to identify all the species. On reaching Jalalabad Griffith had

a bad attack of fever and was laid up for several weeks. Later he

was sent to Kabul to recoup and from there set out to join Lieut.

Surly, who was surveying on the Turkestan frontier, but again

owing to disturbances he had to return without getting further than

‘Kurzar’, north of the Bamian river. Returning to Kabul on 23rd

September 1840 he proceeded to Peshawar and finally left Afghani-

stan.

Griffith had no pretensions to be an ornithologist, but neverthe-

less acquired some knowledge of birds and kept notes of all he

saw. Owing to his limited amount of baggage he made all his

skins flat and notwithstanding all his journeys and the wet weather

they are still in fair condition in the British Museum. While in

Afghanistan he collected 350 specimens of birds, 150 skins of fish —

his spirit specimens got destroyed — and 1,500 species of plants,

including a great number of duplicates, and travelled 1,600 miles.

The bird collection did not reach the East India Coy. ’s Museum

till 1843, and unfortunately was first examined by Dr. William

Jamieson in India, who appears to have mixed some of Griffith’s

Khasia Hills specimens with the Afghan collection. The specimens

were labelled with large pieces of countrv paper, but many of the

original labels are now lost, and on some the locality is very vague.

This probably accounts for the bad mistakes made by Moore in

the Indian Museum Catalogue, in which a number of Khasia Hills

birds are attributed to Afghanistan and in two cases, at least, he

attributed new species to the wrong locality.]

1879. Wardlaw-Ramsay, R. G. — Ornithological Notes from

Afghanistan. Paper I, Ibis, 1879, pp. 444-9.

1880. Wardlaw-Ramsay, R. G. — Ornithological Notes from Af-

ghanistan. Paper II. On the birds of the Hariab District, Ibis,

1880, pp. 45-71.

[Both papers refer to the same period and locality, the Hariab

Valley and the Peiwar Spur of the Sufed Koh above it where

Wardlaw-Ramsay arrived on 18th April 1879 during the course of

the Second Afghan War. He made careful notes and collected a

number of specimens now in the British Museum but he left un-

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

expectedly for England on ioth July ’80 so the paper only covers

a period of about three months.]

1882. Swinhoe, Lieut. -Colonel C. — On the Birds of Southern

Afghanistan. Ibis , 1882, pp. 95-126.

[Refers to the neighbourhood of Kandahar where Swinhoe arrived

on 6th Oct. 1880. He left again apparently on 22nd April 1881.

He made a collection of birds which are now in the British Museum.]

1887. Murray, J. A. — Zoology of Baluchistan and Afghanistan.

Indian Annals and Magazine of Natural Science , vol. I, nos. 1-3.

n. d. Murray, J. A. — The Zoology of Beloochistan and Southern

Afghanistan (Bombay Education Society’s Press).

[These two books are very scarce and difficult to consult. The

latter is undated and I have not been able to ascertain the date of

publication, but it apparently appeared not long after the paper in

the Indian Annals and Magazine. Murray lists a number of speci-

mens as obtained in various localities between Quetta and Kandahar

by a Mr. C. F. Hutchins but I have thought it better not to include

these. Some appear very improbable and Murray’s work is not

always reliable.]

1887, Scully, J. — On the Mammals and Birds collected by

Captain C. E. Yate, c.s.i. of the Afghan Boundary Commission.

Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1887, vol. lvii, pt. ii, no. i. pp. 77-89.

[A collection of no species was made by Capt. Yate after the

departure of Dr. Aitcheson (vide next title but one). I believe that

these birds are in the Indian Museum, Calcutta].

1888, Yate, Major C. E. — Northern Afghanistan or Letters from

the Afghan Boundary Commission (London, William Black-wood).

[A descriptive account of the travels of the Mission, whose

birds are described in the preceding and following items.]

1889, Sharpe, R. Bowdler. — The Zoology of the Afghan Deli-

mitation Commission. Transactions of the Linnaean Society of

London, Second series, vol. v, Zoology, Birds, pp. 66-93. (Plates

VI, VII and 2 maps).

[Dr. J. E. T. Aitcheson was attached as Naturalist' to the Afghan

Delimitation Commission of 1884-1885 and in that capacity made

collections in all branches of Natural History. These included 123

species of birds and Gecinus gorii Hargitt, Passer yatei Sharpe and

Phasianus principalis Sclater were described as new and figured in

colours. Much of the collecting was done by Lieut. Rawlins and

Capt. C. E. Yate. The Commission left Quetta on 21st Sept. 1884

and travelled via Nushki and Rudbar to the Hamun-i-Helmund.

From there their route led by Zagin and Zindijan to Khusan (18-25

Nov.) on the Hari-Rud. They then crossed the Paropamisus Range

and halted at Kalla- Bala Morghab from 14th Dec. 1884 to 15th

Feb. 1885, returning via the Khushk River to Gulran and Tirphul

(4th April). After this the Commission was largely in Persian terri-

tory. The specimens are in the British Museum.]

1889. — St. John, Lt.-Col. Sir O.B. — On the Birds of Southern

Afghanistan and Kelat. Ibis , 1889, pp. 145-180.

[Colonel St. John went to Afghanistan in October 1878 and

served there through the Second Afghan War, leaving apparently

in April 1881. He was provided by Hume with a skinner and made

a good collection of birds which are now in the Hume Collection in

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. 511

the British Museum. The majority were obtained at Kandahar but

the area covered extended to Khelat-i-Ghilzai on the north-east and

to the Helmund at Girishk on the west.]

1891, Sharpe, R. B. Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand

Mission; based upon the collections and notes of the late Ferdinand

Stoliczka, Ph.D., Aves. (London, Taylor and Francis).

[Includes a list of various birds collected by Biddulph and

Sloliczka in April 1874 in that portion of Afghan Turkestan known

as Wakhan and herein listed under Biddulph ’s name.]

1896, Finn, Frank. — List of the Birds collected by the Afghan-

Baluch Boundary Commission of 1896. Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal

1896, vol. lxv, pp. 566-7.

[A nominal list of a small collection of skins brought back by

Dr. F. P. Maynard. Most of the birds were shot by Lieut. F. C.

Webb-Ware, 7th Bengal Lancers, round about Sahib Zada Kill a

village at the northern end of Shorawuk in Afghan territory. These

specimens, some 60 in number, are in the Indian Museum, Calcutta

and Dr. Baini Prashad has kindly furnished me with their date.]

1905, Cumming, J. W. Nicol. — Birds of Seistan, being a list of

the birds shot or seen ‘in Seistan by members of the Seistan Arbitra-

tion Mission 1904-5. Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Society , vol. xvi,

pp. 686-99.

[A small collection of 106 specimens was made by the members

of 'the Arbitration Commission in Seistan and deposited in the

Indian Museum, Calcutta.]

1909, Whitehead, Lieut. C. H. T. — On the Birds of Kohat and

Kurram, Northern India. With an introduction by Major H. A. F.

Magrath. Ibis 1909, pp. 90-134, pp. 214-84, pp. 620-23. Re-

printed with corrections in Journal Bombay Natural History Society ,

vol. xx, pp. 169-97, PP- 776-99, PP- 954-8o.

[Contains much useful information on the Birds of the Sufed

Koh which Mr. Whitehead visited in June and July 1906 and again,

in company with Major Magrath, in April 1907. Although strictly

speaking these officers were not in Afghanistan they were on the

border and their observations must illustrate the neighbouring

country. ]

1919, Baker, E. C. Stuart. — Notes on two collections of Birds

from Seistan. _ Records of the Indian Museum , vol. xviii, pt. ii,

I919, PP- I2I"34-

[Mr. Stuart Baker reports on two collections from Seistan,

amounting to 137 specimens of 79 species, in the Indian Museum,

Calcutta. The first collection is that made in 1903-1905 by the

Seistan Arbitration Commission (as above). The second containing

only 31 specimens was made by Dr. N. Annandale and Mr. S. W.

Kemp in December 1918. These are listed in this paper under

Dr. Annandale’s name.]

1938, Meinertzhagen, Colonel R. — On the Birds of Northern

Afghanistan. Ibis 1938, pp. 480-520 and pp. 671-716.

[Colonel Meinertzhagen, accompanied by Mr. Salim A. Ali

entered Afghanistan by the Khyber Pass on 2 April. 1937. Fie

travelled via Jalalabad and Kabul to the Unai and Shibar Passes

and northwards to Afghan Turkestan and the Oxus Valley by

Haibak and Kunduz, returning by much the same route. He reached

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

India through the Khyber Pass on i June. A large and valuable

collection of birds, with excellent field notes, was made and the

writer finally visited Leningrad in order to complete the working

out of the collection properly].

1939, Koelz, Walter. — New Birds from Asia, chiefly from

India. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington , vol.

lii, pp. 61-82 (June 5, 1939).

[Seventeen new sub-species are described from Afghanistan as

the result of collections made in that country by W. Koelz in 1937.

If the Indian sub-species described in this paper and what I have

seen of Afghan birds from other sources are any guide few only of

these new sub-species will stand. It may be inferred from these

descriptions that Koelz visited many localities not previously known

to any ornithologist and that he made a large collection but nothing

else has been published and the war has prevented learning more

about it].

Corvus corax lawrencei Hume.

Specimens collected. — d ’9 10 Feb., A $ 2 April, g 5 April, g 12 Sept.

1879 Kandahar, 9 3 October, 19 October 1879 Khelat-i-Ghilzai (St. John) ; 9

8 December 1880, 9 22 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 153 9 23_I-34 Logar

(Maconachie) 2 April Bamian, d 9 April Ghorband, :9 April 1937 Doab

(Meinertzhagen).

In Northern Afghanistan Meinertzhagen found that the Raven was not

abundant anywhere but it was met in pairs or singly almost everywhere, from

the Western entrance to the Khyber Pass to Jalalabad and Kabul, high up

in the mountain snows, at B'amian and down in the hot plains of the Oxus

river. Griffith mentions the Raven frequently in his journal in different locali-

ties. It is also common in Southern Afghanistan at Khelat-i-Ghilzai and

Kandahar. In South-west Afghanistan Cumming records that he saw three

at Ivuhak on 25 September 1904 and a pair near Hurmal on 18 May 1905, so it

would seem to be scarcer in this area.

Swinhoe and St. John were both under the impression that there were two

forms of Raven in South Afghanistan, both apparently much the same in

numbers and that probably they had a different status. These birds they

called cor ax and umhrinus. The ten specimen’s they collected are in the British

Museum and Mr. Kinnear and I after examining them carefully have come to

the ’conclusion that all must belong to one form and that lawrencei. It is quite

possible that umhrinus — ruficollis does occur in Afghanistan. It has been

recorded from both Sind and Baluchistan. But I cannot help feeling that

Swinhoe and St. John were deceived by immature and worn birds (6 of these

10 specimens are immature) of lawrencei which are admittedly easy to confuse

with ruficollis, and this explains their varying conclusions as to the status

of the two supposed species in Afghanistan. There are no doubt local move-

ments but the Raven is probably resident in Afghanistan.

Meinertzhagen calls his Afghan birds suheorax Severtzow ( Jevotnik , p. 63. 115).

regarding Ian rencei Hume ( Lahore to Yarkand, p. 235) as a synonym. If

Turkestan and Northwest Indian birds are indeed identical, suheorax is the

older name as Severtzow says (5. F. iii, 423) that it was published in Decembef

1872, whereas Hume’s Lahore to Yarkand was published in 1873. I have not

been able to examine Turkestan birds, but they are usually considered to be

C. corax tihetanus, and it seems undesirable to disturb a well-established name

without more definite proof.

Corvus corone orientalis Eversmann.

Specimens collected. — 4 $ 1 9 May 1937 Haibak (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found the Carrion Crow common and breeding at Haibak

and Kunduz in Afghan Turkestan, and he collected a small series at the former

place. On the Seistan border, on the other hand, Cumming found it a com-

mon bird in winter, found frequently near houses. As he states that he shot

a specimen on 20 March 1905 his record may perhaps be .accepted though not

everyone is able to separate the Carrion and Jungle Crows.

Crows of sorts were seen singly and in pairs by Meinertzhagen in the

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. 513

Upper Kabul Valley near the Unai Pass in late May, at Danaghori and Doab

in early May and at B'amian in late April but their identity could not be

established. One would expect the Carrion Crow to occur also along the base

of the Safed Koh as Whitehead found if breeding on the other side of the range

and boundary in the Upper Kurram Valley from 5,000 ft. upwards.

Corvu3 macrorhynchus inUrmedius Adams.

Specimens collected. — Sex? Pushut, $ Afghanistan (Griffith).

Wardlaw-Ramsey says that the Jungle Crow was the only crow observed

in the Hariab Valley where it was very abundant. He found it breeding in

the. pines at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. in May. Whitehead also says that it breeds

very freely on the Safed Koh.

This is, I suspect, the Carrion Crow of Griffith’s Journal in which he says

many were resorting to the camp pt Pushut (23 Feb. 1840) but were very wild

from being continuously fired at with matchlocks. At Pushut too (31 March

1840) he remarks on the birds’ behaviour on inundated ground and he mentions

it again at Bharowl on 7 March 1840. His two specimens, at any rate are

Jungle Crows.

This species is doubtless confined to those parts of Afghanistan which are

largely Himalayan in the character of their fauna.

Corvus frugilegus frugilegus Linnaeus.

Specimens collected. — 2 Sex? 16 January and 16 April 1840 Pushut (Griffith) ;

2 c? 2 9 17-23 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 2 J 1 $ 1881 Abdul Rahman

(C. F. Hutchins); <S 9 1-9 January 1885 Bala Murghab (Aitcheson) ; 2 sex? 19-23

March Maruchak, Murghab (Yate) ; 9 J3 March 1905 Nad-i-ali, R. Helmund, 9

20 March 1905 Kuhak (Cumming) ; 2 15 December 1918 Lab-i-Baring 1,600 ft.

(Annandale) ; 9 25 November 1933 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie) ; $ April Kabul

5,800 ft., 9 April Doab, 2 c? April 1937 Doshi (Meinertzhag'en).

There is no evidence to suggest that the Rook breeds in Afghanistan and

it is evidently an abundant and widespread winter visitor, being recorded • from

most parts of the country except the higher ranges. Aitcheson says that it

was first observed between De-doda and Ibrahim-abad on 28 October (1884)

and Annandale was informed in Seistan that it arrived about October. In

Kandahar, however, it evidently arrives much later about the middle of January

(Swinhoe), January (St. John) and February (Hutton), leaving again in March

(Hutton) or in the beginning of April (St. John). Meinertzhagen saw it fairly

frequently in flocks round Kabul in early April and there were a few single

birds round Doab and Doshi in late April and early May. He also saw a few

at Danaghori in early May and a large flock, accompanied by Jackdaws, in

the cultivation 20 miles north of Khanabad on 19 May. As in N.-W. India the

numbers, distribution and times of arrival and departure of the Rook in

Afghanistan no doubt vary according to the character of any particular winter.

Corvus cornix sharpei Oates.

Specimens collected : — 9 21 November 1884 Khusan, Hari-Rud, <$■ 8 January

1885 Bala Murghab (Aitcheson); Sex? February 1903 Rudbar, R. Helmund

(Cumming); 9 15 December 1918 Lab-i-Baring 1,600 ft. (Annandale); c? 3

November 1933 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

So far as is known the Hooded Crow is only a winter visitor to Afghanistan

(in spite of the statement in the New Fauna i. 32 that it breeds in Afghanistan)

and it seems to be fairly generally distributed. At any rate Griffith met it

at Jalalabad (21 October 1839), Maconachie at Logar (November), Aitcheson

at Bala Morghab (January) and Khusan, Hari-Rud (Nov.). In Seistan it is

common and Cummings says that it is found mostly in the tamarisk jungles

in twos and threes, though sometimes in large flocks in the open fields. Aitcheson

also found it common at the Hamun and Annandale procured his specimens

at Lab-i-B'aring in December and Rudbar, R. Helmund in February. Both

St. John and Swinhoe record the Hooded Crow at Kandahar, the former con-

sidering it rare and the latter giving its usual locality as E. banks of the

Argendab River.

As there seems to be no record later than February I presume that it leaves

the country early and this would explain why Meinertzhagen did not meet with

it. It has not been noted later than March 23 in the N.-W. Frontier Province

of India.

[Corvus splendens zugmayeri Laubmann.

I am unable to trace the authority for including Afghanistan in the range

of the House Crow in the Neiw Fauna, vol. i, p. 34.]

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Corvus monedula soemmeringii Fischer.

Specimens collected. — Sex? no date Kabul, 2 sex? 21 October 1839 Jalalabad

(Griffith); <$ 9 March 1879, c? 3 April 1879 Kandahar (St. John); 9 $ $ 19-29

January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; S 6 9 23 December 1884 Bala-Morghab

(Aitcheson); 2 sex? 18-21 March, 1 sex? 25 December, 'Maruchak, 1 sex?

15 April Karawal Khana (Yale); cJ 19 January 1934 Logar (Maconachie) ;

3 May Haibak, 9 et pull. May 1937 Kunduz (Meinertzhagen).

The Jackdaw breeds in the north of Afghanistan at Haibak and Kunduz

in May according to Meinertzhagen who identifies his specimens from those

localities as soemmeringii. Elsewhere in the country its status is not very cleat

and it is perhaps a winter visitor only. Griffith records it in flocks at Pushut

on 23 February '1840 and procured specimens at Jalalabad on 21 October 1839

and Kabul. Maconachie met it at Logar in January. Yate collected specimens

at Maruchak (March and December) and Karawal Khana (April). Aitcheson

also got specimens at Bala-Morghat (December) and found it common in

Badghis and on the Hari-Rud and again in some numbers at the Hamun.

At Kandahar it is definitely said to be a winter visitor by Swinhoe, arriving

about the middle of January and there — as in north-west India — being usually

a hanger-on of the Rooks (St. John).

I have only been able to examine four of the above-cited specimens and

three of these were immature. As far as they go however they agree well with

Kashmir birds though I am not quite certain that soemmeringii is the correct

name for these.

Pica pica bactriana Bonaparte.

Specimens collected. — 2 sex? near Kabul, sex? Arghandi near Kabul, sex?

Kandahar (Griffith) ; sex? 14-23 April' 1873 Parijah in Wakhan (Biddulph) ;

.sex? 1 May 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay) ; <$ $ 18 November 1879

Kandahar (St. John); c? 9 December 1880, 9 5 February 1881, 9' 14 February

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 9 20 November 1884 Khusan, Hari-Rud, 9.5

December 1884 Koaja-Palounda, Badghis, 9 9 December 1884 Ab-i-Kamarra

(Aitcheson).; 2 sex? 3-7 February Chahar Shamba, Maimanah (Yate); 9 Shishi

River (Maynard) ; 9 1 Sept. 1933 Kabul (Maconachie) ; 3 cJ May Haibak, 9 9t

pull. Kunduz. May 1938 (Meinertzhagen).

The Magpie is resident in Afghanistan and widely but by no means generally

•distributed. Its known distribution is as follows. The traveller on the road

from India and Peshawar will not find it at Jalalabad or until he reaches about

10 miles from Kabul and from there it extends to the Unai Pass (and no doubt

further) on the south west of Kabul and to the Ghorbund Valley on the North.

Meinertzhagen also met with a single pair at the south end of the Dar-e-shikari

Gorge.

It is particularly abundant south-east of Kabul from Byan Khel and the

Hariab Valley (Wardlaw-Ramsay) to Ghazni (Vigne) Girishk (Hutton) and

Kandahar right up to the boundary at the Khojak Pass (Swinhoe), occurring

-alike in gardens, groves and wooded hills.

In the tamarisk jungles of Seistan it is less numerous (Cumming).

Along the northern boundary of Afghanistan the above records from Khusan

(Hari-Rud), Koaja-Palounda in Badghis, Ab-i-Kamarra and Chahar Shamba

(Maimanah) show that it occurs very generally while Meinertzhagen saw it in

the gardens of Haibak. Biddulph obtained it at Panjah in Wakhan.

All the Magpies which I have been able to examine from Afghanistan- (10

in number) belong to the same form bactriana, which is found both in Northern

Kashmir territories and in Baluchistan. It is possible, - however, that- another

race remains to be recognised. Aitcheson particularly draws a distinction

between his specimen from Khusan which he calls leucojtera and his- other two

birds from Koaja — Palounda and Ab-i-Kamarra which he considers true pica.

He seems, however, to have been merely misled by the difference between adult

and immature birds. But it should be remembered that Meinertzhagen said

that the birds at Haibak (where from their caution and wildness he was unable

to obtain specimens) seemed to be finer birds, larger, longer tailed and certainly

in better plumage than the bold scavengers of the neighbourhood of Kabul. The

point should be borne in mind.

Meinertzhagen found a nest with 6 eggs in the Legation garden at Kabul

on 11 April and found family parties, on the wing in the Ghonband valley at

the. end of May. At Haibak birds were sitting at the end of May.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 515

[Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham).

Afghanistan is included in the range of the Indian Tree Pie in the New

Fauna, vol. i, p. 49 but I find no authority for this],

[Garrulus lanceolatus Vigors.

The Lanceolated Jay is fairly plentiful in the Ilex scrub of the Kurram

Valley occurring up to 8,000 ft. and Major Magrath saw a flock of about forty

individuals near Peiwar 7,000 ft. in April 1907. It must certainly therefore

occur across the boundary line in Afghanistan though it has not yet been

recorded there, unless the ‘Jay Small sized’ of Griffith’s Journal seen at Bala

Chugur Serai on 5 March 1840 was this bird. A specimen from Jagdulla 7

November is given in Griffith’s MS. list but it is not in the British Museum

Collection].

Nucifraga caryocatactes multi punctata Gould.

W ardl a w-R ams ay attributes to this form three Nutcrackers which he saw

one day on the Peiwar Kotal ( Ibis 1880, p. 62). The attribution was no doubt

correct as it was this form which Whitehead found in the Kurram side of the

Safed-Koh, and which is common further north in Hazara.

Pyrrbocorax pyrrhocorax himalayanus (Gould)

Specimens collected.— 2 $ 24th Nov. 1880, 3 $ 4-19 January 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 3 2 $ Abdul Rahman (F. HutchinsJ; 9 9 September 1933

Katakhak 9,750 ft., 3 14 Sept. 1933 Head of Saighan Nala 11,000 ft. (Maconachie) ;

3 April Paghman, 9 April Ghorband, 2 3 April Bamian, 2 3 April Akrobat,

<3 9 April 1937, Doab (Meinertzhagen).

The Red-billed Chough breeds in that part of the Hindu Khush which has

been partially explored from the direction of Kabul. Here, according to Meiner-

tzhagen it is nowhere abundant, but always to be found singly or in pairs, where

the country is suitable, between 12,000 ft. and 3,000 ft. It is interesting to

recall the fact that Griffith found it very abundant in Sept. 1839 and August

1840 at Bamian where Meinertzhagen met with a flock of 40 birds nearly a

century later on 25 April 1937. The latter met parents with full-fledged young

on a cliff face at 8,300 ft. in the Ghorband Valley on 24 May.

From this area doubtless come the large flocks which appear in winter on

the plateau of Southern Afghanistan about Kandahar (Swinhoe, St. John).

Hutton says that they arrive in November and leave about March and he adds

that at Girishk in the Helmund they arrive in hundreds about sunset to settle

amongst the swampy beds of the river, where one may presume them to roost.

Pyrrhocorax graculus forsythi Stoliczka.

Specimens collected. — 2 3 3 9 Melkarez (Hutchins); 3 15th Sept. 1933

Khalachan 9000 ft. (Maconachie).

In addition to the above records it will be remembered that Whitehead found

the Alpine Chough fairly well distributed in summer along the upper slopes of

the Safed Koh above tree-limit.

The wing of Maconachie ’s specimen — which is the only one I have seen — is

in moult and cannot therefore be measured but the other measurements, viz. bill

from skull 39, tail 171, tarsus 42.5 mm., suggest that it should be attributed to

the large Himalayan race.

Parus major zlaratensis Whistler.

Specimens collected. — 3 March, 3 3° March 1879 Kandahar (St. John);

9 9 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe).

According to St. John and Swinhoe the Grey Tit is common and resident

about Kandahar and their specimens in the British Museum belong to this form.

Koelz also attributes to it his specimens from Kandahar and also from Herat.

Parus major bokharensis Lichtenstein.

Specimens collected. — 2 3 6 December 1884 between Palounda and Karrez-

darra (Aitcheson) ; 5 3 2 9 12-13 May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen only met with the Grey Tit in the orchards and gardens of

Haibak where it was common and breeding. I have not been able to examine

Aitcheson ’s two specimens but they presumably belong to the same form.

In 1937 Koelz collected a series of Grey Tits at Balkh on September 18-19

and November 28-30 and a specimen at Tashkurghan on 4 Sept. One would have

expected these to belong to the same form, bokharensis but Koelz has named

2

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

them as a new sub-species Parus m. meinertzhageni (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington

vol. lii (June 5, 1939) p. 61).

[Parus major intermedius Zarudny.

Afghanistan is included, in the range of this tit in the New Fauna (vol. i,

p 76). I can however find no warrant for this.]

Parus major caschmirensis Hartert.

Specimens collected. — 2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); J 30 April 1879 Byan

Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

Wardlaw-Ramsay found the Grey Tit very common and breeding in May

and June in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,000 ft. about Byan Khel. He saw a

nest with young on 1st May. The single specimen from there in the British

Museum appears to belong to this race. Griffith notes in his Journal that tits

were seen at Bharowl on 7th March and at Bala Chuquar Serai on 5 March

1840. His two specimens in the British Museum — to which perhaps these

records apply — are poor in condition but they also seem to belong to this race.

Koelz collected 6 tits at J alalabad in December, 2 at Daulatshah and two

at Paitak in June 1937. To these also he gave a new name Parus major

declorans ( loc . cit.). For geographical reasons one would expect these and the

Byan Khal birds to belong to the same form. It is clearly desirable that the

Grey Tits of Afghanistan should be studied critically as soon as more material

is available.

[Parus palustris korejewi Zarud. and Harms.

In the New Fauna (vol. i, p. 82) this Marsh Tit is said to occur in Afghanistan

but I can trace no record to that effect].

Lophophaues melanolophus (Vigors).

Specimens collected. — <$ , sex?, 22 April, 5 May, $ 16 May 1879 Byan

Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

The Crested Black-Tit is only known from the eastern border of Afghanistan

where Blanchard obtained it in the Gatdez Forest in May 1935 and where

Wardlaw-Ramsay found it common in the Hariab Valley at 7,000-8,000 ft. It

was building in the pine woods about Byan Khel in May and June. Whitehead

says it is very common on the Safed Koh from 6,500 ft. to tree-limit.

Lophophanes rufonuchalis rufonuchalis (Blyth).

Specimen collected. — sex? Kabul (Griffith).

The Simla Black Tit, like the last species, is only known from the eastern

border of Afghanistan. Blanchard collected specimens in May 1935 in the Gardez

Forest and these were named Parus rufonuchalis blanchardi by Meinertzhagen

(Bull. B.O.C. lviii (1938) p. 95) but the form does not appear to me to be

separable. Wardlaw-Ramsay found it common in the Hariab Valley and breed-

ing about Byan Khel 7,000 ft. in May. He observed it up to 10,000 ft. on

the Safed Koh.

i€githaliscus leucogenys (Horsfield and Moore).

Specimens collected. — 2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith).

Griffith appears to be the only, observer who has met with the White-cheeked

Tit in Afghanistan. He records it at Bharowal above Bala Chaquar Serai at

4.000 ft. where it was in pairs in the woods in March and April. This is the

type-locality. Whitehead found it breeding freely on the Peiwaf spur from

6.000 ft. to 8,000 ft. in March, April and May.

Remiz coronatus (Severtzow).

Specimens collected. — 3 <$ 19 April, 23 April 1885 Tirphul (AitchesonJ.

These specimens provide the only records of the Penduline Tit for Afghanistan

but as the species is a fairly regular winter visitor to N.-W. India from Peshawar

to Sind it is probably not uncommon on passage in Afghanistan.

Sitta caesia cashmirensis B'rooks.

Specimens collected. — 2 9 Otipore (Griffith) , $ 22 April 1879 Byan Khel

(Wardlaw-Ramsay). .

This Nuthatch — (which he first recorded as Sitta cinnamoventris while Griffith

labelled his specimens S. castaneoventris ) — was found by Wardlaw-Ramsay to

be common at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. and on the .Peiwar Kotal where it was

breeding in May. All the young had flown by the middle of June.. Whitehead

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. 517

also recorded it as common on the Safed Koh. Griffith appears to have obtained

his specimens about 10-14 April 1840 to judge by his Journal.

Wardlaw-Ramsay labelled his specimen with the manuscript name Sitta

hariabica (which does pot however appear to have been published) and though

they exhibit no colour differences, this specimen and two collected by Venning

over the Afghan boundary in Zhob have certainly stronger and longer beaks than

true cashmirensis. Further specimens are required to verify this supposed

racial difference.

Sitta leucopsis leucopsis Gould.

Specimens collected. — <$ 21 May 1879 Byan Khel, sex? 20 June, Juv. 21

June 1879 Peiwar Kotal (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

Wardlaw-Ramsay found the White-cheeked Nuthatch rather common on the

Peiwar spur of the Safed Koh from 7,000 ft. (the lowest limit of pine growth)

upwards. He saw an occupied nest on 21 May and shot a newly fledged bird

on 21 June near the Peiwar Kotal. Whitehead records it as the common

Nuthatch of the Safed Koh.

It also occurs in the Gardez Forest where Blanchard met it in May-June

‘935- r

Sitta neumayer te<& hronota Sharpe.

Specimens collected. — 1 sex? Kandahar (Griffith); <$ $ 18 April 1881 Kandahar;

e S 5 December 1884 between Kushk and Palounda, cJ cJ 9 6 December 1884

between Palounda zAd Karezdaria, $ $ 3 May 1885 Shore-Kaltegai (Aitcheson) ;

2 sex? 18 May Darband-i-Kil Rekhta, Murghab (Yate) ; sex? 13 July Sufed

Sir 7,500 ft., 9 l7 September Kamard 5,600 ft., sex? 16 Sept. 1933 Kotal

Kabuchi 8,500 ft. (Maconachie) ; <5 9 9 April Paghman 8,000 ft., $ 9 15 April

Ghorband 5,000 ft., 2 <$ 22-24 April Bamian 8,500 ft., (^ 9 26 April 1939

Akrobat 9,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Rock Nuthatch is very generally distributed as a resident bird in

Central and Southern Afghanistan, so much of the country being suited to

its needs. In the south it is particularly common about Kandahar, occurring

in the neighbouring hills and the rocks behind the old city (Hutton, St. John,

Swinhoe). St. John found a nest in a hole in the wall of a small mausoleum

by the River Arghandab in April.

Griffith mentions it in his journal as seen at Bamian 3-6 October 1839 and

at Tazin on 10 October 1839 and Maconachie and Meinertzhagen found it in

the Kabul area in the places represented by the above localities. The latter

has some notes on the behaviour of birds at two nests in April in the Ghorband

Valley at 8,200 ft. Further west Aitcheson in collecting his specimens notes

that this species is a very common and characteristic bird of the sandstone

rocks of the Badghis country. I have been unable to examine any of his

specimens to verify that they belong to this race

Sitta neumayer subeoeruleus Meinertzhagen.

Specimens collected. — 2 6 9 15-17 May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen).

In his journey northward to the valley of the Oxus Meinertzhagen noted

that S.. n. tephronota was not observed north of the Dar-e-Shikari gorge at

7,000 ft. After a gap of about a hundred miles he found Rock Nuthatches

again on the bare earth cliffs near Haibak, but these birds belonged to another

race subcoeruleus. Here it was noticed that after the young were fledged two

families would unite into one huge party of 15 or 16 individuals.

Argya caudata hutroni (Blyth).

Specimens collected. — <$ <3 18-30 Dec. 1880 Kandahar (Swinhoe), (J 26 April

1905 Kuhak (Cumming).

The Common Babbler is apparently confined to the South of Afghanistan

and there it is a resident species. It is only recorded from Kandahar where it

is a garden bird but not very common (Swinhoe: St. John) and the tamarisk

jungles of the Helmund (St. John) and Seistan (Cumming) where it is said to

be abundant. Kandahar is the type locality of this race.

Hypocolius ampelinus orientalis Koelz.

Specimens collected. — *6 specimens 21-24 October 1937 Kandahar (Koelz).

The above specimens provide the only records of the Grey Hypocolius for

Afghanistan and on them Koelz based his new race orientalis (Proc. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, vol. 52 (5 June 1939), p. 64). As neither Swinhoe nor St. John

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XtlV

met with this bird at Kandahar I find it difficult to believe that Mr. Koelz’s

specimens were not on passage. The characters on which his new race is

based are not impressive.

Microscelis psaroides psaroides (Vigors).

Specimens collected.— 2 sex? Chughur Serai (Griffith).

Griffith remarks in his diary that the Black Bhlfoul was first seen on the

Chughur Pir on 19 March 1840. A few were seen on 20 March around a

village called Pillipote, favoured for its zaitoon trees.

Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould).

Specimens collected. — d d $ 8-18 Dec. 1880, d, $ 19th February 1881 Kanda-

har (Swinhoe) ; 2 d 1 ? 1881 Kandahar (Hutchins).

Swinhoe and St. John record that the White-eared Bulbul is very common

about Kandahar up to an altitude of 6,000 ft. or thereabouts. It is particularly

common in the city where Swinhoe caught a half-fledged bird as early as

11 March. As Koelz obtained it at Farah and Cumming observed it just over

the Afghan-Persian border at Nasratabad it probably occurs generally in Southern

Afghanistan. A resident species.

Koelz separates his Farah and Kandahar specimens as Molpastes leucotis Java •

hensis (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington vol. 52 (5 June 1939) p. 64) but the Kandahar

series in the British Museum agree with Indian birds.

In the New Fauna (vol. i, p. 390) M. 1. leucogenys is stated to occur in

Afghanistan. This however appears to be a slip for this race which is omitted.

Molpastes leucogenys humii Oates.

Specimen collected. — -d 31 May 1937 Jalalabad (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen records that this race of White-cheeked Bulbul was common

and breeding at Jalalabad at the end of May.

Certhia himalayaua limes Meinertzhagen.

Specimens collected: — 2 sex? Pushut, 2 sex? Jalalabad (Griffith); 2 sex?

19 June 1879 Peiwar Kotal (Wardlaw-Ramsay); 3d2? Kandahar (Hutchins).

In addition to the above specimens and Griffith’s statement in his Journal

that he met a Tree-Creeper at Bharowal on 10 April 1840, the Himalayan Tree-

Creeper was recorded by Wardlaw-Ramsay as common enough on the Peiwar

Spur and on the adjoming slopes of the Safed Koh, where it was evidently

breeding in June. This is confirmed by Whitehead who says it breeds there

in a zone from 7,000 to 9,000 ft.

Koelz has named a race C. h. cedricola (Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, vol.

52 (5 June 1939) p. 65) from a composite series of 4 December birds from

Jalalabad and 6 June birds from Kail, Ferajghan Pass and Sirotai, one of his

Jalalabad specimens being named as type. There the Tree-Creeper is evidently

a winter visitor and I do not see from the description how his new race is

distinguishable from Griffith’s Pushut and Jalalabad specimens which are

clearly limes .

The statement in the New Fauna (vol. i, 431) that C. h. taeniura occurs in

Afghanistan is evidently merely due to confusion with this race- All the

Afghan specimens examined have too short bills for the Turkestan race.

Tichodroma muraria (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected: — 3 sex? Jugdulluck, Jalalabad and Pashat Fort

(Griffith) ; <S <S 18 December 1880, U 22 December 1880, 9 24 December 1880,

U 30 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 9 5 December 1884 between Kushk

and Palounda, 26 December 1884, $ January 1885 Bala-Morghab (Aitcheson) ;

9 20 December 1905 Peshawaran (Cumming) ; 9 September 1933 Katakhak

9,750 ft., <A 26 November 1933, sex? 23 December 1933 Logar 5,700 ft.

(Maconachie) ; 4 cf 2 $ 8-9 April Paghman, 22, April 1937 Bamian

(Meinertzhagen).

It is quite possible that the Wall-Creeper breeds at high altitudes in the

Hindu Khush as suggested by Maconachie ’s specimen from Katakhak 9,750 ft.

in September. It certainly breeds, at any rate, on the Safed Koh where White-

head found a family party at 15,000 ft. on 12 July. It is a common winter visitor

to lower levels in Afghanistan. Griffith obtained it at Jugdulluck [12 October

1839*], Pashat [16 February 1840] and Jalalabad and Maconachie at Logar

(November and December). Aitcheson procured it between Kushk and Palounda

(December) and at Bala Morghab (December and January). Meinertzhagen found

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. 519

it most abundant in the Paghman Valley at 8,000-8,500 ft. in early April and

a few were seen in the Bamian Valley in mid- April. These birds were probably

on passage.

Towards Kandahar it is a very common winter visitor (Hutton, Swinhoe)

and St. John remarks that it may frequently be seen on the ramparts of the

town and the sun-dried brick walls of the province ' generally. On more than

one occasion he saw it flitting about his half-opened window like a great

butterfly. At Kandahar Swinhoe last saw it on 9. February.

In South-west Afghanistan the country is less suitable and Gumming only

met with it in Seistan on two occasions, at Nad Ali on 7 March 1903 and at

Peshawaran on 20 December.

Troglodytes troglodytes subsp. ?

Specimens collected : — 3 sex? 26 January 1 February Chahar, Shamba,

Maimanah (Yate); sex? 20 December 1933 Chahiltan . 5,900 ft., 9> sex? 6

January 1935 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); S 8 April 1937 Paghman 7,500 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

There is a good deal of difficulty about the identification of Afghan wrens.

The three specimens obtained by Yate in Maimanah are, according to Scully,

rather deeply coloured birds whereas the three specimens collected by Maconachie

seem paler and greyer (thereby agreeing with some Gilgit specimens in the

British Museum) than true neglectus from Kashmir. Wrens are very variable

birds and it does not do to revise their classification on a few specimens but it

is quite possible that these greyish birds represent a separable race. If so

it seems probable that the name available for them is Anorthura magrathi

Whitehead, Bull. B.O.C., xxi. (1908), p. 19. This name was given by White-

head to the wren which he said was found commonly on the Safed Koh

from 8,000 ft. upwards to the very summit of the range, chiefly in the

juniper scrub. Unfortunately his two specimens, including the type, are juveniles

and it is not possible therefore to say whether they belong to T. t. neglectus ,

as stated in the New Fauna (vol. i, p, 447) or whether they are of the same

sub-species as these greyish Afghan birds.

Meinertzhagen ’s specimen from Paghman, which was the only wren he met,

could not be matched with anything in the Berlin and Leningrad Museums and

is paler,, less red than 80 birds examined from all over Turkestan and the

Pamirs. It is said to be nearer tianschanicus than anything else but might

possibly belong to a new form.

It is quite likely of course that two forms occur in Afghanistan.

Cinclus pallasii tenuirostrls Bonaparte.

Specimens collected. — Juv. 5 October Iskar, Afghan Turkestan, 2 sex?

8 October Deh Tang, Ghorband (Yate) ; 9 juv. $ ad. 13 July 1933 Khawak

Chapchi (Maconachie); 4^2$ 8-12 April Paghman 8,000 ft., 26 .3 9 16-18

April Ghorband 8,300 ft., Juv. 23 May 1937 Shibar Pass 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found the Brown Dipper common on the Paghman River and

in the Ghorband and subsidiary valleys. Birds were building on 12 April. It

was not observed north or west of the Shibar Pass and the only other records

for Afghanistan are furnished by the specimens listed above and the specimens

listed by Koelz from the Kargasi Pass, Sanglech, the Minjar Pass and Paghman

in June, July and August on which he bases his subspecies C. p. kargasiensis

(Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 52 (5 June 1939) p. 65).

Whitehead however states that it occurs along the larger streams of the

Safed Koh up to 9,000 ft. but is scarce. He shot a strong flying young bird

on 27 June.

Cinclus cinclus leucogaster Bonaparte.

Specimens collected. — 2 cf 19 16-17 April Ghorband 8,200 ft., 9 25 April

Bamian 11,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen only met the White-bellied Dipper in these two localities and

in a higher zone than the Brown Dipper from 8,200 ft. to 11,000 ft., though

the two species overlapped about '8,200 ft. He has an interesting note on the

habits.

(To be continued.)

*These dates are . taken from Griffith’s journals,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING

FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

BY

A. St. J. Macdonald.

( With 1 6 text- figures)

Part VII

( Continued from page 354, of this volume)

Other Sporting Fish and How to catch Them.

Carnatic Carp (1), Chitrahtu (2), Katli, Bokar (3), Jerruah (4), Olive Carp

(5), White Carp (6), Black-spot (7), Malabar Carp (8), Rohu (9), Kala Banse (10),

Mirgil (11), Cirrhina cirrhosa (12), Catla (13), Indian Trout (14), Barilius tileo

(15), Chilwa (16).

I have listed in this chapter all the common fish taken on rod and

line in Burma and India; giving- the familiar or anglicised names

followed by the ichthyological names, with a description of each

fish.

Actually these fish should be dealt with under two separate divi-

sions—game and semi-game fish, as a large number of those listed

are taken while fishing for mahseer or other larger varieties of carp,

and to which it is not worth devoting much time when the larger

species are available. I mean the smaller carp such as White carp,

Olive carp, etc.

I have appended short notes to the fish that are in my opinion

worth catching or devoting one’s spare time to.

Under Rohu, Murral, and Seetul, for instance, will be found

methods of fishing not previously mentioned in any book, but quite

worth a trial. The reader will find sufficient detail in this chapter

to help him to find and catch the commoner fishes : but I would ask

him to bear in mind, that, to what Thomas devoted 78 pages in his

book ‘The Rod in India’, I have condensed in a meagre 19.

The text-figures were originally printed in Day’s .‘Fishes of India’.

Fourteen were reproduced by Messrs Shaw and Shebbeare in their

‘Fishes of Northern Bengal’. The blocks used by them were kindly

loaned by the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal to whom the author

and the Bombay Natural History Society wish to express their sincere

thanks.

The Mahseer I have dealt with fully in the Chapter on Burma*,

so will not include it again in this list.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER

521

SUB-CLASS : TELEOSTEI . Bony Fishes.

Order: Physostomi

The fresh water fishes of India belong- to the Sub-Class of Bony

fishes (Teleostei). Most belong to the family of Carps (Cyprinidae)

and the order of Sheat-fishes (Siluroidea).

The Carps have no teeth in the mouth, but have scales on the

body. The Sheat-fishes have no scales, but have teeth in the mouth.

Family: CYPRINIDAE.

This family is prominent in the absence of any sort of peculiari-

rities, but the members are familiar to most people. A great majo-

rity of Indian freshwater fishes belong to this family. They have

scales on the body but the head is naked. Frequently barbels are

present, but no adipose fin is to be found. There is only one dorsal

fin with its first few rays closely adpressed and unbranched ; the last

unbranched ray is sometimes serrated along its hinder margin.

Mouth is toothless, but there are teeth in the throat known as

Pharyngeal teeth, which may be arranged in one, two, or more

series. This family comprises the Carps, Mahseers, Barbels, etc., all

of which are game and sporting fish.

Genus : Barbus

i. CARNATIC CARP : Barbus (Puntius) carnatic usjerdon.

Vernacular names: — Poaree candee, Saalcandee, Shelle&, Tamil; Gid-pakke ,

Canarese ; Gtddi-kaoli , Hind.

D. 12 (|) ; ,P. 15 ; V. 9 ; A. 7 (?) ; C. 19 ; L. 1-32.

Rivers along the bases of Nilghiris, Wynaad and South Canara

hills are the common habitat of this fish. The dorsal profile is more

Connex than the ventral. The upper jaw is larger and the lower

labial fold is interrupted. There are two pairs of barbels, both being

thin and shorter than the eve. The dorsal fin commences anterior to the

insertion of the ventrals and midway between the snout and the base

of the caudal fin ; it is about J as high as the body. Its last undivided

ray is a strong and smooth spine, as long as the head in the

immature specimens, but sometimes longer in the adults. Pectoral

522 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

fin is as long as or slightly longer than the head while the anal fin

reaches • the caudal. The lateral line is complete and there are 3J

rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin. The colour

of the fish is greenish-brown along the back, becoming dull white

glossed with gold on the sides and beneath. The fins are grayish

and the eyes are golden. This fish runs to 25 lbs and frequents the

same water as the mahseer; is taken best on fly. To the inexperi-

enced eye it may be mistaken for a mahseer. They are caught in

quiet runs and eddies and back wafers between runs, more than in

white water of . the rapids themselves as in the case of mahseer.

Under trees, near sunken ' logs or swirls, round rocks, are the

specially beloved places of this fish. The flies they take best are size

No. 5 or 6 in hooks and black or dark. An all peacock fly is probably

most killing.

2. CHITRAHTU Barbus (Puntius) chillinoides McClelland.

Vernacular name : — Chit-rah-too, Punj.

D. 10-11 ; P. 17; V. 9 ; A. 7 (.2/5) ; C. 19;

L. 1. 32-35.

Fig. 2. — Barbus ( Puntius ) chillinoides McClelland.

This fish is found, along the Himalayas as far to the east as

Assam, and also in the Ganges. It attains about 2\ ft. in length.

The body is rather elongated so that the dorsal and abdominal pro-

files are about equally convex. The upper jaw is slightly the longer

and the snout overhangs the mouth which is directed forwards. The

lips are moderately thick, the lower with a continuous transverse

fold, but without a lobe. There are two pairs of barbels which are

of about the same length and equal to diameter of the orbit. The

dorsal fin commences about midway between the tip of the snout and

the base of the caudal fin. Its last undivided ray is osseous, very

strong and entire. The anal fin reaches the base of the caudal which

is deeply forked. The lateral line is complete and there are three

rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin. The colour

of the fish is golden above becoming silvery beneath. The margins

of the scales are provided with numerous fine black dots. A black

mark is present behind the opercle. The fins are reddish,

CIRCUMVENTING the mahseer

523

3. KATLI. Barbus (Lissochilns) hexagonolepis McClelland.

Vernacular names: — Bokar and Boolooah Assam; Katli, Nepal.

D. 4/9; P. 1/13-15; V. 1/8; A. 3/5; C. 19; L. I. 22-31.

Fig. 3. — Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis McClelland.

This is the Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the Nepalese. It

is also known as the Snub-nosed Mahseer and is perhaps the

commonest large-scaled Barbel of Assam and of the Eastern Hima-

layas. Though Shaw and Shebbeare do not attribute a good size to

this fish, it is known to grow to a fairly big size. Moreover

according to Mr. S. J. Duncan1 this is the ‘Mighty Mahseer of the

region traversed by him and that it was found in almost all the rivers

of the Hills’.

This is a beautifully coloured fish, though the colouration might

vary considerably according to the nature of the water inhabited by

the fish. According to Hora2 “The dorsal surface of the head and

body was bottle green, the lateral band above the lateral line was

yellowish brown followed by an area of King’s blue colour which was

replaced below by silvery white. The edges of the scales were

marked with light bluish neutral tint. The tip . of the snout was

stone green, and the barbels had a neutral tint. There were two

oval patches of a light yellow colour before and behind the eyes ; the

iris was yellowish brown and the gill cover light alizarine pink. The

dorsal fin had a citron green colour, while the pelvic, anal and

greater part of the pectoral and caudal fins were of a slate grey

colour. There was a patch of buff colour on the pectoral and the

margin of the caudal was of a light greenish neutral tint.’ In

general form this fish is similar to B. (Tor) mosal , but the head is

relatively shorter and broadly rounded in front. The most conspicu-

ous feature of the head is the possession of several rows of

horny tubercles on the sides in front of and below the eyes.

Shaw and Shebbeare noted that the habits of this fish are ‘very

similar to those of the Mahseer. As a sporting fish there is nothing

to choose between them, weight for weight. It is unfortunate that,

as both take the same lures, and are found in the same water, the

smaller species is often taken on much too heavy tackle which does

1 Hora, S. L., Game Fishes of India, xi, 4. Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc.y

XLII, p. 86 (1940).

524 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

not give him a chance to show his power’. I have taken these fish

in Nepal as far west as the Girwa River. See 25-pound Chocolate

Mahseer in Chapter on Burma, caught by the author, which has been

identified by Hora as the Bokar.

4. JERRUAH. Barbus (Puntius) chagunio (Ham.)

Vernacular names: — Jerruah, Beng. ; Chaguni, Behar; Bootee keintah , Assam

This fish inhabits clear streams and rivers in the foot-hills, Terai

and Duars. According to Day it attains at least 18 inches. The

upper profile in front of the dorsal fin is more arched than the lower.

The snout is bold and is covered with sunken pores which in males

are more strongly marked and more sharply defined. There are two

pairs of barbels which are rather longer than the orbit. The dorsal

fin arises midway between the end of the snout and the base of the

caudal fin. Its undivided ray is osseous, strong with coarse teeth:

Some of the last few anal rays are elongated in the males and the

species exhibits marked sexual dimorphism. Colour. — The fish is

silvery with a faint pinkish tinge. A black spot is present at the

base of each scale on the upper three quarters of the body. Fins are

yellowish, dorsal and caudal with a suffused sub-marginal band of

red touched with black. Pelvics and anal are tinged with red. The

male is more brilliant throughout and the black fin tips are more

marked.

5. OLIVE CARP. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.)

Vernacular names: — Punjella, Tam. ; Giddi-kaoli, Durhie and Potah, Hind.;

Gid-pakke, Canarese; Kanaka , Telugu ; Sarana , Ooriah and Bengali; Jundoori,

Punj. ; Pop-pree and Kuh-nali-nee , Sind; Sen-nee, Assam; N ga-khon-mah-gyr and

N ga-chong, Burmese.

This fish inhabits clear streams of the foot hills, Terai and Duars,

also ponds and borrow pits.

The body is deep and moderately compressed. The dorsal pro-

file is elevated. No pores are present on the. snout. The lower

D, 3/8; P. 15; V. 9 ; A 3/5 ; C. 19; L. 1. 44-47.

Fig. 4. — Barbus ( Puntius ) chagunio (Hamilton). Male

D. 3/8 ; P. 15 : V. 9 ; A. 3/5 ; C. 19; L. 1. 32-34.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAITSEER

525

labial fold is interrupted. There are two pairs of barbels ; the

rostral is as long as the orbit while the maxillary is slightly longer.

The dorsal fin arises rather nearer the snout than the base of the

caudal fin, and opposite the insertion of the ventrals. The undivided

dorsal ray is osseous, strong in the- adult and finely serrated

posteriorly. There are 3J to 4 rows of scales between the lateral

line and the base of the ventral fin. Colour — silvery, darker above.

Usually a golden blotch is found on the opercle and sometimes a small

dark spot is also seen behind the gill-opening. The young indivi-

duals have a faint black spot covering 25th to 28th scales on the

lateral line. The fins are greyish-white with the caudal, pelvic and

anal fins tipped red.

6. WHITE] CARP. Barbus (Puntius) curmuca (Ham.)

D. 12 (3/9J; P. 16; V. 9; A. 8 (3/5); C. 18; L. 1. 41.

Fig. 6. — Barbus ( Puntius ) curmuca (Hamilton).

A fish attaining four feet in length, it is found along the Western

Ghats of India. The dorsal profile is more convex than the ventral.

The head is rather compressed with a conical snuot and a

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEfY, Vol. XLIV

transversely concave interorbital space. In the adults, a band of open

pores may be present running from the preorbital along the cheek.

There are two pairs of maxillary barbels, the lower as long as the eye

while the upper is only half as long. The dorsal fin arises in front

of the ventrals and is rather nearer to the snout than to the base of

the caudal fin; its last undivided ray is weak and articulated. The

lateral line is complete, with 31 rows of scales between it and the

base of the ventral fin. The caudal fin is deeply forked and its lobes

are pointed. Colour. — The fish is silvery which is lighter on

the sides and beneath. The tips of the caudal fin are blackish. In

the young, however, the middle third of the caudal fin is orange and

tipped with black.

7. BLACK SPOT. Barbus (Puntius) filamentosus (Cuv. & Val.).1

D. 13 (3/8); P. 15 ; V. 9; A. 7 (2/5) ; C. 19 ; L. 1. 21.

Fig. 7. — Barbus (Puntinus) filamentosus (Cuv. & Val.).

This fish is only about 6 inches in length and it is found from

Canara down the Western Coast, along the base of the Nilgiris to

Travancore Hills and Ceylon. The body is compressed and the

upper jaw is the longer of the two. The lower labial fold is inter-

rupted. In the mature males the snout is covered with large, pores.

There is only one pair of small barbels which are difficult to make

out at times. There is a thin maxillary pair extending to below the

centre of the orbit in some specimens while it is very minute in others.

The dorsal fin commences midway between the snout and the base of

the caudal fin. Its last undivided ray is articulated, smooth and

feeble. Some of the branched rays in the mature males are elongat-

ed. The caudal is deeply lobed. The lateral line is complete with

2\ rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin.

Colour. — The fish is silvery white, with a deep black oval mark on

the lateral line covering the scales from about the fourteenth to the

eighteenth. There is a dark band along the dorsal fin. The caudal

fin is red, tipped with black.

It will be seen from the above description that this species shows

marked sexual dimorphism. Th^ form described as Barbus mahecola

1 B. mahecola and B. filamentosus are males and females of the same species.

See Hora. Rec. Ind. Mils., XXXIX, p 22 (1937) and Hora and [.&**, Rec. Ind,

Mus., XL III, p. 245 (1941).

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

(Cuv. & Val.) is a female in which the tubercles are absent on the

snout and the rays of the dorsal hn are not elongated beyond the

membrane. Similar sexual dimorphism is found in Barbus chagunio

described above.

8. MALABAR CARP. Barbus (Tor) khudree var. malabaricus Jerdon.

D. 12-13/ -9-4) ; P. 17 ; V. 9 ; A. 8 (3/5) ; C. 19 ; L. 1. 24.

Fig. 8, — Barbus (Tor) khudree , var. malabaricus Jerdon.

This fish is an inhabitant of the streams of South Ganara, down

the Western Ghats to the Travancore Hills. ‘It attains at least

18 inches in length. The dorsal and ventral profiles Vnre moderately

convex. The upper jaw is slightly longer than the lower one. The

lips are thick and the lower labial fold is complete and the lower lip

is provided with a median lobe. There are two pairs of barbels of

which the maxillary pair reaches to the hind margin of the orbit

while the rostral pair is shorter. The dorsal fin arises in advance of

the ventral and its last undivided ray is osseous, but weak. The

lateral line is complete with ij- rows, of scales 'between it and the

base of the ventral fin. Colour. — The fish is bluish above,

becoming white on the abdomen. The fins are usually blue and the

eyes are red. Sometimes the fish is brown and the dorsal, pectoral

and ventral fins are red, or against the edges of the fine may be dark.

This species is a race of the Deccan Mahseer or Khudree ( Barbus

(Tor.) khudree Sykes) in which the dorsal fin has a weak and articu-

lated spine.

Genus : Labeo.

9. ROHU. Labeo rohita (Ham).

Vernacular names: — Ruhu, Ooriah; Ruee, Ben.; N ga-myit-chln and Nga°

myit-tsan-nee, Burmese ; Dum-bra, Sind.

D. 15-6 (jT^) ; P. 17 ; V. 9 ; A. 7 (2/5) ; C. 19 ;

L. 1-40-42.

This is the commonest carp of the plains; It is highly

esteemed as food and is to be found in all sorts of water,

the best being those taken in clear running water, and not too large.

It is deep in form, the dorsal profile being more convex than the

ventral. The greatest width of the head equals its length excluding

the snout which is obtuse, depressed, but projecting beyond the

0^8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOQIETY, Vol. XLIV

jaws. No lateral lobe is present. Lips thick, fringed with a distinct

inner fold above and below. Generally there is a short and thin

maxillary pair of barbels, though a rostral pair is sometimes present.

The dorsal fin arises about midway between the snout and base of

caudal fin. Pectoral is as long as the head excluding snout. Ventrals

are inserted below the third or fourth dorsal ray. Caudal is deeply

forked. There are 6-6 J rows of scales between lateral line and base

of ventral fin. The fish is bluish or brownish along the back, be-

coming silvery on the sides and beneath; sometimes there is a red

mark on each scale. In some specimens the fins are black.

Rohu frequent the sluggish water of pools in rivers, and will

occasionally be seen in shoals in slow runs sucking in vegetation off

the top of the water. I have caught them while doing this in the

Saber Matti near' Ahmedabad in the following way: — On observing

closely I noticed that green weed was the dainty morsel these fish

were foraging. Some was collected and a fine cast with a very small

hook provided the tackle; attaching the weed to the hook was a

most tedious business. When this was done by wrapping it round

the hook and tying it into position with fine silk the weed would come

off as soon as it was in the water or swell too much to tempt the

fish. Perseverance conquered. When the correct amount was

gauged, a light float (quill) was attached to the cast io inches from

the hook, and the bait allowed to move down with the current till it

was engineered into the midst of a shoal where it was immediately

taken, the floaT signalling the pop, pop movement of the fish sucking

it in which was the indication to strike. I caught several fish this

way, with the shoal still feeding. *

The Rohu has a very small mouth set very low in the head, and

almost below it. They are game fish, however, and when hooked

will jump right out of the water two or three times. They provide

one of the chief foods in Bengal and Bihar and are quite tasty.

They do well in tanks where they are fished for in the commonly

known way (seen chapter on ‘Tank Angling’).

Hand Line Fishing for Rohu. — I was shown by an old Moha-

piedan how to catch Rohu on a hand line, ‘Tuggy’ or ‘Tungoos’

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

529

It is slow work but great fun when a fish is hooked. They seem to

put up a much better fight in a river than in a tank. I detail this

method so that anyone keen enough may give it a trial. I have

caught fish up to 20 pounds in this way.

River Fishing for Rohu. — A line 60 yards in length is wrapped

criss-cross over a small dried vegetable marrow. This is the substi-

tute for the winch.

The Mount. — The mount is a thick piece of string ^ inch

thick, with a heavy weight 6 ozs or more fixed on to one end, and

to the other end the line is attached. Equal distance from the ends

are two fine pieces of line attached to the mount about 6 inches long,

with a large hook attached (size 4/0 in Limerick hooks) to each

length. Mount is about a yard long.

These are baited with nice juicy red earthworms, as much as they

can hold, and then enough line is collected off the bobbin, and held

in loops or laid in coils on the sand. The cast is then made by

swinging the weight round in the manner of a stone sling, and cast

into a slow flowing part of the river, which is either connecting two

pools or is known to be a feeding ground.

The next operation is to collect in the line till it is as near taut as

you can get it, without moving the weight, and to fix the line into a

slotted bamboo peg which will give a slight resistance to a tug ; this

with the weight hooks the fish, and the funs begins. The peg is about

6 inches high.

Playing the Fish . — The line is picked up as soon as a run is

registered, and the fish is played through the fingers, exactly the

same way as we do on a rod and reel.

Clubbing the Fish. — When the fish is tired, and the mount

comes into the hand, raise the head gradually to the surface. A

small club which is held by the chin against the chest is used for

knocking the fish on the head. The fisherman goes over his knees

into the water to do this.

It is in this way with a lump of Raggi paste, the size of a duck’s

egg and no added weight that the big Mahseer and Rohu of the

Cauvery and Cubbany rivers in Mysore are taken ; and it was in this

way, a correspondent informs me, that Rivett Carnac’s 119-pound

fish was captured. Substituting of course the rod and reel for the

marrow !

Rohu Rising.— A Rohu comes to the surface and breaks the

water with a loud splash and strong swirl, after which he generally

lets up two bubbles. Bottom fishing for Rohu is dealt with fully in

the chapter ‘Tank Angling.’

10. KALA BANSE. Labeo calbasir (Ham.)

Vernacular names: — Nalla-gandu-menu, Telugu ; Kalbasu and Kunda ,

Ben. ; Cuggera (Siane) ; Mahlee, Assam ; Kala beines, Ooriah and Hind. ; Di,

Punj.; Di-hee, Sind ; Dai, Cutch ; KurrUmertu, Oanarese ; Nga-nek-pya, Nga-noo-

than and Nga-ong-tong, Burmese.

The width of head equals its length excluding snout. Mouth

narrow, obtuse and depressed. No lateral lobe but pores are present.

L. 1-40-44.

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV

Lips thick, fringed, more especially the lower one, each having- a

distinct inner fold. There are four barbels, the rostrals

being- slightly the longer, equalling the diameter of the eyes.

Dorsal fin arises midway between the snout and the base of the caudal

fin. Ventrals commence below the fourth or fifth dorsal ray.

Caudal is deeply forked. There are to 6 rows of scales between

the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin. The fish is blackish,

sometimes with a scarlet centre for many of the scales. It grows to

3 feet in length.

Fig. io .—Labeo calbasu (Hamilton).

These fish seem to have a partiality for old masonry, walls and

sunken trees in river and can be seen playing about in such places,

sucking, and rubbing their sides against the masonry or trees, as

the case may be. They are in structure the same as the Rohu, and

are even known by some as the Black Rohu. This fish is well

illustrated in Thomas’ ‘Rod in India’. I have taken them on small

Fly Spoon, once or twice, but this is most unusual as the mouth of

the fish is set right below the face and is very small. I was fishing

for Mahseer at the time.

They rise unlike the Rohu in a most frightened manner, coming

up to the surface with a rush, almost perpendicularly, and turning

on the surface, go down as fast. They are game fish, and are best

caught in the manner shown under ‘Tank Angling’. They do well

in tanks. The largest I have caught was 16 pounds.

Genus : Cirrhina.

11. MIRGIL. Cirrhina mirgala (Ham.)

Vernacular names : — Mirrgah, Ooriah ; Mi<rgala, Beng. and Hind ; Naim,

Hind. (N.-W.P.) ; NgaTkyin and Ngga-gyein , Burmese; Mor-ah-kee, Sind and

Cutch.

D. 15-16 (LL) ; P. 15; V.9; A. 8 ; (?) : C. 15 ;

L. 1-40-45.

This is a fine fisjh of elegant appearance. The greatest width of

the head equals its length behind the middle of the eyes. The eyes

are situated in the anterior half of the head. Width of mouth equals

2/$ of the length of the head. Pores may or may not be present on

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 531

rather nearer to the snout than to the base of the caudal fin, and

the snout. Only two barbels are present. The dorsal finarises

rather nearer to the snout than to the base of the caudal fin, and

opposite the 1 2 scale lateral line. Pectoral fin is as long- as the head

excluding the snout, and .does not reach the ventral. Caudal fin

Fig. 11.; — Cirrhina mirgala (Hamilton),.

deeply forked 5J to 6 rows between lateral tine and the base of

ventral fin. Colour. — Silvery dark grey along the back, sometimes

having a coppery tinge. The pectoral ventral and anal orange

stained with black. Eyes golden. The fish grows up to 3 feet in

length. (See also Chapter X.)

12. CIRRHINA CIRRHOSA (Bloch). €

Vernacular names. — Ven-candi, Tam. ; Aruzu, Telugu.

a 17-19 (y|^-5) ; P. 19, A. 8 (!) ; C. 19, L. 1. 42-44.

Fig. i2. — Cirrhina cirrhosa (Bloch).

The dorsal profile of this fish is more convex than the ventral one.

The greatest width of head equals its length excluding snout. Width

of mouth equals 1/3 of the length of head. Usually some fine pores

are present on the snout. Four barbels are present of which the

rostrals are rather longer. The dorsal fin arises considerably in

advance of the ventrals and miefway between the snout and the

posterior position of the base of the anal gn. In some large

3

r32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

specimens the first few rays are very much elonged. Caudal deeply

forked. There are 5J to 6 rows of scales present between the lateral

line and the base of the ventral find. Colour. — -Silvery, every scale

having a red centre except along the abdomen where they are of

dull yellowish white. Dorsal, caudal the outer end of the anal and

pectoral stained with grey.

Mirgal or Naini are caught in the same manner as the Rohu, in

river though they do not come up to the surface like the Rohu to

suck in vegetation. The mouth of this fish is set higher in the head,

though small and of the same warty construction as the Kala Banse.

They do excellently in tanks and are quite game fish, caught in the

same manner as the Rohu in tanks.

Genus : Calla.

13. CATLA. Catlacatla (Ham.)

Vernacular names : — Botchee , Telugu ; Catlaj Beng. and Hind., Punj. ; Barkur,

Ooriah ; Nga-thainv, Burmese ; Tainbara, Hind. ( Bombay ) ; Boassa , Hind.

(N.-W.P.) ; T ay-lee, Sind.

D. 17-19 (I|T); P. 21; v. 9, A. 8(|); C. 19; L. 1. 40-43.

Fig. 13.. — Catla catla (Hamilton).

This fish is largely employed for stocking tanks. It grows to

about 6 feet in length. It is much esteemed as food when not

exceeding two feet for the fish becomes coarser as it grows bigger.

The eyes with free orbital margins are situated in the anterior

half of the head which is broad and the greatest width of which equals

its length behind the middle of the eyes. The mouth is wide with a

prominent lower jaw. In large specimens pores may be present on

the snout. No upper lip, but the lower one is large and folded. No

barbels present. Body is moderately compressed. Dorsal profile

more convex than the abdominal one. The dorsal fin arises in

advance of the ventrals. Pectoral extends to the ventrals which in

males reach the anal. Anal laid flat, reaches to beyond the com-

mencement of the caudal. There are 5^ to 6| rows of scales

circumventing the mahseer

333

between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin. The fish is

greyish above becoming silvery on the sides and beneath. Fins are

dark coloured, becoming nearly black in some specimens.

The diet of this fish is difficult to determine with any certainty, but

it is occasionally taken in tanks when fishing for Rohu, and is

essentially a sporting fish of the tanks alone. (See chapter under

‘Tank Angling’.)

Catla rise much in the same fashion as Rohu, and have the same

habit of sucking on the surface, where scum or green slime has

collected. An expert with dry fly may capture them on a hook bait-

ed with the green weed mentioned under Rohu. They are game and

good fighters.

Genus : Barilius.

14. INDIAN TROUT. Barilius (Opsarius) bola (Ham.)

Vernacular names: — Hind. Bola Goha, and Buggarah. Beng. Bola ; Punj.

Pahtah ; Behar Chagunee ; Ooriah Bugguah ; Korang, Assam.

D. 3/7-8 ; A. 3/10 ; P. 13 ; V. 9 ; C. 19 ; L. 1. 88-94.

Fig. 14. — Barilius ( Opsarius ) bola Hamilton

This fish possesses the characteristic Trout-like form with the

head and body greatly compressed, the head being sharply pointed.

It is proportionately smaller in the younger individual. Its dorsal

profile is scarcely arched while the ventral one is somewhat convex.

The eye is situated entirely in the anterior half of the head and in

adult specimens the mouth opening extends about 1^ diameter of

the eye behind the posterior margin of the orbit. The mouth is

very wide and directed obliquely upwards. The upper jaw is the

longer and is deeply notched in the middle to receive a prominent

knob of the lower jaw. Barbels are absent and the scales are very

small. The lateral line is carried anteriorly and then it is continued to

the lower half of the caudal fin. The dorsal fin arises midway

between the posterior margin of the orbit and the base of the caudal

fin; it is behind the anterior origin of the ventrals. The pectoral fin

is as long as the head behind the eye, and is_ separated from the

ventrals by a considerable distance. There is a scaly appendage in

the axil of the pectoral fin. The colouration is much lighter in young

individuals than in the adult. The back is greenish grey.

The Indian Trout, or Barilius bola, as is better known, is really

not a trout. He is game looking and quite good eating. He is

common over all N. India and Burma, and large bags can be made

with fly spoon or fly. I have had 40 fish in a couple of hours in the

534 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Sahmaw Chaung and many over 2 pounds in weight. This fish is.

excellently illustrated in colour in the B.N.H. Society’s Journal

No. 2, Vol. XXXIX.

The maximum weight given in the ‘Rod in India’ is well

exceeded by the fish in Burma, and I should call it 3 to 4 pounds.

My best was 3 pounds and was in a very small stream (see notes on

‘Sahmaw Chaung’). In large rivers he would grow proportionately in

weight and dimensions.

Good Bait for Mahseer. — The small one are particularly

beloved of the Mahseer, so make an excellent live or dead bait. They

will occasionally jump out of the water when hooked, and seem to

prefer slow moving water above a rapid with fairly large boulders, to

the actual rapid itself. I have been most successful in smooth water.

They are highly predacious fish, as the following amusing incident

will prove.

While I was at Sahmaw in Burma, I had the forest officer stay -

ing with me. He was a keen fisherman. The stream was about 15

yards in front of my bungalow, and had a nice pool in front and in

full view of the verandah. After tiffin ‘George’ as he was

commonly called, made a cast and was taken by what appeared to be

a good fish. The reel screamed, the rod bent in two and a furious

fight went on for about 10 minutes. This was being watched by an

interested company from my verandah, when suddenly the rod

slacked and we thought he had lost his fish. He reeled in a small B.

bola about 6 inches long which had obviously been taken by a large

fish, and the fight was the disputed right of who should have the fish,

George or the big fellow ! ! He suffered much leg pulling for taking

10 minutes to land a fish of a few ounces.

Tackle and fishing for this fish is the same as for small Mahseer,

as mentioned in Chapter IV.

15. BARIUUS TILEO (Ham.)

Vernacular names : — Tilei, SeUlen, Boolla and Sund-u-a-rie , Assam.

D. 9 (2/7); P. 14; V. 9 ; A. 13 (3/10); C. 20 ? L. 1. 69=75.

Fig. 15. — Barilius tileo Hamilton.

This is the only other fish likely to be confused with B. bola. It

is similar in colour, but does not attain more than one and a half

pounds in weight. It is distinguishable by its shape, being ‘pot

bellied’ i.e. the abdominal profile more convex than the dorsal. The

snout is pointed, and back almost straight giving the appearance of

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER

535

the head being- cocked up. It is taken in similar water to that of

Barilius bola and in the same way. Fights well. General. — It is

a good table fish but bony.

Genus : Chela.

16. CHILWA. Cheela argentea Day.

Vernacular names : — Chaya-vellachee or V ellachee-cundee, Tam.

D. 9-10 (~) ; P. 15 ; V. 8 ; A. 17-19 ; C. 19 ; L. 1. 43-4 5

Fig. 16. — Cheela argentea Day.

This is a bright silvery fish, keeping mostly at the surface of the

water. It has a long, more or less compressed body with a small

head and upturned mouth. The cleft of mouth extends to below

the anterior third of the orbit. There is a knob above the symphysis

of the lower jaw. The sub-orbital ring of bones is very broad and

nearly covers the cheek, the third almost touching the preopercular

ridge. The breast is without a sharp edge. The dorsal fin is situat-

ed over the commencement of the anal fin, and is in the posterior,

third of the distance between the snout and the base of the caudal fin.

The pectoral fin reaches the ventral and the caudal is deeply forked.

The lateral line descends gently for the first twelve scales, and finally

attains the centre of the caudal. There are rows of scales between

the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin, and about 27 to 30

rows anterior to the dorsal fin. Colour. — -Silvery with a lateral

band which fades after death. Caudal is dark edged, as is also

occasionally the anal.

A small, narrow, closely-scaled, very delicate fish. It is difficult

to handle without the hands getting covered with scales. Some

anglers (the lover of the fly) will spend hours with a tiny fly, amusing

themselves catching these fish. I find it tame sport, for even with

three fly on at a time they give little fun. They are so long and

narrow that they seem unable to hold the water against resistance

of even the lightest rod. They make excellent bait for any fishing

where predatory fish are sought as they seem to be the most favoured

of all the small fish. If the Chilwa are moving in the river it may be

safely assumed that the larger fish are on the feed, and good sport

imminent. Does equally well in tanks and rivers.

(To be continued.)

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS.

BY

M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. (Cantab.).

This list covers an area which extends from Mettupalaiyam in

the South-East, from the Gudalur plateau in the North, and down to

the Malabar boundary in the North-West. Otherwise it corresponds

to the Nilgiri range and its slopes.

In compiling this list I have had little help from local collectors,

but I am deeply indebted to Hampson’s list of 1888. As most of

his collecting was done in the Northern and North-Western Nilgiris

and mine on the plateaux and the southern slopes, this has been of

great value to me.

As & result of the great local variations in climate, rainfall and

vegetation, it is impossible to give definite seasons for the appearance

of particular butterflies to cover the whole area. Neither is it

possible to allocate species to definite altitudes for the whole region,

for these will naturally be found where their foodstuff grows and this

is regulated by the climate. For instance, butterflies peculiar to the

evergreen regions descend some 2,000 feet lower on the western slopes

than on the southern because the evergreen forest does the same.

In the Southern Nilgiris and on the lower plateau February and

March, and September and October, are the best seasons for butter-

flies. Butterfly life is always abundant at the foot of the south-

eastern slopes, but April and May are comparatively poor months

there. September to November is a good season for the northern and

western slopes, but June to September and from December to

February are poor. There is always good butterfly collecting to be

had somewhere in the Nilgiris.

The following are the best localities for the collector. First of

all comes Kallar. This must be one of the very best collecting areas

in India. Butterflies are always abundant there and it seems to

specialise in rarities. So far, I have caught 192 different species in

the narrow strip about half a mile long around the ford and along

the river at Kallar. I can especially recommend the ford over the

Coonoor River where I have caught a large proportion of my best

Nilgiri butterflies.

The Nadgani Ghat, from the top to just below the Nilgiri-Malabar

boundary, ranks an easy second to Kallar. At its best it is probably

better than Kallar, but the season there is short while Kallar is good

throughout the year. There are probably plenty of spots on the

western slopes as good as the Nadgani Ghat, but they are all difficult

of access and I do not know them. The foot of the Nadgani Ghat

is probably excellent, but it is outside the scope of this article and

rather too remote in these days of petrol rationing.

It is worth noting that the butterflies of the Southern and Western

Nilgiris are very different.

For evergreen forms on the southern side of the hills, Wenlock

Bridge and the Runneymede area below Coonoor are good. For the

forms peculiar to the plateaux anywhere on the edge of a shola will

produce the few species to which this applies,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS

537

Gudalur, the Droog and the Burliyar neighbourhood are all worth

a visit.

Note. — The identification letters and figures are from Evans’

‘Identification of Indian Butterflies.’

In the text the ‘lower plateau’ refers to the Coonoor-Ketti

plateau and the ‘upper plateau’ to the ‘Downs’.

Papilionid^:.

1. (A] .13) Troides Helena minos, Cr.

From 1,350' to 8,000'; not rare. On the Mettupalaiyam Ghat it appears

from September to March and on the plateaux from February to May and from

July to September. It is most easily caught early and late, feeding on lantana.

It is common on the western slopes.

2. (A2-8B) Tros jophon pandiyana, M.

Quite common on the western slopes from 1,000' to 3,000'. Not found else-

where in the district.

3. (A2*9) Tros hector, L.

4. (A2T0f3) Tros aristolochi® aristolochise, F.

Both are abundant all the year round below the plateaux. Not rare on the

lower plateau in the drier months.

5. (A3*5|3) Chilasa clytia clytia, L.

Rather a scarce butterfly which is found up to about 4,000'. I have recorded

it at Kallar in February, March and April and on the Nadgani Ghat in October.

6. v. dissimilis, L.

Distinctly rare. I have one specimen from Kallar in April.

7. (A4T/3) Papilio polymnestor polymnestor, Cr.

Common throughout the evergreen regions. Fairly common at Kallar and

not rare on the lower plateau in the drier months.

8. (A4*10o£) Papilio paris tamilana, M.

Quite common on the western slopes but rare in the Southern Nilgiris. I have

a specimen from Ketti taken on 27/9 and it may be caught sparingly on the

upper Mettupalaiyam Ghat at the end of the S. W. rains. I have seen it at

Avalanche in February.

9. (A4T3) Papilio crino, F.

Sometimes very common at Kallar where it appears throughout the year.

It is also found, though less commonly, in the evergreen region and also on the

lower plateau in February and March. I have not yet seen it on the western

slopes.

10. <$ v. montanuSy Fd.

Appears with the typical male, but is rare.

11. (A4-14) Papilio buddha, Wd.

Western slopes only ; not uncommon according to Hampson. I myself have

not caught it though I have seen it in a local collection.

12. (A4-16) Papilio dravidarum, WM.

Hampson says that it is common on the western slopes and rare on the

northern, but I have not yet seen it.

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

13. (A4T9/3) Papilio helenus daksha, M.

Very abundant in the evergreen region and fairly common both above and

below it.

14. (A4-25) Papilio polytes romulus, Cr.

The male is abundant everywhere. The typical female is scarce.

15. $ v. stichius, Hub.

This is the commonest female form, though it is never abundant.

16. $ v. cyrus , F.

Appears, but is very rare.

17. (A4*26o{) Papilio demolion liomedon, M.

Rare. Found only on the western slopes.

• 18. (A 4,27o£) Papilio demoleus demoleus, L.

Abundant everywhere.

19. v. orange.

The form in which the yellow markings are replaced by orange is not rare

at Kallar.

20. (A5‘4oO Pathysa nomius nomius, Esp.

At times extremely abundant at Kallar. Best caught settling on the damp .

mud of the ford.

On ig-2-^2 I caught a most remarkable^ aberration of this species. Of two

of the bars on the upper forewing there is no trace and there are other minor

differences on both the upper and under sides. This specimen was caught after

a period of normal weather and I have seen no other similar specimens since.

Hampson states that nomius is very rare, having caught but one specimen. As

far as I know it is almost confined to the Kallar district in the Nilgiris. In

Hampson’s day Kallar must have been inaccessible, neither the railway nor the

ghat road having been constructed.

Note.

(A5*3) Pathysa antiphates naira, M.

In Coorg this species is commoner than nomius. Consequently it seems

reasonable to suppose that it may occur at low elevations on the western slopes

of the Nilgiris.

21. (A6’2o{) Zetides sarpedon teredon, Fd.

22. (A6-3p) Zetides doson eleius, Fr.

23. (A6*8o{) Zetides agamemnon menides, Fruh.

Sarpedon is common from the plains to the tops of the' highest hills, though

only found on the plateau in the dry months.

Agamemnon is common throughout the year to about 4,500'.

Doson is less common and only found at low elevations. All can easily be

caught settling on damp mud and flowers, especially lantana.

PlERID.®.

24. (BTo£) Leptosia nina nina, F.

Always abundant at low elevations. Flies low in jungle and extends up to

6,8oo'.

25. (B4T0) Pieris canidia canis, Evans.

Common all the year round on the plateaux. Canidia is found on the Hima-

layas and on the hills of Southern India. Our race is typical of the law that

Southern Indian races are smaller and darker than those from Northern India-

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS

539

26. (B6'3) Delias eucharis, Drury.

Common throughout the year on the plains. The foodstuff of the larva is

loranthus, consequently the female is frequently seen flying high among those

trees upon which this parasite grows. It is found in small numbers on the

Mettupalaiyam Ghat during most months of the year and on the lower plateau

in February, May, August and September. Common on the western slopes.

27. (B8 j3) Belenois mesentina mesentina, Cr.

Fairly common everywhere from July to December, and in March.

28. (B9-2o£) Huphina nerissa evagete, Cr.

Abundant all the year round on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat; not rare on the

plateaux in the dry months. I have not seen it on the Nadgani Ghat though it

may occur at low elevations.

29. (B9-30) Huphina nadina remba, M.

Common on the western slopes. Hampson states that it is a rare straggler

over the rest of the district.

30. (BIO-30) Appias indra shiva, Swin.

Rare ; I have only two specimens, one from Wenlock Bridge in March and

one from Ketti in May.

31. (BIO 4«0 Appias libythea libythea, F.

Hampson states that it is rare. I have not seen it.

32. (BIO-5 0) Appias lyncida latifasciata, K.

‘i,ooo' to 3,000',’ Hampson. I have three specimens, all caught at the ford

at Kallar, 9/7, 2/9 and 16/2. Reputed not to be rare on the Kotagiri Ghat.

33. (BIO-60) Appias albina darada, Fd.

Most abundant everywhere. (‘Rare,’ Evans).

34. $ v. semi flam, Fr.

Found together with the typical female but much less common.

35. (Bil l) Catopsilia crocale, Cr.

36. (B1T2) Catopsilia pomona, F.

37. 2 v- catilla , Cr.

38. (B1T4) Catopsilia pyranthe minna, Herbst.

39. (B1T5) Catopsilia florella gnoma, F.

All except catilla are common everywhere except on the plateaux during the

S.W. rains.

Pyranthe and florella are difficult to distinguish apart. In pyranthe the

marginal band of the upper F.W. is continuous and narrowed posteriorly; in

florella this band is macular and as broad at interspace 2 as at the apex. This

difference is usually obvious in the females.

40. (B15-1) Terias libythea, F.

Abundant everywhere.

41. (B15-2<^) Terias laeta laeta, Bdv.

It took me a long time to come across this usually abundant insect. Eventually

I found it in large numbers below Coonoor and at Gudalur in October.

42. (B15.4^) Terias blanda silhetana, Wall.

The most abundant Terias at low elevations. It does not extend far into the

hills,

540 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

43. (B15*5*0 Terias hecabe simulata, M.

Abundant at all seasons everywhere. A very hardy insect which I have caught

at 11,500' in the Himalayas. I have' an albino specimen from Kallar.

44. (BIS^^) Terias andersoni ormistoni, Watkins.

Rare. I have two specimens from Kallar, dated 2o-6-’4i and i6-2-’43.

45. (B16*9oO Colias hyale nilgiriensis, Fd.

Very common above 7,000 / but not caught below the plateaux. Appears

throughout the year. Like P. canidia canis, C. hyale nilgiriensis is peculiar

to the hills of Southern India with another race in the Himalayas. It is smaller

and darker than the Himalayan form and only has the white female.

46. (B17‘l) Ixias marianne, Cr.

Always very common at the foot of the hills and I have caught it twice’ at

Ketti, 6,500', though I have never seen it at intermediate altitudes. The female

is very much less common than the male.

47. $ v. white.

48. $ v. orange.

Neither of these female forms is mentioned in Evans’ “Identification of

Indian Butterflies’.

In the white form the orange tip is absent and its place is taken by heavy

black markings and confluent white spots. This is not rare at Kallar in August

and July.

In the orange form pale orange takes the place of the white background. I

have seen one specimen taken at Kallar in October.

49. (B17.20) Ixias pyrene frequens, Butler.

Very common at the foot of the Mettupalaiyam Ghat and on the northern

side of the hills. Unlike the northern race, satadra, frequens does not extend

into the hills.

50. (B18*l^) Colotis amata modesta, But.;

51. (B18'4<^) Colotis fausta fulvia, Wall.

52. (B18‘5j3) Colotis etrida etrida, Bdv.

53. (B18-6) Colotis eucharis, F.

54. (B18*7o£) Colotis danae danae, F.

All are common in scrub country on the plains. Although Hampson mentions

eucharis from the Nilgiris, I have not seen it, except for a single specimen in a

local collection. No locality was given.

Etrida appears occasionally at Kallar and as a straggler up to 6,500'. I have

recorded it in February and April.

I have caught fausta once at Kallar in April. Hampson says that it appears

as a straggler on the plateaux.

I have recorded amata modesta on two occasions at Kallar ; 19-2-42 and

9-7-43. On both dates it was fairly common.

I have taken danae once at Kallar, 7-5-42, but have no other record.

\

55. (B19*|3) Hebomoia glaucippe australis, But.

Not rare on the plateaux in the dry months ; always common at low elevations.

56. (B20,2o{) Parenonia ceylanica ceylanica, Fd.

Common throughout the year to about 3,500' in the Southern Nilgiris. The

female is considerably less common than the male. I have not yet noticed this

species on the Nadgani Ghat. Hampson gives its distribution as from 1,000' to

3,o°o'? • I ! T'4

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS

541

57. (B20*3) Parenonia Valeria hippia, F.

I have not found this butterfly on the southern side of the hills. Hampson

states that it appears from 1,000' to 3,000'. It is probably an inhabitant of the ^

foot of the northern slopes. Common round Bangalore.

Note. 1 ' ■ ; • : ' - 1 \

(B7-2) Prioneris sita, Fd.

This butterfly is common in Coorg and should appear on the western slopes

of the Nilgiris.

(B10*7f3) Appias paulina wardi, M.

Hampson mentions this species but it is obvious that he refers to albina ,

which is omitted from his list. This is a rare butterfly but it should turn up

somewhere in the district.

Danaid^e.

58. (Cl*lj3) Hestia lynceus malabarica, M.

Common on the western slopes to which Hampson says that it is confined. I

have seen two specimens in a local collection which are said to have been caught

on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat, but I doubt the accuracy of this statement.

59. (C2To£) Danais aglea aglea, Cr.

Common throughout the year. Not found above 5,000'.

60. (C2*7) Danais nilgiriensis, M.

Peculiar to the hills of Southern India. It is only found above 4,500' and

is common throughout the year.

61. (C2-9) Danais limniace mutina, Fruh.

Strangely enough this butterfly does not seem to be very common in the

Nilgiris.

62. (C2‘1O0) Danais melissa dravidarum, Fruh.

Always most abundant on the slopes and at the foot of the hills. Often

common on the plateaux.

63. (C2T2) Danais plexippus, L.

64. (C2,15) Danais chrysippus, L.

65. $ v. alcippoides , M.

66. $ v. dorippus , Cr.

Plexippus and chysippus are fairly common everywhere, especially at low

elevations.

I assume that the two varieties of chrysippus appear as Hampson states that

he had seen the varieties of H. misippus that mimic them.

67. (C3*7f3) Euploea core core, Cr.

68. (C3*123) Euploea coreta coreta, Godman.

Both are common on the plateaux during the dry months ; common elsewhere

throughout the year.

69. (C3T83) Euploea crassa kollari, Fd.

Rare. I have caught two males of this species in May and October at Kallar.

I have not had the female. This species has not previously beep recorded from

the Nilgiris as far as I know.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Satyrid^:.

70. (D2*3*£) Mycalesis anaxias anaxias, Hew.

Conflped to evergreen forest. Common on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat where

it is the prevalent Mycalesis throughout the year. It is also common on the

western slopes.

71. (D2*9*() Mycalesis perseus typhlus, Fruh.

72. (02*10*0 Mycalesis mineus polydecta, Cr.

73. (D2*ll) Mycalesis igilia, Fruh.

74. (D2*12*0 Mycalesis visala visala, M.

75. (D2*14) Mycalesis subdifa, M.

76. (D2*16*0 Mycalesis khasia orcha, Evans.

These are confusing species to identify. The under forewing brands of the

males are the most useful characteristics: it is often impossible to separate some

of the females.

Perseus : both the brands are small and black and the under hindwing ocellus

in 3 is out of line. Expanse : 43 to 52 mm’s.

Hampson states that the Nilgiri W.S.F. has the ocellus on the forewing as

large as that in mineus. This does not apply to those that I have caught on the

Mettupalaiyam Ghat ; in these the ocellus is absent, or, very occasionally, faint.

The D.S.F. is very, common at Kallar from January to April. The W.S.F. is

not nearly as common and appears there in July and August. It is found up

to about 4,500' and is also common on the western slopes.

Mineus : the under forewing brand is small and brown. Expanse : 45 to 54 mm

This butterfly is not common on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat and the only specimen

in my collection is a femalei caught in December. It is common in Coorg and

Hampson mentions it in his list . . . but this is of doubtful value as he does not

mention any of the four following species. I feel, however, that it must be

common enough somewhere in the Nilgiris.

Igilia : a long-branded species. The under forewing brand extends outside the

discal band which is bent slightly outwards immediately above the brand. Other-

wise the band is straight and sometimes distinctly broad. Usually there is no

ocellus in 1 on the under forewing and the underneath is light in colour in the

W.S.F. The termen is rounded and the apex pointed. Expanse : 44 to 45 mm.

Common in the Gudalur forests in October.

Visala : a long-branded species which is easily recognised by the pointed apex

and straight termen of the D.S.F. and the large ocellus of the W.S.F. Rare.

One specimen from the Kallar jungles in May. Expanse : 45 to 55 mm.

Suhdita : the under forewing brand is up to, but not beyond, the discal band.

There is always an ocellus on the under forewing in 1 and the underside is very

black in the W.S.F. The discal band is straight. Expanse : 47 to 56 mm’s.

Quite common on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat at low elevations and can be

caught during most months.

Khasia : the under forewing brand is similar to that of suhdita but there is

generally no ocellus in 1 and the underside is pale in the W.S.F. The discal band

is curved slightly inwards round the large ocellus of the under forewing and the

apex of the forewing is more pointed than in suhdita. Expanse : 46 to 48 mm.

Unless a good series is obtained this species is difficult to separate from

suhdita in the D.S.F. In this, and in the four previously mentioned Mycalesis,

all characteristics, except the brands, are liable to variation.

The females of mineus, igilia, suhdita and khasia are very difficult to distin-

guish apart. Suhdita always has an ocellus in 1 on the under forewing. Igilia

and khasia are generally considerably smaller than the other two.

77. (D2*20) Mycalesis adolphei, Gtier.

Confined to the hills of Southern India. This species is exclusively a high

elevation butterfly and will not usually be found below 6,000'. In this part of

the Nilgiris it seems to be confined to the edges of the jungles at the top of the

Mettupalaiyam Ghat.

Hampson states that it has two broods; in May and in August. This state-

ment must refer to another part of the Nilgiris as I have caught it near the

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS

543

Dro.bg in December and near Coonoor in October. It must be remembered that

ihe climate of the Nilgiris varies considerably from place to place. Therefore it

is impossible to make definite rules about the times of emergence of species to

cover the whole district.

78. (D2’320) Mycalesis patnia junonia, But.

Common up to about 6,500'. It is found all the year round in thick forest

in the S. and W. Nilgiris but is apparently not found elsewhere in these hilis.

Junonia is very different from the Ceylon form, patnia. The pupil of the large

ocellus on the forewing has only a supercilium of sullied white while that of

patnia is completely encircled with tawny yellow. Our subspecies is of a darker

brown and has no yellow streak in the cell. These differences are quite constant ;

are they not sufficient to give our race specific rank?

This is the commonest species of Mycale\sis at Kallar and like others of the

genus it seldom flies far out of thick jungle.

79. (DS^l^) Lethe europa ragalva, Fruh.

‘3,000' to 5,000'; rather rare,’ Hampson. ‘Rare in Coorg,’ Yates. Not at all

rare among the bamboo at Kallar. It is extremely difficult to catch in good

condition, as it settles among the stems and seldom allows a proper stroke of

the net. Un'ike drypetis it is never found away from bamboo.

80. (D3-22o£) Lethe rohria nilgiriensis, Guer.

In the Southern Nilgiris it is found above 4,500' on the western slopes above

about 2,500'. 1 have caught it from February to October.- Fairly common.

81. (D3-230) Lethe drypetis todara, M.

The male is common in bamboo jungle at Kallar between July and October

but the female is very rare there. Both sexes are extremely common at

Gudalur and on the Nadgani Ghat in October.

I have also caught it at Ketti, 6,500', in August and December. As no

bamboo grows near Ketti the larvae most probably feed on grasses at this altitude.

82. (D14T6) Ypthima asterope mahratta, M.

‘Rare; northern slopes,’ Hampson.

Rare in the Southern Nilgris. I have had the W.S.F. from Kallar on

31-7- ’41 and 2-9- ’42, and also from the Nadgani Ghat, in October. The D.S.F.

does not seem to appear in the Southern Nilgiris.

83. (D14-9) Ypthima chenui, Guer.

Peculiar to the hills of Southern India. Confined to open country on the

plateaux where it is common from February to April.

84. (D14T0) Ypthima ceylonica, Hew.

Only appears on the southern slopes of the Nilgiris where it is very common.

85. (D14*llj3) Ypthima hubneri hubneri, Kirby.

Very common up to about 5,600'. Found in the W.S., D.S., and a variety

of intermediate forms.

86. (D14T30) Ypthima avanla striata, Fd.

‘Southern slopes, 2,000' to 4,000'. W.S.F. in August,’ Hampson.

‘Rare; Nilgiris,’ Evans.

I have not yet caught this species.

87. (D14T4o£) Ypthima philomela tabella, Mar, and de N.

Common on the N.W. corner of the Nilgiris and on the Wynaad boundary.

I have one possible D.S.F. specimen from Ben Hope (Mettupalaiyam Ghat)

taken in March. This specimen is very indistinctly marked and is difficult

of identification.

544 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W.

88. (D14T5o£) Yplhima baldus madrasa, Evans.

Very common in a variety of forms.

89. (D15-l) Zipoetis satis, Hew.

Rare on the southern, but not rare on the western, slopes. Capt. P. Morrison

Godfrey caught a specimen at mile 10/7 on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat Road

9-u-’4i. I have caught a number on the Nadgani Ghat between 1,500' and 3,000'

in October^

90. (D16*oO Orsotrioena medus maadafa, F.

Common at all seasons in forest at low elevations.

91. (D22*l) Melanitis leda ismene, Cr.

92. (D22-20) Melanitis phedima varaha, M.

93. (D22*3o^) Melanitis zitenius gokala, M.

Apart from that of leda I have not found Evans’ descriptions very helpful.

Leda ismene. As far as I know this is the only Melanitis to be found on the

plateaux where it is fairly common. It is also quite common at Kallar and

below Coonoor.

The W.S.F. is easily identified, the underside being grey, finely straited with

brown and the ocelli well-defined and large. These characteristics immediately

distinguish it from the other two species of Melanitis. The D.S.F. may easily

be confused with zitenius gokala. Except that gokala is usually larger than

ismene, it is difficult to distinguish between these two in the D.S.F.

Ismene is not exclusively a jungle butterfly, as the other tw;o are. It will be

found wherever there is shade. Expanse : 72 mm. (circa).

Phedima varaha. Not common and very difficult to catch, as, on the southern

slopes, it lives in dense bamboo jungle.

So far I have only four specimens from which to draw my conclusions,

(a) male, D.S.F., Kallar, 28/4 ; (b) male, W.S.F., Kallar, 15/7; (c) female, W.S.F.

Kallar, 14/8; (d) male, W.S.F., Nadgani Ghat, 23/10. These were all caught

at altitudes between 1,250' and 2,000'.

The males are almost unmarked on the upperside, except for a somewhat

blurred black spot in 3 and 4. The white spot is vestigial. Above both dry and

wet forms of the males are very much alike, though the shape varies as it usu-

ally does in this genus. The ochreous costal area is faintly discernible. Specimen

d. is much more caudate at v.3 than the other two are.

In the D.S.F. specimen the underside is plain and of a light brown colour.

The underside of the W.S.F. males is brown to dark brown striated with light

purple (very heavily in the Nadgani specimen). They also possess minute but

well-defined ocelli. Evans states that the underside of the W.S.F. of this species

is ferruginous with prominent discal lines. This applies to my female specimen

but not to the males.

The female specimen is remarkable. As it was caught in August, the middle

of the first wet season at Kallar, when other wet season forms were flying,

it is presumably a W.S.F. Nevertheless the underside is not ocellated, there

being merely the vestiges of white spots on a light ochreous background. The

discal lines are well-defined.

Above, there is a well-defined black mark at the end of the cell and beyond.

The costa is ferruginous-ashy broadening to a bright ferruginous patch beyond the

black mark. This shades into an ill-defined ashy brown area that reaches the

termen, There are no traces of black and white spots in 3 and 4 and the forewing.

Expanse : (a) Male, 80 mm. ( b ) male, 78 mm. (c) female, 82 mm. (d) male,

78 mm.

Zitenius gokalai. The dry and wet season forms are very similar. On the

underside the discal lines are more prominent in the W.S.F. and the markings

are richer. On the upperside the markings are bright and well-defined in the

W.S.F., but slightly less so in the D.S.F. Both forms are very similar to leda,

D.S.F., but zitenius is the larger.

This species is very common at the top of the Mettupalaiyam Ghat in March

and December and at Kallar in December and early January.

Expanse : 72 mm. to 82 mm.

THE Butterflies of the nilgieis

545

94. (D. ) Melanitis trlstis, Felder.

1 have one or corresponding to de Niceville’s description of M. tristis which

1 caught at Kallar on 3 1-7- ’41 in deep bamboo jungle. According to him this is

a variety of M. aswa ( phedima ?) and had been recorded from N. India and the

Wynaad. To me it seems to bear no resemblance to this species which I have

caught at the same season, i therefore tentatively give it as a distinct species. J

append a description below.

Sex : male.

Expanse : 66 mm.

Upperside : deep glossy-brown with a bluish tinge.

F.vv. termen straight with an ashy border, narrow at the tornus, widened

towards the apex and about 4 mm’s, wide at the middle. Costa well curved.

H.W. termen with a narrow ashy border, violent tinged at the tornus. A small

ocellus at 2 (the only markings on the upperside).

Underside : background brown, richly straited with violet.

F.W. discal band straight, beginning about 12 mm’s, down the costa from the

apex and pointing to the tornus. The apical area, outside the discal band, is

of a lighter violet, containing 2 small ocelli ; there is a third small acellus in 4.

H.W. very small ocelli in ic, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Discal band curved parallel

with the termen and well-defined.

95. (D251) Elymnias hypermnestra caudata, But.

Will only be found at low elevations where palm trees grow. Common at

Kallar in .September : also found in May, July, October ana December, but is

rather scarce then. Caught on the western slopes as well. At Kallar it frequents

the edges of the areca plantations, especially on the Coonoor river side.

Amathusiid^e.

96* (ElQ*3j3) Discophora lepida lepida, M.

A rare inhabitant of very thick bamboo jungle; the male only flies in the

early morning, evening, and possibly at night, but the female can be seen flying

in jungle during the daytime. Both may be flushed in the daytime by penetrating

their haunts : they are then easily caught as they do not fly far without settling.

The male can best be taken by sugaring in the early morning. Ormiston

states that it may be caught in the same manner as soon as it is dusk. I

have only once tried sugaring for it and this was met with instant success. It

was at 8-30 a.m. at Kallar, tnough possibly an hour earlier at that season (Aug.)

would be better. My bait was a mixture of toddy, jaggery and beer. In the

process of mixing 1 had collected an attractive odour myself and a male im-

mediately settled on my stocking. ,

The male has a peculiar odour, to my mind best described as a mixture of tom-

cat and jasmine 1

I have in my collection two males from Kallar taken on 22-8- ’41 : I also noticed

a female flying at the same place on 3 1-7- ’41.

Mr. Smith of Aruvankadu has in his possession a very fine female of over

100 mm. expanse. This was caught in the cordite factory at Aruvankadu at

about 6,200'. This seems to me to be a most remarkable record in every way.

The foodstuff is bamboo, but there is none of this growing within a number of

miles and at a very much lower altitude.

This species has not previously been recorded from the Nilgiris.

Note. — (E7. «(.) Amathusia phidip pus f rider ici, Fruh.

This is listed as a South Indian species but I have no information of the

locality in which it has been caught.

Nymphalid^e.

97. (Fl‘2/3) Charaxes polyxena imna, But.

Rare. Five records from Kallar, 1,350'. I have one male which was caught

settling on dung, 23/11, and one female caught on 22/8. The other three are in

a local collection.

98. (F2-70) Charaxes fabius fabius, F.

Very rare ; generally found near water. I have seen one specimen at Kallar,

2-10- ’41.

o46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XllV

99. (F2-20) Eriboea athamas agrarius, Swin.

Not rare on the ghats up to 4,500'. Settles readily on damp mud. Observed

during most months of the year.

100. (F7 80) Apafura parisatis atacinus, Fruh.

Only found in the evergreen country. It is quite common on the upper

Mettupalaiyam Ghat between 4,500' and 6,500'. Recorded in most months.

‘Female, very rare; male, not common,’ Hampson.

101. (F10T*4) Euripus consimilis meridionalis, WM.

‘One at lantana, N.W. corner of the Nilgiris, October, 1888, ’ Hampson.

One specimen caught at Kallar is the only other record of which 1 know.

Extremely rare in the Nilgiris. Rare in Coorg.

102. (F18*3oO Euthalia lepidea miyana, Fruh.

Very rare on the southern slopes. One record from Kallar on lantana; 23-n-’4r.

Three from the Nadgani Ghat at 2,000' on 23-11-42 where it seems to be much

less rare. As far as I know this species has not previously been recorded from

the Nilgiris.

103. (F18‘14j3) Euthalia garuda meridionalis, Fruh.

Very rare; one record from the Mettupalaiyam Ghat, season and altitude

unknown.

104. (F18T70) Euthalia Iubentina arasada, Fruh.

Rare. Appears occasionally at Kallar. Observed in May, October and

August of ’41 up to 2,500'. Not previously recorded from the Nilgiris.

105. (F18-270) Euthalia evalina laudibilis, Swin.

Scarce, but the commonest of the genus in the Nilgiris. It may be caught at

Kallar during most of the year. Observed on the western slopes in October.

106. (F18-28) Euthalia nais, Forst.

Rare. Observed at Kallar in March, May, July and October. It has the

habit of frequently settling on the ground and never flies far if disturbed.

‘Bamboo jungle,’ Hampson.

All these live species of Euthalia are scarce throughout the Nilgiris and

Hampson had only observed nais. Evalina and garuda seem to be common around

Bangalore.

107. (F20 /3) Parthenos sylvia virens, M.

‘Common on the western slopes; a rare straggler over the rest of the district ’

Hampson. One seen flying high at Kallar, 23-11, is my only record from the

Southern Nilgiris. It is common on the Nadgani Ghat from October to February.

108. (F24’70) Limenitis procris undifragus, Fruh.

‘3,000' to 4,000'; rare,’ Hampson.

I have not yet seen this species ; probably confined to the evergreen area.

109. (F25*2*4) Pantoporia nefte inarapDb.

‘3,000' to 4,000'; rare,’ Hampson.

Confined to the evergreen area. Not rare on the Nadgani Ghat in October

and February. I have also seen a specimen reputed to have been caught on

the Mettupalaiyam Ghat. I have never seen one in the Southern Nilgiris myself.

110. (25-4*4) Pantoporia selenophora kanara, Evans.

•3,000' to 5,000'; very rare,’ Hampson.

Confined to the evergreen area. It may be taken in small numbers just above

Wenlock Bridge on the Coonoor River during March I have seen it nowhere

else.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS

547

111. (F 25T0<^) Pantoporia ranga karwara, Fruh.

‘3,000' to 4,000'; rare,’ Hampson.

Confined to the evergreen area. It may be found in the two nalas at the

eastern end of the estate above Runneymede railway station. It may be caught

there at the end of February and in early March. I have also seen it in the

evergreen area of the Nadgani Ghat in February.

112. (F25T4) Pantoporia perius, L.

Rare. Occasional stragglers find their way up as high as Ketli, 6,500'. 1

have seen it at Kallar in November and at Ketti in May.

113. (F26-lo4) Neptis columella nilgirica, M.

‘3,000' to 5,000'; not rare,’ Hampson.

I have little information about this species except that it is rare in this/ part

of the Nilgiris. I have two specimens : one from Ketti, 6,600', taken in March

and one from the Mettupalaiyam Ghat at 2,500', caught in October, W.S.F.

The markings of the W.S.F. are considerably darker.

114. (F26*2|3) Neptis jumbah jumbah, M.

Always common to about 4,500'. Also found on the lower plateau in March

and April but is not common then.

115. (F26*6^) Neptis hylas varmona, M.

Always common on the ghats ; common on the plateaux in the dry months.

116. (F26-70Q Neptis soma kallaura, M.

Rare ; one specimen from the Nadgani Ghat in October.

117. (F26*8^) Neptis nandina hampsoni, M.

Hampson doubted whether this species .was different from soma. It is, however,

so different in appearance that it is difficult to understand why he held this view.

This butterfly may be taken, in the Southern Nilgiris, in exactly the same place,

and at the same season, as P. ranga karwara. Similarly, this is the only , spot

in the Southern Nilgiris where I have seen the species. It may also be taken on

the Nadgani Ghat in October, December and February, where it does not seem

to be particularly rare.

118. (F2615-^) Neptis viraja kanara, Evans.

Very rare in the Southern Nilgiris where I have had only one, from Kallar,

2-9- ’42. Hampson had only recorded one and this was from the western slopes.

I have also seen a specimen on the Nadgani Ghat, 23-io-’42.

119. (F26*32{3) Neptis hordonia hordonia, Stoll.

Common all the year round at low elevations. Stragglers firad their 'way up

to about 7,000' in March and October. Hampson says that the D.S.F., plagiosa ,

is caught on the plateau throughout the year.

120. (F27*4^) Cyrestis thyodamas iadica, Evans.

A fairly common inhabitant of the evergreen region, where it seems to occur

throughout the year in suitable weather. I have also seen stragglers at Ketti,

6,500', in May and February. Only the white form occurs in S. India.

121. (F30*l) Hypolimnas misippus, L.

Common everywhere during the dry months.

According to Hampson the female forms mimicking dorippus, chrysippus and

alcippus appear.

122. $ v. alcippoides, But.

Very rare.

4

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

123. £ v. inaria , Cr.

Very rare. I have seen one in a local collection.

124. (F30*2) Hypolimnas bolina, L.

Not usually common but well distributed from the plains up to 7,000'. Common

at Kallar in 1942 in March and April, and below Coonoor in October.

125. (F341*() Kallima philarchus horsfieldii, Koll.

‘Rare on the northern; not uncommon on the southern slopes,’ Hampson.

I have found it rare, having but two records myself, 4/7 and 7/12 at Kallar.

I have also seen specimens from the same neighbourhood in a local collection.

Over-ripe jack truit is supposed to attract this species.

126. (F35*l^) Precis hierta hierta, F.

127. (F35*2<^) Precis orithyia swinhoei, But.

128. (F35’3»0 Precis lemonias vaisya, Fruh.

129. (F35*6oO Precis iphita pluviatalis, Fruh.

All are abundant throughout the year on the slopes and common on the plateaux

except between June and September.

130. (F35'4s£) Precis almana almana, L.

Not as common as the previous members of this genus but it may be caught

fairly regularly at Kallar between March and June, and in November and Decem-

ber. Up to 7,000' in March, April and May.

131. (F35*$) Precis atlitles, L.

Not rare at Kallar from January* to March. Rare as a straggler up to 7,000'

ip March.

132. (F361) Vanessa cardui, L.

133. (F36‘30) Vanessa indica pholoe, Herbst.

134. (F36f4{3) Vanessa canace viridis, Evans.

Cardui is caugnt at all altitudes, being very common on the plateaux, but

the other two will only be taken at the top of, and above, the evergreen area.

All are common and will be caught throughout the year.

135. (Fo9 17) Argynnis hyperbius hybrida, Evans.

Common all the year round on the plateaux. Never found below them.

136. (F41-J3) Cupha erymanthis maja, Fruh.

Mainly confined to the evergreen region, though I have come across it both

above and below. Rare at Kallar but quite common at Ketti in March. Abund-

ant at Wenlock Bridge and common on the Nadgani Ghat where it will be found

throughout the year.

137. (F42-1) Atella phalanta, Drury.

Fairly common everywhere throughout the year.

138. (F44*f3) Cynthia erota saloma, Swin.

Not rare in the evergreen region but very difficult to obtain in good condition.

A rare straggler at Ketti. In the Southern Nilgiris its season is from May to

December.

139. (F45*4|3) Cirrochroa thais thais, F.

Abundant in the evergreen region : not rare at the foot of the hills and up to

7,500'.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRIS

549

140. (F47’20) Cethosia nietneri mahratta, Fd.

Common in the evergreen area of the western slopes where I have caught

it from October to December. Hampson states that it is a rare, straggler in the

rest of the Nilgiris.

141. (F48) Byblia ilithyia, Drury.

A common plains butterfly in the country beyond Mettupalaiyum, but rare

in the Nilgiris. I have only recorded it once. This was at Ketti, 6,500',

142. (F49*l/3) Ergolis ariaduz indica, M.

Common at Kallar from July to December. Also caught up to 6,500'.

143. (F49-2f3) Ergolis merione merione, Cr.

Common at Kallar from July to December : very common on the Nadgani

Ghat in October and not rare on the lower plateau in the dry months.

144. (F52) Telchinia violaj, Fab.

Common throughout the year on the ghats: fairly common on the lower

plateau. between March and May.

Note.

(F21ct) Eriboea schreiberi wardi, M.

A very rare butterfly caught both in Coorg and Kanara. It is reasonable

to expect that it appears on the western slopes.

(F1810) Euthalia telchinia. Men.

Has been caught once in Coorg. Very rare indeed and unlikely to be taken

in the Nilgiris.

(F33-/3) Doieschallia bisaltide malabarica, Frith,

Appears in Kanara and Coorg. Very rare but probably appears in thick

jungle on the western slopes of the Nilgiris.

(F42*2|3) Atella alcippe mercea. Evans.

A very local butterfly that appears in Coorg and Kanara. May possibly be

found in the Nilgiris.

Erycinid/e.

145. (Gl'3oO Libvthea lepiia iepitoides, M.

Common at times up to 3,500'. It often settles in very great numbers on

damp sand at Kallar. I have also seen it on the Nadgani Ghat. Found during

most months of the year.

‘Rare,’ Hampson.

146. (Gl*4|3) Libythea myrrha carma, Fruh .

Found in, and above, the evergreen region. I have also one specimen from

Kallar, but its appearance there is most unusual.

It comes to water like lepita but is not usually ' common except in October

below Coonoor. Also observed from February to June.

147. (G4-5o() Abisara echerius prunosa, M.

Common in evergreen forest. T have observed it in February and March,

and from August to December.

(To be continued .)

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY AND GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH

BURMA.

BY

F. Kingdon-Ward, B.A. , F.R.G.S., F.L.S., etc.

(Founder's Medal , Royal Geographical Society , Livingstone Medal ,

Royal Scottish Geographical Society , Victoria Medal of Honour etc.)

Contents

I. Introduction

The following work claims to be no more than its title suggests,

an outline sketch, which others must fill in, written on the lines ot a

previous Sketch of the Botany and Geography of Tibet.1 It is a

foundation, solid I hope, on which another generation of field

botanists may build.

I have attempted to summarise and to put in order our very

scanty knowledge of the vegetation of a small part of Burma as

politically defined, but a part peculiarly rich in plants. I have con-

fined myself to a brief description of the units of vegetation, a suffici-

ently difficult task. No attempt has been made to write a flora of

North Burma; the materials do not exist, although this is a contribu-

tion towards a flora also. Species, or more frequently genera, are

mentioned only in so far as they define and illustrate the vegetation

types which occur at different altitudes. I have however mention-

ed most of the known endemics.

There are at least 6,000 species of flowering plants and vascular

Cryptogams in North Burma. It is for its size one of the richest

areas in the world, richer than Sikkim which possesses fewer species

of Chinese affinity. Wedged between the Eastern Himalayas and

the mountains of western China, it seems to possess the best of both

worlds. Southwards it is in direct contact with the Indo-Malaysian

region, northwards it continues into Tibet.

The great majority of North Burma plants remain unidentified.

Even of those collected, by no means all have been identified. Some

of those named here I have identified or described myself while work-

ing and travelling in the country. But the majority, including most

of the endemic species, have been named and described by the staff's

of the Botanical Department, Natural History Museum, London, of

1 Journal of the Lennian Society (Botany) 1930.

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 551

the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, of the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Edinburgh, and by Dr. E. D. Merrill, Director of the Arnold

Arboretum, Harvard, U.S.A., and his associates. I am particularly

indebted to the following botanists for their identifications, some of

which have been published from time to time in Notes from the Royal

Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, the Kew Bulletin, and elsewhere : the

late Professor Sir I. Bayly Balfour, Sir W. Wright Smith, Regius

Professor of Botany, Edinburgh, Dr. W. Edgar Evans, Dr. George

Taylor, Mr. H. Iv. Airy Shaw, Mr. J. Hutchinson, Mr. C. E. C.

Fischer and Dr. E. D. Merrill. If more species from the higher

zones are named, that is mainly because most of my explorations

having been at high altitudes. I know the alpine flora better than

the forest flora.

I have used the word ‘Botany’ in the title intentionally, for its

vagueness ; a sketch is vague.

There is perhaps the germ of a future flora here as well as an

analysis of the topography in relation to the vegetation and the

origins of the North Burma Flora.

I confess I have been unable, not for want of trying but for want

of knowledge, to fit the North Burma forest types, with their rapid

altitudinal changes into Champion’s excellent Indian Forest Types.

Future workers will no doubt do this. On the basis of present know-

ledge there appears to be nothing quite like our North Burma forest,

unless it is the forests of North-East Assam. This justifies the use

of what appears to me to be the most appropriate names for easily

recognised types, not quite in accordance with Champion’s nomen-

clature.

In the course of my travels in North Burma I have collected over

2,000 species of flowering plants, and have introduced more than 100

species into cultivation, yet there remain large areas I have never

been into. Nevertheless, as I have said there is something here for

the future botanist-explorer to work on, a starting point with a solid

basis of fact, with only enough of theory to whet the appetite of the

true investigator.

This monograph was almost complete when I was in Singapore

in 1941. Six weeks before the Far Eastern War broke out I went

on a special mission to Burma. I did not return to Singapore and

my manuscript together with the diaries of my four most successful

journeys in North Burma, were destroyed or passed into enemy hands.

It has been a difficult task to rewrite the whole with inadequate notes.

Fortunately a short paper I wrote on the botany of the Hpimaw and

Htawgaw hills had recently been published in America (though I have

not seen this) with a list of plants collected on the Vernay-Cutting ex-

pedition of 1938-39,. identified and described by Dr. Merrill. This

served as a nucleus. The loss of my diaries was however irreparable

and the present work is not so complete as the original.

II. Previous Work.

The earliest Europeans to visit North Burma were Lieutenants

Wilcox and Burlton (1826), Colonel Woodthorpe and Major

Macgregor (1885) and Errol Gray. (1892-93). All of them came from

552 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V

Assam into the Bor Hkamti country (Hkamti Long) via the Chaukan

and Hpungan passes, and three of them, Wilcox, Macgregor and

Errol Gray, wrote detailed reports of their journeys, which are of

great value and interest. Yet they tell us nothing of the botany of

the country. The next traveller was Prince Henry of Orleans who,

in 1895, crossed from Tonkin to India via Yunnan and North Burma.

Though he collected a number of plants in the course of this long

journey, only two of them are recorded as coming from Burma.

It is not till 1897 that we get our first glimpse of the flora of

this most interesting and remote region from Lieutenant Pottinger.

A brief account of Pottinger’s journey and a full account of the

plants collected or noted is given by Sir David Prain. 1 Unfortunately

Pottinger got into trouble with the Maru tribe who murdered some

of his followers, and he had to make a quick getaway, abandoning

most of his baggage, including' his natural history collections. Thus

the result, though not negligible, was not so goody as it might have

been. Pottinger’s route was up the valley of the Nmai Hka to the

Laking river, and back via the Wulaw pass, the Ngawchang* Hka,

and the Htawgaw hills, nowadays the best known district, so far as

the natural history is concerned, of North Burma. At the time of this

journey, Lieut. Cruddas, stationed at Myitkyina, was collecting on

the plain.

In the second decade of the present century we began to

accumulate real knowledge of this region, its geography and natural

history. The^ railway to Myitkyina was completed about 1910. In

1906 Mr. E. C. Young crossed North Burma from east to west in

the course of a rapid journey from Yunnanfu to Sadiya. Mr. Young’s

route lay through the ‘triangle’ some distance south of Prince

Henry’s; but he too is silent on the subject of natural history. It is

remarkable that up to this date, all travellers who visited Hkamti

Long should have approached it either from the east or from the

west, never from the south.

A few years before the outbreak of the first world war however

the Government of Burma suddenly began to take an interest in

Hkamti Long ; not because it attracted them per se , but because they

found that China was also interested in it. It gave the Government a

shock to discover that the Hkamti Long plain, which was almost at

their back door so to speak, could be reached without the caller

making himself known at the front door. Several semi-military

expeditions were therefore despatched to the plain, travelling from

Myitkyina via the Hukawng valley and the- Mali Hka valley. Captain

B. E. A. Pritchard explored independently, following Pottinger’s

route up the ’Nmai Hka valley. In 1913-14 Hkamti Long was

permanently occupied for the first time ; then, in the golden age of

British horticulture from 1914 to 1939, botanical explorers began to

collect plants in the mountains near the sources of the Irrawaddy.

Two areas became well known : the Hpimaw and Htawgaw hills and

trict was visited, the Taron valleys but that by a first class botanist,

Records of the Botanical Survey of India.

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 553

Dr. Handel-Mazzetti of Vienna, in 1916. He was the first to describe

some of the plant communities and associations.

In 1919 Messrs. R. Farrer and E. H. M. Cox visited the Hpimaw

Hills and collected several hundred herbarium specimens and seeds.

In the following- year Farrer went further north to the Ahkyang valley,

where he died. An account of these two seasons’ work is given by

Cox. 1

Between 1917 and 1930 the late Mr. George Forrest frequently,

sent native collectors from his base in western Yunnan into North

Burma. They worked on the Taron-Salween, ’Nmai Hka-Salween,

wShweli-Salween divides. Mr. Forrest’s collections from the eastern

side possibly outnumber those of all other collectors from North

Burma put together. By reason of the vagueness and inaccuracies

of the native collectors’ reports, however, it is often impossible to

identify the localities. The altitudes recorded are as misleading as

the localities. Many of Mr. Forrest’s specimens labelled Tibet are

really North Burma plants, though they may grow also in the adjacent

parts of Tibet; for this reason I have not made as much use of this

source of information as I should have liked to.

In the early spring of 1939, Mr. Kermode, Burma Forest Service,

visited the Htawgaw and Hpimaw Hills, and collected several

hundred plants. Reference must also be made to Mr. j. H. Lace,

i.F.s., and to that enthusiastic amateur, Lady Wheeler Cuffe, who

both added to our knowledge of the wealth of flora in the hills east of

the Nmai Hka, the former in 1906, the latter between 1912 and 1920.

Several other officers of the Frontier Force (or Military Police as it

was then) of the Frontier Service, and of the Indian Forest Service,

have contributed something to the stock of knowledge; the name of

Maung Kvaw, a Burmese Forest Officer, deserves to be remembered.

My own journeys in North Burma took place in 1914, 1919, 1922,

1926, 1930-31, 1937, 1938-39 and 1942. In 1914, I explored the

Hpimaw district, and travelled up the Nmai Hka valley, crossed

over to the Hkamti plain, and returned to Myitkyina via the Mali

valley. fn 1919 I was again in the Htawgaw and Hpimaw hills. I

also marched round the mountain called Imaw Bum and ascended

several times to the summit. In 1922 I crossed into North Burma

from north-western Yunnan, over the Taron-Salween divide, reached

the Taron for the first time and continuing south-east reached Hkamti

Long via the Nam Tamai for the second time. Then in 1926 I went

from Myitkyina via Hkamti Long to the Nam Tamai, explored the

Seinghku valley, crossed the Diphuk La, and reached Sadiya in

Assam via the Lohit valley. In 1930-31, with Lord Cranbrook I went

up the Adung valley to the source of the Nam Tamai, and crossed

the Namni L’ka into Tibet; and in 1937 I went up the Audung for

the second time, visited the snow peak Ka-Karpo Razi, and

explored the ridge between the Nam Tamai and the Dablu, finding-

many new plants. In 1938-39 I was with the Vernay-Cutting

expedition to the Hpimaw and Htawgaw hills for the third time; and

by collecting throughout the cold weather, added to our knowledge

1 parrer’s Last Journey.

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

of this by now the best known district of North Burma. In 1942,

I visited the Hkainti plain from Myitkyina once more, and later went

to the Seinghku valley, and over the Diphuk La. On this occasion,

though I did not collect plants, being otherwise fully occupied, I was

able to make further observations on the flora and vegetation.

Not less important than the collectors’ work has been that of the

taxonomists into whose hands the specimens eventually came. Their

names, or some of them, have already been mentioned.

III. Geography.

North Burma as here understood, the scanty population of which

though mostly belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family is not Burmese,

comprises the whole upper Irrawaddy basin. It extends from the

south of Myitkyina, where the dry zone flora of central Burma passes

into evergeen forest, almost to the ultimate sources of the Irrawaddy.

About 20 miles north of Myitkyina the Irrawaddy splits into two, a

western branch (Mali Hka) and an eastern branch (’Nmai Hka).

The latter is the main stream. Politically Burma does not quite reach

to the sources of the ’Nmai Hka which rises in the south-east corner

of Tibet. But geographically the Taron or upper course of the

’Nmai, though within Chinese territory, must be included in the

natural region of North Burma to which it belongs. Only the

extreme source of the Taron is excluded and that on geographical,

not on political grounds. In the west the Hukawng and Chindwin

valleys are doubtfully included. It is however convenient to draw the

southern boundary of this very natural region along the 25th parallel

of latitude, and by extending it westwards, to embrace the eastern

flank of the Patkai range thereby including the peak of Saramati.

Possibly all the country west of the Kumon Range (i.e. the Chindwin

basin) should be excluded, on the ground that the flora is more

Assamese than Burmese and the climate such that deciduous rather

than evergreen forest prevails. That is certainly true of the lower

Chindwin. But since the Patkai range is botanically unexplored, we

cannot be sure of its status. Should it appear later that the Chindwin

area belongs rather to east India, it wall be a simple matter to exclude

it. Again a good case could be made out for including all the hilly

country east of the Irrawaddy up to the China frontier, at least as far

south as Bhamo, within the North Burma region. I have not done

so because here the flora appears to be more closely linked to the

Shan flora than to that of North Burma. This also can easily be

adjusted later, as knowledge increases. Thus a parallelogram bound-

ed by the parallels of 25 0 and 28° 30' and by the meridians of

940 30' and 98° 40' will completely enclose North Burma, the super-

ficial area of which is about 40,000 square miles. The gross area is

of course much larger.

The limits given above may at first sight appear somewhat arbit-

rary. Yet they have at least some scientific foundation and are not

simply a convenience.

North Burma is here treated as a sub-region of the Sino-

Himalayan region, not as a sub-sub-region of the Indo-Malaysian

region. It is regarded as detached from Burma proper, much a§

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 555

peninsular India is detached from the Himalayas. The reason for

this somewhat unorthodox treatment is that the flora of North Burma

as a whole has been directly alfected by the Pleistocene glaciation.

It is true that an Indo-Malaysian flora is predominant in the southern

half of the territory. Even so it is a different type of flora from rhe

dry (monsoon) deciduous forgst flora which prevails over a large part

of Burma. Moreover the North Burma tropical evergreen forest

includes a number of Chinese and East Asiatic plants. The bulk of

the North Burma flora is however not Indo-Malaysian, but over-

whelmingly Sino-Himalayan and East Asiatic.

Sino- Himalaya comprises the entire mountain region from

Kashmir to Western China, including Tibet and the mountainous

parts of what are politically Assam and Burma. The whole of this

great region sandwiched between Indo-Malaysia, Central Asia, and

the East Asiatic region was directly influenced by the Pleistocene

glaciation. It became a frigid desert. Then in later times, when

the ice had been vanquished, into this botanical vacuum poured

streams of plants from several directions, till it became one of the

richest regions in the world, particularly at its eastern end.

North Burma is a mountainous well watered region with a heavy

summer rainfall and moderate warmth, cool or cold winters and high

all-the-year-round humidity. The average elevation is several

thousand feet, but that gives no idea of the height and steepness of

the mountains, the depth and narrowness of the valleys, or the varied

nature of the scenery. The only flat land north of the Myitkyina

plain is the Hkamti plain, covering some 200 square miles and

entirely surrounded by mountains. There is every reason to believe

however that North Burma is really the relict of a lofty undulating-

plateau continuous with the Yunnan plateau to the east and the

Tibetan plateau to the north. During the last million or so years the

surface has been ploughed by ice, then eroded by water, till to-day

it is so deeply dissected in all directions as to have lost all outward

resemblance to a plateau.

North Burma includes the following place names. Most of these

names recur frequently in recent botanical literature. In the eastern

Irrawaddy area: the Htawgaw and Hpimaw hills, Imaw Bum,

Ngawchang and Ahkyang valleys, Taron gorge, Nam Tamai,

Seinghku and Adung valleys ; the Salween-Irrawaddy and Shweli-

Irrawaddy divides, the Lohit-Irrawaddy divide.

In the western Irrawaddy area: the Mali Hka valley, Sempra

Bum, Plain of Hkamti Long (Putao, Fort Hertz) Mali Hka valley,

Nam Tisang valley, Kumon range, and the ‘triangle’.

In the Chindwin area: the upper Chindwin and Hukawng valleys,

the Patkai range, and Saramati peak.

The chief mountain ranges from east to west are as follows : the

Salween-Irrawaddy divide, forming the eastern boundary of the terri-

tory, with its southern offshoot the Shweli-Irrawaddy divide; the

‘triangle’ range or Mali-Nmai divide; the Kumon range; the Patkai

range forming the western boundary of the territory. Somewhat

isolated in the north is the Tamai-Taron massif.

The Salween-Irrawaddy divide is a prominent feature for more

than 200 miles: even in the extreme south it rises to over 10,000 feet

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISJ. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

in the extreme north to nearly twice that height. Immediately south

of Htawgaw the Shweli river rises and the Shweli-Irrawaddy divide

then becomes the frontier for 90 miles to the neighbourhood of

Sadon. The ‘triangle’ range branches off from the Patkai range

south of the Diphuk La in lat. 28° and runs south-east for a short

distance before entering the ‘triangle’ and turning south; it ends

abruptly at the confluence of the eastern and western Irrawaddys,

thus forming the backbone of North Burma. Throughout its length

it is much closer to the ’Nmai Hka than it is to the Mali Hka. West

of the Nam Tamai are peaks of 15,000 feet; the average height then

drops rather suddenly to 8,000-9,000 feet, till just south of lat. 27 0

when it again rises to over 11,000 feet.

The Kumon range diverges from the Patkai at the Chaukan pass,

near Fort Hertz, and runs south to the neighbourhood of Myitkyina

where it ends in a peak 7,954 feet high. Immediately south of the

Chaukan pass are a few peaks of over 11,000 feet ; but throughout the

greater part of its length the Kumon range hardly exceeds

6,000-7,000 feet.

The Tamai-Taron massif comprises a block of mountains

between those two rivers from the northern end of which rise two

short rivers, the Dablu and Tazu, sandwiched between the Nam Tamai

and the Taron, south of the Adung valley. The highest peaks are

about 15,000 feet, and the several ridges which separate the four

rivers have a crest line of 11,000-12,000 feet. North of lat. 28° the

mountains with the exception of a constellation of peaks exceeding

19.000 feet, maintain a uniform level of 15,000-17,000 feet, showing

very clearly their plateau origin.

Ka-Karpo Razi is the name given to a range of needle-like rocky

peaks situated at the sources of the Adung river, at the extreme

northern tip of the territory. Four of these peaks all situated within

a radius of 10 miles exceed 19,000 feet. On the north slopes are big

glaciers.1

Lastly, the Patkai range takes a general south-west trend. In the

north it is the Lohit-Irrawaddy (i.e. Brahmaputra-Irrawaddy) divide,

and it is here that the snow peaks of Ka-Karpo-Razi, the highest

mountains in Burma, are situated. .South-west of the Chaukan pass

this range falls rapidly in altitude, but just south of lat. 26° it

suddenly attains 12,553 feet in the isolated peak of Saramati, which

rises over 2,000 feet above its neighbours.

East of the Kumon range is a jumble of low hills from 2,000 to

5.000 feet high, cut through by small rivers flowing into the western

Irrawaddy. Through this tangle of hills and valleys runs the road

from Myitkyina to Sumpra Bum and Fort Hertz.

Mountain ranges have breadth as well as length and height.

Most of the North Burma ranges are conspicuously narrow for their

length, but the Irrawaddy-Salween divide for a hundred and twenty

miles measures from crest line to the ’Nmai Hka 25-30 miles, with an-

other 10-15 miles on the Salween flank. It is cut through by four

large and several small tributaries of the ’Nmai Hka which for three

1 The Irrawaddy Plateau, Geographical Journal, Oct. 1939. Himalayan

Journal, 1939.

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 557

quarters of their course flow north or south, parallel to the main river,

before joining it. They thus block out a series of lesser parallel

ranges in ascending order of altitude from main river to main divide.

North of lat. 28° however from crest line to river (Taron) the range

does not exceed 10 miles; but here the Taron-Salween divide makes

up in height what it lacks in breadth.

It will help us to undertsand the present physical appearance of

the country if we remember that it forms the south-eastern fringe of

the Tibetan escarpment. Since no high land stands between it and

the Bay of Bengal, however, it catches the full force of the monsoon

and has been heavily eroded. Hence as remarked above all appear-

ance of a plateau except for the tell-tale level topped parallel ranges

has been lost.

But this is not the whole story. There is ample evidence from

the shape of the valleys and the planing of the rocks that the entire

area as far south as 25 0 30' on the east side at least was glaciated in

Pleistocene times. It was the Pleistocene glaciers which initiated

the river pattern. The degraded plateau now consists of two layers

or storeys, the upper ice worn storey, comprising the original plateau,

and an under or ground storey, which is water-worn and has gone far

to mask the original structure. The water-worn storey comprises the

whole mountain area up to 7,000 or 8,000 feet and owes its shape to

running water. It is occupied largely by an Indo-Malaysian flora

mixed with a strong Chinese element, especially along the eastern

border. The upper storey, from 7,000-8,000 feet to 12,000-14,000 feet

has been shaped by ice and is all that remains of the original plateau.

It is occupied mainly by a Sino-Himalayan flora. Thus North Burma

is a twice degraded plateau.

Since the mountains are higher in the north and east, lower in the

south and west, we may infer that the ancient plateau had a general

slope to the south-west. '

Rivers. — -The two main rivers have already been mentioned. The

Mali Hka has its source in the Irrawaddy-Lohit divide north of the

Hkamti plain, whence rise the four streams which give the river its

local Shan name of Nam Kiu. The highest peak hereabouts, Noi

Matwe, over 15,000 feet, is visible from Fort Hertz. All four streams

rise south of lat. 28° and unite before they enter the plain. South of

Fort Hertz the Nam Yak, rising in the western range, joins in; its

broad valley forms the southern boundary of the plain. Still further

south the Mali Hka receives a number of small tributaries from the

Kumon range which need no description. Immediately north of the

‘triangle’ it receives its largest tributary, the Nam Tisang from the

north-east. Other small tributaries flow from the Mali-Nmai divide;

they would be even smaller than they are but for the urge all the

rivers of North Burma have to flow parallel to the north-south grain

of the country.

The ’Nmai Hka rises in four almost equal rivers amongst snow

mountains situated north of 28° 30' in Tibet. These four glacier

fed rivers unite to form the Taron, the main source stream of the

Irrawaddy. In lat. 270 50' the Nam Tamai, a large river from the

nprth-west, joins the Taron, which here makes a pot hook, flowing in

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

from the south-east. Two other shorter rivers join the Taron

immediately east of where the Nam Tamai parts company from it,

both flowing- from the north. These are the Dablu and Tazu just

referred to rising- from the Tamai-Taron divide. These four rivers —

the large Taron and Tamai, and the small Dablu and Tazu — make up

the ’Nmai Hka or eastern Irrawaddy. The Nam Tamai has one short

important tributary, the Seinghku, which rises on the Irrawaddy-

Lohit divide north of the Mali Hka and flows south-east. Above the

Seinghku confluence in lat. 28° the Tamai is known as the Adung.

Within a few miles the Adung breaks up into a number of streams

which rise amongst snow beds and glaciers. Here, at the tip of

North Burma, the average elevation over an area of 11,000 square

miles is 10,000-12,000 feet. At the head of the Adung valley is the

difficult Namni Pass into Tibet.

The ’Nmai Hka receives four large and a number of small rivers

on its eastern bank, flowing from the Irrawaddy-Salween divide.

These are from north to south: the Ahkyang, the Mekh, the Laking

and the Ngawchang. High as it is, the crest of the divide is only

30 miles distant from the ’Nmai Hka, but these tributaries, as already

remarked, tend to follow the grain of the country, thus enlarging

their catchment areas. The peculiar courses of many of the rivers,

including the Taron, Adung, Ngawchang, and others is easily explain-

ed with reference to the early glaciation. That is to say, the river pat-

tern was originally fitted to a glaciated plateau and only later adapted

itself to a water eroded plateau. It is therefore hardly surprising if

the adaptation did not quite fit, after being lowered some 5,000 feet.

Thus while there is always snow water in the ’Nmai Hka, which has

its ultimate sources, both of the Taron and of the Nam Tamai

amongst glaciers, there is snow water in the western Irrawaddy only

between December and July. Possibly the former is always a few

degrees colder than the latter.

The plain of Hkamti Long has been mentioned. It covers an

area of some 200 square miles near the sources of the Mali Hka, no

part of it being more than 1,600 feet above sea level and much of it

only 1,400 feet. Enclosed by mountains, those to the north and west

more than 10,000 feet high, it is completely isolated. Only the

narrow Mali valley connects it with the Myitkyina plain. In Pliocene

times the Hkamti plain was probably a lake bed, which during the

deglaciation of North Burma, began to silt up. At about the same

time a stream cut a channel through the southern ranges of hills, thus

draining the lake and forming the Mali Hka.

There are no other plains in North Burma, except the Hukawng

valley, nor are there any lakes except a few very small glacier lakes

in the alpine region.

The whole of this tangled region of steep mountains and deep

gorges is covered with broad leafed evergeen or with Coniferous

evergreen forest, only the tops of the higher ranges rising above the

12,000 feet tree line.

Unexplored country.

No part of North Burma is less known botanically than the

Triangle’ the most interesting part of which, namely, the Mali-Nmai

A SKETCH OE THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 559

divide, is a complete terra incognita. At the northern end of the

range are peaks nearly 12,000 feet high where many alpines must find

refuge. A strange Iris has been reported from that area by Mr. St.

C. Bartholomew.

Equally unknown is the Kumon range. Pines grow on the

Chaukan pass ; I have seen only dead saplings, brought back under

the impression that they might grow on the Hkamti plain. There is

no doubt of its being Pinas excelsia. South of the Chaukan pass are

peaks over 11,000 feet high. Again the Patkai range west of the

Chindwin and the Irrawaddy-Lohit divide north-west of the Hkamti

plain are completely unexplored.

Turning to the eastern Irrawaddy, the valleys of the Laking,

Mekh and other rivers which have gnawed their way into the

Irrawaddy-Salween divide are virgin ground, and so also are the

valleys of the Dablu and Tazu together with their dividing ranges.

These are the principal areas, amounting to perhaps 4/5 of the

whole territory, about which we know nothing. But the rest of

North Burma has been so little explored that a vast amount of col-

lecting and observation could profitably be done there. Even the

Iltawgaw and Hpimaw Hills, the Seinghku, Adung and Taron valleys

and the Irrawaddy-Salween divide, where most of the 20th century

collecting down to 1939 has been done, are very imperfectly known.

The road from Myitkyina to Fort Hertz, the Nam Tamai valley, and

other frequently trodden paths, have been scarcely more than glanc-

ed at in passing; the same is true of the Hkamti plain. Saramati is

a closed book, if not a close preserve; nor would a knowledge

of the flora in numerous widely dispersed localities, if we

possessed it, enable us to form an adequate picture of the

whole. That might be, and in fact probably is, true for example over

the vast area of the Amazon basin, or any similar area subject to an

equable climate with no important changes of elevation, such as the

black soil steppes of Russia or the flat semi-desert region of Meso-

potamia. In none of these places is there any reason why the flora

should vary appreciably from one hundred square mile block to an-

other, except in so far as the soil is wet or dry. In fact a sample

plot of a few score square miles might represent a cross-section of

the whole, in any of these places. In North Burma this is not so.

Experience shows that scattered throughout a number of well dis-

persed species — different for each zone — are many species of more

restricted range, and not a few endemics. Nor will our knowledge

be completed with the discovering of all the endemics in North

Burma; there are far more species to be found new to Burma than

new to science. Until we know a good deal more about the distri-

bution of species and their occurrence or non-occurrence in North

Burma our knowledge remains very imperfect.

When we remember that India, the Himalayas, China, Tibet and

Malaysia as well as places even further afield have contributed to

the flora of North Burma we cannot be surprised at constantly find-

ing both new species and species new to Burma, in this much mutilat-

ed region. Neither in the alpine zone nor in the sub-tropical valleys,

least of all perhaps in the middle zones, have we collected more than

a fraction of the existing* species.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The above remarks apply to the flora of North Burma; but with

some modification they apply almost equally to the fauna. We

probably know pretty well what mammals, especially of the larger

mammals occur. We know too something about the birds. But

as we descend the scale our knowledge dwindles rapidly.

So far as bird life is concerned however, apart from our ignorance

concerning the habits and status of many species recorded, I cannot

endorse the opinion of the author of ‘The Birds of Burma’, who in

the Introduction states with remarkable complacency that ‘the

chances of meeting with a bird not described in this book are re-

mote, except possibly in the extreme east of the Shan States or the

extreme south of Tenasserim. ’ This at any rate is not the opinion of

Col. J. K. Stanford who certainly knows more about the birds of

North Burma in the field than any other living person (see his intn>

ductory remarks in the Ibis , 1939, ‘On the Birds of Northern Burma’).

Nor is it mine. I would wager I could find 50 undescribed birds in

North Burma. The map in ‘The Birds of Burma’ — the only blemish

in an otherwise excellent summary — where the Adung valley is shown

as filling the entire sources of the western Irrawaddy, is partly

responsible for this surprising claim. Evidently the author has been

quite unable to visualise North Burma. Possibly no one who has

never been north of Myitkyina could.

IV. Climate.

General Remarks. — We have practically no meteorological records

from North Burma. I give the rainfall records for the only three

stations where they were kept and these have a certain value ; but

their application is limited. Rainfall varies in mountainous regions

almost as much as maximum or minimum temperatures vary, and it

will be noticed that they are far from constant year by year. There is

however one factor, and that the most potent single factor control-

ling the vegetation, which tends to keep fairly constant over the

whole area, and at every season, namely humidity. Here again,

except for scattered observations, we have no instrument records.

However the monthly rainfall figures and still more the appearance

of the vegetation itself, prove a high degree of humidity, as well as

the absence of prolonged drought. Nowhere, for example, does dry

monsoon forest, as seen in the lower Chindwin valley, prevail.

Deciduous trees form a small proportion of every forest type met

with ; but each season has its own deciduous species, they do not all

cast their leaves at the same time. Some lose them in the cold,

others in the hot weather, while yet others are bare for a short

period during the rains. These last probably have a leaf-shed

rhythm of less than 12 months — -it may be 8 or 10 months only, so

that in course of time the tree is leafless during each month of the

year. The prevailing forest type, whether broad leafed or Conifer,

is evergreen.

All that can be said of the climate of North Burma must be said

in general terms. High summer temperatures (up to 98° F. on the

Hkamti Plain), cool winters, with frost above 5,000 feet and thick

mists and heavy dew in the low lying valleys, heavy rainfall between

/I SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH. BURMA 561

and an increasing winter rainfall as one recedes from the plains, and

always and everywhere a high humidity, highest in the hot valleys in

summer. Humidity is higher on the Hkamti plain, which is closely

surrounded by mountains than it is for example at Myitkyina, which

lies outside the high country.

The factors which influence vegetation, besides humidity, are

maximum and minimum temperatures (which largely control the

germination of seeds), annual distribution of rainfall, and light; and

in a lesser degree, wind and snowfall (as a protecting agent). Light

depends chiefly on aspect and steepness of slope. The midday sun

is never le§s than 40° above the horizon. On mid-summer day it is

about 4° from the zenith at Putao, that is, it is almost vertically over-

head. Many of the above factors directly depend upon altitude and

vary with it.

Alpine Region. — -Above 10,000 feet, persistent rather than heavy

summer rain, is the rule. The rainfall is certainly not so high as on

the Hkamti plain. In the Seinghku valley at 12,000 feet, dry air

comes sweeping over the pass from the Tibetan plateau, and not

infrequently near the pass one is in sunshine above the cloud, with

steady rain falling lower down the valley ; and this in the wettest

months of the year !

In the Burmese alps the cloud layer has an almost daily vertical

movement throughout the summer. At night the cloud sinks down

into the deep valleys leaving the peaks clear. By day, the heated air

in the valleys drives the cloud up. Thus it tends to rain more in the

valleys by night and more on the mountains by day. Winds, though

occasionally strong, are usually local. The only winds approaching

gale force I have ever experienced in North Burma were in deep

gorges such as the Adung gorge.

Above 10,000 feet snowfall in the north and east is heavy. Even

so low as 10,000 feet snow beds persist in the Seinghku, Adung and

other large valleys till June or July. Such snow beds however owe

lheir existence to the depth and narrowness of the valley and the

steepness of its sides. The flanks themselves, particularly the ex-

posed side, are free of snow which, loosened by the warm wind, slides

down and piles up at the bottom of the valley to a depth of twenty or

thirty feet. At 12,000 feet these accumulated beds persist till August

or September and at 13,000-14,000 feet are permanent. These

permanent snow beds are not however glaciers ; they do not flow.

There is not enough depth of snow and consequently insufficient pres^

sure to convert the snow into ice. If more snow fell each winter

than melted in the succeeding summer, the snow beds would gradu-

ally increase in size and depth until eventually they became glaciers.

If less snow fell than melted each year, they would dwindle and finally

disappear. Probably they are in a state of equilibrium for the time

being, as much snow falling in winter as melts in summer; but it is

obvious that down to very recent times more snow has melted than

has fallen each year since only recently (on the geological time-scale)

these snow beds were glaciers. In other words, the climate of North

Burma is passing through a warm moist or inter-glacial phase.

The permanent snow line stands at about 16,000 feet, and peaks

of 17,000 feet or more usually have small glaciers at least on their

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V'ol XLIV

north flanks. So precipitous are the higher mountains however —

veritable steeples — that peaks of 16,000 and 17,000 feet are sometimes

clear of snow throughout the summer.

In general terms then one may say that the climate of North

Burma taking it all in all is moist and warm in the lowest valleys,

moist and cool at the middle levels, moist and cold above 9,000 feet.

The heaviest rainfall occurs in spring and summer ; but enough rain

(or snow) falls in autumn and winter to keep the humidity high.

Even in the finest weather there is heavy precipitation of dew.

Drought is unknown.

The tables on pages 563, 564 and 565 show the rainfall for ten

years or more for three stations :

(/) Myitkyina, (ii) Sumpra Bum, (Hi) Putao (Fort Hertz).

The general features of the climate which are reflected in the

vegetation are given under each zone.

V. Origin of the Flora of North Burma.

The composition of the vegetation (i.e. the flora) is closely bound

up with its origin and hence with the recent geological history of

North Burma. Nor need we probe far back to find a time when the

present flora was not there, for it clearly represents a new order, the

result of a tragic persecution. The original mountain flora was

either exterminated or driven out of North Burma by the Pleis-

tocene glaciation of the Irrawaddy plateau, and we can only guess

what that early flora was like. Perhaps it was not so very different

from the present flora, though probably poorer in species. It is

worth mentioning that in the Mali Hka valley between Myitkyina and

Fort Hertz, where the rocks are soft sandstones with bands of clay

and pebble beds, are preserved leaf impressions, possibly fruits and

s^eds also, which when studied may throw some light on this problem.

Whatever the flora may have been in preglacial times, today it

is a strange medley of Indo-Malaysian, East Asiatic, Sino-Himalayan

and Palaearctic species. The tropical flora is almost pure Indo-

Malaysian, the aipine flora almost pure Sino-Himalayan. Between

these extremes the temperate flora includes a considerable number

of East Asiatic species, besides Palaearctic, together with a larger

proportion of endemics than either of the other tw7o zones, so far as

we know at present. Thus the flora of North Burma is stratified both

in space and time, according to when each element entered the

country.

The great highland mass of Sino-Himalaya wedged between the

Central Asian, East Asiatic, Indo-Malaysian and Mediterranean

regions .supports a mainly northern flora. It forms a barrier between

Central Asia and the southern peninsulas, but it is also a carrier

between East and West. In fact it is the link between all the botani-

cal regions of Asia. Hence it includes also East Asiatic and Hima-

layan elements. Most of the Sino-Himalayan endemic genera such

as Cyananthus , Nomocharis , Notholirion , Omphalo gramma, Ber-

neuxia , Oreosolen , Crementhodium and many others, occur in North

Burma. There are also numerous endemic species of such charac-

teristic Sino-Himalaya genera as Rhododendron, Primula, Corydalis ,

And rosace, Meconopsis , Gentiana , Pediciilaris. Nevertheless there are

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fewer known endemics in Sino-Himalaya and hence in alpine Burma

than one might expect, though no doubt many more remain to be

discovered. The East Asiatic contribution is most prominent in the

temperate zone. It suggests a strong E.-W. connection during the

ice age. Such plants as S tacky unis himalaicus , Rhododendron

Simsii , Asteropyrum peltatumf Decaisnea Fargesii, Souleia vaginata ,

Tetracentron sinense} Mahonia Iqmariifolia, Saxifraga sarmentosa ,

Rubns corchorifolius and R. ampelums , Photinia glabra, Eurya nitida

and E. chinensis , Gordonia axillaris , Schima argentea, with species

of Rodgersia, Podophyllum , Schizophragma, Actinidia clearly indi-

cate this connection. More remarkable still is the Chinese Coffin tree

( Taiwania cryptomerioides ) found in Formosa, south-western

Tunnan and North Burma, a good example of discontinuous distri-

bution— better called broken distribution since there is no physical

barrier between the various localities unless it is between Formosa

and the mainland. Podocai'pus macrophyllus, on the other hand,

has an unbroken distribution from Japan to North Burma as also has

T ' rip t e vygi u n i Wi Ifo rd ii .

The land connections between North Burma and the East Asiatic

region on the one hand and the East Himalayan region on the other

are clear enough. Equally clear is the continuity between North

Burma and the Malaysian region and Indonesia.

But what brought about such great movements of the floras, which

is not just a gentle mingling, but a violent telescoping? How has it

come about that Japanese plants are found in the Eastern Himalayas,

North Burma plants in Indonesia and Malaysia? The almost com-

plete absence of East Asiatic plants from peninsular India gives us

a valuable clue to what may have happened. Peninsular India has

no Eagaceae , Be.tulaceae, H amamelidaceae , Saxijragaceae , Schizan-

drdceae or Conijerae (except one Podocarpus), Many characteristic

East Asiatic genera such as Acer, Magnolia , Illicium, De-utzia ,

Philadelphus , Eriobotrya, Pyrus, Fraxinus, Ulmus , Tr achy carpus ,

Livrstona, Licuala, Gordonia are absent; but all of them

reached Malaysia, Indonesia or the Eastern Himalayas. We know

that a similar flora reached China and New England from the far

north as a result of and in fact during the Pliestocene ice age. If the

western spread of eastern plants took place during the ice age, or

after it, why did they not reach peninsular India at the same time? If

they could reach south-east China, Indo-China and Malaysia not to

mention the Eastern Himalayas, why not the hills of South India?

A few — a very few Himalayan plants — -did get through to peninsular

India but only enough to emphasize their scarcity, e.g. Rhododen-

dron arboreum.

There are two possible explanations : (i) either the plains were

not yet solid land but consisted at best of brackish swamps, not

unlike the Sunderbans today or (2) the Himalayan flora, driven into

the plains by the advancing ice, perished ere it could cross them to

reach the peninsula. In other words, the plains of India whether

sea or land proved impassable ; and of the plants driven south only

those which followed the mountain arc of Burma-Malaya and the

south-eastern strike of the ranges towards Indo-China, survived to

return when conditions improved, leaving fragments of Himalayan

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 567

flora scattered on all the mountains of Malaysia, e.g. Primula

imperialis in Java.

It is improbable that the East Asiatic flora was already establish-

ed in the Eastern Himalayas before the Pleistocene ice age.

Even if it had been, it would have been largely destroyed or driven

out by the ice wall which stretched from the Eastern Himalayas

across North Burma and Assam to Western China; and these regions

would have had to be restocked from surrounding areas during inter-

glacial periods or after the ice age had passed. Moreover the

Miocene-Pliocene flora of the Arctic, we know, was driven south

and fanned out down the coast of China and down the Atlantic coast

of North /Vmerica. No doubt it reached the Eastern Himalayas and

North Burma at the same time, via Indonesia, and perhaps across

China, and failed to reach peninsular India only because it could

not cross the hot swampy plains or the sea.

Thus on the. eastern frontier mountains of Burma, Sino-Himalayan,

Indo-Malaysian and East Asiatic floras mingled. During periods

of intense glaciation, the mountain flora was pushed southwards —

, whatever was pushed northwards must have perished in the deserts of

Central Asia. During interglacial periods, the southern flora crept

back north. Communication between the Eastern Himalaya and

Western China across North Burma was also open, before the deep

river gorges were cut. This region was then a plateau. By the end

of the ice age the cutting up of the Irrawaddy plateau, and the

deeply dissected gorges of the Salween, Mekong and Yangtze rivers

had to some extent interrupted this east-west movement, but the

north-south movement was thereby facilitated. The close relation-

ship between the Malaysian and North Burma floras has already

been remarked; that between the Indonesian and North Burma floras

is scarcely less close. Nor is it confined to the floras ; it is also apparent

in the faunas of these regions. Indeed the south-eastern route towards

Hongkong, like the southern route towards Singapore, appears to be

a modern migratory route for birds and has probably long been so.

Two striking examples within the writer’s field experience may

be quoted. The first example of Hai'pactes wardi (Ward’s Trogon)

was collected in the Seinghku valley in 1926. Several years later

it was collected in Annam where it is not uncommon. Sooner or

later it will no doubt be collected at some intermediate point in south-

west Yunnan — unless indeed birds, like plants, can show discon-

tinuous distribution. (In a sense of course, migratory birds do

show a kind of discontinuous distribution)'.

Recently Dr. Harold Anthony of the American Museum of

Natural History has identified a shrew not uncommon in the Hpimaw

and Htawgaw hills as Crocidura indochinensis , a species described

from Annam. Here again the distribution may be discontinuous.

Besides Taiwania cryptomerioides , there are other curious ex-

amples of discontinuous distribution of plants to the south-east, such

-as . Verndnia Vidalii which, accord to Merrill, is known outside

Luzon only from the ’Nmai valley (Vernav-Cutting Expedition 514

Ward). These are straws, but they point to possible lines of migra-

tion. Nor are they isolated examples. There are many birds

common to North Burma, perhaps as summer residents only, and

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XLIV .

Indonesia, just as there are many common to the Eastern Himalayas

and Malaysia. The examples given are remarkable only because the

species were collected at the extremities of their range and have still

to be found at intermediate stations.

If the high land which stretches across south-east Asia from the

Tsangpo bend in longitude 95 °F. via North Burma and Yunnan to

Indo-China is, as seems probable, one of the main migratory bird

routes, we might expect to find many species of plants also with the

same distribution. And so we do.

It is possible that in mid-Tertiary times the flora of Eastern Asia

was more uniform than it is today. But differentiation of the flora

into contrasting botanical regions must have proceeded some way

before the Pleistocene glaciation set in.

Latest of all the floras to reach North Burma was the lowland

forest flora, flowing up the hot moist valleys as rivers scoured them ;

already this subtropical Indo-Malaysian flora has reached almost

to the sources of the Irrawaddy (lat. 28°). Until rivers had cut

deep gorges in the plateau, no tropical flora could have lived here.

The dampness of the climate helped it. At first the vegetation of

the valleys resembled that of New Zealand or southern Japan in

general appearance, with many tree-ferns and climbing plants.

Even today the Tamai valley in lat. 28° at 4,000 feet altitude has a

tropical appearance, where tree-ferns grow within sight of the snows,

and luxuriant climbers and epiphytes flourish in the humid atmos-

phere, though the winter temperature drops to 4o°F.

Finally we have to account for the alpine flora of North Burma.

Here arises a special difficulty. In Europe the Arctic flora was

driven south by the ice sheet and when the ice retreated the few

survivors — -much had perished — took refuge in the European Alps, or

crept back north in the wake of the melting ice to its original home.

Only a single flora was involved, the Miocene-Pliocene circum-

polar flora, and the distance it travelled before it was stopped by the

transverse Alpine ranges and the Mediterranean Sea was at most

1,200 miles. Unable to cross these barriers, most of it perished.

The same circumpolar flora which was driven south into Asia

however had to travel no less than 3,000 miles to reach the

Himalayas even by the direct route through Central Asia, which may

have been partly desert. The Tian Shan and the Tibet plateau lay

athwart its path; and finally the Himalayas being themselves

glaciated (like the European Alps), no alpine flora could possibly'

lodge there except during an interglacial lull. In fact there is no

evidence of any Arctic flora having reached the Himalayas by this

route. A more probable route is that already described for the East

Asiatic flora via the China coast and the Yunnan plateau, or via the

Indo-Chinese ranges and Malaysia. But it does not seem probable

that the circumpolar flora as such reached the Himalaya by this route,

without undergoing great modification in the course of its long

journey. For the Sino-Himalayan flora is more complex than the

European-Alpine flora, although the two are obviously allied. Re-

garding the alpine flora of North Burma, a part of the Sino-Hima-

layan flora, let us set out the proved facts, the probable, but improv-

es facts and the reasonable assumptions, and see whither they lead us.

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 569

(i) Almost the whole of North Burma was during the Pleistocene

period covered by an ice sheet. At this time therefore there could

have been no alpine flora on the Irrawaddy plateau.

(ii) The modern North Burma alpine flora is part of the alpine

flora which stretches from Kashmir to Western China and through-

out Tibet — the Sino-Himalayan flora.

(Hi) The present Sino-Himalayan flora has close Palaearctic

affinities.

(iv) Before the Pleistocene glaciation the Irrawaddy plateau was

covered with some sort of flora, just as the rest of Sino-Himalaya was

covered with some sort of flora, whether alpine, subalpine or other-

wise. There hs no reason to suppose that the region, with the possi-

ble exception of Tibet, was a desert. The southern escarpment of the

plateau at any rate must always have supported a rich flora except

when it was actually under ice.

(v) It is probable that the pre-glacial Sino-Himalayan flora was

as uniform over the whole mountainous area as the present one, or

more so ; it may have been poorer in species.

(vi) 'This pre-glacial flora can hardly have had much in common

with the circumpolar flora which in Pliocene or at any rate in Miocene

times was a moist warm temperate flora. Even though the two may

have been in direct contact through north-west Europe or north-

east Asia or both, there was no reason why they should mingle.

> ( vii ) Before an^ during the ice age movement along the entire

length of the Alpine-Himalayan system, from north-west to south-

east and also north and south along the Burma-Malay arc was

unhindered. These were two of the great migration routes in south-

east Asia.

(viii) If both ends of the Sino-Himalayan region were in direct

contact with the Holarctic region which stretched across the Eura-

sian continent, it would provide a possible route* or routes by which

the Holarctic flora could later reach North Burma. In the north-

western Himalaya numerous alpines common to the Arctic regions,

but so far not recorded from the Eastern Himalayas, occur. Yet

the fact that a few species are common to the Arctic, and are found

throughout the length of the Himalaya suggests this as one probable

line of migration. For example Thalictrum alpinum, Corydalis ccish-

meriana , Draba alpina , Saxifraga flagellaris are common to North

Burma, the Himalayan region and the Arctic regions.

(ix) An ice sheet covering northern Siberia fanning out south-

wards, might have driven the circumpolar flora southwards through

Central Asia.

(*) Another possible route by which the circumpolar flora might

have reached Sino-Himalaya is via the China coast and the highlands

of South China, thence north-westwards across Indo-China and

Yunnan. We know that the ice did drive the circumpolar flora

southwards fanwise — it is the classic explanation for the striking

resemblances between the flora of maritime China and Japan and the

Atlantic States of North America. It seems probable that such trees

as, Taiwania , Gordonia, Rhodoleia , several laurels, Magnolias,

Rhododendrons, Vernonia Vidalii and Hamamelidaceae reached

North Burma by this route, Some of the aboye might yet be foiind

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

in the Eastern Himalayas or at least in northern Assam. Some

alpines too may have followed this route.

(xi) Periods of maximum glaciation must always have kept the

East Asiatic and Himalayan floras apart. It is obvious that no

plants, East Asiatic or otherwise, could reach the Himalayas, itself

a glaciated region, during an all out ice age. The Himalayan flora

was being driven outwards. Any plants driven south-east got

away, any plants driven into Central Asia perished in the desert just

as much of the circumpolar Magnolia flora which was driven into

Europe, perished on the shores of the Mediterranean or against the

Alpine- Carpathian barrier. But some of the northern flora after

being telescoped into the eastern Mediterranean flora might escape

along the Himalayas and travel intermittently the full length of these

mountains during interglacial periods.

Equally from another polar quadrant the escaping flora might

have moved gradually across China, following the northern moun-

tain folds to the eastern edge of the Tibet plateau.

(xii) The succession of glacial and interglacial periods was the

principal means for the restocking of Sino-Himalaya, including North

Burma, after the destruction of the original flora. During the early

stages, whatever flora there was there, must have been driven out

and much of it was overwhelmed. Since the last advance of the ice

the flora has been steadily following up the retreat. Meanwhile a

new flora had been driven across eastern Asia, coming from the

north. The above are assumptions 3 if they lack' proof at least there

is a certain amount of evidence for them, no fatal objection to their

acceptance. In fact they are reasonable inferences. We have to

account for the Palaearctic affinities of the North Burma alpine and

subalpine flora and we infer that it .was derived, like the North

American and alpine European floras and in the same way mainly

from the north. Most of the North Burma alpines are found in

Western China or in the Eastern Himalayas, or in Tibet. Endemic

alpines are few. The affinity is with the east rather than with the

west, indicating that the flora has been largely derived from that

direction. — ,

This is well illustrated by the genus Rhododendron. About 130

species are recorded from Burma, the great majority of them from

North Burma.

' The table on p. 571 shows the distribution of 80 species which I

have collected in North Burma :

This list of North Burma species is not complete, and the distribu-

tion of species is likely to be modified in the -future with further

exploration. But I believe it gives a fair general picture of the lay-

out and hence a clue to how Rhododendrons came into North Burma

during and after the glaciation.

Ths first thing to notice is the large proportion of endemics, 24

out of 80 or 30%. Only seven of these are alpines however.

Secondly, whereas North Burma shares 3 species with the

Eastern Himalaya only. (i.e. with the mountains -to the west), it

shares no less than 22 species with the mountains to the east alone.

Even if the Assam-Tibet area to the north-west is included, it only

adds 8 species to the three mentioned. If we add another 8 species,

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 571

NORTH BURMA SPECIES OF RHODODENDRON

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

NORTH BURMA SPECIES OF RHO DO DEN DRON — ( Contd. )

common to both the Eastern Himalaya and to the Assam-Tibet area,

we still have only 19 species from the west as compared with 22

species from the east. But in that case we must add 13 species

recorded from both China and Assam-Tibet, increasing the total of

eastern species to 35, or almost 44% of the whole. The Assam-Tibet

area in fact belongs as much to the eastern mountain region as to the

western; it is the link between the two. For that reason it is perhaps

curious that only three species are known to occur in all four areas,

i.e., to go right across from the Eastern Himalaya to Yunnan via

both Assam and North Burma; though this I attribute to lack of

exploration — -I suspect that more species do in fact cover the whole

area. It is significant that one of the three — R. repens — is an alpine.

Apart from a general resemblance in its Czuciferae , Papilio-

naceae , Caryophyllaceae , Rosaceae , Composite^ , Umbelliferae and

in its Saxifrages, AnemonieS, Primulas, Gentians, Ranunculus ,

Polygonum and a score more genera, what ..Arctic species of plants

are there in North Burma today which are unknown elsewhere? Only

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 573

one that I know oi—Cornus suaedica , which I found on the Nam

Tamai range at about 10,000 feet altitude in 1937. And since this

plant is unknown from the Himalayas, it probably reached North

Burma by way of north-east or possibly south-east China.

In the immense spaces and varied climates of Sino-Himalaya,

many northern genera found new centres of development, e.g. Rhodo-

dendron, Primula , Meconopsis (all but one endemic) Berberis,

Pedicularis, Cotoneaster ; while other large genera of world wide,

northern distribution such as Lilium and Senecio produced new

independent genera ( Nomacharis and Notholirion ; Cremanthodium

and Ligularia). But it is worth noting that Campanula , so prolic

in the mountains of Europe, made no headway in Sino-Himalaya

and is represented by few species. Other genera of Campanulaceae

are fairly well represented. One point emerges clearly. Since the

Palsearctic flora got as for as Australia where Rhododendron Lochae

is an outlier there is nothing surprising in its having' firmly establish-

ed itself in Sino-Himalaya; if indeed the entire alpine flora of Sino-

Himalaya is anything more than a modified and greatly enriched

Palasarctic flora. There are a number of Sino-Himalayan endemics,

but few of them are peculiar to Burma. One other point — the

glaciation of South-East Asia roughly outlined the limits of the various

floral regions now recognisable, by interposing a barrier of ice in

the form of a vast arc between India and China and between India

and Central Asia. It was not until the passing of the ice and the

establishment of the Sino-Himalayan flora proper, that the present

drainage came into being. Another result was to substitute a

mainly north and south migration movement for the hitherto pre-

dominantly east and west migration movement along the Himalayan

chain. An alpine flora, driven from the Eastern Himalayas by

increasingly severe conditions, unless it escaped along the generally

lower ranges to the south-east, had the choice of going north onto the

Tibet plateau or south into the plains of Bengal — if indeed this was

yet dry land and not swamp. Neither was an encouraging prospect.

But the Burma-Malay arc and the mountains which strike south-east

into- Indo-China offered a line of escape. Possibly some of the pre-

glacial flora also escaped by this route.

The most important fact which emerges however is that the flora

of North Burma, being mainly Sino-Himalayan, is almost entirely a

nost-glacial flora. Even the Indo-Malayasian element in it is modern.

With glaciers as far south at Htawgaw (lat. 26°) where there is un-

questionable evidence of glaciation, it is hardly possible to imagine

anv considerable alpine flora surviving in North Burma during the

height of the glacial age.

In Miocene-Pliocene times there were perhaps no greater

barriers to free movement between different parts of South-East Asia

than those of climate and altitude, so far as plants are concerned.

Continental and maritime climates no doubt existed. But since an

arm of the sea extended between peninsular India and the Himalayas

(which together with the Tibetan plateau may have been lower), the

continental climate would have been mitigated. Thus there may

even then have been a slow interchange of flora between the China

coast qnd Kashmir. The first onset of glacial conditions set the

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

floras in swifter Vnotion. Two results followed from the Sino-

Himalayan glaciation.

(i) A violent telescoping of floras, whereby the circumpolar flora

was pushed southwards into Europe, North America, and Siberia.

It then fanned out in East Asia, down the China coast and probably

along other routes. At the same time the Sino- Himalayan flora was

telescoped into the Malaysian and Indonesian floras. (Any flora on

the northern slopes of the Himalayas and in Tibet doubtless perish-

ed in Central Asia).

(it) At the same time a great wall of ice stretched across

Asia from Kashmir to Annam and tlm Central China plateau, cutting

oft' all the interior of Asia from the peninsulas of India, Malaya and,

Indo-China.

During interglacial periods however this barrier would disappear

and the crowded floras of the south would stretch out and flow back

to fill the spaces uncovered by the retreating ice. In this way cir-

cumpolar plants, pushed down the China coast, might eventually

turn north-westwards, towards the Himalayas, while the Malaysian

flora also would move north through Burma.

If the Sino-Himalayan area experienced the same succession of

glacial climaxes and inter-glacial periods which we can recognise in

Europe, such movements would of course have taken place several

times.

(To be continued.)

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT.

BY

Edward G. Nichols.

Part II

'v

( Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 3 (1944), p. 407).

Picus xanthopygaeus. Green Woodpecker. Maran kotthi, Thachan kuruvi.

4000' to the top of the Palni Hill^. (In other districts it' is found down

to 200'.)

Resident.

Uncommon, among thick trees. The call is a mild falsetto laugh.

Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster. Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Salim Ali observed it at Periyar Lake, 3000', and Fairbank took a specimen

at Periyur, 4000'. (In other districts it occurs from the plains up to 66oo'. )

Probably resident.

Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis. Pied Woodpecker.

Plains, and Fairbank found it up to 5000' in the Lower Palni Hills.

Resident.

Rare on the plains, but Fairbank called it fairly common on the hills.

Dryobates hardwickii cinereigula. Pigmy Woodpecker.

Western hills from 2400' up to Machfir, 4500'. (In other districts down to the

low country.)

Resident.

Rare.

OCCi RRENCF OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

Micropternus brachyurus. Rufous Woodpecker.

Specimens of the race jerdoni have been taken on the Shevaroys and in

Travancore.

Salim Ali and I have seen the species at Thekadi, 3000' and it is found up to

5200' in the Palni Hills.

Resident.

Reported to be common on the High Wavy Mts.

Brachypteraus benghalensis puncticollis. Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Specimens of the race tehminae have been taken in Travancore.

Plains, and up to 4700' in the High Wavy Mts.

Resident.

Uncommon, but the only woodpecker regularly seen, on the plains. Com-

mon in the lower hills. Found in fairly open country as well as forest. The

call is a high-pitched laugh,, less emphatic and more tinn^y than the White-breasted

Kingfisher’s.

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus chersonesus. White-naped Woodpecker.

Fairbank found it at all elevations on the Palni Hills. Prater’s specimen

must have been taken not at Madura itself but on the High Wavy Mountains.

Resident.

Seventy years ago Fairbank called it common. I should say it is uncommon

today.

Hemicircus canente cordatus. Heart-spotted Woodpecker,

Recorded only at Periyar Lake on our western boundary, 3000/ (In Travan-

core it is found from the low country up to 4500'.)

Probably resident.

Vivia innomiuata. Piculet.

. Specimens from the Nilgiris and Travancore belong to the race avunculoruvi.

I have seen them in trees from 2400' to 5500' on the Palni Hills. (Elsewhere

as low as 2000'.)

Resident.

Uncommon.

lynx torquilla. Wryneck.

A specimen of the typical form has been obtained in Mysore,

I have seen only one bird in ^crub" jungle near Batlagundu, on December

10 and a friend reports one at Kodaikapai in November.

Winter visitor.

Thereiceryx zeylanicus zeylanicus. Ceylon Barbet. Kuhuruvdn.

I have records only between 1000' and 2000', and J. P. Cook secured one

at about 2000'. A friend from Ceylon tells me he has seen them at Kodai-

kanal, 7000'. (In other districts it occurs up to 4000'.)

Resident.

Uncommon, in forests.

Thereiceryx viridis. Small Green Barbet.

Hills from top to bottom, but never on the plains.

Resident.

Abundant wherever there are trees. Ranks 8th on my Kodaikanal list.

Xantholaema haemacephala indica. Crimson-breasted Coppersmith. Sinna

kukuruvdn.

Plains, and as high as 4400' in the hills. Fairbank was quite correct in his

observation of this species' in the lower hills.

Resident. One digging a nest-hole on September 3.

Common, frequenting fairly heavy trees. The took note is repeated deliber-

ately, as fast as 108 per minute.

S'/t) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlP

Xantholaema rubricapiila. Crimson-throated Coppersmith.

Specimens of the form malabarica have been taken on the Cardamom Hills.

Western hills from 2600' to 4500'. (Also in the low country in Ceylon.)

Resident.

Rare, in forests.

Cuculus canorus. Asiatic Cuckoo. Kuyil.

The subspecies which breeds in the central Himalayas is called telephonm.

Plains. (Also on the hills in the NilgiriSi)

Winter ■ visitor. I have seen it only three- seasons, from October 17 tu

December 13.

Rare, in trees in open country.

Cuculus micropterus. Indian Cuckoo.

The typical micropterus has been obtained in Travancore..

Plains. (To 5000' in the hills in. other districts.)

1 have seen this species only twice, on October 28 and April 27. (Resident

in nearby districts.)

Rare, in groves of trees.

Hierococcyx sparverioides. Large Hawk-Cuckoo.

Howard Campbell is the authority cited by Stuart Baker for the occurrence

of this species in the Palni Hills, i have seen only one bird at 4000' on June

1 8th, probably of this species. (From the plains up in other districts.)

Probably resident.

Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk-Cuckoo.

Plains, and as high as 5400' in the Palni Hills.

Resident in the hills, chiefly seen in winter on the plains.

Fairly common on the plains, common on the hills. Its ‘brainfever* calls

commence in March and last until October.

Glamator jacobinus jacobinus. Pied Cuckoo. Kondai kuyil, Sathaha pul.

A specimen of C. j. pica has also been taken on the Nilgiris.

Plains, and hills up to 4800/ (In the Nilgiris up to 7000'.)

Resident.

Uncommon, preferring scrub jungle but wandering about much. The loud,

mournful notes remind one of a shore-bird.

Clamator coromandus. Red-winged Cuckoo.

There is a mounted specimen in the American College, Madura, secured

by Star & Sons, probably at Sholavandan. (Up to 6ooo' in other districts.)

Rare winter visitor. (October to March in Ceylon.)

Budynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus. Koel. Kuyil.

Plains, and up to 6900' in the hills. (To 7000' in the Nilgiris.)

Resident.

Uncommon, wandering about much, usually found in thick groves. The

voice is somewhat sweeter than that of the Hawk-Cuckoo.

Rhopodytes viridirostris. Malkoha. Puld poruki.

On the plains, it extends out irom the foot of the hills as far as 7 miles.

In the Lower P'alnis,, it is found as high as 2000'. (Ascends as high as

4000' in Mysore.)

Resident.

Fairly common in scrub jungle. I have heard a very mild, querulous croak.

Taccocua leschenaultii leschenaultii. Sirkeer Cuckoo.

iooo' to 3000' on the western hills. (As high as 6ooo' in the Nilgiris.)

Resident.

Uncommon, found in thorny bushes on the lower slopes.

577

Occurrence of birds in madura district

Centropus sinensis parroti. Southern Crow-Pheasant. Sem botthu, Senpaham.

Plains, and as high as 7000' in the hills.

* Resident. Seen mating on December 10.

Fairly common on the plains, common on the lower hills, occasional at

the top. Found in groves of trees. The deep, resounding hoo is repeated

6 to 8 times.

Centropus bengalensis (bengalensis ?) Lesser Crow-Pheasant.

Salim Ali took a specimen at Kumili, 3000'. (Up to 5000' in other districts.)

Psittacula krameri manillensis. Rose-ringed Paroquet. Pachai kili.

Plains and in cultivated places on the Upper Palnis up to 6000'.

Resident.

Common, ranking 10th in order, of abundance in my notes. Flocks of

50 or more are found.

Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala. Blossom-headed Paroquet. Sivappu -

thalai kili.

Plains, and in the hills up to 5500' according to Terry. (To 7000' in the

Nilgiris.)

Resident.

Fairly common when grain and fruit are ripe. The notes are softer and

sweeter than the Rose-ring’s, and quite varied.

Psittacula columboides. Blue-winged Paroquet.

1400' to 4500' on the western hills. (In Travancore it ranges from the

low country to 5000'.)

Resident.

Fairly common in tall trees in forests. The call is a high-pitched, soft

and pleasant queenk, not as sweet as the Blossom-headed ’s.

Coryllis vernalis. Loriquet. * Kanni kili.

From the base of the hills up to 4500'. (In the Nilgiris up to 6000'.)

Resident.

Common in the tree-tops in wooded sections.

Coracias benghalesnis indica. Southern Roller. Panan hakai, Pal kurvvi.

Plains, and there are a few records in the western hills up to about 3500'

by Terry. (In the Shevaroys it has been recorded up to 4000'.)

Resident.

Common, frequenting exposed perches and palm trees in open country.

Merops orientalis. Common Bee-eater. Panjuruttdn.

The typical race has been 'secured in Trichinopoly Dist. and Travancore.

Plains, and on open slopes of the Palni Hills up to 4900'. (In the Nilgiris it

has been noted up to 7000'.)

Resident.

Common, sometimes as many as 50 in a flock.

Merops superciiiosus javanicus. Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Pdains. Fairbank found the species as high as Periyur, 4000'. (In Ceylon

it reaches 5000'.)

Winter visitor, arriving August 10 one year, August 30 another, but more

often in September. Last date, April 2. I also saw one at the north base of the

Sirumalai on June 13, July 4.

Abundant, in flocks of hundreds on wires.

Merops leschenaulti. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

The subspecies leschenaulti has been taken in Salem District and Travan-

core.

Hills, from 750' at the foot of Alahar Malai up to 6400' near Kodaikanal.

Resident.

Fairly common on the open slopes. The notes are a little more musical

than those of the other bee-eaters.

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

*

Bucia athertoni. Blue-bearded Bee-eater.

1500' to 4000' on the western hills. (Up to 5000' in the Nilgiris.)

Rare at the edge of forest. Resident.

Ceryle rudis. Pied Kingfisher. Min kotthi.

The race leucomelanura has been taken in Cuddapah District and Ceylon,

while Travancore specimens belong to travancoreensis.

Plains, and up to 66oo' at Kodaikanal once.

Resident.

Fairly common where there is plenty of water. The call is a shrill, sharp,

twittering cry.

Alcedo atthis. Common Kingfisher.

The subspecies taprobana has been taken in Travancore and at Palghat.

At all elevations.

Resident.

More common than the Pied, wherever there is^ water on the plains. In

the hills it is uncommon.

Ramphalcyon capensis. Stork-billed Kingfisher.

The subspecies gurial has been taken in N. Kanara.

Plains, and Salim Ali saw it as high as Periyar Lake, 3000'. (Up to

3500' in other districts.)

Probably resident.

Rare, but 'Fairbank observed it twice at the foot of the Palni Hills years

ago and I have two records near Periyakulam.

Halcyon smyrnensis. White-breasted Kingfisher.

The typical smyrnensis has been taken in Salem District, fusca in Travan

core. ,

At all elevations.

Resident.

Common on the plains, uncommon in the hills. Often seen on the plains

far from water.

Dichoceros bicornis. Great Hornbill. Malai mdngu.

On the western hills, from the base up to 5500'. The former locality is

noted in J. R. Henderson’s list, and* the latter is reported by Mr. J. H.

Lawson, above Kukal Cave.

Resident. W. W. Wallace found a nest in the Varusha Nadu valley.

Uncommon, in the wildest forests only ; perhaps most numerous on the

High Wavy Mountains.

Tockus birostris. Common Hornbill. Iru vdy kuruvi .

Plains only. (In other districts the species ascends the hills to 3000'.)

Perhaps only a winter wanderer. Fairbank took a specimen near Palni

in October 1876, and my only record is of a flock of 6 in roadside trees

near Ayakudi on March 3.

Rare.

Tockus griseus. Malabar Grey Hornbill,

The typical form has been taken in Travancore.

At the base of the western hills,, reported by F'airbank doubtfully, J. R.

Henderson, and J. H. Lawson probably. (The species * is found from 400'

to over 5000' in Travancore.)

Probably resident.

S. K. Bunker and I saw one flock in forest 2400'.

UpUpa epops. Hoopoe, Kondai latthi, PuJu kotthi.

The resident subspecies, ceylonensis, has been obtained on Rameswaram, in

Trichinopoly . District, and Travancore. The European race, epops, has been

taken in winter in N. Kanara, and probably also by Fairbank on the Palni

Hills, but Fairbank did not send his specimen to. Hume for identification,

sq this is not certain.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

579

At all elevations where houses are found. In Kodaikanal it was unknown

In Fairbank’s day, 1877, but by 1883 Terry had noted it ‘everywhere in small

numbers’.

Resident.

Fairly common on the plains, common in Kodaikanal. I have timed the

calls and counted as many as 19 in a minute.

Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus. Trogon. Vandu kutthi.

From 2500' up to 5000' on the western hills. (2000' to 6000' in other

■districts.)

Resident.

In dense forests, small flocks are seen in undergrowth. Rare.

Micropus melba bakeri. Alpine Swift. Ulavdra kuruvi.

At all elevations.

My records all fall between January 27 and September 10. This period

probably includes the breeding season. In August Jerdon observed near

Madura flocks apparently migrating eastward. (Biddulph saw the species on

Rameswaram only from December to March and from August to October.)

Uncommon, sometimes solitary, sometimes as many as 20 together.

[It will be remembered that Biddulph (Jour., xl, 247) recorded parties of 20

to 40 ‘seated on telegraph wires alongside the railway line’. To our enquiry the

author has' confirmed his statement since. Nevertheless sitting on telegraph wires

is such an unheard of — and seemingly impossible — thing for a true swift to do,

that it does not seem beyond the bounds of possibility some error in identification

may have crept in. To that extent this particular record needs to be taken with

reserve. But the Alpine Swift may, of course, occur on Rameswaram Island

notwithstanding. — Eds. ]

Micropus affinis. House Swift.

The typical affinis has been taken in South Arcot District.

At. all elevations.

Resident on the plains.

Locally common on the plains, especially in old temples and the Madura

palace, in flocks of about 200 or more. Occasional large flocks over the hills.

Cypsiurus parvus. Palm Swift.

The subspecies batassiensis has been taken in Salem District and Travancore.

Plains, and up to 2000' on the Lower Palni Hills.

Resident.

Very common, ranking 6th in abundance among our plains-birds. Seldom

seen out of sight of palmyra palms. The call is thin and shrill, a cheerful

staccato series of notes.

Chaetura gigantea. Brown-throated Spinetail Swift.

Specimens of the race indica have been taken in Travancore.

Plains, and up to 5600' in the Palni Hills.

All my records fall between December 2 and July 31, except October 11.

Fairly common on the plains, especially near the foot of the hills. It gives

a loud, shrill twittering, rather sweet in tone.

Indicapus sylvaticus. White-rumped Spinetail Swift.

I have seen the species only once at 7200' near Pillar Rocks. (In other

■districts it is found in jungle as low as 2000'.)

Coilocalia fuciphaga unicolor. Swiftlet.

At all. elevations.

Resident in the hills.

Very common in the hills, ranking 4th among Kodaikanal birds. I have

■seen the species in only a few places on the plains, usually near the foot of

the hills, but once at Sholavandan.

Hemiprocne coronata. Crested Swift.

From 1000' to 7000^ on the western hills and once at Madura.

Resident. My records fall between February 1 and October 2.

Fairly common among thin trees on the drier slopes of the lower hills,

as many as 15 in a flock.

6

580 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Capriraulgus tnacrourus. Long-tailed Nightjar. Pathuhai kuruvi, Pathungi .

The subspecies atripennis has been taken in Travancore.

Plains, and up to 3000' in the hills. (In Travancore 3500'.)

Resident.

Mrs. Cantlay reports it to be common on the High Wavy Mountains. I

have only a few records, mostly near the base of the hills.

Caprimulgus indicus indicus. Jungle Nightjar.

From 5000' to 7000' on the western hills. (In other districts it is found

down to the low country.)

Resident.

Terry called it common on open downs near sholas. I have only a few

records.

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus. Little Nightjar.

Plains, and up to noo' at the base of the hills. (Up to 4000' in Ceylon.)

Resident.

Fairly common in scrub jungle, barren fields, boulder-strewn hillsides.

Tyto alba stertens. Barn Owl. Kuhai.

Plains, and up to about 2000 on the lower slopes of the Palni Hills.

Dr. T. C. Jerdon caught one alive when it flew into his room at Madura.

Resident.

Fairly common, judging from the frequency of sucking or grating calls at

night.

Tyto longimembris. Grass Owl.

The typical form has been taken on the Nilgiris.

The only record is Terry’s sight observation at Pallangi, 5500', on the

Palni Hills. (In other districts it occurs on the plains also.)

Asio fiatnmeus. Short-eared Owl.

The typical flammeus has been taken on the Nilgiris and in Travancore.

Hume & Dewar both stated that this species had been procured on the

Palni Hills. (In other districts the range is from the plains up to 7000'.)

Winter visitor. (The season in Ceylon is from .November to February.)

Rare.

Strix indranee. Brown Wood Owl.

Specimens of the race indranee have been taken on the Shevaroy and

Nilgiri Hills.

Plains, and up to 1100' in the Varusha Nadu valley. (At all elevations

in other districts.)

Resident.

I have one sure sight record on July 30, others doubtful.

Strix oceliata. Mottled Owl.

Plains, where I have heard a metallic note from two large owls at

Batlagundu in January. Large owls along the roads at night may be this

species. (Occurs as high as 2800' in Mysore.)

Probably resident.

Ketupa zeylonensis. Fish Owl.

Fairbank’s specimen was probably leschenaulti, which has been surely taken

in Salem District and Cochin State.

At Dindigul, I think I have heard it once, at Kodaikanal several times.

(At all elevations in other districts.)

Resident.

Rare.

Bubo bubo bengalensis. Great Horned Owl.

Plains. (Ascends the Nilgiri Hills rarely.)

Resident.

Uncommon, on the small rocky hills that rise out of the plains, and at

the base of the larger hills.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

581

Bubo nipalensis. Forest Owl.

The typical nipalensis has been taken in Salem Dist.

One record,, at noo' in the Varusha Nadu valley on a cloudy afternoon.

(In the Nllgiris it occurs up to 7000'.)

Probably resident.

Otus bakkamoena. Collared Scops Owl. Anthai.

The typical bakkamoena has been taken in Travancore.

Plains, and in the lower ^Palni Hills as high as 3400'. (To 4000' in the

Nllgiris.)

Resident.

Fairly common in shrubbery near houses in places. I have seen only one

by day.

Athene bratna brama. Spotted Owlet.

Plains. (As high as 3000' in Mysore.)

Resident.

Common everywhere, replacing the Drongos as soon as dusk sets in.

Glaucidium radiatum. Jungle Owlet.

The Travancore race is called malabaricum.

I have seen only one Jn daylight, on the slopes of the Palni Hills at 2000' on

June 22. (In Travancore this is the common owlet from sea-level up to 5000'.)

Resident, probably.

Sarcogyps calvus. Black Vuture. Kaluhu,

Plains, and at all elevations on the hills.

Resident. Howard Campbell records its breeding at Kodaikanal.

Uncommon. I have sieen a few on the plains in winter, and more in the

hills.

Gyps fulvus. Griffon Vulture.

The race fulvescens has been obtained in N. Kanara.

Salim Ali’s sight record at Kumili, 3000', on February 28, is the only

record for South India. [Probably Long-billed Vulture. — Eds.]

Gyps indicus. Long-billed Vulture.

The typical indicus has been obtained at Pondicherry.

Plains, and hills to 7700' near Kodaikanal.

Probably resident.

I have only one record on the plains, a few more in the hills.

Pseudogyps bengalensis. WJiite-backed Vulture.

At all elevations.

Resident.

Fairly common on the hills, rather less so on the plains. Sometimes 10 or

mere together near a town.

Neophron perenopterus. White Vulture. Manjal thirudi.

The type locality of the race ginginianus is Gingee, South Arcot Dist.

At all elevations.

Resident. A nest with half-grown young on July 30.

Common on the plains, less so on the hills. Frequently seen around towns.

Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon. Vallum, Irdsdli.

Specimens of the resident peregrinalor and of the winter visitor colidus

have been taken at Madras and in Travancore.

Plains and up to 4900^. At any altitude in other districts.)

Perhaps only _ a winter visitor. My records, some uncertain, extend from

September 3 to March 29.

Rare.

Falco jugger. Laggar Falcon.

Plains. (In other districts up to perhaps 3000'.)

My records extend from April to August, but all of them are vague.

(Biddulph’s observations on Rameswaram Island run from June to November.)

Uncommon.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Falco chiquera. Merlin Falcon,

The typical chiquera has been taken near Bombay.

Plains.

Winter visitor in October and March only. (Breeds in Tinnevelly Dist.)

Erythropus amurensis. Red-legged Falcon.

I saw one on March 9 at Dindigul. (Jerdon found the species in the Nilgiri

Hills.)

Winter visitor as far south as Ceylon. (September to April is the period

■of stay farther north.)

Falco tinnunculus. Kestrel.

The resident race, objurgatus , has been taken in Travancore and on Rames-

waram. The European race, tinnunculus, has been taken in winter in Salem,

Travancore, and Ceylon. The Chinese race, inter siinctus , has also been

taken in winter in Coimbatore District and Travancore.

At all elevations. I have seen a nest at 8ooo' in the Palni Hills. (On the

Nilgiris it breeds as low as 4000'.)

On the plains, my records extend from November 6 to April 14. (On

Rameswaram, Biddulph found the arrival to be in October.)

Fairly common. The call is a screaming klee repeated rapidly a dozen

.times or more.

Aquila rapax. Tawny Eagle. Irdsdli, Punjey parunthu.

The subspecies is vindhiana in the case of a Madras specimen.

Single birds seen on December 2 at the foot of the hills near Batlagundu

and on March 20 at Kodaikanal probably belonged to this species. Previously

.recorded only as far south as Madras, as a resident.

Aquila clanga. Greater Spotted Eagle.

Plains.

Winter visitor, on July 26 and from November 16 to April 12.

Uncommon, in wet fields, where it stands around or flies slowly low over

the fields. There is a good specimen of this species in the American College,

locally obtained.

Hieraeius fasciatus. Bonelli’s Eagle. Parunthu.

The typical fasciatus has been taken in Hyderabad State.

At all elevations on the Palni Hills. (On plains in 'Tinnevelly Dist.)

Probably a resident.

Uncommon, often perching on trees.

Kierab'ius pennatus. Booted Eagle.

I have two records on the plains, and one at Kodaikanal, 6900'.

Winter visitor, December 03 to March 20. (Arrives Oct. 17 in other

districts.)

Rare.

Lophotriorchis kienerii. Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle.

Travancore specimens probably belong to the typical race.

From 3000' at Thekadi up to 7000' at Kodaikanal, where S. K. Bunker

Fas seen it. (In Travancore it occurs down to 200'.)

Resident.

Rare.

Ictinaetus malayensis. Black Eagle.

The race found in Travancore is probably perniger.

From 1500' to 8000' on the: western hills. (In Travancore it is also found

as low as 500'.)

Resident.

Fairly common, over forests and open slopes.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT

583:

Spizattus cirrhatus. Crested Hawk-Eagle. Kondaiyan.

The typical cirrhatus has been taken in Travancore.

4500' to 7000' on the Palni Hills. (Occurs also in the low country of

Travancore.)

Probably resident.

Rare ; have seen only 4.

Nisaetus nipaleasis. Feather-toed Eagle.

Specimens from Travancore belong to the Ceylon race, kelaarti.

I have only 4 probable records in the Palni Hills from 3000' to 7100'. (In

Travancore it occurs as low as iooo'.)

Circaetus gallicus or ferox. Short-toed Eagle. Onan kutthi , Pdmbu parunthu..

Plains, lower hills, and once at Kodaikanal, 7000'.

Resident.

Uncommon, most often seen near the base of the hills.

Haemafornis cheela. Serpent Eagle.

Specimens of melanotis have been taken in Travancore and Mysore. •

Plains at Dindigul once, and on the Palni Hills as high as 7500'.

Resident.

Fairly common.

Butastur teesa. White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle. Parunthu.

Two sight records on the plains, Jan. 16 & Feb. 12. (Up to 2800' in other

districts where it is resident.)

Ichthyophaga ichlhyaetus. Fishing Eagle. Aid.

Stuart Baker says that Travancore specimens may be classed with the

typical ichthyaeta.

Only observed at Periyar Lake, 3000'. (Occurs in the low country also>

in Travancore.)

Rare, resident.

Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite. Sembarunthu , Garuda patchi.

Specimens from Pondicherry and Trivandrum belong to the typical indus ~

Plains, and up to 7700' in the hills.

Resident.

Common, being 9th in order of abundance among our plains-birds. Almost.

always found in sight of water.

Milvus migrans. Common Kite. Karum parunthu.

A specimen from the Shevaroy Hills belongs to the race govinda.

. Plains, and in the hills at all elevations.

Resident.

Ranks 7th among plains-birds in my records. Also common in the hills-

Flocks of about 40 gather when there is a plentiful supply of food such as-

termites.

Elanus coeruleus. Black-winged Kite. Naraiydn parunthu.

Salim Ali collected one of the race vociferus on the Cardamom Hills, and:

the type-locality is ‘Coromandel coast’.

Plains, and as high as 7500' in the western hills.

Probably resident in the hills.

Rare.

Circus macrourus. Pale Harrier. Punai parunthu.

Plains. In the hills up to 7000^ E. L. Bradby has seen some.

Winter visitor, from Oct. 21 to March 24. Brown harriers, species not

known, have been seen from October 3 to April 15. (The arrival date of the

Pale Harrier is in September at Coimbatore, and a few stay all year in Ceylon.)

Common on the plains, less so in the hills.

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Circus pygargus. Montague’s Harrier.

Plains. (Also in the hills in other districts.)

Winter visitor, which I have definitely noted from November 7 until April 1.

Probably fairly common. There is a specimen, I think, in the American

College, Madura.

Cirucs meianoleucus. Pied Harrier.

Plains, and up 6900' at Kodaikanal.

Winter visitor, from November 28 to April 12. (April 18 is the departure

date in Travancore.)

Fairly common.

Circus aeruginosus. Marsh Harrier.

The typical race has been taken in Travancore.

Plains. (It ascends the Nilgiris to 7000'.)

Winter visitor, September 24 to April 22. (On Rameswaram it stays as

late as June.)

Fairly common ; more confined to water-filled fields than the other harriers

are.

Astur badius badius. Shikra Hawk. Kichan valluru.

Sdlim All’s specimens from Kumili are assigned to the Ceylon race badius,

but the Indian dussumieri occurs on the Eastern Ghats and in Mysore.

Plains, and in the. hills as high as 7000'.

Resident.

Fairly common on the plains, in light jungle or trees near houses. I have

•seen one trying to catch bats at dusk. The call is a sharp double whistle,

kee, keeoo, repeated tiresomely.

Accipiter nisus. Asiatic Hawk. On, an adilzi valluru.

Travancore specimens belong to the race nisosimilis.

Plains. (Up to 7000' in other districts.)

Winter visitor, .September 9 to January 17. (Stays at Coimbatore until

March.)

Rare.

Pernls ptilorhynchus. Honey Buzzard. Then parunthu.

Specimens from the Nilgiris belong to the subspecies ruficollis.

The species has been seen only by Salim Ali at Periyar Lake, on our

western border, 3000'. (Found from the plains up to 7000' in forests in

•other districts.)

Baza jerdoni. Brown Baza. Kdtlu parunthu.

The subspecies ceylonensis has been found in Travancore.

Palni Hills; my 2 records were at 5000' and 6900'. (Found also lower in

the Wynaad.)

Probably resident. May 11 & June 15 are my records.

(To be continued)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I.— A BLACK JUNGLE CAT FROM KARACHI AND

THE PANTHER OF SIND.

The interesting account by Mr. K. R. Eates of the occurrence

of a black Panther near Karachi, published in the Journal Dec.

1943, pp. 291-292, reminds me of the equally interesting and

equally unexpected occurrence many years ago of a black,

silver-tipped Jungle Cat at the same locality. Its skin, without

further particulars, was sent by Mr. W. S. Millard, at that time

Secretary of the Society, to the British Museum (Natural History)

and I described it in my Mammals of British India , 1, p. 300,

1939. Very similar specimens of this beautiful variety, recal-

ling a ‘sivler-fox’, were shot by St. G. Burke in the United Pro-

vinces.

May I remind some of your readers that the panthers of

Sind or at ail events of the Kirthar Range are of particular

interest and comparatively very little known to zoologists. On

the evidence of a single skin given to him by H. E. Watson,

Blanford pointed out in 1888 that this panther can be distin-

guished at a glance from the ordinary Indian and Ceylonese pan-

thers. This skin is in the British Museum, but the only other

skin of this race in the national collection is one from Waziristan

presented by Major D. G. Lowndes. A description of this race

may be found on p. 233 of my volume cited above. The value

that sportsmen attach to such handsome trophies as panther

skins, everyone understands ; but on behalf of the British Museum

I should like to make an appeal for either skins or skulls, pre-

ferably both, of this animal if they are available; and I may

add that damaged or ‘mangry’ skins not worth making into rugs or

women’s cloaks are just as interesting to the zoologist as per-

fect specimens.

Zoological Department, R. I. POCOCK.

British Museum (Natural History),

February 29, 1944.

II. — JACKALS ATTACKING DEER IN CEYLON.

The jackals of Ceylon appear to be somewhat larger than

those of S. India.

I have recently seen a remarkable cine picture of jackals

pulling down and killing an adult chital in a pool in Ceylon ; their

tactics and methods being exactly the same as those of the

Indian Wild Dogs.

R. C. MORRIS,

Lt.-Col.

III.— THE EASTERN RANGE OF THE HIMALAYAN

BROWN BEAR ( URSUS ARCTOS ISABELLINUS ).

In the second volume of the Mammals of British India , p. 173,

1941, I stated that the range of this bear in the Himalayas

was from ‘the Valley of Chitral in the west to the basin of

•the Bhagirathi in Tehri Garhwal in the east and possibly to

Nepal’ ; and I added a footnote suggesting that Horsfield’s

586 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

original specimen, recorded from the mountains of Nepal, was

perhaps a traded skin from Tehri Garhwal or Kulu. The doubt

thus expressed regarding its natural occurrence in Nepal was

due to my being unacquainted at that time with any record of

tlie bear having been shot or seen in that country. But Mr.

N. B. Kinnear has recently drawn my attention, to an account

by T. W. Webber in The Forests of Upper India, pp. 95-96,

1902, which runs as follows: — ‘Our light camp was pitched on

sloping ground in a considerable valley in Nepal, east of Kali,,

on the south bank of a rushing torrent which drained the ex-

tensive slopes of the lofty peak of Api .... At dusk we

searched the hillside with binoculars and sighted some burrhel

grazing, also a big brown bear. The black bear is usually

found in Kumaon , and the brown in Kashmir ; but a few of

the latter exist in these valleys’. Since the Kali river is the

boundary between Kumaon and Nepal, the occurrence of this

bear at all events in the extreme west of the latter country is

thus established and there is no longer any justification for

doubting the accuracy of Horsfield’s statement.

Zoological Department R. I. POCOCK.

British Museum (Natural History),

March 10, 1944.

IV.— BEAR HUNTING ON THE WULAR LAKE.

As I was writing a note after an early breakfast a shikara

(punt) arrived at my houseboat with an excited crew. I was

invited to join a bear hunt on the waters of the Wular Lake. A

solitary shikara half a mile away was following a black object

in the water heading for the opposite shore, some 3 miles off-

A man in the bows took occasional shots at the bear’s head with

a long crooked pole, which soon broke to bits. I refused, to

join the hunt, not being desirous of killing black bears in any

circumstances much less without a licence and the poor creature

defenceless. The deputation loaded its boat with as many big*

stones as it would safely carry and rejoined the chase closely

followed by another manned by my cook, waiter and sweeper.

While the bear was stoned from one boat, the cook in the other

kept ducking him with a long punt pole. At this stage the

bear began a series of roars that kept all craft at a distance,

but the cook braver than the rest resumed his method of attack

and literally dozens of boats joined in including a punt gunner

in his craft with its long matchlock gun. The final killing

was due to a combination of drowning and blows on the head

from an axe. The bear was hauled ashore and skinned, the

local forest guard insisting on taking the pelt and head to the

Forest Officer as evidence of a flagrant breach of the Game

Laws. My retriever daily eats bear steaks for his evening meal

and seems to like them. The bear had come into a village on

the shore of the lake and on being chased by dogs, took to-

the water. A similar killing took place further along the shore-

10 days previously. It is said that this year jungle fruits are

very poor and bears are hard put to get enough to eat. This

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

587

one was in fine condition but not fat. His stomach contained

walnut shells, honeycomb, a wasp’s nest, some bees and wasps,

grubs and a good many pieces of bone.

Srinagar, Kashmir. G. de la P. BERESFORD,

December 30, 1943. Major General.

V. — BREEDING SEASON OF THE INDIAN SAMBAR.

Throughout the great mass of the Central part of the Indian

Peninsula the rut takes place in the end of November or early

in December.

With an animal so widely distributed as the Sambar, living

under diverse conditions, one would expect departures from this

normality, but not anything, so diverse, as that reported by

Mr. Simon in his letter of January 21, 1943 ( Journ . B. N. H. S.y

Vol. xliv, No. 1, p. 1 18).

From that letter one gathers, that the antlers are shed in

May, and breeding takes place in late June, and early July:

this means that the rut takes place while the stag’s horns are

still in full velvet. So far as I am aware, this has never occurred

in the case of any other deer, anywhere. Apart from the

physical condition of the stag at the time, it is a complete negation

of one of the main raison d’etres of the growth of the horn.

It is notorious that one of the first effects of captivity in a

wild animal, is a disarrangement of the sex life, and it is prob-

able that the extraordinary facts, reported by Mr. Simon are

merely evidence of this disturbance having occurred, once again.

Elgin, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

Scotland.

November 16, 1943.

VI.— THE LARGER DEER OF INDIA:

A CORRECTION.

In my paper on the Chital and Hog-Deer published in the

issue of this Journal , December 1943, there is a misleading error

in the explanation of the text figure on p. 170. Fig. D in reality

represents the incisiform teeth of a Sambar and C those of a

Chital, not the other way about as stated. The very large median

and small lateral teeth are of course characteristic of the Chital

and FIog-Deer, not of the Sambar and other large deer previously

described.

Zoological Department, R. I. POCOCK.

British Museum (Natural History).

February 29, 1944.

VII.— MALFORMED HORNS OF THE GAUR

{BIBOS GAURUS).

\With a photo).

We enclose a photograph of a ‘Malformed’ bison skull, a most

interesting specimen, shot by H. H. The Maharaja of Mysore

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

Malformed horns of Gaur ( Bibos gaurus).

near Hanakere in the Biligirirangan Hills, Mysore. We feel

sure it will interest you and some of your readers.

Mysore, VAN INGEN & VAN INGEN.

January 24, 1944.

VIII.— OBSERVATIONS ON THE ELEPHANT AND OTHER

MAMMALS IN THE ANAMALAI HILLS OF COCHIN.

These notes were made in the northern area of the Anamalai Hills,

at an altitude of between fifteen hundred and two to three thousand

feet, during a month spent studying the fauna between February

1 2th and March 10th, 1944.

I. The Indian Elephant ( Elephas maximus indicus) : I have three

notes worthy of record. Taking them chronologically :

February 14 th : I was watching, from the opposite slope

of a narrow river valley, a herd of twenty-five to thirty elephants

moving through a bamboo thicket. They stopped occasionally

to feed, but were definitely on the move with loud cracking and

snapping of bamboos. One of the local forest guards with me

drew my attention to a full-grown bull which was lagging behind

the remainder and pushing his way about in a rather dense thicket,

giving us an occasional glimpse of him. Presently he appeared

at the lower edge of the thicket, just above the river-bed, where

he stood facing us, keeping quite still, but obviously on the alert.

A few moments later came a sudden crash, as another elephant,

up to now hidden, blundered out of the same thicket, and went

down into the dry bed of the river, perhaps fifty yards from the

tusker, and out of his sight. He did not follow, but showed

definite interest ; soon afterwards he disappeared silently a short

way into the bamboos, while the second animal remained motion-

less in the river bed. After two or three minutes, it climbed up

the bank on our side of the river, and into full view, to reveal

itself as a cow. She moved very silently along the bank, in the

opposite direction to the herd, through a thin growth of bamboo,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

589

as if on ‘tip- toe,’ and stopped after some forty yards. The

tusker meanwhile seemed to be making cautiously for her previous

position in the stream bed. Unfortunately darkness was falling,

and further observation was not possible.

. The whole episode savoured of a game of hide-and-seek, and

was, I assume, a phase of the courtship.

It is worth noting that there was at least one other tusker

with the herd, who showed no interest, but moved on with the

rest.

March 5 th: Going out late in the afternoon after wild pig, I

heard much crashing and rampaging in the undergrowth, not

far from the forest track ; I approached with my shikari as near

as I dared ; almost at once a big tusker reared up on his hind

legs above the bamboo, and lunged forwards — followed by a crash

as another bull, at which it was evidently aiming, lumbered off

out of sight. The first bull did not follow it, but remained still,

and the incident seemed over.

An hour later I was returning along the same path, and came

on him moving about in much the same area as before ; I sat

down to watch, and suddenly this bull, up to now comparatively

quiet, broke cover, and came past at full gallop, back arched and

all his ‘hackles’ up — a gigantic and terrifying spectacle — to hurl

himself into the thicket where the second animal had disappeared

some time before. Nothing further transpired, and the other had

evidently moved further on.

It was getting late, and I was unable to stop longer : but

some way further down the path, I came on the second beast

who had slipped well away to one side, and was standing motion-

less among the undergrowth.

The Kadar tribesmen of these hills and the forest guards inform

me that running fights between bull elephants are quite frequent;

and they maintain that it is the general rule for a tusker sooner

or later to develop a feud against another. These feuds are said

to be kept up intermittently over months or even years, and with

ever-growing intensity, until the climax is reached in a battle royal,

lasting several- days, and invariably ending in the death of one

or even both combatants. The final stages are said to be extreme-

ly noisy, and the tribesmen follow up at a safe distance to wait

for the ivory of the vanquished.

I was told that such fights are particularly common during'

the two or three months immediately preceding the rains.

March jth: I had come unexpectedly on a solitary bull, and beat

a rapid retreat to a safe distance. He turned off the forest track,

and after browsing a little, vanished into the forest. I was on

the point of continuing on, when another elephant appeared round

a bend in the path; this time a calf; it is naturally unheard of

for a calf to be on its own, or to lead the way at any time. But

very close behind it, there came into view the head and shoulders

of a big cow; the two of them advanced down the path, the calf

leading all the while, and both moving with extreme, exaggerated

slowness. From my cover, eighty yards distant I could only

wonder what so strange a reversal of normal habit might mean,

590 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

until, as the line of the track brought them into side view, the

mystery explained itself; for, hidden, almost invisible beneath' the

body of the mother was a second and minute calf, perhaps born

only few hours previously, and which I judged to be week old

at the most. As far as I could see it suckled continuously.

The pitiable reluctance of the larger calf — a picture of sulky

bewilderment — to ^ lead the way instead of trotting safely at its

mother’s side was comical to watch. It tried again and again to

turn back, only to be countered every time by a swing forward

of its mother’s head and trunk. She kept up a ceaseless rumbl-

ing-grumbling, which I took to be a wafning to her larger off-

spring to keep its place in front. Her skill and patience in

controlling simultaneously each of her two offspring was quite

remarkable. She moved at a shuffling walk, infinitely slow, stop-

ping at frequent intervals, adjusting her every movement to keep step

with the faltering pace of her newly-born calf. She as successfully

kept the older one at ‘trunk’s length’ in front, goading it forwards

away from its normal position, so preventing any risk of interference

with its diminutive brother or sister.

After some minutes she guided the party off the track, and

into a stretch of light jungle, where I did not care to follow her.

Size is notoriously difficult to estimate in the field, but the

larger calf appeared to be about four and a half feet at the shoulder

or rather less ; local opinion put its age at about two years. I

do not know at what intervals elephants are known to breed,

but in this instance, allowing for the recognised gestation period

of 641 days, and assuming the age of the larger calf as correctly

estimated, it seems that the two calves must have followed each

other in immediate succession, the mother being possibly in breed-

ing condition very soon after the first calf was born. It is curious

that the customary female helper or ‘nurse-maid’ which is known

always to assist with a calf, should have been absent, but I think

it likely, especially in view of the very slow movements of the small

calf, and the obvious bewilderment of the larger, that the smaller

one was not more than a few hours old, and the ‘helper’ had not

yet started on her duties.

I questioned the Kadar tribesmen and the forest guards con-

cerning the breeding season; they stated quite definitely that they

see small calves in every month of the year, and did not believe

the ‘Ana’ to have any fixed breeding season.

The brief glimpse of courtship, the pugnacity of the bulls,

and the additional fact that there were large bulls with every herd

I saw, indicate February and March — the two months preceding

the rains — as a time of breeding activity. On the other hand, the

newly-born calf I saw must have started existence about June 1942,

in the height of the rainy season.

II. Of the larger Game Animals, it is satisfactory to record that

Gaur ( Bos bibos gaums), Tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius), Sambar ( Rusa

unicolor ), Chital (Axis axis) and Mutjac (Muntiacus muntjak) all

seem to be maintaining their numbers well in the area. I found

Chital particularly numerous, and they are said to have increased

somewhat during the past few years. I saw a number of good stages.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

50 L

The Radar tribe have a definite Taboo against eating either

Sambar or Bison, but will take all other animals including the

Langur Monkey. I watched four to five herds of Bisson all of

which included large bulls, and I only saw one solitary bull. The

strange wailing, piping note, usually regarded as the breeding call

of the bull, was much in evidence. I came on one small calf,

possibly two to three months old.

The Tahr or ‘Nilgiri Ibex’ seems to be little disturbed; I saw

one herd of about twenty.

Chevrotain or Mouse Deer ( Moschiola meminna ) were like-

wise plentiful. I stumbled on one in a clump of Bamboo during

the heat of the day, it bounded out and stopped in open ground.

I kept perfectly still, and the little creature, though not more than

ten yards distant and in full view, seemed quite unable to locate

me, turning its head this way and that as if suspicious but puzzled.

I accordingly made a slight movement of my hand, of which

it took no notice. Nor could I get it to respond at all to any

movement, even when looking straight in my direction. To the

smallest noise however it was most sensitive, instantly turning in

the direction whence it came. These observations suggest that

the chevrotain is extremely short-sighted, or even blind by day.

The protective colouration of this charming little deer is quite

perfect. I heard a slight rustle one afternoon from beneath some

Lantana bushes, and it took me some minutes to make out a

mouse deer, crouched not five feet away, and this even though

the ground was almost bare.

They are occasionally caught and tamed by the Radars who

say that they become very docile and follow their master within

a few days of capture.

Tiger seem reasonably common in the hills, but black panther

are very scarce, although -common some years ago.

Of the three monkeys found in the Anamalais, the Nilgiri

Langur ( Kasi Johnii ) is abundant, but the forest Officer informed

me that they have shown some decrease during the past two or

three years, possibly from an epidemic. A limited number are shot,

mainly for the supposed medicinal value of the liver; they fetch

a price of fifteen rupees when sent down to the plains for thisf

purpose.

The handsome Lion-faced Macaque ( Macaca silenus ) is scarce.

I found it twice, once a male in loose association with a party of

Langurs, and also a family party of four or five feeding in a

Ficus tree, oddly enough in company with the Great Indian Horn-

bill ( Dichoceros bicornis).

I was intrigued to come on a party of the small Bonnet Macaque

(Macaca radiata) bathing in a river, jumping in from a foot or

more above the water, or hanging by their hands from fringing

Bamboos, and letting themselves drop. They swam round in all

circles, only the head above water, never venturing far out, and

with every sign of enjoyment.

The Malabar Squirrel ( Ratufa indi.ca maxima) was pleasantly com-

mon, as a rule in evergreen forest, but a few in purely deciduous

areas.

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The beautiful Stripe-necked Mongoose ( Herpestes vitticollis)

was also common, always alone, and always in marshy ground or

near water. Its long chestnut fur shows up from some distance.

It was very shy and wary, with extremely good powers of sight

and hearing.

I was anxious to find the Pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata ) known

in the hills as ‘Udumbu’, and a familiar animal to the Kadars

and forest guards, who described them as common, and sometimes

caught by dogs, especially after the rains ; but even the offer of

a substantial reward failed to produce a specimen.

14, A. B. P. O,. C. R. STONOR,

India. Captain .

March 10, 1944. 2nd Assam Regiment.

[No exact data on the rate of growth in elephants is available.

But some indication is provided in the note by Mr. Gordon Hundley

( Journ . B. N. H. S.} Vol. xxxvii, No. 2, p. 487) which gives

statistics of the rate of growth of calves, born in the stock of a timber

trading company in Burma. At birth the average height of 109

male and 111 female calves was about 3 ft. high. No increase in height

was registered in the first year. In the second year 8 male calves

averaged 4 '2" 15 females — 3' 11". In the third year, 7 males averag-

ed 4' 5". On this basis the 4' 6" calf observed by Captain Stonor

must have been quite 3 years old. The period of gestation has been

ascertained to be about 19 months, though it is said to vary from

18-22, as such impregnation for the second offspring must have taken

place at least a year or so after the first calf was born. It is a

common belief that most animals have well demarcated breeding

seasons. Critical investigation has shown, that while there may be

an annual period when breeding activity is more marked, a relatively

large number of animals breed throughout the year — particularly

in tropical countries. The frequent encounters between bull ele-

phants referred to by the author are preliminaries to the establish-

ment of lordship over the females. They occur as is shown, more

commonly between the onset of the hot weather and the commence-

ment of the rains — the period when breeding activity is more intense.

— Eds.]

IX.— BEARDED BEE-EATER (ALCEMEROPS ATHERTON I)

IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES.

I sent you recently some notes on, bird movements in the

C.P. When on tour near Pachmarhi recently I saw a single

specimen of the Bearded Bee-eater, Alcemerops athertoni. This is a

new locality for the species. In Mr. Osmaston’s list of Pachmarhi

birds published in your Journal No. xxviii, 457 as far as I remember,

he recorded hearing this bird but never saw it. It is not given in

D’Abreu’s list published in Vol. xxxviii.

Hoshangabad, C.P., C. HEWETSON.

April 8, 1944.

[Mr. Osmaston subsequently confirmed his original record by sight

(p. 805 of the same volume). Messrs. Salim Ali and H. Abdulali

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5P3

observed this bee-eater and Dauri (Hoshangabad Dist.) below

Pachmarhi on 21-1-1942. Its occurrence in this area now seems well

established — -Eds. ]

X.— A RECORD OF HODGSON’S FROGMOUTH

(. BATRACHOSTOMUS JAVENSIS HODGSONI) AND

THE COCHIN-CHINA SPINETAIL HIRUNDAPUS

CAUDACUTUS SSP. FROM NORTHERN BURMA.

While on active service recently in Burma I picked up (literally,

for both were picked up dead) two interesting- specimens which

I skinned and carried in my pack for many days.

The specimen of Hodgson’s Frogmouth was picked up on

May 8, 1944 in the Katha district near the Kachin village of Lamai

(Lat. 240 53r, Long. 96° 03') which is about 20 miles north-west

of Mohnyin on the Burma railway. It was found at 2,000 feet

on the path in bamboo jungle, with evergreen forest just below.

The Kachins said it was called Oo-koo in jinghpaw and Kinbok in

Burmese, was fairly common, and its call was po-chyi} po-chyi,

po-chyiy . . . , uttered rapidly ; this information may not be

reliable, and is given for what it is worth. The bird was in

moult, and proved very difficult to skin. Previous records of

Frogmouths from Burma are (writing from memory) from Mt.

Victoria, Karenni, and the Dawnas, but not all of these three are

Hodgson’s species.

The Cochin-China Spinetail was floating down the Nampang

stream (Lat. 25 0 24' Long. 96° o8;) in the Myitkyina district,

about 6 miles south of Haungpa on the Uyu river; elevation

700 feet, date May 14, 1944. In measurement (wing c. 190 mm.)

the specimen is intermediate between the measurements given in

the F.B.I.y 2nd edition, for the race nudipes and the race cochin-

chinensis, and may prove to be an interesting connecting link.

Again from memory, the only previous records of this species

from Burma are those of J, K. Stanford from the east of the

Myitkyina district,

Shillong. B. E. SMYTHIES,

May 29, 1944. Burma Forest Service.

[In his “Birds of Burma” Smythies records Hodgson’s Frog-

mouth from Mt. Victoria and in Karenni. The former is ca.

2 1 0 N . X94°E., the latter between i8-2o°N. x 96-98°E. — Eds.]

XI.— NOTE ON THE NESTING OF THE HIMALAYAN

SWIFTLET ( COLLOGALIA FUGIPHAGA).

Rumours of pot holes over 1,000 feet deep took me to Buina

Dhar above the ruined Buinathach Forest Rest-House in Chakrata

District, U.P. Here just below the top of a knife-edge ridge was

a fine open pot 110 feet deep and about 15 feet in diameter and

close by on the other side of the ridge a small opening blocked by

stones leading into a separate chamber with its floor 80 feet below

the opening.

594 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

The open pot expands downwards and at the lower portion is

about 60 feet long and 30 feet broad. From the bottom of the

shaft a slope of fallen boulders leads down N.N.W. along the long

axis of the pot. At the far end there is a small extension blocked

a few feet in by a rockfall cemented with calcite. Very little

ligfit penetrates from the shaft opening- and about fifty feet above

the floor there is* a gallery about four feet wide and here there is

a small triangular window about two feet wide and five feet high

leading into a second chamber. This second chamber continues

in the N.N'.W. direction and is about 40 feet long, 12 feet wide

and about 40 feet high. The floor slopes downwards from the

window, and from the far end one can turn back down a steep

slope and descend through an awkward squeeze into a small lower

chamber where there are some fine coloured calcite formations.

Elsewhere there is very little calcite formation.

As the open pot is on the cool shady side of the hill a strong

current of air passes down the shaft thence through the opening

into the second chamber and up through the small opening on the

sunny south-west side of tfie ridge.

Himalayan Swiftlets ( Collocalia fuciphaga) fly down the open

pot then through the window into the other chamber and nest

there in great numbers. Only the faintest glimmer of light enters

this chamber through this window and through the blocked open-

ing above, so that the birds are practically in complete darkness.

The window opening into the inner chamber must look like a black

void through which they fly. Hence, when I had lighted candles

in the inner chamber, and sat in the window, they seemed to mis-

take my silhouette for the opening and frequently hit me. So far

at least they appear to depend on sight to find their way.

At the end of May the birds are in residence with nesting acti-

vities in all stages from no eggs, — one new-laid egg, two eggs

under incubation, — to two half -fledged chicks. Only two eggs are

laid and these are white, and ellipsoidal with only a slight narrow-

ing at one end. The dimensions of the egg measured were length

20 mm., breadth 13.8 mm.

The nest is made of moss gummed in layers by means of the

viscid saliva which is also used to stick the nest to the vertical

rock wall, no use being made of rock ledges to support the nests.

The nest has an open cup about 2J inches diameter and f inch

deep, below the cup is a slightly tapering pedestal about 2 inches

thick. This pedestal perhaps represents growth of the nest, as a

result of the cup at the top receiving a new layer each year. The

rim of the cup is not horizontal but slopes down from the wall at

about 30° or more from the horizontal. The side of the nest

adhering to the wall projects upwards giving an increased bearing

surface. The nest is not lined and no feathers are used.

Beyond a slight excitement and twittering when we first en-

tered, the birds took little notice of us and continued their nesting

activities undisturbed. In the middle of the day they came in large

numbers and rested in clusters on the walls clinging in a vertical

position, head upwards on to minute roughness of the wall. Later

when climbing the ladder out of the cave one could pick an adult

bird off a nest and put it back again without causing undue alarm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

595

When the cave was visited in the last week of October, no

birds were present.

Nearly the whole floor of the inner chamber is covered with

the regurgitated dejecta of undigested insect remains. This is a

perfectly clean dark-brown material, devoid of smell; it cakes

slightly when damp, but breaks up readily into a fine sand. The

thickness of the layer of dejecta is about 2 feet, so there must be

not less than 200 cubic feet of this material showing that the

colony has occupied this cave for a very long period. The top

layers of the dejecta are coarse, but it gets gradually finer as one

gets lower. This fact and also the compaction with depth should

be taken into account in any calculation of the time necessary for

this accumulation. Below this there is an abrupt change to ordi-

nary cave earth.

By the end of May there is a thin white crust of guano over this

deposit, and there must be further accumulation during the sum-

mer, but by the end of October all of this has vanished. In May

the inner chamber is very dry, and it is no doubt on account of

this that it is chosen as a nesting place; in October the dampness

is not markedly greater, but the fact that the guano vanishes, and

that the predatory larvae of large beetles evidently find means of

living in the cave suggest that during the rains the humidity is

considerable. Insects are not common either in late May or late

October, and I have not visited the cave during the rains. It

would be interesting to do so. It is a speleological commonplace

that caves when dry will often be found apparently entirely devoid

of life, but the same cave under wetter conditions will be found

with a teeming population, and 1 would expect this to be the case

in this cave. During the dry period the fauna has hidden itself

away in inaccessible crevices.

A cave of this nature is certain to have an entirely different

type of fauna to that in caves without an organic deposit; it is

therefore not surprising that none of the insects, or myriapods

found here are to be found in the extensive caves further to the

west in the Chakrata forest division, where there are no Swifts.

Only the spiders may be the same.

In Swiftlet Pot the following has been found : —

Coleoptera: A carabid beetle ( Sphodropsis cnesipus (Andr.)).

A staphyline beetle.

Another beetle was seen, probably Cryptophagus sp. but it

escaped into a crevice.

Microlepidoptera : A small buff -winged moth, not flying to

light, common.

.Collembola: One species, very few seen.

Myriopoda: One species, several found, always deep down at

the junction between the dejecta layer and the cave earth.

Arachnida: One species.

Old adults of the carabid beetle were found in/ May on the

surface of the deposit, but in October a very recently emerged

specimen was found about six inches down in the layer of dejecta.

I think there is no doubt that the immature stages of this beetle

were spent in the cave.

7

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. NLlV

On iny first visit I was unaccompanied, and on this occasion

only descended the 110-foot pot, and failed to observe the window

into the inner chamber since this was hidden from below by the

ledge. In October 1942, with B. D. Leakey the inner chamber was

entered, and again in May 1943 when I was accompanied by E. J.

Douglas. BotJa are members of the British Speleological Associa-

tion and experienced Yorkshire pot-holers. On this latter occasion

a goat-herd guided us to two open holes in the wooded hill slopes

about half a mile away. A stone thrown down seemed to take

between 4 and 5 seconds before hitting the bottom with a dull

thud. All my rope ladders were tied together making a total of

152 feet, the last 30 feet being very old and flimsy. Down this

Douglas climbed and at the very foot of the ladder found himself

hanging in space far out of sight of the bottom, which must have

been at least 100 feet further down, and so up again — hard work at

nearly 9,000 feet above sea level.

Ail this time swiftlets were diving down straight out of the

sunlight into the black shaft and going down in steep spirals in

pitch darkness to their nests 300 feet or so below ground. Nests

started 50 feet down, but the majority were far below the bottom

of the ladder. These two open pots are about 50 yards apart and

are almost certainly connected below perhaps by some great cavern.

Here then is an interesting piece of exploration yet to be done,

but not one to be undertaken without careful planning and with

a strong party.

The situation of these caves is as follows : —

Chakrata District, U.P.

Chakrata Eorest Division.

Bawar Bange, Ivudog Deserved Eorest.

Swiftlet Pot. Lat. 30° 45' 20"; long. 78° 00' 35"; height

8,525 feet on Biuna Dhar. It is about 20 yards north of the path

where it crosses the ridge.

Swift Holes. Lat. 30° 45' 11"; long. 78° 00' 18"; height

8,550 feet. They are little below on the north side of the ridgu

about 200 yards north-west of point 8837 amongst trees.

The following Survey of India maps should be consulted : —

J inch to 1 mile map 53 J /NW ; Eorest map 4 inches to 1 mile

53 J/l S.2.

Water is scarce and is only to be obtained from below the

Buinathach E.E.H. or on the way to Kudog E.B.H.

Accompanied by H. J. Larwood, I revisited the Biunathach area

in May 1944. The year was a late one and there were still a few

drifts of snow at 9,000 feet on the Mandali road beyond Deoban

on 7th May. Descending Swiftlet Pot on 9th May, we found all

the nests with two eggs apiece, but the birds were not yet

sitting and there were no chicks. The temperature in the upper

chamber was 48° E. One bird was secured and sent to the

Society enabling the previous identification to be confirmed. No

ecto-parasites were found on it.

At the place where I had delved two feet into the insect

dejecta and had disturbed the cave earth below, some bacterial

activity had been released. A buried stone ‘was found covered

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

597

with white slime, and the dejecta from a few inches below the

surface had been transformed into a smooth black viscous mess

apparently extending to the bottom. Elsewhere the dejecta was

unchanged and as previously described. This bacterial action is

a new phase, and if it extends over the whole mass of dejecta,

conditions in the cave will be profoundly altered.

On 10th May, with Larwood at the top supervising the life-

line, I descended the lower of the two Swift Holes, which had

been abandoned the previous year owing to shortage of tackle.

The bottom was reached at the end of 'a 243 feet pitch, the rope-

ladder hanging clear of the rock all the way down. At the bottom

is a hall 18 feet wide and 50 feet long, 30 feet high at the lowest

part.

The entry shaft is situated close to the lowest end of the hall

and here, looking* upwards, daylight can be dimlv seen. The hall

slopes upwards rising about ten feet to the further end ; here an

aven evidently leads to the Upper Swift Hole, but it is now blocked.

At some time there has been a great fall of clean angular lime-

stone chips usually less than six inches long. This seems to point

to very insecure conditions in the upper cave. The fall of stone

has blocked what may be a passage extension leading out of the

hall at the aven end. At this end too but on the opposite side,

a narrow fissure goes on, too small to penetrate. Down this also

some small limestone chips had flowed. Looking along this fissure,

as far as one could see the lefthand wall was coated with a polished

calcite layer coloured, to a height of five feet or so, a livid blood

red, perfectly uniform in hue and very startling in appearance.

I have never seen anything to equal this.

Conditions in the hall were damper than in Swiftlet Pot.

There were several large mounds of insect deiecta with the normal

sandy consistency. The temperature in the hall was 48^° E. Nests

started fifty feet down the shaft and continued to the bottom and in

the hall itself, always located at the drvest and most sheltered parts.

Only one or two nests had two eggs, all the rest had one egg only on

this date. Both in this cave and in Swiftlet Pot the nests are always

separate, usually a foot or more apart and never in clusters.

Attempts to raise the rope ladders failed. Thev had jammed

somewhere. Probably the surplus fifty feet at the bottom got

into a tangle. Finally the ropes were cut and the ladders dropped

down.

Cecil Hotel, Delhi. E. A. GLENNIE.

November 5, 1943. Col.

XII. THE MYSTFRV OF BIB D-t ANTING’

(REPRODUCED FROM COUNTRY LIFE— NOVEMBER

5> *9A3)-

One of the minor ornithological mysteries is why birds use

ants as part of their toilet. Whatever the explanation may be,

the habit has been attested too. often by various observers in

several countries for there to be anv doubt about its occurrence.

Charles K. Nichols, writing in the American bird iournal Auk,

savs he saw on his lawn an American robin/which is similar to

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

a British thrush, going through some remarkable actions. The

bird picked up something from the ground and then quickly placed

it under one of its partly opened wings and sometimes on the

underside of its tail. Frequently the bird lost its balance and fell

on its back. In addition to these actions it sometimes pressed its

breast to the grass and partly rotated its body with the breast

as pivot.

Later another robin appeared on the scene, drove the first one

away and after settling on the same spot on the lawn went through

similar actions. The second robin was in turn replaced by a

third which occupied the favoured spot for a few minutes. There-

after the birds took ‘turn and turn about’. When Nichols exa-

mined the spot, while the birds were momentarily frightened away

he found a swarm of about ioo ants milling excitedly about a

space a foot or so square.

The next observation concerns two tame jays which used to

fly about a farm. Whenever an ants’ nest was laid bare in the

course of the farm work the two birds trod on it, and this stimu-

lated the ants to shower the birds’ feathers with their acid ejec-

tions. Sometimes the jays wallowed in the nest. They often

raised their tails and sat down and then almost immediately turned

on their shoulders. The jays stayed on the nest for periods up

to a quarter of an hour. They then flew away and shook and

preened themselves as after a water bath.

One other field observation may be given. Josselyn Van Tyne

prefaces the following record of what he saw by the statement :

‘I never fully believed in the occurrence of this most improbable

phenomenon (bird ‘anting’) until I recently saw it with my own

eyes.’

Soon after sunset one evening in July, he writes, he saw

a male American robin preening itself on the lawn 15 feet from

his window. ‘The bird was preening much more vigorously than

is customary and his actions were further remarkable for the fre-

quency with which he preened in a single motion the whole outer

edge of the wing from wrist to tip. In fact, this wing preening

was done so violently that the bird repeatedly fell down at the

end of the preening motion, and once this ended in a complete

somersault.

‘Sometimes the bird preened the tail or body plumage, but

more often he concerned himself with the wing. Almost imme-

diately I noticed that nearly every preening was preceded by a

hasty picking of some small object from the ground, and I realis-

ed thab here at last was a bird “anting”. Several times the robin

crouched and seemed to rub its body aeainst the ground.’

To these and the many other existing records of observations

on anting there has recently been added a complete account of

the habit witnesed under controlled conditions. H. R. Ivor scat-

tered some earth, containing several hundred ants, over a part

of the floor of his aviary and then he lay down on the ground

close to the birds to watch their reactions. Some of the birds

actually anted on his hand. Sixteen experiments were carried

out altogether and 20 out of the 31 species of birds in the aviary

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

59t>

•were observed ‘to ant.’ About a score of other species have been

reported by other observers to ant.

Ivor says: ‘The moment an ant was sighted by any bird

-which anted, there seemed to be an instantaneous and instinctive

reaction. The ant was picked up and held in the tip of the bill;

the eyes were partly closed; the wing was held out from the

hody but only partly spread ; the wrist was drawn forward and

raised, thus bringing the tips of the primaries far forward and

touching the ground ; the tail was always brought forward and

under to some extent, on the same side as the extended wing,

and often so far that the feet were placed upon it. Stepping on

the tail at times' caused the bird to fall on its side or even on its

back. ’

The bird seizing the ant rubbed it swiftly only on the ven-

tral surface of the primary^wing feathers. After being used for

anting the ant was often, though not invariably, eaten.

Enthusiasm for anting varied with the season, the favourite

period being between April and July. Ivor adds: ‘During the

height of the anting season the act of anting seemed to engender

a state of ecstasy so overwhelming that even domination and

enmity were forgotten ..... at times from twenty to thirty

birds would be going through the performance at one time on

a space of four of five square feet, where they were continually

bumping against one another. ’

Confirmation of Ivor’s belief that anting is instinctive is found

in the reactions of young birds when confronted with ants. Young

starlings, taken from the nest and given some ants, dressed their

plumage just as in the case of adult birds. A young dipper when

first presented with some ants, seized one after another in its

beak and passed them through its feathers.

Why do birds ant themselves? Various theories have been

propounded. One suggestion is that the bird is stimulated by

the crawling of the insects, their tiny bites and acrid secretions.

The pleasure may be akin to that derived from the ruffling of

a bird’s feathers by a human hand.

Another suggestion is that birds resort to anting to rid them-

selves of parasites. The formic acid secreted by ants has antisep-

tic properties. Birds have been seen to hold ants, in a way that

would indicate that the bird was trying to make the ants spray

their acid on the feathers. Incidentally, a tame jay has been

known to intercept the spurting sap from an orange that was

being peeled. The bird went through the motions of bathing at

the same time. This behaviour occurred more than once.

One observer says he has seen ants seize the parasites on a

crow which was anting and bear them away. In this connec-

tion it is interesting to' learn that in some parts of the world ants

are sometimes used to remove vermin from clothes. The infec-

ted garments are placed on large ant-hills and, when collected,

they are found to be freed from vermin.

One other apparent use of anting was mentioned long ago

by Audubon. He says young Eastern turkeys ‘roll themselves

in deserted ants’ nests to clear their growing feathers of the

loose stales and prevent ticks and other vermin from attacking

7 A

(500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV

them, these insects being unable to bear the odour of the earth:

in which ants have been. ’

[The subject of Birds ‘anting’ themselves was first raised in the

Journal by Mr. B. B. Osmaston. ( Journ . B.N.H.S. , Vol. XIX, p. 752)

In a later issue (Vol. XXXIII, Nq. 4, Mr. Salim Ali published a

number of recorded instances and gave the various theories offered in

explanation of the curious habit. Further notes appeared in

Vol. XXXIX, No. 1, p. 182 (B. B. Osmaston) and p, 640 (T. Bain-

bridge Fletcher) ; Vol. XLII, p. 935 (N. G. Pillai).— Eds.] '

XIII— EGG-LAYING PERIOD OF THE COMMON INDIAN

MONITOR.

Having read Mr. Charles McCann’s remarks on the appear-

ance of the young of Varanus monitor (L.) in this Journal , Vol.

XLII, No. 1 dated December, 1940, I record the following inci-

dent of eggs having been laid at an apparently unusually early

period.

At the end of October, 1942, a friend of mine captured an

adult specimen of this reptile on Elephanta Island, Bombay. After

'examination I found that it was a gravid female and decided

to take it back' to my room for further observation ; it was placed

in a sack, therefore, and so transported back by launch to Colaba

on the 1 st November. On removing it from the Sack', I was

surprised to find that one egg had already been laid during the

short journey. After this it was given the freedom of my room

and appeared to make itself quite at home, as it entered a drawer

in the dressing-table and deposited some more eggs amongst my

clothes ! This was on the 2nd November when three eggs were

laid, followed on the 3rd by the fifth egg. The following day,

unfortunately, the monitor had to be returned to Elephanta Island

owing to circumstances which prevented me keeping it for further

observations. At the time it was ’ returned, however, another

seven eggs could be distinctly felt through the skin on either

side of the belly, thus making a total of twelve eggs in all.

The specimen referred was 3 feet 5 inches long, the tail account-

ing for 2 feet of this.

Ordnance Depot, J. D. ROMER,

Bombay, Sergeant .

February 2jth, 1944.

XIV. — A GOOD METHOD OF WEIGHING FISH WHICH

ARE TOO HEAVY FOR A SPRING BALANCE.

In the Miscellaneous Note No. XIII in Journal No. 4, Vol. XLIII

on ‘Record Mahseer’ by Col. R. W. Burton, I notice that two of

these big fish had to be halved in order to weigh them. This prompts

me to remind your members of the ‘Principle of Moments’.

All that is required for this method is a long, strong stick (of

fairly even cross section) and a measure. Hanging the fish on one

FRANK LANE

( With a text-figure.)

ourn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Pathysa nomius , Esp. (Aberration) . 3. Argynnis lathonia issoca, Db. (Melanism) .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

601

end and a known weight on the other, balance the stick on any con-

venient object, thus : —

Then W x D = F x d.

Edinburgh.

^ 56 x 39 n .

F - — — — = 104 lbs.

A. P. MILLARD.

XV.— SOME INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES.

( With a coloured plate.)

1 Pathysa nonius nomius, Esperance. £ Aberrant (fig. 1.)

Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 19-2-1942 at 1,350' after a period,

of normal weather. Expanse:, 76 mm.

The main characteristics of this remarkable aberration are as

follows : On the forewing, in the cell, bands 2 and 4 are entirely

absent; on the upper side, there is no spot below band 3, though it is

present on the underside. The submarginal spots are enlarged.

On the hindwing-, the two bands are narrow, the tornal grey area

is absent, and the arrangements of spots and lunules there is unusual.

2. Pathysa nomius nomius, Esperance. Normal (fig. 2.)

Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 20-5-1941 at 1,350'. Given for

comparison. Expanse : 80 mm.

3. Argynnis lathonia issoea, Doubleday. <$ Melanistic (fig. 3.)

Caught at Narkanda, Simla Hills, on 19-6-1940 at 9,000' after a

period of normal weather. Expanse : 56 mm.

This specimen seems to be a melanism, an unusual type . of

aberration among butterflies. The main characteristics are as

follows : The whole upperside is of a deep blackish brown, over-

laid with golden-brown scales in the basal area and in places along

the veins.

Most of the discal area of the under forewing is deep brown but

the basal area and along the veins is yellowish. On the under hind-

wing the lines and patches between the silver spots are blackish-

brown and some of the spots are modified. The two large interior

spots in 7 are joined.

4. Argynnis lathonia issoea, Doubleday. Typical (fig. 4.)

Caught at Simla in April at 6,500'. Given for comparison.

Expanse : 60 mm.

5. Melanitis phedima varaha, More. 9 Aberran? (fig 5.)1

Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 14-8-1942 at 1,350'. Expanse:

82 mm.

1 Further similar specimens since caught point to the possibility of this being a

variety of Zitenius.

€02 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV

I have been unable to find any satisfactory description of the

female of Phedima varaha. As this specimen seems to be so different

from other Melanitis females, I suspect that it is an aberration, but

even if it is typical I feel that a description will be useful.

Phedima varaha is rare in the Southern Nilgiris and this is the

only female I have caught; consequently, I have no local specimens

with which ito compare it. I have, however, caught three males and

these all answer to Evans’ description of that sex.

This female was caught in the middle of August and may be safely

assumed to be a W.S.F. Nevertheless the underside is not ocellated,

there being only vestigial white spots. The background of both

underwings is of a bright ochreous colour with well-marked disca!

lines.

On the upper forewing there is a well-defined black mark at the

end of the cell and beyond it. The costa is ferruginous-ashy,

broadening to a blighter ferruginous patch beyond the black mark,

which shades into an ill-defined lighter-brown area that reaches the

termen. There are no traces of black and white spots in 3 and 4.

Evans gives the measurements of this race as 60 to 70 mm : my

four specimens vary from 78 to 82 mm. Kallar, however, from which

place three of these come, specialises in ‘giants’.

6. Terias hecabe simaluta. More d Albinistic (No fig.).

Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 1-3-1942 at i,35o;. Expanse:

39 mm.

In this specimen all the marginal markings are of a very deep

brown, not black, and the disc of both wings is white, very faintly

tinged with greenish yellow.

Melanisms and albinisms are easily explained by excess, or lack,

of pigmentation. But what are the causes behind such a remarkable

sport as No. 1? It would be interesting to have information about

any theories that have been advanced to explain such aberrations.

Is No. 1 a new species in the making?

All the figures shown are slightly enlarged.

Ketti (Nilgiris). M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH, M.A.

(Cantab.).

XVI.— A NEW VARIETY OF PAPAYA: CARICA PAPAYA VAR

FLA VA FROM TRAVANCORE.

(With 3 text-figures.)

In connection with a study of the different sex types of Carica

papaya we have collected more than one hundred samples of seeds

of various varieties of papaya from the different tropical and sub-

tropical countries where it is cultivated. Plants have been raised

from sixty of these varieties and they are all growing very well (in

the Economic Botanist’s area in the Agricultural College, Poona),

in spite of the great change of climate to which some of them have

been subjected. In papaya, classification into varieties have been

done on a purely arbitrary basis, so much so, that the same variety is

known under different names in different places. However, there are

quite unmistakable varieties like the ‘Solo papaya’, the Melon

papaya’, the ‘Washington papaya,’ and a few others. Observations

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

603

made on a large number of ‘varieties’ show no marked differences

among them. The only differences are in size and shape of fruits, slight

variations in size of the plants, and variation in flavour of the fruit.

These differences between varieties, however, are not greater than

what have been observed within the same variety. Only the sample

of seeds, received from Travancore, gave rise to plants of uniform

habit and character, distinctly different from any other variety in our

collections. Reference to available literature shows that this type

has not been described previously. The basis on which species

classification has been made in Carica by Heilborn (1936) would

permit this new variety being taken as a distinct species. Till more

is known about the taxonomy of the whole genus, we feel, it would

be better to assign it only the rank of a distinct variety.

Carica papaya var. travancorica :

The plant has an unbranched erect stem, 10-15 feet high, straight

and cylindric with numerous leaf-scars arranged in an ascending

spiral. The whole plant is yellowish in colour and is thus markedly

different from other varieties.

Fig. 1. — Plants of Carica papaya var. travancorica.

Stem is yellowish, with brown patches. Leaf-scars are whitish

with brown tinge. The ieaves are very crowded at the apex and

give the plant a semi-circular contour at the top. Leaves yellowish

green, leaf-stalk yellow, base of leaf with overlapping lobes; lobes 7

to 10 and as many as main veins, which are of a lighter yellow than

the blade.

Plants female or hermaphrodite; males absent.

Female. — Flowers in simple or modified cymose inflorescence

(usually 3 flowers in one) in the axils of leaves. Terminal flowers

only functional ; 4-6 cms. long, 3-4 cms. across, stalk short and thick.

Calyx with prominent yellow lobes, pointed, 0.5-1 cm. long, and

alternating with petals. Petals yellowish white, 5-6 cms. long,

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLIV

1-1.5 . cm. broad, contorted, lower part boat-shaped, upper linear

with rounded apex, glabrous. Ovary large, 3-4 cms. long, 2-2.5

ems. broad, deep yellow, glabrous, very indistinctly five-grooved,

each carpel opposite a petal, syncarpous, one celled, with parietal

normal green variety (right).

placentation and many ovules. Stigma distinctly five branched, 1-1.5

cm. thick, reddish, with good flavour. Seeds not so numerous as in

the green papaya. Seeds 0.5 cm. long, 0.3 cm. broad, ovate, light

brown colour enclosed in a transparent gelatinous aril. Size of fruit

varies from 10-15 cms. long, by 8-12 cms. broad; nearly spherical.

Hermaphrodite. — Flowers similar to female in size and colour of

parts, varying number of small stamens from 5 to 10 present. Some-

times filaments adhere to carpels and not infrequently one or two of

the fine carpels may be free at the upper region. Fruit shape pyri-

form, slightly distorted and distinctly five-grooved. Flavour as good

as the fruits from the female. Both sex types bear a large number

of fruits from as low as one foot from the ground under Poona con-

ditions, though in Tranvancore the more humid climate promotes

greater vegetative growth and fruits appear only higher up the plant.

Notes. — -This is a very distinct type from the ordinary green

papaya. The junior author has observed these plants for a number

of years in Travancore, but not elsewhere. Probably it grows in

other parts of the West Coast also. Nothing is known about its

origin or history. No male plants have been ever seen in Travancore

and in our plantation here with forty plants of this variety, there is

an approximately equal proportion of females and hermaphrodites,

but not a single male plant. This would show that it is a fixed

variety distinct from others. In this connection it is interesting to

note that Heilborn (1921), during his travels in South America, noted

the absence of male plants in certain species of Carica, — C. chryso-

petala and C. pentagona , both of which have parthenocarpic fruits.

He also mentions that Jameson (1865) described two cultivated

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

605

species of Carica, in which he failed to find *any male individuals.

Apart from the distinct morphological differences, it is also noted

that the latex content of the Travancore papaya, is much less.

Fig. 3. — Seedlings of yellow papaya Carica p. var. travancorica (left) and

normal green papaya (right).

Genetical studies on this variety have been started with a view to

finding the cause of absence of males in this variety and also to study

the inheritance of the yellow colour.

Due to its attractive appearance and almost ‘bushy’ growth, this

variety should prove to be of great horticultural interest.

The authors are indebted to Mr. A. T. Abraham of Travancore

for kindly supplying the seeds of the variety described above.

College of Agriculture, L. S. S. KUMAR,

Poona, . A. ABRAHAM.

10th March , 1944.

REFERENCES.

Heilborn, O. (1921) — Taxonomical and cytological studies on cultivated

Ecuadorian species of Carica. Arkiv For Botanik

K. Svenska Vetenskaprakademien. Band 17, No. 12,

pp. 1-16.

— — — * — • (1936) — Taxonomical studies on Carica. Sartryck our Svensk

Botanisk Tidskrift. Bd. 30, H. 3, 1936, pp. 217-22.

Jameson, G. (1865) — Synopsis plant arum Auquatoriensium. ' Quito (quoted by

Heilborn, 1921).

XVII.' — THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES .

In a recent note in this Journal, Mr. C. McCann invited the help

of readers interested in Botany for fixing the date of flowering of the

various species of Strobilanthes. It may be of interest to jot down a

few notes on three different species which have been observed in

flower during recent years.

1. Strobilanthes callosus , Nees. This plant is very common on

the slopes and tops of Echo Point and Bhoma Hills in Khandala; it is

also pretty common in the ravines among the undergrowth of certain

606 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV

parts of the forest. Generally, however, it favours an open situation,

and with its dense foliage shades every other plant out of existence.

The first time this plant was observed in flower was in September

1942; flowering was then very sporadic, as only a few shrubs came

into flower from the many plants forming the large Strobilanthes

clumps. The following year during the months of August-October

there was a veritable riot of flowers ; buds appeared in J une, and at

that time the hillsides seemed covered with a pinkish hue due to the

colour of the bracts ; shortly afterwards, with the opening of tlie

flower, the colour scheme changed to a rich cobalt blue. This

plant usually grows to a height of about 8 feet about Khandala, occa-

sionally it reaches 15 feet in height; but even when the plant was only

18 inches high, the whole plant was a mass of cobalt blue flowers. By

December 1943 all the flowers had disappeared, and the plant was

then densely covered with glandular hairs with a strong, persistent

and rather pleasant odour. At the beginning of the rains in 1944,

the ground seemed to be covered with the seeds of Strobilanthes ;

when passing near a clump of such plants, one could often hear a

series of slight ‘explosions’ caused by the bursting of the fruits and

observe the seeds being scattered in all directions to a distance of

several feet from the plant.

2. Strobilanthes ixiocephalus , Benth. This plant was first

noticed in flower in March 1942; the flowers, when newly opened, are

of a pale sky blue colour, but as they advance in age, they turn very

pale lilac or practically white. All through the second half of 1943,

and up to May 1944 the plant has been in full bloom. In contrast to

S. callosus , this species is to be found only in dense, shady forests,

and though of a somewhat gregarious habit, it grows either solitary

or more often in small clumps. The scent of the oil from the glandular

hairs covering the fruit is strong and unpleasant, not very different

from that of Pogostemon parviflorus.

3. • Strobilanthes perfoliatus , Anders. For the last four years we

have been watching a plant, which from its general habit and

appearance seemed to be one of the Acanthaceae. Flowers were

seen and collected for the first time on November 5th, 1943; towards

the end of December 1943 flowering was at its height; by the end of

March of this year, there was only an occasional flower to be seen.

5. perfoliatus is not so conspicuous in colour which is light violet, or

size of its flowers, as by the numerous glandular hairs covering the

whole of the inflorescence, even whilst the plant is in flower; when

such hairs were pressed or merely stroked with the hand, a very strong

and sweet scent was obtained which was strongly reminiscent of that

of Juniper. 5. perfoliatus grows in open situations, in clumps of

12-15 feet in diameter. Wherever the plant was seen especially in

the fruiting stage, there were large numbers of insects hovering

about and feeding on its fruit ; and this may account for the relative

scarcity of the plant in Khandala and elsewhere.

St. Xavier's College, H. SANTAPAU, s.j.

Bombay.

4 th July 1944.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, iS CHURCH ROAD,

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