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Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

,5 oc,.

B 7 X

Vol. 69, No. 1

Editors

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

J. C. DANIEL Sc P. V. BOLE

APRIL 1972

Rs. 18 (Inland), £ l-50 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions :

1 . Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binominals should be used.

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preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints ; Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders

for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

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of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and

packing.

Editors,

Hombill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society .

Singh Road,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 69 No. 1— APRIL 1972

Date of Publication : 18-9-1972

CONTENTS

y/k

On the Southern Racket-tailed Drongo Die rums paradiseus paradiseus

(Linn.). By K. K. Neelakantan. {With eight figures in a plate)

Colour vision in an Indian Fish Anabas testudineus (Cuv.). By B . B. Jana and

N.C.Sukul. {With two text-figures)

Observations on the Vegetation of the Upper Damodar Catchment Area.

ByS.N.Mitra

An ecological Survey of the larger Mammals of Peninsular India. By

M. Krishna n. {With ten plates)

Ixodid Ticks (Acarina : Ixodidae) parasitizing wild birds in the Kyasanur

Forest disease area of Shimoga District, Mysore State, India. By

P. K. Rajagopalan. {With a map and two text-figures)

Infestation of Euryale ferox Salisb. by larvae of Nymphula crisonalis Walker

and trials on its Control. By S. R. Banerji. ( With four text-figures)

Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography. By B. K. Tikader

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society — 11 . By Humayun Abdulali

A NEW FISH OF THE FAMILY GOBIIDAE FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY. By V. VisweS-

wara Rao. {With a text-figure)

A new Genus and Species of Fish from India. By G. M. Yazdani. {With a

text-figure)

On a new Species of Anchovy of the genus Coilia Gray, 1831. By S . Dutt and

B. V. Seshagiri Rao. {With a text-figure)

Keys to the Identification of Plant remains in Animal droppings. By

Savitha Satakopan. {With three plates)

A new Genus and Species of Fruit Bat from South India ( Chiroptera :

Pteropodidae) By Kitti Thonglongya ( With six plates)

Studies in Cyperaceae — V. Novelties in Fimbristylis (L.) Vahl. By

E. Govindarajalu. {With three plates)

Reviews :

1. Ecological isolation in birds. (S.A.)..

2. The control of injurious Animals. (D.E.R.)

3. The world of the Jaguar. (G.V.B.)

4. Forest Flora of Gujarat State. (P.V.B.)

5. Indian insect life. (R.R.)

6. Life with Daktari. (R.R.)

7. The Roe Deer of Cranborne Chase. (P. Kannan)

10

16

26

55

79

91

102

130

134

136

139

151

159

165

166

167

168

169

170

170

Miscellaneous Notes :

Mammals : 1. Occurrence of Rhinopoma hardwickei Gray, 1831, the Lesser

Rat-tailed Bat in a humid area of coastal Mysore. By H. R. Bhat and M. A.

Sreenivasan (p. 172) ; 2. Nilgiri Tahr {Hemitragus hylocrius) ‘ Saddle Backs’.

By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 173) ; 3. Birth of an Indian Pangolin {Manis crassicau-

data) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 174) ; 4. Some obser-

vations on distribution of Zoo births among common wild Mammals. By L. N.

Acharjyo and G. S. Padhi (p. 175).

Birds : 5. The Grey Partridge {Francolinus pondicerianus) in the Bombay

Konkan. By Editors (p. 178) ; 6. The Genus Cuculus : two amendments to the

‘ Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan ’. {With a text-figure). D. R.

Wells (p. 179) ; 7. Occurrence of the Egyptian Nightjar Caprimulgus aegyptius

aegyptius Lichtenstein in Baluchistan. By Humayun Abdulali and S.A. Hussain

(p. 185) ; 8. Northern Range of the Eastern Palm Swift [Cypsiurus parvus in -

fumatus (Sclater)]. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 186);

9. Movement of Bly th’s Reed Warbler {Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth) through

Point Calimere. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju, P. B. Shekar and P. j. Selvin

(p. 186) ; 10. The Ecology of the Baya in Rajampet, Cuddapah Dt., A.P. {With

a map). By D. N. Mathew (p. 188).

Reptiles : 11. Some notes on the Sea Snake Laticauda colubrina (Schneider).

By R. J. Pimento (p. 191) ; 12. Cannibalism and feeding in two Snakes, Trime-

resurus albolabris and Ahaetulla nasutus. By Paul S. Soderberg (p. 192).

Amphibia : 13. Occurrence of Ceylon Kaloula : {Kaloula pulchra taprobanica

Parker) (Family : Microhylidae) at Tambaram, Tamil Nadu. By Simon G.

Rajasingh (p. 193).

Fishes : 14. The Deep Sea Spined Dog Fish Centrophorus armatus (Gilchrist)

(Selachii : Sualidae) from the East Coast of India with a note on its taxonomy.

{With a map and a text-figure). By R. V. Nair and S. Lai Mohan (p. 193) ;

15. A note on the location of breeding pits of Mystus seenghala (Sykes)

in Jamonia Tank near Bhopal. {With a text-figure) . By V. R.DesaiandK. J.

Rao (p. 199) ; 16. Rain of Fish in Shillong, Meghalaya. {With a photograph).

By R. S. Pillai and S. J. S. Hattar (p. 202).

Arachnida : 17. The nomenclatural status of Heterometrus and Palamnaeus

(Scorpionidae). By Herbert L. Stahnke (p. 205).

Insecta : 18. New records of (Nitidulid and Rhizophagid Beetles on Maize

Cobs in the U.P. Tarai. By Y. S. Rathore and C. S. Sengar (p. 208) ; 19. A

convenient method of rearing Tiger Beetles (Coleoptera : Cicindelidae) in the

Laboratory for biological and behavioural studies. By A. B. Scans and J. S.

Soans (p. 209) ; 20. Cannibalism in the Coffee Bean Weevil Araecerus fasciculatus

De Geer (Coleoptera : Anthribidae). By J. S. Soans and A. B. Soans (p. 210) ;

21 . A simple case of learning in the Ant, Camponotus sp., (Hymenoptera: Formi-

cidae). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 211) ; 22. Larval parasites of

Pseudaletia separata (Walker). By O. P. Katiyar and R. R. Rawat (p. 212) ; 23.

A new record of alternate host of Armyworms. By V. P. Gargav, O. P. Katiyar

and R. K. Patel (p. 213) ; 24. Preliminary observations on use of ‘ Malarial

“ B ” ’, A larvicidal oil in the control of aquatic insects in Nursery Ponds. By

V. R. Desaiand K. J. Rao (p. 214).

Trematodes : 25. Trematode Gill parasites from the Flying Gurnard Dacty -

loptena orientalis (Cuv.) of the Indian Ocean. {With three text-figures). By

R. V. Unnithan (p. 217) ; 26. A new Monogenetic Trematode Sauricotyle

sprostoni Gen. et sp. n. on the Gills of the Lizard Fish Saurida tumbil (Bloch)

from the Arabian Sea. {With four text-figures). By R. V. Unnithan (p. 220).

Equipment : 27. Note on a simple device for the ra^id sorting of benthic sam-

ples. {With two text-figures). By A. Daniel and V. K. Premkumar (p. 225).

Botany : 28. On the occurrence of Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell

(Onagraceae) in Western India. By C. R. Babu (p. 227) ; 29. Occurrence of

Cochlearia cochleariodes (Roth) Sant. & Mah. & Campanula benthamii Wall.

exKitamurain Gujarat State, India. By D.N.ThakerandS.D. Sabnis (p.227) ;

30. Two new plant records for India from Kashmir. {With two plates). By

M. K. Kaul (p. 229) ; 31 . Family Eriocaulaceae in Kolhapur and its environs.

By A. R. Kulkarni and M. H. Desai (p. 231) ; 32. Distribution of Gelidiella

acerosa (Forskal) Feldmann & Hamel. {With a map). By P. Sreenivasa Rao

(p. 235) ; 33. Record of Draparnaldia acuta Kutz. from Gujarat. {With a text-

figure). By B. S. Vaidya and I. A. Patel (p. 237) ; 34. On the Germination of

Cocoa Seeds . {With a photograph) . By S. S . Kelkar and C. S. Lattoo (p. 239) ;

35. Seasonal variation in chemical constituents of some aquatic plants.

By K. Sankaran Unni (p. 242) ; 36. Studies in Cyperaceae IV. Notes

on Scleria rugosa R. Br. and its complex. {With a plate). By E. Govindarajalu

(p. 246) ; 37. A new Ceropegia Linn. (Asclepiadaceae) from Sahyadri range in

Maharashtra Stat'd;. {With a plate). By M. A. Ansari (p. 250).

An Appeal

.. 254

Editorial

After many years of neglect wildlife in our country is now receiving

the attention that it deserves from both the Central and State Govern-

ments, and serious field studies have been undertaken by foreign and

Indian naturalists on some of our wild animals.

Recent articles in our Journal have reflected this encouraging trend,

and among these we would like to refer especially to those by Stephen

Berwick 68 (2) ; Schaller 66 (1), 67 (3).

In this context we are particularly happy with the Report by

Mr. Krishnan on the Larger Mammals of Peninsular India which

is appearing in the current issues of the Journal, and we would like to

compliment the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund again for sponsoring

this Survey. Krishnan is a meticulous observer as his Report indicates

and from the beginning of the Survey he had decided that his photo-

graphs should provide incontrovertible proof supporting his obser-

vations. The fact that we have been able to reproduce the photographs

with the text is due entirely to the generous financial grant which we

received from the Seth Purushottamdas Thakordas and Diwaliba

Charitable Trust. We also intend to publish this Report as a separate

after it has been serialised in the Journal.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1972 APRIL Vol. 69 No. 1

On the Southern Racket-tailed Drongo

Dicrurus paradiseus paradiseus (Linn.)

BY

K. K. Neelakantan

(With eight figures in a plate)

While preparing a paper on the birds I had observed at Dharmadam,

Cannanore District, Kerala State, I found that I had more data on the

Racket-tailed Drongo than could go into such a paper. Hence this note.

It is not based on any systematic study of the bird and contains little

more than tentative conclusions which have to be verified by more

thorough investigation. It is published in the hope that it may induce

some one with more skill, time and facilities to undertake a full-fledged

biology of the Racket-tailed Drongo which, though a favourite of every

bird-watcher who knows it, has failed to meet with its Boswell.

These observations cover a period of 20 months : 21-X-1968 to 25-vi-

1971, two breeding seasons roughly. My house was at the southeastern

corner of the territory of one pair. It was, therefore, often visited by

other pairs — at least three of them. The pair that held territory on the

northern side of my house raised 1 young in 1969 and (they or their

successors ?) raised 2 young in 1970. In 1970 three other pairs that

occasionally visited our compound appeared to have only 1 young each.

Of the total of 5 juveniles seen, one had a small tuft of white feathers on

the chin and rough crescent marks in white on the undertail coverts.

The others had no touch of white anywhere at any time.

2 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 69 (1)

Relationship with other birds

The tendency of this drongo to associate with Tree Pies and other

species to form 4 mixed hunting parties 5 is well-known. This sociability

seems to be of advantage more to the drongo than to other members of

the party. Though the drongo’s alertness and habit of breaking out into

loud calls on the approach of an enemy may be of help to the other

birds, it was found that quite often the drongo raised false alarms by

mimicking the shikra.

The drongo behaves like a bully and regularly tries to snatch off prey

that has been spotted by some other bird. The drongo watches the

larger members of the party such as Goldenbacked Woodpeckers, Tree

Pies or Jungle Babblers, and when one of them is about to capture an

insect the drongo swoops down with a sharp whistle or screech and snaps

up the prey. Among the victims of the drongo’s tactics were the

Common Myna, the Green Barbet, the Jungle Babbler, the Tree Pie,

the Blackheaded Oriole, the Indian Oriole, the Goldenbacked Wood-

pecker and the Iora (the last only when a pair was foraging busily to

satisfy the demands of an insatiable juvenile Banded Bay Cuckoo).

Juvenile Racket-tailed Drongos often kept close to a party of Jungle

Babblers, snapping up insects disturbed by their activities. But the

juvenile drongo, unlike the adult, seldom robbed the babblers of their

legitimate prey.

When Jungle Crows pecked at ripe cashew and mango fruit on the

stalk, adult Racket-tailed Drongos regularly followed them, sat on some

perch below the crows’ and snatched up tiny morsels that the crows let

fall. This sort of thing at times led to the drongo’s chasing the crow

from tree to tree.

Though on a few occasions Racket-tailed Drongos have been seen

harrying the Jungle Owlet, the Tree Pie and the Goldenbacked Wood-

pecker, it was never found pursuing crows and kites (Brahminy & Pariah)

as nesting Black Drongos invariably do. The Shikra seems to be the

only creature whose presence seriously upsets the Racket-tailed Drongo.

The appearance of a Shikra in their neighbourhood is greeted with a

.special alarm-cum-aggression note : a loud 6 kwei-kwei-kwei . . . shee-

cuckoo-sheecuckoo-sheecuckoo-why ! ’ Yet in 1969 and 1970 a pair

of Shikras nested only a few hundred yards away from the tree where I

suspect the drongos themselves were nesting.

Only twice did I observe a Racket- tailed Drongo actually chasing a

Shikra. At 5.20 p.m. on l-vi-1969 two adult drongos were on different

trees close by. Suddenly one of them burst out screaming ‘ shweecuckoo-

shweecuckoo-why ! ’ over and over again. A Shikra flew out of another

tree and started soaring, with the drongo in hot pursuit. The drongo

went on screaming V sheecuckoorsheecuckoo- why ’, but whenever it

THE SOUTHERN RACKET-TAILED DRONGO 3

dived at the Shikra it uttered a rasping 4 shkre-shkre ’ note. Although

the drongo flew above the shikra and repeatedly stooped at it, it never

struck the Shikra. Compared with the Black Drongo, the Racket-

tailed is a clumsy manoeuverer. When the shikra soared in small circles,

the Racket-tailed Drongo seemed to be handicapped in its movements

by the tail rackets.

On 23-vii-’69 at 8-10 a.m. a pair of Racket-tails pursued a female

Shikra till the latter alighted on a 25-foot tree and sat with its wings and

tail spread out. The drongos also alighted on a tree near by and went on

uttering a low 4 tu-tee-yoo . . tu-tee-yoo \ After a few minutes the

Shikra began preening and was left alone by the drongos. On 30-v-’69,

however, a pair of adult drongos had repeatedly dived at a Shikra perched

on a rock. The Shikra changed its perch 3 or 4 times, but the drongos

persisted in their attack.

The loud 4 shweecuckoo-shweecuckoo-why ’ (or 4 khwoi ’) notes were

never used in intraspecific territorial display. It seemed to be specially

reserved for use against the Shikra. Though the Racket-tailed Drongo

regularly mimics the Shikra’s 4 ki-kee ’ to perfection, it never did so

when a Shikra was present and was causing it seme anxiety (See also

the note under 4 Mimicry ’).

Territorial Behaviour

Territorial behaviour was most prominent when young were present.

Defence of territory was achieved largely by vocal demonstration. As a

rule, one of the partners tackled the intruder(s) while the other remained

with the young or led them away. If the intruders were persistent, the

defender would alight close to the intruder and both birds would bob up

and down, bow stiffly, take short leaps on the perch, and utter all sorts

of whistles, screeches and chattering notes. There would be much

shuffling of wings and flirting of tails too. If, as often happened, the

intruder flew off the perch, the defender would at once give chase. If

the intruder flew out of the territory, the defender would return to its

mate and they would go on calling loudly for a while (For call notes

uttered in territorial display, see under 4 Voice ’).

Courtship

As most of my observations were rather casual and restricted nor-

mally to the hours between 7 and 8 a.m. and 5 and 7 p.m. (except on

Sundays and occasional holidays), I could have missed much of the

birds’ displays. Only on 4 occasions did I notice anything that could

have been part of the Racket-tailed Drongo’s courtship display. They

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

concern the behaviour of the pair that held sway over the wooded area

north of our house. One of the partners had the racket-feather on the

right side missing. This shall be referred to as LRD in later paragraphs.

Its mate had not lost either racket and shall be referred to as BRD.

On 21-iii-1970 at 4.30 p.m. LRD was on a thin branch. The bird

suddenly stiffened, held its tail out horizontally, and started trembling

all over with the single racket-feather bobbing up and down, inevitably.

The wings were kept closed. BRD at once flew to the same branch, sat

close to LRD, leaped a couple of inches and smartly turned about. This

it repeated once again so that both birds faced the same direction. LRD

then flew to another branch and repeated the ‘ display ’. BRD at once

followed and sat close to LRD, but did not leap up or react in any other

way. Soon after this they flew off. No mating was noted. They

were back by 5 p.m. and I watched their movements till 6.15. There

was no repetition of the ‘ display ’ ; but once LRD picked up a slender

broken twig, held it in its bill and played with it for some time before

dropping it. 15 minutes later it flew down to the ground, picked up

another thin twig, kept it in its bill for a time, dropped it and then flew

back to the tree.

The next day (22-iii-’70) I watched the pair closely from 4 to 4-45 p.m.

At 4 p.m. another pair (of which neither had lost a tail racket) flew into

the compound and was at once chased away. At 4-30 LRD suddenly

raised its tail, held it horizontally, and started quivering. BRD was then

just a foot or two away, but ignoring this ‘ display ’ it flew down to pick

up an insect and flew to a tree farther off.

On 8-iv-’70 at 4-35 p.m. LRD and BRD were close together on a

slender branch some 12 feet above the ground. LRD was holding its

tail stiffly and horizontally, shaking all over and fluttering its wings too.

BRD was also quivering, but it did not hold its tail horizontally. BRD

then leapt upon the other’s back. But LRD sidestepped smartly and

hopped off a short distance. This sort of thing was repeated half a

dozen times. I do not think that coitus was effected. The birds were

curiously silent all the while. Every time BRD tried to tread the other,

it attempted to seize the feathers on LRD’s nape. LRD finally flew off to

a hedge-like row of bushes 30 feet away and alighted on a slender hori-

zontal branch at the top of a 6 ramphal ’ (Bullock’s Heart, Annona reti-

culata) sapling. There it proceeded to strip the branch of all its leaves

(all new shoots, tender and emerald green) letting them fall to the ground

as soon as they had been plucked. When the entire twig, some 3 feet

long, had been fully stripped of every bud and leaf, LRD flew to another

branch which was bare but for two large, brown leaves. These, too, it

deliberately plucked and dropped. Just then BRD flew towards LRD and

both of them flew off. (LRD’s behaviour reminded me of the way a

chained dog pulls down whatever is near at hand when its pleas for free-

THE SOUTHERN RACKET-TAILED DRONGO

5

dom are ignored !) This was probably an instance of ‘ displacement

activity

On 23-iv-’70 my wife saw the same pair behaving as described in para

2 of this section.

Voice

The Racket-tailed Drongo’s repertoire of call-notes is so large and

varied that I have listed below only those that were uttered fairly regularly

or seemed to have special significance.

These calls are broadly divisible into two groups : whistled notes

and metallic notes.

A. Whistled notes.

1. shwoooi-shwoooi-shwoooi — a very human whistle.

2. a hollow ‘ shwoooo-shwoooo-shwoooo ’ such as may be produced by blow-

ing hard into the mouth of a narrow-mouthed ink bottle.

3. kwei-kwei-kwei. . . .

4. kwi wi wi wi wi wi wi. . . .

5. a soft low whistle, ‘ chew-yee-you . . chew-yee-y6u *

6. chew-che w-chu-chu-chu -ch u-chew

7. chl-cheop, chi-cheop, chip-cheop. . . .

8. itleeyou-itleeyou. . . .

9. tree-tree-pew-pew-pik-pik . . . tree-troi-pew-pew-pik

10. tlreen-tlreen-tlreen-cho

11. troi-troi-troi- tititititititi

12. chip-chip-chip-whiwhiwhiwhiwhiwhiwhi

1 3 . shwip-shwip-shwip-tititititititi

14. teroclee, teroclee, teroclee

15. chiokli, chiokli, chiokli

16. tik-tik-tik-chee-cho

17. whip whip whip whip whip whip . . .

18. itlyowo, itlyowo, itlyowo ....

19. piteeyoo-piteeyoo-piteeyoo

20. toi-toi-toi-toi-toi-toi-toi

No. 19 seemed to be a ‘ contact note ’. It was often uttered by the

adult on flying away from where it had been with the juvenile.

No. 20 always reminded me of Salim Ali’s description of the call of

the Drongo-Cuckoo ( Surniculus lugubris) ‘ . . . 7 or 8 short, musical

whistling notes as if the bird was actually counting 1-2-3-4-5-6 &c.

The notes rise in scale and end abruptly.’ Though I have seen the

Drongo-Cuckoo at Dharmadam itself, I have not so far heard its voice.

It is probable that No. 20 was a mimicked note.

B. Metallic, bell-like notes.

1. til5nk-tilonk-til6nk . .(a loud, ringing note, as of a hammer striking a hollow

iron pipe) — perhaps the loudest of the drongo’s notes.

2. tloink-tloink-tloink. . . .

6

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

3. troing-troing-troing, ...

4. treeeyong-treeyong-treeyong. ...

5. kleerung-kleerung-kleerung. . . .

6. kitleerong-kitleerong-kitleerong. . . .

7. shklroeng-shklroeng-shklroeng j

8. kwikliong-kwikliong-kwikliong. . . .

9 . chewling-chewling-chewling

10. kli,kli,kli,kli, kwikling-kwikling-kwikling. . . .

1 1 . kwikwikliong-kwikwikwikliong

12. rotten-tree, rotten-tree, rotten-tree

Combinations of A and B are not at all uncommon. For example :

whip-whip-whip-itleeyong-itleeyong

& tloo-whit, tloo-whit, tloo-whit ....

A note uttered fairly regularly after sunset and often early in the morning

was ‘ chooo-cho6p, chooo-choop, chooo-choop \ In the evening these

were often the last notes uttered, and were often preceded by a period of

silence.

Almost all the notes listed above used to be uttered when rivals met,

but their use was not restricted to such contexts.

Pre-Dawn song

Salim Ali (in his birds of travancore & cochin, 1953) drew atten-

tion to the Racket-tailed Drongo’s habit of calling loudly long before

sunrise : ‘ On the approach of the breeding season the birds become

excessively noisy, beginning as early as 4 a.m. in moonlight and keeping

up a continuous metallic tunk- tunk- tun k- tunk, etc. at the rate of about

two tanks per second, for two hours, or more, almost till sunrise.

Several birds chime in from different quarters.’

My notes on the drongo’s pre-dawn performance are extremely

scrappy as I do not share the drongo’s enthusiasm for early rising. Two

extracts from my notes follow :

(1) On 4-iv-’69 by 4 a.m. the calls had begun. They stopped at

5-30. Four different sets of notes were uttered, each repeated many

times in series :

(a) a bell-like tonk-tonk-tonk-tonk ....

(b) a plaintive pio-pio . . pio-pio . . pio-pio . .

(c) a ringing choink-choink-choink . .

and ( d ) a lower trink-trink-trink-trink . .

After running through this set of notes, the bird started again though

the order in which notes (a) to (d) were repeated varied.

(2) On 14-iv-’69 I was up at 5-15 a.m. The drongo started calling

at 5-30. It began with a series of ‘pio-pio’ notes. After a spell of

silence came a ‘ wheeew-wheew-wheew ’ whistle, followed by a rapid,

metallic trinki-trinki-trinki. The bird stopped calling at 6 a.m.

THE SOUTHERN RACKET-TAILED DRONGO

7

As March-April appeared to be the nesting period, the 4 earliest ’

date on which I heard the pre-dawn 4 song ’ is 6-xii-’69, and the 4 latest 9

19-vi-’69. The two dates relate to two different breeding seasons.

Mimicry

The mimicked note most regularly uttered by the Racket-tailed Drongo

was found to be the 4 kki-kee . . kki-kee ’ call of the Shikra. Among the

Dharmadam birds, at any rate, the next in favour was the 4 pyo-pyo . .

pyo-pyo 5 of the Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher. This seemed

at times to mislead the kingfisher itself. For on l-iii-’70 at 8 a.m. a

Racket-tailed Drongo that was continuously uttering the 4 pyo-pyo ’

call was approached by a Storkbilled Kingfisher. This bird came flying

low and passed close over the head of the drongo. It alighted on a

coconut tree some 150 yards away and went on calling. I noted,

however, that while the kingfisher regularly repeated the 4 pyo ’ sound

thrice, the drongo repeated it only twice.

Among other birds mimicked by the Racket-tailed Drongo were the

Jungle Crow, the Brahminy Kite, the Koel, the Blossomheaded Para-

keet, the Indian Tree Pie, the Blackheaded Oriole, the lora, the Orange

Minivet, the Jungle Babbler, the Whitebreasted Kingfisher and the

Crested Serpent-Eagle. But for the last, all these birds were heard

either seasonally or throughout the year at Dharmadam. Only the

4 hweer-hweer-hweer ’ of the Serpent-Eagle was never heard by me though

the sight of one or more Serpent-Eagle-like birds soaring about was

not uncommon.

The only mammals whose voice the drongo mimicked were the cat

and the palm squirrel. The mewing of the cat was generally mimicked

only when the drongo saw a cat passing or skulking in the bushes.

Most of these mimicked notes were normally uttered in an under-

tone when the drongo was alone and resting. Therefore they seemed

to be part of a sub-song.

With regard to the squirrel, the drongo chose to mimic only its alarm

call.

The ability to mimic seemed to be developed early in life. A juvenile

drongo first seen on 15-vi-’69 was first heard uttering adult notes on

27-viii-’69. On the same day it was heard mimicking the mewing

of the cat and the harsh, nasal, one-syllabled note of the Blackheaded

Oriole.

The Juvenile's Food-call

For some weeks (6 to 8 ?) after leaving the nest the juvenile utters

only a low, harsh 4 chre-chre-chre \ This food-call resembled rather

closely the food-call of the juvenile Indian Tree Pie. For many weeks

a family party of Tree Pies and another of Racket-tailed Drongos used

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

to be found together, often with various other birds (in mixed hunting

parties).

Racket Feathers

Moulting of the Adult's Racket -Feathers

My observations suggest that the racket-feathers of the adult moult

asymmetrically. Adults with one or the other of the tail-rackets miss-

ing begin to be seen regularly in February. The first adult without

either of the racket-feathers was seen on ll-viii-’69. In September

most adults were without racket-feathers. Of breeding pairs seen in

March, April, and May, one partner almost invariably had one racket

missing while the other had both intact.

Whether the racket-feathers were accidentally lost or dropped in the

normal course of moulting could not be discovered. Both in 1969 and

1970, in the pair resident near my house it was a bird that had the right-

side racket missing that seemed to be most attached to the young. In

both years the bird’s mate retained both the racket-feathers till June

or later. This single-racket bird of the pair observed in 1969-70 was

evidently the female.

The replacement for the shed racket-feather appears first, so that a

bird identified as a ‘ left-racket bird ’ becomes later a ‘ right-racket ’

one! Some of my notes look very confusing now because of this.

Though the time gap between the loss of the two racket-feathers was

often very long, that between the dates of their replacement is short.

By the end of December most adults seem to have both racket-feathers

fully developed.

A well-grown juvenile and an adult with developing racket-feathers

can be distinguished without difficulty. For while in the juvenile these

bend outwardly, in the adult they always bend inwards (See fig. H).

Moreover the racket-feathers of the juveniles are of equal length at all

times, while those of most adults with developing racket-feathers are

almost invariably of different lengths.

Development of the Juvenile's Racket-Feathers

In 1969 the pair that held territory north of my house raised only

one young and, since no other juvenile bird was seen in the area, I was

able, roughly, to note the development of the juvenile’s tail.

This juvenile was first seen on 15-vi-69 when it was presumably 4 or

5 weeks old1. At first sight it seemed to have a tail like the bulbul’s.

xIt had a distinct, but short, crest. Its plumage was not as glossy as that of an

adult. The bill was horny blackish with a whitish tip ; mouth pale flesh colour;

gape mark pale pink.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1)

A

B

c

Fig. A. Juvenile bird when first seen on 15-vi-’69 ; Fig. B. Tail of the same

juvenile as on 6-vii-’69 ; Fig. C. Tail of the same juvenile as on 12-vii-’69.

D

E

Fig. D. Tail of another juvenile (dorsal and ventral views) as on 26-vi-’70;

Fig. E. Tail of one adult (dorsal & lateral views) as seen on 24-ix-’70. The straight

line represents the ‘ normal ’ rectrices.

Fig. F. Tail of an adult as seen on 6-x-’69 ; Fig. G. Tail of the same adult as

on 3-xi-’69; Fig. H. Tail of the juvenile (of Fig. D) and that of one parent as

on 8-xi-’69.

N.B. The diagrams are based on sketches made ‘ in the field ’ on the dates given

below them. All except those on the right side in Figs. D & E are dorsal views. All

the diagrams are not drawn to the same scale. The shaded portions indicate the

racket-feathers.

THE SOUTHERN RACKET-TAILED DRONGO

9

But a closer look revealed that the racket-feathers were present, and

equal in length to the nearest rectrices. These did not lie flat, so that,

viewed from a side, the tail appeared thick (see fig. A). Juvenile birds

of the next season also, when first seen, had tails exactly like this.

By 26-vi-’69 the tips of the racket-feathers were projecting half an

inch beyond the tips of adjacent rectrices.

On 6-vii-’69, when the juvenile’s mouth was still pink, the tail had

the shape shown in fig. B. Fig. C shows the tail as on 12-vii-’69.

A Tentative Summary of the Life History

Racket-tailed Drongos apparently pair for life.

They seem to be attached to their territory throughout the year.

The territory of one pair appeared to cover half a square mile of

well-wooded country.

The breeding season (in the sense of ‘ the period of the year during

which birds of a given species mate, build their nests, lay their eggs, and

raise their young’ — new dictionary of birds, 1964, p. 106) seemed to

stretch from March to September, though young birds could be seen

with their parents till about December.

What is presumed to have been courtship display was observed in

March and April.

Birds seemed to nest, lay eggs, and tend the pulli during March and

April mainly.

Young ones apparently left the nest in the middle of June.

They accompanied their parents closely and were fed by them (with

decreasing frequency and regularity) till about September, though even

in July they could find food independently.

The family bond appeared to be maintained till mid-December.

By the middle of February the young seemed to disperse.

Colour vision in an Indian Fish

Anabas testudineus (Cuv.)

BY

B. B. Jana and N. C. Sukul

Department of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan ,

West Bengal, India

( With two text- figures)

Although electro-physiological techniques have largely been employed

to explore retinal mechanisms for analysing light in terms of its wave-

length direct evidence for hue discriminatory capacity of animals comes

mainly from training experiments. This method dates back to 1901

when Zolotnitzky fed fishes on red midge larvae and later successfully

lured them with bitsf of red yarn. Since then experiments have been

devised to eliminate luminosity as a factor in colour discrimination

either by using finely graded series of coloured papers or by altering the

intensity of light transmitted through coloured filters.

Results obtained through behavioural experiments on colour vision

are not sufficient, and as such we are still far away from understanding

the colour vision system in fish. In our investigation into colour vision

the Indian perch Anabas testudineus (Cuv.) has been selected for some

important reasons. The fish possess accessory breathing organs and

can be kept alive in aquarium for a long time without food and without

changing water. They can be easily trained to feed from glass tubes.

A notable behaviour of the fish is that during monsoon they leave water

and move on land (Day 1958).

This fish was, however, successfully trained to discriminate red from

green, blue, yellow, grey and violet. It also discriminated violet from

blue, green and grey, as well as green from blue. We have, therefore,

come to the conclusion that this fish does possess some mechanism for

colour vision, and it is mediated through trichromasy.

Methods

Two groups of fish, each consisting of four individuals, were trained

separately to feed from glass tubes. The fish, measuring 9 to 11 cm

in length, were purchased from the local market. Their sexes could

not be determined because of absence of secondary sexual characters.

COLOUR VISION IN ANABAS TESTUDINEUS

11

Group-I was first conditioned to respond to red as the positive stimulus

with blue, green, yellow, grey and violet as the negative. It was later

conditioned to violet as the positive stimulus with blue, green and grey

as the negative. Group-II was trained to discriminate between blue

and green, the latter being the positive stimulus.

Glass tubes, used as colour stimuli, were first wrapped with coloured

paper and then covered with thin transparent polythene sheet to make

them water-proof. Ten shades of every colour tested were selected

from homogeneously coloured poster papers.

A small piece, about 1 cm long, of fresh earthworm Pheretima sp.,

was stuck to one end of the tube, and it was covered with a thin piece

of black rubber to check direct visual stimulus of food. The negative

stimulus had a similar arrangement but was without any food. Once

the fish had learnt to associate food with a particular colour, both the

tubes were furnished with food, thereby controlling olfactory and gus-

tatory cues.

During each trial a pair of colour stimuli were offered, and if the

fish could snap at the right tube directly one positive response was

counted. Twenty trials were performed on every daily session. Twenty

combinations of colour pairs were selected at random from twenty

shades of colours and presented at random with respect to relative posi-

tion of tubes. The fish were light-adapted by an initial illumination of

white light before start of every session.

On the last session of one discrimination test (red versus violet)

coloured papers were replaced by spectroscopic filters of similar colour

pairs. Glass tubes, covered with white paper, were bathed in the trans-

mitted light. The intensity of light was altered by the use of neutral

filters in the light path. Spectral transmission factors of red and violet

filters, used in this experiment, are given in Fig. 1 .

Results

The fishes were successfully conditioned to respond correctly to

coloured papers as well as to light of different wave-lengths focussed

on white paper. The average scores, obtained in daily sessions with

each of the ten pairs of colours tested, are presented in Table I. Results

of the first seven sessions of pre-training with both Group-I and Group-II

fishes are not given because the number of trials and responses was not

constant during this period.

Filters were used on the 7th session of red (+) versus violet ( — ).

The average score with filters is not much different from that with

coloured papers. But the fish were very much confused and almost

non-responsive to either of the paired stimuli offered when light-inten-

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

sides were very low and colours, reflected from tubes, were just recog-

nizable by the human eye.

-*-■ * X VIOLET FILTER

Fig. 1. Spectral transmission factors of red and violet filters.

Every daily session normally includes twenty trials. But on some

occasions the fish were reluctant to respond to either of the paired stimuli

offered. This happened when they were confused with the paired stimuli

as well as towards the end of a session when the fish were relieved of

acute hunger. Trials had to be increased in these cases to elicit twenty

responses.

After thirty-six days’ association with red as well as violet as the

positive stimuli Group-I was deconditioned and blue was given as the

positive stimulus with respect to red the negative. The gradual increase

of positive responses for blue with simultaneous decrease in responses

for red was transformed into percentage responses and plotted against

days in Fig. 2. The two complimentary curves, the learning curve for

blue and the deconditioning curve for red, show that after seven days

the fish were deconditioned. Data-set I in Table I shows the average

scores of the last seven sessions with blue (+) versus red (— ).

Table I shows that the percentage of correct responses for all the

colour pairs tested except red and violet varies from 83*35 to 96*85,

which is fairly high and needs no further verification. The average

scores with red (+) versus violet (-), obtained from six daily sessions

excluding the 7th session with filters were statistically analysed by means

of a t-test with a view to testing whether red and violet were really in-

distinguishable to the fish under investigation. Here t was found to be

Table I

COLOUR VISION IN ANABAS TESTUDINEUS

Percentage 83*35 95*15 87*50 92*50 55*55 96*85 92*50 92*50 85*00 j 94*25 83*90

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

equal to 8*96 which is well beyond the 0*1 % significance level of t with

df 15, the latter being only 3*733. Thus it can be concluded that the

DECONDITIONING CURVE FOR RED

Fig. 2. Percentage responses for blue and red stimuli in relation to days.

fishes can distinguish between red and violet to some extent. The num-

ber of times they moved towards red as shown in data-set E in Table I

is, on the average, significantly above 10.

When the positive stimulus was shifted from red to violet the fish

immediately succeeded in making 92*50 to 96*85% correct responses

in the discrimination of violet from blue, green and grey. This indicates

that the fish could discriminate red or violet from other colours with

almost equal ease, although they had difficulty in discriminating red

from violet.

The data-sets B and I in Table I were statistically analysed by the

analysis of variance technique to see whether there was any variation

in response on different days and in different fishes. The analysis showed

no variation, but revealed some kind of systematic error in case of the

5th day observations of the data-set I. Statistical analysis was carried

out for both the original data and the data obtained by applying the

sin" XJ P transformations. The results are very similar whether

the transformation is applied or not.

The two data-sets B and I were also compared in order to see whether

there was any colour preference which might have given rise to signi-

COLOUR VISION IN ANABAS TESTUDINEUS 15

ficant difference between the overall means in the two data-sets. The

statistic is

u ^*2

{ [s.e. of c± ]2 + [s.e. of c2]2 } £

where cx = general means of data-set B,

c2 = general means of data-set I

and the degree of freedom for t is the sum of the error df’s of the two

experiments. The results are given in Table II, which shows significance

Table II

Results of 4 1 ’ test obtained from overall means of data-

sets B and I

of observed t at 0.1% level in any case. The table also shows that

Ci>c2 in any case. Hence it can be concluded that preference for red

colour is greater than that for blue.

Discussion

In our investigation the fish Anabas testudineus discriminated bet-

ween hues on their qualitative basis and not on their quantitative basis.

This is confirmed by the use of wide range of coloured papers. It is

quite unlikely the fish would be able to remember all the ten shades of

a colour used as a positive stimulus. Moreover, brightness-discrimi-

nation in fish has been found to be extremely poor as is evident from the

work of Reeves (1919). Reeves showed that Semotilus could not

discriminate intensities differing in 1 : 4 ratio. This ratio for Lepomis

is 1 : 2.

Since the fish could recognize red, green and blue, and also dis-

criminated them from each other their vision appears to be trichro-

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 69 (1)

matic. Trichromasy has also been shown in Phoxinus Jaevis (Ham-

burger 1926) and also in goldfish (Marks 1963, Muntz & Cronly-Dilton

1966).

The fish Anabas showed very poor discrimination between red and

violet although the colours are widest apart in the wave-length scale of

the visible spectrum. Reports are there that Phoxinus could not dis-

criminate red from yellow and purple, and the colour circle is closed

for this fish (Frisch 1925, Wolfe 1925 and Hamburger 1926). But

A. testudineus could recognize violet as a distinct hue and discriminated

it from blue, green and grey without any difficulty. This shows that

the visible spectrum is not narrowed towards the short wave end in

Anabas. That violet and even ultraviolet at 313-253 m^ are visible

to sticklebacks was reported by Merker (1934). But he suspected con-

version of ultraviolet into visible light through the fluorescence of water.

Preference for red as compared to blue in these fishes might have

resulted from long association of the fish with red as the positive stimu-

lus. But the learning curve for blue in Fig. 2 did not show any signi-

ficant rise with days after the 7th day. A probable explanation for

this behaviour of fish is that since water and ocular media absorb

and disperse most of the light of shorter wave-lengths it is quite likely

that light of longer wave-lengths may reach retina in greater quantities

and consequently stimulate the photoreceptors to a greater extent.

Acknowledgements

The statistical analysis was carried out with the help of Dr. N.

Bhattacharyya, M. Dey, B. Mahalanobis and T. Moitra of Economics

Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta. The authors are

thankful to Dr. H. L. Sarkar, Head of the Dept, of Zoology, Visva-

Bharati University for providing laboratory facilities.

References

Day, F. (1958) : The fishes of India.

William Dawson & Sons Ltd., London.

Reprint.

Duke-Elder, S. (1958) : System of

Ophthalmology I. The Eye in Evolu-

tion. Henry Kimpton, London.

Frisch, K. von (1925) : Farbensinn

der Fische und Duplitzitatstheorie. Z.

vergleich. Physiol. 2 : 393-452.

Hamburger, V. (1926) : Versuche uber

Komplementar Farben bei Ellritzen.

{Phoxinus laevis). Z. vergleich. Physiol.

4 : 268-304.

Marks, W. B. (1963) : Difference

spectra of the visual pigments in single

Goldfish cones. Doctoral dissertation :

Department of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins

University, Baltimore, Maryland.

Merker, E. (1934) : Die Sichtbarkeit

ultravioletten Lichtes. Biol. Rev., Bd.

9 : 49-78.

Muntz, W. R. A. and Cronly-

Dilton, J. R. (1966) : Colour discri-

mination in Goldfish. Anim. Behav.

14 : 351-355.

Reeves, C. D. (1919) : Discrimination

of light of different wave-lengths by

fish. Behav. Monogr. 4 : 3.

Walls, G. L. (1963) : The Vertebrate

Eye. Hafner Publishing Co., New York

and London.

Wolfe, H. (1925) : Das Farbenunter-

schei-dungsvermogen der Ellritze. Z,

vergleich. Physiol. 3 : 279-329.

Observations on the Vegetation of the

Upper Damodar Catchment Area

BY

S. N. Mitra

Indian Botanic Garden , Howrah-3

This paper gives an account on the floristic composition of the vegetation of

the Upper Damodar Catchment Area as observed by the author during a bota-

nical exploration tour. It also provides a list of plants collected with up-to-

date nomenclature.

Introduction

A preliminary survey was made of the flora of the Upper Damodar

Catchment Area during 1951 on behalf of the Damodar Valley Cor-

poration, primarily with a view to select some of the native species for

the afforestation programme of the Damodar Valley Corporation.

Collections were made from several districts of South Bihar, particularly

the whole of Hazaribagh and Manbhum districts.

The altitude ranges from 240 m to 660 m above sea level, and these

areas are composed of plateaus and hills, with numerous ravines. Apart

from the river Damodar which rises somewhere in Palamau district,

and flows over a length 144 km in an eastward direction through

Hazaribagh district, other important rivers of this area are Garhi,

Haharo, Naikari, Maramarha, Bhera, Konar, Janjo, Jamunia and

Barakar which are tributaries of Damodar and Jhikia, Chako, Dhadhar,

Tilaya, Sakri, Ajoy and Subarnarekha.

The average annual rainfall is roughly between 112*5 mm and 125 mm

with 80% of the total annual rainfall confined to monsoon months of

June-September. The hottest months are May and June and coldest

months are December and January.

Apart from the scanty literature (Hook. f. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

17 : 356-411, 1848; Anderson ibid. 32:189-218. 1863 ; Wood in

Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2 : 1-170, 1903 ; Thomson in Dist. Gazett. Hazari-

bagh (1917) dealing with the plants of the area, there is no recent pub-

lished account on the flora of the region. Therefore, the results of the

explorative tour are presented in the paper.

The Flora

In general the vegetation of the area can be classified under monsoon

or dry deciduous forest with sal as a dominant tree. The primary

2

ig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

forest is for the greater part either degraded into scrubj tingle and

savannah or converted into cultivable land. The original forest is

confined to ravines, hill-slopes and Reserves of Religera, Serenghatu

and Morha Hill. The characteristic trees are Anogeissus latifolia ,

Buchanania latifolia , Dalbergia latifolia , Terminalia foment osa, T.

chebula , T. bellerica, Cleistanthus collinus , Bosvjellia serrata , Pterocarpus

marsupium, Antidesma ghaesembilla , Ougeinia oogeinensis, Semecarpus

anacardium, Gmelina arborea , Wendlandia tinctoria , Litsea roxburghii ,

Croton oblongifolius and Dolichandrone stipulata apart from Shorea

robust a. The shrubby layer is composed of Holarrhena antidysenterica ,

Buddleja asiatica , Canthium parvifolium , Woodfordia fruticosa, Helicteres

isora , Grewia hirsuta , Desmodium pulchellum, Indigofera cassioides,

Moghania paniculata , Ixora undulata , Pavetta crassicaulis , Mallotus

philippensis and Petalidium barlerioides. Combretum roxburghii , fTzz-

denticulata , Smilax zeylanica , Millettia auriculata , Abrus preca-

torius , Phanera vahlii and Ichnocarpus frutescens are some of the com-

monest shrubby climbers. The herbaceous growth was poor at the

time the trip was made during post-monsoon season, and is represented

by perennial summer herbs like Hemigraphis latebrosa, Lepidagathis

incurva , Leucas mollissima , Nepeta hindostana , Vernonia teres , F. rox-

burghii , Crotalaria prostrata and C. albida. The commonest herbaceous

climber is Dioscorea bulbifera.

The vegetation of partially degraded forest and scrub jungle is com-

posed of small often stunted trees like Schleichera oleosa , Lannea coro-

mandelica , Syzygium cumini , Casearia elliptica , Cochlospermum religiosum ,

Kydia calycina , marmelos, Butea monosperma , Erythrina variegata ,

Piliostigma malabaricum , Lagerstroemia parviflora, Cassia fistula , Mad-

huca indica , Diospyros malabariea , Mallotus philippensis , Phyllanthus

emblica and Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Some of the commonest shrubs

are Xeromphis spinosa , X uliginosa, Gardenia latifolia , Canthium parvi -

florum, Flacourtia indica , Azanza lamp as, Maytenus bailadillana , Zz'zy-

phus mauritiana , Z. xylopyra , Desmodium pulchellum , Indigofera cassioi-

des, Phanera retusa, Acacia farnesiana, Mimosa rubicaulis, Woodfordia

fruticosa, Carissa spinarum, Eranthemum purpurascens, Perilepta auri-

culata, Lantana camara, Colebrookea oppositifolia, Pogostemon ben-

ghalense and Antidesma diandrum. Shrubby climbers are represented

by Cryptolepis buchanani, Ichnocarpus frutescens , Combretum roxburghii,

Ventilago denticulata and Porana paniculata. The herbaceous growth

is more or less similar to the ground flora of the original forest but with

several grasses like Capillipedeum assimile, Cymbopogon schoenanthus,

C. jwarancusa, Heteropogon contortus and Thysanolaena maxima. One

of the peculiar features of this habitat is the presence of dwarf palm

Phoenix acaulis and the occurrence of Dendrocalamus strictus in gre-

garious clumps.

VEGETATION OF DAMODAR CATCHMENT 19

Scattered over the savannah and near habitational sites are trees

like Shorea robusta, Bombax ceiba, Azadirachta indica , Sapindus lauri-

folius , Bute a monosperma , Ailan thus ex cels a, Tamar Indus indicus, Mad-

huca indica , Diospyros malabarica , Schrebera swietenioides, Cassia fistula ,

Holoptelea integrifolia , F/cws benghalensis, F. racemosa and F. religiosa

and shrubs like Zizyphus mauritiana , Carissa spinarum, Calotropis

gigantea and Flacourtia indica. The herbaceous flora is represented

by Hybanthus enneaspermus , Portulaca quadrifida , Malvastrum coro-

mandelianum, Alysicarpus monilifer, Desmodium gangeticum, D. triflorum ,

Borreria articularis, Hedyotis hispida , Ageratum conyzoides , Blumea

lacera , Glossogyne bidens, Launaea fallax, Tridax procumbens, Vernonia

cinerea , Evolvulus alsinoides , Anisomeles indica, Boerhaavia diffusa,

Euphorbia hirta, E. thymifolia, Cyperus rotundus, Bothriochloa inter-

media, Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis tenella and Imperata cylindrica.

Tamarix ericoides and Bombax ceiba are common along river beds,

while &z//jc tetrasperma and Homonia riparia, constitute rheophytic vege-

tation. Exotic weeds like Lantana camara and Argemone mexicana

often form gregarious clumps on stabilised riverine islands. Phyla

nodiflora, Eragrostis coarctata and Polygonum plebejum are the com-

monest herbs of sandy river beds.

Hydrophytic vegetation of stagnant waters, ditches and ponds is

represented by species like iVq/a? marina, Lemna perpusilla, Potamogeton

indicus and P. nodosus. Hygrophila auriculata, H. polysperma, Bacopa

monnieri, Limnophila rugosa, Panicum repens and Phragmites karka

constitute the vegetation of the marshy and swampy localities. The

margins of these watery localities are inhabited by Polygonum glabrum,

Cyathocline purpurea and Cyperus sp.

Epiphytes are represented by Rhynchostylis retusa and Vanda parvi -

flora .

Cuscuta reflexa is a sole representative of total stem-parasites, while

Dendrophthoe falcata and Viscum nepalense represent partial stem-

parasites.

Some of the exotic weeds that are established and naturalized in

this area are Argemone mexicana, Crotalaria mucronata, Malvastrum

coromandelianum, Ageratum conyzoides, Tridax procumbens, Solanum

torvum and Lantana camara.

Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica, Milling -

tonia hortensis. Cassia siamea, Albizzia lebbek, Grevillea robusta,

Pongamia pinnata, Eucalyptus sp., Tectona grandis and Pterospermum

acerifolium are some of the common road-side trees.

Agricultural crops of the area are Triticum aestivum, Cajanus cajan,

Pennisetum typhoides, Cicer arietinum, Linum usitatissimum, Carthamus

tinctorius, Oryza sativa, Zea mays and Pisum sativum.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

LIST OF SPECIES

Selaginellaceae

Selaginella flaccida Spring.

Equisetaceae

Equisetum debile Roxb.

SCHIZAEACEAE

Lygodium flexuosum (Linn.) Sw.

Pteridaceae

Adiantum philippense Linn.

Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forsk.) Fee

Pteris vittata Linn.

Aspleniaceae

Diplazium esculentum (Linn.) Sw.

POLYPODIACEAE

Polypodium proliferum Roxb.

ANGIOSPERMS

Papayeraceae

Argemone mexicana Linn.

VlOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.)

F. V. Muell

COCHLOSPERMACEAE

Cochlospermum religiosum (Linn.)

Alst.

Flacourtiaceae

Casearia elliptica Willd.

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea Linn.

P. quadrifida Linn.

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix ericoides Rottl.

Dipterocarpaceae

Shorea robusta Gaertn.

Malvaceae

Azanza iampas (Cav.) Alef.

Kydia calycina Roxb.

Malvastrum coromandeiianum

(Linn.) Garcke

Urena lobata Linn.

Bombacaceae

Bombax ceiba Linn.

Sterculiaceae

Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. & Arn.

Helicteres isora Linn.

Tiliaceae

Grewia birsuta Vahl

Malpighiaceae

Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz

Rutaceae

Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Corr.

SlMAROUBACEAE

Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.

Burseraceae

Boswellia serrata Roxb.

Bursera serrata Colebr.

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Soymida febrifuga A. Juss.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Olacaceae

Olax scandens Roxb.

VEGETATION OF DAMODAR CATCHMENT

21

Celastraceae

Maytenus bailadillana (Narayan &

Mooney) Raju & Babu

Celastrus paniculata Willd.

Rhamnaceae

Ventilago denticulata Willd.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

Z. xylopyra Willd.

Z. oenoplia Mill.

VlTACEAE

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.)

Planch.

Sapindaceae

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.

Sapindus laurifolius Vahl

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken

Anacardiaceae

Buchanania latifolia Roxb.

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.)

Merr.

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.

Fabaceae

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Alysicarpus monilifer DC.

A. vaginalis (Linn.) DC.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.

B. superba Roxb.

Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth

C. mucronata Desv.

C. prostrata Rottb. ex Willd.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

D. sissoo Roxb.

Desmodium gangeticum (Linn.) DC.

D. pulchellum Benth.

D. triflorum (Linn.) DC.

Erythrina variegata Linn.

Indigofera cassioides Rottl,

I, linifolia Retz.

Millettia auriculata Baker ex

Brandis

Moghania paniculata (Wall.) Li

Ougeinia oogeinensis (Roxb.)

Hochr.

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl.

Caesalpiniaceae

Bauhinia purpurea Linn.

Cassia fistula Linn.

Phanera retusa (Buch.-Ham. ex

Roxb.) Benth.

P. vahlii (Wt. & Arn.) Benth.

Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.)

Benth.

Tamarindus indicus Linn.

Mimosaceae

Acacia catechu Willd.

A. farnesiana Willd.

A. polyacantha Willd.

Albizzia lebbek (Linn.) Benth.

A. odoratissima (Linn, f.) Benth.

Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk.

Droseraceae

Drosera burmanni Vahl

%

Combretaceae

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Bedd.

Combretum roxburghii Spreng.

Terminalia bellerica(Gaertn.) Roxb.

T. chebula Retz.

T. tomentosa Bedd.

Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava Linn.

Syzygium heyneanum (Duthie)

Gamble

S. cumini (Linn.) Skeels

Barringtoniaceae

Careya arborea Roxb.

22 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Lythraceae

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz

Apiaceae

Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban

Alangiaceae

Alangium salvifolium (Linn.f.)

Wangerin

Rubiaceae

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook.f.

ex Brandis

Borreria articularis (Linn.f.) F. N.

Willd.

Canthium parvifolium Roxb.

Gardenia latifolia Ait.

Hedyotis hispida Retz.

Ixora undulata Roxb.

Pavetta crassicaulis Bremek.

Wendlandia faeynei (R. & S.) Sant.

& Merch.

W. tinctoria (Roxb.) DC.

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay

X. uliginosa (Retz.) Mahesh.

Asteraceae

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) JCurz

B. lacera DC.

Cyathocline purpurea (D. Don)

O.K.

Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alston

Launaea acaulis (Roxb.) Babcock

ex Craib

L. fallax (Jaub. & Spach.) O.K.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less.

V. roxburghii Less.

V. teres Wall, ex DC.

Myrsinaceae

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam DC,

Sapotaceae

Madhuca indica Gmel.

Ebenaceae

Diospyros malabarica (Desr .) Kostel .

Symplocaceae

Symplocos racemosa Roxb.

Oleaceae

Jasminum arborescens Roxb.

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.

Schrebera swietenioides Roxb.

Apocynaceae

Carissa spinarum Linn.

Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roth)

DC.

Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R.Br.

Asclepiadaceae

Calotropis gigantea (Willd.) Dryand.

ex Ait.f.

Cryptolepis buchanani R. & S.

Hemidesmus indicus Schult.

Loganiaceae

Buddleja asiatica Lour.

Cynoctonum mitreola (Linn.) Britt.

Gentianaceae

Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ex

Wall.

Exacum pedunculatum Linn.

Hopea dichotoma Willd.

Boraginaceae

Cordia dichotoma Forst.f.

Trichodesma indicum R.Br.

CONVOLYULACEAE

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn.

E. nummularius (Linn.) Linn.

Merremia quinata (R.Br.) Ooststr,

VEGETATION OF DAMODAR CATCHMENT

23

Operculina petaloidea (Choisy)

Ooststr.

Parana paniculata Roxb.

Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy

SOLANACEAE

Solanum indicum Linn.

S. torvum Sw.

S CROPHUL ARI ACE AE

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Penn.

Limnophila rugosa (Roth) Merr.

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandrone stipulata (Roth)

Benth.

Acanthaceae

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.)

Nees

Barleria cristata Linn.

B. strigosa Willd.

Eranthemum purpurascens Nees

Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.)

Heine

H. polysperma (Roxb.) T. And.

Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees

Justicia betonica Linn.

Lepidagathis incurva D.Don

Perilepta auriculata (Nees) Brem.

Petalidium barlerioides (Roth) Nees

Rungia parviflora Nees

Verbenaceae

Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Lantana camara Linn.

Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Green

Tectona grandis Linn.f.

Vitex negundo Linn.

Lamiaceae

Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O.K.

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.

Leucas mollissima Wall.

L. linifolia Spreng.

Nepeta hindostana (Roth) Haines

Ocimum basilicum Linn.

O. gratissimum Linn.

Pogostemon benghalense (Burm. f.

O.K.

P. purpurascens Dalz.

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum glabrum Willd.

P. plebejum R. Br.

Aristolochiaceae

Aristolochia indica Linn.

Lauraceae

Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.

L. roxburghii (Nees) Hassk. ex

Back.

Loranthaceae

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn.f.)

Etting.

Viscum nepalense Spreng.

Euphorbiaceae

Antidesma diandrum (Roxb.) Roth

A. gbaesembilla Gaertn.

Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) Muell.-

Arg.

Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth.

Croton oblongifolius Roxb.

Euphorbia hirta Linn.

E. thymifolia Linn.

Jatropha curcas Linn.

Homonoia riparia Lour.

Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.)

Muell.-Arg.

Phyllanthus emblica Linn.

P. reticulatus Poir.

Sebastiania chamaelea (Linn.)

Muell.-Arg.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Ulmaceae

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)

Planch.

Moraceae

Ficus benghalensis Linn.

F. racemosa Linn.

F. religiosa Linn.

F. virens Ait.

Salicaceae

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Orchidaceae

Rhynchostylis retusa Bl.

Vanda parviflora Lindl.

Amaryllidaceae

Crinum asiaticum Linn.

Agaveaceae

Agave vera-cruz Mill.

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

Liliaceae

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Gloriosa superba Linn.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina benghalensis Linn.

C. hasskarlii Cl.

Arecaceae

Borassus flabellifer Linn.

Phoenix acaulis Buch.-Ham. ex

Roxb.

Lemnaceae

Lemna perpusilla Torrey

Najadaceae

Najas marina Linn.

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Potamogeton indicus Roxb.

P. nodosus Poir.

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus Linn.

Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsk.)

Bulb.

F. cymosa R.Br.

POACEAE

Arundo donax Linn.

Bothriochloa intermedia (R.Br.) A.

Camus

Capillipedeum assimile (Steud.) A.

Camus

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones)

Schult.

C. schoenanthus (Linn.) Spreng.

Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Dendrocalamus strictus Nees

Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.)

Stapf

Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr.

Eragrostis coarctata Stapf ex

Hook. f.

E. tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex

R. & S.

Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) P.

Beauv. ex R. & S.

Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) P.

Beauv.

Panicum repens Linn.

Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin,

VEGETATION OF DAMODAR CATCHMENT

25

Rottboellia exaltata Linn.f. Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O.K.

Sporobolus diandra (Retz.) P. Beauv. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash.

Acknowledgement

The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. S. K. Mukherjee,

Keeper, Central National Herbarium for his kind help in the identifica-

tion of some of the plants.

An ecological Survey of the larger

Mammals of Peninsular India

BY

M. Krishnan

( With ten plates)

[Continued from Vol. 68 (3) : 555]

THE TIGER

Panthera tigris (Linnaeus)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 22, of which 18 were in the

Kanha National Park, M.P., in May 1968, limited to 4 animals. Fresh

pugs : 16. Other conclusive evidence of presence : 2.

Locations: Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Andhra Pradesh — Kawal Sa. ;

Orissa — Balimela, Purnakote: Bihar — Hazaribagh N.P., Palamau N.P.,

the bed of the river Koel : Madhya Pradesh — Kanha N.P., Bara Naya

Para : Uttar Pradesh — Corbett N.P.

Photographs : MP 4, MP 7, MP 9, MP 10, MP 11, MP 12 : B 11)

More has been written about the tiger than any other Indian animal

but most of it has been about how to shoot it or, more often, how the

author shot it ; there are even entirely anthropomorphic ‘ autobio-

graphies ’ of it ! Some of the habits and reactions of the tiger have

been observed and reported by hunters such as Jim Corbett, and a closer

study of it made by Dunbar Brander : some of this information has

been taken into account in Prater’s book, and a scientific and meticu-

lously observed account of the tigers in the Kanha N. P., Madhya

Pradesh, is furnished in Schaller’s the deer and the tiger. A great

deal of information is available on the tiger in all this literature.

Size : Morphological characters

Adult size differs with individuals, but as a rule the male is consider-

ably larger than the female. Dunbar Brander provides a factual and

informed discussion of the size and weight attained by tigers. The

ground colour varies from the off-white of the albinotic ‘ white ’ tigers

of Rewa through ochre to burnt sienna, and the shoulders and head

may be lighter than the body in ground colour ; the abdomen, chest,

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

27

chin, and insides of the limbs are also white in ground colour, as also

a ‘ sun-spot ’ above the eye, and the ruff above the cheeks. The stripes

are variable in number, colour and formation, even in adults from the

same litter, and further the ground colour and stripe spacing varies

somewhat with age ; the stripes are solid and broad on the abdomen and

the insides of the limbs (where the ground colour is white). The patch

of white above each eye is marked with a varying pattern of black, but

there is always a thin rim of white to the eyes ; the black spots on either

side of the lips, from which the moustachial vibrissae arise, coalesce

into thin bars, and high up the chin (near the mouth) there are some

small black spots. The hair on the inside of the ears is white, and on

the dorsal aspect of each ear the colouring is black with a large, pro-

minent, almost white spot in the centre.

Many observers have commented on the obliterative or cryptic

pattern of the tiger’s coat, which is said to blend perfectly with the

streaky appearance of tall grass and small bushes. It is obvious that

to have any significance in its life, such colouring must have one or

both of two functions : it may be protective and help in not betraying

the tiger to its enemies, or it may be assimilative and help in not betray-

ing the tiger to its prey. Apart from men, the tiger’s chief adversaries

consist mainly of other tigers, and ticks and similar parasites, so that

the first aspect of the matter need not be considered further. In con-

sidering the value of the tiger’s seemingly assimilative colouring to its

hunting, it should be remembered that the perceptions of the prey

species are not dominated by colour-sensitive vision, as ours are, and

are more versatile, that so far as is known their vision is monochromatic

and that the tiger hunts at night. Although it is often abroad and

occasionally hunts by day, its hunting is done mainly at night. After

sunset, a different kind of optic perspicacity governs even our colour-

sensitive vision, for colour is no longer appreciable ; the ability to see

clearly by low light levels, and to sense slight movements rather than

static form becomes important. Further, like other cats, the tiger

creeps upon its prey till near enough to attack in a rush, crouching low

and taking advantage of every bit of cover, depending more on not

being seen at all than on assimilative coloration — some observers,

going by the lack of stealth of tigers at times in attacking tethered live

baits, have overlooked the entirely artificial circumstances then obtaining.

The colouring of the tiger’s coat is only a specific variation of a

generic pattern, and it is in the leopard that such specific variation

attains its most remarkable obliterative efficiency.

Distribution

Within peninsular India, the tiger has long been known wherever

there were tree forests, and an adequate source of water (which could

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

be quite small). Its present status (when in many of its former haunts

it is now rare or locally extinct, and when in others its natural prey has

been so depleted by hunting and trapping that its survival is endangered

because in such localities it now constitutes a threat to cattle and men)

strikingly illustrates the unpredictable consequences of interfering

with the balance of nature, and also the fallacy of the theory that a little

thinning of numbers for shikar will not affect a fast-breeding animal

like the tiger. Within the past two decades, the tiger has declined so

substantially, and even dramatically, in peninsular India that no reliable

estimate of its numbers can be made, in view of the lack of dependable

statistics, and it is difficult to make any firm statement on its present

distribution in the peninsula, but it still seems to be there, in many of

its former haunts, though conditions in those areas have changed

considerably and may speed its further decline.

Habits : Behaviour

In the Kanha N.P., in the first 12 days of May 1968, 4 tigers (2 adult

tigresses and 2 male subadults about a year old) were seen by day on

18 different occasions. The 2 male subadults were the cubs of the

younger and smaller tigress, and one of them was considerably bulkier

than the other, almost as big as his mother ; the older, richer-coloured

and much larger tigress seen once was said to be the mother of the

young tigress (MP 68 May 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11 p.m. — photographs

MP 4, MP 7, MP 11).

Apparently this was a family party, living under somewhat artificial

conditions, with the younger tigress and the 2 subadults tied to the

area by the regular provision of buffalo baits over a long period. In

these circumstances it is hardly worth the while drawing conclusions,

from observation of them, on the daily activity cycle of tigers, hunting

and feeding, reactions to men and similar behaviour, but in other

matters, such as intraspecific communications, avoidance of heat and

glare, and instinctive responses they were no doubt entirely natural.

Further, the conditions under which this family party of three was

induced to stay more or less within two square miles of the Kanha meadow,

and the repercussions of the sustained provision of inducements, are

interesting.

The tigers were active in the mornings till about 8 a.m. after feeding

on the bait killed at night ; then they lay up in the undershrub of a

wooded nullah or in tall grass. Everyday they were disturbed in such

cover by visitors to the sanctuary on elephant back till about 11 a.m.,

but only retreated deeper into the cover or shifted higher up the wooded

hillock besides the nullah, though resentment of such disturbance was

evinced even by the subadult tigers. Apparently they slept or rested

in shade till evening, when they were again on the move. Usually they

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1)

Krishnan : Mammals

Plate IX

Above : m. p. 1968 : kanha n. p. : May 4 — a.m. : The larger of the two subadult tigers

— mp. 4 ; Below : m. p. 1968 : kanha n. p. : May 6 — a.m. : Portrait of the larger

subadult tiger — mp. 7.

[Photos : M. Krishnan)

J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1)

Krishnan : Mammals

Plate X

Above : m. p. 1968 : kanha n. p. : May 8 — a.m. : The tigress on the rock — mp. 9 ;

Below : m. p. 1968 : kanha n. p. : May 11 — a.m. : The tigress in the corridor between

the bole of the banyan and a pillar root — mp. 10.

{Photos : M. Krishnan)

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

29

did not stay together, the 2 young tigers staying near each other, or

one in the nullah and the other in the wooded hillock, and the tigress

choosing different retreats not too far away. The heat and glare were

fierce, and once the tigress was located deep inside a cool, dark cave ;

twice she was seen cooling herself in rock-girt pools (MP 68 May 10 &

12 : photograph MP 12).

In May 1968, only this group of 3 (the smaller tigress and her 2 yearling

cubs) were killing the baits provided, and had been accustomed to do

so over a period of months. Evidently what had originally attracted

the tigress to the area was the need to provide for growing cubs coupled

with the assured availability of easy, staked-out prey. It was said that

the larger tigress (the reputed mother of the smaller) had visited the

kills once or twice. There was another tiger in the forests beyond the

Kanha meadow, a large male, but he did not come to the kill.

Once I found the smaller tigress lying up in a tussock of tall grass,

and at our approach (on elephant back) she entered an extensive patch

of tall grass across a forest road and proceeded, hidden by the cover,

to where the larger tigress was lying up, about 100 yards away. Ap-

proaching the larger tigress, she came out with repeated low, vibrant,

whining calls, reminiscent of the call used by a chained-up hound wishing

to attract the attention of a man — these, evidently, were placatory,

and the two tigresses were on amicable terms (MP 68 May 11 : photo-

graph MP 11).

Although accustomed over months to being photographed and

watched at night from the elevated, covered hide, while feeding with

her cubs on the kill, and to being followed by visitors to the park on

elephant back in the mornings, this group of tigers had not developed

that indifference to human proximity that lions in similar circumstances

develop, but were tense and resentful.

Schaller, analysing the reports of others and his own observation

of the social interactions of adult tigers, says these are best understood

in the three separate contexts of hunting, mating and feeding : he con-

cludes that usually tigers hunt alone, that rival males attracted to a

receptive female are antagonistic to one another, and that they ‘ appear

to socialize more at kills than any other occasion \ He cites 3 detailed

personal observation records in support of this, and it is noteworthy

that in all of them the kill was by one particular tigress with 4 cubs,

that the prey killed was domestic cattle, and that the tiger, and the 2

other tigresses, that were allowed to feed on these kills were, presum-

ably, previously known to the tigress with 4 cubs. He further records

that while the behaviour of this tigress was friendly towards the tiger,

her acceptance of the other 2 tigresses at the kill was hostile ; it is in-

teresting to note that superior size did not determine commensal priority,

but that the ‘ owner 5 of the kill seemed to have precedence.

30 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

There are many other instances, recorded by earlier observers, of

2 or more tigers feeding at the same kill, but as far as can be ascertained

those tigers had previously accepted one another, and in many instances

were closely associated.

Undoubtedly the findings of Schaller, Dunbar Brander and others,

with regard to the sociability of tigers at kills, are entirely valid, but

such records of commensal amiability, or unwilling mutual tolerance,

do not exhaust the scope of this particular context, nor are the three

contexts mentioned above the only main contexts of adult intraspecific

interactions among tigers. There are records of tigers having appro-

priated the kills of others, and such appropriations were not, obviously,

amiably permitted. Further, in commenting on the sharing of territory

by tigers, Schaller points out that once social dominance is established,

in further encounters fights are avoided by the mutual acceptance of

dominant or submissive behaviouristic expressions. In no animal is

such acceptance immutable or unconditional. Other factors may condi-

tion such armed neutrality, such as the size and food-appeal of a kill,

maternal instinct, or even emotional states. Sex also has to be considered.

A tigress may not fight a tiger, but may resent the intrusion of another

tigress into the area.

Moreover, artificial inducements and influences sometimes lead

to internecine fights. In May 1968 I made diligent inquiry of the park

officials at Kanha, and learnt that a few months previously another

tigress, with one cub, was known in the area, but that she had been killed

in a conjoint attack by the two adult tigresses I had seen (the mother

of the yearlings, and her mother), in the very nullah occupied by the

family party of three that I was observing. There was no reason for

doubting the truth of this statement. I heard it from 4 different sources,

two of them had actually seen the carcass of the dead tigress and

the footprints and blood marks at the scene of the killing. Nothing

was known of the fate of the cub with this tigress. Later in the same

month, at the Corbett N.P. of Uttar Pradesh, where also baits were

regularly tied out to attract tigers to the Dhikala area so as to display

them to visitors, I learnt that a tiger had been killed in an intraspecific

fight. In March 1969 no tiger was taking the baits staked out at Schaller

Tower, Kanha, though I believe there were one or two kills when the

baits were tied in different localities : only one set of fresh pugs were

seen, of a tigress (MP 69 Mar. 10). There was a report of another

tiger having been killed in an intraspecific fight since my previous visit, but

no inquiry was possible. In March 1970, no tigers were taking any

baits in the Kanha park : apparently no tigress with cubs had been

attracted to the area.

Writing of the tiger’s might eighteen centuries ago, the Tamil poet

Paranar said that it was so powerful that it could kill and carry a bullock.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1) Plate XI

Krishnan : Mammals

Above: m. p. 1968: kanha n. p. : May 11 — p.m. : ‘Bade Ma’ — mp. 11; Below:

m. p. 1968 : kanha n. p. : May 12 — a.m. : The tigress in a pool — mp. 12.

{Photos : M. Krishnan)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1)

Krishnan : Mammals

Plate XII

Above: bihar 1969: betla : palamau : February 17 — p.m. : Adult gaur cow

killed by a tiger — b. 11 ; Below : Maharashtra 1968 : taroba n. p. : November

25 — about 7 p.m. : A big male leopard — MR. 6.

[Photos : M. Krishnan)

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 31

Schaller records a tiger killing an adult bull gaur in the Kanha park,

a much more impressive performance. I saw the freshly-killed carcass

of an adult gaur cow in the Palamau N.P., killed single-handed by

an adult male tiger well known in the area : the tracks showed where

the tiger had attacked the cow, in tree forest, and later dragged the kill

down a decline to the middle of a stony, open nullah where he had

abandoned it, with no attempt to cover it : he did not return to the

kill, which was lying close to a forest road. The remarkable feature

of this kill (which was inspected by several others, besides me) was that

there were no claw marks on the gaur’s hide, and that the only wounds

were two sets of two deep, punctured wounds, inflicted by the canines,

on either side of the nape ; the throat had not been bitten (B 69 Feb.

17 : photograph B 11).

S. R. Choudhury of the Orissa Forest Department related a quite

remarkable instance of a tiger’s self-assurance in making a kill, to which

he had been an eye-witness. He was watching a line of elephants slowly

going up a forested hill along a narrow ledge, from far away, when a

tiger suddenly leaped on to the ledge from bush cover, made a lightning

pass at a young calf, and retreated into cover before the excited adult

elephants could intervene ; the attack was said to have lasted only a few

seconds. The infant collapsed and later died, and after a long while

the elephants, including the mother of the calf, left the carcass and went

up the hill. I saw an interesting set of fresh footprints on the bed of

the Koel, showing how a tiger had followed a party of elephants (which

included an infant) part of the way across the dry river bed (B 68 Apr.

23). In the Palamau N.P., at Hathbajhwa, I heard a tiger growling

from the dense cover behind the watch-tower, from which a young

elephant calf had emerged, and saw a number of adult elephants en-

tering the cover, presumably to investigate (B 69 Feb. 19, 4 p.m.).

Tigers will drink from a small, muddy puddle at times, when a river

or pool is available not too far away, as noticed in the Mudumalai

Sa. and also in Palamau N.P. (B 68 Apr. 27). The tigress observed

in Kanha in 1968 was very sleepy by about noon, after feeding on the

kill at night, but evidently mistrustful of reclining on the ground when

men on elephant back were close by. Thrice, she left the tall grass

cover in which she had been lying up when approached, and walked

towards a boulder-strewn part of the forest about two furlongs away.

On the first occasion, she stopped frequently to urinate, roll on her

back, and lie down once briefly on a bare patch, in what seemed dis-

placement activity ; then she went on to a rounded rock about 9-foot

high and climbing it, stretched herself on top, in the shade of a young

banyan that grew there : she watched us sleepily as the riding elephant

slowly approached the rock and halted 30 feet from her, then her eyes

closed partially as she rested her chin on her paws, still facing us. In

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

another minute she was sound asleep, turning her body over on one

side to relax fully. On the other two occasions she went to another

rock nearby, also about 9-foot high, also with a banyan tree shading it,

but growing on top with pillar roots close by the trunk : she ensconced

herself in the corridor between bole and pillar, stretched flat on her

stomach, and watched our approach from half-closed sleep-heavy eyes :

as she watched us, her eyes closed to mere slits, her raised head began

to nod, and finally dropped on to her paws, and she was asleep. This

was no passive form of displacement behaviour, it was sleep all right,

authentic, compulsive somnolence, probably induced by heavy feeding.

Seated on the elephant, I was on a level with her and was able, by slowly

backing the elephant (the approach was intentionally made with the

head of the elephant turned away from the rock) closer in by degrees,

to get near, on one occasion getting as close as 12 feet from her nose

by accurate rangefinder measurement.

She slept, so to speak, with eyes shut tight and ears wide open.

Fairly rapid movements of my hands and body, the sounds made by

the release and resetting of the camera’s shutter and the winding on

of the film, my directions to the mahout in a low tone and, later, even

my whistling to make her look up, failed entirely to rouse her. I was

positively anxious not to do anything that might panic her, as the im-

possibly contrasty lighting, with the overhead sun casting patches of

dense shade and brilliant highlights all over, presented quite sufficient

photographic problems without the added one of the subject bolting.

However, in an attempt to get her to raise her head and open her eyes

fully, loud clucks with the tongue were tried, to no effect. Everytime

the elephant was moved, the noise of its feet on the litter-strewn ground

made her open her eyes partially, for visual confirmation of her hearing,

and I was able to get her to raise her head and stare sleepily only by

making the elephant shuffle feet without moving. Her judgment of

our position by ear alone was remarkable (MP 68 May 8, 10, 11 : photo-

graphs MP 9, MP 10 — other photographs, showing this tigress with

the head resting on her paws or on the rock, and the eyes closed or

partly open, have not been printed for this report).

Besides vocalisations (of which Schaller provides a succinct account)

variations in attitudes and deportment seem to play an important part

in intraspecific communications, as in other cats. The staring ear-

spot seems to serve as a flag only when the ears are pricked and seen

from behind the tiger.

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 33

THE LEOPARD

Panther a pardus (Linnaeus)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 13. Fresh pugs and other

conclusive evidence of presence : 7.

Locations: Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa.: Orissa — Simlipal hills: Maha-

rashtra— Taroba N.P.

Photograph : MR 6.)

Widely recognised as the most variable of the greater cats morpho-

logically, at one time there was a distinction between a larger panther

and a smaller leopard, but now it is realised that they represent only

individual and ontogenetic variations of the same species. Currently,

there is a revival of taxonomic interest in possible regional races, even

within peninsular India. The black leopard is only a melanistic varia-

tion, generally found in the denser and more evergreen forests ; its re-

ported smaller size seems entirely due to its much darker ‘ whole ’ colour.

Size : Morphological characters

Adult size varies widely, from near 6-foot (between pegs) to 8 feet,

but this gives a poorer indication of size than weight, as the length of

the tail has no relation to body size. Weights vary from 60 to 160 lb.

These variations are not regional. In personally verified records of the

length (between pegs), weight, and pelage patterning of 14 leopards

shot (by others) in the same area of the Deccan during the forties, the

following are included :

1. Adult male, 6' 1" long; weight 64 lb. The coat was short, smooth,

and very richly patterned with close-set jet-black spots and rosettes on

a fulvous burnt sienna ground, with the ground colour of the abdomen,

chest, chin, the sides of the jaws, the inner aspects of the limbs and the

distal part of the long tail conspicuously white.

2. A male in his prime, T 1" long : weight 158 lb. The abdomen was tucked

in, and when cut up the stomach was empty ; when gorged this animal

would have turned the scales at close on 170 lb. The coat was raw

sienna in ground colour, with the chin, a small ruff, the chest, abdomen

and the insides of the limbs off-white, and black spots and small

rosettes.

3. An old male, heavily built and with a domed head. Mistaken for a tiger

in the evening light. Length T 1", tail 32* ; weight 132 lb. The extra-

ordinary feature of this animal was that the chin, chest and abdomen

were a light yellow ochre, even the hair inside the ears. The body colour

was a deep, dull ochre and the spots and rosettes indistinct against the

ground colour, being a graphite-grey rather than black. Coat short

and close.

4. An old male, 7' 1 " long; weight 121 lb. Head small. Coat furry, tail

long and furry. Ground colour of body a pale fulvous grey. Spots

small and few, even along the median line of the back ; many double

3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

rosettes, with the inner circle consisting of spots and the outer not heavily

marked but delicately pencilled.

The ear-spots are present, as in the tiger, but much less noticeable,

perhaps because of the spotted coat.

Distribution

It has often been said of the leopard that (even within peninsular

India) it has a much wider distribution than the tiger, being much smaller,

more versatile in its hunting, more tolerant of the heat and less deriiand-

ing in its requirements of cover, being well able to thrive in open country,

in rocky hills and thorn-scrub.

That was the position 25 years ago. In the recent past the leopard

has declined notably in open country and around human settlements

in peninsular India, partly owing to the conversion of scrub to human

uses and partly to having been shot out and poisoned. It is now to be

found mainly in certain favoured localities, such as sanctuaries, and is

almost or completely rare in many locations where it was common

formerly.

Habits : Behaviour

The literature on the leopard as a big game animal is extensive and

contains much evidence on its unpredictable variability, but meagre in

circumstantial accounts of its habits. A male and a female are some-

times seen in a pair, as also a leopardess with young cubs, but the period

of association between cubs and mother seems shorter than in the tiger ;

perhaps the cubs grow up faster.

The size of its prey depends, naturally, on the size of the leopard.

It is generally agreed that sambar stags and bull nilgai are left alone by

leopards, but at Chilkanahatti (in Mysore State at present) a big leopard

killed a bullock. Subadult and young sambar and nilgai are no doubt

preyed upon, as also young gaur calves if they can be safely attacked.

A leopard is not able to kill even a goat quickly, with a blow of its paw

or one bite, as tigers do at times, and therefore it has to study safety in

attacking the young of large animals. A small leopard on a fallen tree

trunk was seen closely watching a herd of gaur in which there were 3

young calves ; seeing me (on elephant back) the leopard dropped into

the grass below and seeing it, two gaur cows rushed towards it with

lowered horns and the leopard bolted (TN 62 April 7, p.m.). On another

occasion, 3 gaur cows topping a rise saw a big male leopard ascending

the rise from the other side, and after a momentary halt and sharp, nasal

snorts, rushed at the leopard with lowered heads and the leopard bolted

(TN 59 Mar. 22, a.m.). In both instances, the gaur rushed at the leopard

at a fast walk, not a gallop.

A small adult female, followed at a distance on elephant back,

urinated repeatedly, rolled on her back on the ground with all four feet

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

35

in the air, and when moving fast, melted into a grey blur (TN 63 Mar.

19, p.m.). The almost completely obliterative disruptive colouring of

a leopard in tangled tall grass or thorn-scrub has been remarked upon

by many observers, and is no doubt of value to an animal that is abroad

so much by daylight (TN 63 Mar. 25, a.m.) ; however the remarkably

disruptive effect of the coat when the animal is moving fast has not

received the attention it merits ; unlike a tiger, a leopard crossing even

open ground at a fast pace is difficult to follow visually, because the

effect of movement is to create, not a grey form with contour sharpness,

but a grey blur. I have noticed this both by daylight and by artificial

light (spotlight) at night — the only other Indian animal that also gets

blurred by movement is the porcupine, but that is no doubt achieved

in part by the outbristling of the quills, and anyway is much less oblite-

rative. This is perhaps of some value to the leopard in its getaway from

large animals chasing it, such as gaur and tiger.

When moving away from men, or other animals such as gaur or

elephants, leopards run or slink into bush cover or into tall grass, and

often squat low in the cover, but are said to climb trees when a tiger is

near or wild dogs on their trail. Tigers are their chief natural enemies ;

many instances of wild dogs chasing leopards are on record. Occasion-

ally, a leopard may seize a wild dog — I have heard of such an instance.

A very full account of the varied prey on which leopards subsist is

provided by Dunbar Brander in his book. When hunting monkeys

they sometimes climb trees, apparently to scare the prey into leaving

the tree and seeking escape across the forest floor, when it can be seized :

sometimes they hunt monkeys in a pair.

It is said that leopards are much less dependent on water than tigers.

They do not lie up in water as tigers do, but drink regularly, particularly

after feeding. As in the case of the tiger, a small water-hole or puddle

will suffice for them, and in saying they can do without water, the human

observers have apparently missed such inconspicuous sources.

Langur, macaques, barking deer, chousingha, chital, sambar and a

number of birds (including the peafowl) sound alarm calls at the sight

of a leopard, as at the sight of a tiger. Both the giant squirrel and the

common striped squirrel also call at a leopard, the former in a more

urgent variation of its normal rattling call, and the latter in an excited,

sustained chirrup.

Unlike young tiger cubs, leopard cubs are highly vocal at times, till

about 2 months old. Their call then is a repeated, plangent, long-drawn,

rasping mew, and presumably addressed to their mother when she is

not in sight, for it is not sounded when she is at hand. The grunt and

snarl of the adult, as well as the peculiar call reminiscent of the thrust

and return of a wood-cutting saw, are well-known.

The leopard’s addiction to spitting and hissing like a wild cat, when

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

expressing resentment (as when demonstrating at men) should be men-

tioned (TN 63 Mar. 25, 69 Oct. 3).

Leopards seem even more prone to residence within a limited range,

when their requirements are met locally, than tigers.

THE JUNGLE CAT

Felis chaus (Guldenstaedt)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 22.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Orissa — Badrama : Bihar —

Hazaribagh N.P., Palamau N.P., Karkatnagar : Madhya Pradesh — Kanha :

Maharashtra — Taroba N.P.

Photograph : B 9.)

Domestic cats, run wild, are not uncommon in the scrub and forests

around human settlements. Where there is some white or patterned

stripes on the coat, these are easily told apart from the jungle cat, but

the larger size of the latter, as specified in faunal literature, does not

appear to be a reliable criterion for distinguishing between the two. In

the identical location (for instance, the Hazaribagh N.P., Bihar) the

animal is to be found of the stature and coloration of textbook descrip-

tions, and also of the same colour but only about half the size of the

larger animal, and these smaller specimens, closely observed, were seen

to be quite adult. Inquiry of others likely to know about the possibility

of hybrids between the feral domestic cats of India and authentic Felis

chaus have yielded no definite information — the coloration of these

smaller-sized Jungle Cats is substantially the same as that provided in

faunas, except that there seems to be a greater admixture of brick red

in the grey than in the descriptions, especially in the Taroba N.P. of

Maharashtra. There is some variation in size even among the smaller

animals seen, some being only the size of a big domestic tom (approxi-

mately 5-6 lb. in weight) and others somewhat larger. All cats seen in

the forest of a general predominantly fulvous or reddish grey colour

with no dark markings on the flanks, with the tail short and ending in

a dark tip with a few rings above the tip, and pointed ears, edged with

black or dark grey, have been taken as Jungle Cats in this report.

(MR 68 Nov. 19, 20, 21, 24 ; B 69 Feb. 20, 70 Feb. 23 ; TN 70 Oct. 3).

Size : Morphological characters

Variations in size have already been mentioned. Some large speci-

mens, of the size specified in faunas, were also seen (B 69 Feb. 14 :

photograph B 9). In specimens seen, a dark line running down from

the inner lower corner of each eye down to the nose (on either side)

was observed. In subadults, there were dark bars on the inner aspects

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1)

Krishnan : Mammals

Plate XIII

Above : bihar 1969 : hazaribagh n. p. : February 14 — 8.30 p.m. : Jungle cat —

b. 9; Below: bihar 1970: hazaribagh n. p. : February 4 — about 8.30 p.m.:

Hyena — b. 23.

[Photos : M. Krishnan)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1)

Krishnan : Mammals

Plate XIV

Above: kerala 1970: periyar sa. : May 6 — a.m. : Wild dog — k. 28; Below:

Mysore 1968: bandipur sa. : October 22 — a.m. : Wild dogs — my, 11.

(Photos : M. Krishnan)

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

37

of the upper half of the forelimbs and on the abdomen (B 69 Feb. 21

& 22, 70 Feb. 26).

Distribution

Throughout peninsular India, in open forests and scrub.

Habits : Behaviour

On occasion a cat was seen to pounce on something small on the

forest floor, and to crunch it up, most probably a grasshopper or similar

insect. 4 adults were seen crouched immobile in the open, near water,

and in a bush near an artificial salt lick, evidently lying in wait for part-

ridges, doves and other birds visiting the water and lick (B 68 Apr. 26,

69 Feb. 20, 70 Feb. 23, 70 Feb. 27 ; TN 64 Sept. 27, 70 Oct. 3 & 4).

Grown kittens were seen in the Palamau N.P., Bihar, in February

1969 and 1970.

THE SMALL INDIAN CIVET

Viverricula indica (Desmarest)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 18.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Orissa — Badrama, Simlipal

Hills : Bihar — Hazaribagh, N.P. : Maharashtra — Taroba N.P.

No photograph.)

This is the common civet of peninsular India and mainly nocturnal.

Size : Morphological characters

Larger than the Common Mongoose, standing higher, and heavier-

built. Length about 3 feet. Weight around 6 lb.

Distribution

All over the peninsula, in open deciduous forests and scrub jungles ;

common around villages.

Habits : Behaviour

This civet was seen alongside forest roads at night, usually singly.

A pair (probably mother and near-adult young) was twice seen on the

periphery of the Taroba lake (MR 69 Nov. 20, 25). Although it climbs

trees, it was always seen on the ground. In addition to feeding on small

animals, berries and the like, it preys on insects, like beetles and grass-

hoppers.

This civet has an interesting history in the Deccan, where, till about

30 years ago, it was often tamed and given the run of the house, being

an excellent ratter. The perfume, civet, is extracted from it, and for-

merly it was much valued as the provider of it, but for that purpose it

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

was kept closely caged, the civet being rubbed off on the bars of the

cage from its sub-caudal scent-glands, and scraped and collected.

THE COMMON PALM CIVET

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Pallas)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 7.

Locations : Bihar — Palamau N.P. : Madhya Pradesh — Shivpuri N.P. :

Maharashtra — Taroba N.P.

No photograph.)

The ‘ toddy cat ’, so called from its tendency to drink the sweet

juice from the pots of toddy-tappers (the name ‘ palm civet ’ has much

the same derivation), is a much more arboreal animal than the civet,

though it also hunts prey on the ground. It is nocturnal, like the civet.

Size : Morphological characters

About 3-foot 6-inch to 4 feet long, and around 8 lb. in weight. It

is a low-to-ground creature that seems larger than it is because of its

long, coarse, dark hair.

Distribution

All over the forest and scrub areas of the peninsula : not uncommon

in urban areas.

Habits : Behaviour

The palm civet, like the civet, lives on small animals (including in-

sects) and fruits, but finds its prey as often up a tree as on the ground :

it preys on birds and raids their nests. In urban areas, rats seem to be

its main prey. For years an untamed palm civet shared my tiled cottage

and unkempt garden with me, and I have seen it hunting palm squirrels

on my roof at night.

It is often found inside tree forests (MP 69 Mar. 31 ; MR 68 Nov. 21 ;

69 Nov. 25, 29 ; B 70 Feb. 21).

The eyes of few mammals reflect artificial light beams at night (such

as a spotlight) as brilliantly as the palm civet’s.

THE COMMON MONGOOSE

Herpestes edwardsi (Geoffroy)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 20.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa., Pt. Calimere Sa. : Mysore—

Bandipur Sa. : Bihar — Palamau N.P., Karkatnagar: Madhya Pradesh —

Bastar : Maharashtra — Taroba N.P.

No photograph.)

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

39

The Common Mongoose is one of the few wild animals of India

that most people know, in a somewhat anthropomorphic way as the

killer of cobras. I have not seen a really big mongoose with a snake-

charmer.

Size : Morphological characters

The male is larger than the female. The average length of an adult

is 3 feet ; weight 3-4 lb.

Distribution

This mongoose is common all over the peninsula, and is essentially

an animal of the open scrub.

Habits : Behaviour

This mongoose appears to be mainly diurnal. Wild mongooses were

seen moving actively at all times of the day, even during the hottest

hours. It is unreliable going by the activity cycle of tame animals, fed

regularly, but most of the hunting seems to be done in the mornings and

evenings. However, mongooses are met by night as well (MR 68 Nov.

19) : family parties of a mother followed by 3 or 4 young in a train, are

usually crepuscular.

The mongoose is essentially a hunter, but its diet is varied with berries

and other fruits, and it eats beetles, grasshoppers, birds and their eggs,

lizards, snakes and frogs, as also small mammals like rats and mice.

I have personally known it to kill a hare bigger than itself, and once saw

a big mongoose carrying a fair-sized bird that looked like a stone-plover,

considering the surroundings more probably a stone curlew ( Burhinus

oedicnemus) — MY 68 Oct. 19. At Point Calimere I noticed, shortly

after dawn, numerous mongoose tracks leading from the littoral scrub

to the foreshore and meandering along it, suggesting that crab-hunting

at night was indulged in.

THE STRIPENECKED MONGOOSE

Herpestes vitticollis (Bennett)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 6.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa.

No photograph.)

This large mongoose attains an almost otter-like thickness on occa-

sion, though it is much smaller in proportion.

Size : Morphological characters

Much heavier than the Common Mongoose, though only about the

same length (3 feet). Prater gives the weight at 7 lb. In the same area,

40 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

some animals are much darker (TN 63 Mar. 17) : the distinctive stripe

on the neck is visible in a good light even in such animals.

Distribution

Along the Western Ghats, in deciduous forests. In these, it is usually

seen in swampy clearings, along watercourses, and in open scrub, though

it certainly does enter tree forests also.

Habits : Behaviour

Although it hunts small prey, like insects and frogs, it also preys on

animals as large as itself or larger. A stripenecked mongoose was

seen chasing a young chital fawn in the scrub (TN 70 Sep. 20). A

captive specimen I know was fond of bananas. A certain amount of

vegetable food is also taken.

THE STRIPED HYENA

Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 4.

Spoor and call : 2.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Orissa — Simlipal hills, near

Sambalpur : Bihar — Hazaribagh N.P., Palamau N.P.

Photograph : B 23.)

Prior to the period of this survey, I have seen the hyena now and

again in fairly open forests interspersed with scrub. Very few were

seen in the forested areas in which most of the work was done after

1959, but no doubt they were there. Being mainly nocturnal, and going

about in a pair or by themselves, they are seen seldom, and then only by

chance, in the course of night drives along forest roads. No attempt

was made during the survey period to locate and observe hyenas.

Size : Morphological characters

The enormously powerful, bone-cracking jaws, the fall off to weak-

seeming hind quarters and legs from the strong forequarters, and the

dorsal crest of thick, long, fine hair are the main physical attributes of

the hyena. Prater gives the height at the shoulder at 3 feet, and a weight

of 85 lb. for a male. The spoor is unmistakable, with the imprint of the

big forefeet so much bigger than that of the compact hind feet.

Distribution

The striped hyena has a wide distribution in Asia, and Africa. In

peninsular India it is found both in forests, and more commonly in

rocky, ravine-cut, bush-clad country.

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

41

Habits : Behaviour

Well known as a carrion eater and as a feeder off the kills of other

animals, the striped hyena in India has not received the serious atten-

tion of naturalists. There are records of its appropriating a leopard’s

kill, driving off the legitimate owner of the kill — these are interesting,

in that a fair-sized leopard may kill a big dog the size of a hyena, and

suggest that the hyena does put its great jaw-power to aggressive or

defensive use on occasion. There are also records of its carrying away

dogs, and occasionally, infant animals and even children. As against

this when hunted with dogs it has been known to sham dead instead of

fighting its way clear, enduring the worrying and the bites of its hunters.

Col. R. W. Burton assured me that taken young and tamed, it is quite

dog-like in its attitude to men. Zoo specimens often get quite attached

to their keepers, and others they know.

The vocalisation associated with the hyena is its discordant, cackling

‘ laughter ’, which seems to be indulged in when it is excited. It also

comes out with a high, nasal whine that tails off to a whimper, similar

to the whine of a dog ‘ calling ’ a man, when trying to attract attention.

In 1955, a hyena in the People’s Park at Madras was deeply attached to

the late B. V. Ramanjulu, who was then the Superintendent of the zoo.

On several occasions I have been a witness to this hyena scenting him,

when he was invisible to it, and calling to him with loud whines, which

would change to a staccato cackling when he came up and stroked it.

Hyenas have a very fine nose.

Another sound commonly used by a pair out on a prowl, and sepa-

rated from each other by a short distance, is a high, querulous ‘ kow ’,

somewhat long-drawn and declining in volume. I investigated this call,

often heard at night along a stony nullah near Krishna Nagar in Sandur

(now in Mysore State) and on two occasions was able to observe the

hyena calling : the call was answered by its mate, from about a furlong

away.

THE JACKAL

Canis aureus (Linnaeus)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 25.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa., Pt. Calimere : Andhra Pradesh —

Pakhal Sa.: Orissa — Tickerpara, Simlipal hills, Chilka : Bihar — Hazaribagh

N.P., Palamau N.P. : Maharashtra — Taroba N.P.

No photograph.)

No attempt was made to locate and study jackals specifically during

the period of this survey, but prior to it and in rural localities, I have

had opportunities to watch them closely.

42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 69 (1)

Size : Morphological characters

Prater gives the height as from 15-17 inches and the weight as from

17-25 lb., and adds that animals from North India are larger and heavier.

Perhaps he means the sub-Himalayan areas, but neither in the northern

parts of peninsular India nor even in U.P., north Bengal (near Bhutan)

and Assam were the jackals seen noticeably larger than in the South.

The largest jackals I have seen were in the Pulneys.

Very dark, almost black jackals (said to be not uncommon in N.

India) are quite rare in the peninsula, but occur in the south-west.

Animals almost entirely tawny are also seen occasionally.

Distribution

All over the peninsula : commoner around forest-side villages than in

forests.

Habits : Behaviour

A great deal has been written about jackals as scavengers and as the

camp-followers of tigers. It is significant that the ‘ pheal ’ of Anglo-

Indian shikar literature is said to attach itself to tigers and not to

leopards — the latter prey on jackals.

Jackals living along the coastline are much given to hunting crabs

at night along the foreshore (TN 68 Dec. 12). Apart from feeding on

carrion when it is available, they hunt whatever they can overcome, from

field mice to the fawns of chital. When hunting larger prey, sometimes

they may run in a pack, but usually they hunt alone. Among the fruits

eaten are ripe mangoes, the ripe drupes of the lantana, and Zizyphus

mauritiana.

At sunset jackals usually come out with a concerted howling, one

animal starting the howling which is taken up by others near it. The

purpose of this vocalisation is not clear, but it is probably an assembly

call. This evening chorus of jackals, once one of the most familiar

sounds of the Indian countryside, is no longer to be heard in many of

the areas where it was common. No doubt the occupation of the plains

country by humanity is partly responsible for this, but since this chorus

is mainly a feature of jackals living around human settlements, this

cannot be the explanation of the decline of the familiar noise.

THE DHOLE or THE WILD DOG

Cuon alpinus (Pallas)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 25.

Locations : Kerala — Periyar Sa. : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Mysore —

Bandipur Sa. : Madhya Pradesh — Kanha N.P. : Maharashtra — Taroba N P.

Photographs : K 28 MY 11.)

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

43

The history of human, hostility to the wild dog in India during the

present century is both interesting and significant, as showing a strong

biotic bias that is independent of cause-and-effect reasoning, motivated

largely by unverified prejudice, and sentiment. No other animal has

incurred the antagonism of man without doing him any demonstrable

harm. No instances are on record of wild dogs having killed or injured

men in the many brushes between them ; though they have been known

to kill cattle on occasion, these killings are so few and far between that

they may be ignored and, moreover, have never been cited as a reason

for outlawing the predator and, being a thoroughgoing carnivore wild

dogs have never done any harm to crops. Moreover, being a com-

paratively small animal whose head provides no worthwhile trophy and

whose pelage loses its lustre with death, it has never been considered a

game animal. But still there has been a reward on the head (and brush)

of the wild dog till recent times and even today the dominant impulse

of men with guns on seeing the animal is to shoot it.

Only one justification has been adduced for this implacable hostility

and it is valuable in its way as showing the sustained and ubiquitous

interest of men in hunting the very animals that the wild dog hunts,

especially deer — it is a hostility sustained by a sense of competition.

Hunters proceeding to some area noted for its game, to shoot, have found

the game animals wary, elusive, and scattered, and have attributed this

scarcity and vigilance to the earlier visit of wild dogs to the area. In

this they are probably less correct than they think. If, as it is repeatedly

asserted in shikar literature, all the deer and other herbivores at once

abandon their homes and shift the moment wild dogs appear in their

area (presumably to near-by areas where they are safe from wild dogs)

it is difficult to understand how the wild dogs are able to find prey or

why they (among the most persistent followers of scent trails) do not

follow their retreating prey.

And it is not as if these sportsmen did not know two highly relevant

aspects of this question, first the fact that wild dogs and their prey are

often found in the same area and second that for thousands of years the

two had coexisted without the prey species having died out.

There are records of sportsmen having seen wild dogs lolling on the

ground in plain view of chital and sambar which just ignored them,

since the dhole were not hunting. To provide reason for raising the

government reward on the head of wild dogs, Glasfurd puts forward

the theory that they have suddenly increased in numbers. The periodic

fluctuations in the wild dog population of an area, the apparent sudden

increase and subsequent sudden decrease, which cannot be adequately

explained entirely by influx and efflux but is also caused by actual increase

and decrease in numbers, has been selectively cited to show that these

‘ vermin ’ should be sternly put down. The role of wild dogs in main-

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

taining the balance of nature has been consistently ignored, though

F. W. Champion makes out a weak case for them. The truth seems to

be that human hostility to the wild dog is largely based on compassion

for their victims, on the ruthless and piecemeal killing methods of the

predators, which being small compared to their prey are sometimes

unable to kill them swiftly, though they do attack in numbers and pull

down and kill the prey quickly quite often.

Size : Morphological characters

Size and even colour vary somewhat with locality and individuals.

A comprehensive account of the appearance and other characteristics

of the dhole is provided in a note by Col. R. W. Burton ( JBNHS 41

(4) : 691-715) which sums up most of the information available up to

1940. Generally speaking, the dhole is from 17 to 22 inches in height

and from 30 to 45 lb. in weight, with what dog-fanciers term a red coat :

the brush, carried below the level of the back, has a terminal tuft of

long black hair, sometimes with a core and tip of white hair. In an

old dog, the back may be dark and grizzled, very much in the patterning

of a jackal’s back (TN 63 Sep. 30) : a little white may be found on the

toes, or on the chest or throat (MP 69 Mar. 14). In profile the face

is somewhat downfaced, and the muzzle deep, both characteristics

shared by no breed of Indian domesticated dog.

The genus Cuon is distinguished from Canis (the genus of the wolf,

the jackal, and all domesticated dogs) mainly by there being one molar

less on each side in the lower jaw, and the bitch having about 14 teats

instead of 10. The close resemblance of the dhole to red-coated country-

side dogs (red, warm sienna and brown are the colour of countryside

dogs of unmixed blood, termed 4 pariah ’ by canine experts) has been

remarked by many observers. Forsyth (the highlands of central

India) was confused by the similarity of the tribal pariah dogs of the

Upper Narmada forests to the dhole, and thought those dogs were

descended from the latter. Burton, arguing the case further in his note,

says that jackals have been known to interbreed with the dhole, and also

with domesticated dogs, and cites the instance of 4 a wild dog bitch

with her two pups, sired by a jackal in the Mysore Zoo in November

1930 ’, and sees no reason why interbreeding between dhole and domes-

ticated dogs should not result in a breed of red-coated domesticated

dogs. Apparently the extreme likelihood of the progeny of such far-

fetched matings being infertile was not considered by him., In view of

the taxonomists being almost certainly entirely correct in their separa-

tion of the genus Cuon from Canis , the name 4 wild dog ’ seems a mis-

nomer for Cuon alpinus and it seems advisable to adopt the other vulgar

English name (derived from Indian languages) and term this animal

4 dhole ’ : the desirability of keeping such derived names (gaur, langur

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 45

and barasingha provide other examples) pure by interpreting them to

include the plural as well as the singular (as they include in the Indian

languages from which they are derived) may also be mentioned here.

Distribution

Within peninsular India, the dhole is essentially a forest animal,

and is not found in open country.

Habits : Behaviour

A great deal has been written about the destructiveness of the dhole,

and also its method of hunting. Although usually running in packs

and parties, it may also hunt alone, as when breeding, and at such times

it is probably looking for small, easily available prey, such as hares and

field rats, though it can pull down a chital hind or a small pig single-

handed. A single male was observed regularly quartering an extensive

patch of scrub at an easy run, with its head held high, scanning the

ground in front of it ; occasionally it took a high jump to look over the

bushes limiting its vision (TN 62 Sept. 26). Packs usually go for large

animals, such as chital, sambar or pig. Although it is known to kill

cattle (especially young animals) once in a way, inquiry of the herdsmen

in the Tamil Nadu and Mysore forests around the river Moyar, where

cattle are grazed in thousands and dhole are common, elicited the infor-

mation that as predators affecting cattle they were negligible : one such

inquiry was made in Bandipur (MY 68 Oct. 7). Most of the accounts

of dhole hunting go to show that they follow fast-running prey, usually

much larger than themselves, relentlessly by ground scent, tiring their

quarry out in the course of a long run and then, having practically run

it to a standstill, tear it down piecemeal. No doubt they do hunt in

this manner, where the ground favours such hunting, but more often the

run is short, only about half-a-mile or so, and the quarry is in plain view

all the time. I have observed two such killings, and one of them is

mentioned in the field notes (TN 63 Sep. 30). In this instance, three or

four of the pack came out to the scene of the kill in advance, before the

rest of the pack stampeded a large herd of chital, and drove a section

of the herd across a hollow on to comparatively open ground, the out-

lying sentries preventing the deer from escaping to bush and tree forest

beyond. Having cut off one animal (a young stag with antlers just

shed) the dhole concentrated on it (though one of them also chased a

hind, on its own, the hind escaping), taking advantage of its curved line

of flight to get near it by short-cuts. Then one of them launched an all-

out attack, a frenzied, flat-out scurry for the bite, with its effort punc-

tuated by its rasping intakes of breath ; when it failed, it fell back and

at once the attack was taken up by another dhole. There is no attempt

to pull down the quarry in such attacks, but only to snatch at it, the

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

momentum of the much heavier prey serving no less than the jaw-power

of the dhole to tear out a chunk of flesh and hide. A big stag at bay,

with its back so protected by some natural feature that an attack from the

rear is not possible, may probably be able to fend off the attackers with

its antlers : in such a case, the dhole give up the hunt, or much more usually

just surround the prey and wait, and when the tension of the situation

causes the deer to break away and attempt escape by flight, it is once more

exposed to attack.

Dunbar Brander says that dhole seldom hunt at night. This seems

substantially true, for sight seems to be every bit as important to them in

hunting as scent : they keep in touch with the members of the pack

following the quarry by means of high, whistling whines when pursuing

the prey through obscuring bush cover, and kill it only in comparatively

open ground, guiding their attack by sight. However, hunts at night

have been recorded and F. W. Champion has a night-photograph showing

some dhole smelling the ground : they are active by night as well.

Dunbar Brander says he has never known them remove the stomach

and intestines from a kill, and that kills from which these had been removed

were probably the property of a leopard, misappropriated by dhole.

In both the kills actually witnessed, one of a sambar hind killed right in

front of my eyes in the course of a run over 100 yards (this is not recorded

in the field notes) and the other of a chital stag which I saw being chased,

heard being killed, and a few minutes later saw as a half-devoured kill,

the guts had been removed as also the tail, and both flung feet from the

body (TN 63 Sep. 30). In his note, Burton relying on Inverarity says

that the eyes are invariably consumed at once (if not torn out earlier)

as soon as the kill is made. In both the instances of personal observation

cited above, the eyes were untouched, though more than half the body

had been eaten by the time I inspected the kill.

The vocalisations of this normally silent animal are discussed in

Burton’s note. Among the vocalisations I have heard are the well-known

whistling whine when the dhole were pursuing prey in bush cover (MY

68 Oct. 14 ; TN 69 Oct. 4), evidently sounded by the animals nearest

the quarry as a guide to the rest of the pack, a short, interrogative bark

and a loud, unearthly cackling which served to reassemble scattered dhole

(TN 63 Sep. 30). Dhole jump high to scan the surroundings, and also

go up elevations to peer over the crest (MY 68 Oct. 22 : MP 69 Mar. 14).

Burton mentions the inability of a dhole to spot him, sitting in a

machan above it, from his sounding a whistle and blowing on a signal

horn, and from this says that the dhole (and some other animals) are not

quick in spotting things well above the level of their normal preoccupation

with the ground. My experience has been quite otherwise. Few animals

are quicker at pinpointing even slight sounds even from a treetop seat

(MY 69 Oct. 21).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1) Plate XV

Krishnan : Mammals

Above : kerala 1960 : periyar sa. : April 17 — p.m. : Vultures feeding on a wild

dog kill : (sambar) — k. 8 ; Below : Tamil nadu 1962 : mudumalai sa. : Kargudi :

March 14 — a.m. Sloth bear eating mohwa flowers — tn. 9.

( Photos : M. Krishnan)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1) Plate XVI

Krishnan : Mammals

Above : kerala 1959 : Quilon backwaters : June 1 — a.m. : Otters standing up in

the water to look and hiss at me — k. 1 ; Below : Tamil nadu 1963 : mudumalai sa. :

Kargudi : March 20 — a.m. : Large Brown Flying Squirrel gliding — tn. 23.

(. Photos : M. Krishnan )

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 4 1

Many observers have recorded the indifference of deer and other prey

species to the sight of dhole when the latter are not hunting : among

them R. G. Burton (sport and wild life in the deccan) and

Dunbar Brander — see also MP 69 Mar. 14. E. R. C. Davidar ( JBNHS

67 (1) : 102-103) records seeing two sambar stags walking towards and

dispersing a pack of resting dhole.

The tendency of these animals to kill near the water has been noticed

by a number of observers, and a few theoretical explanations have been

provided. One chital killed at Theppakkadu in 1970 was said to have

been actually brought to the water by the dhole, after having been killed

higher up the bank of a river (TN 70 Oct. 5).

No satisfactory explanation is available for the sudden increase in

the numbers of dhole in a forest area, usually followed by a no less sudden

decline, or even disappearance from the area. It has been suggested

that the increase follows a year of plenty, when the prey has been abun-

dant and breeding prolific, and the decrease is caused by epidemics —

it is known that dhole succumb in numbers to epidemic infections (MY

69 Oct. 24). That does not seem to adequately explain the phenomenon.

The truth seems to be that dhole, while usually found in certain areas

which suit them (such as Masinagudi and Bandipur), are much given to

wandering, and travel far in search of feeding grounds when prey has

declined in the haunts in which they were originally. It might still be

found that there is a hard core of truth to Kipling’s ‘ Red Dog ’.

In the Masinagudi area of the Mudumalai Sanctuary, the role of the

dhole as a predator helping in maintaining the balance of nature can be

seen. Long known for its elephants and chital, in recent years the wild

life of the area has been widely affected by the setting up of the hydel

project at Moyar and the development of Masinagudi and surroundings

from an obscure rural hamlet to a place with a sizeable population and

widespread agricultural activities. Chital and pig, it seems likely, would

have overrun the place but for the salutary influence exercised on them

by the dhole, which keep them in check not so much by killing them in

numbers as by periodically scattering and harrying them, thereby contri-

buting in a small but significant manner to curbing their breeding.

THE SLOTH BEAR

Melursus ursinus (Shaw)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 5.

Footprints and claw-marks : 3.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Maharashtra— Taroba N.P.

Photograph : TN 9.)

During the survey period, although much time was spent in the hill

forests where bears could be expected and were formerly common, I

48 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , PoZ. 69 (1)

saw only 5 bears and the footprints of a few more. Bears are still to be

found in certain localities, as around some forest-side sugarcane growing

areas in Mysore, and it is true that no special attempt was made to see

them by visiting such areas. However, the meagreness of the sight

records in the field notes only confirms the impression that had been

growing upon me prior to 1959, that in most forests where bears were

once common they now survive only in place names such as Bear Shola

and Karadi Kolia, or are so reduced in numbers as to be rare. No bears

were seen in the course of many night drives, except for one fleeting

glimpse of a bear near Pandrapauni village in the Taroba N.P. (MR

68 Nov. 25). Collateral evidence of this decline is provided by the fact

that in South India the itinerant man-with-the-performing-bear, once so

common, is almost as rare as the bear itself now, though his fellow enter-

tainers are still to be seen in the countryside, such as snake charmers and

jugglers.

Size : Morphological characters

The Sloth Bear, the only bear of the peninsula, is so different from

other bears that it has been assigned to a genus all its own. The long,

strong white claws, the ample lips, and harsh, shaggy coat are characteris-

tic. Height varied from 2 to 2| feet, and weight from 140 to 320 lb. ; in

the adult, the male is larger than the female.

Distribution

Textbook accounts of distribution are now obsolete. This bear is

no longer to be found in many forests where it was known even 25 years

ago.

Habits : Behaviour

This bear is an expert climber, as much at home up a tree as on the

ground. The fare is varied, and it is truly omnivorous ; jungle fruits

such as the jamun, the ber, the bael, species of Grewia, species

of Diospyros, Cassia fistula , the flowers of the mohwa, honey, grubs,

insects (especially termites), and the tender shoots of grasses are all eaten ;

its habit of raiding sugarcane in places is known, but it is not generally

known that it eats much grass (TN 59 Mar. 15). Prater says that termites

constitute its staple fare, and no doubt this is largely true, but what a

sloth bear eats is largely a question of season and local availability, and

we have really no idea of the great variety of its diet. However, it is

recognised by all naturalists that it works hard for its living. Its addic-

tion to the sweet palm-juice in the pot of toddy- tappers has been recorded

by many observers. It needs water, and is never found away from some

source of drinking water.

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 49

Two cubs are the rule, and the mother bear’s attachment to her young

is well known. Bears are long-lived, and are slow breeders. They are

much more diurnal than is generally appreciated, and where undisturbed

are sometimes out even during the hottest hours of the day.

THE OTTER

Probably Lutra perspicillata (Geoffroy)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 5.

Locations : Kerala — Quilon, Periyar Sa. : Bihar — Hazaribagh N.P.

Photograph : K 1.)

Even the specific identity of the very few otters seen, fortuitously, is

not certain, but most probably it was the Smooth Indian Otter. Sur-

prisingly, an otter was seen (and otters are to be seen) in the Hazaribagh

N.P. even in summer, when there is hardly any source of water : the

animal seen was evidently subadult, and ran ahead of the jeep at night

for nearly 100 yards (B 68 Apr. 19).

Otters enjoy no protection, except perhaps in sanctuaries (where they

are seldom found), and are destroyed by fishermen where found : in one

instance, a holt was blown up with dynamite, destroying the otters within

(K 59 June 1). Besides fish, they also feed on freshwater tortoises (K 70

Apr. 23). A party of 4 adults was seen playing in the Moyar river (TN

70 Oct. 3).

THE RATEL

Mellivora capensis (Schreber)

This is the one animal I have tried hard to see without success in

the forests of peninsular India. The only time I saw it was when a big

ratel ran in front of the jeep one evening, at the Hazaribagh N.P. (B 70

Feb. 4). Although it is nocturnal and therefore seldom seen, and although

it is never found in numbers anywhere, I believe it does have a wide

distribution in the peninsula. Many different tribals of whom I made

inquiries did not know the animal at all, though drawings and photo-

graphs of it were shown to them and a description provided. The few

who did know it, said it was rarely that it was seen, and then only by

chance : they could not tell me anything about its fondness of honey.

No doubt it is as much given to raiding honey combs in India as it is in

Africa : a captive ratel I used to know had a decided sweet tooth.

4

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

THE LARGE BROWN FLYING SQUIRREL

Petaurista petaurista philippensis (Elliot)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 2.

Locality : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa.

Photograph : TN 23.)

There was little scope for observing this nocturnal animal in the tree

forests of the Mudumalai Sanctuary, where it was twice seen by day in

treetops, evidently having been bolted from its sleeping hole. Many

years ago, in Yercaud in Tamil Nadu, I had exceptionally favourable

opportunities for watching 4 of these squirrels which resided close by

where I was staying, on three consecutive nights, when the moon was

bright.

Size : Morphological characters

This is the largest of our squirrels, being slightly larger and heavier

than the giant squirrel. The colour is Vandyke brown, at times touched

with sepia, and the parachute membrane is almost translucent in flight,

when stretched between the legs on either side (Photograph TN 23).

The tip of the furry tail is not covered with long hair and has a sharply

constricted appearance — this is shown in the photograph. In repose and

while moving about the treetop or ground, the elastic parachute is re-

tracted against the sides and is hardly visible. Both on the ground and

while going up tree boles, the squirrel has a hobbling run. The eyes

are large, dark and protuberant, and evidently meant for night vision.

The claws are hard and sharp. An adult, killed by tribals, weighed 3 lb.

Distribution

The tree forests of the peninsula : it seems to prefer deciduous forests

to true evergreen forests.

Habits : Behaviour

This squirrel is entirely nocturnal. It spends the day within its bolt-

hole in wood, a round-mouthed hole from 15 to 40 feet up the bole of a

tree : from this entrance, a vertical shaft goes down the bole, ending in a

comfortable chamber, in which the squirrel sleeps : it is said to sleep

curled up, resting on its flat head. The presence of fresh claw-marks

around the entrance-cum-exit hole in the side of the tree is a reliable

token of the squirrel being at home, but it may have several bolt-holes in

a locality and may occupy different sleeping trees on different days.

Perched high up a tree, it may sit high, with the tail pendent, and then

looks like some dark, arboreal cat, its appearance justifying the Kannada

name for it, ‘ flying cat ’. At other times it crouches low, especially

when about to take off for another tree, with its tail lifted over its back so

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 51

that the tip is right above the head. It usually takes a short, hobbling

run before it launches itself into the air, to gain momentum for the glide.

The glide is flat in trajectory and the animal loses height with progress

through the air till it is a few feet from the tree it is making for, when

it rises in the air with the body parallel to the bole of the tree : this stalling

brakes the momentum of the glide and enables the squirrel to land very

softly on the tree. It is at this moment that tribals, hunting it, usually

kill it, by means of a short, heavy club thrown at it.

Besides men, the larger forest owls prey on these squirrels.

These squirrels seem to be sociable. On emerging at night, they

usually come out with a booming call, which seems to attract their fellows

in the neighbourhood, and some playful gliding is indulged in in company

before they settle down to feed.

Besides tree bark, fruits and nuts, leaf-buds, insects (including termites,

whose crusts on the boles of trees are broken with the tip of the nose to

expose the insects within), and fresh grass is eaten. I have seen this

squirrel feeding on newly sprouting grass on the ground. When on the

ground, it runs up a tree some 20 feet before taking off for another tree.

Glides of 50 yards and a little longer are common (TN 63 Mar. 20).

I saw a large flying squirrel, along with its grown young which was

almost as big as itself, bolted from the same hole many years ago by

tribal hunters. Apparently the young stay with their mother till almost

full grown.

THE INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL

Ratufa indica (Erxleben)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 24.

Alarm call heard without squirrel being seen : 6.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Mysore — Bandipur Sa. : Orissa —

Barmul, Raigoda Sa.: Madhya Pradesh — Churna.

Photograph : TN 53.)

This squirrel, fairly common in deciduous forests, was seen oftener

than the field records show, during the survey period. For instance, I

saw it and heard it in the forest around the river Koel, in Bihar, though

this was not noted down.

Size : Morphological characters

A large, strikingly handsome squirrel seen from near, with the fore-

face, extremities, the tip of the tail, and the belly cream, and the head and

body brilliant chestnut and black. However, it is not conspicuous in the

treetops, and is oftener heard than seen. Overall length is about 3 feet,

of which more than half is bushy tail. Weight of adult, around 2\ lb.

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Distribution

The deciduous and semi-evergreen tree forests of the peninsula. Not

found in open, dry forest.

Habits : Behaviour

This squirrel is diurnal and highly arboreal. It spends the night in

big globular nests of twigs right at the top of trees, and the young are

also born and nursed in such nests. It seems to have an established

territory, and has several sleeping nests within this territory ; an adult

male was observed chasing another in the vicinity of 3 or 4 nests late in

the evening, and was probably chasing an intruder off its territory (TN

59 Mar. 12).

When leaping from treetop to treetop through the air, the body is

compressed dorso-ventrally (TN 62 Apr. 5) : a leap of nearly 10 feet may

be taken, but not much more than that.

A number of leaf-buds, leaves (especially fresh leaves) and twigs are

eaten, among them Anogeissus latifolia , Garuga pinnata , Lagerstroemia

lanceolata and Grewia tiliaefolia, (TN 62 Mar. 14 and 25, 69 Sep. 16).

The fruits of teak, Terminalia tomentosa , and Aegle marmelos are eaten in

season, the rasping of the squirrel’s incisors on the hard shell being

audible a hundred feet away. I have seen this squirrel breaking up the

crust of termites on tree boles with its nose and feeding on thei nsects,

in the same manner as other squirrels. No doubt grubs and insects are

also eaten. It is fond of the nectar of the red silk-cotton as also the im-

mature fruits of this tree (TN 66 Apr. 16). A position frequently

assumed while feeding is to hang head downwards by the hind feet,

using the forefeet to convey fruits or leaves to the mouth. While resting,

this squirrel often relaxes on its belly across a stout twig, with the hind

legs and tail hanging down on one side, and the forelimbs and head on the

other.

The metallic, rattling call is used both in intraspecific communication

and as an alarm : the tempo is audibly more excited when it is sounded

in alarm, and both leopards and jungle cats provoke the call.

Among the predators that prey on this squirrel may be mentioned

the crested hawk-eagle (TN 59 Mar. 18).

Young were seen in September in the Mudumalai Sanctuary (TN 70

Sep. 25, Oct. 1).

THE INDIAN PORCUPINE

Hystrix indica (Kerr)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : 8.

Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Orissa — Raigoda Sa. : Bihar—

Hazaribagh N.P., Palamau N.P. : Maharashtra — Taroba N.P.

No photograph.)

Above : Tamil nadu 1969 : mudumalai sa. : Kargudi : September 28 — p.m. : The

semi-tame giant squirrel near the Range Office — tn. 53 ; Below : bihar 1969 : betla :

palamau : February 21 — Night : Hare — b. 14.

{Photos : M. Krishnan)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1)

Krishnan : Mammals

Plate XVII

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1) Plate XVIII

Krishnan : Mammals

Above : m. p. 1969 : bori : March 21 — midnight : Hare on the road-side — mp. 23 ;

Below : Maharashtra 1968: taroba n. p. : November 18 — about 8.15 p.m. :

Net spread for poaching hares, near Jamni — mr, 3.

( Photos : M. Krishnan)

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA

53

Size : Morphological characters

This is said to be one of the largest of all porcupines, and the species

in which the quills are best developed. A big porcupine may weigh

up to 40 lb. and be nearly a yard long. The quills just above the tail are

short, stout, white and very sharply pointed — these do the most damage

when the porcupine gets home with its reverse-gear charge. The semi-

translucent rattling quills on the tail are hollow, open at the top, and

shaped like miniature wine-glasses with no bases.

Distribution

In forest areas, all over the peninsula.

Habits : Behaviour

There is a belief, both here and in Africa, that the porcupine occa-

sionally drinks water by sucking the water retained in its hollow tail-

quills : this, of course, is untrue, but it is a fact that these rattling quills

are found filled with water when the animal has waded through a puddle

or shallow pool. Numerous instances are on record of leopards and

tigers (both very fond of porcupine flesh) getting badly stuck by the

quills in attacking porcupines, even in attacks by porcupines — there are

instances of such misadventures ending fatally for the predator. Dunbar

Brander gives an interesting note on the animal.

Porcupines gnaw bones and antlers found in the forest floor, and gar-

deners in forest-side area know their partiality for the roots and shoots of

many plants. They also eat fruit on occasion : a big porcupine was

seen with a ripe bael fruit in its mouth (B 68 Apr. 20).

The porcupine is nocturnal and during the day it is said to sleep in

deep, subterranean retreats, usually with more than one exit hole. How-

ever, it does also lie up in tall grass on occasion (TN 63 Mar. 17).

Apart from the noise made by the rattling of the hollow tail quills,

when surprised the porcupine bristles out its body quills at once, with a

swishing sound, suddenly growing large and indistinct : its getaway is

marked by sharply angled turns, and when it has put some distance bet-

ween itself and what alarms it, the quills subside suddenly, so that the

animal becomes much smaller, darker and harder to see.

THE INDIAN HARE

Lepus nigricollis (Cuvier)

(Summary of field notes : Observation records : around 60.

Locations : Kerala — Periyar Sa. : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. : Orissa —

Badrama : Bihar — Hazaribagh N.P., Kodarma, Palamau N.P., Karkat-

nagar, Madhya Pradesh ; Churna, Shivpuri N.P., Bara Naya Para ; Maha-

rashtra— Taroba N.P.

Photographs : B 14, MR 3, MP 23.)

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

Hares, miscalled rabbits all over India, are fairly common in scrub

and open forests in the peninsula.

Size : Morphological characters

The Blacknaped Hare (L. n. nigricollis) of the southern areas of the

peninsula is larger than the Rufoustailed Hare ( L . n. ruficaudatus ) of the

northern areas. 5 to 6 lb. is the weight of an adult.

Distribution

Scrub jungle around villages, open forests where there are clearings,

and bush-covered plains form the chief habitats in peninsular India.

Hares are commonly seen along forest roads at night.

Habits : Behaviour

Hares are mainly nocturnal. They appear to be dazed by a bright

beam of light at night, such as the headlights of a motor car, and in such

lighting their normally dark, somewhat protuberant eyes appear blood

red, but the glare does not seem to dazzle them entirely. I have watched

dozens of attempts to catch a hare crouching in the glare of spotlights and

electric torches (and tried to so catch them myself) but have never known

one actually caught (TN 59 Mar. 26). However, such glare, in conjunc-

tion with jingling sounds, appears to stupefy them sufficiently to be easily

clubbed to death. Hare-nets are usually provided with a number of

bells along their lower hem, to make them jingle when a hare rushes into

them (MR 68 Nov. 18 : photograph MR 3).

During the day, hares crouch in bushes much oftener than in grass,

though they may lie up in tall grass, too, where such grass in patches and

belts adjoins open ground (TN 64 Sep. 27, MY 69 Oct. 16, K 70 Apr. 29).

Short grasses appear to be the main food. However, other ground

plants are also eaten ; in coastal areas, Ipomoea pes-caprae is much eaten.

Apparently there is a break in the feeding activity between midnight

and 4 a.m., when very few hares are seen in the open : they are to be

seen crouching in bush cover then, often moving their jaws, as if reingest-

ing soft-pellets.

Hares were frequently seen, usually singly, along forest roads and

alongside them, during night drives. Where close bush cover was

available, they crept away through the bush, but where the undershrub

was more open, bounded away, sometimes making prodigious leaps.

Men, jungle cats, even leopards, jackals, wild dogs, mongooses and

otters (when hunting on land) all prey on hares, and so do the larger owls

and even diurnal birds of prey such as the crested hawk-eagle (TN 62

Mar. 18, 70 Sep. 24).

(to be continued)

Ixodid Ticks (Acarina: Ixodidae)

parasitizing wild birds in the

Kyasanur Forest disease area of

Shimoga District, Mysore State, India

BY

P. K. Rajagopalan,

Virus Research Centre , Poona1

( With a map and two text-figures)

During a two year study on ticks parasitizing wild birds of Shimoga Dis-

trict, Mysore State, 8474 birds (184 species) were examined and 1082 birds

of 81 species were found infested. The genus Haemaphy satis accounted for

99*5 % of all the ticks collected and the remaining belonged to the genera

Dermacentor , Amblyomma , Boophilus and Hyalomma. H. spinigera was

the commonest species of Haemaphysalis on birds, closely followed by H.

Wellington i and H. turturis and nine other species, including a new species

H. megalaimae. There was no evidence of birds bringing into India, ticks

not indigenous to India. The seasonal variations in the infestation by various

tick stages and species and the host parasite relationships are also discussed.

Introduction

During the early part of the investigations on the epidemiology of

Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD), a tick transmitted virus disease affect-

ing men and monkeys in Shimoga District, Mysore State, neutralizing

antibodies against KFD virus were found in the sera of several species

of wild caught birds [Virus Research Centre (VRC) Annual Report].

Avian involvement in the epidemiology of this disease by their role in the

transport of infected ticks, in the maintenance of a tick bird virus cycle

and in the dissemination of the virus was suggested by Work (1958).

A two-year study on the wild birds of this district was therefore started

in December 1959, primarily to study the tick infestation pattern and

also incidentally to study the immunity status of these birds against

KFD virus. The present communication deals only with the study on

the parasitism of birds by ticks.

1 The Virus Research Centre was, at the time this study was made, jointly main-

tained by the Indian Council of Medical Research and the Rockefeller Foundation.

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

There is a lack of published information on any major study on ticks

of Indian birds, although references in the literature on intensive studies

on ticks of birds in other parts of the world are many. Since the tick

species and avian hosts mentioned in these studies are not indigenous

to the KFD area, it will not be relevant to detail them here. In India,

Sharif (1928) and Sen (1938) have mentioned the parasitism of the

domestic fowl by Haemaphysalis wellingtoni. Studies on the ticks of

migratory birds in Saurashtra and other parts of North Western India

conducted by the Bombay Natural History Society have shown the

parasitism of many birds by several tick species. Hoogstraal & Trapido

(1963a) have recorded Haemaphysalis kutchensis nymphs from a variety

of ground feeding birds in Kutch, Gujarat State. Dhanda (1964) had

collected nymphs of H. howletti from the Crow Pheasant, Centropus

sinensis. All the stages of H. centropi were also collected from the same

host species (Dhanda, personal communication). Dhanda & Rao

(1964) in their report on tick collections made in North East Frontier

Agency of India had reported the presence of nymphs of Amblyomma

testudinarium and Haemaphysalis formosensis on the Red Junglefowl,

Gallus gallus. Rebello & Reuben (1967) in a recent study examined

590 birds belonging to 55 species in Vellore, Madras State, and had

collected ticks from 136 birds belonging to 16 species. The tick species

collected were Haemaphysalis intermedia , H. bispinosa , and Hyalomma

marginatum isaaci , all of which were taken on birds during the present

study.

The study area has been described by several authors in great detail

(Trapido et al. 1964a ; Rajagopalan, et al. 1968a and Boshell 1969).

It is situated in Shimoga District, between latitudes 13° 30' and 14°

45'N. and longitudes 74° 30' and 76° 15' E. and can be roughly divided

into three main zones of heavy, intermediate and low rainfall (Map).

Most of the host sample was collected from the intermediate rainfall

zone which has an annual rainfall of 1524-2540 mm. per year and com-

prises the KFD infected areas of Sagar and Sorab taluks. The country

is a gently undulating one at an elevation of about 600 metres above sea

level and is mostly covered by semi-deciduous rain forest. Most of the

rainfall takes place during the four monsoon months from June to

September. A vast forest cover with arecanut and banana plantations

and paddy fields interspersed with numerous scattered villages is the

characteristic feature of this area.

Materials and Method

Collection and identification of birds :

During the early part of the study, birds were obtained by trapping

them in nylon mist nets. Since mistnet trapping was not very productive

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1)

P. K. Rajagopalan : Ixodid Ticks

IXODID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

57

and since the object was to collect and examine at least 300 birds every

month, shooting was resorted to, with a 410 Savage shotgun using no. 9

shots. Each bird, after proper labelling, was individually wrapped in

lint and taken to the field laboratory. Identifications of birds were

made with the help of descriptions given by Salim Ali (1942, 1943, 1949,

1953, 1955) and Whistler (1949) which also provided useful information

on migratory status and nesting habits of birds. Birds with doubtful

or unknown identity were skinned and were later identified by the Bombay

Natural History Society. The scientific names of birds used in this

paper are those given by Ripley (1961).

Collection and identification of ticks :

Each bird was carefully examined with a magnifying glass and the

ticks collected were preserved in 70 per cent alcohol for later identification.

Initially, the immature stages of ticks were given arbitrary type numbers.

The final identification of ticks was done with the help of a key by

Trapido et al. (1964b).

Results

The host sample :

During the two-year period December 1959 to November 1961, 8474

birds belonging to 184 species were examined for ticks, of which 416

birds belonging to 25 species were listed as migrants by Ripley (1961).

A total of 1082 birds belonging to 81 species had ticks on them. The

number of birds examined in different months during the two year

period is given in Table 1. The largest number (927) was in November

and the smallest number in June (400). The largest number of birds

found positive for ticks was also in November (205) and the smallest

number in June (28).

Birds which were examined and found negative for ticks are listed

below, with the number of each species examined in parenthesis. Podi-

ceps ruficollis (2) ; Phalacrocorax carbo (2) ; Ardea cinerea (1) ; Ardeola

grayii (120) ; Bubulcus ibis (92) ; Egretta alba (3) ; Egretta garzetta (8) ;

Gorsachius melanolophus (2) ; Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (1) ; Dendro-

cygna javanica (48) ; Anas crecca (1) ; Anas poecilorhyncha (2) ; Netta-

pus coromandelianus (35) ; Milvus migrans (3) ; Haliastur indus (5) ;

Accipiter virgatus (2) ; Butastur teesa (1) ; Aquila rapax (3) ; Torgos

calvus (1) ; Gyps bengalensis (1) ; Neophron percnopterus (4) ; Spilornis

cheela (4) ; Falco tinnunculus (4) ; Turnix tanki (1) ; Rallus striatus (1) ;

Gall inula chloropus (2) ; Porphyrio porphyrio (8) ; Fulica atra (7) ; Hydro -

phasianus chirurgus (1) ; Metopidius indicus (35) ; Tringa ochropus (15) ;

Tringa hypoleucos (8) ; Capella gallinago (3) ; Ducula aenea (60) ;

Columba livia (8) ; Streptopelia orientalis (4) ; Streptopelia chinensis

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

(261) ; Psittacula cyanocephala (58) ; Clamator jacobinus (12) ; Caco-

mantis merulinus (1) ; Surniculus lugubris (2) ; Athene brama (4) ; Cap-

rimulgus indicus (2) ; Hemiprocne longipennis (11) ; Harpactes fasciatus

(14) ; Alcedo atthis (9) ; Pelargopsis capensis (9) ; Halcyon smyrnensis

Table 1

Summary of monthly infestation of birds by ticks during the two-year study

(December 1959-November 1961)

(22) ; Merops leschenaulti (32) ; Merops philippinus (1) ; Merops orien-

talis (71) ; Nyctyornis athertoni (4) ; Anthracoceros coronatus (3) ; Mega -

laima zeylanica (5) ; Jynx torquilla (1) ; Picumnus innominatus (2) ; Mic-

ropternus brachyurus (16) ; Picus chlorolophus (15) ; Dendrocopos mah-

rattensis (6); Dendrocopos nanus (11); Hirundo rustica (10); Hirundo

smithii (18) ; Hirundo daurica (26) ; Lanius excubitor (14) ; Oriolus

chinensis (1) ; Artamus fuscus (34) ; Dendrocitta leucogastra (14) ;

Corvus splendens (8) ; Hemipus picatus (14) ; Coracina novaehollandiae

(5) ; Aegithina tiphia (91) ; Pycnonotus priocephalus (7) ; Pycnonotus

melanicterus (16) ; Hypsipetus indicus (57) ; Rhopocichla atriceps (26) ;

Muscicapa pallipes (5) ; Muscicapa thalassina (4) ; Cuclicicapa cey-

lonensis (7) ; Monarcha azurea (1 1) ; Prinia socialis (1) ; Muscicapa

latirostris (4) ; Muscicapa parva (3) ; Orthotomus sutorius (29) ; Schoe-

nicola platyura (2) ; Acrocephalus agricola (3) ; Sylvia curruca (2) ;

Erithacus svecicus (1) ; Erithacus brunneus (1) ; Monticola cinclorhyn-

chus (1) ; Parus major (3) ; Sitta frontalis (11) ; Anthus novaeseelandiae

IXODID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

59

(1) ; Motacilla indica (2) ; Motacilla alba (10) ; Dicaeum agile (18) ;

Nectarinia zeylonica (32) ; Nectarinia asiatica (17) ; Arachnothera longi-

rostris (3) ; Zoster ops palpebrosa (2) ; Ploceus philippinus (29) ; Lon-

chura malabarica (1) ; Lonchura keelarti (11) ; Lonchura malacca (55).

Among the species listed above are those which are aquatic and

those which frequent tank bunds, mud flats and irrigated fields. Many

arboreal and terrestrial species have also been found negative for ticks,

though sizable numbers of them were examined at a time of the year

when most of the other bird species were found infested with ticks.

Birds of the family Phasianidae had the highest rate of infestation

(87#5%). The other families of birds showing high tick infestation rates

were Cuculidae (Crow Pheasant), Muscicapidae (Babblers, Thrush

etc.), Sturnidae (Mynas) and Motacillidae (Wagtails). Birds of these

families are either ground living or ground frequenting.

The highest rate of infestation as well as the largest number of birds

found positive for ticks in any month are in November (Fig. 1) and this

month along with October corresponds with the season of predominance

of tick larvae on the forest floor. During the monsoon months from

FIG. 1

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

June to September the tick infestation rate in birds is very low and this

season corresponds with the predominance of adult ticks in the forest

and the almost complete inactivity and scarcity of immature tick stages.

The tick sample :

The ticks collected from birds during the two year study were of six

genera in the family Ixodidae. Though two species of Ixodes , namely

I. petauristae and I. ceylonensis are common in the study area, no Ixodes

was found on any bird.

In all, 9821 ticks belonging to six genera and 17 species were collec-

ted (Table 2). More than 99 per cent of all the ticks collected (9774)

belonged to the genus Haemaphysalis and comprised 12 of the 14 species

of this genus recorded in the study area. The two species not found

on birds were H. cornigera shimoga and H. canastrini group (formerly

H. leachi). The remaining 47 ticks (0*5 per cent of the total) belonged

to the genera Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus , Amblyomma, Boophilus and

Hyalomma.

The most dominant species of Haemaphysalis collected on birds was

spinigera , which formed 74*1 per cent of all ticks belonging to this genus.

The other species, in order of their abundance, were H. wellingtoni

(10*9%), H. turturis (6*2%), H. bispinosa (3*9%), H. intermedia (T6%),

H. papuana kinneari (T5%), H. kyasanurensis (0*6%), and H. minuta

(0C4%). H. megalaimae was found only on one host species. Small

numbers of H. cuspidata, H. aculeata and a single specimen of H. cen -

tropi were also collected on birds during this study.

The various bird species found positive for ticks and the number of

different stages of each species collected on birds are presented on Tables

3 and 4, and the individual tick species are discussed below.

H. spinigera is commonest of all ticks found in ground drags and on

vegetation in the study area and has been collected from 715 birds

belonging to 69 species. Thirty- two per cent of all spinigera was taken

on the Crow Pheasant, Cent r opus sinensis and 33 % on the Jungle Babbler,

Turdoides striatus. Acridotheres fuscus , Jungle Myna, accounted for

12% and the Jungle fowl, Gallus sonneratii for 9%. The remaining

14% were found on 65 species of birds. Larvae were found on 35 species

and nymphs on 42 species. Of the six adults collected, five were from

Gallus sonneratii and one from Acridotheres fuscus. All the adults

were teneral and apparently not feeding on the hosts.

H. wellingtoni is a recognized bird ectoparasite but was not encoun-

tered in large numbers in ground drags or on vegetation. The number

and variety of birds infested by this tick were second only to spinigera

as 292 birds belonging to 39 species were positive for this tick. Eighty

per cent of all wellingtoni was collected from three host species, Gallus

1XODID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

61

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Grand Total : 7739 1859 223 9821

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Table

Haemaphysalis ticks collected from different

L : Larvae, N : Nymphs,

IXODID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

63

3

BIRDS, BY SPECIES AND STAGES

Ad : Adults

4/0/0 — — — _____

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1

m

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Tabu

Haemaphysalis TICKS collected from different

L : Larvae, N : Nymphs,

ixodid ticks parasitizing wild birds

BIRDS, BY SPECIES AND STAGES

63/19/0 2/1/0 32/5/0 9/10 2/8/12 — 2/4 0/1/0 ~

0/ 1/0 - t — .

- 1/0/0 — — — — _ _

1/0/0 — — _ _ _ _ _

116/36/0 37/5/15 7/6/0 1/2 0/2/0 — 0/6 5/4/1

1/1/0 Z Z ' Z Z Z. /C'1 /-'S.;

— — 0/1/0 — — — — 0/1/0

— — 1/0/0 — — 1/16/27 — —

— 1/0/0 — — - — — Z

— 0/1/0 — — — — —

o/i/o — Z Z Z Z Z Z I

0/1/0 3/0/0 — — _ _ _ _

1/1/0 - - _ _ _ _ _

— — l/o/o

w z z 2Z° , z i z = z

2/0/0

7/0/0

2/0/0 — —

3/0/0 Z Z

27/0/0 2/0/0 6/1

0/1/0

o/1/o

0/2/0

0/1

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Table

Haemaphysalis ticks collected from different

L : Larvae, N : Nymphs ,

sonneratii , Centropus sinensis and Turdoides striatus. Nearly two-thirds

of all adults taken on birds belong to wellingtoni and was taken, on nine

host species.

H. turturis all stages have been taken in the study area in ground

drags and on vegetation in numbers second only to H. spinigera. This

1X0D1D TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS 65

3

BIRDS, BY SPECIES AND STAGES — ( Contd .)

Ad: Adults

tick has been collected from 144 birds belonging to 24 species. Eighty

per cent of all turturis collected on birds, were from five species of ground

frequenting birds, Gallus sonneratii , Centropm sinensis , Acridotheres

fuscus , Turdoides striatus and Copsychus saularis. Though H. turturis

was originally described from a male collected from a dove, Turtur

suratensis , in Ceylon, other records of adult hosts are all from mammals.

5

64 JOURNAL. BOMBA Y NATURAL

Vol. 6d (1)

1X0DID TICKS PARASITIZING WILT) BIRDS

l1, To

M

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

In KFD area also, this species was found to be a wild mammal tick in

adult stages (Rajagopalan et al. 1968b). The ten adults taken in this

study were all teneral and not actually attached on the hosts.

H. bispinosa is primarily an ectoparasite of cattle and the immature

stages have been taken in small numbers in ground drags and a few

adults have also been collected from vegetation. In all, 113 birds

belonging to 24 species were found infested with this species. More

than 80 per cent of all bispinosa was collected from four species of birds,

Pavo cri status, Gallus sonneratii , Centropus sinensis and Turdoides

striatus.

H. intermedia was formerly referred as H. parva in literature (Hoog-

straal & Trapido 1963b). Though Sharif (1928) mentions that this

species ‘ usually attacks wild animals and consequently of no economic

importance ’, the adults of this species are common ectoparasites, prin-

cipally of sheep and goats but also of cattle in the relatively dry open

country ‘ maidan ’ in India. This tick is not usually encountered in

ground drags in the study area, though 75 birds belonging to 15 species

were found infested with various stages of this species of tick. More

than a third of all intermedia taken were from the Crow Pheasant,

Centropus sinensis. This host species also accounts for 15 of the 16

adults of intermedia in the sample. H. intermedia number the third

largest among all Haemaphysalis adults on birds, in this study, after

the common bird tick H. wellingtoni and the host specific

H. megalaimae.

H. papuana kinneari is one of the common species found on ground

drags and forest vegetation in KFD area, next in abundance only to

H. spinigera and H. turturis. Adults are primarily parasitic on wild

large mammals like the wild boar, Sus scrofa. In this study 136 larvae

and nymphs of this species were taken on 41 birds of 15 species and

nearly 90 % of the ticks were collected from five species of ground fre-

quenting birds.

H. kyasanurensis is a species with apparently restricted distribution

in the western parts of India and belongs to H. formosensis group

(Trapido et al. 1964c). It is fairly common in the study area, the adults

of which chiefly parasitizing wild animals like Hystrix indica , Canis

aureus etc. Larvae and nymphs of this species have been taken on 22

birds belonging to five species. It is one of the less common species

of Haemaphysalis parasitizing birds in KFD area.

H. minuta was first described by Kohls (1950) from males collected

off jungle fowls in Ceylon. Nymphs and adults of this species have

been taken in small numbers from ground drags and vegetation in the

1X0 DID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS 6 1

study area. In the present study 24 birds belonging to nine species

were found infested and 22 of the 39 ticks collected were from the jungle

fowl, Gallus sonneratii. All the 12 adults collected were also from the

jungle fowl which appears to be the preferred host of this tick.

H. megalaimae, a rare tick species, was found parasitizing exclusively

the Small Green Barbet, Megalaima viridis, and was never obtained from

ground drags or on any other host species in the study area. Thirteen

birds of this species out of a total of 297 examined were found positive

for this tick. This tick belongs to the centropihoodi group of bird para-

sitizing haemaphysalids (Rajagopalan 1963). According to Hume

(1890) the barbet nests in tree holes excavating their own holes. They

do not always make a fresh nest hole, sometimes taking possession of

a hole used the year before. They usually occupy the hole to roost all

round the year. This affords a reasonable explanation for the main-

tenance of the life cycle of H. megalaimae either on the bird or in the

nest hole. This tick has not been found on any other bird with tree

hole nesting habits and hence this appears to be a case of extreme host

specificity. Nymphs and adults of this tick were found on the bird

in both dry season and monsoon. The single larva collected was in

the month of April.

H. aculeata : The nymphs and adults of this species parasitize wild

ungulates like spotted deer {Axis axis), mouse deer (Tragulus meminna)

etc. It has been encountered only in very small numbers in ground

drags. Sixteen larvae and nymphs were found on eleven birds belong-

ing to six species. It appears that birds are only adventitious hosts for

the immature stages of this mammal tick.

H. cuspidata : Like H. aculeata , the adults of this species are com-

mon ectoparasites of spotted deer and mouse deer in KFD area and

all stages have been taken in small numbers in ground drags and on

vegetation. Nine birds of four species were positive for this tick, ten

of the 13 ticks collected being from the crow pheasant, Centropus sinen-

sis.

H. centropi : A rare species in' the study area, it has never been

collected in ground drags or vegetation. Only one male was collected

on a common myna, Acridotheres tristis. Originally described from

birds of the genus Centropus , it was not collected on any of the 151

Centropus sinensis examined during this study. This might possibly

be a reflection of the geographical limits of parasitism exhibited by the

species, as this species has been collected in the drier area about 400

miles north of the study area.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

Genera other than Haemaphysalis : The five genera other than the

genus Haemaphysalis account for less than 0*5 % of the total ticks collec-

ted in the study area from birds. These and their hosts are listed in

Table 4

Number and stages of ticks other than Haemaphysalis collected from birds

Table 4. One interesting record is a nymph of Hyalomma m. isaaci

from a wagtail, Motacilla caspica , a migratory bird.

Seasonal abundance of ticks on birds :

Table 5 presents the number of different species and stages of Haema-

physalis ticks collected on birds in different months. October and

November are the months when very large numbers of larvae were

found on birds (2911 and 2562 respectively). February was the month

of nymphal abundance and July was the month when the largest number

of adults were collected. This infestation pattern follows the pattern of

general abundance of various tick stages in the study area (Rajagopalan

et al., loc cit., Fig. 2). It is significant to note that the larvae of H.

spinigera and H. turturis, the two dominant species in ground drags in

the study area, have been found on birds in all months of the year,

including the monsoon season along with the larvae of H. wellingtoni,

H. bispinosa and H. intermedia. For the purpose of analysis of the

Number of Haemaphysalis ticks, by species and stages, collected on birds in different months

1XOD1D TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

69

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70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

monthly incidence the number of ticks per 10 hosts examined was cal-

culated from the infestation data on four species of ground frequenting

birds, namely, Centropus sinensis , Turdoides striatus , Turdoides affinis

FIG. Z

and Copsychus saularis , as only these four hosts species were examined

in all months of the year (Table 6). The monthly incidence follows the

pattern of general abundance in nature as described above, in the case

of H. spinigera and H . turturis. In the case of H. wellingtoni, the larval

and nymphal incidence do not appear in a strongly seasonal pattern,

as all stages have been found in all months of the year. The adults

are probably dropped in niches where the birds live or roost. Since the

microecology of such niches remains almost constant throughout the

year, the infestation of birds by different stages of wellingtoni might be

expected to occur in all months of the year.

Table 7 presents the frequency distribution of Haemaphysalis ticks

of all stages on birds. Nearly 39 % of the birds positive for larvae had

only one larva on each of them, and another 35% had 2-5 larvae on

each. Only three birds had more than 200 larvae. The maximum

number of larvae (324) was collected from a Jungle Babbler ( Turdoides

striatus) in the month of October. Fifty-seven per cent of the birds

positive for nymphs had only one nymph on each of them and only one

bird, Gallus sonneratii had 118 nymphs in the month of November. The

Monthly incidence of the various stages of H. spinigera, H. wellingtoni and H. turturis on bush birds1.

DURING THE PERIOD DECEMBER 1959 TO NOVEMBER 1961

1X0 DID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

71

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saularis. These were the bush frequenting species which have been examined in good numbers in every month of the year.

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

same host species had the largest number of adults (17) collected in the

month of July.

Table 7

Frequency distribution of Haemaphysalis ticks of all stages on birds examined

DURING THE TWO YEAR STUDY, DECEMBER 1959 TO NOVEMBER 1961

The frequency of separate and mixed infestations of larvae, nymphs

and adults of Haemaphysalis ticks of all species is summarized in Table

8. It is found that the birds with only larvae, with both larvae and

nymphs and with only nymphs on them, were found in all months of

the year. Birds with only larvae were found in much larger numbers

during October and November and birds with only nymphs in February.

These periods correspond respectively to months of peak larval and

nymphal abundance in the forest, as evidenced by dragging operations.

For determining the favoured sites of attachment of ticks on birds

only those ticks which were still attached at the time of examination

were considered for analysis (Table 9). Most of the ticks were found

on the head, neck and throat, vicinity of the beak, eyebrows and ear.

A few ticks were also collected from the wings and one nymph from the

anus. These ticks were of various species and no evidence was avail-

able as to the variation in site preference on the host for the individual

tick species. Similar results were obtained by other workers also

(Bishopp & Trembley 1945 ; Rosicky & Balat 1954),

Table 8

Frequency of separate and mixed infestations of all stages of Haemaphysalis ticks on birds, by months, during the two year period

December 1959 to November 1961

(Two years combined)

IXODID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

73

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Total .. 492 249 230 12 18 33 35 7702 1849 223 9774 1069 8474

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

Discussion

In the present study, involving an examination of 8474 birds belong-

ing to 184 species over a two year period, the immature stages of the

commonly occurring species of Haemaphysalis in the area were found

Table 9

Site of attachment of ticks on body of the host

to parasitize birds. The infestation of birds by ticks depends on factors

like the abundance of the ticks in the area, the habits of the host species,

and the host preference, or the lack of it, exhibited by the different

stages of each tick species. The highest rate of infestation of birds

was in the months when larvae of Haemaphysalis are abundant. The

medium rate of infestation of birds was during the predominant nymphal

season from January to March and the lowest rate during the period

May to September. In the month of May the low infestation may be

due to the fact that larvae are unable to withstand high temperatures.

In the monsoon months of June to September, the low infestation may

be, firstly, due to the immature stages being either absent in numbers or

not very actively questing ; and secondly, because the monsoon period

corresponds with the general abundance of adults in the study area, and

adults, barring a few species do not readily parasitize birds.

The abundance of any particular tick species in the area depends

mainly on the availability of adult hosts. Cattle are the chief adult

hosts of H. spinigera and H. bispinosa and to some extent also of H.

turturis. While the immature stages of H. spinigera and H. turturis

survive and proliferate in the humid environment of the forest, H. bis-

pinosa larvae and nymphs seem to survive better in a drier climate or in

the open environment of the grass lands. This affords a reasonable

explanation for the fact that many birds which are associated with cattle

and those frequenting peridomestic situations are found infested with

H. bispinosa.

1XODID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

75

With few exceptions, host species infested with ticks are either entirely

terrestrial or frequent ground surface in the course of their nesting,

roosting or feeding activities. Birds of the family Phasianidae and birds

like Centropus sinensis , Turdoides striatus , T. affinis , Copsychus saularis ,

Acridotheres tristis and several others come into this category and they

are readily parasitized by ticks in the forest. Immature stages of some

of the common species of Haemaphysalis have been collected by

the author from tree trunks at considerable heights. Arboreal birds

may thus get infested. Young birds of arboreal species which leave their

nest early and are unable to fly well, also spend more time on the ground.

These factors may also be responsible for tick infestation of arboreal

birds. The roadside birds like Babblers ( Turdoides sp.), Emerald Dove

( Chalcophaps indica) and Yellowthroated Sparrow ( Petronia xantho-

collis) get infested by larvae of H. intermedia. The immature stages of

this tick thrive in situations frequented by sheep and goats, the main adult

hosts, which are imported from the drier plains into the study area. The

activity of birds also affects tick infestation. Bird activity is reduced

during the monsoon. The increased activity of birds in the post-mon-

soon season also corresponds with the abundance of tick larvae in the

forest.

Excepting H. centropi , H. cornigera shimoga and H. conastrini birds

in the study area are readily parasitized by the immature stages of most

of the Haemaphysalis species in the area.

The immature stages of H. spinigera , H. turturis, H. bispinosa and H.

papuana kinneari readily parasitize birds and mammals, while those of

H. aculeata, H. cuspidata and H. kyasannrensis are found only in small

numbers on birds. H. wellingtoni , a bird tick, has not been taken in the

adult stage on mammals. The immature stages of this tick are

occasionally found on small mammals and monkeys. Their distribution

in the study area appears to be centered around the habitations of their

adult hosts, like Gallus sonneratii. H. minuta also is a main bird ecto-

parasite, though immature stages have been taken on man, monkeys and

small mammals and on one occasion an adult was also collected on the

mongoose, Herpestes edwardsii. Thus we find a wide spectrum of host

range among the different species of Haemaphysalis in the study area, as

shown below :

H. megalaimae :

H. centropi :

H. wellingtoni :

H. minuta ;

All stages exclusively parasitic on one avian host

species, Megalaima viridis.

All stages exclusively parasitic on birds, chiefly

Centropus sp., and occasionally others.

All stages chiefly parasitic on birds. Immature

stages also attack mammals occasionally.

All stages chiefly parasitic on birds, but also attack

mammalian hosts.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

H. bispinosa

H. intermedia

H. aculeata

H. cuspidata

H. kyasanurensis

H. p. kinneari

H. turturis

II. spinigera

) All stages primarily parasitic on mammals (Mainly

j domestic animal), but also attack birds.

) All stages chiefly parasitic on mammals. The

immature stages have a wide host range and attack

both birds and mammals. Birds appear to be

one of the important sources of blood meal for

immature stages. Adults prefer chiefly ungulates

, and large carnivores.

The number of ticks belonging to genera other than Haemaphysalis

is so few in the sample, that no specific conclusions could be drawn either

about their host pattern or their seasonal abundance. It appears that

birds, in the study area, are only adventitious hosts for the immature

stages of Rhipicephalus , Amblyomma and Boophilus , which are parasites

of large mammals.

Hyalomma marginatum isaaci is a common ectoparasite of livestock

and cattle in the drier parts of India and has never been collected in

ground drags in the study area. The immature stages of this tick has

been taken on several bird species in Rajasthan and Kutch. The finding

of a nymph on a migrant wagtail is probably a case of introduction of a

tick not indigenous to the area by a migrating bird. This is a two host

tick, and it is probable that the nymph of H. m. isaaci was picked up as

larva by the wagtail in a dry area somewhere along its migratory route.

The phenomenon of transportation of ticks by migratory birds from one

place to another has important disease spreading potentialities, if the tick

thus transported by migratory birds carries pathogens and if the tick is

capable of establishing in the area where it was introduced.

The complete absence of Ixodes petaurustae and I. ceylonensis on

any of the large sample of birds examined is noteworthy and indicates

that Ixodes species of this area do not parasitize birds.

Summary

A two year study on the Ixodid ticks on wild birds of Shimoga District,

Mysore State, was undertaken as part of the overall programme of the Virus

Research Centre, Poona, on the studies on the epidemiology of Kyasanur

Forest Disease. A total of 8474 birds belonging to 184 species was

examined over a two year period. Birds of widely differing habits and

habitats were collected in every month of a two year period to study the

infestation pattern. The number of birds found positive was 1082 belong-

ing to 81 species. A total of 9821 ticks was collected on birds and

99*5% or 9774 ticks belonged to the genus Haemaphysalis , represented

by 12 species, including a new host specific tick species discovered during

this study. Nearly three quarters of all Haemaphysalis collected were

1X0 DID TICKS PARASITIZING WILD BIRDS

11

H. spinigera , the dominant tick species in the study area, closely followed

by H. wellingtoni (1073 ticks or 10*9 %) and H. turturis (609 ticks or 6*2 %).

Small numbers of H. bispinosa , H. intermedia , H. p. kinneari, H. kya-

sanurensis , H. minuta , H. megalaimae , H. aculeata , H. cuspidata and

one H. centropi were also collected in addition to 47 ticks belonging to

Dermacentor auratus, Rhipicephalus sp., Boophilus sp. and Hyalomma

marginatum isaaci. A distinct seasonal pattern both in the infestation

rate of birds and also in the number of ticks collected in different months

was discernible corresponding with the seasonal pattern of abundance

of various stages of ticks in the forest in the study area. All the tick

species recorded are indigenous to India. Although 416 birds belonging

to 25 species migrating from outside India were examined during the

study, not a single tick species not indigenous to India, was collected.

The various factors affecting infestation of birds by ticks are also dis-

cussed.

Acknowledgements

The author is deeply grateful to Dr. Harold Trapido, of the Rocke-

feller Foundation, under whose guidance this work was done, as part of

a Ph.D. problem submitted to the University of Poona. Thanks are due

to Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, Director of Virus Research Centre, Poona,

who had encouraged the author in many ways during the study. Thanks

are also due to Dr. Salim Ali for initiating the author in his studies on

birds when he visited the study area, and to Bombay Natural History

Society for identification of the birds. Grateful thanks are due to

Dr. Vijai Dhanda for critically reviewing the manuscript.

References

Ali, Salim (1942a) : The birds of

Mysore, Part I. J . Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 43 (2) : 130-147 ; (1942b) Part II.

ibid. 43 (3): 318-341 ; (1943a) Part III.

ibid. 43 (4) : 573-595 ; (1943b) Part IV.

ibid. 44 (1) : 9-26 ; (1943c) Part V. ibid.

44 (2) : 206-220.

(1949) : Indian Hill Birds.

London, Oxford University Press, pp. 188.

(1953) : The Birds of Tra-

vancore and Cochin. London, Oxford

University Press, pp. 436.

(1955) : The Book of Indian

Birds, Bombay. Bombay Natural

History Society, pp. 142.

Bishopp, F. C. & Trembley, H. T.

(1945) : Distribution and hosts of cer-

tain North American ticks. /. Parasitol.

31 : 1-54.

Boshell, M. J. (1969) : Kyasanur

Forest Disease : Ecological considera-

tions. Amer. J. Trop. Med. & Hyg.

18 (1) : 67-80.

Dhanda, V. (1964) : Description of

immature stages of Haemaphysalis

howletti (Ixodoidea : Ixodidae) and re-

description of the adults. J. Parasitol.

50 (3) : 459-465.

— & Rao, T. R. (1964) :

A report on the collection of Ixodid ticks

made in the North East Frontier Agency,

India. Ind. J. Med. Res. 52 (11) : 1139-

1153.

Hoogstraal, H. & Trapido, H.

(1963a) : Haemaphysalis kutchensis sp. n.,

a common larval and nymphal parasite

of birds in Northwestern India (Ixo-

doidea : Ixodidae). J. Parasitol. 43

(3) : 489-497.

& (1963b) : Re-

description of cotypes of all stages of

Haemaphysalis intermedia Warburton

and Nuttall, 1909 (H. parva Neumann

1908, Preoccupied) from Ceylon and

India (Ixodoidea : Ixodidae). ibid. 49

(5) : 838-846.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Hume, A. O. (1890) : The Nests and

Eggs of Indian Birds. Vol. II. Second

Edition, pp. 420 and Vol. III. Second

Edition, pp. 461. London. R. H.

Porter.

Kohls, G. M. (1950) : Two new species

of ticks from Ceylon (Acarina : Ixodidae).

J. Parasitol. 36 (4) : 319-321.

Rajagopalan, P. K. (1963) : Haema-

phy sails megalaimae sp. n., a new tick

from the small green barbet, ( Megalaima

viridis ) in India, ibid. 49 (2) : 340-345.

Patil, A. P. &

Boshell Jorge, M. (1968a) : Studies

on Ixodid tick population on the forest

floor in the Kyasanur Forest Disease

area (1961-1964). Ind. J. Med. Res.

56 (4) : 497-509.

, , &

(1968b) : Ixodid ticks on their mamma-

lian hosts in the Kyasanur Forest Disease

area of Mysore State, India (1961-

1964). ibid. 56 (4) : 510-526.

Rebello, M. J. & Reuben, Rachel

(1967) : A report on ticks collected from

birds and small mammals in North

Arcot and Chittoor Districts, South

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63

(2) : 283-289.

Ripley, S. D. (1961): A synopsis of

the birds of India and Pakistan together

with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and

Ceylon. Bombay Natural History

Society. Bombay, pp. 702.

Rosicky, B. & Balat, F. (1954) :

The tick {Ixodes ricinus L.) as a bird

parasite in a natural focus. Czecho-

slovak Parasitology 1 : 45-76 (English

Translation).

Sen, P. (1938) : A check and host list

of Ixodoidea (ticks) occurring in India.

Indian Jour. Vet. Sci. Ani. Husb. 8 (15) :

133-147.

Sharif, M. (1928) : A revision of the

Indian Ixodidae with special reference

to the collection in the Indian Museum.

Rec. Indian Mus. 30 (3) : 217-344.

Trapido, H., Goverdhan, M. K.,

Rajagopalan, P. K. & Rebello, M. J.

(1964a) : Ticks ectoparasitic on monkeys

in the Kyasanur Forest Disease area of

Shimoga District, Mysore State, India.

American J. Trop. Med. & Hyg. 13 (5) :

763-772.

— , Verma, M. G. R., Raja-

gopalan, P. K., Singh, K. R. P. &

Rebello, M. J. (1964b) : A guide to the

identification of all, stages of Haema-

physalis ticks of South India. Bull.

Ent. Res. 55 (2) : 249-270.

, Hoogstraal, H. & Raja-

gopalan, P. K. (1964c) : Haemaphy-

salis kyasanur ensis sp. nov., a member of

the formosensis group in Southern India

and Ceylon (Ixodoidea : Ixodidae). J.

Parasitol. 50 : 295-302.

Whistler, H. (1949) : Popular Hand-

book of Indian Birds. Fourth Edition,

London. Gurney and Jackson, pp. 360.

Work, T. H. (1958) : Russian Spring

Summer Virus in India. Prog. Med.

Virol. 1 : 248-277.

Infestation of Euryale ferox Salisb.

by larvae of Nymphula crisonalis

Walker and trials on its Control

BY

S. R. Banerji

Fisheries Research Sub- Station, Laheriasarai , Darbhanga

{With four text-figures)

Introduction

The aquatic herb, Euryale ferox Salisb., of the family Nymphaeaceae

is extensively cultivated in the district of Darbhanga in North Bihar.

The habitat chosen for its cultivation are generally the age-old perennial

ponds having shallow beds subjected to flooding during rains from the

neighbouring streams. Seeds of the plant are parched and beaten and

the decoated seeds thus obtained are sold as a highly priced food, the

current market rate being rupees eight to ten per kg. Usually, five to six

quintals of the seed are annually collected from one acre cultivation,

which, in the form of dry edible seed, is one-third of this produce.

Obviously, the annual sale proceeds, under normal conditions, exceed

rupees one thousand five hundred per acre. The expenditure incurred

over its cultivation is very modest as the seeds left over after harvesting

germinate out as crop for the next season and it is only the labour which

involves some expenditure in thinning out the overgrowths, transplanting

into the sparse areas, and in collection of the dispersed seeds from the

pond bed during the time of harvesting. Cultivation of this crop, in-

cluding decoating of the seeds and disposal of the finished produce,

happen to be vocation of the fishermen, who, in addition, get some

revenue by taking out fish from the water after the main crop is harvested.

The significance of this crop, which is so intimately linked up with the

livelihood of the fishermen community, can be judged from the fact that

on an average 200 quintals of the seed, locally known as ‘ Makhana ’,

are transported each year from Darbhanga, besides local consumption.

Lately, the cultivators have complained about the attack on their

crop by a caterpillar pest which sometimes assumes menacing propor-

tions. The larval pest, besides eating the blades of early leaves, cuts and

rolls a portion of the leaf lamina as a shelter. Earlier attempts to control

SO JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

the pest were limited to picking them off as far as possible. Currently,

the cultivators have resorted to indiscriminate use of all kinds of pesti-

cides endangering the fish fauna and the food chain in the aquatic en-

vironment.

The present study was undertaken to identify the pest, observe the

stage of the plant most susceptible to attack, and to find out a suitable

pesticide for its control that would least damage the indigenous fish life

and other aquatic biota.

Materials and Methods

Soon after the new set of plants sprouted, close observation was kept

to watch the successive stages of the larval pest. Specimens of the in-

fested plants, with caterpillar in situ , were removed to the laboratory in

earthern pots filled with water and specially prepared for the purpose with

a layer of pond silt at the bottom. These pots were covered with fine

mesh cloth netting and kept in the open space to provide natural light.

At the pupal stage they were carefully detached along with their leaf-lining

and floated on water in glass jars covered with netting but with sufficient

space for the emerging adult. For first hand information on the dosage

of selected pesticides, trials were conducted in large glass jars containing

larvae on the leaf blades as in nature. Final trials, on the basis of this

information were conducted in large tubs where field conditions were

simulated as far as practicable, including transplant of zooplankters and

the fish fauna commonly encountered in the Euryale ferox habitat.

Results

Susceptible stage of growth of the plant : To recognise the stage of

the plant most susceptible to attack by the pest, it is necessary to describe

the chronology of foliaceous growth of Euryale ferox. Although des-

cribed as a perennial aquatic herb (Haines 1925 ; Calder & Biswas 1936 ;

Subramaniam 1962), the plant, as observed under cultivation here,

behaves as a long seasonal or at the most an annual. Fruits mature and

burst between September and December and the globular seeds drop to

the pond bed. At this stage, fishermen root out the plants as far as

possible to facilitate collection of the seeds. It has been observed that,

with the onset of winter, the remaining plants also die out. From

February onwards, the seeds left over on the pond bed, or those sub-

sequently broadcast, start their hypogeal germination. It may be men-

tioned here that the thick fibrous roots of the plant described by Calder &

Biswas (op. cit.) are actually comprised of 3 to 4 clusters, each cluster

containing about 17 rootlets. As the new plant sprouts, the cluster of

rootlets come out one after another at an interval of one week or

INFESTATION OF EURYALE FEROX BY N. CRISONALIS 81

so. Likewise, the foliage pattern also exhibit definite sequence in their

appearance. The description given by earlier workers about the large,

orbicular, corrugated and peltate leaves with strong spines actually re-

present the foliage of the fully developed plant, when all the cluster of

rootlets have come out and the plant is deeply set in the pond bed. In

appearance, the early leaves are quite different from older ones. The

first set of leaves are membraneous, deeply sinuate and at the

maximum 9 cm long and 8 cm broad. They are deep-pinkish in colour

on both the dorsal and the ventral sides, and the stalks are correspond-

ingly tender, having little or no prickles on the lamina. The second set

of leaves appear after a fortnight and are more orbicular, moderately

sinuate, green above and purplish below, and measure about 15 cm at the

longest part with corresponding breadth of 14*5 cm. Their veins are

more prominent with spines at places and the petioles are also stiffer,

6

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

thicker and spiny compared to the leaves of the first set. The typical

leaves in the maturing plants start appearing a fortnight later. These

are rugose, orbicular, with a slight notch and are green above and dark-

purple below. Depending upon the spread area, these leaves vary in

length and breadth from 30 to 120 cm and 25 to 110 cm respectively.

The veins are highly swollen on the ventral side and are beset with sharp

spines which are also profuse on the leaf stalk.

INFESTATION OF EUR YALE FEROX BY N. CRISONALIS

S3

The foliaceous chronology in the growth of the plant as observed

above seems to be an ecological adaptation for its survival. Being a

shallow aquatic herb, even moderate surface disturbance has effect

right up to the root. The first cluster of roots, would have run the risk

of loosing anchor were the early leaves as broad and buoyant as the

typical leaves. However, the adaptive feature, while helping the plant

to circumvent the hydrological risk, has left it open to the biological

risk of the insect pest. As observed in nature, the plants are vulnerable

to the pest as long as the earlier set of leaves predominate, but as the

broad bladed typical leaves start appearing, it can be taken that the

plant has turned the corner, as far as damage from the pest is concerned.

A notion prevailing among the cultivators that, with the appearance of

the typical leaves, the season for proliferation of the pest was over and

that they disappear from the pond was not correct because in the same

pond, which had their early leaves of E. ferox intensively hit by the larval

pest, the larvae continued to be in abundance on another aquatic herb,

Nymphoides cristatum , growing along the pond margin, after abandoning

E. ferox with the emergence of typical leaves. It appears the dis-

appearance of the larval pest from E. ferox at later stages is linked with the

unsuitability to the larvae of the coarser lamina interlaced with rugged

veins of the typical leaves.

The early leaves of E. ferox also at times swarm with aphids. How-

ever, aphids alone do not constitute risk, but the situation is different

when the caterpillar attack is already there.

Larva : The late instar of the larva is 1 5 to 20 mm long and 3 mm

wide at the broadest segment. Mandibles rather small. There are bet-

ween 60 to 100 lateral gills, some of which branch dichotomously. The

active larva is yellowish green with a darkish longitudinal streak in the

middle of the dorsal surface.

Besides the appearance, the habits of the larval pest as observed con-

formed to the behaviour of Nymphula group described by earlier workers

for the species found in their area. Welsch (1966) described the larval

case as oval to oblong, filled with water and made out of leaf of the

aquatic plants such as Nuphar , Potamegeton , Vallisneria and others

found in quiet waters. Clegg (1956), while describing the China mark

moths and their larvae, observed later instar of larvae making some kind

of protective case from pieces of floating leaf like that of water lily, glued

together by their silky secretion. Hampson (1896), while describing

the Indian moths, observed that the larvae of some species of Nymphula

feed on water plants and are best suited for life under water. He, how-

ever, did not mention the names of host plants and the details of infes-

tation.

The Nymphula larva as pest on Euryale ferox was observed in this

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

case to cut the blades of early set of leaves, either in the middle or at the

margins, flapping it down the ventral surface or turning it over dorsally,

and then gluing it into an oval case 20 to 30 mm long. Under field

conditions, the larvae were hardly seen out of their cases. In the labora-

Fig. 3. Ventral view of the larva of Nymphula .

tory lamina of some of the leaves with the larval case decayed excepting

the portion which actually formed the larval case which therefore

separated from the plant. The larva then projected its anterior end

out of the case and swam about executing jerks alternately on each side,

thus pulling the case along till it came across a fresh leaf in which it made

INFESTATION OF EURYALE FEROX BY N. CRISONALIS

85

a new shelter. Larva moving with leaf case has also been described

by Berg (1950) in the case of N. obscuralis. It was also observed that

once the immature larvae are out of their cases in search of fresh leaves

and drop off the plant during the process, they crawl at the bottom

and along the stalk until they anchor on to a fresh leaf. The lateral

gills are distinctly spread in water, but as soon as they are taken out of

water, the gills collapse and become indiscernible. Deprived of moisture,

the larvae did not survive for more than a few hours even on the leaves.

Pupa : The later instars of the larvae brought to the laboratory

started pupating in 4 to 5 days. The late instars of the larvae and the

pupae were found in abundance on E.ferox from early March to middle

of April. The larval leaf case serves as outer lining for the pupal cases

Fig. 4. Ventral view of the Pupa of Nymphula.

which has yet another padding inside of a silky material. The pupae

are 9 to 12 mm long and are of cream colour, including the wings and

the appendages save the antennae which are brownish. Before the adult

emerges the shade darkens. The wings and appendages are neatly drawn

along the ventral side of the body. The wings are not contiguous at any

point and are separated out by the appendages. The antennae originate

dorsally anterior to the eyes, turn ventrally, and run along the margin

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

of the wings terminating a little ahead of the latter’s tips. Metalegs

reach near the abdominal segments, and the spiracles on the second, third

and fourth abdominal segments are all equally prominent and are stubby

in appearance. The pupae are found both on the dorsal and ventral

surface on the leaf. It was also observed that, if detached from the

plant, the pupae float on the water surface and survive as long as they

retain the leaf lining. However, if they lose their leaf case, they fall to

the bottom and perish.

Adult : A few larvae in their cases were floated on water in separate

jars which were covered with cloth netting. The larval cases were taken

out at regular intervals and the time of metamorphosing to pupa was

noted by moving apart the leaf lining slightly. In all cases observed the

pupation was found to last for 1 1 days. Emergence of the adult from the

pupa was always found to be during the night, similar to the observation

of Berg (op. cit.). The wings of the adults have chocolate brown ground

colour with obscure markings. A thin tawny yellow curved band is

noticeable on the forewing. When spread, the rear wings appear a shade

lighter in colour. The wing-spread measured about 22 mm. The

specimen has been identified to be Nymphula crisonalis Walker, by the

Zoological Survey of India.

Trials on Control of the Larval Pest

The pesticides chosen for trial for control of the larval pest were

Benzene-hexachloride (BHC), both the ten and the five per cent product,

which is being indiscriminately used in field by 4 Makhana ’ cultivators,

and the Phosphamidon-IOQ, available in the market under the trade

name Dimecron-100. The latter drug was chosen because it is advocated

to be harmless for fish life even up to a concentration of 20 ppm.

(Srivastava & Konar 1965) and also because it is reported to be systemic

insecticide (Anonymous 1966).

The first set of experiments was conducted in glass jars each containing

6 litres of water and two late instars of the larvae in situ on the leaf

floated on the water. A sufficient number of zoo-plankton comprising

mostly of Cyclops, Diaptomus and Ceriodaphnia were also introduced

in each of these jars. The treatments given with one replication of each

were : high volume spray of 200 ppm. water solution of Dimecron-100,

and dusting of BHC 10 p.c. and 5 p.c. separately at the rate of 10 kg.

per hectare. Two jars were kept as control without any treatment.

Observations were recorded at 24 hours interval for 6 days. The

200 ppm. Dimecron spray did not seem to have any appreciable effect

on the larvae and the plankton also survived. Dusting of 10 p.c. BHC

proved highly lethal both for the larvae and the plankton, all dying by

INFESTATION OF EURYALE FEROX BY N. CRISONALIS

87

the second day of the treatment. In the case of 5 p.c. BHC the larvae

died on the second day and the plankton by the fifth day.

The first set of experiments revealed that while BHC ten per cent dusted

at the rate of 10 kg. per hectare was lethal both for the larvae and the

zooplankton, Dimecron-IQO, sprayed in a concentration of 200 ppm.

on the water surface, was innocuous. The second set of trials was there-

fore designed to ascertain the lethal dose of Dimecron-100 for the larvae

without affecting the zooplankton. Experiments were arranged in the

same manner as before and spray of three dilutions of the drug (200,

500 and 1,000 ppm.) was tried. As observed in the case of first trials,

spray of 200 ppm. concentrate of Dimecron-100 did not have effect

either on the larvae or the plankton. Spray of 500 ppm. concentrate

of the pesticide killed the larvae by the fifth day of the treatment, with no

noticeable effect on the plankton. Spray of 1 ,000 ppm. concentrate of

the drug quickened the effect on the larvae but proved lethal for the

plankton too as all of them died by the third day of the treatment.

On the basis of informations gathered from the two trials, the third

set of experiments was designed to study the comparative effects of spray

of 500 ppm. dilution of Dimecron-100 and BHC 5 per cent dusted at the

rate of 7 kg. per hectare. The set of experiments was arranged as usual

and, in addition, contained one specimen each of the fishes Labeo rohita ,

and Cirrhina mrigala of 8 to 10 cm length in each of the jars. Corro-

borating the observations of the second set of trials, spray of the 500 ppm.

concentrate of Dimecron-100 killed the caterpillars on the third day of

the treatment. Plankton continued to survive save for a slight mortality

in one of the replications. The fishes continued to be alive in normal

condition. Dusting of the BHC brought the caterpillars to morbid

state on first day of the treatment and these were dead on the next day.

All the plankton died out by the fourth day and the fishes also expired

on the second day.

Although the above experiments were conducted in glass jars, so

far as the larval pests are concerned, it is the surface application which

matters and therefore the observations made in the aforesaid experiments

may be taken 'as comparable to that of field conditions.

In absence of facilities for field studies, the above results were further

tested in large iron drums where field conditions were simulated as far

as practicable. Three drums were specially prepared for the purpose

by laying 15 cm thick pond silt at the bottom and filled with water up

to one metre depth. Infested plant of E. ferox with 4 to 5 larvae on the

leaves, along with zooplankton consisting of Diaptomus, Cyclops,

Ceriodaphnia and Sida hauled from the pond under ‘ Makhana 9 culti-

vation, was also introduced into each of these drums in sufficient quan-

tity. In addition, each of the drums further contained two specimens

each of the fishes Colisa fasciatus , Anabas testudineus , Esomus dan-

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

ricus , Barbus sophore , Aplocheilus panchax , which are commonly en-

countered in £. ferox plantations, and two specimens each of Labeo

rohita and Cirrhina mrigala.

Treatment comprised of spraying the surface water with a 500 ppm

watery solution of Dimecron-100 in the first drum, and BHC 5 per cent

at the rate of 7 leg. per hectare, with an equal quantity of wood ash for

uniform dusting, in the second drum. The third drum was kept as

control. After the treatment, daily observation was recorded on the

behaviour of the larvae and the fishes in the drum and also on the den-

sity of plankton in the water. The larvae in both the treated drums

died within four days, but observations on fish behaviour and density

of plankton in the treated water was continued until the sixth day,

after which the water was drained out and the number of fishes, species-

wise, that survived in each of the drums was recorded. All the larvae

exposed to treatment with BHC died within first two days, while those

treated with Dimecron-100 first showed symptoms of dullness, and died

on the third and the fourth days. The treatment, however, did not affect

the plankton population in any of the drums, as their density remained

the same all through the experiment. Among the fishes, casualty was

noticed the next day only in Aplocheilus panchax exposed to BHC. Both

the treatments proved innocuous for other species of fish. The above

experiment was repeated again in similar conditions with identical results.

Nymphula Larvae as food for Fishes

To check if fishes would prey upon the free floating larvae, finger-

lings of IndianTnajor carps, Cyprinus carpio, some minnows, and Anabas

testudineus were put in glass aquaria which had a known number of

living larvae of the Nymphula. Excepting the fingerlings of Cyprinus

carpio and Anabas testudineus , which readily took the larvae, the other

fishes ignored their presence. Anabas testudineus ate the exposed

larvae adhering to the ventral surface of the leaves. As under natural

condition the larvae mostly keep themselves confined to their cases, the.

presence of even a good number of these fishes in 4 Makhana ’ cultivated

ponds is not likely to have much impact, even though they might eat

away the few larvae hanging out of their cases.

- ; r " ]

Discussion and Conclusions

The economically important aquatic herb, Euryale ferox , is highly

susceptible to the attack of the larva of Nymphula crisonalis. Infes-

tation is confined to the early stages when the plants still have tender

and membraneous leaves. With the gradual appearance of thick and

stout veined leaves, in about one and a half months from the date of

sprouting, the pest disappears from the plant. During the period of

INFESTATION OF EURYALE FEROX BY N. CRISONALIS

89

susceptibility, therefore, care should be taken to prevent the destruction

of the crop. At the same time, care should be taken to see that the

control measures adopted do not affect the indigenous fish life and other

pond biota, including plankton. All experiments to control the pest

were, therefore, conducted with this end in view and the choice of in-

secticides was limited to BHC and Dimecron-100 (Phosphamidon-100).

Then ten per cent product of the former proved too strong and lethal

for fishes and other biota and hence it is not recommended for use.

The five per cent product of the same drug, dusted at the rate of 7 kg.

per hectare, proved lethal to the caterpillar pest, without apparent harm

to the crustacean plankton and the indigenous fish fauna, except for

Aplocheilus panchax , which, by its habit of grazing along the surface

film of the water, comes in closer contact with the floating dust of the

BHC, and thus succumbs. Dimecron-100, sprayed as a watery solution

of 500 ppm. under field conditions, proved effective in killing the larval

pest within 3-4 days, without affecting the plankton or fish life.

It would not be out of place to mention that the concentration of

Dimecron-100 solution used in these experiments represents the strength of

the drug in the quantity of water prepared for spray, which becomes fur-

ther diluted to a great extent after coming in contact with the water being

treated. Since the larvae anchor to the surface floating leaves considera-

tion of the pesticides was confined to the surface treatment only and,

therefore, the exact concentration of the drug which became subsequently

diluted in the treated water, was not determined. Therefore, the effect

of Dimecron-100 on the fish and aquatic biota as observed in this study

is not directly comparable to the results obtained by Srivastava & Konar

(1956). The comparative cost involved in the use of these two pesti-

cides, apart from labour and other incidental expenses, is for BHC 5

per cent five rupees per hectare at the current market rates. The treat-

ment with Dimecron-100 would require 650 ml. of the drug per hectare

the cost of which would come to about seventy rupees. Naturally,

the higher cost involved in the use of Dimecron-100 would prompt

most of the cultivators to use BHC 5 per cent. However, as BHC has

persistent and cumulative effect the use Dimecron-100 despite its higher

price should be encouraged. The difference in expenditure would not

be much compared to the final return and the revenue derived out of

the fish catch after the crop is harvested.

As Nymphula attacks E. ferox only in the early stages of growth,

and infests another aquatic plant, Nymphoides cristatum , at other times,

there is the possibility of reducing the intensity of infestation by eradicat-

ing N. cristatum from the waters used for E. ferox cultivation. This

method of biological control will depend on co-operation among the

pond owners and a co-ordinated approach on their part in the matter.

90 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to Dr. Prem Shankar Prasad, Deputy Director

of Fisheries (Research), Bihar, Patna, for allocating the project and

for going through the manuscript critically. Help rendered in the

field by Sri Devendra Prasad, Senior Research Assistant, and Sri Arjun

Rai, Laboratory Assistant, both of this research substation, is highly

appreciated. Samples of Dimecron-100 used in these trials were received

from the pesticide division of CIBA of India Limited, Bombay, which

is gratefully acknowledged. The author is also indebted to Dr. K. S.

Pradhan, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, for the

specific identity of the pest.

References

Anonymous (1966) : Dimecron-100.

Systemic insecticide based on Phospha-

midon. A handout issued by Ciba

of India Limited, Bombay-66: 180.

Berg, C. O. (1950) : Biology of

certain aquatic caterpillars. Trans.

American Microsc. soc. 69 : 254-266.

Biswas, K. & Calder, C. (1936) :

Handbook of common water and marsh

plants of India. Manager of Publi-

cations, Government of India Press,

Calcutta, p. 216.

Clegg, R. (1956) : Pond Life, p. 79.

Haines, H. H. (1925) : The Botany of

Bihar and Orissa. Part II. p. 22.

Hampson, G. F. (1896) : The Fauna

of British India, Moths Vol. IV, p. 187.

Srivastava, U. S. & Konar, S. K.

(1956) : On the use of Phosphamidcn

for eradication of freshwater fish pre-

dators. Extract from Experimentia :

Vol. XXI.

Subr amani am , K. (1962) : Aquatic

Angiosperms, pp. 6-8.

Welsch, P. S. (1966) : Lepidoptera.

Freshwater Biology, Ed. Edmondson,

pp. 1051-1054.

Spider Fauna of India: Catalogue and

Bibliography

BY

B. K. Tikader

Zoological Survey of India , 8, Lindsay Street , Calcutta- 16

[Continued from Vol. 68 (3) : 618]

Family Theraphosidae

Genus CHILOBRACHYS Karsch 1892

262. Chilobrachys femoralis Pocock 1900. fauna brit. india Arach-

nida , p. 195.

Distribution : India : Nasik (Maharashtra).

Type : BMNH.

263. Chilobrachys fimbriatus Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat . Hist.

Soc. 12 : 746.

Distribution : India : Khandala, Satara, (Maharashtra).

Type : BMNH.

264. Chilobrachys fumosus Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 15 :

174.

Distribution : India : Northern India.

Type : BMNH.

265. Chilobrachys hardwickii Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

15 : 174.

Distribution : India : Bilaspur, Chota Nagpur, Burdwan (West

Bengal).

Type : BMNH.

266. Chilobrachys masoni Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 15 :

174.

Distribution : India : Assam.

Type : BMNH.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

267. Chilobrachys stridtilans Wood-Mason 1875. P.A.S.B., p. 197.

Distribution : India : Sibsagar (Assam).

Type : ?

268. Chilobrachys thorellii Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arachnida ,

p. 199.

Distribution : India : Sadiya (Assam).

Type : BMNH.

Genus HAPLOCLASTUS Simon 1892

269. Haploclastus cervinus Simon 1892. Hist. Nat. Araign. Paris 1 :

152.

Distribution : India : Palni Hills.

Type : MNHN.

270. Haploclastus nilgirinus Pocock 1889. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 12 : 747.

Distribution : India : Nilgiri Hills.

Type : BMNH.

Genus HETEROPHRICTUS Pocock 1900

271. Heterophrictus milleti Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arach-

nida, p. 180.

Distribution : India : Nasik, Poona, Satara (Maharashtra).

Type : BMNH.

Genus ISCHNOCOLUS Ausserer 1871

272. Ischnocolus linteatus Simon 1891. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 60:

308.

Distribution : India : Pondicherry, Madras.

Type: MNHN.

Genus LYROGNATHUS Pocock 1895

273. Lyrognathus crotalus Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 15 :

175.

Distribution : India : North India.

Type: BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA

93

274. Lyrognathus pugnax Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arach-

nida , p. 203.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : BMNH.

275. Lyrognathus saltator Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arach -

nida, p. 203.

Distribution : North Khasi Hills (Assam).

Type : BMNH.

Genus PHLOGIELLUS Pocock 1897

276. Phlogiellus subarmatus Thorell 1891. *Sv. Vet.-Akad. Handl.

24(2): 13.

Distribution : India : Nicobar Islands.

Type: BMNH.

Genus PHLOGIODES Pocock 1899

277. Phlogiodes robustus Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12 : 748.

Distribution : India : Matheran, Bombay (Maharashtra).

Type: BMNH.

278. Phlogiodes validus Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12 : 748.

Distribution : India : Matheran, Bombay (Maharashtra).

Type: BMNH.

Genus PLESIOPHRICTUS Pocock 1899

279. Plesiophrictus collinus Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12 : 749.

Distribution : India : Shevaroy Hills (Tamil Nadu).

Type : BMNH.

280. Plesiophrictus fabrei Simon 1892. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 61 :

278.

Distribution: India : S. India.

Type : MNHN.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

28 L Plesiophrictus millardi Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12 : 749.

Distribution : India : Matheran, Bombay (Maharashtra).

Type : BMNH.

282. Plesiophrictus sericeus Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arach-

nida , p. 182.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : BMNH.

Genus POECILOTHERIA Simon 1885

283. Poeciiotheria fasciata Latreille 1803. Nouv. Diet. d’Hist. Nat.

15 : 304.

Distribution : India : Madura, Madras : Ceylon.

Type : ?

284. Poeciiotheria formosa Pocock 1899. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 3 (7) :

91.

Distribution : India : Kadiampatti, Mallapuram, S. India.

Type : BMNH.

285. Poeciiotheria metallica Pocock 1899. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

3 (7) : 93.

Distribution : India : Ootacamund (Tamil Nadu).

Type BMNH.

286. Poeciiotheria miranda Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India

Arachnida , p. 190.

Distribution : India : West Bengal, Chota Nagpur.

Type: BMNH.

287. Poeciiotheria regalis Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 3(7) :

89.

Distribution : India : Western India, Matheran, Thana, Bombay

(Maharashtra) ; Nilgiri Hills ; Coorg (Mysore).

Type : BMNH.

288. Poeciiotheria rufilata Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12 : 746.

Distribution : India : Trivandrum (Kerala).

Type : BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA

95

289. Poecilotheria striata Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 15 (6) :

172.

Distribution : India : Mysore ; Trivandrum (Kerala).

Type : BMNH.

290. Poecilotheria vittata Pocock 1895. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 15(6) :

172.

Distribution : India or Ceylon (exact place unknown).

Type : BMNH.

Genus SELENOCOSMIA Ausserer 1871

291. Selenocosmia himalayana Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 12 : 746.

Distribution : India : Dehra Dun (U.P.)

Type : BMNH.

292. Selenocosmia javanensis Walckenaer 1837. Ins. Apt. 1 : 216.

Distribution : India : Nicobar Islands.

Type : ?

Genus THRIGMOPOEUS Pocock 1899

293. Thrigmopoeus insignis Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12 : 747.

Distribution : India : Kanara Ghats (Mysore).

Type : BMNH.

294. Thrigmopoeus truculentus Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 12 : 748.

Distribution : India : Karwar (Mysore).

Type : BMNH.

Family Therididae

Genus THERIDION Walckenaer 1805

295. Theridion rufipes Lucas 1846. Explor. Sci. Algeria Arachn. 1 :

263, tab. 16, fig. 5.

Distribution : India : Siju Cave, Garo Hills (Assam).

Type : ?

96 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Genus ARGYRODES Simon

296. Argyrodes cyrtophore Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

57 : 99, fig. la-c.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

297. Argyrodes dipali Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 57 :

103, fig. 4a-c.

Distribution: India: Mundhva, near Poona City (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSL

298. Argyrodes gouri Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 57 :

102, fig. 3a-c.

Distribution : India : Mundhva, near Poona City (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

299. Argyrodes jamkhedes Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

57: 101, fig. 2a-c.

Distribution : India : Sarola village, Jamkhed Taluka, Dist.

Ahmednagar (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

Genus LATHRODECTUS Walckenaer 1805

300. Lathrodectus hasseltii Thorell 1870. Oefv. K. Sv . Vet.-Akad.

Fork. 27 : 369.

Distribution : India : Poona, Bombay (Maharashtra) : Karachi

(Pakistan).

Type : BMNH.

301. Lathrodectus hasseltii indicus Simon 1897. Bull. Mus. Hist .

Nat., p. 97.

Distribution : India : Poona, Bombay (Maharashtra).

Type: MNHN.

Family Thomisidae

Genus AMY Cl AE A Simon 1885

302. Amyciaea forticeps (Cambridge) 1873.

Amycle forticeps Cambridge 1873. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 122

Distribution: India : Poona (Maharashtra) Burma ; Malaysia.

Type : BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA

97

Genus ANGAEUS Thorell 1881

303. Angaeus pantagonalis Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

13 : 497.

Distribution : India : Nilgiri Hills (S. India).

Type : BMNH.

Genus APOLLOPHANES Cambridge 1898

304. Apollophanes bengalores Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci .

58 : 260, fig. 10.

Distribution : India : Bangalore (Mysore).

Type : ZSI.

Genus BO MIS Koch 1873

305. Bomis bengalensis Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 580,

fig. lla-b.

Distribution : India : West Bengal.

Type : ZSI.

Genus DIAEA Thorell 1869

306. Diaea jaintious Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 64 : 59.

Distribution : India : Shillong, Cherapunjee (Assam).

Type : ZSI.

Genus EBO Keyserling 1884

307. Ebo bharatae Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 278,

fig. 2a-e.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI*

Genus MISUMENA Latreille 1804

308. Misumena greenae Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 :

281, fig. 5a-c.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

309. Misumena horai Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 573,

fig. 5a-e.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type: ZSI.

7

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

310. Misumena menoka Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 :

254, fig. 5a, b. ;

Distribution : India : Mysore and Maharashtra. ,/:r, : ^

Type : ZSI.

311. Misumena mridulai Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44: 57,

fig. 6.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : ZSI.

312. Misumena silveryi Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci: 61:

282, fig. 6 a, b.

Distribution: India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

Genus MISUMENOIDES Cambridge 1900

313. Misumenoides deccanes Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci .

61 : 279, fig. 3 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

314. Misumenoides kripalaniae Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 58 : 258, fig. 8 a, b.

Distribution : India : Chikmagalur (Mysore).

Type : ZSI.

315. Misumenoides shulli Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci .

61 : 280, fig. 4 a, b.

Distribution : India : Mussoorie (U.P.). _ ^ ■

Type : ZSI.

Genus MISUMENOPS Cambridge 1900

316. Misumenops khandalaensis Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 61 : 287, fig. lla-c.

Distribution : India : Khandala Ghat (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

Genus MQNAESES Thorell 1870

317. Monaeses parvati Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. SciJS& :

249, fig. la-c. .a

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type: ZSI. ALT \

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 99

Genus OXYPTILA Simon 1864

318. Oxyptila khasi Tikader 1960. Proc.Zool. Soc ., Calcutta 13:

116, fig. 2a-c.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : ZSI.

319. Oxyptila manii Tikader 1960. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 13 :

115, fig. la-d.

Distribution : India : West Bengal.

Type : ZSI.

320. Oxyptila maratha (Tikader) 1964.

Oxyptila gertschi Tikader 1964. Sci. and Cult. 30: 152, Fig. 1 a-c.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

321. Oxyptila reenae Basu 1964. Sci. and Cult. 30 : 154.

Distribution : India : West Bengal.

Type: ZSI.

Genus PASIAS Simon 1895

322. Pasias maratha Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 :

286, fig. 10 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

323. Pasias puspagiri Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Scu 58 :

253, fig. 4.

Distribution : India : Hassan (Mysore).

Type : ZSI.

Genus PHILODROMUS Walckenaer 1825

324. Philodromus assamensis Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London

44: 581, fig. 12 a-c.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : ZSI.

325. Philodromus betrahatai Tikader 1966. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

111 : 35, fig. 1 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type: ZSI.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 49 (1)

326. Philodromus bhagirathai Tikader 1966. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

111 : 36, fig. 2 a, b.

Distribution : India : Allahabad (U.P.) ; Madras.

Type : ZSI.

327. Philodromus decoratus Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc . London

44 : 582, fig. 13,

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type: ZSI.

328. Philodromus devhutai Tikader 1966. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

111 : 42, fig. 6 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

329. Philodromus domesticus Tikader 1962. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta

15 : 39, fig. 1 a, b.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : ZSI. >

330. Philodromus kendrabati Tikader 1966. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

177: 58, fig. 3 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

331. Philodromus maliniae Tikader 1966. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

111 : 39, fig. 4 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

332. Philodromus mohiniae Tikader 1966. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

111 : 40, fig. 5 a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona (Maharashtra).

Type : ZSI.

333. Philodromus shillongensis Tikader 1962. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta

15 : 40, fig. 2 a, b.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : ZSI.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA

101

Genus PISTIUS Simon 1875

334. Pistius barchensis Basu 1965. Proc. Zool. Soc.} Calcutta 18 : 74.

Distribution : India : Delira Dun (U.P.).

Type : ZSI.

335. Pistius bhadurii Basu 1965. Proc. Zool. Soc ., Calcutta 18 : 71.

Distribution : India : Saharanpur Dist. (U.P.).

Type : ZSI.

336. Pistius gangulyi Basu 1965. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 18 : 73.

Distribution : India : Dehra Dun (U.P.).

Type : ZSI.

337. Pistius kanikae Basu 1964. /. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 32 : 107.

Distribution : India : Lakshamanjhola (U.P.).

Type : ZSI.

338. Pistius robusta Basu 1965. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 18 : 75.

Distribution : India, Dehra Dun (U.P.).

Type : ZSI.

339. Pistius roonwali Basu 1964. J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 32 : 104.

Distribution : India : Hardwar (U.P.).

Type : ZSI.

340. Pistius sreeponchamii Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 :

871, fig. 4 a, b.

Distribution : India : Shillong (Assam).

Type : ZSI.

{to be continued )

A Catalogue of the Birds in the

Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society — 11

Strigidae and Caprimulgidae

by

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol. 68 (3) : 772]

This part covers 583 specimens of 93 species and subspecies up-

to No. 682 in Indian handbook (4 : 23). Mr. S. A. Hussain, Research

Assistant, assisted with the measurements and in other ways.

606 Tyto alba stertens Hartert (Cachar) Indian Barn Owl 4 : 385

25:9<?<J 9$? 7 o ? (2 pull.)

1 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 , Simla ; 1 Larkhana, Sind ; 1 Kutch, 1 Radhanpur,

1 Nadiad, 1 West Khandesh ; 1 Ghoti, N<asik, 6 Bombay, 2 Nagpur ; 1 Point

Calimere, Tamil Nadu ; 1 Koreput, Vizagapatam ; 1 Narah, Madhubani,

Bihar; 1 Calcutta Market ; 1 Bharmabari, Bhutan Duars ; 1 DinapurRoad,

Manipur, 1 Imphal Area ; 1 Swebo, 1 near Sagaing ( Upper Burma).

There is considerable variation in the amount of rufous on the upper

and lower plumages but it is not possible to group them. The birds

from Upper Burma are identical with the others.

607 Tyto alba deroepstorffi (Hume) (Aberdeen, South Andamans)

Andaman Barn Owl 4 : 386

1 o ? North Cinque Island, Andamans.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

258 (<J$ 250-264) 30 (c. 32) 63 (c.61) 110 (c. 113)

This bird is quite distinct from Indian birds and is probably of this

race. Hume, when describing it, said the colour of the upper surface

was intermediate between S. flammea ( T . a. stertens) and S. Candida

(T. c. longimembris) . Except for the slight speckling with rufous, the

present specimen is as dark as longimembris.

EL Tyto alba erlangeri W. L. Sclater (Lahej, Arabia)

1 $ Muscat , Arabia.

Wing Tail

294 122

[193]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION —11 103

608 Tyto capensis longimembris (Jerdon) (Neilgherries) Grass Owl

j -c . 4 : 387

’ 3 : 2 <$<$ l*o? (fragmentary)

1* Taliar, High Range, Kerala ; 1 Rajputee, Chupra, Bihar ; 1 Imphal, Assam.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

337,340 32,33 82, 87 114, 117

(jo 305-348) (c. 36) (86-94) (114-125)

609 Phodilus badius saturatus Robinson (Native Sikkim) Sikkim

Bay Owl 4: 390

2 6?

1 Shillong ; 1 Mansam Falls , North Shan States.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

220, 220 32, 33 45, 49 95, 96

: (<?$ 214-237 30-32 47-48 92-97)

610 Phodilus badius assimilis Hume (Ceylon) Ceylon Bay Owl 4 : 391

' nil.

611 Otus spilocephalus huttoni Hume (Near Mussoorie) Western

Spotted Scops Owl 4: 429

8:4 ^-3 ?,$ 1 o?

2 Simla, 1 Patiala State ; 4 Mussoorie, 1 Bhim Tal, Kumaon.

A juvenile Otus bakkamoena from Dhulia, West Khandesh, was listed

as spilocephalus .

612 Otus spilocephalus spilocephalus (Blyth) (Darjeeling) Eastern

Spotted Scops Owl 4:427

... 2 1 Margherita, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam.

Wing Bill

142, 146 , , 19, 20

(137-151 c. 17-18

Tarsus Tail

30, 30 79, 82

c. 31-32 77-90)

613 Otus balli (Hume) (South Andaman Island) Andaman Scops

Owl.

in J mil,;::-;,

614 Otus brucei (Hume) (Rahuri, Ahmednagar) Striated Scops Owl

4: 431

13 : 6 dcJ (1 pull.) 4$? 3o? (2 pull.)

1 Muscat ; 2* Baghdad, 1 Hilla, 1 Basra ; 1 Bandar Rig, 2 Shiraz ; 1* Surja Patti,

Kharan (Baluchistan) ; 1 Padgha, Thana, 1 Poona, 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra,

1 no data (*Type and paratype of exiguus).

r, The key in ind. handbook (3 : 255) separates brucei from scops by

the feathers" of tarsus extending on to base of toes in brucei and not

[1941

104 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

extending on to base of toes in scops . In the material available, I cannot

see this difference, the feathering extending on to the base of the toes in

both species. Vaurie [1960, Am. Mus. Nov. 2021, p. 2, quoting Dementiev

1933, systema avium rossicarum, L' Oiseau, new series, Vol. 3 (Strigidae),

pp. 501-518] separates them by the third primary being equal to or less

than the sixth in brucei, and distinctly larger than the sixth in sympatric

subspecies of scops. This appears an excellent character for their separa-

tion.

The two old skins from Poona (22 Dec. 1882) and Ratnagiri (8 June

1874) have earthy-brown upper parts which, but for Hume’s description,

I would have said were faded. The third from Thana, Bombay, (25

Dec. 1960), is grey like most of the others, ind. handbook (3 : 259)

states that young birds are grey.

In 1958, Mukherjee, Rec. Ind. Mus. 53 : 301, separated west Asian

birds as exiguus (Type locality : Baghdad), partly by colour and for its

smaller size. This has been generally discarded but the three from

peninsular India, where it is almost certainly a winter migrant, have

larger wings and tails than the others.

Wing Tail

1 2 99 163, 163, 165 78, 80, 80

Poona, Thana, Ratnagiri

Others: 4 <J<? 150,153,155 70,72,74, 80

2 9? 150, 159 69, 75

(<?9 150-161 78-82)

Another in St. Xavier’s High School collection, obtained at Andheri,

Bombay, on 18 Nov. 1965, has a 163 mm. wing.

Of the 3 pullets listed as of this species, No. 11944 from Hilla, Meso-

potamia, is paler than the others. As stated by Vaurie ( loc . cit.) these

are distinguished from juvenile scops by being paler, and barred on the

underparts, while those of scops are like the adults. The wing formulae

do not apply to the pullets, but this is presumably not surprising. It

may be mentioned that all the three have a finely barred head-cap, not

unlike that in juvenile bakkamoena. The distribution in Indian hand-

book limits the winter range southwards to Bombay, overlooking the

Poona and Ratnagiri specimens, the latter having been referred to in

Stuart Baker’s fauna.

615 Otus scops pulchellus (Pallas) (‘ Copiosius in australioribus ad

Volgam, Samaram, Iaicum ’) Eastern Scops Owl 4 : 433

The type locality is mentioned as Siberia in Stuart Baker’s fauna.

10:4<J<J (1* pull.) 4 $? 2 o ?

1 Amara, Iraq ; 1 Teheran , 1 *Bagh Takht (?), 1 Bunder Abbas , Iran ; 1 Gilgit, 3

Chitral ; 1 Bombay City; 1 Khandala, 2000' Poona,

[195]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT- HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 105

Wing

9 <3? 150-160 av. 155

(150-158

Bill

16-18 av. 17

16-17

Tarsus

26-29 av. 27

c . 26

Tail

64-70 av. 67

66-71)

This form can be distinguished from the other species of Otus by

having the fourth quill shorter than the third (with which the second is

sometimes subequal) and from the other subspecies by the first primary

being longer than the sixth.

The pullet from Bagh Takht, with its wings and tail still in moult, is

very similar to the adult. The records from peninsular India almost

certainly refer to winter migrants. Two examined at the Zoological

Survey of Pakistan, Karachi, were obtained at Ghizri, Karachi, on 1

and 7 October.

616 Otus scops sunia (Hodgson) (Nepal) North Indian Scops Owl

4 : 435

9 : 5 2 ?? 2 o ? (1 juv.) (5* rufous)

1* Simla ; 1* Delhi ; 1* Khandala, 2000' Poona ; 1* Gaya, Bihar ; 1* Sikkim ;

3 Bhutan Duars ; 1 Butri, Buxa Duars.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

9(J? 143-150 av. 146*4 17-19 av. 18 24-26 av. 25 60-70 av. 65

(137-154 16-18 26-28 61-71)

The name sunia is from the Hindi sona= gold.

The rufous phase affects both sexes, and there is no difference in size.

A rufous juvenile (11965 o?) has only the upper wing coverts and the

tail rufous, the rest showing a pale washed-out rufous.

The key to the subspecies of Otus scops in ind. handbook (3 : 261)

requires the fourth primary longest, or equal to the third in sunia , modestus ,

rufipennis, and leggei , but this conflicts with the earlier (p. 255) key to

species which separates all races of Otus scops from the other species

of Otus in having the third quill longest. The present specimens can

be separated from pulchellus by their smaller wings and in the first pri-

mary not being longer than, but equal to or appreciably shorter than

the sixth.

Specimen No. 20872, a rufous female from Khandala (10 Nov.),

can be so separated from No. 20312, another normally-coloured female

from the same place and which is listed as pulchellus , presumably

a migrant. The former intrudes upon the range of rufipennis as in ind.

handbook (3 : 263) — from northern Maharashtra (Khandesh, c. 21° N)

south-eastwards to Kerala.

6 1 7 Otus scops rufipennis (Sharpe) (Eastern Ghats, Madras) Peninsular

Scops Owl 4 : 434

2 <$<£ (1* rufous)

1* 3holapur ; 1 Supa, Ka.

[196]

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

wing Bill Tarsus Tail

133 iig 18, 20 23, 25 57, 60

(^ 122-135 17-18 25-26 52-62)

The first primary in both specimens is shorter than the fifth (and

sixth) and not equal or longer, as required in ind. handbook.

618 Otus scops leggei Ticehurst (Ceylon) Ceylon Scops Owl 4 : 434

nil.

618a Otus scops modestus (Walden) (Port Blair) Andaman Scops

4 • 437

Owl

1 $ Wrightmyo-Mannarghat, South Andamans.

The distal portion of the tarsus is bare and, though similar to that in

O s nicobaricus (Hume), is quite different from that in other races of

available for examination. This bird was originally recorded

?0 balli and was re-identified by Dr. Biswas while at the British

Museum. The sixth primary is damaged but appears to have been longer

^The wfnjand tail are damaged but ind. handbook (3 : 265) measures

6 sneci mens wings 140-143, tail (1) 62. These measurements are smaller

, o balli quoted in the same work, and I cannot understand why

to a’ the Lever Scop, Owl. Mod (3 : 296)

states that modestus is the young of balli.

618b Otus scops nicobaricus (Hume) (Camorta, Nicobars) Nicobar

Scops Owl

13 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Breeding.

Wing 164, Bill 23, Tarsus 30, Tail 78. . , .. ..

This bird does not agree with the original description but was identi-

a hv Biswas at the British Museum. The wing lacks the white edge

fied ™n to the other races and the lower belly is also as profusely marked

" blS Sehurst (Ibis, 1923, p. 243) synonymises this with

7 mnvi holding that Hume’s type was a cinnamon-bay phase.

“5 or a -good sene, from Matacca, o„« from

16 TlullTlelJr aU racelfl Tcops in ind. handbook (3 : 255),

in 1 two specimens named modestus (No. 21963) and nicobaricus (22578)

the first primary is not longer than the eighth.

619 Otus bakkamoena plumipes (Hume) (India=Murree, Punjab)

Punjab Collared Scops Owl

2: 1 3 1 ¥

1 Simla, 1 Rambag, Kumaon.

Wing B'11 la“

wo 175 184 22,23 84,83

(175-184 22, 23 83, 84)

[1971

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 107

The toes are feathered down to the subterminal phalanx, a character

which immediately separates them.

620 Otus bakkamoena deserticolor Ticehurst (Hyderabad, Sind)

Pakistan Collared Scops Owl 4 : 426

1 <£ pullet, Nandero, Larkana, Sind.

This has the typical speckled ‘ cap ’ of the species and is paler than the

young of marathae and nominate bakkamoena. Indian handbook

(3 : 267) refers to two specimens from Bushire (Persian Gulf) and Muscat

(Southern Arabia) in the B.N.H.S. collection. These are not traceable,

and may be in error for Ticehurst’s {Ibis, 1923, p. 240) reference to young

from the same places, one being in the Karachi Museum, repeated by

Stuart Baker (4 : 426).

621 Otus bakkamoena gangeticus Ticehurst (Fategarh, U.P.) Gangetic

Collared Scops Owl 4 : 425

6:1 1 $ 4 o ? (1 pull.)

3 Tirhut, 1 Saran, Bihar ; 1 Morang, Nepal (Terai?) ; 1 Bhutan Duars.

Wing Bill Tail

155-162 av. 159 Tipped black 73-77 av. 75

[146-167 Fauna ; 153-167, mostly 155-162 (19 measured) ih ex Ticehurst]

All the specimens are earthy brown above and quite distinct from all

the others.

622 Otus bakkamoena marathae Ticehurst (Raipur, C.P.) Central

Indian Collared Scops Owl 4 : 424

7:4^ (2 pull.) 2$$ lo? (pull.)

3 Chikalda, 1 N. Chaurakund, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar ; 2 Khandala.

Wing Tail

143, 145, 147, 148 66(2), 67, 71

[ih ex Ticehurst 145-157 fauna ; 152-162, once 165 (41 measured)]

The larger sizes quoted are no doubt due to inclusion of stewarti

Koelz (See No. 624a).

623 Otus bakkamoena bakkamoena Pennant (Ceylon) Ceylon Collared

Scops Owl 4 : 422

8 : 5 (2 pull.) 2 ?? 1 o ? (pull.)

1 Dhulia ; 1 4 died in Society’s rooms ’ ; 2 Karwar ; 2 Palni Range ; 2 Trivan-

drum Zoological Gardens (?)

Wing Tail

145 (Karwar)-155 (Palni Range) av. 148 66-68 av. 67

(ih 135-152, once 154, ex Ticehurst) (64-74)

The tail from the fauna is quoted as 64-67 in Indian handbook

(3 : 270). There is variation in the colour of the upper and lower parts,

some being more rufous than the others. In series they are much darker

than all the others,

[198]

108 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Two from Karwar and the Dhulia pullet differ from all the others

except plumipes (2) and lettia (8) in having the bill all yellow, instead of

being tipped with blackish.

Deignan (1950, Auk 67 : 199) measures one south Indian bird wing

160 mm. and doubts the correctness of including them with the nominate

form.

624 Otus bakkamoena lettia (Hodgson) (Nepal) Burmese Collared

Scops Owl 4 : 427

8:2 33 5$? 1 o?

1 Hasimara, Bhutan Duars ; 1 Darjeeling ; 1 Rongni Valley, Sikkim ; 1 Marta,

1 Cachar, Assam; 1 Beltung (?) ; 1 Dalat, 20°N., 93° 5TE ; 1 Tennasserim

River , Burma.

Wing Tail

159-171 av. 165 76-88 av. 81

(ih 162-182 ex Ticehurst)

The males are smaller than the females as indicated in Indian hand-

book.

The usual variation in colour exists, but in series they approach

nominate bakkamoena, which are darker.

624a Otus bakkamoena steward Koelz (Baijnath, Kangra, Punjab)

7:4 33 2?$ lo?

1 Simla Hills ; 2 Chandigarh, 1 Karnal, Punjab ; 1 Delhi ; 1 Sironj, Tonk,

Rajasthan ; 1 Balaghat, M.P.

(See note on validity of this subspecies JBNHS 68 : 829-830)

624b Otus bakkamoena subsp.

I $ 2700', Lamasinghi, Vizagapatam Ghats, A.P.

The single specimen (wing 170, bill 23, tarsus 30, tail 81) recently

obtained by the migration study camp resembles nominate bakkamoena

in its rich rufous underparts, and dark upperparts, but is large and nearer

lettia in size. Jerdon (1844, Madras J. Lit. & Sc., XIII, p. 119) described

Scops griseus from the forests of the Eastern Ghats which, he said,

closely resembled Hodgson’s lettia in colour but was small like

bakkamoena from Malabar !

625 Bubo bubo subsp. Eagle-Owl

4:2 33 2$$

1 Kozdar, Kalat, Baluchistan ; 1 Chitral, 2 Chaklala, N.W.F.P.

Wing <$<$ 375, 390 $? 401, 404

(3$ turcomanus 435-513 ; Vaurie 36 440-470 av. 449'7 ?? 445-512)

Bill 39 44(4) (45-47)

Tarsus 39 70, 74, 75(2) (77-81)

Tail 39 200,210 (2), 219 $ (260-310)

These birds differ from others under bengalensis in their paler and

yellower upper parts. According to the distribution in Indian handbook,

[199]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 1 1 109

they should include both hemachalana Hume (from Kalat) and tur-

comanus (Eversmann) (from Chitral), but the specimens are much smaller

than either.

Another ? from ‘25 m. from Srinagar, Kashmir ’ in St. Xavier’s

High School, Bombay, collection, is greyer above, but the wing measures

398, and the tail 220.

626 Bubo bubo tibetanus Bianchi (Upper Yangtse River in South-

eastern Tibet) Tibetan Horned or Eagle-Owl 4 : 414

nil.

See under 625.

626a Bubo bubo hemachalana Hume (Kulu, 12,000 feet, India)

Himalayan Horned or Eagle-Owl

nil.

See under 625

627 Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin) (The Ganges between Calcutta

and Benaras and in the Yindhyan Hills between the latter place and Gurra

Mundela) Indian Great Horned or Eagle-Owl 4 : 414

16 : 5 5 ?? 6 o ? (1 juv. 1 chick)

1 Pithoro, Sind ; 1 Bhattu, Hissar, Punjab ; 1 Bilara, Jodhpur, Rajasthan ; 2

Gwalior, M.P. ; 1 Shadi River, 1 Virdi, Kaira, 1 Kanta, Nadiad ; 1 Ahmed-

nagar, 1 Bombay Market ; 1 Manalur, Palni Foothills ; 1 Shahgarh, 1 Lucknow,

1 Fyzabad, 1 Dehra Dun, U.P. ; 1 no data.

The juvenile is paler and lacks the streaks on the breast.

There is some variation in the colour of the upper and lower parts

but the differences cannot be localized. Sp. Nos. 23304 $ from Manalur,

Palni Foothills, and 20869 with no data, have heavy black markings on

the upper parts, almost obliterating the rufous.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

5 M 360-396 av. 375 43-45 av. 44

(ih 364-390 —

5 376-390 av. 382 42-44 av. 43*6

(ih 375-425 —

71-75 av. 72-5

69- 76

73-75 av. 73’8

70- 75

185, 186, 195, 210

185-195)

190-216 av. 206

205-227)

EL Bubo bubo nikolskii Zarudny (Bakhtiari, Southwestern Iran)

1 <$ Sulaimaniya, Iraq.

Wing bill tarsus tail

420 46 74 225

This specimen with two others from Mesopotamia was identified as

ruthenus Buturlin & Zhitkov by Ticehurst and Buxton ( JBNHS

28 : 416) and the wing measurements along with the two others were said

to be 445, 447, and 465. It was then said to be too big for nikolskii

but the measurement is either in error or over the curves, and the bird

being from the same range of hills as the type locality is probably nikolskii.

HO JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Some of the feathers on the breast and head show signs of the ‘ spotting ’

against the black shaft streak illustrated by Yaurie I960, Systematic

Notes on Palaearctic Birds No. 41 Strigidae : The genus Bubo {Am. Mus.

Nov. 2000, p. 5).

628 Bubo nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson (Nepal) Forest Eagle-Owl

4 : 418

4 : 3 <?<? l*o? juv.

1* Seethagundy Estate, Nelliampathy Hills ; 1 Darjeeling, 1 Chanchang Panb

1 Cachar.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

417, 420 (juv.), 423 48, 50, 51*, 52 62, 64* (3) 200, 220, 228, 245*

(<?? 425-470 52-54 60-62 229-250)

The juvenile from south India is strikingly different from the adults.

629 Bubo nipalensis blighi Legge (Kandyan Dist., Ceylon) Ceylon

Forest Eagle Owl

nil.

630 Bubo coromandus coromandus (Latham) (Coromandel Coast)

Dusky Horned Owl 4 : 416

7:1c? 4 ?? 2 o ? (1 juv.)

1 Larkana, 1 Mirpur Khas, Sind ; 1 Kaira, 1 Cambay ; 1 Fyzabad, U.P. ; 2 no

data.

One adult and one male with no data have the upper parts paler than

in the other specimens ; the former is a little paler than another from

Larkana, while the juvenile is creamy white with only the wing, shoulder,

and tail showing dark as in the adult.

EL Bubo africanus milesi Sharpe (Muscat, Arabia)

1 Muscat, Arabia.

631 Bubo zeylonensis leschenault (Temminck) (Eastern provinces of

India =Chandernagore) Brown Fish Owl 4: 409

28 : 9 <£<? 10 ?? 9 o ? (2 juv., 1 head only).

1 Palampur, Kangra, Punjab ; 1 Gwalior, 1 Malwa, 1 Indore ; 1 Vagjipur, 1

Nadiad, Gujarat ; 1 Kolkaz, Berar ; 1 Khandala, Poona ; 4 North Kanara ;

1 Shembagnur, 3 Palni Range ; 1 Chitteri Range, Salem ; 1 Balaghat, 2 Chanda,

M.P. ; 1 Kaira, Bonai, 1 Pithabata, Mayurbhanj, Orissa; ! Gonda, 1 Faizabad,

U.P. ; 1 Bankulwa Morang, Nepal; 1 Longview T.E., Darjeeling ; L South

Sylhet, Assam ; 1 Sandoway, Burma .

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— U lli

siderable variation in the colour of the upper and underparts but it is not

possible to isolate any of the differences, either of colour or size. Sub-

species semenowi Zarudny (Arabistan) and hardwickii Gray (Fategarh)

which were accepted by Stuart Baker have been dropped in ind. hand-

book, the latter being synonymised with leschenault. While this appears

to be in order, I must mention that among 5 specimens with the

Zoological Survey of Pakistan at Karachi from 1 Harnai, Baluchistan,

Pakistan (? wing 410), 3 Nator, Rajshahi District (2 $$ wing 400, 405,

1 ? wing 407), and Chittagong (? wing 427), Bangladesh, the first

is noticeably paler than the others. Ticehurst (birds of sind, Ibis 1923,

p. 237) refers to a bird from Sind, and another from North West Frontier

Province being outstandingly paler than others from India. It will

probably be necessary to include semenowi Zarudny, type locality

Arabistan, in the avifauna of Pakistan.

632 Bubo zeylonensis zeylonensis (Gmelin) (Ceylon) Ceylon Brown

Fish Owl 4 : 406

1 o? Ceylon. Wing 375 (ih <2? 365-383) ; bill 46 ; tarsus 74 ; tail 174.

Except for slightly shorter tail, Sp. No. 11865 could be included

with those from continental India.

633 Bubo flavipes (Hodgson) (Nepal) Tawny Fish Owl 4 : 41 1

1 $ Bhuguwda, Nepal, 30 Nov. 1920. Wing 430 (<J? 410-455).

— Ketupa ketupu (Horsfield) (Java) Malay Fish Owl 4 : 410

According to the fauna, Baker found it not very rare in the hills of

South Assam and Coltart obtained one in Dibrugarh. It is omitted in

synopsis and ind. handbook, and Dr. Ripley informs me that there is no

specimen of this species from Indian limits at the British Museum and the

earlier records need to be confirmed.

634 Nyctea scandiaca (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Snowy Owl 4 : 420

nil.

635 Glaucidium brodiei brodiei (Burton) (Himalayas, restricted to

Simla by Baker) Collared Pygmy Owlet 4 : 450

23 : 12 <$<$ (2 juv. 1 pull.) 8 $$ (1 rufous, 1 juv. 1 pull.) 3 o?

1 Murree, 1 Dalhousie, 2 Koti State, Punjab ; 7 Simla, Himachal Pradesh ; 1

Mussoorie, 2 Kumaon, 1 Longview T.E., Darjeeling ; 1 Kurseong Division ;

1 Bhutan Duars, 1 Laitkynsew, Khasi Hills, 2 Margherita, 1 Etalin, Mishmi

Hills, Assam ; 2 no data.

Wing

9 84-97 av. 89-4

5 $$ 92-96 av. 94*8

(ih 88-101

Bill Tarsus Tail

12-14 av. 13 20-23 av. 22 53-64 av. 58

12-14 av. 13*6 21-23 av. 21*7 53-63 av. 59

— 21-23 57-66)

Apart from one all-rufous bird (Mishmi Hills), there is considerable

variation in the amount of grey or rufous on the upper parts, but as

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

examined by Kinnear {Ibis 1937 : 490-1), it is not possible to localize

any variety.

The pullet/juveniles differ from the adults in the absence of barring

on the wing coverts and spotting/barring on the head. They also lack

barring on the breast.

Male Sp. Nos. 12059 and 12060 were both obtained by P.T.L.

Dodsworth at Simla on 2nd and 3rd Sept. 1912. The first with a streaked

head is marked ‘ adult ’ and the latter with spotted head ‘ immature ’ and

a mix up in the labels is suggested.

No specimen (the last collected in May 1949) has the white of the

throat suffused with primrose yellow.

636 Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell) (Jungles of Borabhum

and Dholbhum) Barred Jungle Owlet 4 : 448

25\%33 16?$ lo?

1 Melghat, Berar ; 1 Dediapada, Rajpipla, 3 Surat Dangs, 1 Navsari, Gujarat ;

1 Bombay ; 3 Manalur, Palni Hills ; 1 Amraoti, 3 Bastar, 1 Kanker, 1 Gondia,

1 Balaghat, 1 Raipur, M.P. ; 1 Jharan, Devkund, 2Bamra, Orissa ; 1 Gorakhpur,

3 Dehra Dun, U.P.

While malabaricum from the southwest is distinctly more rufous than

the northern birds, it must be remembered that Blanford included it with

radiatum. The rufous particularly on the head is most prominent in

individuals from Ratnagiri and North Kanara, and then further south

into Kerala. Nilgiri birds are said to be nominate radiatum and two of

the three from the Palnis show no rufous. A third obtained on the same

day as one of them is rufous and may well be included with malabaricum.

The rufous tinge continues northwards and individuals from Kanker,

eastern M.P., not far from the type locality, is not very different from

others from Khandala, and the neighbourhood of Bombay. Sp. No.

12052 from Dediapada, Rajpipla, Gujarat is very pale-coloured. The

measurements are under 637.

637 Glaucidium radiatum malabaricum (Blyth) (Malabar Coast and

Travancore) Malabar Barred Jungle Owlet 4 : 449

12 : 8 2 $$ 2 o ?

4 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra ; 5 North Kanara ; 1 Pulayanarkottai, 1 Tenmalai, South

Travancore ; 1 no data.

radiatum 33

malabaricum 33

radiatum ?$

malabaricum $$

[203]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 1 1 113

In the material available, we have no specimen with a tail over 70 mm.

contra 80 mm. cTc? and 84 mm. $$ in ind. handbook.

638 Glaucidium radiatum castanonotum (Blyth) (Ceylon) Chestnut-

backed Barred Owlet 4 : 447

nil.

639 Glaucidium cuculoides cuculoides (Vigors) (Simla-Almora district)

West Himalayan Barred Owlet 4 : 444

12 : 7 c?c? (1 juv.) 1 $ 4 o ? (1 juv.)

1 Dalhousie, 1 Dharamsala, Punjab ; 3 Koti State, 2 Simla ; 1 Karuprayag, 1

Kumaon, Garhwal, U.P. ; 1 Gwalior, C.I. (?), 2 Nepal.

There has been considerable difficulty in sorting out the different

races, but though examples marked rufescens , brugeli, whiteleyi, dela-

couri , deignani , and austerum were borrowed from the U. S. National

Museum, it has not been possible to straighten out matters, and the

differences are referred to under each subspecies. Two birds from Simla

and Dalhousie show a slight tinge of rufous, but otherwise agree with the

series which is smaller than rufescens (q.v.).

Sp. No. 12025 was marked Glaucidium radiatum , Gwalior, C.I.,

collected by C. Maries. We have other specimens marked as collected

by Maries at Gwalior or in Kumaon. In the absence of dates and the

possibility of their being from the Gwalior Zoo of which he was superin-

tendent, I am for the moment not accepting this as an extension of the

known range of the species.

Two juveniles lack the barring on the back which is replaced by pale

spots on the head.

640 Glaucidium cuculoides austerum Ripley (Tezu, Mishmi Hills)

East Himalayan Barred Owlet

2:1$ 1 o?

1 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya, U. Assam.

This subspecies, slightly darker than those under rufescens , is either

very restricted or represents one end of a cline which, unfortunately, is

not very far from the type locality of rufescens.

5 specimens from Bhutan, collected by Salim Ali in 1966/8 but not

yet registered, do not agree with any of the other races from India. The

8 [ 204 ]

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

markings on the head are slightly paler and create a distinct cap. The

upper parts have a blackish, rather than rufous tint. The lack of rufous

on the lower belly is further marked by broad brown streaks with no

trace of barring. The general effect, particularly of a ^ from Gedu

(Collector’s No. 989, with outer primaries moulting) is that of Blyth’s

whiteleyi (Type locality, China). Another, Col. No. 672 from Tama,

4000', resembles No. 21776 from Balasun, Darjeeling, which I have

left with rufescens (q.v.).

Bhutan appears to be the meeting ground of cuculoides , rufescens ,

austeriim, and whiteleyi , and it will be necessary to examine a larger series

before any definite identifications are made.

641 Glaucidium cuculoides rufescens Baker (Manipur) Burmese

Barred Owlet 4 : 445

12 : 4 5 ?? (1 pull.) 3 o ? (2 puli.)

1 Kewzing, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, Sikkim ; 1 Sevoke, 1 Balasun, Darjeeling ;

3 Changchang Pani, 3 Khasi Hills, 2 Cachar, Assam.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

4 <$£ 146,152,153, 155 18(4) 28(2), 30, 33 75, 79(2), 82

4$? 155(2), 156, 160 19(3), 20 28,29,31(2) 82,85,89,95

The two from Sikkim are rufous above and marked cuculoides by

Ripley, but they cannot be separated from the others in this group either

by colour or size. One of the three from Changchang Pani is almost as

dark as austerum, but the others of the same place are much paler. One <3

from Balasun Valley, Darjeeling (No. 21776) has less rufous on the head,

showing a cap and resembling these from Bhutan referred to under

austerum. The wing (146 mm.) is smaller than in other rufescens.

Allowing a very restricted range for austerum , it appears that the distri-

bution of rufescens as originally indicated by Stuart Baker is the most

correct. Two U. S. Nat. Mus. Spp. Nos. 336241 and 336239 from

Chingsen Kao and Ban Hong Tan in Siam are marked rufescens and

rufescens > brugeli by Deignan, but they are hardly separable from two

brugeli. It is significant that Deignan only refers to brugeli in Birds

of Northern Thailand, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 186, 1945.

The three pullets from Khasi Hills were collected by Stuart Baker and

marked Qtus spilocephalus. They are a rich rufous above, unbarred,

with numerous buff-coloured spots all over the head.

641a Glaucidium cuculoides Mvescens Baker (Kolidoo, Tenasserim)

Tenasserim Barred Owlet 4 : 447

6 : 3 efi? (1 juv.) 1 $ 2 o ?

1 Rema T.E., S. Sylhet ; 1 Ruby Mines, 1 N. Shan States, 1 Sandoway, 1 Kandin,

1 Prome Dist., Burma.

[205]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 115

Stuart Baker described this at the same time as rufescens and these

specimens are certainly very distinctly paler, more yellow, and do not

agree with others from Siam marked brugeli/ rufescens. Ticehurst

(, JBNHS 35 : 37-38) refers to two birds from Prome c resembling cucu-

loides except that they are more rufous on the underparts than most’.

This character is true for this group. However, later ( JBNHS 36 : 935)

he states that fulvescens from Tenasserim is not separable from brugeli ,

from Bangkok. Incidentally, the type locality of brugeli , Bangkok,

was corrected to Sam, Khok dist. , half way between Bangkok and

Ayatthaya by Deignan (Birds of N. Thailand, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.

186 : p. 179, 1945). As Ayatthaya is about 50 miles north of Bangkok

and the change is to an unspecified portion of a district, only half the

distance (25 miles) away, this adjustment appears hardly worthwhile.

In the north, Deignan (loc. cit.) only accepts brugeli though other forms

are accepted from the south.

A juvenile $ from Ataran, Tenasserim (Sp. No. 12022) is slightly

washed with rufous.

The distribution and validity of several races appears confused, and

I can only draw attention to the desirability of re-examining the distri-

bution of rufescens and the adjoining races, after verifying that the speci-

mens are topotypical.

642 Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tickell) (Dampara, Dholbhum, Bengal)

Indian Brown Hawk-Owl 4 : 454

8 : 3 (1 juv.) 5??

1 Narwer, Gwalior ; 2 Kolkaz, Berar ; 2 Balaghat, 1 Nainpur, M.P. ; 1 Tirhut,

Bihar ; 1 Kumaon, U.P.

A fresh (Oct. 1959) female from Rampur, Bihar, in St. Xavier’s High

School, Bombay, collection differs in being much greyer above, which

presumably fades into brown.

116 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

644 Ninox scutulata hirsuta (Temminck) (Ceylon) South Indian Brown

Hawk-Owl 4 : 457

2<?<J

1 Nelliampathy Hills ; 1 Devanhellucutta, Travancore.

These two are darker than lugubris from further north. The heads

are similar to burmanica but the upper parts appear slightly tinged with

rufous. The tail tips are not as pure white as in lugubris , and this

character is shared with burmanica.

The wing measurements are larger than indicated in the fauna and

by Whistler ( JBNHS 39 : 325), but within the limits quoted in ind.

handbook for hirsuta.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

2 212,213 21,22 27,29 124-129

(188-208 ; ih 190-212) (about 22) (c. 28 ; m 24-28) (112-119 ; ih

112-122)

A female from Belgaum, Mysore, (Oct. 1971) in St. Xavier’s High

School collection (wing 195, tail 115) is midway between lugubris and

hirsuta , the head being capped and the tail having an indistinct white tip.

645 Ninox scutulata obscura Hume (Camorta, Central Nicobars)

Hume’s Brown Hawk-Owl 4 : 457

4 : 3 SS 1 $.

3 Mannarghat, 1 Goracharama, South Andamans.

In my Andaman and Nicobar reports ( JBNHS 61 : 535 and 64 : 172),

I referred to specimens obtained by Abbott and Kloss at Car Nicobar,

Katchal and Little Nicobar as obscura. Through the courtesy of the

Zoological Survey of India and the Smithsonian Institution, I have

been able to get together several Ninox obtained in the Andamans and

the Nicobars and in a re-examination I notice that, though Richmond

( Proc . U.S. Nat. Mus. 25 : 304) referred to the Nicobar specimens as

Ninox scutulata , they are actually Ninox affinis isolata , as already marked,

on the labels by Deignan.

After naming obscura from a single specimen from Camorta, Hume

described two from South Andamans which differed., he said, from the

type in being ‘ older ’. However, there is no evidence of an obscura

having been collected later from the Nicobars, and it is not possible to

follow up the fact that the specimens from the Andamans do not quite

agree with the original description.

646 Ninox affinis affinis Beavan (Aberdeen Point, Port Blair,

Andaman Islands) Andaman Brown Hawk-Owl 4 : 456

nil.

647 Ninox affinis isolata Baker (Car Nicobar) Nicobar Brown Hawk-

Owl 4 : 456

nil.

[207]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 1 1 117

As indicated under 645, 1 have had the opportunity of comparing Ninox

affinis from South Andamans, Car Nicobar, Little and Great Nicobars.

The first a S (ZSI No. 29781 wing 176, tail 100) is noticeably smaller

than the others and lacks a white tip to the tail.

The topotype of isolata (U.S.N.M. 178462) from Car Nicobar

(wrongly quoted as Camorta in fauna) is larger (c? wing 208, tail 125),

has more rufous on the upper parts, and very distinct rufous edges to

the primary quills.

The two from Little Nicobar (U.S.N.M. $ No. 178463, wing 203, tail

122) and Great Nicobar (Z.S.I. ? No. 290, wing 195, tail 110) lack the

rufous tinge, and have paler bands across the tail. The former has the

rufous on the underparts more extensive than in the others, but this may

be a variable character. Mr. Bond (personal communication) says

that the bird from Katchal, Central Nicobars, (wing 196, tail 120) is

identical with that from Little Nicobars, except that the underparts are

patterned like the Car Nicobar specimen.

While it is not possible to comment further, I must mention that all

the specimens examined appear nearer to Ninox scutulata and its several

races in India, rather than obscura from the Andamans.

648 Athene eoctua baetriana Blyth (Old Kandahar, Afghanistan)

Hutton’s Owlet 4 : 442

(a) 7 : 4 SB (1 juv.) 2 $$ (1 juv.) 1 o ?

1 Suleimaniyah , 1 Shaiba , Iraq ; 1 Mishun, Persian Gulf ; 1 Katunak, Shiraz,

1 Persepolis, Iran ; 1 Magos, Persian Baluchistan ; 1 Surab, Jholawan,

Baluchistan.

(b) 7 : 3 SB 4 o ?

1 Samara, 1 Aniara, 3 Shatt-el-Adhain, Iraq ; 1 Shustar, Arabistan ; 1 no data.

Baetriana is accepted as occurring from Afghanistan west to

Mesopotamia. Group (a) is distinctly paler than group (b) which

(excepting one from Shustar) is all from along the rivers in Mesopotamia,

and west of (a). Ticehurst et ah ( JBNHS 28 : 306) state that baetriana

in spring is noticeably paler than in autumn but the difference cannot

be thus explained. The eastern birds are no doubt baetriana , but it is

not possible to name the others. Within the two groups, there is no

variation in the extent of feathering on the toes and the spotting on the

breast.

Wing

(a) <?$ 156-170 av. 163

(b) B? 158-170 av. 163-3

(156-168

Bill Tarsus

18- 20 av. 18-6 30-32 av. 31-3

19- 20 av. 19-4 29-32 av. 31 -4

18-20 c. 32

Tail

81-84 av. 83

81-86 av. 82*8

84-87)

The two juveniles have their heads almost unmarked and their breasts

also less prominently marked,

[208]

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 69 (1)

649 Athene noctua ludlowi Baker (Dochen, 15,000', Rham Tso Lake,

Tibet) Tibet Owlet 4 : 443

nil.

EL Athene noctua subsp.

1 3 Muscat, Arabia. Wing 151, bill 18, tarsus 32.

This is slightly smaller than the others, and has the streaks on the

head less prominent. According to Vaurie (Am. Mus. Nov. 2015, Fig. 1),

this should be saharae X With, but it is darker than bactriana (a), which

is said to be darker than both.

650 Athene brama indica (Franklin) (Banks of the Ganges and in the

mountain chain of upper Hindoostan, i.e. Uttar Pradesh) Northern

Spotted Owlet 4 : 440

There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the

validity of this race. Blanford (fauna 3 : 301) included this with nomi-

nate brama , but it was elevated to subspecies level by Stuart Baker, who

restricted it south of lat. 14° N. Whistler & Kinnear ( JBNHS 38 : 237)

moved this line north to lat. 20°, and Biswas (Rec. Indian Mus. 1947,

45 : 261) thought there was no significant difference in size, and that it

was impossible to fix a dividing line between the two. ind. handbook

characterises 20° N. as ‘ arbitrary and for convenience ’, and separates

them by size and paler upper parts.

The 28 northern specimens (2 juveniles) can be divided into 3 groups :

(a) 11 : 5 <?<? 4$$2o?

1 Imam Hasan Gazi, Persian Gulf: 1 Bampur, 1 Kalat, Baluchistan ; 1 Sararogha,

Waziristan ; 1 Khaki, Thar & Parkar, 1 Dadu, Larkana, Sind ; 1 Jajja, Abbasian,

Bahawalpur ; 2 Meerut, 1 Kalianpur, Kanpur, U.P. ; 1 Assam.

(b) 8 : 6 <3$ (1 juv.) 2 $$ (1 juv.).

2 Ambala, Punjab ; 2 Delhi ; 1 Orissa ; 2 Bihar ; 1 Amaha, Nepal.

(c) 9 : 3 33 6 ??

1 Khagori, Kutch ; 1 Gir Forest, 1 Patan, Mehsana, 1 Nadiad, Kaira, 1 Bodeli,

Baroda, 1 Sangodh, Navsari, Gujerat ; 1 Kuno, Gwalior ; 1 Gondia, 1 Geedam,

Bastar, M.P.

These indicate a slight north-south decline in size, as also a darkening

from earthy brown to the dark colour of southern birds.

Group (a) which are the palest consist, however, of the oldest skins,

all obtained before 1939. Group (b) has 4 taken between 1921-1925

and one in 1949. In group (c) all are between 1938-1952, with the two

westernmost birds (1 Kutch, 1943 ; 1 Gir, Amreli, 1952) palest.

The Zoological Survey of Pakistan, Karachi, have a fair series from

Pakistan, and Bangladesh and during the course of a quick exami-

nation (January 1971) I noted 6 East Pakistan birds appear brown and

less grey than those from West.’

[209]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT , HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 1\ 119

651 Athene brama ultra Ripley (Chabua, North Lakhimpur District,

Northeast Assam) East Assam Spotted Owlet

nil.

652 Athene brama brama (Temminck) (Pondicherry and West Coast

of India) Southern Spotted Owlet 4 : 439

12:5<?<J6$£(1 juv.) 1 o?

1 Tulsi Lake, 2 Bombay ; 1 Vengurla, 1 Ratnagiri ; 1 Karwar ; 1 Trivandrum,

1 Jamestown, Kanyakumari ; 1 Madura ; 1 Buchireddipalam, Nellore ; 1 Nalla-

malai Range, Kurnool ; 1 Godaveri Delta.

Wing

$$ 146-155 av. 151*4

(m 141-158

$? 351-155 av. 153*4

(ih 151-157

Tail

70-78 av. 73

66-72)

70-75 av. 71*5

68-74)

The two oldest skins (1879) are as pale as the northern birds, but this

is no doubt due to very appreciable fading from grey to brown. The

others show some differences in colour and the darkest are 1929 (1),

1965 and 1969 (2).

The juvenile ? from Bombay (1908) is very pale, and has almost no

white spotting on the head. The two from Tirhut, Bihar, presumably

indica, are very similar.

It is possible that the nominate birds have smaller and more numerous

speckles on the head. The tail of southern birds is proportionately

shorter than the wing, but there is an overlap in size.

EL Athene brama pulchra Hume (Pegu) Burmese Spotted Owlet

4 : 440

2 o? 1 Shwebo, Upper Burma, 1 Mandalay, Burma. Wing 155, 160.

Stuart Baker states that this is a small dark race but, except for a

slight tinge of grey and less prominent white bars on the tail, the present

specimens are barely separable from nominate brama. The key in the

fauna requiring a wing under 140 mm. is in error, as he gives the wing

range as 143-158.

653 Athene blewitti (Hume) (Phuljhar c. 21°N., 83°E.,~ Madhya

Pradesh) Forest Spotted Owlet 4 : 441

nil.

654 Strix butleri (Hume) (Ormara, Mekran Coast, Southern

Baluchistan) Hume’s Wood Owl 4 : 404

nil.

655 Strix ocellata grandis Koelz (Sasan, Junagadh, Saurashtra)

Saurashtra Mottled Wood Owl

Though no specimen from Saurashtra is available, the measurements

[210]

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

of the other subspecies do not suggest that the two males (wings 360,

372, and tails 197, 203) on which the subspecies is based are sufficiently

larger to warrant separation.

The wing measurements in ind. handbook 3 : 304 are inconsistent

with those given in the key to subspecies.

656 Strix ocellata grisescens Koelz [Nichlaul, U.P. (N.E. of Gorakh-

pur), N. India]

7 : 3 c?<J 2$? 2o?

1 Mt. Abu, Rajasthan ; 1 Deesa, Palanpur, Gujerat ; 2 Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1

Bulandshahr, 1 Fyzabad, 1 col. F. J. R. Field, March 1892, == U.P. ?

The one from Bulandshahr, U.P., is noticeably greyer than peninsular

birds, while the others listed above show the same trend. In size, how-

ever, they are no larger than southern birds :■ —

657 Strix ocellata ocellata (Lesson) (Pondicherry) Southern Mottled

Wood Owl 4 : 402

7:4<?<? 3$$

1 Mahuda Road, Nadiad, 1 Dediapada, Rajpipla, Gujarat ; 1 E. Khandesh, 1

Ahmednagar, 1 Ratnagiri ; 1 Mundegad, Kanara ; 1 Narsampeth, Hyderabad.

Measurements under 656

658 Strix leptogrammica newarensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Himalayan

Brown Wood Owl

10:1.<2 5$$(lpull.) 4o?(ljuv.)

2 Bhadarwa ($ and juv. same date), Jammu, Kashmir ; 3 Simla ; 1 Mussoorie, 1

pull. Dungari, Garhwal, 1 Naini Tal, U.P. ; 1 Terre Bir, 1 Kathmandu, Nepal.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

370-450 av. 412 38-45 av. 4T5 53-72 av. 59’5 214-264 av. 235

(382-412 c. 40-45 c. 53-56 229-335)

The measurement spreads found by me are much greater than those

recorded. Though there is no difference in colour, the size increases

greatly westwards, the Jammu $ (wing 450, tarsus 72, tail 264) being the

largest and the unsexed bird from Kathmandu, Nepal, the smallest

(370, 55, 214). The easternmost specimen available being from the type

locality, it is impossible to make any comments. In ind. handbook

newarensis is said to extend into North and Central Burma, without

[211]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 121

reference to the validity or otherwise of shanensis described by Baker

in 1935..

No. 11848 a nestling from Garhwal has pure white head, neck, and

underparts. The feathers of the upper parts are however mostly dark

brown, only the tips (c. 1/3) being white, and hiding the brown. A

dark facial disc, as in the adult, is created by similar feathers with shorter

or no white tips, the enclosed cheeks being covered mostly with dark

bristles, a few feathers showing traces of the barring in adults. The

wing and tail are barred.

659 Strix leptogrammica indranee Sykes (Lonauli, Western Ghats)

Brown Wood Owl 4 : 399

4 : 2 <?<? 1 $ 1 o ?

1 Coonoor, Nilgiris ; 1 Shembaganur, 1 Manalur, 1 Palni Hills.

Wing Tail

$$ 315, 321, ? 350, o ? 335 184, 192, — , 183

(291-348) (186-195)

660 Strix leptogrammica coimectens Koelz (Amraoti, Bastar District,

eastern M.P.) Dandakaranya Brown Wood Owl

nil.

660a Strix leptogrammica ochrogenys (Hume) (Ceylon) Ceylon Brown

Wood Owl

nil.

660b Strix leptogrammica subsp.

1 o ? Yercaud, Shevaroy Hills, Salem, Tamil Nadu .

Wing 346, bill 41, tarsus 53, tail 217.

Though not very different from indranee in size, this specimen is

strikingly different in colour, the upper and lower parts containing no

trace of rufous, being mostly brown and grey. Similarly, there is no

rufous on the facial disc and the lower parts, the latter being more closely

barred than in indranee. While it does not agree with the description

of connectens, it is difficult to express an opinion without seeing one, and

the type specimen is not traceable.

661 Strix aluco biddulphi Scully (Gilgit) Scully’s Wood Owl 4 : 397

9 : 2 <$<$ 5$$ 2 o ?

1 Old Shinghar, 9000', Baluchistan ; 1 Dungagali, 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 2 Krew

Reserve, 6000', 1 Sonemarg, Kashmir, 1 Danlong, Kishtwar, 1 Liddar Valley.

The key in ind. handbook (3: 310) separating this from S. a.

nivicola by having the upper plumage ‘ streaked as well as barred 5 against

[212]

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

‘ not streaked but barred only ’ is confusing. The barring in adult

nivicola is hardly visible, but the streaking is absent and would appear

to be a sufficient character for their separation.

662 Strix aluco nivicola (Blyth) (Himalaya, i.e. Nepal) Himalayan

Wood Owl 4 : 311

8 :4<JcJ(2juv.) 4 $?

1 Keonthal State, 1 col. J. A. Anderson, 1885, Himalayas = Simla, 5 Simla,

N.W. Himalayas, 1 Mayan Village, Iswa Valley, Nepal.

Wing Bill Tarsus

Tail

301,— 32,—

$$ 306, 310(2), 315 32(2), 34, 35

(<J? 282-312 c 22-24

46, — 170, —

48, 49(3) 173, 176, 182, 190

c. 45-48 168-175)

There is some variation in colour, but the birds are quite distinct from

biddulphi in size and colour. Of the two juveniles, both from Simla, one

is a little more rufous than the other, while both show more signs of

barring on the upper parts than the adults.

Two males, one from Iswa Valley and one, yet unregistered, from

Bhutan, have wing 297, 296, bill 28, 31, tarsus 46, 48, and tail 172, 174.

In addition to their slightly smaller size, they are much darker, almost

black, above and more rufous below. The second is probably the

Bhutan specimen whose measurements are detailed in ind. handbook

(3 : 312). Among the differences, the 62 mm. tarsus is certainly in error.

The bill measurements in fauna, quoted in ind. handbook, are much

smaller than those for biddulphi. My measurements do not confirm this

difference, and it is suggested that the bills were not measured from the

feathers of the forehead, but from where the bristles from the sides meet

over the bill !

EL Strix seloputo seloputo Horsfield (Java) Malayan Wood Owl

4: 403

1 $ King Island {off Tenasserim).

Wing 350 (347-376) ; bill 40 (43-45) ; tarsus 59 (59-60) ; tail 190 (188-198).

663 Asio otus otus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Longeared Owl 4 : 393

7:3<?c? 3?$ lo?

1 Nasiriyeh , Euphrates, 1 Lagait, Mesopotamia ; 1 Shiraz, 1 Abid, S. Persia ; 1

Maimawak (? Maimana, Afghanistan) ; 1 Saprudam, confluence of Adung and

Seinghku, N. Burma ; 1 Peking, China.

Wing Bill

Tarsus

<$<$ 294, 295, 310* 25, 25, 26

$$ 290, 293, 295 26, 26, 28

(285-305 28-29

35, 37, 38

36, 37, 38

c. 40

* ind. handbook quotes Harter t : ‘ rarely 310 \

[213]

Tail

136, 139, —

136, 140, 154

140-155)

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 123

664 Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan) (Sweden) Shorteared

Owl 4 : 394

26 : 8 A A 13 $$ 5 o ? (*2 heads only)

1 Sulaimaniya, 2 Kut, 1 Qualet Saleh, Mesopotamia ; 1 Randha Tanhat, Yemen,

Arabia ; 1 Kaftarak, Shiraz ; 1 Bahadurchah, near Sib, 1 Korak, Kalat, 1 Fort

Sandeman, Baluchistan ; 1 Dalipota, Hyderabad, 1 Khahi, Thar Parkar,

Sind ; 1 Ambala, Punjab, 1 Bhimnal, Jodhpur, 1 Mandvi Dunes, Kutch, 1

Asimali, Kaira, 1 Dabka, Baroda ; 1 Nasik, 2 Bombay ; 1 Meerut, 2* Gonda,

U.P. ; 1 Calcutta Market ; 2 Monai, Goalpara, Assam; 1 Henzada, Lower

In Sp. No. 11816 from Goalpara, Assam, one of the two differently

coloured central tail-feathers projects 28 mm. beyond the rest of the tail

which is normal (144 mm.).

665 Aegolius funereus funereus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Tengmalm’s Owl

nil.

666 Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth (Ceylon) Ceylon Frogmouth

4: 381

4:3 AS 1 ?

1 Santgal, 1 N. Kanara ; 1 Thattakad, N. Travancore ; 1 Ceylon.

All the three males show differences in colour.

667 Batrachostomus hodgsoni hodgsoni (G. R. Gray) (Darjeeling)

Hodgson’s Frogmouth 4 : 378

nil.

668 Eurostopodus macrotis cerviniceps (Gould)

Siam) Burmese Great Eared Nightjar

2 : 1 A* 1 o ?

1* Golaghat, Assam ; 1 Bankachon, S. Tenasserim.

Wing Bill Tarsus

300,315* 11-5*, 12 17*, 21

(292-317 c. 10-11 21-22

(Trang, Peninsular

4 : 374

Tail

198,215*

207-225)

The male from Assam has a slight rufous wash all over the upper-

parts, which are greyish in the other.

[214]

124 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

669 Eurostopodus macrotis bourdilloni (Hume) (Kalland, Khaumi,

Travancore) Bourdillon’s or Kerala Great Eared Nightjar 4 : 375

1 S Tenmalai, C. Travancore.

Wing 278, bill 10, tarsus 15, tail 190.

670 Caprimulgus indicus hazarae Whistler & Kinnear (Abbottabad,

Hazara, Himalayas) Himalayan Jungle Nightjar

11 : 7 $$ 4

2 Koti State, 3 Simla ; 2 Garhwal, 1 Ranibagh, Kumaon ; 3 Changchang Pani,

Assam.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

$$ 198-206 av. 203 11-12

(ih 200-215 ; Vaurie 196- —

213 av. 205-9

$$ 200, 203, 207, 214

(ih 189-203 ; Vaurie 195-206

av. 201

15-17 av. 15-5 120-143 av. 132

— 124-146)

— 128-137)

Except for $ Sp. No. 18946 from Simla, 7000', obtained on 19 Sept.

1927, with a 214 mm. wing and the second primary longer than the third,

the wings are smaller than generally accepted. The overall colour of

this specimen is however very rufous and does not agree with La Touche’s

statement that female jotaka are very grey ; so I am leaving it

with hazarae. Seven of the 12 available have their second primary

longer than the third and contra Mayr ( Ibis 1938, p. 311) this does not

appear to be consistent for hazarae.

671 Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham (India) Indian Jungle

Nightjar 4 : 366

19 : 9 10 (2 by plumage)

1 Saiat, 1 Nadiad, Kaira, 1 Surat Dangs ; 1 Bassein, Bombay ; 2 Khandala ;

1 Chauk, Kolaba ; 1 Mahableshwar ; 1 Chaurakund, Amraoti, Berar ; 3 N.

Kanara ; 1 Peermade, 2 Merchiston (Ponmudi), S. Travancore ; 1 Sankarametta,

Vizagapatam Ghats ; 2 Balaghat, M.P. ; 1 DiviriBund, Orissa.

There is some variation in the extent of the markings and the general

colour. This subspecies is smaller and greyer than hazarae.

672 Caprimulgus indicus kelaarti Blyth (Ceylon) Ceylon Jungle Night-

jar 4 : 368

nil.

[215]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION 1 1 125

672a Caprimulgus indicus jotaka Temm. & Schl. (Japan) Migratory

Nightjar 4 : 367

1 $ lat. 12°34' 30" N. ; long. 93° 38' 30"E., c. 60 miles north-east of Port Blair.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

1 213 11*5 14 130

(Vaurie 208-218 av. 215

$? 203-217 av. 210)

673 Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume (Agrore Valley and in the

neighbourhood of Abbottabad) Hume’s European Nightjar 4 : 359

12 : 3 $$ (1 juv.) 4?$ 5o?

1 Shatt-el-Adhain, Mesopotamia ; 1 Aden , Arabia ; 1 Chatuki, 60 m. ENE. of

Panjgur, 1 Hazarganj, 1 Mastung, Baluchistan ; 1 Wana, Waziristan ; 1 Karachi ;

1 Bahawalpur, Punjab ; 1 Bhachau, 2 Rapar, Kutch ; 1 Bombay City.

The unsexed (female by plumage) sarudnyi from Jalander Bet, has a

162 mm. wing.

673a Caprimulgus europaeus sarudnyi Hartert (Tarbagatai Mountains)

6:2 3 ?? 1 o?

1 Shaiba, 1 Baghdad, Mesopotamia ; 1 Akbarabad 52°47'E., 29°13/N., Persia ;

1 Sakesar, 1 Pail, Salt Range, Shahpur Dist., Punjab, 1 Jalander Bet, Kutch.

All these are slightly darker above than unwini but not so dark as the

illustrations of nominate europaeus in handbook of British birds (Vol.

2, pi. 53).

The two adult males (1 Shaiba, 1 Sakesar, Shahpur Dist., Punjab)

do not show the white spots on outer webs of the first, second, and third

primaries as clearly as in unwini ; the first has been named sarudnyi by

Ticehurst ( JBNHS 28 : 299). Accepting sarudnyi as synonymous with

nominate europaeus , the Indian specimens included above (obtained on

6 May, 15 August, and ? September) would add a new bird to the Indian

list. The absence of any topotypical specimens of nominate europaeus

and the difference in the illustrations referred to above suggest a closer

examination. If sarudnyi were synonymised with unwini , the specimens

could well be included therewith as individual variation therein.

Both (?) subspecies which are very similar to C. indicus in colour can be

separated by the first primary being equal to or usually longer than the

third, against its being shorter than the third in indicus.

[216]

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 69 (1)

674 Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes (Mrhrattas?) Sykes’s or Sind

Nightjar 4 : 369

17 : 11 <?<?(1 juv.) 5 $$ 1 o?

1 Jami, 24 m. E. of Turbat ; 1 Tapk, Gish Naur, 20 m. W. of Bubha, Baluchis-

tan ; 1 Bhaganwala, Jhelum Dt., 1 Larkhana ; 1 Pithoro, Sind ; 1 Bahawalpur ;

1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; 1 Kharirohar, 1 Charwa, Bhuj, Kutch ; 1 Bhav-

nagar ; 1 Mehmedabad, 4 Kaira ; 1 Dabka, Baroda, Gujarat ; 1 Kalyan,

Maharashtra.

Wing Bill

<?<? 164-178 av. 171*6 8*5-10 av. 9

$$ 161-168 av. 163*5 9-10 av. 9

(ih <?? 157-173 from skull

c. 18-20

Tarsus

19-21 av. 20*3

20-21

c. 18-22

Tail

100-107 av. 103

100-107 av. 102*5

100-104)

Two specimens (Nos. 11717 and 11719) marked female have pure

white tips to the outer tail feathers. The juvenile male from Kutch

extends the accepted breeding range of this species southwards ( JBNHS

68 : 452).

i ■

675 Caprimulgus macrurus albonotatus Tickell (Dampara, Dholbhum,

Bengal) Indian Longtailed Nightjar 4 : 364

16 : 10 (7c? 5 $$ 1 o?

These birds fall into three groups : —

(a) Palest. 8 : 4 SS 4 $?

1 Gama-Ki-Hatti (5000'), Dharni State, 1 Salugra, 2 Jabli, Bhagat State, 1

Mathola, Patiala, 1 Kalka ; 2 Mussorie.

The four females are much paler than the males, which are not so

distinct from those under group (c).

(b) Rufous. 6 : 4 c?c? 1 ? 1 o ? (juv.)

1 Bankulwa Morang, Nepal ; 2 Calcutta Market, 1 Rajabhatkawa, Jalpaiguri,

Bengal ; 1 Anantgiri 3000', 1* juv. Lamasingi, 2500' Yizagapatam Ghats.

Both sexes are tinged with rufous above and below, the latter character

shared with ambiguus from Darjeeling. The specimen from Anantgiri,

obtained by La Personne during the Eastern Ghats Survey, is so far as I

can ascertain the only adult obtained in peninsular India. It is quite

distinct from atripennis (q.v.) and I cannot understand the statement in

ind. handbook (4 : 17) that the population of the Eastern Ghats is

‘ largely intermediate with the southern ’.

*The juvenile, like the adult from the same area, is very rufous.

(c) Intermediate between (a) and ambiguus 2 <?c?

2 Sarda R., Kheri, U.P.

I have also seen 2 3S and 1 ? from Rampur, Bihar, in the St. Xavier’s

High School collection which agree with these.

[217]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 127

As the three groups show no differences in size, their measurements

are placed together : —

676 Caprimulgus macrurus atripennis Jerdon (Eastern Ghats to west

of Nellore) Jerdon’s or Southern Longtailed Nightjar 4 : 361

5:3^^ 1 $ 1 o ?

2 Santgal, 1 N. Kanara ; l Pt. Calimere ; 1 JBerbera, Puri Dist., Orissa.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

4 <?$ 174, 185(2), 187 10, 11(2), 12 18, 19 20(2) 128, 130, 133, 136

(ifl 170-189 16-19 124-133)

A single male from Berbera, Puri District, Orissa, agrees well in size

and colour with atripennis from the south and it would appear that, in

the low country, atripennis extends north of the southern limit of

albonotatus along the ghats.

The 4 adults have a very distinct collar of rich rufous, which is lack-

ing in a juvenile male with growing tail and wing quills, netted at Point

Calimere on 26 January 1970 by the bird migration camp.

677 Caprimulgus macrurus aequabilis Ripley (Trincomalee, NE.

Ceylon) Ceylon Longtailed Nightjar

nil.

678 Caprimulgus macrurus ambiguus Hartert (Malay Peninsula,

Burma, Assam, and the eastern Himalayas. Restricted to southern

Tenasserim) Burmese Longtailed Nightjar 4 : 363

2 <$<$ : 1 Darjeeling, Bengal ; 1 Dimapur Road, Manipur State, Assam.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

206, 207 10, 11 17, 18 157, 164

(cJ? 195-223 9-10 c. 19-20 168-181)

679 Caprimulgus macrurus andamanicus Hume (Jolly Boys Island,

Andaman Islands) Andaman Longtailed Nightjar 4 : 363

6:2 ^ 4 ?$'

1 Long Island, 1 Betapur, Middle Andamans ; 2 Wrightmyo, 2 Port Blair,

South Andamans.

The four females are slightly paler than the males, with the two

non-breeding birds, both February, paler than the other two in April.

[218]

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 69 (1)

680 Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham (India = Bombay) Indian

Little Nightjar 4 : 372

33 : 20 SS (1 juv.) 11 ?$ 2 o?

Specimen No. 11742 from Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, is missing. The

remaining birds fall into 3 colour groups :

(a) Pale. 13 : 4 '<?<? 9 $$

1 Jagadhri, Ambala, Punjab ; 2 Bombay City, 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Goa ; 2 Bangalore,

1 Mysore, 1 Mananur, Hyderabad ; 1 Baramba, Orissa ; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut,

Bihar ; 1 Calcutta Market ; 1 Okama (?), West Bank, Chindwin.

(b) Grey, 13 : 9 (1 juv.) 3 ?? 1 o?

2 Bhuj, Kutch ; 1 Bhavnagar, 1 Kaira, Gujarat, 3 Thana, 2 Bombay City ; 1

Kailas, 1 Mirkher, Hyderabad ; 1 Ngaphaw, Prome , 1 Teingue , Henzada ,

Burma.

(c) Dark. 6 3$

1 Kalyan, 1 Bombay ; 1 North Kanara ; 1 Barkot, Bamra, 1 Bhanuprattappur,

Ranker, 1 Gondia, C.P.

It is noticeable that all the six dark birds are males ; they were obtained

in December (4), January, and February. The birds from Andheri,

Bombay, and Ranker, C.P., both December, were marked 6 excessively

fat \

681 Caprimulgus asiaticus eidos Peters (Vavuniya, Northern Ceylon)

Ceylon Little Nightjar

nil.

682 Caprimulgus affinis monticolus Franklin (Ganges between Calcutta

and Benares) Franklin’s or Allied Nightjar 4 : 370

28 : 15 12 ?? 1 o?

1 Chaklala, Rawalpindi ; 3 Bhagat State, Simla Hills ; 1 Madhopur, Punjab ;

1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; 1 Narwar Fort, Gwalior ; 2 Bhavnagar, 1 Libari,

Kaira, 1 Jambghoda, Gujarat ; 1 Raipur, Melghat ; 1 Padgha, Thana, 1 Khan-

dala, 1 Pen, Kolaba, 2 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra ; 1 Naiti, N. Kanara ; 1 Vandi-

periyar, Travancore ; 2 Jabalpore, 2 Supkar, Balaghat 1 Seoni, Malwa ; 1

Daspalla, Orissa, 1 Calcutta Market ; 2 Rema Tea Estate, Sylhet.

The females are slightly paler than the males. Both sexes show

differences in extent of markings and depth of colour. Only one male

(No. 18952, Jabalpore, C.P., 18 Feb. 1934) has a rufous collar. A

juvenile S (No 18953, Bhagat State, Simla Hills, wing 184) has whitish

spots on the primaries but the tail as in the female. The upper parts

are paler and lack the markings of the adult.

Wing

14 c?<? 188-210 av. 196*5

(ih 181-205,

12 ?? 179-195 av. 188

(ih 179-202)

[219]

Bill Tarsus

9-11 17-19

(iHcJ? 18-21

17-19

Tail

110-130 av. 120

108-124)

105-119 av. 112-5

8-11

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 129

682a Caprimulgus aegyptius aegyptius Lichtenstein (Upper Egypt)

Egyptian Nightjar

4 : 1 1 $ 2 o?

2 Shaiba, 1 Basra , 1 Baghdad, Mesopotamia.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

202(3), 203 9(2), 10(2) 20, 21(2), 22 128, 130

The upper and lower plumage is remarkably similar to that of Capri-

mulgus maharattensis Sykes though the white markings on the primaries

are distinctive. This species has been recorded from Baluchistan

(. JBNHS 43 : 483 ; see also JBNHS).

(to be continued)

9

[220]

A new fish of the Family Gobiidae

from Godavari Estuary

BY

V. VlSWESWARA RAO1

(With a text- figure)

Godavari estuary, especially the lower reaches with a net work of

shallow creeks and dense mangrove vegetation offers a less disturbed

habitat mostly favoured among other fishes by a number of gobioids.

A detailed account of the Godavari estuarine gobioids belonging to the

subfamily Gobiinae has been published elsewhere (Visweswara Rao

1971). This paper describes a new species belonging to the genus Waitea

Jordan & Seale from the Godavary estuary.

Waitea buchanani sp. nov.

(Text-fig. 1)

Holotype : Total length 72 mm (Standard length 56 mm), from

Godavari estuary ; deposited in the Zoology Museum, Andhra Uni-

versity, Waltair.

Description : Based on the holotype.

Da 6 : D2 1 + 10 ; A 1+9 ; P 17 ; C 14 ; L.l 46 ; L, tr. 14 ; Predorsal

scales 14 ; GR 3.1.10.

Body elongated, cylindrical anteriorly, compressed posteriorly.

Depth 5*8 in total and 4*2 in standard lengths. Head 4*0 in total and 3*0

in standard lengths, slightly depressed behind eyes. Eye 3*5 in head,

prominent above dorsal profile, bony interorbital narrow. Snout almost

same as eye. Mouth oblique, lips moderate, lower jaw prominent, the

gape extends to below middle of eye. Maxilla modified into an expanded

spade-like bone, enclosed in a thin membraneous sheath, projects freely

behind corner of mouth to preopercular margin. Nostrils simple pores.

Many rows of sharp teeth in both jaws ; in upper jaw an outer row of

widely placed large, curved, caniniform teeth, four in front larger ; lower

1 Present Address : Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India,

Madras.

A JSEW FISH OF THE FAMILY GOBIIDAE

131

jaw with slightly enlarged teeth in outer row with a strong canine at either

end. Teeth in upper jaw extend to corners of mouth, those in lower jaw

do not extend so far. Palate edentulous, the vomerine bones crenulated,

project prominently below roof of mouth covered by tough membrane.

Tongue rounded. One pore behind eye, two in the well formed supra-

opercular groove, one in the margin of preopercle. Some sensory

canals on top of head behind eyes and on cheeks. Gill openings well

forward below, to middle of preopercle. Gill rakers 3.1.10.

Fig. 1. Waitea buchanani sp. nov., type, 72 mm. total length.

Note the projection of spade-like maxilla beyond corner of mouth.

First dorsal above pectoral base, slightly behind gill openings, spines

flexible, 2nd and 3rd longest, base T8, height T3 in head. Second dorsal

origin J eye length behind 1st dorsal, almost midway between hind

margin of orbit and caudal base, rays increase in length posteriorly, base

T2, height 1’3 in head. Anal from below 3rd to 9th rays of soft dorsal,

base T8, height T6 in head, rays increase in length posteriorly, the 1st

less than half in the longest ray. Pectoral obtuse, no free rays, a little

more than J in head length. Ventral slightly shorter than pectoral, oval,

basal membrane well developed. Caudal oblong, slightly shorter than

head.

Scales on body become strongly ctenoid and larger in line behind

middle of pectoral to second dorsal origin and anal origin, cycloid scales

in front. About 14 rows of small cycloid scales on nape before dorsal fin

extend to above preopercle. Few cycloid scales on base of caudal fin.

No scales on top of head behind eyes, cheeks and pectoral base ; breast

scaly.

Head and body muddy brown, the former a little darker, large brown

blotches on preopercle, opercle and pectoral base. Eight broad trans-

verse bands on body, two from nape to opercle, two below 1st dorsal base,

three below 2nd dorsal base and one before caudal base ; from third

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol *9 (1)

band they become gradually broader and oblique posteriorly, merging

somewhat with the ground colour in the lower third of body. First

dorsal dark brown with two transverse lighter bands, anal dark brown

with a broad lighter band along its middle, second dorsal, caudal and

ventral darker.

Remarks : The maxillary bone is prolonged behind eye to varying

lengths in some genera of Gobiinae (Day 1878, 1889 ; Koumans 1941,

1953 ; Smith 1959, 1960 ; Visweswara Rao 1971). The new species

falls within the genus Waitea in having caudal fin shorter than head,

many rows of teeth in both jaws, well developed pelvic freanum, gill

openings to below preopercle, round tongue and maxilla prolonged to

margin of preopercle.

There is a striking resemblance between the new species and W. duque

(Smith) (Smith 1959). Both have the same number of dorsal and anal

fin rays, gill opening half way to eye, rakers well developed, brown bands

on body and first dorsal with two lighter bands.

The differences listed below clearly separate the two species.

W. duque W. buchanani

1. Predorsal scales 2-3, none before

gill openings.

2. Eye 5 in head.

3. First dorsal attached a little

above base to second dorsal

(from figure).

4. First dorsal spine longest, about

twice body depth.

5. Small curved canines in front in

each jaw.

6. Gill rakers 4.1.13.

Predorsal scales 14, scales before gill

openings to front of preopercle.

Eye 3*5 in head.

First dorsal well separated from second

dorsal.

First dorsal spine shorter than second,

second and third dorsal spines longest,

less than depth.

Upper jaw with an outer row of widely

placed large, curved, caniniform

teeth, four in front larger ; lower jaw

with a slightly enlarged outer row of

teeth with a strong canine at either

end.

Gill rakers 3.1.10.

Apart from the above differences the new species also differs

in coloration, having a broad lighter band along the middle of dark

anal fin, two broad bands from nape to above opercle and in the presence

of a spade-like maxilla which projects out freely behind the corner of

mouth. The number of scales along lateral line in the new species (46)

is less than that of W. duque (50) and more than that of W. mystacina

(Val.) (37), the only other species belonging to the genus.

The new species is named after Hamilton Buchanan who contributed

much to the knowledge of Indian fish fauna.

A NEW FISH OF THE FAMILY GOBIIDAE

133

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Professor P. N. Ganapati for facilities and to I.C. A.R.

for financial assistance.

References

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India.

London.

(1889) The Fauna of

British India (Fishes). London, 2.

Koumans, F. P. (1941): Gobioid

fishes of India. Mem. Indian Mus. 13.

(1953) : The Fishes of the

Indo-Australian Archipelago. Leiden, 10.

Smith, J. L. B. (1959) : Gobioid

fishes of the families Gobiidae, Perio-

phthalmidae, Trypauchenidae, Taenioi*

didae, and Kraemeriidae of the Western

Indian Ocean. Ichthyol. Bull. Rhodes

Univ. 13.

(1960): Fishes of the family

Gobiidae in South Africa, ibid 18.

Visweswara Rao, V. (1971): New

gobioids from Godavari estuary. J.

Zool. Soc. India. 23 (1) : 39-54.

A new Genus and

Species of Fish from India

BY

G. M. Yazdani

Eastern Regional Station , Z.S.I. , Shillong -3

{With a text-figure )

While studying the fishes of Khasi Hills (India) in the collection of

Eastern Regional Station of the Zoological Survey of India, I came across

some remarkable specimens of a little eel-like fish which on detailed

examination proved to be of a new genus. The new genus belongs to

the suborder Mastacembeloidei (Greenwood, Rosen, Weitzman and

Myers 1966) of the order Perciformes but is not being placed in any

family since its relationship with other members of the suborder is still

under active study. All the specimens of this new genus which is named

in honour of Dr. R. S. Pillai of this station, have been collected by bag

net from edges of streams amidst dense overhanging vegetation at alti-

tudes ranging from 3,500 ft. (1066*8 metres) to 5,000 ft. (1524*0 metres).

Pillaia gen. nov.

Small eel-like fish with long anteriorly depressed head ; without

spines before dorsal or anal or anywhere else on the body ; with both

dorsal and anal united with the caudal of 8-10 unbranched rays ; without

scales ; lateral line clearly discernible on the head, and less distinct on

the body ; branchiostegals 6 ; a rather indistinct fleshy rostral appendage

bearing anterior tubular nostrils ; eyes fairly prominent, placed dorsally ;

gill-openings wide, extending dorsally to the level of pectoral origin ;

gill-membranes free from each other and from isthmus ; mouth wide and

horizontal ; teeth on jaws arranged in narrow bands, small, sharply

pointed and curved inwards ; pectorals small ; ventrals absent.

Monotypic : type Pillaia indica sp. nov.

Pillaia indica sp. nov.

B. VI. D. 34-36. A. 34-36. C. 8-10. P. 7-9.

Depth of body 7*36 to 9*39, length of head 15*0 to 17*40, snout to

dorsal origin 58*75 to 61*10, length of caudal 6*94 to 9*92, length of

pectoral 1*35 to 2*24 in % of standard length. Snout 25*00 to 28*00,

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF FISH

135

eye-diameter 7.28 to 8*34, interorbital distance 7*69 to 9*10, post-orbital

head length 61.50 to 66*60 in % of head length.

Body colour (in spirit) variable, upper part of body light to dark

purplish brown, the lower part yellowish or very light brown ; fins dirty

white ; series of open Vs of dark colour and dark lines on either side

of the body (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Pillaia indica gen. et. sp. nov. Holotype

In a specimen of about 70*0 mm., ripe ovaries containing large

(1.0 mm.) subspherical ova were found. The gut contents included

parts of mayfly (Ephemeroptera) naiads, parts of other insects and

spores.

Type-specimens: All the type-speciemens temporarily kept at this

Station will be ultimately deposited in the Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Holotype : Reg. No. V/ERS 456, total length 77*0 mm, from Sumer

stream, c. 22 Km. N. of Shillong, Khasi & Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya),

India, coll. R. K. Varshney, 24th November, 1967, altitude 1068*80

metres.

Paratypes : Four specimens, out of which two, Reg. Nos. V/ERS

457-458, total lengths 37*0 & 40*0 mm., with the same data as that of

holotype ; one Reg. No. V/ERS 459, total length 72.0 mm;, from a

stream at Umshing, c. 13 Km. N. of Shillong, coll. M. Rynth, 13th

August, 1963, altitude 1,524 metres ; one Reg. No. V/ERS 460, total

length 41*0 mm., from the same locality as that of holotype, coll. R. S.

Pillai, 6th February, 1971.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Drs. A. G. K. Menon and R. S.

Pillai, Superintending Zoologists, Zoological Survey of India for their

encouragement and advice and Dr. P. H. Greenwood, British Museum

(N. H.) for useful suggestions.

References

Greenwood, P. H., Rosen, D. E., a provisional classification of living

Weitzman, S. H. & Myers, G. S. (1966) : forms. Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist . 131 :

Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with 339-456.

On a new Species of Anchovy of

the genus Coilia Gray, 1831

BY

S. Dutt and B. V. Seshagiri Rao1

Department of Zoology , A.U. Post-graduate Centre , Guntur-5

( With a text-figure)

Introduction

The recent work of Whitehead (1966, 1967) and Whitehead et al.

(1966) has helped to remove the confusion in regard to the identification

of most species of Coilia Gray, 1831. The key of Whitehead (1967b)

is particularly useful. During investigations on the clupeoids of Andhra

Coast, we have come across a new species of Coilia , which does not fit in

the above key and is described below.

Material and Methods

Fishes belonging to the genus Coilia were collected from shore seine

catches near Gollapalem, (Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh) during

1966-70. In taking linear measurements, total length was measured from

tip of snout to longest caudal ray ; standard length from tip of snout to

mid-base of caudal fin ; head length from tip of snout to hindmost point

on operculum ; depth is maximum depth.

Coilia korua sp. nov.

(Text-figure)

Holotype and paratypes chosen from batch (c) are described below.

All of them are deposited in the Museum, Department of Zoology, A.U.

Post-graduate Centre, Guntur- 5.

Material Examined :

(a) 1 fish, 110 mm S.L. (ll-xii-1966).

0 b ) 2 fishes, 106-116 mm S.L. (26-xi-1967).

(c) 15 fishes, 105-121 mm S.L. (17-xii-1967).

1 fish 120 mm S.L., Holotype of species.

5 fishes 105-121 mm S.L., Paratypes of species.

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS COILIA

137

Description :

Holotype : In the Museum, Dept, of Zoology, A.U. Post-graduate

Centre, Guntur ; 120 mm S.L. (132 mm tot. 1)., Gollapalem, Krishna

District, Andhra Pradesh ; 17-xii-1967.

Paratypes, 5 fishes, 105-121 mm. S.L. (116-133 mm. tot. 1), taken

along with the holotype and bearing the same data.

Br. St. 10 (10-11), D I 12 (I 12), P xii+7 (xii-xiii+5-7), V i 6 (i 5-6),

A 101 (101-106), G.R. 24+30 (23-26+30-33), Scutes 8 + 10 (7-9+9-11,

total 17-19).

Coilia korua sp. nov., holotype, 132’0 mm. tot. 1., Gollapalem.

In percentages of standard length : total length 111.6 (109 •1-111* 6) ;

body depth 20*8 (20*0-20*9) ; head length 18*3 (17*0-18*3) ; snout length

4*1 (3*6-4*5) ; eye diameter 4*1 (4*l-4*7) ; maxilla length 13*3 (12*5-14*2) ;

pectoral fin length (longest filament) 45*8 (40*0-46*6) ; pelvic fin length

9*1 (8* 1-9*1) ; pre-dorsal distance 29*1 (26*6-29*1) ; pre-pelvic distance

24*1 (22*7-24*7) ; pre-anal distance 36*6 (36*6-38*1).

Body compressed, depth slightly greater than head length, deepest

below dorsal origin, tapering gradually to tail. Belly slightly convex,

compressed and keeled from below pectoral origin to vent. Snout

produced, equal to eye diameter. Lower jaw slender, with a series of

small conical teeth and with prominent knob at dentary symphysis.

Maxilla does not reach gill opening ; a series of fine teeth on premaxillae

and along lower edge of maxillae. Two supra-maxillae, the anterior

(first) delicate, nearly triangular and the posterior (second) slender

anteriorly and expanding posteriorly, the anterior portion being hidden

behind maxilla, when viewed from outer side.

Gill rakers slender, equal to eye diameter and twice length of corres-

ponding gill filaments. Muscular portion of isthmus reaching forward

to hind margin of branchiostegal membrane.

Scutes sharply keeled, beginning below pectoral origin.

Dorsal fin preceded by small scute-like spine. Distance from snout

tip to dorsal origin less than four times in total length. Pectoral with

12-13 free filaments, the longest reaching to pelvic base. Pelvic less than

postorbital length of head, its origin before dorsal origin, nearer

o pectoral base than to anal origin, equal to dorsal-anal inter-

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

space (linear). Anal origin behind vertical from last dorsal ray by one

eye diameter.

Colour :

Dorsal side greenish, flanks golden yellow, abdomen and ventral side

pale yellow. Fins hyaline, unbranched dorsal rays usually dark.

The specific name is given after the common Telugu name for the fish.

In the key given by Whitehead (1967b), it is to be included among

species having

(a) no pearly spots along flanks

(b) seven pelvic rays

(c) a short maxilla, not reaching beyond gill opening

(, d ) prepelvic scutes and

( e ) 10-14 pectoral filaments ;

its position would be between C. reynaldi Val. and C. coomansi Harden :

(a) Scutes 4-6+8-9 C. reynaldi Val.

(b) Scutes 7-9 -1-9-11 (total, 17-19) C. korua sp. nov.

( c ) Scutes 13-14+9-10 C. coomansi Harden.

It is being recorded from Gollapalem in Krishna District, Andhra

Pradesh. It occurs in coastal waters along with C. dussumieri and

C . ramcarati.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Mr. S. Rama Rao and Mr. K. Varahala

Raju, Department of Zoology, D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram, for

their help during the investigations. One of us (BVSR) is thank-

ful to the University Grants Commission for financial assistance.

References

Fowler, H. W. (1941) : Contribution

to the biology of the Philippines Archi-

pelago and adjacent regions. Bull. U.S.

natn. Mus. 13 (100); 712-720.

Whitehead, P. J. P. (1966) : The

elopoid and clupeoid fishes of Richard-

son’s ‘ Ichthyology of the seas of China

and Japan’. Bull. Br.Mus. nat. Hist-

(Zool.), London, 14 (2) : 39-42.

(1967a) : The clupeoid

fishes described by Lacepede, Cuvier &

Valenciennes, ibid., suppl. 2 : 148-155.

(1967b) : Indian Ocean

Anchovies collected by the Anton Bruun

and Te Vega, 1963-64. J. Mar. biol.

Ass. India 9 (1) : 13-37.

Boesman, M. & Wheeler,

A. C. (1966) : The types of Bleeker’s

Indo Pacific elopoid and clupeoid fishes,

zool. Verhandl. Leiden, No. 84 : 135-

145.

Keys to the Identification of Plant

remains in Animal droppings

BY

Savitha Satakopan

Drugs Laboratory , Baroda 2

( With three plates )

Introduction

This work was undertaken to assist the Bombay Natural History

Society in their long term project on Ecological Research in Gir Forest in

collaboration with Smithsonian Institution and Yale University, School of

Forestry and financed by Smithsonian Foreign Currency Grant No.

SFG-0-1894.

The help of this laboratory was required in this project to prepare and

make available to the investigators, a diagnostic 4 key ’ using the micro-

scopic characters of the plant debris present in the droppings of the wild

animals at the Gir forest so that it could be used to ascertain the diet

plants of these animals.

The work therefore involved the preparation of the supplied samples

of faecal pellets and other allied materials in a form that would facili-

tate the microscopic identification of the plant debris present in them

and the preparation of ‘ keys ’ for the identification of their botanical

source. The work was begun in July 1971 and completed by the middle

of December.

Materials

The following materials were supplied for the work through

Mr. Berwick from Gir :

1. About 80 samples of plants of known identity, in dry state,

consisting of twigs, and leaves and a few fruits in a few cases to serve

as reference material.

2. About 90 samples of faecal pellets from a group of animals

fed under control with known plant materials, to serve as reference

material, and a list of about 20 plants that were the main diet of the

animals.

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

3. About 20 samples from rumen of wild animals killed or dead,

to serve as reference material.

4. About 140 samples of faecal pellets, being the droppings of

wild animals like four-horned antelope, nilgai, sambar, chinkara,

chital and hare.

Methods

A. Preparation of materials :

(1) Reference slides from known plant samples :

Permanent slides were prepared for study from the reference

materials. Since the plant materials were said to be authori-

tatively identified, no identification was done at this labo-

ratory. The samples were processed in the following manner :

A few bits of leaves, twigs and fruits (where present) were

taken from each sample. These were shredded coarsely and

placed in a test tube. Chloral hydrate aqueous solution (50 g.

in 20 ml) was added to the material in the test tube, (about

2 or 3 ml). The tube was heated in a water bath (water at

boiling point) for a minute or two. Highly coloured mate-

rials took a second boiling with fresh quantities of chloral

hydrate. The tube was allowed to cool, the liquid drained

off, washed repeatedly in distilled water, dehydrated in alcohol,

passed through grades of alcohol : xylol mixtures with the

latter in increasing proportion, in successive mixtures, (alcohol :

xylol ; 3:1, 1:1, 1:3) and finally, in pure xylol. The

mounting was done in Canada balsam or aroclor 5442, keep-

ing the slides over a warming plate.

(2) Reference slides from droppings of control group of animals :

The faecal pellets were ‘ sampled ’ according to a method

described later. The pellets were triturated with water, boiled

for a short time, allowed to cool, the supernatant with scum

poured off, sediment washed twice or thrice in fresh quantities

of water to clarify as much as possible prior to chloral hydrate

treatment. They were then subjected to the same processing

as explained above in chloral hydrate and mounted.

(3) Slides from ‘ wild ’ animal droppings :

A starting sample of whole pellets (which is to be pow-

dered later), was prepared in the following manner: The

‘ final sample ’ in the form of powder which is clarified and

mounted for observation, is taken in a manner indicated later,

KEY TO PLANT REMAINS IN ANIMAL DROPPINGS

141

B. Sampling Procedure adopted :

(1) Pellets exceeding 25 in number :

The sample is put in a tray, shaken and tossed about several

times before spreading them on the tray ; it is first halved and

then quartered. Two opposite quarters are combined ; one

such combined portion is rejected. The remaining combined

portion is shaken and tossed in the same manner, spread again,

halved and quartered again ; opposite quarters are combined ;

one combined portion is rejected, as in the first quartering

and the other retained. The halving and quartering and com-

bining is continued till there are 3 or 4 pellets in each quarter ;

the opposite quarters are combined now to get two portions

of 6 or 8 pellets each ; one of this is rejected and the other

retained ; this is the starting sample.

(2) For samples less than 25 but over 5 :

The sample is put in a tray, rolled and tossed in all direc-

tions till the pellets are thoroughly mixed ; the sample is spread

and individual pellets picked up from various portions till

about six or eight are obtained ; This is the starting sample.

(3) For samples that are five or less :

Leaving one or two the rest of the sample is taken as the

starting sample.

C. Preparation of the Final Sample ?

The starting sample is put in a mortar and ground loosely

so that pellets are broken up as discrete particles in a coarse

powder form ; the grinding should not fractionate the particles

but merely separate the agglomerates into single particles,

large or small, as it may be. Three sieves (ASTM No. 30,

40, 50 approx.) are placed one above the other and the powder

sieved ; the portion on the top sieve is rejected ; (A cursory

examination under a stereo-microscope of the larger particles

in this fraction before rejection would help in diagnosis later).

The fractions of the middle and bottoms sieves, as well as

that in the ‘ tails ’ (portion that has passed through the bottom-

most sieve) are stirred up and a little portion from each of

the three are taken), they are mixed thoroughly, and halved ;

one half is the ‘ final sample ’ ; the other half should serve as

reserve in case the final sample is lost in the subsequent pro-

cessing ; after the slides have been made, the reserve may also

be rejected. The final sample should not be less than a heaped

coffee spoon.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

The final sample is boiled in about 2 or 3 ml of chloral

hydrate solution over a water bath of boiling water for a few

minutes. If the chloral hydrate is too dark or coloured blackish,

the powder is allowed to settle, supernatant poured off and

fresh quantity of chloral hydrate added and the boiling repeated.

In some cases a third boiling may be necessary. When the

powder appears to the eye as fairly clarified, the cooking may

be considered sufficient. After cooling distilled water is added

and the material is shaken thoroughly, allowed to settle and

supernatant poured off. This washing is repeated till all the

chloral hydrate is washed off.

A dehydration process with alcohol follows, the washing

being repeated two or three times to remove all water. There-

after the same procedure of alcohol : xylol treatment as given

for the other samples is followed and the final mounts are

made in Canada balsam or aroclor.

Diagnostic Keys

(1) Basis on which developed :

The most difficult part of the work was the preparation of a satis-

factory key. Any key devised for such a purpose as in this work should

be based on characteristic evidences in the undigested plant debris

present in the faeces. Such characteristics should not only be constant

but also fairly specific for a plant. Microscopic characteristics of plants

that are normally present in plant powders and serve for diagnosis are

the epidermal cell characteristics, trichomes, crystalline or amorphous

inclusions, fibres, quantitative indices like the number of ray cell tiers,

palisade ratio, vein islet number, epidermal cells per unit area, stomatal

number etc., and any other peculiarities. But in this work they were of

limited value. The ubiquity of similar anatomical characters in a

society of plants growing under similar ecological conditions, the absence

of useful characteristic tissues due to digestion inside the animal, the

loss of integrity of the tissue systems that could serve for diagnosis, and

the severe changes undergone by the tissues and their contents making

them unrecognisable, and other such causes lower the value of such

characteristics as given above as diagnostic features. Keys based on

epidermal tissue and on the mechanical tissues were prepared, but failed

to be valid when tested on ‘ wild ’ samples and were therefore rejected.

For the same reason, quantitative values could not be used as a

basis for the key although these are very valuable, particularly the

4 pallisade ratio in identification in intact tissue systems or pure vege-

table powders. A single key based on a single factor was also found

KEY TO PLANT REMAINS IN ANIMAL DROPPINGS 143

to be insufficient as it did not cover all the plants present in the debris.

The problems were finally solved by preparing four different keys,

keeping one as the ‘ main key and the others as ‘ supplementary

The main key is based on the structure, dimension and abundance of

the trichomes. The trichomes, which are a constant feature for any

plant, were found to be undamaged in the faeces, presented sufficient

variation and were easily recognised under the microscope. Of the

selected 20 plants given by the workers as forming the chief diet of the

wild animals, (as a result of their work with control animals) the main

key serves to distinguish 60 to 70 per cent straightaway. Of the remain-

ing, all except the five grasses can be located by combination of the

main key and the supplementary keys and by cross-checking. A cross-

checking is necessary because the trichomes are neither abundant nor

peculiar in these, and the supplementary keys have been based on certain

other features of these plants that are present in the debris. The only

plant rather difficult to locate quickly is Wrightia tinctoria , and the

characteristics of this plant has to be specially looked for in the pre-

parations.

A key was prepared for the grasses but failed in application. Iden-

tification of grasses are much facilitated by the epidermal peel charac-

teristics. But the debris in the pellets do not show sufficiently large

intact epidermal pieces to be useful as basis for a key. For one, there

are very few epidermal pieces in the pellets. Secondly, the pieces present

are linear in shape rather than quadrangular, rarely more than 40 to

60/^ in maximum dimension, so that the cell characteristics are not

evident. Although the tiniest bit is sufficient to recognise a piece as

‘ grass 9 it is very difficult to identify the species. The trichomes of the

grasses are characteristic of the group as a whole but are inefficient as

pointers for the identity of the individual. Therefore a key for the grasses

had to be given up. The keys include the features of grasses only to

differentiate between them and the other dicots as a whole.

It is also not possible to differentiate between Acacia catechu

and A. leucophloea , although it is very easy to recognise Acacia as a

genus.

But for these limitations, the key serves to identity about all the

plants conclusively. The key has been applied and tested on about

a hundred wild sample preparations for its validity. In the beginning

there were about ten unknowns, but as work proceeded, four of these

were identified up to the species level and two up to genus level. There

are as yet three or four that cannot be identified, but it is certain that

they are not from among the 80 plants supplied as reference by the

workers.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 69 (1)

(2) Method of application of the Keys :

A microscope equipped with preferably wide-held optics, giving a

magnification range of 100X to 200X will be sufficient. A stereomic-

roscope, camera lucida or drawing apparatus, micrometers, tally coun-

ters are accessory equipment.

The most convenient magnification is about 150X. A held of view

of about 0*8 mm diameter is available at this magnihcation. Although

100X magnihcation is also convenient for most particles in a held, this

might require switching over to a higher power often for tinier particles.

But a 150X shows up the details of tinier particles also and a change

over to a higher power is required only occasionally for conhrmation.

This work was done under the following conditions:

Microscope : Leitz Ortholux wideheld binocular microscope :

Optics : 12*5X apochromatic objective and 12X aplanatic eyepieces ;

Area of one field of view at 150X : approx. 5 sq mm ;

Total area under a cover-slip covering the debris : approximately

380 sq mm with not less than 500 debris particles ;

No. of fields scanned for each preparation : about 75, i.e. the entire

preparation ;

No. of particles normally present per field : 3 or 4 of the larger and 2 or

3 of the smaller.

No. of plants approximately present in a preparation : 6 to 8.

Up to 50% of a held has to be scanned carefully. Representative

particles from almost all the plants present will have been located and

identihed by that time and the rest of the slide may be rapidly scanned

for any omission. (The thorough mixing of the powder during the

preparation of the slides ensures good distribution of particles, and

makes this possible.) The slides are scanned held by held, in row after

row, and the plants present identihed using the main key based on

trichomes. About 60% of the total plants present in a sample would

be identihed.

The slide is then searched again for pieces of tissues showing the

characters given in the other keys for the remaining plants, that is, the

epidermis, cuticle, crystals, trichome debris, fruit or seed coat debris

etc. An example is given below :

Let us say a piece of cuticle is located, intact with group of epidermal

cells. If the piece of cuticle is striated, item 2 under A of Key 3, will

identify the plant. In case the cuticle is not striated, then the plant is

possibly Randia dumetorum. The keys where other characteristics of

Randia is given may be examined and some cross checking done for

conhrmation.

KEY TO PLANT REMAINS IN ANIMAL DROPPINGS 145

A thorough aquaintance with the genuine reference slides, practice

with the identification and a judicious use of all the keys help the iden-

tification work.

(3) Precaution to be observed while using the key :

{a) Broken vascular fibres should not be confused with broken

trichomes ; the former will show slit pits, greater width, a broad lumen

and an irregular blunt tip.

(&) Proximity of particles from different origin would appear like

a whole tissue of one origin and should not be confused with whole

intact tissue. Each particle should be considered as a separate entity,

unless actual tissue connection is observed between two particles. It

often occurs that two particles from entirely different plants lie so closely

together as to appear as one and the identity may be misconstrued.

For instance, it is quite likely that the curly long trichomes of Zizyphus

jujuba is entangled in a group of epidermal cells from Boswdlia serrata.

This might lead the observer to miss the presence of the latter and con-

sider only the former to be present. Or the veinlet skeleton of one leaf

may lie cunningly over the lamina of another plant and the two taken

together might resemble a third one.

(c) Isolated crystals, completely free of tissues are helpful, as their

dimension and morphology will denote their origin but when such

crystals are seen in association with other tissues, it must be made cer-

tain that the crystals are within an intact cell. Only then these will

serve for diagnosis. If not, they can completely mislead the observer,

as they may merely be superimposed on some tissue to which it does

not belong.

( d ) No key should be applied without having studied the reference

slides ; the key cannot be successfully applied by a person without

botanical knowledge ; that is, application of the key is not a mechanical

job.

( e ) The keys have been built up from the debris present in the pellets

of the 4 wild 5 samples. Several tissue pieces from the genuine reference

plant may not be exactly similar to the same tissue pieces in the faecal

debris in spite of the same processing done in both cases in the preparation

of the material. Therefore the observer need not be puzzled if the same

characteristic from the reference slides and the 4 wild ? slides are not

exactly similar. At times this is confusing enough to feel that the plant

is a different one from those in the 4 keys ’, but actually it is not so. An

illustration may make this clear : The cuticles of trichomes are generally

intact in the slides made from the genuine plants. But the trichomes of

the same plant may lose their cuticle in their passage through the animal.

This produces a slight change in the morphology of the trichome, parti-

cularly with regard to the walls. In Butea monosperma , the multicellular

10

146 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

trichome shows the cross partitions of the basal cells very clearly, when

cuticle is intact, if the reference slides are seen. But this is only rarely

so in the trichome when it appears in the debris where the cuticle is many

times lost. The partition walls of the basal cells become indistinct and

only the apical cell wall is clearly seen. A careful scrutiny under higher

power would reveal the individual basal cells. Another plant that shows

a slight difference is Terminalia hellerica. This difference in the clarity

of the wall may be due to the strength and amount of lignin in the

walls of the trichome. Whatever the reason may be, it is necessary

to follow the key closely, even if morphologically and at low power, there

appears to be a slight difference from what the key implies and what the

debris reveals.

1. Key based on intact Trichomes

Ax Trichomes without arms :

Bx Trichomes unicellular :

1 . not over 500 microns in length ; lumen as

broad as or broader than the total width of

walls at the base ; cuticle, slightly warty . .Acacia spp.*

2. over 500 microns ill length ; yellowish

tinged, narrow, cylindrical and almost solid

like a cord ; lumen almost absent ; base

showing a conical partition . .Anogeissus iati/olia

3. up to 500 microns or sometimes slightly

more ; spinelike and straight ; cuticle

warty ; lumen narrow ; epidermal cells at

the base of trichome thickwalled .. Sapindus emarginatus

B j T richomes multicellular and uniseriate:

1. under 200 microns, six to seven cells in a

short row, stubby and blunt, smaller ones

papillose . . Emblica officinalis*

2. under 200 .microns generally, 3 to 4 broad

cells of approximately equal height but

decreasing width, thin walled, at times

covered with loosely fitting cuticle . . Neuracanthus sphaero-

stachys*

3. over 500 microns, 2 or 3 basal cells in a

short row, apical cell alone very long, at

times septate, tips acute . .Butea monosperma

4. over 500 microns, single basal cell, and a

very long apical cell . . Terminalia bellerica

B3 Trichomes not truly multicellular, but merely

septate :

Cx Up to 300 microns long ; cuticle warty ; lumen

broader than wall widths ; blunt or rounded

tips . .Bauhinia racemosa*

Trichomes not abundant

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1)

Satakopan: Plant remains

Plate I

Straight walled epidermis

J

Stone cell from

Zizyphus jujuba

UNKNOWN

fruit wall

Helicteres isora

1/ \i

epidermis

showing striated

cuticle

Acacia trichome

Freehand sketches of matter from pellet samples as they

appear under the microscope

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1 )

Satakopan : Plant remains

Plate II

Freehand sketches of matter from pellet samples as they

appear under the microscope

KEY TO PLANT REMAINS IN ANIMAL DROPPINGS

147

C2 Trichomes up to 500 microns long or occa-

sionally even more :

1. shorter ones sickle-shaped, slender,

slightly warty cuticle, about 20 mic-

rons in width at the middle, base not

differentiated, tips acute

2. cuticle not warty, but in loose folds ;

trichomes up to 30 microns or more

in width ; base bulbous or shaped like

an elbow ; lumen broader than total

wall widths

C3 Trichomes well over 500 microns and even

up to a mm or so; thin walls, flat and ribbon-

like ; very curly and abundantly present

A2 Trichomes with arms :

1 . two unequal arms, thick and massive, lon-

ger arm up to or over 500 microns occa-

sionally, and 35 microns in width, lumen

present right up to the tip ; tips acute . .Diospyros melanoxy-

lon

2. Dendritic, with blunt, short conical bran-

ches ; interwalls pitted ; walls thin and

lumen broad . . Tectona grandis

3. Stellately branched, with 6 to 8 arms from

the base ; arms ranging from 50 to 500 mic-

rons in length, tips acute and solid; walls

thicker than lumen wi dth, except at the base . . Helicteres isora

4. characteristically peltate, with a short stalk

and a central group of cells and a peripheral

set or ray-like cells . . Soymida febrifuga

2. Key Based on Crystalline inclusions and Vascular Systems

A t Vascular systems of veins and shoot apices in close association with crystalline

inclusions :

Bj Abundant single prismatic crystals only :

(1) present in parenchyma cells forming

a sheath surrounding the vascular

fibres ; also present at random in

mesophyll, often in the form of

cross . . Butea monosperma

(2) present as above, as well as inside

fibres in partitioned tiers . . Acacia spp.

(3) present as in 1 above, but absent

from the mesophyll , , Bauhinia racemosa

B2 Abundant crystals in the form of clusters of

rosettes as well as single ones :

(1) rosettes in greater number, diameter

up to 40 microns . . Boswellia serrata

(2) rosettes in lesser number, more abun-

dant prisms, large and tabloid . . Sapindus spp.

. .Boswellia serrata*

. .Randia dumetorum*

. .Zizyphus jujuba

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol 69 (i)

Vascular systems of veins and shoot apices not in close association with crystals

but crystals present in other parts :

Bx

Crystals distributed at random over soft tissue :

(1) xylem vessels pitted with laterally com-

pressed wide pits, appearing scalar i-

form ; large prisms and rosettes pre-

sent in cortical and pith cells and in

mesophyll

(2) xylem vessels wide, pits circular, end-

perforation of vessel simple and ves-

sel spurred ; pericyclic fibres present

Crystals only in idioblasts and not at random

over the soft tissues :

(1) rosettes over 40 microns in diameter,

up to nearly 80 microns ; vascular

system showing abundant tracheids

and tracheid-fibres

(2) rosettes up to 40 microns or over in dia-

meter, but no tracheids or tracheid-

fibres ; vascular fibres present

Emblica officinalis

Wrightia tinctoria

Terminalia spp.

Randia dumetorum

Crystals in the form of cystoliths :

(1) clusters in the lamina, very often be-

neath massive trichomes, epidermal

cell walls thick at these places . . Tectona grandis

(2) cystoliths in special elongated cells be-

low epidermis, one end broad and

other end tapering . . Neuracanthus sphaero-

stachys

3. Key Based on Miscellaneous Debris

Cuticle :

1. pieces of cuticle without striations, but with the

outline of epidermal cells faintly impressed

upon it .. Randia dumetorum

2. pieces of cuticle, closely striated, usually intact

with the epidermis :

(a) cell walls of upper epidermis (no stomata pre-

sent) very sinuous . . Diospyros melanoxy-

lon

(b) cell walls of epidermis not sinuous, but wavy to

straight:

( i ) cells of upper epidermis (no stomata) about

10 per 100 microns square . . ITelicteres isora

(ii) cells of upper epidermis (no stomata) about

15 per 100 microns square . . Wrightia tinctoria

(iii) cells of lower epidermis (stomata present)

with anomocytic stomata . . Soymida febrifuga

(iv) as (Hi) above, but with paracytic stomata . . Wrightia tinctoria

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) Plate III

Satakopan : Plant remains

Freehand sketches of debris from pellets of 4 wild * samples

as they appear under the microscope

KEY TO PLANT REMAINS IN ANIMAL

Epidermal cell groups without cuticles :

1 . Walls quite straight :

0) no. of epidermal cells per 100 microns square 1 5

or over

( b ) no. of epidermal cells per 100 microns square 20

or over

( c ) no. of epidermal cells per 100 microns square 10

or over and walls thin

(d) as (c) above, but walls thick

Detached trichomes with their cuticles intact or missing

1. a solid basal portion with walls so thick as to

almost obscure the lumen ; rest of the trichome

much thinner walled in comparison (cuticle

occasionally missing) ; cuticle warty, if intact .

2. trichomes generally up to 500 microns long and

about 30 microns broad ; base bulbous or

elbowed, lumen broader than both wall

widths ; cuticle in loose folds, if present

3 . basal cells showing thick wall and narrow lumen ,

apical cell thin-walled and very long

4. basal cells 2 or 3 in no.: at times their walls un~

lignified and so faint as to be obscure ; apical

cell alone very long, at times septate, always

with well defined lignified walls and broad

lumen (cuticle occasionally missing)

5 . base showing thick conical projection ; yellowish

and lignified, rest of the trichome cylindrical

with narrow lumen ; over 500 microns long

6. stout, unicellular, very thick, striated lignified

walls with yellowish tinge ; spinedike or

prickle-like ; less than 300 microns long

4. Key Based on Fruit Tissues

Pieces of tissue consisting of two layers of much

elongated, palisade-like sclereids, laid criss-cross

one over the other lightly or densely brown :

1 . number of sclereids containing prismatic crystals

in a neat single file ; not associated with stone

cells containing crystals

2. same as above, but sclereids very narrow, lumen

almost absent ; rarely containing crystals ;

associated often with groups of stone cells

containing plenty of scattered crystals

DROPPINGS 149

Bauhinia racemosa

Batea monosperma

Zizyphus jujuba

. Boswellia seirata

. Bo swell ia sen at a

. Randia dumetorum

. Termimlia bellerica

. Butea monosperma

Atwgeissus iatifolia

. Any grass

Helicteres isora

. Romlia dumetorum

150 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69.(1)

B. Groups of stone cells*.

1. Typical, irregular, very thick-walled, pitted

stone cells, about 100 microns in length and

less than that in width ; lumen filled with dark

substance

2. cells over 500 microns in length, wide lumen, walls

not very thick, pits very fine and close, like

stipples

C. Groups of very sinuous cells, about one or two per

100 microns square, thin to thick-walled, from

epidermis of young fruits . . Tectona grandis

*N.B. — The stone cells of Diospyros melanoxylon is fairly similar, and can be

recognised (in the absence of Zizyphus jujuba) by the fact that the characteristic tri-

chomes would also be present ; if both these plants have been eaten it is not possible

to distinguish between the stone cells, but then the trichomes would indicate their

presence without doubt.

Acknowledgements

Air the technical assistance involved in the preparation of slides was

rendered by Shri B. R. Patel, Junior Scientific Assistant, Drugs Laboratory,

Baroda 2, to whom thanks are due. I am grateful to the Director, Drugs

Control Administration, Gujarat State, and the Joint Director, Drugs

Laboratory, Baroda, for their permission to accept and publish this

work, and for all the facilities granted for it.

Zizyphus jujuba

Emblica officinalis

A new Genus and Species of Fruit

Bat from South India ( Chiroptera :

Pteropodidae)

BY

Kitti Thonglongya1

( With six plates)

While studying the Megachiroptera deposited in the collections of the

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, India, an undescribed

species was noticed. With the peculiar characteristic of this new bat, a

new genus, Latidens , is proposed.

LATIDENS gen. nov.

Characters: A moderate-sized megachiropteran bat of the Cynop-

terine section of the subfamily Pteropodinae as defined by Andersen

(1912, p. xcv). It possesses only one pair of upper and lower incisor,

I— j— j-, a character known among the megachiroptera in Dobsonia

(Palmer 1898), Hapbnycteris (Lawrence 1939), and Harpyianycteris

(Thomas 1896). However, Harpyianycteris is placed in the Subfamily

Harpy ionycterihae, recognized as possessing strongly proclivous upper

incisors and upper and lower canines.

Latidens is easily separated from the other genera mentioned above

4-4

by having the cheek teeth

These are

5 — 5

6-6

in Dobsonia and

4-4

4 — 4

in Hapbnycteris. The postorbital foramen is absent in Latidens as

well as in Aethalops , Balionycteris , Chironax , Hapbnycteris , Thoopterus ,

Penthetor and Sphaerias , but Latidens is separated by the number of

incisors.

Koopman & Cockrum (1967, pp. 115-116) recognized 29 genera

among the Subfamily Pteropodinae. Table 1 gives the tooth formulae

for the genera among the Cynopterine section including Latidens gen. n.

1 Curator of Terrestrial Vertebrates ; Centre for Thai National Reference Collec-

tions fCTNRC) ; Applied Scientific Research Corporation of Thailand (ASRCT);

196 Phahonyothin Road, Bangkhen, Bangkok-9. Thailand.

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

The cheek teeth of Latidens are very broad, especially the lower

cheek teeth, which resemble those of Thoopterus and Dyacopterus2 .

Table 1

Tooth formulae of Pteropodinae

(Cynopterine Section)

The rostrum of the skull is rather elongate, narrow and thickened.

The orbitonasal length is about 28 % of the occipitonasal length. The

palate is narrow and very long especially the postdental palate3 * * * * 8.

Type Species : Latidens salimalii sp. nov.

2 John Edward Hill, who reviewed this manuscript and saw the specimen of Lati-

dens remarked as follows, ‘ While the cheek teeth of Latidens are broad, they are by

no means as broad as the very aberrant cheek teeth of Thoopterus : neither, apart from

their width do they resemble those of Dyacopterus, in which the cusp pattern is

basically that of Cynopterus. The cheek teeth (i.e. pm §, pm f, m \ and m2) of

Latidens in fact closely resemble those of Penthetor, except that they are little wider,

m1 is square, not tapered posteriorly and does not extend posteriorly beyond the

ventral margin of the orbit, while pnu and mx have alow surface cusp, approaching

Thoopterus in this respect.’

8 Hill further remarked : The rostrum is very similar to that of Thoopterus but

is a little less massive and deep. It is not especially elongate in comparison with

Thoopterus but is more slender, a feature reflected in the narrowness of the palate,

especially anteriorly. The postdental palate is relatively longer than in most Cynop-

terine bats but is equalled in this respect by Aethalops.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) Plate

Thonglongya : Latidens salimalii

Dorsal aspect of skull of X 5

r. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) Plate II

Thonglongya : Latidens salimalii

Ventral aspect of the skull X 5

NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF FRUIT RAT

153

Latidens salimaSii sp. nov.

Type : B.N.H.S. no. 1563, an adult, sex not recorded but probably

male, collected by A. F. Hutton from High Wavy Mountains, Madura

district, South India, about 2500 feet, on 2 May 1948.

Description : A medium sized bat, similar to Cynopterus sphinx angu-

iatus but without external tail. The fur of the head is blackish brown

with light greyish base, darker than that of the body. The body fur is

dense and longer than Cynopterus sphinx , light brown in colour, about

5 mm long on the mid back. The fur of the underparts, including chin

and throat is thinner and shorter than that of the upper parts and is light

greyish brown in colour. The ear membrane is rather thin, oval in shape,

without a white rim as in Cynopterus. The index claw is present. The

nostril, as seen from dry skin, has a Cynopterine form. The wing mem-

brane is brownish, rather thin, starting from the first toe of the foot, and

with no white along the fingers as in Cynopterus. The third metacarpal

is the longest, the fifth is a little shorter than the fourth, which, in turn,

is shorter than the third. Hill (in litt) inform that externally and in

colour, this bat almost exactly resembles Thoopterus . The wing-indices

of the Cynopterine section will be seen from the appendix. Compared

with related genera, the calcar is rather short, about 2 mm long, measured

from the dry skin.

Appendix

Comparison of the wing indices between the genera of fruit bats in

Cynopterine section

Balionycteris

Chironax

Cynopterus

Dyacopterus

Haplonycteris (Lawrence,

Megaerops

Myonycteris

Nyctimene

Penthetor

Ptenochirus

Thoopterus

Latidens gen. n.

(p. 656) 1000 719 512 616

(p. 659) 1000 636 489 632

(p. 592) 1000 640 429 568

(p. 653) 1000 703 452 548

p. 34) 1000 714 — —

(p. 648) 1000 658 467 585

(p. 577) 1000 671 465 575

(p. 689) 1000 708 536 658

(p. 668) 1000 650 423 602

(p. 644) 1000 645 436 594

(p. 664) 1000 694 510 585

1000 684 471 620

697 404 384 714 347 342

598 375 420 632 330 348

599 326 378 625 305 336

677 394 335 690 303 290

637 — — 689 — —

620 357 375 643 313 321

633 342 366 647 302 323

646 404 453 678 334 375

609 631 398 617 278 327

604 339 373 628 309 337

660 394 680 306 306

658 363 400 654 318

Remarks: — All these measurements were taken from Andersen (1912), the page

numbers being given in parentheses. Lawrence gave only metacarpal measurements

for Haplonycteris.

Skull : (pi. 1-pl. 6). The skull is long and massive, and slightly

deflected. The rostrum is also heavy and thickened and the postorbital

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

process is very short but heavy, lacking the postorbital foramen. The

lambdoidal crest is present on both sides but not well marked. The

zygomatic plate is slender and narrow ; the anterior part leaves the skull

from the posterior end of pm4, and is attached to the skull at

the posterior of m1 (see plate 2). The interorbital foramen is large

and oblong.

The palate is narrow and long when compared with related genera,

especially the postdental palate, which is longer than usual among the

Cynopterines. The palatal ridge is not present.

The bullae are small and not much swollen. An incipient but dis-

tinct ‘ basial pit ’ is present.

Dentition :

i8 c pm1 pm3 pmd m1 x 2 _ 7(5

i2 c pmx pm,, pm4m1 m2

The upper incisors are styliform i.e. rod-like with flat crown. There

is a little space between them and canines. The upper canine is smaller

than that of Cynopterus sphinx , straight, with anteromedian groove,

but having no secondary cusp. The first premolar (pm1) is the smallest

of the upper cheek teeth but comparatively larger than the first premolar

among the other Cynopterine genera. It appears to be functional.

Pm3 is larger and higher than pm4, oval or subsquare in outline.

Although pm4 is shorter and smaller, it is much broader and rather more

square than round or oval ; also retains the anteroexternal cusp. M1

is smaller than pm4 as usual. The shape of this tooth is like pm4 and

it also retains the anteroexternal cusp, but is lower.

The lower incisor is also styliform but differs mainly from the upper

incisor in being flat, sharp crowned rather than rounded. It is decidedly

smaller than the upper incisor, about half the length of the lower canine.

The lower canine is much smaller than the upper canine and set close to

the lower incisor. It is much thickened at the posterior base but there

is no well-defined secondary cusp. Pmx is also set close to the canine

with a little space between them, and very small, Pm3 is the highest

and largest tooth of the lower toothrow, but it retains the posteroexternal

cusp. Pm4 is as large as pm3 but much shorter and broader, subsquare

in shape as in the other teeth. Only the anterior lower premolar (pmx)

has a clear outer cusp with a faint inner ridge. M1 is also smaller than

pm, also subsquare in outline, broader than pm3 with a trace of central

cusp. M2 is about half smaller than mx, oval or rounded.

Measurements : As the collector gave no field measurements, all

measurements here were taken from the dry skin, and are given in milli-

metres.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) flate III

Thonglongya : Latidens salimalii

Anterior view of the lower mandible showing the lower incisors x 5

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) Plate IV

Thonglongya : Latidens saUmalii

Upper part of the Mandible x5

NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF FRUIT BAT

155

External Measurements

Measurements of the teeth of Latidens salimalii

Height of canine

Third premolar (pm f )

(LxWxH)

Fourth premolar

First molar

Second molar

Upper tooth row

4*2

2-4X1-9X2-3

2-2X2-2X 1-6

2-0X1-8X10

Lower tooth row

2*5

2'5 x L9 x2*2

2*4 x2*3 x P5

1'8 X'2*l X 1*1

l‘2x 1*1 x0'5

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

Affinities with other genera in Pteropodinae :

This new bat no doubt belongs to the Cynopterine section as defined

by Andersen (1912, pp. lvi-lxi). J. E. Hill (in litt.) suggested that Latidens

is closely related to the Malaysian Penthetor and the Celebesian Thoop-

terus. I fully agree. It differs from Penthetor in the absence of the

outer upper incisors (in Penthetor , however, these are reduced to one

half of the length of the inner pair), in the longer, stronger, rostrum, and

3 —4 1

in having slightly wider pm ^ and m — , in the square and not

wedge-shaped outline of m1 which does not extend posteriorly beyond

the ventral margin of the orbit and in the presence of surface ridges on

pm4 and m, . In the features of rostrum, it is similar to Thoopterus :

the widening of the teeth approaches but does not equal the extreme

condition found in Thoopterus in which m3 does not extend posteriorly

and which has the similar but stronger surface ridges on pm4 and m3 .

It may be considered that Latidens is the counterpart in Tndia of the

Malaysian Penthetor and Celebesian Thoopterus.

Specimen examined : 1, only the type.

Remarks : A. E. Hutton, the collector, mistook this bat for the com-

mon species in India, Cynopterus sphinx , and labelled it as such. In

his paper (1949, a & b), he gave details about the type locality of this

bat and made a note about Cynopterus sphinx as follows : —

‘ Cynopterus sphinx. Short-nosed Fruit Bat, (Tamil : Baaval). The

commonest in the hills where it is often seen in the evenings, flitting

about the edges of the jungle, catching moths and other insects on the

wing, (? Ed.)/

The bats listed by Hutton are

1 . P ter opus giganteus

2. Cynopterus sphinx

3. Scotophilus kuhli

4. Kerivoula picta

Also he added, ‘ There are other bats in this area which I have not

identified/ As he believed the new bat was a common species, he col-

lected only a single specimen and does not have Cynopterus sphinx in his

collection.

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1966, pp. 90-100) listed only 6 species

of fruitbats among Pteropodinae known from India. Recently, Bhat

(1968, pp. 471-473) added Sphearias blanfordi as the seventh species.

Latidens salimalii is thus the eighth species of fruitbat known from India.

It gives me great pleasure to name this new bat after Dr. Salim Ali,

the well known ornithologist of the Bombay Natural History Society,

who has devoted his life to the study of Indian Natural History,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) Plate

Thonglongya : Latidens salimalii

Side view of the Mandible x5

NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF FRUIT BAT 157

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. S. Dillon Ripley and

Dr. George E. Watson of the Smithsonian Institution who kindly

arranged a grant for me to visit the Bombay Natural History Society

where this new bat was discovered. Thanks are also due to Dr. Henry

W. Setzer, Mr. Duane A. Schlitter of the Department of Mammals,

Smithsonian Institution who gave me suggestions and replied to all my

questions, I would like to express my deep indebtedness to Mr. John

Edward Hill of the Mammal section, British Museum of Natural History

for his useful criticism and suggestions and permission to use his

comments in this paper. I am also indebted to Dr. Salim Ali,

Mr. Humayun Abdulali, and the Honorary Secretary and staff of the

Bombay Natural History Society for their kindness and generous hospita-

lity while I was in Bombay, I wish to thank Dr, H. E. McClure,

Mr, Norman C, Wake, Dr, Prasert Lohavanijaya, and Air Vice- Marshal

M, R, Sukshom Kashemsanta for their kindness and for reviewing the

manuscript. I am indebted to Miss Apsorn Kaeo Amphon for typing the

manuscript.

References

Andersen, K. (1912) : Cat. Chiroptera

in the collection of the British Museum,

vol. 1 : Megachiroptera. London, 854 +

ci.

Bhat, H. R. (1968) ; Sphaerias blan -

fordi (Thomas, 1891) from Himalayan

region of Uttar Pradesh : an addition to

the Chiropteran fauna of India. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 65 : 471-473.

Ellerman, J. E. & Morrison-Scott,

T. C. S. (1966) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals, 2nd ed., London,

810 pp.

Hutton, A. F. (1949a &b) : Notes on

snakes and mammals of the High Wavy

Mountains, Madurai District, S. Incia.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 454-460,

(Snakes) : 681-694, (Mammals).

Koopman, K. F. & Cockrum, E. L.

(1967) : (edited by Sydney Anderson &

J. Knox Jones Jr.), Recent Mammals

of the World, A Synopsis of Families,

(Bats, Order Chiroptera, pp. 109-150),

453 + viii.

Lawrence, Barbara (1939) : Collec-

tions from the Philippine Islands,

(Mammals). Buli. Mas. Comp. Zool.

86, no. 2 : 28-73.

Note added in proof

After the manuscript was sent to the publisher, another two genera, Alionycteris

Kock (1969, Sencken. Biologica, 50: 319-327), and Otopteropus Kock (ibid,

pp. 329-338), were described recently. Hill (in litt.) wrote to me concerning these

genera as follows :

“ I have now compared Latidens with Alionycteris and Otopteropus. First of all

there is no doubt at all that Latidens is quite distinct from either of these, and

indeed, the further study that I have made reinforce my earlier conclusion that

Latidens is most closely related to Penthetor and Thoop terns.

Alionycteris has the same tooth formula as Latidens, there being only one pair of

upper and one pair of lower incisors. However, Latidens is very much larger, has the

postorbital processes situated more anteriorly and its rostrum is wide anteriorly, not

narrowed and slightly pointed as Alionycteris. The premaxillaries of Latidens project

forward so that the incisors lie in front of the x canines, not in line with their anterior

158 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (i)

faces as in Alionycteris, and the posterior part of the post-dental palate in Latidens is

relatively much narrower than in Alionycteris. The upper incisors of Latidens are not

convergent or in contact at the tips as in Alionycteris , while pm 4/4 (The third premolar)

andm 1/1 are square in basal outline and not rectangular as in that genus: m1 in

Latidens is large and not reduced and pm4 and m4 have a low surface cusp, not

presented in Alionycteris. I have not yet attempted to elucidate the relationships

of Alionycteris but at first examination it seems to belong with the small genera such

as Balionycteris and its allies. Despite the tooth formula, it lacks the broadening of

pm 3/3 (the second premolar) — m 1/2 (especially of pm 4/4— m 1/1) so characteristic

of Latidens : other points such as the relatively wide post-dental palate, anterior

narrowing of the mandible, reduction of m 1/1 and the shape of pm 3/3 support my

suggestion that it belongs with the small genera. There seems no evidence to suggest

close affinity with large genera such as Penthetor.

Otopteropus has the same incisive formula as Latidens but has lost m2 . Again,

Latidens is very much larger and also lacks any conspicuous thickening on the

anterior and posterior margin of the ear. The post orbital process of Latidens are

situated more anteriorly, and although the rostrum of Otopteropus is wider anteriorly

than that of Alionycteris , it is still relatively narrower anteriorly than the rostrum of

Latidens. The premaxillaries of Latidens project anteriorly more than in Otopteropus ,

it has relative narrower postdental palate. Again, the upper incisors of Latidens are

not convergent or in contact as in Otopteropus, pm 4/4— m 1/1 are square in basal

outline and not rectangular, ml/1 are not reduced and pm4 and m3 have a low

surface cusp. As you may have gathered, Otopteropus and Alionycteris are very

similar in most respects, and it seems that Otopteropus also belongs with the small

genera. As with Alionycteris , its cranial and dental features resemble these of small

genera rather than the large genera such as Penthetor , Latidens and Thoopterus

I am indebted to Mr. Hill for his kindness in permitting me to quote his comments.

K. T.

Studies in Cyperaceae— V. Novelties

in Fimbristylis (L.) Vahl

BY

E. Govindarajalu

Department of Botany, Presidency College , Madras- 5

(With three plates)

L*i fsl

f S-

ln the course of my work on the revision of the genus Fimbristylis

for the whole of India, I came across certain novelties under this taxon

and they are described as follows :

Fimbristylis latinucifera sp, nov.

Sect. Fimbristylis — Fig. 1

Perennis. Rhizoma\biQvi$$imum, indistinctum. Culmi fasciculati,

erecti, trigoni vel triquetri, leves, sulcati, brunnei, denique nigrescentes,

10-20 cm X 0- 8-1*2 mm. Folia pauca vel multa, basalia, brunnea denique

nigrescentia, glabra, in dimidio superiore margine scabrida, ligulata,

obtusa, culmo breviora vel aequalia, 10-20 cm x l*2-2*4 mm ; vaginae

glabrae, omnes laminiferae, supernis marginibus ferrugineis et hirsutis,

ore oblique truncato. Inflorescentia capitata ad extremum culmum in

fasciculum 1-3 capitum uno quoque capite consistente 4-12 spiculis,

1-2*5 cm longa et lata. Bracteae involucrales 2, in basali margine

pilosae, insuperiore dimidio margine scabridae, tarn longae vel longiores

quam inflorescentia, 1*5-2 cm longae. Spiculae late ovoideae, acutae,

teretes, sessiles, castaneae vel fuscae, fasciculatae, multiflorae, 5-7 x

3-3*5 mm. Rhachilla distincte alata. Glumae late ovatae vel oblongo

ovatae, acutae vel subacutae, erectae, chartaceae, spiraliter dispositae,

interdum in superiore margine cum paucis capillis, plerumque in lateribus

inerviae, castaneae, 3*2-3*6 x 2*4-2*6 mm ;N carina distincta, 5-nervia ;

nerves non excurrentibus vel leviter mucronem exiguum protractis,

arcuata ; gluma infima vacua. Stamina 2 ; anthera acuta, 0*7 mm

longa. Stylus planus, in dimidio superiore sparse fimbriatae, aliquantum

latior, ad basin vix dilatata, 1*2-1 *3 mm longus ; stigmata 2, fimbriata,

stylo breviora, 0*6-0* 8 mm longa. Nux insigniter lata, orbiculata vel

napiformis, ad utrumque extremum attenuans, umbonulata, stipitata,

laevis, biconvexa, tessellata, lutea vel brunnea, 1*3 (incl. stipite) X (1 - )

160 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

1*1 mm ; cellulae extimae in dimidio superiore distinctae, transverse

oblongae vel hexagonales, in 12-14 regulares series in uno quoque latere.

Typus : Swamps 9 km. from Pykara, Nilgiris, Bourne 1430 pro

parte (PCM, Herbarium of the Presidency College, Madras).

Note: Affinis Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl, s.l., sed differt

quod habet folia ligulata, contractum inflorescentiam cum fasciculatis

spiculis, spirales glumas, orbicula napiformes majores nuces habentes

12-14 series cellularum exveriorum super una quoque facie.

Fimbristylis latinucifera sp. nov.

Sect. Eufimbristylis Boeck. — Fig. 1

Perennial Rhizome short, indistinct. Culms tufted, erect, tri-

gonous, triquetrous, smooth, sulcate, brown finally becoming black,

10-20 cm X 0*8-1 *2 mm. Leaves few-many, basal, brown finally becom-

ing black, glabrous, scabrid in upper half, ligulate, obtuse, shorter or

as long as the culm, 10-12 cm X l'2-2'4 mm ; sheaths glabrous, all leaf

bearing, with ferrugineous hirsutely hairy in upper margin, mouth obli-

quely truncate. Inflorescence capitate at the end of the culm, in a cluster

of 1-3 heads, each head consisting of 4-12 spikelets, 1-2*5 cm long and

broad. Involucral bracts 2, hairy in the basal margin, scabrid in upper

half margin, as long as or longer than inflorescence, 1*5-2 cm long.

Spikelets broadly ovoid, acute, terete, sessile, castaneous-fuscus brown,

clustered, many-flowered, 5-7 x 3-3.5 mm. Rhachilla distinctly winged.

Glumes broadly ovate-oblong ovate, acute-subacute, erect, chartaceous,

spiral, sometimes with a few hairs in upper margin, usually nerveless on

the sides, castaneous brown, 3'2-3*6 x 2*4-2*6 mm; keel distinct, 5-

nerved : nerves non-excurrent or slightly produced into a minute mucro,

curved ; basal glume empty. Stamens 2 ; anther acute, 0*7 mm long.

Style flat, sparsely fimbriately hairy in upper half, rather broad, hardly

dilated at base, l*2-l*f mm long ; stigma 2, fimbriately hairy, shorter

than style, 0.6-0. 8 mm long. Nut conspicuously broad, orbicular-

napiform, attenuating at both ends, umbonulate, stipitate, smooth,

biconvex, tessellated, yellow-brown, 1*3 (incl. stipe) x (1 -) 1.1 mm;

outer cells in upper half distinct, transversely oblong-hexagonal, in

12-14 regular rows on each face.

Note: Related to Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl, s.l. but differs

in having ligulate leaves, contracted , capitate inflorescence with clustered

spikelets, spiral glumes, orbicular-napiform conspicuously larger nuts

having 12-14 regular rows of outer cells on each face.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1)

Govindarajalu : Fimbristylis

Plate I

Fimbristylis latinucifera sp. nov.

a. Habit x 3/8 ; b. style and stigmas x c. 8 ; d. outer cells of nut (diagrammatic) ;

e. nut x c.8 ; f. spikelet xc.4 ; g. glume xc. 6 — (from Bourne 1430 p.p .)•

Note : The seed sketch e. is inverted.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1) Plate II

Govindarajalu : Fimbristylis

Fimbristylis latiglumifera sp. nov.

a- Habit X c. 2/3 ; b. spikelet X c.l ; c. stamen x c. 21 ; d. glume x c. 14 ; e. style

and stigmas x c.21 f. outer cells of nut (diagrammatic) ; g. nut x c.14 — (from Nirmala

Maharaj 349).

STUDIES IN CYPERACEAE

161

Fimbristylis latiglumifera sp. nov.

Sect. Tenerae Kern, sect. nov. — Fig. 2

Perennis. Rhizoma brevisimum, indistinctum cum internodis abbre-

viate. Culmi 1-3, fasciculati, ad basin foliati, triquetri, tripteri, glabri,

straminei-virides, subgraciles, erecti, costati, sculcati, indimidio superiore

scabridi, 8-16 cm X 0* 6-0*7 mm. Folia pauca, erecta vel curva, anguste,

linearea, in marginibus scabra, eligulata, acuta vel acuminata, 7-9 nervia,

culmo breviora, 5-12 cm X 0' 6-0*8 mm ; vaginae infimae 1-2 foliorum

expertes, glabrae cum lateribus membranaceis hyalinis, brunneae, non

corneae, ore oblique truncato. Anthela simplex, umbella contracta,

constans (1-) 3 (-4) spiculis, patens, 6-7 X 8-15 mm. Bracteae involu-

crales anthela breviores, setaceae, glabrae, 4-5 mm longae. Spiculae

ovatae, acutae, subteretes, flavobrunneae, 8-12 floribus, subpedicellatae,

5 mm longae, accrescentes demum usque ad 8 mm, 2 mm latae.

Rhachilla alata, excavata. Glumae late deltoido-ovatae, acutae, integrae

cum angusta hyalina margine, ad apicem glabrae, lateribus enerviis,

concavae, adpressae, erectae, eglandulosae, nitideae, flavo-ferrugineo

brunneae, chartaceae, 2-2*5 x 2*5-2*7 mm ; mucro recurvates, 0.2 mm

longus ; carina viridis, valida, 5 nervia ; nervis in mucronem excurrenti-

bus ; cellulae angustae, longitudinaliter oblongae, plus minusve erectae ;

glumae inferiores 2, vacuae. Stamina 3 ; anthera oblonga vel elliptica,

brunnea, minute apiculata vel obtusa, ad basin minute calcarata, 0*3-

0*35 mm longa. Stylus triquetrous cum basi pyramidali leviter dilatata,

sparse fimbriatus post trifurcationem, 1-1*2 mm longus; stigmata 3,

fimbriata, stylo breviora, 0*7-0* 8 mm longa. Nux obovoidea, fusca vel

nigra, globosa trigona cum lateribus convexis. tricostata. minute stipitata,

umbonulata, dense tuberculata, ad apicem rotundata, 1 X 0*8 mm ;

cellulis extimae in dimidio superiore distinctae, transverse oblongae vel

hexagonales, in series longitudinales 8-10 regulares in uno quoque latere.

T y p u s : Nilgiris, Nirmala Maharaj 349 (PCM).

Note: Affinis Fimbristylis obtusata Ridley sed differt quod habet

habitum perenum, linearia, longa, acuto-acuminata folia, fere sessiles

spicules, latiores glumas, 3-stamina, pilosum stylum et stigma et majores

nuces habentes 8-10 regulares series cellularum exteriorum super singula

facie.

Fimbristylis latiglumifera sp. nov.

Sect. Tenerae Kern, sect, nov.—- Fig. 2

Perennial. Rhizome short, indistinct with short internodes. Culms

1-3, tufted, leafy at base, triquetrous, tripterous, glabrous, stramineous-

green, rather slender, erect, ribbed, sulcate, scabrid in upper half,

11

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 69 (1)

8-16 cm X 0* 6-0*7 mm. Leaves few, erect-curved, narrow, linear, scabrid

in the margin, eligulate, acute-acuminate, 7-9 nerved, shorter than culm,

5-12 cm X 0*6-0* 8 mm ; sheaths lowermost 1-2 leafless, glabrous, with

membranous hyaline sides, brown, n on-horny, mouth obliquely truncate.

Anthela simple contracted umbel, consisting of (1-) 3 (-4) spikelets,

spreading, 6-7 x 8-15 mm. Involucral bracts shorter than anthela, setar

ceous, glabrous, 4-5 mm long. Spikelets ovoid, acute, subterete

yellowish brown, 8-12-flowered, subpedicellate, 5 mm long, lengthening,

up to 8 mm, 2 mm broad. Rhachilla winged, excavated. Glumes

broadly deltoid-ovate, acute, entire with narrow hyaline margin, glabrous

at apex, sides nerveless, concave, adpressed, erect, eglandular, shining,

yellowish-ferrugineous brown, chartaceous, 2-2*5 X 2*5-2*7 mm ; mucro

recurved, 0*2 mm long ; keel green, strong, 5 -nerved ; nerves excurrent

into mucro ; cells narrow, vertically oblong, more or less straight ; basal

glumes 2, empty. Stamens 3 ; anther oblong or elliptic, brown, minutely

apiculate-obtuse, minutely spurred at base, 0*3-0*35 mm long. Style

triquetrous with slightly dilated pyramidal base, sparsely fimbriately

hairy behind trifurcation 1-1*2 mm. long; stigma 3, fimbriately hairy,

shorter than style, 0*7-0* 8 mm long. Nut obovoid, fuscus brown-black,

globosely trigonous with convex sides, tricostulate, minutely stipitate,

umbonulate, densely tubercled, rounded at apex, 1 x 0*8 mm; outer

cells in upper half distinct, transversely oblong-hexagonal, in 8-10 regular

vertical rows on each face.

Note: Related to Fimbristylis obtusata Ridley but differs in

having perennial habit, linear, long, acute-acuminate leaves, almost

sessile spikelets, broader glumes, 3 stamens, hairy style and stigmas and

larger nuts having 8-10 regular rows of outer cells on each face.

Fimbristylis multinervia sp. nov.

Sect. Trichelostylis (Lestib.) Boeck.— Fig. 3

Perennis. Rhizoma brevissimum, incrassatum, ligneum, obliquum,

filis inflexis vaginae fibrosis circumdatum. Culmi fasciculati, tetragoni,

rigidi, erecti, glabri, leves, prominenter multicostati, sulcati, ad basin

foliati, et crassi et lignosi, 20-45 cm X 2*3-2*5 mm. Folia glauca vel

brunnea, glabra, ligulata, serrate-scabrida in margine, obtuse vel abrupte

acuta ad apicem, plana, cum incrassata margine, 35-45 nervia, folia

caulino pauca, crescentia usque ad 4-5 nodos, brevia, 2-10 cm X 2-4 mm ;

folia surculorum sterilum carinata, fere aequalia culmo, 3-5 mm lata ;

vagineae omnes foliferae, pallidae, plus minusve corneae, crassae, glabrae

cum margine brunnea, angusta, membranacea, hyalina, ad apicem

glabrae, ore transverse truncatae. Anthela composita imo supradecom-

J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1)

Govindarajalu : Fimbristylis

Plate III

Fimbristylis multinervia sp. nov,

a. Habit X 1/4 ; b. spikelet Xc.5 ; c. stamen X c. 15 ; d. style and stigmas X c.9

e. outer cells of nut (diagrammatic) ; f. glume x c.9 ; g. nutx c.9— (from Kurz 637).

Note ; Sketch d. is inverted.

STUDIES IN CYPERACEAE 163

posita, paten’s, laxa cum 20-50 spiculis, 5-10 cm longa et lata. Brdcteae

involucrales foliaceae, erectae, per totum serrate.-scabridae, non asperae,

anthela breviores (2-) 4-6 cm X 2-3 mm. Radi primarii 4-8, leves,

1-10 cm longi. Spiculae ovoidae vel lanceolatae vel ellipsoidae, acutae

vel subacutae, subteretes, fuscae, solitariae, pedunculatae, multiflorae,

6-6*5 x 2*2-2*7 mm. Rhachilla alata, excavata. Glumae oblongo-

ovatae, oblique erectae, in dimidio superiore anguste hyalinae et interdum

ciliatae ad basin valde arcuatae, obtusae, laxae, glandulosae, nitidae,

dense tanniniferae, conduplicatae, pelrumque muticae, multinerviae,

(6-13 nervis in uno quoque dimidio), 3-3*5 X 1*3-1 *5 mm ; carina valida,

3-nervia, arcuata ; cellulae angustae, longitudinaliter oblongae, marginem

versus arcuatae; glumae inferiores 1-2, vacuae. Stamina 3 ; anthera

purpurea, lineari, apiculatae, ad basin lobata, 1*3-1 *4 mm longa. Stylus

triquetrous, tenuis, glaber cum basi pryamidali late dilatata, 1*3-1 *4 mm

longa ; stigmata 3, tenues, papillosa, stylo breviora, 1-1*2 mm longa.

Nux late obovoida vel obcordata, vix umbonulata, plerumque sessilis,

obtuse trigona, tricostulata cum lateribus convexis vel planis, dense

tuberculata, 1*3-1 *4 x 0*9-1 mm ; cellulae extimae in dimidio superiore

breviter et transverse hexagonales in 10-14 regulares series in uno quoque

latere striatae.

T y p u s : Karen country Hills, Jonkeyeghat, Pegu, Burma (not

Birma), S. Kurz 637 (CAL) ; Paratypi : Jonkeyeghat, Pegu, 7 Pagodas,

Burma, S. Kurz 628, 636 (CAL) ; Pegu, D. Brandis 1018 (CAL) ; Leve

Kohima, Naga Hills, (alt. 1300 m.), Dr. D. Prain 226 (CAL) ; Upper

Burma, /. C. Prazer, s.n. (CAL) ; Pegu, without collector’s name 2 (CAL).

Note: — Affinis Fimbristylis thomsonii Boeck. sed differt quod habet

laeves culmos, multinervia folia, longiores non asperos bractes, multi-

flores spiculas, dense tanniniferes, oblique erecta, multinervia glumas,

dense tuberculatas nuces, habentes minorem numerum seriarum cellu-

larum exteriorum super una quoque facie.

Fimbristylis multinervia sp. nov.

Sect. Trichelostylis Boeck. — Fig. 3.

Perennial. Rhizome short, thick, woody, oblique, covered by fibrous

strands of the sheaths. Culms fascicled, tetragonous, rigid, erect,

glabrous, smooth, prominently many ribbed, sulcate, leafy at base,

thick and woody, 20-45 cm X 2*3-2*5 mm. Leaves glaucous-brown,

glabrous, ligulate, serrately scabrid in the margin, obtuse or abruptly

acute at apex, flat with thickened margin, 35-45 nerved, cauline leaves

few developing upto 4-5 nodes, short, 2-10 cm x 2-4 mm; leaves of

sterile shoots keeled, nearly as long as culms, 3-5 mm broad ; sheaths

f64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

all leaf bearing, pale, more or less horny, thick, glabrous with brown,

narrow, membranous, hyaline margin, glabrous at apex, mouth trans-

versely truncate. Anthela compound-supradecompound, patent, lax,

consisting of 20-50 spikelets, 5-10 cm long and broad. Involucral bracts

leaf like, erect, scabrid-serrate throughout, non-asperous, shorter than

anthela, (2-) 4-6 cm X 2-3 mm. Primary rays 4-8, smooth, 1-10 cm long.

Spikelets ovoid-lanceolate-ellipsoid, acute-subacute, subterate, fuscus

brown, solitary, peduncled, many flowered, 6-6*5 X2*2-2*7 mm. Rhac-

hilla winged, excavated. Glumes oblong-ovate, obliquely erect, narrowly

hyaline in upper margin and sometimes ciliate with strongly curved

base, obtuse, lax, glandular, shining, densely tannin bearing, condupli-

cate, usually muticous, many nerved (6-13 nerves in each half),

3-3*5 X 1 *3-1*5 mm; keel strong, 3-nerved, curved; cells narrow, ver-

tically oblong, curving towards margin ; basal glumes 1-2, empty.

Stamens 3 ; anther purple, linear, apiculate, lobed at base, 1*3-1 *4 mm.

Style triquetrous, slender, glabrous with broadly dilated pyramidal

base, 1*3- 1*4 mm long ; stigma 3, slender, papillate, shorter than style,

1-1*2 mm long. Nut broadly oboviod-obcordate, hardly umbonulate,

usually sessile, obtusely trigonous, tricostulate with convex or flat sides,

densely tubercled, 1*3- 1*4 x 0*9-1 mm ; outer cells in upper half shortly

and transversely hexagonal in 10-14 regular rows on each face.

Note: — Related to Fimbristylis thomsonii Boeck. but differs in having

smooth culms, many nerved leaves, longer, non-asperous bracts, many

flowered spikelets, densely tanning bearing, many nerved obliquely

erect glumes, densely tubercled nuts possessing lesser number of rows

of outer cells in each face.

Acknowledgements

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Z.W.O. Foundation, the Nether-

lands, for having given me the opportunity to undertake the present

revision work at Rijksherbarium, Leiden. I also thank Mr. Vysma

for the preparation of the figures and Dr. J. H. Kern for the interest

shown in this work.

Reviews

1. ECOLOGICAL ISOLATION IN BIRDS. By David Lack,

F.R.S. 404 pp. (14x21*5 cms). Main illustrations by Robert Gillmor.

London, 1971 (Blackwell). Price £4*25 net.

Gause’s Principle, more descriptively termed Competitive Exclu-

sion, postulates that closely related or congeneric species taking identical

food cannot coexist in a homogeneous habitat. The operation of this

principle among birds as revealed by the analytical study of certain

groups and families of tropical, subtropical and temperate regions,

especially on oceanic islands and archipelagoes where the complexity

of factors is comparatively reduced, forms the burden of this book. To

enable closely allied species to coexist in the same habitat they must have

developed through natural selection special adaptations, either mor-

phological (such as diversity in overall size or size of bill and other parts)

or ecological (such as food, feeding behaviour, feeding and breeding

stations, and other forms of isolation) which resulted in removing direct

competition between them. On remote islands any new arrival must

complete immediately with established species. If it fails it must die

out, therefore suitable adaptations must evolve quickly. How even

minor ecological differences may bring about radical changes in struc-

ture and function (e.g. of bill) and produce Adaptive Radiation was

lucidly shown by Lack 25 years ago in the case of Darwin’s finches in

the Galapagos. Since then research on other species coexisting in a

variety of environments in different parts of the world has further helped

to establish the general relevance of the principle of ecological isolation.

Among the many examples cited in the book, the tits of the genus

Parus and the nuthatches ( Sitta ) are two of the better studied and analy-

tically documented groups in regard to the problem of coexistence.

The White-eyes (family Zosteropidae), which has spread to and colonized

remote tropical islands, also provides numerous examples of ecological

isolation in the several subspecies of congeneric species that coexist on

many of them, segregated from each other by range, habitat, altitude

or size (and presumably by feeding behaviour or food) or combinations

of some of these criteria. Separation by size, or by size of bill, is com-

mon in island birds and especially within this widespread family.

The 30 appendices give fuller details of the congeneric and closely

related species treated in the 14 chapters which comprise the book,

and a review of the geographical segregation, habitat, restriction, food

and other factors responsible for their ecological isolation on island

and mainland areas in different parts of the earth.

/

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

This is a stimulating and thought-provoking book which should

find a place in the library of every ornithologist and serious bird-watcher.

It offers cues to the many possibilities for fruitful field research in India,

as in other tropical and subtropical regions, where, due to the richness

of the avifauna and diversity of the habitats the opportunities for study-

ing ecological relationships among coexisting species are so lavish. One

example, on our own doorstep, that immediately springs to mind is the

babblers of the genus Turdoides. Two, or sometimes three, species

may often be found living side by side in a single homogeneous habitat,

and a different pair of species (or a different combination) in an adjacent

habitat superficially identical, apparently without directly competing.

The adaptations — morphological, behavioural, dietary or other — that

make their coexistence possible need to be investigated and identified

in the context of the principle of Competitive Exclusion.

s. A.

2. THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS. By J. M.

Cherrett, J. B. Ford, I. V. Herbert, and A. J. Probert. pp. xiv+210

(21.5 X 13 cm.). Biological Science Texts. London, 1971. The English

Universities Press Ltd. Price £1*65 net.

This book has been written for students interested in control tech-

nique. And since chemical pesticides now a days occupy a prominent

position in control work, its pages are plentifully strewn with the chemi-

cal formulae of the principal pesticides used. It would be a mistake,

however, for the layman to let this fact frighten him away, as the book

has much that is interesting and useful to tell him. It is amazing, the

amount of research that goes into the formulation of the various pesti-

cides, and the problems the research worker has to face, problems which

may mean that by reason of some unexpected reaction his particular

bit of research work may have to be scrapped. And after the formu-

lation, the pesticide has to be applied at the time and in the manner

that best serves the worker’s purpose. Applied at a time when some

natural controlling factors are at work, it may actually make the situa-

tion worse. Or by eliminating some such factors it may give free scope

to a hitherto unnoticed pest.

Throughout, the authors impress on their readers the dangers inherent

in the employment of this method. Particularly to be feared is the

development of resistance ; it is interesting that the authors conclude

on the note that pest control today is in a transitional stage and it is

difficult to envisage what the long-term pattern will be.

. p, E. R. ;

\

REVIEWS

167

3. THE WORLD OF THE JAGUAR : By Richard Perry, pp. 168

(22x14*5 cm): with 3 maps and 12 plates. Newton Abbot, Devon,

U.K., 1970. David & Charles (Publishers) Ltd., Price £2*25 (45s.) net.

The author known for his ‘World’ series of books on the tiger,

the polar bear, the giant panda, and the walrus and for other books

has brought together in this modest volume the available information

on the little-known jaguar, which is revered in South and Central

America as the tiger is in Asia. Like the tiger, the jaguar is regarded

as a symbol of the jungle, of the cunning and ferocity and incredible

strength and beauty of raw Nature. The modest compass of the book,

compared to over 250 pages of the author’s the world of the tiger

shows the woeful lack of reliable data regarding the jaguar. The topics

dealt with in the chapters of the book relate inter alia to the country

of the jaguar, the jaguar’s prey, jaguar hunting, jaguar and men ; these

and especially the chapter on jaguar fishing will be of particular interest

to Indian readers including those who may be tempted to compare the

tiger with the jaguar which is known as ‘ water tiger ’. The relations

of the jaguar with anacondas and with giant reptiles as well as other

neighbours are narrated in some details, and there is a chapter on super-

natural jaguars, since the jaguar’s hold over men’s mind and beliefs

is said to surpass in its universality that of the tiger in India. It is re-

assuring to find that though the jaguar’s range has contracted some-

what, the animal has not suffered the fate of the cats of the Old World,

because man has not yet penetrated vast areas of the South American

hinterland.

Owing to inadequacy of data, the author has found himself unable

to provide an assessment of the present status and future prospects

of the jaguar ; but it is sad to note that there is already disturbing evid-

ence of excessive hunting pressures in areas lying within thirty miles of

the major river highways. Trade in jaguar skins is said to thrive on

account of the high price realised (around Rs. 13,000 per skin) in the

South American fur markets. It is to be hoped that the jaguar which

appears to be as wonderful as the tiger will continue to live in the remote

areas of Central and South Americas without interference by man,

and will provide an interesting subject for further studies.

The book contains some beautiful photographs, reproduced by

courtesy of Bruce Coleman Ltd., and there are appended to the book

a glossary of scientific names of animals and a bibliography containing

about a hundred titles. The. author deserves thanks of naturalists for

presenting the available material, albeit inadequate, about the jaguar

in this volume. The book shows clearly how animal behaviour is

affected by environment and how superstitions, build up regarding the

unknown. / “ 'T '* 7

G. v. B,

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 69 (1)

4. FOREST FLORA OF GUJARAT STATE. By R. I. Patel,

pp. ii+381 (15x10*5 cm.). Baroda, 1971. Forest Deptt., Gujarat

State. Price Rs. 12.50.

The general image of a forester in the public mind is that he is the

closest to nature and is the enlightened link between a layman and our

natural flora and fauna. Does he fit this public image in the present

day ? He seems to be under an unbearable burden of the complexities

of administration in our young democracy. If foresters are ever going

to prepare themselves for the uphill task of conservation of nature, the

philosophy of forestry will have to be changed. In the new context

each floristic element in a forest has its own niche and cannot be ignored

except at the risk of destroying our heritage. The present-day forester,

with a few exceptions, cannot recognise as many elements of the flora

as his predecessor two generations ago. One would readily join Prin-

cipal M. B. Raizada (Retd. Forest Botanist) in hoping that this publi-

cation will revive the healthy trend of the past (a colleague fears that

it may be a swansong!).

Incidentally, it has always intrigued me what constitutes a forest

flora! The only apparent criterion so far applied is that a floristic

work prepared by a forester should be called forest flora. A forester

can exclude plants on which he treads or which stare at him for a part

of the year because they do not deserve a place in his working plan.

This pocket-book reflects the author’s intense interest in its pro-

duction. It mentions about 600 indigenous and introduced species

under 83 families and 297 genera in the forests of Gujarat. Each species

is represented by its scientific name and important references, a short

descriptive note, local names in Gujarat, and months of flowering and

fruiting.

If a family contains more than one genus or a genus more than one