JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

APRIL 2007 VOL. 104(1)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

M.R. Almeida, D. Litt.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,

Hebbal, Bangalore

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research,

Bangalore

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

P.T. Cherian, Ph. D.

Emeritus Scientist, Department of Zoology,

University of Kerala, Trivandrum

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehrdun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bangalore, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D

Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bangalore

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qatnar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Hetal Hariya, M. Sc.

Layout and T ypesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

© Bombay Natural History Society 2006

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 104 (1): APRIL 2007

EDITORIAL 1

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

IN WESTERN HIMALAYA

G.S. Rawat 5

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS: REFLECTIONS AFTER

THE BUGUN LIOCICHLA CASE

Ragupathy Kannan 1 2

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN

THE KUMAON HIMALAYA, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA

Aisha Sultana, M. Shah Hussain and Jamal A. Khan 19

SEASONAL PATTERN IN THE TERRITORIAL DYNAMICS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT OECOPHYLLA

SMARAGDINA (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)

N. Rastogi 30

DETERMINING TROPHY HARVEST QUOTAS THROUGH A STATUS SURVEY OF URIAL

(OT IS OR1ENTALIS) IN THE KALABAGH GAME RESERVE, PUNJAB PROVINCE, PAKISTAN

Michael R. Frisina, Ghulam Ali Awan and Michael H. Woodford 35

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PORCUPINE (HYSTRIX INDICA KERR) IN COCONUT ( COCOS

NUCIFERA L.) PLANTATIONS OF THE WESTERN GHATS OF KARNATAKA

A.K. Chakravarthy and A.C. Girish 40

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS: A SPILLOVER FROM SUSTAINED TRANSLOCATIONS

INTO NEARBY FORESTS?

Vidya R. Athreya, Sanjay S. Thakur, Sujoy Chaudhuri and Aniruddha V. Belsare 45

FISH BIODIVERSITY IN THE WATER BODIES OF SAMASPUR BIRD SANCTUARY, UTTAR PRADESH:

TOWARDS DEVELOPING A FRESHWATER AQUATIC SANCTUARY

U.K. Sarkar, D. Kapoor, S.K. Paul, A.K. Pathak, V.S. Basheer, P.K. Deepak, S.M. Srivastava and

L.K. Tyagi 51

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MELINDA ROBINEAU-DESV OIDY (DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE) FROM

INDIA WITH A KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THIS GENUS

Devinder Singh and Inderpal Singh Sidhu 55

CRAB SPIDERS (ARANEAE: THOMISIDAE) OF JALDAPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, JALPAIGURI,

WEST BENGAL - I

Sumana Saha and Dinendra Raychaudhuri 58

A NEW SPECIES OF NAMANEREIDINAE: NAMALYCASTIS GLASBYI SP. NOV. FROM INDIAN

WATERS

Olivia J. Fernando and R. Rajasekaran 64

ON THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW THRIPS RELATED TO THE GENUS HAPLOTHRIPS AMYOT &

SERVILLE FROM DELHI

Vikas Kumar, Kaomud Tyagi and J.S. Bhatti 68

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS GASTRANCISTRUS WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA:

PTEROMALIDAE) FROM INDIA

Ankita Gupta and M.A. Khan 72

A NEW SPECIES OF TELEOSTEI: PUNTIUS POOKODENSIS (CYPRINIDAE) FROM WAYANAD,

KERALA, INDIA

T.V. Anna Mercy and Eapen Jacob

76

REVIEWS

1. INSECTS OF INDIA

Reviewed by Naresh Chaturvedi 79

2. CATFISHES OF INDIA

Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 79

3. FOREST TREES OF SOUTH INDIA

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 80

4. TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS: AN ECOLOGICAL AND BIOGEOGRAPHICAL COMPARISON

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 81

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . A note on the latex licking habit of Five-striped and

Three-striped Palm Squirrels

By Satish Kumar Sharma 82

2. Stranding of a Sperm Whale Physeter macrocephalus

(Linnaeus 1758) on the Chennai Coast

By K. Venkataraman, M.C. John Milton and

K.P. Raghuram 83

BIRDS

3. Further note on development of a hybrid between a

female Oriental White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus

and a male Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia

By Raju Vyas 85

4. Communal harrier roost- sites in Mumbai and Akola

districts, Maharashtra

ByAshokVerma 85

5 . Khasi Hills Swift Apus acuticauda\ First record from

Nagaland and Manipur, north-east India

By M. Firoz Ahmed, Abhijit Das and Vivoselie Meyase 87

6. First record of Brown Shrike 'Lanins cristatus

superciliosus Latham from India

By Sujan Chatterjee and Sumit K. Sen 89

7. The challenge of the Phylloscopi

By T.J. Roberts 89

8. Broad-tailed Grass-warbler Schoenicola platyura in

Nashik, Maharashtra

By Bishwarup Raha, Rameshwar Sarda and

Viral K. Mistry 93

9. Paternal aggressive behaviour towards offspring in

Purple -rumped Sunbird Nectarinia % ejlonica

By Anand Prasad 94

10. Range extension of Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus

fumidus

By Sujan Chatterjee, Sumit K. Sen and

Dipankar Ghose 95

11. Some observations on the geographic variation of

mixed-species bird flocks in Sri Lanka

By Eben Goodale and Sarath W Kotagama 96

12. Additions to die avifauna of Goa, India

By S.D. Borges and A.B. Shanbhag 98

REPTILES

1 3 . Hole-nesting in captive Indotestudo travancorica

By Madhuri Ramesh 101

14. Further notes on breeding colour in male Calotes

versicolor

By Satish Kumar Sharma 102

1 5. Record of Boiga beddomei (Wall 1909) from Sriharikota,

Andhra Pradesh, India

By S. Sivakumar and Ranjit Manakadan 103

AMPHIBIANS

1 6 . Micrixalus fuscus (Anura: Micrixalidae) in Sharavathi

River Basin, Karnataka

By K.V. Gururaja, Sameer All and T.V. Ramachandra 104

17. Occurrence of Melanobatrachus indicus Beddome 1878

in Mathikettan shola, Western Ghats

By A.M.A. Nixon and S. Bhupathy 105

PROTOCHORDATES

18. New record of the simple ascidian Styela plicata

(Lesueur 1823)

By V.K. Meenakshi and S. Senthamarai 106

INSECTS

19. Spiralling Whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell

(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) invades Andamans

By G. Shyam Prasad, S. Bhagat and V. Jayakumar .... 108

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

20. Occurrence of Lumbrineris hartmani (Day 1953)

(Polychaeta: Lumbnneridae): A new record for Indian

waters

By R. Rajasekaran and Olivia J. Fernando 109

21. Morphology and identification of Cladoceran fauna

occurring in the Fish Seed Farm, Aarey, Mumbai, India

By S.D. Patil and U.A. Siddham 1 1 1

BOTANY

22. Aeginetia indica Roxb.: A new non-photosynthetic

angiosperm for Jammu and Kashmir flora

By Harish Chander Dutt and Shashi Kant 116

23. Diospyros nigrescens (Dalz.) Saldanha (Ebenaceae): An

addition to the flora of Tamil Nadu

By S. Karuppusamy, K.M. Rajasekaran and T. Pullaiah 117

24. Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng.

(Convolvulaceae): A new record for peninsular India

By S. Karuppusamy and T. Pullaiah 118

25. Stebbinsia umbrella (Franch.) Lip. (Asteraceae): A new

record for India

By D. Maity and G.G. Maiti 119

26. Passerine bird-pollination in the dry season blooming

Butea superba Roxb. (Fabaceae) in the Eastern Ghats

By A.J. Solomon Raju and S. Purnachandra Rao 120

27. Synchronous senescence in Neem trees in Bijnor and

Jyotiba Phule Nagar districts of western Uttar Pradesh

By Sanjay Kumar 121

28. Occurrence of a bi-chambered fruit of the Red

Silk-cotton Bombax ceiba

By Vibhakar K. Paralkar 123

Cover Photograph: Blue-headed Rock-thrush

Monticola cinclorhynchus

By Clement Francis M.

li

Editorial

DNA-Barcoding - a new tool to look at the diversity of life

Counting, classification and naming come naturally to human beings. From time immemorial, human beings

have been naming and classifying life forms based on existing knowledge and the culture of the region. Modem

scientific classification of species started with the development of binomial nomenclature by the Swedish botanist

Carolus Linnaeus ( 1707-78). Till now, approximately 1 .7 million species of plants and animals have been named

(excluding microbes), and it is said that there could be 10 million species in the world. Thousands of new species

are described every year, particularly invertebrates. Even in the well-known vertebrate groups, such as birds and

mammals, new species are being discovered with increasing frequency, mainly in the tropics.

Earlier, species were mainly described based on their morphological features, including skeletons. In recent

time, a new method - DNA barcoding or DNA taxonomy - has been developed to identify species based on their

DNA sequence. In brief, the barcode of life is a short DNA sequence, from a uniform locality on the genome, used

for identifying species. The proponents of DNA barcoding claim that ‘it will help people quickly and cheaply

recognize known species and retrieve information about them, and will speed discovery of the millions of species

yet to be named’. They have given ten main reasons for Barcoding Life (http://phe.rockefeller.edu/barcode/docs/

TenReasonsBarcoding/pdf). We list a few of them here. Barcoding can identify a species from bits and pieces, such

as morphologically unrecognizable products derived from protected species or tissue pieces of bird strikes to

aircrafts. Even plant material in processed foodstuffs can be identified, which will greatly help in the quality control

of foodstuff and traditional medicine. The second important reason and a great improvement of the traditional

taxonomic approach is that Barcoding can identify a species in all life stages, from eggs, larvae, seed, pupa, adult,

flower, leaf, root etc. This will help in controlling trade of protected species and the products derived from their

various life stages, which are sometimes difficult to identify. Barcoding also allows relatively rapid identification of

candidate species, which may turn out to be a new species, on which necessary morphological and taxonomic

research can be focused. DNA barcoding can also unmask look-alikes. Many harmful insects masquerade as

harmless ones, so once we identify the cheaters, necessary initiatives can be taken to control them. Barcoding will

also help us preparing the ‘life-trees’ - the phylogenetic similarities, differences and evolutionary relatedness

among taxa.

Before we go ahead and start analyzing specimens, we have to prove that DNA barcoding is effective in

distinguishing between intraspecific and interspecific mlDNA variation. Fortunately, some recent studies are

proving that barcodes can distinguish more than 95% of species (Ward et al. 2005; Hajibabaei et al. 2006). In an

often-quoted paper, Hebert et al. (2004) have shown that in the 260 North American bird species, mitochondrial

gene Cytochrome C Oxidase 1 (COI) variation between species was much greater than that within species. They

found that differences between closely-related species were, on an average, 18 times higher than the differences

within species. They also found that most of the species did not share the same barcode from those of any other

species. Interestingly, their research also led to identification of cryptic species, which were earlier considered to

be single species. This was further confirmed when their morphology and songs were analyzed. In 1 7 sets of

species with overlapping barcode (Kerr et al. 2007), it was found that it could be due to three reasons: some may

be recently diverged sister taxa where COI has not accumulated sequence differences, secondly, these species

could be sharing mtDNA due to hybridization, and thirdly some of the species showing overlapping may be single

species.

Kerr et al. (2007) have shown that “most provisional species were small to medium-sized, plainly coloured

birds, whereas most species with overlapping barcodes were large and/or brightly coloured, which might reflect a

natural taxonomic tendency towards under-splitting inconspicuous birds and/or over-splitting more conspicuous

species.’’ This is amply proved by the study of phylogeny of all species and nearly all subspecies of Seicercus and

representatives of all subgenera in the Phylloscopus species of warblers (Olsson et al. 2004) and Acrocephalus

genus (Leisleref a/. 1997).

Recent DNA studies and genetics have confirmed the unity of the human being as single species. Homo

sapiens. Comparison of COI barcode sequences shows that we differ from one another by only one or two base

pairs out of 648, while we differ from the Chimpanzee (our closest relatives) at about 69 locations and the Gorilla at

about 70 locations. Barcoding studies have also proved that there are two species of the Orangutan, and not one.

Bird taxonomy of the Indian subcontinent is going through radical changes, not only in nomenclature, but

also in classification (e.g. Grimmett etal. 1998) and taxonomic upgradation of subspecies to full species or splits

(e.g. Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) have made 198 species-level changes in

South Asia, which include many species splits within the region, splits within extra-limital species, and relocation

of the race. For example, about 218 endemic bird species have been recorded from South Asia. In India, 18

subspecies have been upgraded to full species level, bringing the total to 79 fully endemic birds in India. The

taxonomic status of some endemic species is not yet clear, and there is dispute over the status of some subspecies

or races. Perhaps, DNA barcoding would help in settling such taxonomic uncertainties.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi has asked the National Bureau of Fish Genetic

Resources (NBFGR) to undertake an ambitious project to develop DNA barcoding of the Indian fish species. The

scientists of NBFGR have already developed barcodes for about 50 fish species. This project is expected to go a

long way for identification of species, subspecies and populations of our fish resources, which will also help in

sustainable utilization, management and conservation.

There is a Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL) whose aim is to have an international collaboration of

natural history museums, herbaria, biological repositories and biodiversity inventory sites, together with academic

and commercial experts in genomics, taxonomy, electronics, and computer sciences to speed up the compilation of

DNA barcodes of all life forms. It also aims to establish a public library of sequences linked to named specimens,

and promote development of portable devices for DNA barcoding. For more information visit: http://barcoding.si.ed.

and http://www.barcodinglife.org

Until now only two studies have been carried out using the mtDNA technique on Indian birds, e.g. Large-

billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus (Bensch and Pearson 2002; Round et al. 2007), and a new species of

Scimitar-Babbler from Myanmar (Rappole etal. 2005). Genetech Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka is likely to take up

the responsibility of DNA barcoding of Sri Lankan birds. In the current scenario of rapid habitat changes, declining

avifauna of the Indian subcontinent, and taxonomic confusion of many species, there is an urgent need to take up

DNA barcoding of the Indian avifauna for their long-term protection. According to Jathar and Rahmani (2006), out

of the 79 endemic Indian birds species, three are Critically Endangered, one Endangered, 14 Vulnerable, three Data

Deficient, 1 5 Near Threatened, 27 Least Concern, and 1 6 require revision of their conservation status. Some of the

endemic Indian birds have very limited distribution. For example, the Nilgiri Blue Robin Myiomela major and the

White-bellied Blue Robin Myiomela albifentris were earlier considered as subspecies of the White-bellied Shortwing

Brachypterex major. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005), based on morphological and vocal differences, have treated

both as full species, and have also placed them under Myiomela and not under Brachypterex. In this case, there

is taxonomic shift and taxonomic upgradation of the species. This taxonomic upgradation is of great conservation

concern, because both species are found in a tiny range in the southern Western Ghats - the White-bellied Blue

Robin is confined to densely wooded streams and Shola forests from Palni to Ashambu Hills of Kerala and Tamil

Nadu, south of the Palghat Gap, mostly above 1 600 m, while the Nilgiri Blue Robin is a resident bird of the Nilgiri

Hills and the nearby Bababudan and Bramhabiri Hills, north of the Palghat Gap. Both are considered Vulnerable by

BirdLife International (2007). The Barn Owl Tyto alba is one of the most widespread birds in the world and it is

fairly common, with no threat of extinction. BirdLife put it in the Least Concern category. It is widespread in India,

including the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Earlier, the individuals found in the Andamans were considered to be

a distinct subspecies Tyto alba deroepstoiffi (Baker 1927, Ripley 1961, Ali and Ripley 1969). Inskipp etal. (1996),

Grimmett et al. (1998) and Kazmierczak and van Perlo (2000) recognized two subspecies: stertens found in the

whole Indian subcontinent, and deroepstorjfi found in the Andaman Island. However, Rasmussen and Anderton

(2005) have treated the subspecies of the Andaman as a full species, Tyto deroepstorjfi, based on the distinct

morphological differences described by Konig et al. ( 1 999). If DNA barcoding further corroborate that it is a full

species, it means that we have to re-evaluate its conservation status. Similar is the case of the Andaman Coucal

Centropns andamanensis. From being a subspecies of the Brown Coucal Centropus sinensis (Ali and Ripley

2

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

1969), it is now elevated to a full species status, Centropus andamanensis by Rasmussen and Anderton (2005). With the

change in taxonomic status, we have to evaluate the conservation status, mainly due to the small distributional range. It is also

reported from the Coco and Table islands, and Myanmar. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) have indicated that there is a “need

for a comprehensive revision of C. sinensis Perhaps, taxonomy based on DNA will be able to solve such problems.

The All Birds Barcoding Initiative (ABBI) is an international effort that aims to establish a public reference library of DNA

barcodes for approximately 10,000 known bird species. The ABBI library of avian sequences linked to museum specimens will

speed up discovery of new species and aid in the conservation of biodiversity. Approximately 7,000 individuals from 1 ,500

species have been barcoded so far. The BNHS, with its collection of 29,000 bird specimens, and the Zoological Survey of India,

with its vast collection, can play an important role in barcoding Indian bird species.

We want to thank Dr. Navjot S. Sodhi, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore for commenting

on the draft.

REFERENCES

Ali, S.A. & S.D. Ripley ( 1969): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Vol. 3. Pp. 25 1 -252 (Barn Owl ).

Pp. 244-245 (Andaman Coucal).

Baker, E.C.S. (1927): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma (Second Edition). Birds Vol. 4. Pp. 386.

Bensch, S. & D. Pearson (2002): The Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalns orinus revisited. Ibis 144: 259-267.

BirdLife International (2007): Species fact sheet: Brachypteryx major. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 20/1 1/2007.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Hajibabaei, M., D.H. Janzen, J.M. Burns, W. Hallwachs & P.D.N. Hebert (2006): DNA barcodes distinguish species of tropical Lepidoptera.

Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 103 : 968-971.

Hebert. P.D.N., M.Y. Stoeckle, T.S. Zemlak & C.M. Francis (2004): Identification of birds through DNA barcodes. PLoS Biol 2(10): 1657-1663.

e3 1 2.

Inskipp, T., N. Lindsey & W. Duckworth (1996): An Annotated Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region. Oriental Bird Club, UK.

Jathar, G.A. & A.R. Rahmani (2006): Endemic Birds of India. Buceros 11 (2&3): 53.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka. Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives. Pica Press,

UK.

Kerr, K.C.R., M. Stoeckle, C.J. Dove, L. Weigt, C.M. Francis & P.D.N. Hebert (2007): Comprehensive DNA barcode coverage of North

American birds. Molecular Ecology Notes doklO.l 1 1/j. 1471-8286. 2006. 01670.x. Pp. 1-9.

Konig, C., F. Weick & J.H. Becking (1999): Owls. A Guide to the owls of the world. Yale University Press, New Haven, USA.

Leisler, B., P. Heidrich, K. Schulze-Hagen & M. Wink (1997): Taxonomy and phylogeny of reed warblers (Genus Acrocephalns) based on

mtDNA sequences and morphology. ./. Ornithol. 98: 22-35.

Olsson, U., P. Alstrom & P. Sundberg (2004): Non-monophyly of the avian genus Seicercus (Aves: Sylviidae) revealed by mitochondrial DNA.

Zool. Scr. 33: 501-510.

Rappole, J.H., S.C. Renner, N.M. Shwe & PR. Sweet (2005): A new species of Scimitar Babbler (Timaliidae: Jabouilleia) from the sub- Himalayan

region of Myanmar. Auk 122: 1064-1069.

Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions, Washington, D.C.

and Barcelona.

Ripley, S.D. ( 1961 ): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan - together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Bombay

Natural History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Round, P.D., B. Hansson, D.J. Pearson, PR. Kennerley & S. Bensch (2007 ): Lost and found: the enigmatic Large-billed Reed warbler Acrocephalus

orinus rediscovered after 139 years. J. Avian Biology 38(2): 133-138.

Ward, R.D., T.S. Zemlak, B.H. Innes, PR. Last & P.D.N. Hebert (2005): A start of DNA barcoding Australia’s fish species. Philos. Trans. R. Soc.

London Ser. B. 360: 1847-1857.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

GIRISH JATHAR

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

5-11

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS

OF ALPINE MEADOWS IN WESTERN HIMALAYA1

GS. Rawat2

'Accepted December 07, 2006

-’Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

An ecological expedition was conducted across the alpine region of western Himalaya, from June to October 2004, to

assess the conservation status of alpine meadows, current land use practices, patterns of plant species diversity and

wildlife use. This paper deals with the findings pertaining to pastoral practices, abundance of wild mammals and status

of alpine meadows under varying intensity of livestock grazing. Barring 3-4 protected areas (PAs), most of the alpine

meadows were heavily grazed during summer. Abundance of wild mammals was very low in heavily grazed and degraded

PAs. Unless management authorities rationalize livestock grazing, in consultation with the local communities, several

PAs would fail to meet conservation objectives, and alpine meadows would further degrade, leading to environmental

disaster in the region.

Key words: alpine meadows, ecological expedition, habitat degradation, livestock grazing, pastoral practices, western

Himalaya, wild mammals

INTRODUCTION

The alpine zone occupies nearly 33% of the

geographical area in the Himalayan region and represents

one of the most fascinating biomes, well known for its

biological, geo-hydrological, aesthetic and cultural values.

This zone is separated by a distinct treeline towards lower

elevation that lies around 3300 ± 200 m above msl in the

western Himalaya, and 3800 ± 200 m above msl in the eastern

Hi malaya. Diversity of life forms, structure and species

composition of alpine vegetation has always attracted a large

number of naturalists, phyto-geographers and ecologists

(e.g., Mani 1974; Rau 1975). The most striking feature of the

alpine vegetation is an abundance of herbaceous plants

along narrow climatic gradients exhibiting interesting patterns

of adaptations to harsh environments, short growing season

and relatively recent Palaeo-history (Korner 1999; Vishnu-

Mittre 1984). Though highly fragile and dynamic, the alpine

habitats not only support diverse groups of fauna, but also

form the upper catchments of the Himalayan rivers that serve

as lifeline for millions of people along their lower basins.

Hence, the health and integrity of the alpine ecosystems has

direct bearing on the life-support system, environmental

stability, biodiversity and human welfare in the region.

The alpine meadows of western Himalaya have been

used for livestock grazing by a large number of agro-pastoral

communities for several centuries (Tucker 1 986). Other human

activities in the alpine areas include extraction of wild medicinal

plants for local as well as commercial use, pilgrimage,

recreation such as trekking, camping and skiing. Broadly,

there are two categories of meadows in the alpine zone of

Himalaya: (i) alpine moist meadows on the south facing slopes

of Greater Himalaya dominated by herbaceous formations,

locally termed as Bugyal in Uttarakhand, Kanda in Himachal

Pradesh and Marg in Jammu and Kashmir, (ii) alpine dry

pastures located in the rain shadow zone or trans-Hi malayan

zone characterized by dry scrub and desert steppe dominated

by graminoids (Rawat and Adhikari 2005). The two regions

differ considerably in terms of plant community composition,

primary productivity and history of grazing by domestic and

wild ungulates (Mishra 2001 ; Bagchi etal. 2004). Although

the alpine meadows play an important role in relieving the

grazing pressure on the forests and the grazing land of the

lower altitudes, increased livestock and overuse has led to

degradation of alpine habitats (Rawat 1 998). Several ecologists

have pointed out that the alpine meadows in many parts of

the Greater Himalaya have been overused and degraded (Negi

et al. 1993; Sundriyal 1989; Shah 1988). It has also been

established that extensive grazing by migratory livestock

negatively affects the habitat and abundance of ungulates

(Sathyakumar et al. 1993; Bhatnagar et al. 2000; Vinod and

Sathyakumar 2005). Nevertheless, livestock grazing in the

alpine areas of the Himalaya is likely to continue as major

land use for a long time, in the absence of better livelihood

options for local communities. Depending on changing socio-

economic conditions of the local people, livestock

composition and grazing pressures have changed in many

areas. This calls for a landscape level assessment of grazing

pressure, wildlife abundance and status of meadows.

This paper deals with the pastoral practices, livestock

densities and abundance of wild mammals across the alpine

landscape in western Himalaya based on a recent ecological

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

expedition. Conservation status of the alpine meadows under

varying intensity of livestock grazing has been discussed.

The major objectives of the expedition were to (i) study the

patterns of plant species diversity across environmental

gradients, (ii) quantify the availability of wild medicinal and

aromatic plants (MAPs) in the alpine region, (iii) assess the

ecological condition of the alpine habitats vis-a-vis current

land use practices, and (iv) document the wildlife use of alpine

meadows along the survey route. The results of the expedition

for the state of Uttaranchal (now Uttarakhand) are given in

Rawat(2005).

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

An ecological expedition across the alpine region of

western Himalaya was conducted from June to October 2004

covering the states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and

Jammu and Kashmir. Over 2500 km was traversed on foot

covering an altitudinal zone of 3300-5500 m above msl on

either side of the Greater Himalaya. The starting point of the

expedition was near the Indo-Nepal border in Uttarakhand

(30° 06' 3 1 .7" N and 80° 50' 04.7" E), ending near Amarnath in

Kashmir Himalaya (34° 1 2' 49.4” N and 75° 27’ 48.8" E). A large

number of forest officials and field staff of State Forest

Departments joined the expedition at various places, in

addition to a few volunteers. The expedition route covered a

number of wildlife sanctuaries (WLSs), national parks (NPs),

community owned forests or grazing lands ( Van Panchayat),

reserved forests (RFs) and unclassified state forests (USFs).

On an average, a distance of 1 5-20 km was traversed in a day.

Over 300 sites were sampled for 1 0 x 1 sq. m random quadrants

for the analysis of species diversity following Rawat et al.

(2001 ). The landscape level survey allowed an assessment of

a wide range of vegetation formations and habitats, such as

glaciated valleys, plateaus, moraines, high passes, scree

slopes, glacial outwash, avalanche traps, stream courses and

stable slopes. Environmental parameters, such as soil depth,

soil texture, altitude and aspect, were noted and geographical

co-ordinates at each sample point were recorded using Global

Positioning System (GPS), to be analysed in detail at a later

date. The major PAs visited during the survey include Askot

WLS, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Valley of Flowers NP,

Kedamath WLS, Gangotri NP, Govind WLS, Churdhar WLS,

Raksham Chitkul WLS, Rupi-Bhaba WLS, Seichu-Tuan WLS,

Rungdum WLS and Thajwas WLS. The route followed during

the survey is shown in Fig 1.

Information on the pastoral practices and number of

livestock (species wise) was collected along the survey route

through informal interviews with the herders and local forest

officials. Legal and management status of the land in Biosphere

Reserves (BRs), NPs, WLSs, Van Panchayat , RFs, USFs were

obtained from forest / revenue records. Information was also

collected on the approximate area of the meadows, dominant

vegetation types, intensity of human use and number of

livestock and duration of grazing. Direct and indirect evidence

of wild mammals were recorded along the survey route on a

daily basis, aided by previous experience, local informants

and available literature (Prater 1980; Menon 2003).

Conservation status of alpine meadows / vegetation

was assessed along the survey route. From the herders’ point

of view, good pastures are characterized by dominance of

palatable forbs, absence of weedy and unpalatable species,

and an extensive area that could support larger herds.

Ecologically, sites with better conservation status are those

which represent the full range of alpine habitats (and

microhabitats), without human induced soil erosion. About

162 meadows were rapidly assessed in terms of stages of

degradation and one of the following categories was assigned

to each: (a) Pristine meadows (climatic climax with least soil

erosion caused due to anthropogenic activities), (b) Slightly

degraded or intact meadows, (c) Moderately degraded

meadows (gently undulating areas with short duration of

grazing only by sheep and goats) (d) Heavily degraded areas

characterized by heavy soil erosion and infested by spiny

herbs ( Cirsiumfalconeri , C. verutum and Morina longifolia),

and unpalatable herbs ( Rumex nepalensis , Phlomis

bracteosa , Hackelia uncinata and Osmunda claytoniana),

among others. These criteria are not applicable for assessment

of alpine vegetation in the trans-Himalaya or closer to high

alpine pioneer vegetation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pastoral Practices

Five distinct pastoral practices are prevalent across the

alpine landscape in the western Himalaya: nomadic, semi-

nomadic, nuclear transhumance, trans-migratory and

sedentary (resident). True nomadic pastoralism is practiced

mainly by the changpa herders in the Changthang plateau of

Ladakh, which lies outside the limits of current survey. The

gujjars (the buffalo herders in the southern slopes of the

Greater Himalaya and the Shivaliks) have over the years

shifted from nomadic to semi -nomadic lifestyle. The gaddis

and bakarwals of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir

follow semi-nomadic lifestyle (only few members of a family

move long distance with their livestock). Many agro-pastoral

communities in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh practice

nuclear transhumance (a part of the family moves to higher

altitudes closer to treeline along with surplus cattle). Trans-

migration (seasonal altitudinal movement by the entire family

6

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

Fig 1 : Route followed and localities covered during the alpine expedition (2004)

1= Byans Valky, 2 = Darma & Askot WLS, 3 = Johar Valley, 4 = North of Nanda Devi BR, 5 = Valley of Flowers NP, 6 = Kedarnath WLS,

7 = Khatling, 8 = Gangotri NP, 9 = Nilang Valley, 10 = Gidara, 11 = Govind WLS, 12 = Raksham Chitkul WLS, 13 = Sangla Valley,

14 = Rupi-Bhaba WLS, 15 = Bhrigu lake & Rohtang, 16 = Paton Valley, Lahul, 17 = Pangi, 18 = Myar Valley,

19 = Padam, Zanskar, 20 = Surru valley, 21 = Thajwas WLS, 22 = Amarnath

along with the livestock) is practiced mainly by the bhotiya

communities in various parts of Uttarakhand, such as Byans,

Darma, Johar and the upper basins of Alaknanda and

Bhagirathi. Presently only 20-30% of the original households

and only few members in each family along with most of the

livestock, except milch cattle, migrate to the distant alpine

valleys, in the process making available several alpine pastures

for other c^ nmunities belonging to the lower parts of the

state (Uttarakhand) and the gaddi herders from Himachal

Pradesh. In the high altitude villages of Kinnaur, Spiti, Lahul,

Pangi and Zanskar there is round the year grazing by the

resident livestock, in addition to migratory livestock. In

Chamoli, Tehri, Uttarkashi and Kinnaur districts, several

families drive their scrub cattle to sub-alpine and alpine areas

for free grazing during the snow free period (June-October).

This practice leads to faster degradation of meadows and will

need immediate reversal if conservation has to succeed in

and around the nearby PAs.

Densities of livestock in the alpine meadows of three

states have been compared in Table 1. The survey revealed

that livestock densities in the alpine areas of Uttarakhand

(33.92 ± 1 0.0 1 /sq. km ) were much higher compared to Himachal

Pradesh ( 17.55 ±9.25 /sq. km) and Jammu & Kashmir ( 10.45

±12.33 /sq. km). It is to be noted that the herders from Chamba,

Kangra and other parts of Himachal Pradesh take their sheep

and goats either towards the Sarchu plains in Jammu and

Kashmir or to the alpine valleys of Uttarakhand, which is

ascribed to degradation of alpine pastures and shortage of

forage in the state (personal interviews with the herders).

Highest densities of sheep and goats were observed in the

alpine areas of Govind WLS (50 sheep and goats, and

10 bovids and equids per sq. km) followed by Thajwas WLS

1 Bombay Nat. Hist Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

7

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

Table 1 Density of livestock in alpine meadows of Western Himalaya

(31 sheep and goats, and 20 mules per sq. km) and Rupi-

Bhaba WLS (23 sheep and goats, and 3-4 bovids per sq. km).

Except core areas of Nanda Devi NP, Valley of Flowers NP

and part of Gangotri NP, all PAs had high grazing pressure

(mean density of sheep and goats 28.23 ±17.90 /sq. km, and

bovids and equids 2.15 ±2.87 /sq. km). Interestingly, mean

livestock densities during peak summer months outside the

PAs (22.21 ±19.16 sheep and goats /sq. km and 1.97 ±1.81

bovids and equids /sq. km ) were lower compared to densities

within PAs, though the differences are not significant (Table 2).

Abundance of wild mammals

Of about 5 I species of wild mammals reported from the

alpine region of western Himalaya (Menon 2003), only 25

were seen or recorded along the survey route. The 1 6 species

sighted were Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus),

Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogcister ), Blue Sheep

( Pseudois nayaur), Goral (. Nemorhaedus goral ), Asiatic Black

Bear ( Selenarctos thibetanus ), Himalayan Yellow-throated

Marten (Martes flavigula). Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes),

Himalayan Marmot ( Marmota himalayana). Long-tailed

Marmot (Marmota caudate ), Himalayan Weasel (Mustela

sibirica), Himalayan Palm Civet ( Paguma lan’ata ), Tibetan

Woolly Hare ( Lepus oiostolus), Royle’s Pika ( Ochotona

roylei ), Large-eared Pika ( O . macrotis ), Mountain Vole

(Alticola argentatus) and Lesser Bat (Hipposideros sp?),

while the other 8 species, namely Hangul ( Cervus elaphus

hanglu), Serow (Nemorhaedus sumatraensis), Himalayan

Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos ), Tibetan Wolf ( Canis lupus

chanco ), Snow Leopard ( Uncia uncia ), Himalayan Stoat or

Ermine (Mustela erminea ), Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus kiang)

and Golden Jackal Canis aureus ) were confirmed based on

indirect evidence such as skin, horns, skull, tracks, droppings

and reliable local informants. One of the significant findings

of this survey is the direct and indirect evidence of a few

trans-Himalayan mammals (Woolly Hare and Tibetan Wild

Ass) along the northern fringes of Uttarakhand. There is no

report of these species from Uttarakhand in published

literature. In Nilang Valley (part of Gangotri NP) local people

reported presence of Tibetan Argali or Nayan (Ovis ammon

hodgsoni ) and Wild Yak (Bos grunniens locally known as

‘dong'). Further status surveys would be required to confirm

their presence in the interior areas of this Park. It is also to be

noted that inner drier ranges of Uttarakhand exhibit

characteristics of trans-Himalaya rather than Greater

Himalaya. This calls for a slight modification of current

biogeographic classification suggested by Rodgers and

Panwar (1988).

Highest abundance of wild ungulates was found

en route to Gangotri glacier (part of Gangotri NP). In a walk of

1 3 km, 65 Blue Sheep in four groups were sighted. This valley

(c. 250 sq. km) has been protected from livestock grazing

since the last decade and according to a recent survey, it

supports a population of 270-300 Blue Sheep (Wildlife Warden,

Gangotri NP, pers. comm.). Estimates for Himalayan Musk

Deer and other mammals are not available from this valley.

Upper catchments of Girthi Ganga (part of Nanda Devi BR in

Uttarakhand) also showed higher abundance of Blue Sheep,

Himalayan Marmot and Snow Leopard compared to all other

sectors along the survey route. The shepherds reported

frequent killings of domestic sheep and goats by Snow

Leopard in this area. A major portion of this landscape

represents alpine arid pasture (steppe vegetation), which is

contiguous with the Tibetan plateau. Livestock grazing in

this valley is carried out only for a short period (July- August).

Other PAs west of Govind WLS had a much lower abundance

Table 2: A comparison of livestock densities within PAs and

outside PAs within alpine region of Western Himalaya*

*Note: Independent samples test: No SD in the densities of sheep

and goats (t=0.842; df=24.487, 95% confidence interval) and bovids

and equids (t=0.200; df=22.130, 95% confidence interval)

8

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

of wild mammals. According to forest officials, livestock killing

by Brown Bear in Govind WLS has been a major cause of

concern. The alpine areas of Seichu Tuan WLS in Pangi

support small populations of Himalayan Tahr, Himalayan Ibex,

Brown Bear and Himalayan Musk Deer. Official estimates of

Ibex and Himalayan Tahr in this sanctuary are 250-300 and

50-60 respectively, but there is also a heavy influx of livestock

(>2500 sheep and goats) during summer. Raksham-Chiktul,

Churdhar and Thajwas sanctuaries exhibited the least

abundance of wild mammals. Incidentally, Churdhar and

Thajwas sanctuaries are <100 sq. km in size and have very

high livestock densities.

The alpine areas outside the current PA network also

varied considerably in terms of wildlife abundance. As

expected, interior localities free from human habitation and

low grazing pressure had higher abundance of wild mammals.

However, such areas are vulnerable to poaching, unless

regulated by the local communities themselves. A hill slope

opposite Niti village in Uttarakhand (buffer zone of Nanda

Devi BR) has been protected by the villagers from livestock

grazing for the last 8- 1 0 years, mainly for fodder and medicinal

herbs. This slope offers excellent sub-alpine and alpine

habitats. In a walk of about 2 km, 12 piles of Himalayan Musk

Deer pellets were encountered on this slope. It was also

interesting to find three active colonies of the Himalayan

Marmot in the same area. Occurrence of the Himalayan Musk

Deer and the Himalayan Marmot in the same habitat has not

been reported from other parts of the Himalaya. Other examples

of community regulated resource use and restriction on

poaching were seen in Johar valley ( Uttarakhand), Upper Sural

valley in Pangi sub-division (Himachal Pradesh) and Rungdum

area of Surra Valley (Jammu and Kashmir). Excessive grazing

and rush for high value MAPs, such as the Palm Orchid

( Dactylorhiza liatagirea ) and Caterpillar Mushroom

(Cordyceps sinensis) by local communities in the Greater

Himalaya of Uttarakhand are the major factors affecting wild

mammals during summer. In Byans Valley (eastern

Uttarakhand) local people reported recovery of wild ungulates

during the past 8- 1 0 years due to stringent laws, conservation

awareness and a drastic reduction in trans-migration. The

scenario is, however, different in interior parts of Lahul where

grazing pressure has increased over the years. A four day

walk (c. 80 km) along Myar valley (Lahul) yielded no direct

sightings of mammals and only few indirect evidences of Blue

Sheep, Ibex and Red Fox.

Status of the meadows

Based on general appearance and species composition,

the moist meadows can be grouped into the following six

categories (i) Tall herbaceous formations, (ii) Short forbs, (iii)

Matted shrubs / shrubberies, (iv) Danthonia grasslands,

(v) Kobresia meadows, and (vi) Cushionoid vegetation.

Characteristic features of these meadows are described by

Rawat (2005). Vegetation cover and number of species per

unit area were the highest in tall and short herbaceous

meadows, especially in the high rainfall zones of Greater

Himalaya (cover >90% and species richness 35-45 per site).

Kobresia meadows are generally considered climax formations

on the south facing high alpine (>4000 m above msl) slopes.

Of the 162 random sites assessed for stages of degradation

within the moist meadows of the Greater Himalaya, only

6 sites (3.7%) were classified as ‘pristine meadows’. Intact

(slightly degraded), moderately degraded and heavily

degraded sites constituted 18.5, 39 and 30.8% respectively.

Thirteen sites (8%) showed signs of recovery from heavily

degraded stages to moderate stage. The meadows grazed by

heavier livestock (especially buffaloes, cattle and equids) for

a longer period were the most degraded.

Conservation status of alpine meadows was best within

a few PAs, namely Valley of Flowers NP, parts of Nanda Devi

BR, Kedarnath WLS, and interiors of Tehri-Uttarkashi

districts in Uttarakhand. The sub-alpine slopes of Thajwas

WLS and Amarnath were dominated by a least preferred,

unpalatable grass Stipa sibirica. Some of the heavily

degraded alpine sites included Dayara, Auli, Panwali Kantha,

Kedarkantha in Uttarakhand, Churdhar, Sangla Valley,

Rohtang-Bhrigu Tal, Rupi Bhaba WLS in Himachal Pradesh,

and Amarnath, Thajwas areas in Kashmir. The alpine slopes

in Sangla Valley and many parts of Lahul are vulnerable to

encroachment, especially for cultivation of cash crops, such

as Green Pea ( Pisum sativum). Within the Zanskar range,

conservation status of pastures was best along the left bank

of Surra river, especially from Rangdum to Nun Kun base.

These slopes were reported to have moderate livestock

grazing and support a reasonably good population of Blue

Sheep. Thajwas WLS is grazed by more than 2500 sheep and

goats and over 200 ponies during summer (June-September).

According to the wildlife authorities, upper reaches of

Thajwas support a small population of Hangul (Kashmir Stag),

Himalayan Musk Deer and Asiatic Black Bear. The Sanctuary

is contiguous with upper parts of Dachigam NP. The alpine

slopes on way to Amarnath are frequently broken due to

avalanches and landslips. The estimated area of alpine

meadows in the vicinity of Amarnath is about 250 sq. km and

over 3000 sheep and goats and 100 mules graze on the alpine

slopes. In addition, every year the Amarnath area is visited

by over two lakh pilgrims. Trampling of the alpine vegetation,

overgrazing by pack animals and littering the trail with non-

biodegradable waste have led to severe degradation of this

alpine habitat.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

9

PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

CONCLUSION

Landscape level survey of the alpine zone in the

western Himalaya revealed several facets of pastoral

practices, distribution and abundance of wild mammals and

conservation issues. Livestock density in the alpine areas of

Uttarakhand was higher compared to those of Himachal

Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. There were no significant

differences in the livestock densities within and outside the

PAs, barring a few PAs in Uttarakhand. Influx of large herds

from Himachal Pradesh to the alpine areas of Uttarakhand

during the recent decades, and increase in the population of

heavy livestock, especially around treeline are causes for

concern and need to be addressed urgently.

Low abundance of wildlife in most of the areas can be

attributed to habitat degradation and loss due to excessive

grazing by migratory and resident livestock. Larger PAs and

remote valleys allow adequate spatio-temporal separation

among domestic livestock and wild ungulates. Such areas had

higher abundance of wild mammals and better conservation

status of meadows, provided there was low pressure from

tourism and pilgrimage. Based on the habitat characteristics

and evidences of trans-Himalayan mammals (direct and indirect),

it is recommended that northern parts of Uttarakhand be included

under Biogeographic zone IB (Trans-Himalaya) by making

appropriate amendments in the current biogeographic

classification by Rodgers and Panwar ( 1988).

A large number of meadows (31% of the survey localities)

were heavily degraded due to extensive grazing by livestock.

39% of the meadows were moderately degraded and only a

Bagchi, S., C. Mishra & Y.V. Bhatnagar (2004): Conflicts between

traditional pastoralism and conservation of Himalayan Ibex

( Capra ibex sibirica) in the Trans-Himalayan mountains. Anim.

Conserv.7: 121-128.

Bhatnagar, Y.V.. G.S. Rawat, A.J.T. Johnsingh & M. Stuwe (2000):

Ecological separation between Ibex and resident livestock in a

Trans-Himalayan protected area. Pp. 70-83. In: Grassland

Ecology and Management in Protected Areas of Nepal

(Eds: Richard C.. K. Basnet, J.P. Sah & Y. Raut). International

Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Korner, C. (1999): Alpine Plant Life. Springer- Verlag, Berlin.

Mani, M.S. (1974): Ecology and Biogeography in India. W. Junk

Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands.

Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Penguin Book

India (P) Ltd. & Dorling Kindersley, New Delhi.

Mishra, C. (2001 ): High altitude survival. Conflicts between pastoralism

and wildlife in the Trans-Himalaya. Doctoral Thesis,

Wageningen University, The Netherlands.

Negi, G.C.S., H.C. Rikhari, J. Ram & S.P. Singh (1993): Foraging niche

characteristics of horses, sheep and goats in an alpine meadow

of the Indian Central Himalaya. J. Applied Ecology 30: 383-

394.

few (8%) sites represent pristine meadows. Quantitative

information on the extent of degradation within and outside

various PAs would be necessary in order to monitor the

condition of meadows or formulate recovery plans.

Management authorities need to rationalize livestock grazing

within high altitude PAs in order to pursue conservation

objectives and check further degradation of the alpine

meadows in the Himalaya.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The alpine expedition was sponsored by the Herbal

Research and Development Institute (HRDI), Gopeshwar.

I am grateful to the following officials of the Uttarakhand

Government for facilitating the survey: Dr. R.S. Tolia, Ex -Chief

Secretary, Mrs. Vibha Puri Das, Principal Secretary,

Shri S. Chandola, Chief Wildlife Warden, Uttarakhand,

Shri S.K. Singh, Director, HRDI and Prof. A.N. Purohit,

M.L. Bharatiya Chair at HRDI.

I thank all the members of the expedition, especially

Mr. Gajendra Singh, Mr. Manoj Chandran, Mr. K.S. Rawat,

and Dr. GS. Goraya for their wonderful company. Thanks are

also due to the Chief Wildlife Warden, Himachal Pradesh and

the Chief Wildlife Warden, Jammu and Kashmir, various

officials of the Indian Army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police

for their unconditional support during the survey in remote

localities. Shri PR. Sinha, Director and other colleagues

from Wildlife Institute of India, namely Drs. B.S. Adhikari,

K. Ramesh and Manoj Agarwal are thanked for their

encouragement and help.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society. Reprint.

Rawat, GS. (1998): Temperate and Alpine Grasslands of the Himalaya:

Ecology and Conservation. Parks 8(3): 27-36.

Rawat, G.S. (2005): Alpine Meadows of Uttaranchal: Ecology, land use

practices and status of medicinal and aromatic plants. Bishen

Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

Rawat, GS. & B.S. Adhikari (2005): Millennia of grazing history in

eastern Ladakh, India, reflected in rangeland vegetation.

Pp: 199-210. In: Land Use Change and Mountain Biodiversity

(Eds: Spehn, E.M., M. Liberman & Ch. Komer). CRC Press, NY,

USA.

Rawat, GS., B.S. Adhikari, & B.S. Rana (2001): Vegetation surveys in

the Indian Trans-Himalaya. Pp. 7-14. In: Conserving Biodiversity

in the Trans-Himalaya: New Initiatives of Field Conservation in

Ladakh (Ed: Anon.). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Rau, M.A. ( 1975): High Altitude Flowering Plants of West Himalaya.

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, India.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a wildlife protected

area network in India. Vol. I & II. A report prepared for the

Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, Government

of India. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

10

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PASTORAL PRACTICES, WILD MAMMALS AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF ALPINE MEADOWS

Sathyakumar, S., S.N. Prasad, G.S. Rawat & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993):

Conservation status of Himalayan Musk Deer and livestock

impacts in Kedamath Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Himalaya.

Pp: 240-245. hi. High Altitudes of the Himalaya (Eds: Pangtey,

Y.PS & R.S. Rawal). Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital.

Shah, M.H. (1988): Role of nomads in the destruction of alpine and

subalpine pastures and future strategies. Pp. 148-152.

In: Rangelands: resource and management (Eds: Singh, P. &

PS. Pathak). Range Management Society of India, Jhansi, India.

Sundriyal, R.C. (1989): Assessment of the grazing ability of an alpine

pasture in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. Environ. Ecol. 7(1):

247-249.

Tucker, R.P (1986): The evolution of transhumant grazing in the

Punjab Himalaya. Mountain Res. & Dev. 6(1): 17-28.

Vinod, T.R. & S. Sathyakumar (2005): Conservation status of mountain

ungulates in Great Himalayan National Park, Himachal Pradesh.

Pp. 35-39. In: Wildlife Conservation, Research and Management

(Eds: Jhala, Y.V., R. Chellam & Q. Qureshi). Wildlife Institute

of India, Dehradun.

Vishnu-Mittre (1984): Floristic changes in the Himalaya (southern

slopes) and Siwaliks from Mid-Tertiary to Recent times.

Pp. 483-503. In: The evolution of the east Asian Environment.

Vol. II. (Ed: Whyte, R.O.). Centre of Asian Studies, University

of Hongkong Press.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

11

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

12-18

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS:

REFLECTIONS AFTER THE BUGUN LIOCICHLA CASE1

Ragupathy Kannan2

'Accepted December 22, 2006

-Department of Biology, University of Arkansas - Fort Smith, Fort Smith, Arkansas 72913, USA.

Email: [email protected]

A new species of Liocichla (Aves: Timaliidae) was recently described (Athreya 2006) without the submission of a

proper voucher specimen. The author did not collect one on grounds that the species may be rare. The publication

evoked dismay among museum ornithologists who feel that the species should not have been formally described and

published without a proper voucher specimen, and that the bird may not be as rare as believed. There is also a feeling

outside of museum circles that the requirement of voucher specimens may be obsolete and that museum scientists are

insensitive to conservation concerns. This essay analyses this controversy and attempts to present the science behind

this sensitive issue, to facilitate future decision making. Topics covered include: similar cases in the past and the

criticisms they have evoked; why voucher specimens are indispensable for ornithological research and conservation;

why there may be no viable alternatives; how scientific collecting makes little or no impact in most bird populations;

whether bird journals should accept new descriptions without proper voucher specimens; and how modem museum

ornithologists are partners rather than adversaries in the cause of bird conservation.

Key words: New descriptions, voucher specimens. Museum collections, ICZN, Bugun Liocichla

INTRODUCTION

The recent description of the Bugun Liocichla Liocichla

bugunorum (Athreya 2006) created a stir in the popular media

world-wide, ostensibly because of the exquisitely pretty

appearance of this bird. In the New World, most new bird

descriptions make the cover of Auk or such journals, but not

leading newspapers. But Athreya’s paper also evoked frowns

in the ornithological community, especially among the

systematists who make their living studying avian diversity,

describing new species, or dealing with taxonomic

conundrums in ornithology, because this case represents one

of the few instances in literature in which a new bird species

was described sans a full museum specimen.

Athreya did not collect a specimen for fear that the

species may be rare, and therefore resorted to describing the

species primarily by using various photographs obtained from

mist-netted birds. He satisfied the rules of the International

Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) by obtaining and

depositing feather samples. This case may have added fuel

to the already widespread feeling that museum collections

are no longer necessary for describing new species. Worse,

in a country where bureaucratic hurdles for scientists are

already formidable, the case may actually make getting

scientific collecting permits tougher.

There also seems to be a general feeling in India (and

elsewhere in the world) that museum scientists are zealously

in pursuit of specimens, even at the expense of conservation.

Some people, including some experienced birdwatchers, feel

that collections can jeopardize survival of species. More

disturbing is the perceived transatlantic divide between

conservationists and museum ornithologists. Having worked

intensely on birds on both sides of the Atlantic, but not being

a systematist myself, I decided to research this issue.

1 corresponded with leading avian systematists in the USA.

and interviewed them personally. I read the extensive literature

available on this topic. I also had this article reviewed by

some of them (see Acknowledgements). This essay should

hopefully yield better insights into the science behind the

issue and dispel wrong notions that prevail.

First, I briefly present the cases in the past where new

descriptions have been published in the absence of a specimen

and the criticisms they have evoked. Then, I deal with the

systematists’ rationale for requiring specimens for new species

descriptions and their arguments on why judicious bird

collections make no significant inroads into bird populations.

I then deal with the delicate questions of whether rare birds

should be collected and if alternatives to collecting should be

explored. I also tackle the mistaken notion that museum

scientists are not conservationists, and briefly highlight how

museum collections actually enhance research and

conservation efforts in the long-term. Finally, I address the

issue of whether bird journals should accept new descriptions

without proper type specimens.

The precedents: new bird descriptions without proper voucher

specimens

In at least four instances in the past, new birds have

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS

been described using living specimens, of which I briefly

describe below the two most recent. The other two (Collar

1999) are: Delacour and Jabouille’s (1924) description of the

Imperial Pheasant ( Lophura imperialis)', and Sclater’s ( 1 863)

paper on Gallicolumba bartletti (= G. criniger).

A Malurine Wren, Malurus campbelli (Campbell’s Fairy-

Wren) was first described in 1983 from New Guinea, based

solely on photographs of five mist-netted birds that were

later released (Schodde and Weatherly 1983). Although they

distributed "near life-size” prints to leading bird museums,

the authors clearly violated ICZN rules which mandate “an

animal, or part of an animal” to be collected and preserved in

a museum as type material.

In August 1988, an unidentifiable bush-shrike was

captured, photographed, video-filmed, and tape-recorded in

central Somalia. The bird was apparently the only known

individual of the species in the wild. Civil unrest forced the

evacuation of the chief player(s) involved and the live bird

was brought to Germany, where it was kept alive. The bird

was then returned to Somalia in March 1990 (how it was

transported internationally is unclear), but because the original

area of capture was isolated by civil war, and because it “had

hardly any suitable habitat left”, it was not released back

where originally captured, but instead was liberated far from

the original place of capture on March 23, 1990, after more

than a year in captivity. Smith et al. ( 1991 ) described it as a

new species (Bulo Burti Boubou, Laniarius liberates ) based

on DNA sequence data obtained from blood samples taken

from the captive bird. The type material submitted included

DNA and blood samples, plus some moulted feathers.

These two cases triggered a firestorm of criticism from

systematists (LeCroy and Vuilleumier 1992; Peterson and

Lanyon 1992; Banks etal. 1993; Winker 1996). The practice of

neglecting the collection of proper voucher specimens was

called ‘sloppy science’, and the practitioners were labeled

‘misguided’ (Winker 1996). Banks et al. ( 1993) even urged

that "those who are unaware of or unwilling to abide by

accepted principles and practices of systematics and

taxonomy should excuse themselves from those aspects of

ornithology.” The rest of this essay addresses their chief

concerns.

Why are Voucher Specimens needed for New Bird

Descriptions?

This question is relevant considering the widespread

feeling that bird collections are leftover of the past and that

they are no longer needed. Banks et al. ( 1 993 ), in their scathing

rebuke of new descriptions without type specimens,

vehemently stressed the importance of defining a ‘name’ and

associating it with an available ‘type’. Many collection

opponents think that specimens are too primitive a way to

‘document the presence' of a species, and that any possible

gain in knowledge is simply not worth the killing of a bird.

These people generally do not appreciate the enduring value

of specimens, or the minute impact collecting has on bird

populations. In an excellent and highly detailed paper, Remsen

(1995) made powerful arguments on the importance of

continued collecting of bird specimens to bird studies and

conservation. Collections are not merely done to document

the presence of a bird, but rather to act as a permanent archive

from which an enormous amount of information can be gleaned

in the long-term (Parkes 1963; Remsen 1 995). Inquiries based

on careful examination of museum skins spawn many

unexpected and unanticipated surprises long after the

specimens themselves are added to the museum drawers,

ranging from delineation of new species or even new genera,

to documentation of phenotypic change in short timeframes,

to comparison of toxin levels over time (Remsen 1995; Rocque

and Winker 2005; Winker 2004; Winker 2005). Charles Darwin

recognized different species of finches in his collection only

after his return to England, and even today, his collections

are used by biologists (Diamond 1987). Museum specimens

are indispensable not only to delineate past and present

ranges of species and identify biodiversity hotspots for

protection, but also as basis for entire fields of scientific

endeavour (Foster and Cannell 1990). Even modern

techniques, such as stable isotope analysis, have relied on

archived museum specimens (Rocque and Winker 2005).

Without a proper voucher specimen, the taxonomic

status of the newly reported Liocichla will always be open to

doubt. Townsend Peterson, an accomplished systematic

ornithologist and conservationist, expressed concern that

describing new species without proper voucher specimens

could lead to serious problems in double-description of

species and confusion with nomenclature. In numerous

instances, new bird species have been recognized and

described only by careful scrutiny of museum specimens of a

wide spectrum of bird species, both the one described and its

allied forms. Diamond ( 1 987 ) mentioned a case from Australia

in which five new species, which would never have been

recognized as distinct species, were described based only by

a comparison of a series of museum specimens. For more on

the indispensable nature of voucher specimens, see the

examples in Bates etal. (2004).

So, one may ask, if voucher specimens are that

important, why isn’t the ICZN revised to explicitly state that?

I posed the same question to the systematists. Peterson felt

that the problem may be in the fact that even ‘full’ voucher

specimens are only part of the bird, and that the Code already

states that a part of the bird has to be deposited. Richard

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

13

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS

Banks said that the provision that part of an animal can be

used covers mammals (skull only in many cases) and

invertebrates too. In fact. Banks added, in some invertebrate

groups, a specimen must be virtually destroyed during the

identification process, leaving little or anything for a type.

The bottom-line: With so many exceptions and with such

wide variation in minimally acceptable criteria for type

specimens, the code is best left in general terms, to cover the

entire range of zoological taxa.

Why are Photographs and Feather samples insufficient for

New Bird Descriptions?

Although the photographs that accompanied the

Liocichla descriptions appear sharp and apparently serve their

purpose, in general, photographs are not always reliable

because they may not reveal critical characters and colour

shades may not be true (Remsen 1995). Aspects such as the

angle, light availability, quality of the device or film used, and

the photographer’s skill can influence the product. The

photograph may also change through time. More disturbingly,

many photographs can easily be doctored leaving open the

possibility of scientific fraud. Also, colour descriptions are

considered most reliable when standard colour charts (Smithe

1975-1981) are used in the field, which was not done in the

Liocichla description. Photographs are also deficient in that

they yield just a fraction of the information that can be obtained

from a type specimen (Goodman and Lanyon 1 994).

There was a time in the early 20th century and before,

when bird illustrations (paintings) were sometimes used as

the basis for new descriptions. This was before the tradition

of the preparation of specimens was established. The ICZN

recognizes and accepts this aspect of the past, emphasizing

that the type is the specimen illustrated and not the illustration

itself. But illustrations cannot be used now. To modern

museum ornithologists, photographs without a voucher

specimen are akin to such illustrations and may signify a step

backward to an outdated system. With modern preservation

methods available now, there is no need to return to the

decidedly weaker historic methods.

Feather samples deposited as voucher material would

have limited (if any) value, other than satisfying ICZN rules.

Non-destructive sampling of this kind does not yield the long-

term scientific benefits of proper type specimens (Christidis

1 995; Rocque and Winker 2005).

Does Modern Scientific Collecting Affect Bird Populations?

It is unclear whether or not scientific collecting played

a role in the extinction of any bird species. In some cases,

collecting along with deleterious practices, like logging, has

contributed to demise of populations, for e.g. the Ivory-billed

Woodpecker Campephilus principalis (Jackson 2002). But

modem scientific bird collecting makes little or no impact on

most local bird populations. Remsen (1995) and Winker (1996)

attributed anti-collection measures and the decline in numbers

of museum specimens to a mistaken focus on conservation at

the level of the individual rather than the population.

Whatever little impact is generated by collecting has little

import in the long-term because bird populations have

generally shown to be very resilient (Lack 1954). Remsen

( 1995) provided some compelling figures: Atypical common

passerine of tropical forest undergrowth occurs at a density

of one pair per five hectares, which translates to 20 pairs per

sq. km. If proper habitat is available, a miniscule 10 x 10 km

area can have 2,000 pairs of the species, which is “far more

individuals than exist in all world’s collections combined for

most tropical bird species after more than 1 50 years of scientific

collecting” (Remsen 1995). Collecting of birds for scientific

and educational purposes contributes a mere 0.0001 1 % to all

human-caused avian mortality ( Winker etal. 1991).

Also, given our knowledge of songbird population

dynamics, mortality induced by collecting is not additive, but

rather compensatory (K. Winker, pers. comm.; see next

section), meaning, the few individuals collected by scientists

become part of the population that would have died through

other means such as disease or starvation, carrying capacity

is not altered, and annual mortality of the population is not

affected, i.e. about the same number will exist at the next

breeding season, when the animals collected are replaced by

new recruits that would otherwise have not bred into the

breeding population (Remsen 1995; K. Winker, pers. comm.).

There is no evidence that scientific collections result in

additive mortality in birds.

Should Rare Birds be Collected?

Remsen (1995) warned that collecting specimens could

damage populations that are very small or those with poor

recruitment rates, and wrote that modern scientists would

object to collecting from these fragile populations. Does the

new Liocichla represent such a population? The answer is:

we don’t really know because we do not have adequate

population status data, and Athreya’s decision to not collect

one may even be justified given the unknown.

But many museum scientists would argue that Athreya

squandered an opportunity for practicing sound science.

Some of the systematists I interviewed or corresponded with

said they would have collected a specimen had they been in

his shoes. Kevin Winker, another accomplished museum

ornithologist, wrote “Since Ramana Athreya first encountered

the species in 1995, many have died, and collecting is not

additive but rather compensatory mortality, so the natural

14

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS

loss of individuals in this population has exceeded the impact

that the collection of a type would have had.” Winker further

added that in this case, with some creativity, we could have

put forth the best conservation and best museum science by

bringing several birds into captivity for a captive breeding

program, and when the first individual died of old age, it could

have been preserved and formed the basis for a new species

description. He also suggested that by this time the new name

could have been auctioned off to a high bidder and thus the

species’ conservation (and, if I may add, the economy of the

Bugun tribe that Athreya obviously cares about) placed on a

firmer financial footing.

Townsend Peterson echoed similar sentiments. When

I asked if he would have collected a specimen had he known

the bird was very rare and that a collection could jeopardize

the survival as a species, he replied "I sincerely doubt that

these populations are so small. If your species really just had

six individuals left, what is the probability that the describer

saw all of them?” He added that he is almost certain that

many more individuals exist, and for that reason would feel

comfortable collecting one.

In an article criticizing the bush-shrike case, Peterson

and Lanyon ( 1992) argued that, given what is known about

the dynamics of songbird populations, “any songbird species

represented by so few individuals, that a single individual

represents a sizeable proportion of the breeding population,

will be extinct in a very short span of time.” So what should

the scientific world do if there is just one bird of a species left

in the wild (or two or more of the same sex)? Wouldn’t it be

better to collect a specimen, rather than for the species to

vanish into thin air with no clear documentation of it having

ever existed? Are we not better off having that mounted (albeit

depressing) specimen of the extinct Great Auk (Pinguinus

impennis ) staring out of the glass case in that museum? Let

posterity at least see in a museum what we have extinguished

from the wild.

Why can't some ‘Less HarmfuPAlternatives to Collecting

be Explored?

Museum scientists maintain that there simply is no viable

alternative to collecting. Remsen (1995) analysed in depth

the various proposed alternatives, from examination of live

birds in hand, to obtaining photographs (see above) and blood

and tissue samples, and methodically highlighted the

drawbacks of every one of them, drawbacks that can only be

solved by the collection of a museum specimen. Even such

perceived non-harmful measures such as mist-netting1, bird-

ringing, and colour-banding (see Hagan and Reed 1988) are

not as innocuous as they are touted to be. The annual

mortality caused by ringing far exceeds that caused by

scientific collecting (Remsen 1995). Handling can also cause

birds to abandon the area (Poulin et al. 1994, as cited in

Remsen 1995). As for the collection of molecular evidence,

see the section on that topic elsewhere (below) in this essay.

Are museum scientists “blood-thirsty"?

So, are Townsend Peterson et al. so singularly focused

on getting specimens that they don’t care for conservation?

Are they "obsessively’ arguing for collecting to keep their

jobs? Remsen (1995) addressed these issues. He and others

say that museum work enhances knowledge and awareness,

and that this directly or indirectly impacts positively on bird

conservation. “Many influential conservationists, from

Theodore Roosevelt to Theodore Parker, collected and

continue to collect museum specimens” wrote Remsen, and

he added that Parker used specimens in more than 65% of his

technical papers. Most modem museum scientists, according

to Remsen, are also conservationists in practice and spirit,

and most feel that the killing of birds for museums is

“necessary but distasteful”. Museum scientists are as

interested in the living bird as non-museum scientists, and

almost all pursue other avenues of inquiry pertaining to live

birds like vocalizations and ecology. The tally of specimens

‘bagged’ is not an index to the caliber of a museum scientist

(Remsen 1995), contrary to Beane (1991 ), who claimed that

“ornithologists are measured by the number of birds they

have collected”.

As discussed earlier, some museum scientists would

have readily collected the new Liocichla, a deed that

conservation organizations would not have readily

advocated. Collar (1999) described the rather unusual

circumstances behind the bush-shrike case (having been the

one who recommended that the shrike be kept alive) wherein

a conservation organization (he heads BirdLife International)

was seemingly at odds with museum science. Reading Collar’s

(1999, 2000, 2003) papers and extensive commentaries on the

topic, I am convinced, as he was, that the way out of this

apparent conflict is for museums and conservation

organizations to work interactively and not become too

territorial in their missions.

One of my Indian colleagues, a seasoned birdwatcher

and conservationist, called this push for voucher specimens

an "American thing’, and lamented that “the fact that the bird

is pretty rare does not bother them.” He referred to the Banks

'Townsend Peterson pointed out (by way of informal conversation) that one of the Liocichla pictures (Pic. 9) in Athreya’s (2006) paper depicted

a bird with half-closed eyes - an apparent sign, he said, of fatigue or trauma. He hastened to clarify that he was not implying that the netters abused

the bird. I added this footnote in relation to the point I raised about the perceived safety of bird netting.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

15

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS

et al. ( 1993) paper to support that assertion. But the fact is

Banks’ paper was endorsed by scientists from 18 countries2

on both sides of the Atlantic. Another widely circulated

statement summarizing the importance of scientific collecting

was endorsed by 294 ornithologists from 61 countries, and

only four ornithologists disagreed with the statement

(Goodman and Lanyon 1994). For some excellent examples of

conservation-oriented papers authored or co-authored by

American museum ornithologists, see Remsen ( 1 978), Remsen

and Parker ( 1983), Osborne and Peterson (1984), Remsen et

al. ( 1991 ), Peterson etal. ( 1993), Parker et al. ( 1993), Escalante-

Pliego and Peterson (1994), Hemandez-Banos et al. ( 1995),

Remsen and Parker ( 1995), Johnson et al. (1998), Peterson

and Navarro-Siguenza (1999), and Peterson and Robbins

(1999). There is, and should be, no transatlantic divide

between museum science and conservation.

Would molecular evidence not suffice?

I added this question, although it is not an issue with

the current Liocichla case, because this question is

increasingly asked in this era of DNA techniques. Hughes

( 1992a3), in a follow-up to the bush-shrike description, opined

that in the case of new descriptions of species that are

endangered, catch-and-release is the only ethical course to

take. He added, “a DNA sample can potentially provide far

more information about the relatedness of any organic species

than a museum specimen could ever do.” Peterson and Lanyon

(1992) interpreted that comment as a call against museum

collection (which Hughes [ 1992b] denied in his rebuttal) and

pointed out that the bird was not described on the basis of

DNA comparisons only, and that if the bird had not been

distinct in colour and morphology, it would never even have

been noticed. They pointed out that DNA studies cannot

provide the suite of information that can be gleaned only via

an examination of museum specimens. “The vast majority of

the 9000+ currently recognized bird species is supported by a

museum study skin”, they wrote, and then ask rhetorically,

“after over 90% of the world's bird species have been described,

is it logical to select an entirely new form of documentation?”

(Peterson and Lanyon 1992). Lor some specific Old World

examples to illustrate why blood alone is not enough to decode

taxonomic puzzles, see Bates etal. (2004).

My perusal of the literature convinces me that molecules

and biochemicals complement, rather than replace, voucher

specimens. Winker (1996), in an excellent and widely-cited

essay entitled 'The Crumbling Infrastructure of Biodiversity’,

wrote “Because ornithology has a skin-based taxonomy, the

preservation of skins as vouchers is mandatory - and is simply

good field science.” Molecular data, he said, are the strongest

when they accompany phenotypic evidence, and cited several

key articles. Remsen (1995) also cited several papers that

demonstrate that genotypic and phenotypic evidence when

used in tandem can offer dramatic new insights into avian

evolution. Therefore, to again quote Winker (1996),

“Molecules give added scope, but will never serve as a

replacement for a taxonomy based on two centuries of careful

examination of phenotypes.”

Should bird journals accept new species descriptions without

proper voucher specimens?

Banks etal. ( 1993) strongly recommended that editors

of bird journals or ‘other literature concerning birds’ summarily

reject and refuse to publish papers that attempt to describe

new taxa without a proper specimen deposited in a museum.

In an interview published shortly after the publication of the

discovery, Ramana Athreya is quoted to have said “With

today’s modern technology, we could gather all the

information we needed to confirm it as a new species. We

took feathers and photographs, and recorded the bird’s song.”

Many systematists would argue that full confirmation and

the species’ exact taxonomic status is possible only by a

methodical examination of museum skins of various

individuals of this and all related species in a museum setting.

In light of all other comments he made on this subject (covered

in this essay). Winker told me that no bird journal should

accept a description of a new species without a type specimen.

Peterson was more circumspect, saying, "The Code has clear

guidelines about whether a publication qualifies, and I would

suspect that Indian Birds does qualify.” He said that Athreya

should have written an article informing and documenting

the discovery of the species, but should not have gone to the

extent of formally describing it without a proper type

specimen. He added: “Reviewers for a major ornithological

journal... would likely have urged the author to collect a

specimen as clear documentation of the species.”

There is a precedent to informally reporting a putative

new species. King et al. (1999) reported “An undescribed

Muscicapa flycatcher” from Sulawesi, Indonesia, based solely

2Ironically. one of the signatories of the Banks et al. (1993) paper was R. Schodde, who authored the new Malurine Wren description without a

voucher specimen (Schodde and Weatherly 1983). Schodde now chairs the Standing Committee on Ornithological Nomenclature of the I.O.C.

(R. Banks, pers. comm.).

'Hughes, apparently lacking the eye for detail that taxonomists are known for. misspelled the generic name of the Bulo Burti Bush-shrike as

“ Lanarius ” throughout the document.

16

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS

on field observations, and wrote “A formal description of the

species is not possible with this limited information.” They

added that they wrote the note “to call attention to its existence

and to facilitate further study.”

CONCLUSIONS

I hope this essay enhances awareness of the science

and sentiments behind the issue. The best end to the whole

episode would, of course, be the obtaining of a proper

specimen without jeopardizing the species’ overall status. I

am an ardent conservationist, but I must admit I was swayed

by the arguments in favour of collecting a specimen right

away. Given that Bugun Liocichlas have been around rather

predictably in that same sanctuary for more than a decade,

and given that it is a protected area with no immediate threat

of habitat destruction, I am confident that the collecting of a

specimen will have no long-term negative effect on the local

population. But this is just my opinion based on perusal of

literature and interaction with some experts 10,000 km away.

The decision makers are those on ground zero and I wish

them the best as they collect status information and other

pertinent data, and as they negotiate bureaucratic problems

(I am sure getting a collecting permit would not be easy). I

also urge them to make their best decision based on sound

science and conservation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This essay was initiated and shaped largely by many

conversations I had with the following three avian systematists

and conservationists at the 4th North American Ornithological

Conference in Veracruz, Mexico: K. Winker (University of

Alaska Museum, Fairbanks), A.T. Peterson (Natural History

Museum and Biodiversity Research Center, University of

Kansas), and J.V. Remsen, Jr. (Museum of Natural Science,

Louisiana State University). I am particularly thankful to all

three of them for their detailed reviews of this article. They

patiently and substantively answered a multitude of queries

(electronically and in person) and directed me to numerous

literature sources. Their dedication to the cause of bird

conservation and museum research was clearly evident.

Richard Banks clarified some issues by correspondence. My

colleagues Tom Buchanan, Kristine Garner, Amy Skypala,

Althea Rhodes and Roy Hill made useful comments on an

earlier draft of the essay. The University of Arkansas - Fort

Smith (UAFS), provided financial support to enable my travel

to the Mexico conference. The staff at the Boreham Library at

the UAFS, especially Wilma Cunningham, Martha Coleman

and Carolyn Filippelli, placed their excellent facilities at my

full disposal for this project. Amrit Kannan assisted in word-

processing.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

19-29

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA1

Aisha Sultana2-4, M. Shah Hussain3 and Jamal A. Khan2-5

'Accepted December 22, 2004

Conservation Ecology Research Group, Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002,

Uttar Pradesh, India.

3CEMDE, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, Delhi, India.

Email: [email protected]

-“Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]. in

Two areas rich in avifauna, Vinaiyak and Pindari reserve forests in Kumaon, were surveyed in 1 998 and 2000. A total of

165 bird species were recorded in Vinaiyak and 121 bird species were recorded in Pindari Reserve Forest. The diversity

of bird species was highest in the oak habitat in Pindari both during pre-monsoon and post monsoon seasons, while in

Vinaiyak it was highest in the oak habitat during pre-monsoon. The insectivore guild was dominant over all other guilds

in both areas. Conservation problems are discussed briefly and recommendations made.

Key words: avian communities, species diversity, species richness, proposed sanctuaries, habitat types,

conservation

INTRODUCTION

The Himalaya, which supports many endemic and

endangered plant and animal species, is divided into three

parts, namely Eastern, Central and Western Himalaya. The

Kumaon Himalaya marks the eastern limit of the Western

section. The region has witnessed fast depletion of its forest

cover and rich biodiversity in recent decades. Development

in the area has fragmented the once continuous forest. Several

studies of biodiversity status have been carried out, but they

mainly cover vegetational aspects (Saxena and Singh 1982;

Pangtey et al. 1982; Singh et al. 1984; Saxena et al. 1985;

Saxena and Singh 1984; Samant et al. 1993; Rikhari et al.

1989; Dhar etal. 1997), while studies on the faunal component

were lacking till recently. Kaul 1993, Shah Hussain etal 1997,

Sultana and Khan 1999, Sultana and Khan 2000 and Hussain

etal. 2000 have reported birds and large mammals of Kumaon.

These studies have identified areas rich in biodiversity.

Sultana and Khan 1999 and Hussain et al. 2000 suggested

that Pindari and Vinaiyak reserve forests be declared as wildlife

sanctuaries, since they possess higher diversity of both Bora

and fauna compared to other locations in Kumaon.

Birds are important indicators of opportunities to

conserve ecosystems. Moreover, assessment of bird

communities can be utilized to develop conservation strategies

for particular habitats or regions. The two areas of Kumaon

studied here have been proposed as wildlife sanctuaries.

Pindari has also been identified as an Important Bird Area in

the Western Himalaya (Jhunjhunwala etal. 2001 ). The status

of avian communities for these sites will be useful in preparing

comprehensive conservation strategies for the proposed

sanctuaries.

STUDY AREA

The study was conducted in Vinaiyak in the Nainital

district, and Pindari in the Bageshwar district of Kumaon

(Fig. 1 ). Both fall under the reserve forest protected area category.

Vinaiyak Reserve Forest

This Reserve Forest (29° 27 45.4" N and 79° 24' 3 1 .8" E)

covers 15.32 sq. km. The elevation ranges from 1 ,900-2,623 m

and represents Himalayan temperate forest (Champion and

Seth 1968), with two broad habitat types, i.e. oak and mixed

coniferous forest.

Plant genera include Quercus floribuncla , Quercus

leucotricophora, Quercus semecarpifolia , Abies pindrow ,

Taxus buccata , Cedrus deodara. Cupressus torulosa ,

Rhododendron arboreum , Betula utilis , Picea smithiana as

dominant tree species, while major shrub species are

Arundenaria spp., Berberis aristata , Myrcine africana,

Rubus biflorous , Indigofera heterantha. The mammalian fauna

includes Indian Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa ), Leopard (Panthera

pardus ), Barking Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak), Sambar (Cervus

unicolor), Goral (Naemorhedus goral), Himalayan Black Bear

(Selenarctos thibetanus ), Yellow-throated Marten (Martes

flavigula), Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes), Kashmir Flying Squirrel

(Hylopetes funbriatus). Golden Jackal ( Canis aureus). Rhesus

Macaque (Macaco mulatto) and Common Langur (Presbytis

entellus).

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

1 . Pindari forest complex

2. Vinaiyak forest complex

• District headquarters

Fig. 1: Location of the proposed Pindari and Naina Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Kumaon Himalaya, India

Pindari Reserve Forest

This Reserve Forest (30° IT 1 1.3" N and 79° 59' 30" E)

encompasses an area of 58.25 sq. km. Altitude ranges from

2,000 m to >4,000 m and it represents temperate ( 1 ,500-3,500 m)

to alpine (>4,000 m) climatic conditions (Champion and Seth

1968). Being very close to Pindari, Kafni and Sunderdunga

glaciers, the area experiences extreme weather conditions. There

are three distinct seasons, summer (April-mid June), monsoon

(June to September) and winter (October to March) (Adhikari

etal. 1992). Mean temperature varies from 2° C (February) to

31° C (June) (Adhikari et al. 1992). The vegetation is moist

temperate type (Champion and Seth 1968). The major tree species

include Quercus semecarpifolia, Abies pindrow , Taxits buccata ,

Betula utilis in association with Rhododendron bar bat um, Acer

caesium and Aesculus indica. The dominant shrub species

included Arundinella nepalensis , Athyrium spp., Polystichum

spp., Pteris cretica , Daphne papyracea , Urtica dioca and

Pyrancantha crenulata.

The area holds some endangered mammals, such as Musk

Deer Moschus moschiferus (endangered), Himalayan Tahr

Hemitragus jemlahicus (suspected to be endangered), Serow

Capricomis sumatraensis (possibly endangered), Himalayan

Black Bear' Selenarctos thibetanus. Leopard Panthera pardus,

and Snow Leopard Uncia uncia (endangered).

METHODOLOGY

Sampling of avian community: Sampling was carried

out in Vinaiyak Reserve Forest in the pre-monsoon (March-

June) and post monsoon seasons (September-December)

1998, and in pre-monsoon season (April-May) 2000. In Pindari

Reserve Forest, surveys were conducted during pre-monsoon

season (March-June) 1998 and post monsoon season

(October-November) 2000.

20

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Table 1: Number of birdlists compiled in Vinaiyak Reserve Forest

and Pindari Reserve Forest in different habitat types during

pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons

Oak-deg = Oak degraded, Grl = Grassland

Birds were sampled in stratified random manner. Two

habitat types were identified in Vinaiyak Reserve Forest,

namely oak and mixed-coniferous forests, ranging from 2,000

to 2,300 m; five habitat types were recognized in Pindari

Reserve Forest, namely oak, mixed-coniferous, grassland

(alpine pasture), oak-degraded and oak-mixed-coniferous

forests 2,200 to 4,200 m. Sites were selected randomly within

a habitat, ensuring that they were at least 100 m apart, to

avoid overlap. Species richness counting method ( MacKinnon

and Phillips 1993) was used to assess overall density and

richness of birds. Each bird list consisted of only 10 or 20

consecutive species seen, irrespective of distance covered

or time spent. No species was included more than once on

any list, but common species were listed on many different

lists. Bird listing locations in the sampling area were repeated

on different days. Atotal of 419 and 1 19 bird lists were compiled

in Vinaiyak and Pindari respectively (Table 1 ). Birds in flight

and nocturnal species were excluded. Data were not collected

during rainfall and dense fog, but drizzle or a light breeze was

accepted, as bird activity in the forest interior was not affected.

Data analyses: Data collected by species richness

counting method were analysed by the species effort curves

(Magurran 1988) to determine whether the area had been

exhaustively covered. The time spent in each area was

unequal, so data matrices were standardized following Zar

( 1984) to achieve normality and reduce heteroscedasticity.

Species richness (Rl) was calculated following

Margelef’s richness index (Magurran 1988).

S-l/ln N where S = Total number of species, N = Total

number of individuals

Species diversity was calculated by Shannon- Weiner

index (Magurran 1988).

H’ = - X pi In pi where pi = proportion of individuals

found in the ith species

This index assumes that individuals are randomly

sampled from an ‘indefinitely large’ population and all species

are represented in the sample (Pielou 1966).

Sorenson's similarity index (SI) (Magurran 1988) was

calculated for different habitat types for both sites by the

formula:

SI = 2 x common species between two habitats / total

number of species.

This technique looks at the similarity of pairs of habitats

in terms of presence or absence of species (qualitative data).

All species were classified according to status following

Ali and Ripley (1987) and feeding guild, i.e. insectivore,

omnivore, fruigivore, granivore, nectarivore and carnivore as

classified by Karr (1971).

The total number of species for each habitat was

calculated by adding species from different lists compiled.

All bird records were pooled to prepare a comprehensive

checklist for both sites.

RESULTS

A total of 199 bird species were recorded, of which 121

were encountered in Pindari, and 165 in Vinaiyak. A

comprehensive checklist of all bird species along with

information on habitat types was combined for both sites

(Appendix). The MacKinnon curves reached asymptote level

in each habitat at each reserve. This varied for different

habitats and seasons. For example, in oak habitat of Pindari

Reserve Forest, the asymptote was reached after 23 bird lists

during pre-monsoon season, while during post monsoon

months it was reached after nine bird lists (Figs 2, 3, 4 & 5).

Tables 2 & 3 show classification of 199 bird species by

feeding guilds. The highest number of bird species belonged

to the insectivore guild in all habitats, except in the grassland

of Pindari where omnivores (45.45%) predominated. The

contribution of insectivore differed between the seasons in

all habitat types of Pindari, while it was the same for both

habitats of Vinaiyak in both seasons.

Table 2: Classification of birds (percentage of species)

according to their guilds in Vinaiyak Reserve Forest during

pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons 1998

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

21

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

80

NUMBER OF BIRD LISTS

NUMBER OF BIRD LISTS

Fig. 2: Number of bird lists plotted against cumulative number of

species during pre-monsoon season at Pindari Reserve Forest

80

Fig. 3: Number of bird lists plotted against cumulative number of

species during post-monsoon season at Pindari Reserve Forest

Sorenson’s similarity index showed greatest similarity

(0.96) in terms of bird species in mixed and oak habitats of

Pindari during post monsoon months, followed by mixed and

oak-degraded habitats (0.76). During the pre-monsoon

season, the maximum similarity (0.89) was observed between

Fig. 4: Number of bird lists plotted against cumulative number of

species during pre-monsoon season at Vinaiyak Reserve Forest

120 i

100

0 Imrrrr rrTTrTTrrm mi n

1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 106

NUMBER OF BIRD LISTS

Fig. 5: Number of bird lists plotted against cumulative number of

species during post-monsoon season at Vinaiyak Reserve Forest

oak and oak-degraded habitats, followed by oak and mixed

habitats (0.53) (Tables 4 & 5).

Birds were also classified according to their status in

Pindari and Vinaiyak (Table 6). Resident bird species

predominated at both sites.

22

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Table 3: Classification of birds (percentage of species)

according to their guilds in Pindari Reserve Forest during

pre-monsoon season 1998 and post-monsoon season 2000

Oak-deg = Oak degraded, Grl = Grassland

Bird species diversity and richness were calculated for

different habitat types of Vinaiyak and Pindari reserve forests

as well as for different locations of Pindari (Tables 7 and 8).

Diversity was greatest in oak habitat in Pindari during both

seasons (BSD = 3.77 and 3.66), while in Vinaiyak it was greatest

in oak habitat during pre-monsoon season ( BSD = 3.99), but

post monsoon it was high in mixed habitat (BSD = 3.54).

Bird species richness varied between habitats at both

sites. It was highest in oak habitat (BSR - 1 1 .57) during pre-

monsoon season in Pindari, while highest in mixed habitat,

during post-monsoon season. In Vinaiyak, BSR was greatest

in mixed habitat in both seasons.

DISCUSSION

The unequal sampling of birds in different habitat types

does not allow rigorous treatment of differences in species

richness of each site. Besides, this method does not allow

any habitat quantification, so bird-habitat relationships were

not explored. However, comparison of number of species

sighted, species richness and diversity showed that these

parameters do differ between habitats. For example, fewer

bird lists in Pindari yielded relatively higher numbers of species

compared to Vinaiyak.

Bird species diversity and richness were highest in oak

habitat in Pindari, both pre- and post-monsoon. Oak provides

a pristine and suitable habitat for many bird species. But bird

species richness was also high in oak degraded habitat.

Studies in the Western Ghats (Daniels et al. 1992) and in the

Terai region (Javed 1996) have shown similar results. They

Table 4: Percentage similarity (Sorenson's Similarity Index)

in bird species composition in different habitats

of Pindari Reserve Forest during pre-monsoon season 1998

Table 5: Percentage similarity (Sorenson's Similarity Index)

in bird species composition in different habitats

of Pindari Reserve Forest during post-monsoon season 2000

Oak-deg = Oak degraded, Grl = Grassland

refuted the null hypothesis that bird diversity and density

were least in disturbed habitats. Birds prefer relatively open

areas for feeding and perching. In Vinaiyak, species diversity

was highest in the oak habitat before monsoon and in the

mixed habitat after monsoon. The majority of fruiting tree and

shrub species, such as Myrica esculent a , Rufus biflorous,

Berberis aristata and Quercus sp., occurred only in oak

habitat. Insectivores dominated the oak habitat at both sites,

but not grasslands of Pindari, where omnivores were more in

number. Alpine grasslands are generally located at higher

altitudes (>3,000 m) where only omnivores can survive.

The majority of species of pristine habitat are clearly

adaptable to habitat degradation and occur in reasonable

abundance in disturbed habitat. In Pindari, Alpine Swift

Tachymarptis melba, Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker

Dendrocopos auriceps , Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak

Mycerobas icterioides , Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Sitta

castanaea and Grey-winged Blackbird Turdus boulboul were

abundant in oak habitat. Red-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax

pyrrhocorax and Yellow-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax graculus

were found in grassland only, whereas Alpine Accentor

Prunella collaris , Brown Bullfinch Pyrrhula nipalensis ,

Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush Monticola rufiventris , and

Long-tailed Thrush Zoothera dixoni were found in mixed

habitat only. These are large-bodied birds, which need open

space to perch and feed. These species were also found in

disturbed areas of their habitat in large numbers. Golden Bush-

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

23

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Table 6: Classification of birds according to their status

in Pindari and Vinaiyak Reserve Forests

Robin Tarsiger chrysaeus , Little Pied Flycatcher Ficedula

westermanni, Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae.

Yellow-billed Blue Magpie Urocissa flavirostris and Emerald

Dove Chalcophaps indica were oak habitat specific species

in Vinaiyak, while White-cheeked Nuthatch Sitta leucopsis ,

Spotted Nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes , Eurasian Tree

Pipit Anthus trivialis, Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus and

Lesser-Racket tailed Drongo Dicrurus remifer were mixed

coniferous specific birds.

In the Kurnaon Himalaya, temperate forest includes

mixed broad leaves, moist oak and rhododendron and dry

coniferous forest of pines and firs. Higher up, sub-alpine

forests of birch, rhododendron and juniper occur. The forests

of this region are vitally important for many species. Several

widespread endemic species such as Plum-headed parakeet

Psittacula cynocephala are usually confined to tropical

deciduous forest, but this species was sighted in temperate

forest up to 2,300 m in Kurnaon. Temperate forests support a

high proportion of species with restricted distributions,

notably the White-throated Tit Aegithalos niveogularis,

which frequents bushes in mixed forest and dwarf shrub

berries near the tree line during the breeding season (Grimmett

et al. 1998). This bird was frequently sighted in Pindari and

Vinaiyak. Another Himalayan endemic Pied Thrush Zoothera

wardii , which breeds in open broad-leaved forest, was seen

twice in Pindari and once in Vinaiyak. BirdLife International

(2000) has found that restricted range species tend to occur

at sites, which are islands or isolated patches of a particular

habitat. This is known as endemism, and such sites are often

called Endemic Bird Areas or ‘conservation hotspots’. Eight

centres of endemism have been identified in the Indian

subcontinent, and the Western Himalaya is among them

(Grimmett etal. 1998). The 11 species endemic to the Western

Himalaya include the probably extinct Himalayan Quail

Ophrysia superciliosa , which was once distributed in

Nainital region. Among other species, the Cheer pheasant

Catreus wallichii thought to be at risk of extinction was

sighted in Pindari and Vinaiyak. Another pheasant. Satyr

Tragopan Tragopan satyr a (near threatened) is also restricted

to the western Kurnaon Himalaya, but is not found in Garhwal

Himalaya. All these species are threatened due to habitat

loss and hunting.

There are only two wildlife sanctuaries in Kurnaon,

i.e. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary (Pithoragarh district, 600 sq. km)

and Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary (Bageshwar district,

45.59 sq. km). The area protected (3.1%) is too small in

comparison with the total geographical area (21,032 sq. km).

Both sanctuaries face severe threats due to anthropogenic

activities. Therefore, in order to conserve endemic bird species,

pheasants, endangered mammals and plant species, more areas

have to be brought under the protected area network.

We have in our earlier study (Hussain et al. 2000),

recommended creation of two more sanctuaries (the present

study sites), in Bageshwer district (Pindari forest complex)

and in Nainital district (Kilbery-Vinaiyak-Kunjakharak forest

complex), which would conserve the entire biodiversity. Blue

prints for these proposed sanctuaries were prepared from

the toposheet of Survey of India (Govt, of India). The Kilbery,

Vinaiyak and Kunjakharak forest complex (proposed Naina

Wildlife Sanctuary) and the forest patches of Dhakuri, Khati,

Pindari and Sunderdunga (Pindari forest complex; proposed

Pindari Wildlife Sanctuary) are contiguous and therefore of

greater conservation value. Moreover, an extensive

community awareness and education program should be

carried out to familiarize locals with the importance of

biodiversity in general and avian species in particular.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are extremely thankful to the Oriental Bird Club,

UK for providing a small grant to carry out the present study

24

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

in Kumaon. Special thanks are due to Carol and Tim Inskipp

and Phil Benstead for their valuable help and support. We

also thank Prof H.S.A. Yahya, Chairman, Department of

Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for

institutional support. We wish to place on record our sincere

thanks to officials of the UP forest department for their kind

help and support to conduct the study; in particular, we would

like to thank Mr. Vishnu Singh, DFO, Nainital,

Mr. M.B. Singh, ACF, Bageshwer and Mr. K.N. Tiwari, Range

Officer, Vinaiyak Reserve Forest. We are grateful to Ms. Huma

Waseem for proof reading. Last but not the least, we are

extremely thankful to the locals and our field assistants

without whose support this study would not have been

possible.

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Saxena, A.K. & J.S. Singh (1984): Tree population structure of certain

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Saxena, A.K., S.P. Singh & J.S. Singh (1985): Population structure of

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Shah Hussain, M., J.A. Khan, A. Ahmed & R. Kaul (1997): Status and

Conservation of Galliformes in the Kumaon Himalaya, Uttar

Pradesh, India. Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 23: 409-417.

Singh, J.S., Y.S. Rawat & S.P. Chaturvedi (1984): Replacement of Oak

forest with pine in the Himalaya affects the nitrogen. Nature

311: 54-56.

Sultana, A. & J.A. Khan (1999): Avian community in the Kumaon

Himalaya, India - a Preliminary Study. Int. J. Ecol. Environ.

Sci. 25: 167-176.

Sultana, A. & J.A. Khan (2000): Birds of oak forests in the Kumaon

Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, India. Forktail 16: 131-146.

Zar, J.H. (1984): Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall, NJ, USA.

718 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

25

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Appendix: List of birds sighted with presence / absence in different habitat types of Vinaiyak and Pindari Reserve Forests.

Ok-mx = Oak-mixed, Ok-deg = Oak- degraded, Grl = Grassland, (presence = +, absence = -)

Species

Vinaiyak

Pindari

Altitude range Oak Mixed Oak Mixed Ok-mx Ok-deg Grl

Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis

Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia

Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica

Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsychus saularis

Common Stonechat Saxicota torquata

Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus

Indian Jungle Nightjar Caprimutgus indicus

Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus

Crested Bunting Melophus lathami

Plain Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus neglectus

Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimutgus macrurus

Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker Picus flavinucha

Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentiiis

Grey-headed Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis

Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus

Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus remifer

Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis

Little Pied Flycatcher Ficedula westermanni

Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Sitta castanea

Great Tit Parus major

Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cater

Himalayan Pied Woodpecker Dendrocopos himatayensis

Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus

Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus

Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher Ficedula strophiata

Brown Prinia Prinia criniger

Brown-fronted Pied woodpecker Dendrocopos auriceps

Common Hoopoe Upupa epops

Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala

Red-billed Blue Magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha

Dark-throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis

White-browed Bush-Robin Tarsiger indicus

Blue-fronted Redstart Phoenicurus frontalis

Common Myna Acridotheres tristis

Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus

Grey-faced Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus maculipennis

Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea

Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus

Grey Treepie Dendrocitta formosae

Long-tailed Minivet Pericrocotus ethologus

Sooty Flycatcher M usc/capa sibirica

Blue-capped Redstart Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus

Spotted Forktail Enicurus maculatus

Fire-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga ignicauda

Oriental Tree Pipit Anthus hodgsoni

Rock Bunting Emberiza cia

Large Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker Picus squamatus

Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

Slaty-headed Parakeet Psittacula himalayana

White-rumped Needletail-Swift Zoonavena sylvatica

Brown Wood-Owl Strix leptogrammica

Wedge-tailed Green-Pigeon Treron sphenura

Eurasian Collared-Dove Streptopelia decaocto

26

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Appendix: List ot birds sighted with presence / absence in different habitat types of Vinaiyak and Pindari Reserve Forests.

Ok-mx = Oak-mixed, Ok-deg = Oak- degraded, Grl = Grassland, (presence = +, absence = -) (contd.)

Species Vinaiyak Pindari

Altitude range Oak Mixed Oak Mixed Ok-mx Ok-deg Grl

Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Black-headed Jay Garrulus lanceolatus

Maroon Oriole Oriolus traillii

Blue-headed Rock-Thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus

Rufous-bellied Niltava Niltava sundara

Grey Bushchat Saxicola ferrea

Eurasian Tree-Creeper Certhia familiaris

Common Swallow Hirundo rustica

Blyth’s Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus regutoides

Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus

Collared Owlet Glaucidium brodiei

Black-naped Green Woodpecker Picus canus

Kaleej Pheasant Lophura leucomelanos

Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis

Eurasian Jay Garrulus glandarius

Verditer Flycatcher Eumyias thalassina

White-capped Redstart Chaimarrornis leucocephalus

Green-backed Tit Parus monticolus

Red-headed Tit Aegithalos concinnus

Black Bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus

Streaked Laughingthrush Garrulax llneatus

Rusty-cheeked Scimitar-Babbler Pomatorhinus erythrogenys

Bar-tailed Tree-Creeper Certhia himalayana

Koklass Pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha

Great Barbet Megalaima virens

Ultramarine Flycatcher Ficedula superciliaris

Black-lored Yellow Tit Parus xanthogenys

Himalayan Bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys

Grey-headed Flycatcher-Warbler Seicercus xanthoschistos

White-throated Laughingthrush Garrulax albogularis

Rufous Sibia Heterophasia capistrata

Striated Laughingthrush Garrulax striatus

Blue Whistling-Thrush Myiophonus caeruleus

Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos

Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus

Himalyan Griffon Gyps himalayensis

Pacific Swift Apus pacificus

Spotted Owlet Athene brama

Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus

Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus

Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus

Gold-spectacled Flycatcher-Warbler Seicercus burkii

Greater Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler Pnoepyga albiventer

Black-faced Flycatcher-Warbler Abroscopus schisticeps

Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba

Yellow-naped Yuhina Yuhina flavicollis

Brown Hawk-Owl Ninox scutulata

Rufous-bellied Bulbul Hypsipetes mcclellandi

White-crested Laughingthrush Garrulax leucolophus

Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus

Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus

Red-winged Shrike Babbler Pteruthius flaviscapis

Common Hill-Partridge Arborophila torqueola

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

27

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Appendix: List of birds sighted with presence / absence in different habitat types of Vinaiyak and Pindari Reserve Forests.

Ok-mx = Oak-mixed, Ok-deg = Oak- degraded, Grl = Grassland, (presence = +, absence = -) ( contd .)

Species

Vinaiyak

Pindari

Altitude range Oak Mixed Oak Mixed Ok-mx Ok-deg Grl

Orange-flanked Bush-Robin Tarsiger cyanurus

Grey-headed Bunting Emberiza fucata

Large Hawk-Cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides

White-browed Tit-Babbler Alcippe vinipectus

Green-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga nipalensis

White-throated Needletail-Swift Hirundapus caudacutus

Snow Pigeon Columba leuconota

White-throated Tit Aegithatos niveogularis

Western Crowned Warbler Phylloscopus occipitalis

Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis

Indian Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda

Pied Flycatcher-Shrike Hemipus picatus

Short-billed Minivet Pericrocotus brevirostris

Chestnut Thrush Turdus rubrocanus

Nepal House-Martin Delichon nipalensis

Common Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca

Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata

Grey-backed Shrike Lanius tephronotus

Black-throated Sunbird Aethopyga saturata

Long-tailed Thrush Zoothera dixoni

Small Niltava Niltava macgrigoriae

Spotted Bush-Warbler Bradypterus thoracicus

Greenish Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides

Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera

Vinaceous Rosefinch Carpodacus vinaceus

Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma

Black-winged Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina melaschistos

Winter Wren Troglodytes troglodytes

Rufous-bellied Crested Tit Parus rubidiventris

Hume's Warbler Phylloscopus humei

Pink-browed Rosefinch Carpodacus rodochrous

Yellow-bellied Fantail-Flycatcher Rhipidura hypoxantha

Brown Dipper Cinclus pallasii

Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush Monticola rufiventris

Fire-capped Tit Cephalopyrus flammiceps

Bar-throated Minla Minla strigula

Fire-breasted Flowerpecker Dicaeum Ignlpectus

Yellow-breasted Greenfinch Carduelis spinoides

Yellow-billed Blue Magpie Urocissa flavirostris

Grey-winged Blackbird Turdus boulboul

Plumbeous Redstart Rhyacornis fuliglnosus

Little Forktail Enicurus scouleri

White-tailed Nuthatch Sltta himalayensls

Tickell’s Warbler Phylloscopus affinis

Stripe-throated Yuhina Yuhina gularis

Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae

Rufous-bellied Pied Woodpecker Dendrocopos hyperythrus

Spot-winged Crested Tit Parus melanolophus

Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak Mycerobas icterioides

Red-headed Trogon Harpactes erythrocephalus

Shikra Accipiter badius

Mountain Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus nipalensis

Large Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina macei

28

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

BIRD COMMUNITIES OF THE PROPOSED NAINA AND PINDARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Appendix: List of birds sighted with presence / absence in different habitat types of Vinaiyak and Pindari Reserve Forests.

Ok-mx = Oak-mixed, Ok-deg = Oak- degraded, Grl = Grassland, (presence = +, absence = -) ( contd .)

Species Vinaiyak Pindari

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

29

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

30-34

SEASONAL PATTERN IN THE TERRITORIAL DYNAMICS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT

OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)1

N. Rastogi2

‘Accepted April 28, 2005

“Department of Zoology, Centre of Advanced Study, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

A 30-month field study on territorial dynamics of Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

colonies in Varanasi, India, revealed a regular seasonal pattern in territorial organisation. Each colony exhibited a

circannual rhythm pertaining to the size of the central territory (nesting trees) and the secondary territory (ground area).

Incorporation of new nesting trees in the central territory showed a major peak in September and a smaller peak during

March-April. In each colony, only one tree, located near the centre of the territory, was used continuously for a

maximum duration (28 and 30 months in colony I and II respectively). In both the colonies, trees located at a distant from

the centre of the colony territory were found to be incorporated in the central territory, during March-April and/or

September each year. Ground area used by each colony was largest during September. The circannual rhythm of

territorial organization may be related to the brood development and food requirements of the Oecophylla smaragdina

colony. Thus, territorial expansion during September, each year, may be a fine-tuned evolutionary adaptation of the

growing colony to the availability of insect prey during the southwest monsoon rains.

Key words: Arboreal ant, Oecophylla smaragdina , territorial dynamics, circannual rhythm, polydomous nest organization

INTRODUCTION

Territorial behaviour is shown by a number of ant

species (Holldobler and Wilson 1990). Territorial ant species

with polydomous nest organization (several nests belonging

to the same colony) are able to patrol and exploit large areas

of their territory simultaneously, without incurring the costs

of transporting prey from distant points of capture to a single

central nest (e.g. in Camponotous gigas, Pfeiffer and

Linsenmair 2000). A seasonal, spatio-temporal variation in the

location and density of nests has been reported in the

polydomous ant species Myrmicaria opaciventris colonies

(Kenne and Dejean 1999). However, so far, no investigation

has focused on the annual, seasonal pattern in the territory

size of a polydomous, tropical ant species maintaining

absolute, three-dimensional territories.

The arboreal ant Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius)

makes a silk-lined nest of living leaves (Hingston 1927), and

is strongly territorial (Holldobler 1983). The worker ants patrol

three-dimensional territories comprising the central territory

consisting of the tree(s) used for nesting and the secondary

territory, the ground (Dejean 1990). Colonies of O. smaragdina

(from Asia and Australia) and its closely related species

O. longinoda (from Africa) have polydomous nest

organization, with a large number of leaf nests scattered over

canopies of several trees, within the territory. Individual

colonies may cover an area of up to 1 ,600 sq. m and comprise

of about a million workers and brood (Way 1954; Holldobler

1979). Information regarding the territorial dynamics of

O. smaragdina colonies is of particular ecological interest

and of economic significance, as O. smaragdina is the earliest

known example of a biological control agent (Huang and Yang

1987) and is still used in China against citrus pests (Yang

1982). Both species of Oecophylla have been found to

significantly reduce the number of a variety of insect pests of

tropical crops, including Coconut Cocos nucifera

(Vanderplank 1960), Cocoa Theobroma cacao (Room 1975)

Mango Mangifera indica (Way 1954) and Coffee Coffea

arabica (Leela 1 96 1 ). In the present investigation, the territorial

dynamics of O. smaragdina colonies have been studied for

two and a half years, to examine the seasonal, annual pattern

in the size of the central and secondary territories.

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

This is part of a long-term field study carried out

from July 1997 to December 1999 in the grounds of Banaras

Hindu University Campus in Varanasi over an area of about

3,000 sq. m. The trees/shrubs occupied by O. smaragdina

included Mangifera indica ( Anacardiaceae), Spondias

pinnata (Anacardiaceae); Terminalia bellerica

(Combretaceae), T. arjuna (Combretaceae); Psidium

jambolana , P. guajava (Myrtaceae); Emblica officinalis

(Euphorbiaceae); Mimusops elengi, Madhuka indica

(Saptoceae); Erwatamia sp., Nerium indicum (Apocynaceae);

and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae). The trees being

about 25 years old were tall (c. 12-15 m) with dense canopy.

Many of the nests were high up in the upper part of the

canopy while others were in the peripheral parts of the canopy.

While some of the peripheral nests were clearly seen, it was

SEASONAL PATTERN IN THE TERRITORIAL DYNAMICS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT

difficult to detect and count all the nests of O. smaragdina on

each tree.

In the study area, O. smaragdina colonies were

demarcated by experimental, forcible confrontation of marked

workers (by using quick drying paints) to conspecifics present

at the base of other tree trunks ( Holldobler 1 983 ). The resident

ants, on discovering intruders belonging to alien colonies,

lunged at them, bit and pulled their appendages singly or in

groups till all the intruders were killed. Thereafter, the residents

moved up the tree trunks carrying the killed intruder ants, to

their nests. Introduction of marked workers at the base of the

parent tree trunk/on the ground area used by ants of the same

colony, elicited simple antennation by the residents after

which the introduced ant mingled with the residents and went

up the tree trunks. The confrontation experiments were

repeated five times, between conspecifics nesting on two

different trees each time, using ten marked ants each, with

five as control and five as experimental. Similarly, the foraging

areas used by ants belonging to different colonies were

demarcated. In this way, five colonies of Oecophylla

smaragdina were distinguished in the field. However, two

colonies were displaced by two different ant species;

Tetraponera allaborans Walker and Paratrechina longicornis

(Latr.) in August-September 1998, while the third colony, after

three nest relocations in 1997 and one in 1998, could not be

traced further in the field. Therefore, the seasonal changes in

the territory size could be recorded continuously for

30 months only for territories of two colonies designated as

colony I and II.

The number of trees/shrubs used by O. smaragdina

workers for nesting and/or descending to the ground level

for foraging/patrolling was recorded four times each month

except during June each year. The presence/absence of nests

was also recorded on the trees/shrubs during these

observations, each month.

The ground area was marked into grids (each quadrant

= 1 sq. m). Each quadrant was scanned (this involved walking

the ground and taking observations for c. 3-4 hours per day,

twice a week, during the study period; total c. 768 hours during

36 months) for the presence/absence of the foragers during

the peak morning foraging hours (from 0800 to 1200 hrs). The

data was recorded on a grid map four times a month for each

colony from July 1997 to November 1 999, except during June,

December, January and February (the peak summer and winter

seasons) when foraging activity was found to be reduced.

The worker ants showed no foraging activity on cloudy days

with maximum day temperature of 1 9° C during winter season.

Observation of the leaf nests indicated that the foragers did

not leave the nests. Data is given as mean ± S.E.M. Results

were statistically analysed using Student’s t test.

The centre of the ground area patrolled by workers of

each colony was determined by finding the values of the

X and Y co-ordinates at 164 different points along the

boundary of the territory of colony I and at 150 different

points along the boundary of the territory of colony II.

RESULTS

Seasonal variation in the number of nesting trees used

(central territory): The number of nesting trees/shrubs used

by a colony at a time varied from 2 to 8 (4.83 ±0.0163) for

colony I and 1 to 7 (2.76 ±0.0 1 1 ) for colony II. The number of

trees used by workers of each colony to descend to the ground

to forage showed one small peak in March-April and a main

Months

1997 1998 1999

Fig. 1 : Number of trees used (Mean ± S.E.M.) for nesting and/or

descending to ground level by workers of O. smaragdina colony I

and colony II during various months from July 1997-December 1999

peak in September/September-October each year (Fig. i ). The

number of nesting trees used during April differed significantly

as compared to January, February and May (df = 14, p<0.001

for colony I and p<0.005 for colony II for each month), but

was not significantly different with respect to March. (df= 1 4,

p>0.5). The number of nesting trees used during September

was significantly higher with respect to July, August,

November and December (df=22, p<0.001 and p<0.05, p<0.005

and p<0.0 1 for colony I and df = 99, p<0.00 1 , p<0.05, p<0.005,

p<0.001 for colony II respectively). It did not differ

significantly with respect to October (df =22, p>0.5). With the

onset of summer (May) and winter (December-February)

number of trees used by each colony decreased sharply each

year (Fig. 1). Seventeen trees and nine shrubs were used in

total, at various times by colony 1 and II foragers respectively.

Duration of use for each tree: Duration for which each

tree was used for nesting varied from 1 to 28 (5.92 ±1.32)

months and 1 to 30 (9. 1 5 ±2. 14) months for colony I and colony

II, respectively (Figs 2a, 2b). Tree ‘G’ and tree ‘c’ were found

to be used continuously for a maximum duration of 28 and 30

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

31

Trees

SEASONAL PATTERN IN THE TERRITORIAL DYNAMICS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT

a

Colony 1

1997 1998 1999

Duration of use for each tree (months)

b

Colony II

1997 1998 1999

Duration of use for each tree (months)

Fig. 2 a & b: Time duration of use (in months) of the trees/shrubs

used for nesting/ descending to the ground for foraging

in each colony (a) colony I (b) colony II, from July 1997 to December

1999

months in colony I and II, respectively and were found to

occupy an approximate central location in the territory

patrolled by the colony (Figs 3a, 3b). The canopy of tree G’

was found to be in contact with those of trees/shrubs B, C, D,

E, F, H, I, J, N, and P, either directly or indirectly. In colony II,

canopy of tree ‘c’ was found to be in direct or indirect contact

with the canopies of trees/shrubs of a, b, d, e, f, g and h.

In colony I, trees E, F, G, H, L, M, N were used for long

periods (5-28 months, 1 1.4 ±0.792) and in colony II, trees ‘c’

and ‘d’ were used for long periods (4-30 months, 17.33 ±5.31).

They were found to have some common features, tall and

dense canopy, location close to the centre of the ground

territory and direct canopy contact with tree ‘G’/ ‘c’. Trees

with small, sparse canopy (J, K) or distantly located from the

centre, and/or in indirect (or without) canopy contact with

tree G' (trees A, B, C, D, O, P, and Q in colony I) or tree ‘c’

(trees a, b, e, f, g, h and i in colony II) were incorporated in the

central territory only in March-April and/or September.

Seasonal variation in the ground (secondary) territory

used: Ground territory patrolled and defended at a particular

time by workers of colony I varied from 61 to 540 sq. m

(217 ±0.92), and that of colony 11 ranged from 38 to 295 sq. m

( 1 06.45 ±0.68 ). The ground area defended by an O. smaragdina

colony was found to increase rapidly from July to September

each year, in each of the colonies (Figs 4a, 4b). In both, the

ground area patrolled during September was significantly

larger with respect to March, April and May (df= 1 8, p<0.005,

p<0.()0 1 , p<0.005 in colony I and p<0.00 1 , p<0.005, p<0.00 1 in

colony II, respectively). It was also significantly larger as

compared to July, August, October and November (df=22,

p<0.001, p<0.05, p<0.001 in colony I and p<0.001, p<0.005,

p<0.05, p<0.001 in colony II, respectively).

DISCUSSION

The present study clearly shows that the central and

secondary territory used by each O. smaragdina colony show

an annual, seasonal variation in size. Recently, Wuellner and

Saunders (2003) found circannual patterns of activity in

Solenopsis geminata ( F. ) and S. invicta Buren workers. While

the former showed no activity, the latter showed reduced

activity above the ground during the coldest months,

November through February.

This long-term investigation reveals that O. smaragdina

exhibits a circannual rhythm in the number of trees (central

territory) used by the foragers of a colony to descend to the

ground level and in the size of the ground area (secondary

territory), patrolled and foraged. Incorporation of new nesting

trees showed a small peak during March-April and main peak

during September each year, in each colony. On the other

32

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

SEASONAL PATTERN IN THE TERRITORIAL DYNAMICS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT

2m

D

N

A

Colony I

*A

C

p-

F,;T

H/

L

\*>fc

o/

« M "VN

► 0

H

b

Colony II

a

hand, the largest ground area was patrolled only during

September each year. I suggest that the increase in the size of

the ground territory, beginning in July and reaching a peak

value in September, is probably correlated to the increase in

the food requirements of the colony, which may be an

adaptation to the availability of insect prey during the rainy

season. In the northern plains of India, including Varanasi,

the southwest monsoon retreats by the end-September so

that rainfall ceases by October (Srivastava 2001). During

October, the territory size decreases rapidly (Figs 4a, 4b). Thus,

rainfall (along with temperature conditions) may be an

important abiotic factor influencing territory size, though the

basic territory size regulating factor is suggested to be the

food requirements of the developing colony. On the basis of

the present data it is difficult to explain the gradual decline in

a

A

b

Colony II

*1

h

• i

Fig. 3 a & b: Canopy contacts between trees/shrubs used for nesting

by (a) ants of colony I and (b) ants of colony II. Asterisks denote the

tree ‘G’ with central location used for maximum duration of 28 months

in colony I and tree ‘c’ with central location in colony II and used for

maximum duration of 30 months. Open circle denotes the center of

each territory and closed circles denote the location of nesting

trees/shrubs in territory of each colony

□ Week !

Months

1997 1998 1999

Fig. 4 a & b: Ground territory size of O. smaragdma (a) colony I and

(b) colony II during each week, in different months, during three

years: July-November 1 997, from March-November 1 998 & 1 999

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

33

SEASONAL PATTERN IN THE TERRITORIAL DYNAMICS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT

the peak value for the ground territory patrolled, from 1997 to

1999 in both colonies.

Seasonal variation in nest density, with density being

higher during the rainy season, as compared to the dry season,

and characterized by the disappearance of many nests at the

end of the main rainy season, has also been reported in the

polydomous colonies of Myrmicaria opaciventris Emery

(Kenne and Dejean 1999). They have also recorded the

exploitation of vast distant areas by means of underground

tunnels in this polydomous ant species. Thus, polydomous

nest organization, whether on the ground or on the tree

canopy, facilitates efficient foraging over large areas during

the favourable season. I suggest that O. smaragdina colonies

initiate expansion of the central territories by using new trees

in spring to meet the space requirements of the developing

colony. Territorial expansion of the central and ground

territories in autumn is suggested to be related to the increased

food and space requirements of the developing brood. The

circannual rhythm of territorial expansion in O. smaragdina

is suggested to be correlated to the reproductive phase of

the colony, since brood development may be serving as the

proximate cue for increase in the number of nesting trees

used (central territory) and expansion of the secondary

territory on the ground. The correlation of the timing of nest

building with the abundance of immature offspring and the

coincidence of building with the start of the period when

food availability reaches its peak in the habitat has been

demonstrated by Femandez-Escudero et al. (2001) in the

polygynous, polydomous ant species Proformica longiseta.

A circannual rhythm in the territory size probably enables the

populous O. smaragdina colonies to be prepared for

favourable conditions (during the rainy season) when food

(prey) is abundant.

Tree G' in colony I and ‘c’ in colony II with maximum

duration of uninterrupted use and approximate central

location in the colony territory, may be harbouring the queen

nest. Although further work is needed to confirm that the

queen nest is in the central tree; since workers carry the eggs

to other nests in the colony, central location of queen

occupied trees may be playing an important role in facilitating

worker movements to the nests on the canopies of other

trees. Thus, trees distantly located from tree ‘G’ and ‘c’ are

used only at the time of favourable conditions and maximum

territory use.

The information presented here, on the seasonal pattern

in the territorial dynamics of O. smaragdina , is of significance

as it can be used in context of the use of O. smaragdina as a

biocontrol agent (DeBach and Rosen 1991 ; Hill 1983).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the experts at the Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata, for identifying the ants. I also thank the referees for

their valuable suggestions. This work was financially

supported by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

New Delhi.

REFERENCES

Debach, R & D. Rosen (1991): Biological control by Natural Enemies.

Cambridge University Press, New York. Pp. vii + 440.

Dejean, A. (1990): Circadian rhythm of Oecophylla longinoda in

relation to territoriality and predatory behaviour. Physiol.

Entomol. 15: 393-394.

Fernandez-Escudero Seppo, I P. & P. Pamilo (2001 ): Dependent colony

founding in the ant Proformica longiseta. Insectes soc. 48: 80-

82.

Hill, D.S. (1983): Agricultural pests of tropics and their control.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. xii +746.

Hingston, R.W.G ( 1927): The habits of Oecophylla smaragdina . Proc.

Entomol. Soc.. London. 2: 90-94.

Holldobler, B. (1979): Territories of the African weaver ant

( Oecophylla longinoda Latreille): a field study. Z. Tierpsychol.

51: 201-213.

Holldobler, B. (1983): Territorial behaviour in the green tree ant

Oecophylla smaragdina. Biotropica 15(4): 241-250.

Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1990): The Ants. Springer- Verlag,

Berlin, pp. 732.

Huang, H.T. & P. Yang ( 1987): The ancient cultured citrus ant. Biol.

Sci. 37: 665-671.

Kenne, M. & A. Dejean (1999): Spatial distribution, size and density of

nests of Myrmicaria opaciventris Emery (Formicidae,

Myrmicinae). Insectes soc. 46: 179-185.

Leela, D.A. (1961): Notes on the biology and habits of the red ant

Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius). Madras Agric. J. 48: 54-57.

Pfeiffer, M. & K.E. Linsenmair (2000): Contributions to the life

history of the Malaysian giant ant Camponotus gigas

(Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Insectes soc. 47: 123-132.

Room, PM. (1975): Relative distribution of ant species in cocoa

plantations in Papua New Guinea J. Appl. Ecol. 12: 47-46.

Srivastava, A.K. (2001): Some studies on the climate of Varanasi.

Project work for the degree of Master of Science (Technology)

in Geophysics. Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu

University, Varanasi, 42 pp.

Vanderplank, F.L. (1960): The bionomics of red tree ant, Oecophylla

sp. and its relationship to the coconut bug Pseudotherapus

wayi Brown (Coreidae). J. Animal Ecol. 29: 15-33.

Way, M.J. (1954): Studies of the life history and ecology of the ant

Oecophylla longinoda Latreille. Bull. Entomol. Res. 45: 93-

112.

Wuellner, C.T. & J.B. Saunders (2003): Circadian and circannual

patterns of activity and territory shifts: Comparing a native

ant ( Solenopsis geminate , Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with its

exotic, invasive congener ( S . invicta) and parasitoids

( Pseudacteon spp., Diptera: Phoridae) at a Central Texas site.

Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 96: 54-60.

Yang, P. (1982): Biology of the yellow citrus ant, Oecophylla

smaragdina and its utilisation against citrus insect pests. Acta.

Sci. Nat. Univ. Sunyatseni. 3: 102-105.

34

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

35-39

DETERMINING TROPHY HARVEST QUOTAS THROUGH A STATUS SURVEY

OF URIAL (OVIS ORIENTALS ) IN THE KALABAGH GAME RESERVE,

PUNJAB PROVINCE, PAKISTAN1

Michael R. Frisina2, Ghulam Ali Awan3 and Michael H. Woodford4

'Accepted May 23, 2005

"Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1330 West Gold Street. Butte, MT 59701, USA. Email: [email protected]

3WWF-Pakistan, PO Box 5180, Lahore 54600, Pakistan. Email: [email protected]

4Apdo: 215, 8101 Louie, Algarve, Portugal. Email: [email protected]

In April 2001, a population survey of Urial (Ovis orientalis) was conducted in the Kalabagh Game Reserve, in

northwest Pakistan, to determine its suitability for sustainable use management. During the survey, 259 Urial were

observed ( 143 females, 20 lambs, 96 males). The 96 males were classified as 30, 19, 19, and 28; Class I, Class II, Class

III, and Class IV rams, respectively. The number of lambs observed was low (7.7%) because the survey was conducted

at or near the peak of lambing, when observing lambs is difficult. However, the high frequency of lambing activity we

observed during the survey and proportion of Class I rams (male lambs of the previous year) indicates a productive

population. An overall density of 13 Urial per sq. km was observed on the Reserve, but ranged from 7-23 per sq. km

among sectors. Urial were abundant with good survival of lambs and yearling rams during recent years, and good survival

of rams into older age classes. An initial conservative harvest quota of 5 Class IV rams could be established without

negative consequences. Specific recommendations for sustainable use management are provided.

Key words: Urial, Ovis orientalis , sustainable use, population dynamics

INTRODUCTION

The owners of the Kalabagh Game Reserve (KGR), in

northwest Pakistan, were interested in the population status

of Urial on their lands as of 200 1 . The goal was to have the

government designate their privately-owned reserve a

sanctioned community-based sustainable use hunting

program. To accomplish this, it was necessary to conduct a

population survey to determine suitability of the area. We

summarize data resulting from the survey conducted during

April 2001 and provide management recommendations.

CONSERVATION STATUS

The taxonomic status of Urial is unclear and designation

of various subspecies varies between authors (Clark 1964;

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966; Valdez 1982; Shackleton

and Lovari 1997; Mitchell and Frisina 2007). In a synthesis of

available information, Hess etal. ( 1997) considered the Urial

at Kalabagh as the Punjab subspecies (Ovis orientalis

punjabiensis). The Punjab subspecies is found as small,

scattered populations throughout the Kala Chitta and Salt

Range (Hess etal. 1997). The taxonomic status of Urial living

along the west bank of the Indus River is uncertain (Schaller

and Mirza 1974). All Urial are listed in Appendix II in the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of

Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) except the Ladakh Urial (Ovis

orientalis vignei), which is listed in Appendix 1 (USFWS 2001 ).

The Punjab subspecies is listed as endangered in the IUCN

Red List (IUCN 2000).

The Punjab Wildlife Protection, Preservation,

Conservation and Management Act of 1 974 protects Urial in

Punjab Province from hunting, except under specific

circumstances. Various wildlife protection laws enacted by

the Pakistan National Government and Punjab Provincial

Government are summarized by Hess et al. ( 1997). Urial at

Kalabagh have been protected for the last 60 to 70 years by

the Malik family who own the KGR and currently employ

about 30 game guards.

STUDY AREA

Established in the early 1930s, the KGR is located about

25 km southeast of the town of Kalabagh, Mianwali District,

Punjab Province in a small massif that forms the most westerly

extension of the Salt Mountain Range ( 32° 52' N , 7 1 ° 39' E).

For many generations, this land has been the private property

of the Nawab of Kalabagh. It was only in the 1930s, that the

Urial were afforded special protection, and few were present

al that time according to Nawab Malik Muhammad Asad (pers.

comm. 2001). With shooting prohibited, except for limited

trophy hunting by special permission, the Urial increased

and in 1 966 the population was estimated to be 500 (Mountfort

1969). Although declining in other portions of the Salt Range

(Awan et al. 2004), the Urial population at Kalabagh has

increased under protection, with the population estimated to

be 700 in 1988 and 850 in 1 992 ( Hess etal. 1997).

Historically the Salt Range supported a spectrum of

wildlife, including the Punjab subspecies (Ovis orientalis

punjabiensis), Chinkara (Gazella bennettii), Chukor

DETERMINING TROPHY HARVEST QUOTAS OF URIAL IN THE KALABAGH GAME RESERVE

( Alectoris chukar), See-See Partridge ( Ammoperdix

griseogularis ), Grey Francolin ( Francolinus pondicerianus )

and Black Francolin {Francolinus francolinus) were plentiful

due to the nature of the vegetation and topography. Important

carnivores included Indian wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes).

Leopard ( Panthera pardus ), Jungle Cat (Felis chans). Golden

Jackal ( Canis aureus). Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes), and Yellow-

throated Marten (. Martes ftavigula). However, habitat

destruction and uncontrolled hunting in the recent past have

led to a marked reduction in the numbers and range of most

species. Urial and Chinkara currently are the only large wild

ungulates in the KGR. Wild Boar (Sits scrofa) is also present.

Livestock grazing within the KGR is limited to a few

cattle and sheep that graze a short distance from the game

guard headquarters at Jaba.

The Salt Range is an east-west trending thrust front

about 175 km long and contains the second largest known

mineral salt (sodium chloride) deposit in the world. The salt

deposits are due to evaporation of the ancient Tethys Sea

and formation of the Indus Plains from a collision of the Indian

Plate with the Asian Plate resulting from continental drift

40 million years ago (King and Vincent 1993). Elevations in

the Salt Range vary from 250 to 1 ,520 m. Sakesar Peak is the

highest point at 1 ,524 m.

The dominant habitat type in the area is dry sub-tropical,

semi-evergreen scrub forest (Roberts 1997). The important

plant species are Acacia modesta, Oleaferrugenia, Salvadora

oleioides, Zizyphus nummularia, Dodonaea viscosa,

Prosopis glanditlosa , Justicia adhatoda and Calotropis

procera. Shrubs are sparse, mostly scattered; Zizyphus

nummularia and Maytenus royleanus, except in some ravines

and on high ridges where Dodonaea viscosa is prominent.

The predominant ground cover consists of grasses,

importantly Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Elusine compressa,

Heteropogon contortus, Aristida adscensionis, Cynodon

dactylon and Saccharum sp.

Precipitation is in the form of rain. Data from the

Meteorological Department weather stations at Mianwali,

30 km southwest of the KGR, provide an average annual

rainfall of 454 mm for the 30-year period from 1961-1 990. Rain

is strongly seasonal with 60% falling during summer. Monsoon

rains start around mid-July and last to mid-September. Winter

rains begin in January and persist to early March. January is

the coldest and June the warmest month of the year. Mean

maximum daily temperature are usually >40° C in June.

METHODS

All surveys were conducted from the ground while

hiking. Urial were spotted from observation points and along

ridgeline travel routes. Drop-off points, base camp locations,

and observation points were documented using GPS

technology. Animals were observed with the aid of 8x and lOx

binoculars. Relatively short sight distances made use of

spotting scopes unnecessary. A group of 4 to 6 experienced

observers went into the field together for 3 days (April 5-7,

2001 ) to observe sheep.

The habitat of the Urial at Kalabagh was divided into

three sectors for survey purposes. Each sector was of a size

and layout affording efficient coverage in one field day by

the observation group. The area for each sector was estimated

using field notes and GPS coordinates correlated to map

coordinates on a 1:50,000 scale topographic map. The Dot

Counting method was used to estimate the square kilometers

for each sector. In this method, each dot represents a known

area keyed to the scale of the base map employed.

Every effort was made to avoid counting an animal more

than once. Each sector was surveyed only once, 1 sector per

day, over a 3-day period. To minimize error, areas to be covered

and distances to be traveled were carefully planned in

advance. When the possibility existed that the same animals

were observed more than once, only the first sighting was

recorded.

Each Urial observed was classified into one of the

following categories: adult ewe, lamb, or ram. Rams were

further classified according to size, using horn length as an

indicator of age, as follows: Class 1(1-2 years old). Class II

(3-4 years old). Class III (5-6 years old), and Class IV

(>6 years old).

Location and altitude of sheep observation sites were

recorded using a handheld GPS unit. Ram trophies previously

harvested by hunters in the late 1960s and early 1970s and

currently stored at Kalabagh were assigned an age by

counting the number of annual growth rings using the method

described by Geist ( 1966).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the survey, 259 Urial were observed ( 143 females,

20 lambs, 96 males). The 96 males were classified as 30, 19, 19,

and 28 - Class I, Class II, Class III, and Class IV respectively.

During the survey, an average 86 Urial were observed per day

in the field, indicating that Urial are abundant at Kalabagh.

Urial were widely scattered throughout the area and many were

observed as single animals or in groups of less than five.

Population

In April 2001 , an overall density of 13 Urial per sq. km

was observed on the KGR, but the density varied with the

survey sector, ranging from 7-23 Urial per sq. km. Comparing

36

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

DETERMINING TROPHY HARVEST QUOTAS OF URIAL IN THE KALABAGH GAME RESERVE

data from an October 1970 survey with data from an April

1974 survey, Schaller (1977) reported Urial densities at

Kalabagh of 11 - 1 3 per sq. km. However, Schaller’s ( 1 977 ) total

census area was about 40 sq. km compared to our total census

area, about 21 sq. km (Table 1). We only included habitat

commonly used by Urial in our survey; lower elevation areas

used primarily by Chinkara, but in which Urial are rarely

observed, were not included.

The observed population structure at Kalabagh

is summarized in Fig. I . The largest proportion of rams

in the population was Class I, indicating good survival of

lambs and yearling rams during recent years. Mature Class IV

or trophy-type rams were the second most abundant

population segment, indicating good survival of males into

older age classes. Class II and Class 111 rams each represented

19.8% of the male population segment, also indicating good

survival.

In April, ewes are lambing at Kalabagh. During the

survey, we found several newly born lambs and observed

many ewes off by themselves apparently preparing for

parturition. This is why the percentage of lambs (7.7%)

observed is low. Lambs born the previous year were classified

as either yearling (Class I) males or placed in the adult female

category. Our observations indicate that this survey might

have been conducted at or near the peak of lambing. The

peak of lambing is a poor time to census the lamb population

because newborn lambs are usually hidden from view.

More than half of all Urial observed were ewes (Fig. 1 ).

The percentage of lambs observed would have been higher if

the survey had been conducted after lambing was completed

and the lambs had been old enough to travel with their

mothers.

For the aforementioned reasons, data from this survey

cannot be used to calculate an accurate lamb ratio for spring

2001. However, the high frequency of lambing activity we

observed during the survey and proportion of Class I rams in

the population indicates a productive population.

Fig. 1 : Urial population sex and age structure as observed at

Kalabagh, April 2001 . Males by age class; 1 = 1-2 years old,

II = 3-4 years old, III = 5-6 years old, IV = >6 years old

Sustainable Harvesting

Currently the Urial population at Kalabagh is not

hunted. Prior to implementation of the Punjab Wildlife

Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management Act

of 1 974, the population was trophy hunted for many years on

a limited basis (6-10 Class IV males per year) (Malik

Muhammad Asad pers. comm. 2001 ). Eight Class IV males

harvested at Kalabagh by trophy hunters (prior to the 1974

Act) were aged. The mean age was 9.6 years at death and

ranged from 8-11 years at death. These data indicate that

rams lived up to old age and were harvested near the end of

their natural lifespan.

If the KGR is designated a Government sanctioned

community-based sustainable use hunting area, it is essential

an initial hunting quota be established. The only recent

population data available for Kalabagh is that collected during

our Apnl 200 1 survey. April is a poor time of the year to census

Urial population as ewes are scattered due to lambing, recently

born lambs are difficult to observe, and rams are scattered

across their range. The result is probably a significantly lower

number of total animals observed by sex and age class than

Table 1 : Size of the Kalabagh Urial range, survey area, and number of Urial observed by sector and sex or age class

^lass III = 5-6 years old, Class IV = >6 years old

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

37

DETERMINING TROPHY HARVEST QUOTAS OF URIAL IN THE KALABAGH GAME RESERVE

would be observed during a time of year when ewes and rams

are more visible, such as during the October-November

breeding season. Most counts of wild animals underestimate

the true total because not all animals are seen during the

census (Caughley and Goodard 1972). Thus, using data from

this survey to estimate a suitable sustainable hunting quota

provides a very conservative number of animals appropriate

for harvest, but may be suitable where the purpose is to

establish an initial safe quota.

Following examination of literature on similar species

and populations, Harris (1993) concluded that an annual

harvest of trophy males in numbers equivalent to 2 percent of

the total population size can be maintained without negative

consequences. Using the approach described by Harris (1993)

and assuming the 259 Urial observed during this survey is

the total population, an initial trophy hunting quota for fall

2001 could be up to 5 trophy males. Harvesting of males within

a limit of 10-20% of the replacement of the trophy-sized

segment is consistent with Wegge (1997) as a safe and

conservative harvest level for stable or increasing wild sheep

and goat populations. During this survey, we observed

19 Class III (5-6 year old) males, which is the population

segment of replacement animals for harvested Class IV males.

A trophy harvest quota of 5 Class IV males is a

conservative and appropriate harvest level for sustainable

management, but should be considered a maximum number,

until additional population monitoring is conducted during

the fall breeding season when a population estimate can be

developed for monitoring population trend. Because of the

aforementioned observational biases, data collected during

this April survey was not used to make a population estimate.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A sustainable use trophy harvest quota of five rams

from the Class IV age group could be established without

negative impact to the population.

An intensive survey using the protocols developed for

this survey should be conducted as soon as possible during

the fall breeding season to establish a baseline for determining

population trend for future trophy hunting quotas.

A detailed analysis of the Urial population’s habitat at

Kalabagh should be conducted to include a description of

the diversity and extent of plant communities present, and

the ecological condition of soils and vegetation; information

essential for determining habitat carrying capacity for Urial.

All trophies harvested should be aged and standard

physical measurements taken of carcasses and horns. Field

necropsy for disease, parasites, and assessing animal health

at time of death should be performed on all harvested trophies.

Special training for the Game Guards may be required, but

such data is essential for proper population management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the USFWS Division of

International Conservation for funding the survey. We

especially thank Dave Ferguson for his confidence in us and

for providing constant encouragement and support. The

WWF-Pakistan and WWF-Pakistan Conservation Advisor

Richard Garstang supported the project and provided GIS

technical assistance. Christopher Shank (IUCN Pakistan)

supported the project in many ways; his assistance with

scheduling and travel was especially helpful. We thank the

Malik family of Kalabagh for their generous hospitality.

Without their support, this project would not have been

possible. Game Guards Muhammad Ramzan, Muhammad Araf,

Omar Hayat, and Jalandhar provided essential field support.

Liakoat Ali and Muhammad Ashraf of the Punjab Wildlife

Department also assisted with the survey.

REFERENCES

Awan, G.A., T. Amad & M. Festa-Bianchet (2004): Cun'ent status of

Punjab Urial. Islamabad Journal of Science 14(1): 1-14.

Caughley, G. & J. Goodard (1972): Improving the estimates from

inaccurate censuses. Journal of Wildlife Management 36( 1 ): 1 35-

140.

Clark, J.L. (1964): The great arc of the wild sheep. University of

Oklahoma Press, Norman. 247 pp.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1966): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946. Alden Press.

Oxford, Great Britain. 810 pp.

Geist, V. (1966): Validity of horn segment counts in aging bighorn

sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management 30(3): 634-635.

Harris, R.B. ( 1993): Wildlife conservation in Yeniuqou. Qinghai China:

Executive summary. Ph D. Dissertation. University of Montana,

Missoula, Montana. 9 pp.

Hess, R., K. Bollman, G. Rasool, A. A. Chaudhry, A.T. Virk &

A. Ahmad (1997): Indo-Himalayan Region, 8.5 Pakistan.

Pp. 239-260. In: Shackleton, D.M. (editor). Wild sheep and

goats and their relatives. IUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group.

Gland, Switzerland.

IUCN (2000): 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Gland,

Switzerland. 61 pp + CD.

King, J. & D. St. Vincent (1993): Pakistan - a Travel Survival Kit

(4th ed.). Lonely Planet Publications. Hawthorn, Australia.

416 pp.

Mitchell, R.M. & M.R. Frisina (2007): From the Himalayas to the

Rockies. Retracing the great arc of wild sheep. Safari Press.

Long Beach, California. 230 pp.

Mountfort, G (1969): The Vanishing Jungle. London: Collins, England.

38

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

DETERMINING TROPHY HARVEST QUOTAS OF URIAL IN THE KALABAGH GAME RESERVE

286 pp.

Roberts, T.J. (1997): The Mammals of Pakistan. Revised edition. Oxford

University Press. Oxford, New York, Karachi, Delhi. 525 pp.

Shackleton, D.M. & S. Lovari ( 1997): Classification adopted for the

Caprinae survey: Chapter 3. Pp. 9-14. In: Shackleton, D.M.

(editor). Wild sheep and goats and their relatives. IUCN/SSC

Caprinae Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland.

Schaller, G.B. (1977): Mountain monarchs, wild sheep and goats of

the Himalaya. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and

London. 425 pp.

Schaller, G.B. & Z.B. Mirza (1974): On the behaviour of Punjab urial

(Ovis orientalis punjabiensis). Pp. 306-312. In: Geist, V. and

F. Walther (editors). The behaviour of ungulates and its relation

to management. IUCN Morges, Switzerland.

Valdez, R. ( 1982): The Wild Sheep of the World. Wild Sheep and Goat

International. Messilla, New Mexico. 186 pp.

Wegge, P. (1997): Appendix 1. Preliminary guidelines for sustainable

use of wild Caprins. Pp. 365-372. In: Shackleton, D.M. (editor).

Wild sheep and goats and their relatives. IUCN/SSC Caprinae

Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland.

USFWS (200 1 ): Appendices I, II and III to Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. US Dept,

of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of

Management Authority, Arlington, VA. 32 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

39

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

40-44

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PORCUPINE ( HYSTRIX INDICA KERR)

IN COCONUT ( COCOS NUCIFERA L.) PLANTATIONS

OF THE WESTERN GHATS OF KARNATAKA1

A.K. Chakravarthy2-3 and A.C. Girish2

-:l.

'Accepted May 28, 2005

’Department of Entomology, G.K.V.K., Bengaluru 560 065, Karnataka. India.

3Email: [email protected]

Feeding ecology of the Indian Porcupine Hystrix indica Kerr in and around coconut plantations in the Western Ghats of

Karnataka, southern India, was studied during 2001-2002. A survey of four districts in the study area showed that this

species fed on 16 species of plants and was a major pest to the coconut plantations. It debarked the palm, fed on fallen

nuts, injured seedlings to the point of no further growth, and bored into the bole eventually causing mortality. Mortality

of the palms depended on age - the younger the palm, the greater the damage 0-0.9206, P=0.05).

The Porcupines feed on coconut bark, principally, from September to January. Burrows were categorized as small and

big, and the number of Porcupines corresponded to the size of the burrows (r=0.8972, P=0.05). Encroachment of forest

lands by man has resulted in alternative foods of the Indian Porcupine becoming locally scarce in the wild. Hence,

conserving its natural habitat is critical.

Key words: Indian Porcupine, damage, coconut plantations. Western Ghats, southern India

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Porcupine Hystrix indica Kerr (Family

Hystricidae), a fossorial and nocturnal animal, is distributed

throughout India from sea level to 2,800 m above msl ( Agrawal

and Chakraborthy 1 992). The Indian Porcupine Hystrix indica

Kerr, the Himalayan Crestless Porcupine Hystrix brachyura

Linn., and the Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus macrourus

Linn, are the three species found in India (National Plant

Protection Training Institute 1998). Porcupines inhabit a wide

variety of habitats from semi-arid scrublands to forested areas

(Prater 1980). The estimation of population density of

porcupines in the Middle East, under various habitat and

environmental conditions, has been attempted (Alkon 1983:

Gutterman 1987, 1988). Bhargava et al. (2001) recorded

observations on the distribution in western Thar Desert,

Rajasthan, while Sharma (2001 ) estimated relative density in

semi-arid areas of Rajasthan through pellet counts.

Observations on bark feeding behaviour have been recorded

by Choudhary and Ahmad (1975). Sharma ( 1989) and Sharma

and Prasad (1992) documented information on tree debarking

and habitat use by porcupine in Sariska National Park,

Rajasthan. Field data on foraging ecology in cultivated

ecosystems of the Western Ghats region in Karnataka has

also been recorded. (Srihari and Chakravarthy 200 1 ) .

Chakravarthy and Girish (2002a) evaluated cultural and

mechanical methods to protect coconut from porcupine

damage in coastal Karnataka. Chakravarthy and Girish (2002b)

also screened three varieties of coconut in coastal Karnataka

and found equal feeding damage to all the varieties. In the

Western Ghats and coastal Karnataka, Coconut ( Cocos

nucifera L.) plantations adjacent to or near evergreen tropical

forests were severely damaged by porcupines. This study

reports basic information on the feeding behaviour and

damage caused to coconut plantations.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Ident ification of Vertebrate pests

Animals foraging in coconut plantations were identified

by direct sighting using a pair of 8 x 30 binoculars and

headlights. The nature of damage and signs in the field, such

as presence of quills, pugmarks were used as clues for

identifying animals.

Study Area and Field Observations

Surveys were conducted using a four-wheel-drive

vehicle during 2001 and 2002, in the districts of Shimoga

(13° 5 F 2.6" N, 75° 42' 25.9" E), Chikmagalur (13° 18' 44.3" N,

75° 46’ 15.2" E), Hassan (5° IT 15" N, 93° 35' 50" E), Kodagu

( 1 2° 24' 59" N, 75° 44' 8" E) and Dakshina Kannada ( 12° 51' 55" N,

75° 50' 29" E) in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, to document

vertebrates feeding on coconut palms, alternate food plants,

debarking pattern, temporal distribution of damage, feeding

and foraging habits, and density and number of burrows per

unit area. Alternate food plants were identified by a plant

taxonomist. Damage by the Porcupine was correlated with its

density, which was estimated from the number of burrows/

unit area. Twelve (four at each location) porcupine burrows

were excavated at Kidu, Bhadra and Sakleshpur. The number

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF INDIAN .PORCUPINE IN COCONUT PLANTATIONS

of Porcupines in each burrow was counted, and the area and

other details of the burrow were recorded at different times of

the year. Debarking by porcupine was identified by gnawing

marks on the trunks of trees and presence of quills. Debarking

signs were catagorised as new, old and cumulative (Sharma

and Prasad 1992). To establish whether debarking by

porcupines cause mortality in cococnut palms, continuous

observations were recorded on the progress of feeding

damage like burrowing, debarking, removing fibrous tissue,

feeding on pith, damaging bole portion and finally the death

of the palm. The seasonal use of bark, the palm species most

used and the age of the palm when bark stripping occurred

commonly were documented. The Kruskal-Wallace One-way

Analysis of Variance (Siegel and Castallan 1988) was used to

test the seasonal difference in bark damage.

Porcupine damage on coconut palms was recorded

during the early morning hours (0600-0800 hrs), every month.

Total bark damage would be a function of maximum height

above ground level to which the porcupines can debark

(0.6 m) x average diameter of the trunk. Twelve palms in a five

year old Benalium coconut garden plot of one hectare, ad jacent

to a forest were chosen to monitor the debarking process.

Area (sq. cm) of bark removed daily by porcupines was also

measured.

Damage was catagorised as old, if it was more than a

week old (damaged portion turning brown) and as new, if it

was less than a week old (light yellow/ white coloured bark).

The field data was subjected to ANOVAand least significant

difference tests, damage and time being the main effects, with

an interaction term of the main effects in the ANOVA model.

Effect of palm age, distance of coconut plantation from forest

patch and coconut variety on porcupine damage was

evaluated in separate coconut plantations from November

200 1 to September 2002. Debarking pattern was recorded daily

by marking the healthy palms fed upon by porcupine. For

testing the hypothesis that palms of different age groups

have different degrees of damage by porcupine, Friedman’s

One-way Analysis of Variance followed by FSD was performed.

During April and May, at Subramanya, porcupines were found

feeding on cashew kernels adjacent to the coconut plantations.

Percent damage was computed by counting the total number

of kernels accessible to the animal divided by the number of

kernels eaten during peak fruiting period.

RESULTS

Field Observations

Six species of vertebrates, including porcupine, were

found feeding on coconut palms (Table 1 ). The method of

debarking of coconut by porcupines differed from that of

other animals. Porcupines debarked the palm using their

incisors, i.e. they chipped-out bark pieces, exposing the pith.

The Cervids debarked the palm by rubbing their antlers on it,

causing stripping, but the pith is not exposed. In the areas

surveyed, the Indian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) (30-40% nut

damage) and Porcupine ( 1 5-20% nut damage) were considered

major pests.

Surveys in the Sakleshpur, Arsikere and Hassan talukas

of Hassan district, Subramanya of Dakshina Kannada district,

Mudigere, Bhadra project area and Tarikere of Chikmagalur

district indicated the presence of Porcupine in all talukas of

the study area. Feeding signs were found on 13 species of

Table 1: Vertebrates feeding on Coconut Palms in the Western Ghats of Karnataka

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

41

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PORCUPINE IN COCONUT PLANTATIONS

cultivated and wild plants, besides coconut (Table 2). The

Porcupines foraged on cultivated crops like potato, groundnut

and sweet potato and also species of Phoenix. They inhabited

hillsides, boulders, and burrows.

In parts of the hills and coastal Karnataka, Porcupines

differentially fed on 1 6 species of plants (Table 3); the sample

size in this case was small and represented a subset of the

available species. Porcupines appeared to feed preferentially

on certain plant species while avoiding others. Feeding signs

were also observed frequently on Ipomea batatas , Bambusa

spp., Dioscorea spp.. Rubber Hevea braziliensis , Agave

americana and Carvota urens. The extent of damage to

coconut depends on many factors - the most important being

the age of the palm and the season. Seedlings and young

coconut palms (less than 10 years) were more vulnerable to

damage by porcupine feeding (t=4.261 , P=0.05).

Debarking

To assess the impact of porcupine feeding on cultivated

palm, the combined effect of burrowing, tissue feeding, bark

stripping and browsing on ground vegetation was collectively

considered. Porcupines debarked coconut palms of different

ages, i.e. young (<5 years) to old palms (>30 years). The degree

of damage caused differed with the age of the palm (Friedman’s

one-way ANOVA, P=0.()5); young palms (15-23 year) suffered

significant damage compared to older palms (27-30 year) (LSD,

P=0.05). Most debarking occurred at the height of 0-75 cm.

Debarking started from the bottom and progressed upward

and sideways. No seasonal difference was found in the

number of palms damaged by Porcupines (Kruskal -Wallace

One-way Analysis of Variance P>0.05).

Porcupines debarked about (n= 12) 44 sq. cm of bark

from November to December 200 1 ; 1 88 sq. cm bark/palm during

December 200 1 to January 2002; 250 sq. cm bark/palm during

January 2002 to March 2002. However, the exact number of

porcupines debarking coconut palms could not be established.

Cultivated coconut palms adjacent to the forest patch

were more heavily damaged than those planted further away.

Table 2: Details of foraging by the Indian Porcupine on the crops and plants in the surveyed localities

42

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PORCUPINE IN COCONUT PLANTATIONS

Plot I was 0.3 km from forest, while plots II, III and IV were 0.8 km

away. Plot I recorded 40% palm mortality, while plots II, III

and IV recorded 10-22%. However, the effect of the distance

from the forest was confounded with age, since palms differed

in age between the plots. Porcupines caused higher mortality

to younger palms. The data of the three plots equidistant

from forest when analysed for palm mortality, showed a

consistent relationship between age and mortality (r=0.9206,

p=0.05). In general, it was observed during the surveys that

palms less than ten year old were more vulnerable to damage.

One of the alternative food items in the study area was

Cashew ( Anacardium occidentale). Porcupines chewed the

kernels, sucked the juice and left behind the kernels. Kernel

damage due to porcupine feeding ranged from 6-12% (mean

7.25± 1 .72), while that due to other animals ranged from

1 1-17% (mean 14.25±2. 18). During May 2002 porcupines did

not use cashew kernels, but damage by other animals was

13%. Maximum damage to the cashew kernels by porcupine

occurred during April when availability of kernels was high

because of peak fruiting period. Damage was reduced

drastically in May, when the fruiting season came to an end,

as sufficient kernels were not available. There were no

statistically significant differences in the damage caused by

porcupines and other animals (T-test, P>0.05)

There were two types of porcupine burrows; the large

burrows held 8- 1 0 animals and small burrows held 2-3 animals.

Seventeen (6 large, 1 1 small) porcupine burrows were located

in 120 ha at Kidu, Subramanya, of which eleven were active.

Table 3: Percent utilization of some economically important and

unimportant food plants by the Indian Porcupine

in the coastal and hill regions of Karnataka

Food Plants

% damage

Sweet Potato Ipomea batatas Lamk.

Bamboo Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.)

Tapioca Manihot esculenta Crantz.

Alocasia Alocasia indica Schott.

Cashewnut Anacardium occidentale L.

Cane Calamus tenuis Redt.

Sweet Potato Ipomea batatas Lamk.

Ananus Ananas comosus (L.) Merr

Banana Musa paradisiaca L.

Cactus Agave americana L.

Wild Turmeric Curcuma aromatica Salisb.

Colacasia Colacasia indica L.

Gauri Gedde Gloriosa superba L.

Byne Palm Caryota urens L.

Acacia Acacia catechu Willd.

Coconut Cocos nucifera L.

3% of 20 tubers

8% of 25 tillers

6% of 22 tubers

2% of 15 tubers

10% of 200 nuts

5% of 35 tillers

6% of 42 tubers

6% of 350 plants

2- 8% of 150 plants

1 5-30% of 450 plants

10-15% of 750 plants

10-15% of 50 plants

10-15% of 10 plants

1 5-20% of 1 5 plants

3- 5% of 75 fruits

0.03% of 2000 plants

% refers to the number damaged out of the total number,

from Jan. 17, 2002 to May 10, 2002

and six deserted. Porcupines preferred scrub jungle for making

burrows. Detailed observations in and around 150 ha of

Subramanya showed that they tunnelled under shrub thickets

and dense ground vegetation. Observations in a number of

localities in the Western Ghats of Karnataka showed that

usually 2-3 animals were found in small burrows (n=30)

compared to 8-10 in large burrows. Surveys in different parts

of Hassan and Dakshina Kannada districts showed that one

porcupine burrow could be located every sq. km. Twelve

buiTows, four at each site, were dug and exposed completely.

The burrows consisted of a main entrance and several side

entrances. The main entrance descended vertically to a depth

of 3.5 m in the ground. The large burrows extended to more

than 20 m and the small burrows to 8 m. The burrows had

three ill-defined chambers; with a big central chamber, and

one deep and another raised small chamber on either side.

Food was hoarded in the big central chamber. Rearing of young

was earned out in one of the small chambers, while the third

chamber appeared to be used by the adults. Correlation

analysis between the burrow size (sq. cm) and number of

porcupines was positive (t-0. 89725, P=0.05). However,

correlation analysis between the number of porcupines and

crop damage at a site showed a weak relationship (i -0.243 10),

indicating that crop damage was not related to the number of

porcupines in a locality.

DISCUSSION

Porcupines proved to be a major pest in the coconut

plantations in the study area (Table 1 ). In the Western Ghats

region of Karnataka, porcupines injured Coconut, from

seedling to mature palms. At the seedling stage, there was no

compensatory growth and so the damaged seedlings were

lost forever. This was also the case with Areca seedlings.

Porcupines have adapted well from scrub jungles and forests

to feeding on cultivated plants. Agrawal and Chakraborthy

(1992) recorded that the porcupines ate ripe fruits, bark of

trees, sugarcane, maize, potato, sweet potato, carrot, onion,

ripe melons and other tuberous and bulbous plants, and

damaged forest plantations by girdling them. Thus, at each

habitat the porcupines foraged on a number of cultivated and

wild plant species. As also observed during the current study

the porcupines did not depend on a single plant species. By

foraging on several plant species, porcupines probably

increased their survival rate and fitness. However, the

economic loss as a result of porcupines feeding on coconut

and arecanut is great, and hence urgent protection measures

for the plantation near forests are required.

In the hill region of Karnataka, porcupines were found

frequently feeding and damaging areca ( Areca catechu L.)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

43

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PORCUPINE IN COCONUT PLANTATIONS

seedlings and coconut palms as they are being cultivated in

newly cleared forest areas. Porcupines removed small amounts

of bark at a time, around 0-75 sq. cm. As the frequency of

debarking increased, the amount of damaged bark and the

number of palms that were debarked also increased.

Porcupines probably supplemented their diet with small

quantities of bark which was not used as the main source of

food. Debarking depended on a number of factors. In the

study area, distance of coconut and arecanut plantations from

the forest tract, where the animals usually lived, played an

important role. Observations in coastal and hill regions of

Karnataka revealed that nearer the plantation from the forest

or burrows, higher was the damage inflicted by the porcupines.

The porcupines used palm barks more frequently from

September to January when the weather was humid and cool.

Mortality of palms depended on age - the younger the palm,

the greater the damage, and the two parameters were

significantly correlated (r=+0.9206). Young palms were

probably preferred as they were easy to obtain and digest.

Small burrows were encountered more often than large

burrows. The number of individuals corresponded to the size

of the burrows (r=+0. 89725 ). However, porcupine density and

crop damage at a site were not correlated. The number of

animals varied depending on the size of the burrow (2-3 animals

in small burrows, 8-10 in large burrows). However, more

extensive observations are required to confirm this.

McIntyre ( 1972) proposed a number of hypotheses to

explain bark stripping by ungulates, including the need for

high concentrations of trace elements and minerals found in

bark, variation in nutritional quality between twigs and barks

and low availability of high quality forage. However, the extent

of damage to crops by H. indica has not been estimated.

Further studies using radio-telemetry are in progress. In the

Western Ghats, porcupines are frequently hunted for meat

by tribals and locals. In addition to this, the natural habitat

(forest) and the natural foods of the porcupines are declining

rapidly. This may contribute to a decline in porcupine

population in the near future. Ecological importance of

porcupines in cultivated and natural habitat is yet to be

documented. Currently, it is important to sustain natural foods

of the animals in wild habitats. A strategy to conserve the

species without resulting in severe economic damage to

cultivated crops needs to be developed urgently.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are sincerely grateful to the authorities of the U.A.S.,

Bengaluru, and the Department of Science and Technology,

New Delhi for encouragement and financial support. We thank

the officials of the Forest Department, Government of

Karnataka, and the authorities of CPCRI, Seed Farm at Kidu,

Kasargud, and the Kidu officials for their cooperation and

support during the study. We thank Mr. M. Gopinath Rao for

his assistance in the statistical analysis of the data. The

co-ordinates of locations have been taken from Google Earth.

We also thank the anonymous referee.

REFERENCES

Agrawal, V.C. & S. Chakraborthy (1992): The Indian Crested

Porcupine, Hystrix indica (Kerr). Pp. 25-30. In: Rodents in

Indian Agriculture (Eds: Ishwar Prakash & P.K. Ghosh).

Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Alkon, P.U. (1983): Foraging ecology of Indian Crested Porcupine

(Hystrix indica) in Negev habitats. Final report. Israel Academy

of Science.

Bhargava, R.N.. L.S. Rajpurohit, B. Prashant & S. Madan (2001):

On the porcupine (Hystrix indica) in Western Thar Desert.

Tigerpaper 28(4): 1-3.

Chakravarthy, A.K. & A.C. Girish (2002a): Porcupine (Hystrix indica

Kerr) damage to three coconut varieties in coastal Karnataka.

Rodent Newsletter 26(1-2 ): 2-3.

Chakravarthy, A.K. & A.C. Girish (2002b): Protection of

Coconut (Cocas nucifera ) palms from Porcupine (Hystrix

indica Kerr) damage. Rat-a-tattle-RISCINSA Newsletter

2(1): 2.

Choudhary, M.I. & A. Ahmad (1975): Trials of poisonous gases and

baits against porcupines. Pak. J. For. 25(2): 46-50.

Gutterman, Y. (1987): Dynamics of porcupine (Hystrix indica) digging:

their role in the survival and renewal of geophytes and

hemicryptophytes in the Negev desert highland. Israel

J. Botany 36: 133-143.

Gutterman, Y. ( 1988): An ecological assessment of porcupine activity

in the desert biome. Pp. 289-363. In: Ecophysiology of desert

vertebrates (Eds: Ghosh, P.K. & I. Prakash) Scientific Publishers,

Jodhpur.

McIntyre, E.G. (1972): Barkstripping - A natural phenomenon.

J. R. Scottish For. Soc. 26: 43-50.

National Plant Protection Training Institute (1998): Training

Manual on Rodent Pest Management for Karnataka state,

NPPTI, Hyderabad (Mimeographed). 30 pp.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society. 324 pp.

Siegel, S. & N.I. Castallan Jr. (1988): Nonparametric statistics of

behavioral sciences. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York.

351 pp.

Sharma, D. (1989): Spatial and temporal patterns in debarking by

Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica Kerr) in Sariska

National Park Rajasthan. M.Sc. Dissertation. Wildlife Institute

of India, Dehradun. 88 pp.

Sharma. D. (2001): Estimating the density of porcupines in semi-arid

Sariska Valley, Western India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2):

161-168.

Sharma, D. & S.N. Prasad (1992): Tree barking and habitat use of

porcupine (Hystrix indica Kerr) in Sariska National Park in

Western India. Mammalia 56(3): 351-361.

Srihari, K. & A.K. Chakravarthy (2001): Integrated vertebrate pest

management in Hill and coastal Karnataka. Final Report, ICAR

Project, New Delhi. Pp. 246.

44

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

45-50

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS:

A SPILLOVER FROM SUSTAINED TRANSLOCATIONS INTO NEARBY FORESTS?1

Vidya R. Athreya2-3, Sanjay S. Thakur2, Sujoy Chaudhuri2, Aniruddha V. Belsare2

'Accepted July 2005

'Kaati Trust, D-103, GMRT Colony, Narayangaon 410 504, Pune district, Maharashtra, India.

"Email: [email protected]

In the past decade, many Indian states have reported an increase in Leopard ( Panthera pardus fused) populations

outside forests, in certain areas, accompanied by a large number of attacks on people. This high density was attributed

to declining natural habitats and prey species, and the increased survival of Leopards in croplands where they preyed on

tended, as well as feral domestic animals. That Leopard cubs were frequently found in agricultural fields was thought to

also indicate rising Leopard populations. We use data from our human-leopard conflict study in Junnar, Maharashtra,

along with information from three other conflict sites in India, to propose that the reason for this increase in Leopard

population and conflict is related to the sustained translocation of ‘problem' Leopards into nearby forests. That

sustained releases could lead to population increases was never considered before, even though translocation is known

to be a procedure for increasing populations of species at or close to the site of release. Although scientists do not

recommend translocation as a management strategy for 'problem' carnivores, it is currently the legally recommended

method of dealing with 'problem' large cats in India. Such faulty policies will only further hamper the conservation of

this species, which is hunted in large numbers for illegal wildlife trade.

Keywords: translocation, Panthera pardus fusca, conflict, population increase, India

INTRODUCTION

India has a history of human-large cat conflict

(Seidensticker and Lumpkin 1991 ), but increasingly it is the

Leopard Panthera pardus fusca , which is most often

implicated in attacks on people (Athreya etal. 2004). Leopards

have always lived on the fringes of human habitation ( Prater

1948; Gee 1964; Santiapillai et a!. 1982; Tikader 1983;

Johnsingh 1992; Daniel 1996; WWF-lndia 1997), especially in

India where the interface between forests and rural habitations

is a continuum. This is possibly because the Leopard is a

highly adaptable species capable of eating a wide variety of

prey, and is not dependent on free water like its larger cousin,

the Tiger (Prater 1948; Bertram 1982; Daniel 1996; Edgaonkar

and Ravi 1997; Stander et al. 1997; Mukherjee and Mishra

2001 ; Kulkami etal. 2004).

In the event of a Leopard problem, which can vary from

just a sighting near a village to livestock predation or an attack

on a person, the most common management strategy followed

throughout India is: setting up of baited traps, capture of an

individual (not necessarily the problem-causing individual)

and its subsequent translocation into the nearest 'suitable'

natural habitat. This is also recommended by the Indian

Wildlife Protection Act (Anon 1 972), through an amendment

made in 2002: However, this strategy is not recommended by

scientists for managing 'problem' animals (Linnell etal. 1997;

Fischer and Lindenmeyer 2000; Sullivan et al. 2004 ), because

of the strong homing instincts exhibited by a wide range of

carnivore families, and the possibility of the conflict moving

with the individuals. A recent study of the conflict in

Maharashtra by Athreya et al. (2004) has provided strong

evidence of the same. Various Indian scientists and managers

have also cautioned against this strategy for these reasons,

as well as the potential disruption in the existing social setup

of these highly territorial species by introduction of new

individuals (Saberwal etal. 1 994; Karanth and Sunquist 1995;

WWF-lndia 1997; Edgaonkar and Ravi 1997; Karanth and

Sunquist 2000).

The Indian states we will discuss in this paper,

Maharashtra, northern West Bengal and Gujarat, have reported

high human-leopard conflict levels for at least a decade

(WWF-lndia 1 997; Chauhan and Goyal 2000; Vijayan and Pati

2001 ; Athreya et al. 2004; Pati et al. 2004). These areas also

report high densities of Leopards in human dominated areas

and the principal reason put forward, essentially without

evidence, is the decreasing natural habitat that compels the

highly resilient leopard to move into human-modified habitats

like tall crops, orchards (Gujarat), tea-gardens (northern West

Bengal) and sugarcane fields (Junnar Forest Division,

Maharashtra). Within these human-modified habitats, which

provide good cover, it is thought that livestock and feral

domestic animals provide an abundant supply of food in

contrast to the depleting wild prey base (WWF-lndia 1997;

Chauhan and Goyal 2000; Vijayan and Pati 2001 ; Field Director

Buxa Tiger Reserve, pers comm ).

We question this heuristic explanation and suggest that,

ironically, far from being the panacea for managing conflict

situations, the policy of translocation has resulted in increased

Leopard populations colonizing the nearest suitable habitat,

such as sugarcane fields and tea-gardens, thereby increasing

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS

conflict potential. Finally, we suggest that increased Leopard

populations reported from Sanjay Gandhi National Park,

Mumbai, Maharashtra and affected areas in Uttarakhand, as

well as Baria Forest Division, Gujarat are likely to have a very

similar cause.

METHODS

The human-leopard conflict study in Junnar Forest

Division first quantified the extent to which translocation has

been used as a management strategy to handle problem felids

in India (Athreya etal. 2004). In this paper, we use data from

Junnar and other sites, which report a history of conflict and

view it in the context of translocation of Leopards into or near

these sites.

Data on Leopard densities and conflict were collated

for Junnar Forest Division, Sanjay Gandhi National Park

(Mumbai, Maharashtra); the Terai, western Duars and eastern

Duars regions (northern West Bengal) and areas around Gir

National Park (Gujarat). The sources of information were the

Forest Department records of Maharashtra, northern West

Bengal and Gujarat, Edgaonkar and Ravi (1997), WWF-India

(1997), Vijayan and Pad (2001 ), Khan et al. (2003), Athreya

et al. (2004) and Pati et al. (2004). Leopard densities for all

sites, except northern West Bengal, have been estimated from

actual number of animals trapped. In the case of northern

West Bengal, the information was obtained from the Forest

Department census figures. An idea of the numbers of

Leopards living outside the forested areas is obtained from

the number of cubs captured from tea-gardens and Leopards

found dead. Information was also obtained from interviews

with scientists and also past and present managers in these

conflict areas (Field Director, Buxa Tiger Reserve; Deputy

Chief Conservator of Forests, Junnar) to obtain a better

understanding of the conflict patterns in various human-

leopard conflict areas. Finally we corroborated our analysis

with information from past scientific studies on translocated

large cats.

RESULTS

Maharashtra

The two regions, which have reported high numbers of

human casualties due to Leopard attacks in Maharashtra, are

Junnar Forest Division, Pune district, and Sanjay Gandhi

National Park (SGNP), Mumbai (Table 1 ).

Table 1 : Leopard densities and numbers translocated into adjacent forests in four conflict sites in India

'Data from Athreya etal. 2004

2Data from Forest Department Records

3Datafrom WWF-India 1997 and Field Director, Buxa Tiger reserve, pers. comm.

4Data from Vijayan and Pati 2001 ; Pati etal. 2004

46

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS

The Maharashtra Forest Department Leopard census

showed an increase from 20 animals in 1997 to 57 animals in

2001, in Junnar Forest Division. Livestock predation and

attacks on people have been reported in this region since

1993, albeit at very low levels. It was only post-2001 that the

conflict escalated sharply. The 4,360 sq. km of Junnar Forest

Division is predominantly human-dominated and land cover

analysis indicates no significant changes between 1992 and

2000. At the height of the conflict, approximately 1 ,600 sq. km

of this area was affected ( Athreya etal. 2004). Fifty-one people

were attacked between 2001 and 2003, of whom 1 8 died (Junnar

Forest Division records). Athreya et al. (2004) estimated a

minimum population of 75 adult Leopards based on the number

of individuals translocated, kept in captivity, and found dead,

in this region between 2002 and 2003.

It has to be stressed that all the natural forests in Junnar

Forest Division are confined to a narrow strip on the western

edge along the ridge of the Western Ghats, while the rest of

the division is totally devoid of natural cover. The hotspot of

conflict was the irrigated valley of Narayangaon lying close

to the eastern edge of the division and farthest from the

forested Ghats. The rise in conflict was attributed to the ideal

cover provided by sugarcane fields leading to increased

Leopard populations. Forty-two Leopards were removed from

the 390 sq. km of the Narayangaon range, either due to death,

permanent captivity or far-off translocations (Athreya et al.

2004).

SGNP is a forested island inside the booming

metropolis of Mumbai, and is the only site in India, which

reports sustained human-leopard conflict from within the

boundary of a protected area (Maharashtra Forest

Department Records (MFDR), Edgaonkar and Ravi 1997).

The Leopard population in SGNP increased from a handful

of individuals in the early 1970s (J.C. Daniel, pers comm) to

35 in 1988 and 40 in 1996 (MFDR). Attacks on people have

been reported since 1986, albeit in very low numbers (MFDR,

Edgaonkar and Ravi 1997). Between March 2002 and March

2004, 24 attacks were reported, of which six occurred within

the boundary of the Park (MFDR). In 2004, the number

increased, with 13 attacks reported only in June 2004, of

whom 10 people died (MFDR). After this, more than

30 leopards were trapped, indicating a minimum density of

one Leopard per 3 sq. km and probably more. Clearly, any

explanation for this extraordinary spurt in attacks has to

involve a sudden trigger and not gradual processes like

encroachments and reduction of wild prey base. The most

common strategy of dealing with the Leopard ‘problem’ in

SGNP has been their capture in baited traps and subsequent

translocation into certain areas of the Park and adjacent

forests (such as Tansa WLS which is about 150 km north-

east; see Edgaonkar and Ravi 1 997). Between July 2002 and

December 2003, 26 leopards were trapped, most of them

outside the forest, of which 2 1 were translocated back inside

the forest. The data available from Edgaonkar and Ravi ( 1997)

indicates that this strategy has been in use for close to a

decade now.

Northern West Bengal

One hundred and twenty-one people were attacked in

this region between 1990 and 1997 (WWF-India 1997), of whom

1 0 died (Table 1 ). Forest Department records until 2002 report

the death of 18 people in leopard-related incidents. Of the

three regions in Jalpaiguri district (Terai, eastern Duars and

western Duars), the western Duars has experienced maximum

conflict. Forest Department data reports that 1 3 people have

died in the western Duars between 1 990 and 2002, and 0 and

5 in the Terai and E. Duars respectively. Based on leopard

attacks on people and livestock, as well as the number of

cubs found, the WWF-India report ( 1 997 ) identified 24 conflict

hotspots in the region. Fifteen of these lie in the western

Duars and within 15 km of Gorumara National Park and

Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary. The remaining nine occur in

the eastern Duars at the fringes of Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary

and Buxa Tiger Reserve. The census figures for 1999 report

159 leopards in the forest areas with a density of one per

10.85 sq. km (http://www.wb.nic.in/dist/jalpai.html). There are

reports of a large number of Leopard deaths due to conflict

related incidents in this region; five in the Terai region between

1993 and 1996, 20 in western Duars between 1990 and

1997, and 14 in the eastern Duars between 1990 and 1996

(WWF-India 1997). Of these 39 deaths, 25 were caused by

people (either mob related or poisoning or shot at).

Gir National Park, Gujarat

The Gir National Park is a forested island, home to the

Asiatic Lion and the Leopard. However, both these large cats

are increasingly reported in conflict incidents on the periphery

of the Park ( Vijayan and Pati 200 1 ). Gir National Park reports

very high densities of both, the Asiatic Lion (one per 5-7

sq. km) and the Leopard (one per 7 sq. km) (Vijayan and Pati

2001 , Table 1 ). A study earned out in one of the areas affected

by human-leopard conflict (Talala sub-district/taluka) adjacent

to the Park reported 27 leopard attacks on people between

1 990 and 1 999, of which four were fatal ( Vijayan and Pati 200 1 ).

However, the common management strategy in dealing with

Leopards and Lions that are found outside of the Park is their

capture and release within the National Park (Saberwal etal.

1994; Vijayan and Pati 2001 ; Khan etal. 2003). An average of

50 Leopards are translocated into the National Park each year

(Vijayan and Pati 2001 ; Khan etal. 2003). Thirty-two leopards

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

47

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS

were rescued and 12 found dead between 1990 and 1998 from

the Talala subdistrict alone. Eleven lions were rescued and

eleven found dead due to poisoning or falling into wells

(Vijayan and Pati 2001), during the same period.

DISCUSSION

The Leopard occurs throughout India and has always

been reported from areas bordering human habitation (Prater

1948; Daniel 1996; Seidensticker and Lumpkin 1991 ), but severe

conflict is reported only from pockets across the country.

Leopards occur in tea-gardens of Assam and southern India,

but no conflict comparable to that in northern West Bengal

has been reported. Sugarcane occurs in many parts of

Maharashtra with far more extensive tracts in the southern

areas of Kolhapur and Karad, situated at the same distance

from the Western Ghats as in Junnar, but without comparable

conflict levels (Athreya et al. 2004). Even in those forest

divisions that report human-leopard conflict, the problem is

confined to a small sub-region. Lor example, in Junnar, the

conflict that started in 2001 was concentrated in the

Narayangaon valley; the hotspots of the conflict in SGNP in

2004 were close to the Ghodbandar and Lilm City areas; in Gir

it is the subdistricts/talukas of Visavadar, Malia and Talala

(Saberwal et al. 1994); in northern West Bengal most of the

hotspots identified by WWL-India ( 1997) were in the western

Duars, a few in the eastern Duars, while none in the Terai

region.

The theories commonly put forth to explain human-

leopard conflict are loss of natural habitat and wild prey and

the subsequent movement of leopards to ‘ideal’ irrigated areas

and the associated domestic animals. An important aspect

that was not considered was the sustained translocation of

Leopards for at least a decade into or close to these sites. The

Junnar study by Athreya et al. (2004) looked into the patterns

of conflict on a landscape level and they found that the

conflict was not present close to the sites of release, but

commenced about 15 km away, with the hotspot of conflict

ranging 40-60 km away from the site of release (Athreya et al.

2004). A translocation exercise in Kenya in the late 1970s

provides an insight into why this might be. Radio telemetric

studies showed that eight Leopards translocated more than

200 km into a National Park, in response to livestock predation,

immediately moved a distance of 25 km away from the release

site (Cobb 1981). It is likely that a hard release into an alien

area makes these highly territorial animals leave the area in

the direction of home, a phenomena seen across carnivore

species (Linnell etal. 1997). In all the conflict sites discussed

in this paper, except SGNP, the areas with highest vegetation

density immediately outside forested release sites are human-

modified croplands. A sustained release of Leopards into a

few release sites over many years is likely to have led to the

high Leopard numbers seen in irrigated fields, tea-gardens

and even in the single protected area of SGNP.

Moreover, natural leopard populations are already

present at these release sites. Lor example, census figures for

the Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary (MPDR, Kulkarni etal.

2004) reported 10 leopards. In 2001, 1 1 leopards trapped in

the Junnar Lorest Division were released close to the Wildlife

Sanctuary. In the absence of leopard-free forests in the

surrounding area and in their attempt to leave the site they

would naturally move down the river valleys that contain

irrigated fields with high vegetation density. High levels of

conflict were reported for the first time in five years in these

areas following the translocations (Athreya et al. 2004).

Translocation is the most common management

strategy used in our country in response to any problem

associated with the large cats (lions, tigers and leopards),

and is recommended by law. Translocation as the preferred

method of dealing with ‘problem’ Schedule I species was

introduced as late as 2002 as an amendment to the Wildlife

Protection Act (Anon 1972). However, translocation is also

the preferred method to establish or increase the presence of

a species near the site of release (IUCN 1987) and has rightly

been recommended for founding a second home the Asiatic

Lions outside Gujarat (Chellam etal. 1994). The Llorida panther

study shows how large cat populations increase following

translocation (Ellis etal. 1999). In 1995, the 8 female Llorida

panthers that were released had increased to 21 individuals

by 1999 due to new births. Lurthermore, translocation is not

recommended for problem carnivores for reasons rooted in

their biology (such as very strong territoriality and

consequent post-release movements, movement of the

conflict with the individual, social disruption of existing

leopard populations at site of capture, as well as release,

introduction of pathogens to the new sites of release, see

Rabinowitz and Nottingham 1986; Linnell etal. 1996; 1997;

Khan et al. 2003; Treves and Karanth 2003; Athreya et al.

2004). Lurthermore, our data shows that population increases

can also occur close to the release site and that in the absence

of forested areas devoid of conspecifics, the animals will

colonize adjoining human-modified habitats such as crop

fields and tea-gardens.

The state of Uttaranchal has had a history of human-

leopard conflict; around 140 people succumbing to Leopard

attacks between 1988 and 2000, while 93 leopards were killed

in the same period (UA Lorest Department records in

Chauhan and Goyal 2000). Rajaji and Corbett National Parks

are reported to be sites of release for Leopards trapped

elsewhere in the state. An analysis of the capture and release

48

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS

sites and dates, overlaid on maps of vegetation density and

river systems could test our hypothesis that sustained

translocations into the nearby forested areas have created

the hyper-dense Leopard populations of 3-4 per 10 sq. km

reported in the Pauri region (Chauhan and Goyal unpublished

report of the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.). That

Pauri is not in the immediate vicinity of the forested sites

(about 40 km away), may not be an issue. Even in Junnar, the

conflict area - Narayangaon, and the release site - Malshej,

are 40 km apart, with few attacks reported in die intervening

area. In the complete absence of post-release monitoring of

large numbers of translocated leopards, we do not have any

information on how these animals use the new areas of release

and their movements across the landscape in their attempt to

head back home. A leopardess trapped in Junnar was marked

with a transponder chip and released in the forests at the

Madhya Pradesh-Maharashtra border. She moved 90 kms in

the direction of Junnar and in the process, resulted in 6 human

fatalities and a similar number of injuries (Belsare and Athreya

2004 http://carnivoreportal I .free.fr/archives2004_3.htm). In

keeping with the known biology of the species, her route

was along the river valleys in human dominated areas, just

as we inferred for the Malshej-Narayangaon leopards

(Athreya et al. 2004).

Felid biology explains why problems even at the site of

capture do not decline following large removals of leopards.

Sub-adult felids are known to incur high mortality rates due

to poor hunting success and due to killings by resident males

(Cramer and Portier 2001 ). The removal of 1 2 mountain lions

(similar in size to leopards) in Utah, USA, following livestock

depredations did not change conflict levels because

1 7 different, and younger individuals moved in to occupy the

vacant territories (Linnell et al. 1996). If landscape features

do not allow translocated individuals to home all the way

back to their territories, their vacant territories will be filled up

by younger individuals while the survival of the translocated

mature individual close to the new site will indeed increase

the overall leopard population over a period of time.

Furthermore, landscape features just outside of the release

sites are likely to determine the extent to which the newly

released animals can use them. Availability of prey is not an

issue for leopards living in human dominated areas due to the

abundance of feral dogs and domestic livestock. It is well

known that domestic dogs are commonly taken by leopards

(Mukherjee and Mishra 2001 ; Edgaonkar and Ravi 1 997). Most

leopards trapped in India are from outside natural habitats.

Following their release into forested sites it is likely that they

will move towards human settlements thereby perpetuating

conflict. This has indeed been shown to be true (Khan et al.

2003; Athreya 2006).

In conclusion, the consistent pattern of high Leopard

density seen in various areas reporting human-leopard

conflict (many parts of Maharashtra, northern West Bengal,

Gujarat, Uttarakhand) is likely due to their proximity to

‘preferred’ release sites of Leopards, effectively re-stocking

the area with Leopards. Habitats such as tea-gardens in

northern West Bengal, sugarcane in Junnar, orchards around

Gir will provide the next best habitat for colonisation for the

released animals and their progeny. Therefore, when analysing

human-carnivore conflict patterns, it is also important to take

into account the numbers of animals that are trapped and

released and (lie proximity of release sites to the conflict sites.

For instance, Himachal Pradesh reported 70 Leopard trappings

between 1997 and 2003 (Athreya etal. 2004), and also reported

conflict, but we could not access data on the fate of these

captured animals. The Baria Forest Division in Gujarat reported

121 attacks on people by Leopards in 2000 (Gujarat Forest

Department records in Athreya et a I 2004). Releases of

Leopards are also reported close to Baria Division, but we

lack factual data to discuss the issue. Translocation of problem

Leopards was also carried out in Meru National Park, Kenya,

where 108 Leopards were released over 1 1 years until 1979

(Cobb 1 98 1 ). It would be interesting to know if the areas outside

of the release site reported increased Leopard numbers in

those years.

Following Linnell etal. ( 1997), we also recommend that

translocation of problem carnivores should not be carried

out. With our faulty methods of dealing with Leopards - a

species capable of living close to human settlements - we

have only perpetuated conflict and increased it to alarming

levels in recent years. It is of serious concern that the

amendment to Section 1 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act was

made a full five years after a scientific review (Linnell et al.

1997), which advised against such a management strategy. It

is imperative that past studies and the biology of species as

well as experiences of managers be considered when changing

or making policy decisions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the Maharashtra Forest

Department, Ms. Belinda Wright, and the Wildlife Protection

Society of India, New Delhi for their support. We would also

like to thank Ravi Chellam for his detailed comments, and

Ramana Athreya and Shomita Mukherjee for reviewing this

paper.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

49

LEOPARDS IN HUMAN-DOMINATED AREAS

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50

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

51-54

FISH BIODIVERSITY IN THE WATER BODIES OF SAMASPUR BIRD SANCTUARY,

UTTAR PRADESH: TOWARDS DEVELOPING A FRESHWATER AQUATIC SANCTUARY1

U.K. Sarkar2-3, D. Kapoor2, S.K. Paul2, A. K. Pathak2, V.S. Basheer2, PK. Deepak2, S.M. Srivastava2 and

L.K. Tyagi2

'Accepted November 2005

’Endangered Fish Biology and Systematics Lab, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Canal Ring Road, Dilkusha,

Lucknow 226 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

3Email: [email protected], uksarkar@[email protected], [email protected]

Extensive surveys were conducted in Samaspur Bird Sanctuary (799.37 ha). Uttar Pradesh during June 2000 to December

2004, to explore the status of fish germplasm resources in the water bodies. A total of 3,444 fish were collected and

classified into 7 orders, 1 9 families, 33 genera and 46 species. One exotic species (n=2 ) Aristichthys nobilis was collected.

This is the first ichthyofaunal report of this Sanctuary. The dominant species was Gudusia chapra (relative abundance,

7.25%) and the subdominant species were Labeo bata (RA, 6.67%), Salmostomci bacaila ( R A, 5.5 1 %), Amblypharyngodon

mola (RA, 5.08%), Notopterus notopterus (RA, 4.50%) and Eutropiichthys vacha (RA, 3.91%).

The analysis showed that 28.26% of fish species, which are reported to be threatened as per IUCN. had a stable

population in the Sanctuary. Apart from the major Indian catps and the above-mentioned species, the important species

recorded were Chitala chitala , Clupisoma garua , Ailia coda , Aorichthys aor , Wallago attu , Labeo gonitis, Labeo

pangusia, Puntius sarana , Rhinomugil corsnla , Channa marulius, Channa striatus , Ompok pabda and Ontbok pabo.

The study confirms that protected freshwater areas are important for conservation of regional fish biodiversity, especially

for local and endangered fish species.

Key words: Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, fish biodiversity, threatened fish, aquatic Sanctuary

INTRODUCTION

Protected areas could play an important role in the

conservation of fresh water fishes in India, but first there is a

need to identify the conservation value of these areas in

relation to the biogeographical diversity of fishes, and the

factors that have an impact on fish communities. The fish

diversity of India is declining rapidly, due to urbanization,

pollution, damming and diversion of waters for irrigation and

power generation, which have, in the last few decades,

subjected our natural water bodies in general, and rivers in

particular, to severe stress. Provision of a secure habitat is

important to protect the genetic resources of fresh water fish.

In India, rivers, streams, wetlands and beels of existing

protected areas offer good opportunities for creating fresh

water aquatic sanctuaries. The current protected area network

encompasses almost 4.66% (c. 153,000 sq. km) of India’s

geographical area in over 480 sanctuaries and 86 national

parks (Rodgers etcil. 2000). There are reports of illegal fishing

within protected areas (Wakid and Biswas 2003). India is

endowed with about 2,163 fish species, so far, as has been

documented by the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources

(Anon 2004), of which about 700 species inhabit fresh water.

Jayaranr ( 1999) has, however, reported 2,500 species with 930

freshwater inhabitants. A detailed inventory of fish and habitat

parameters in the protected areas will indicate the present

status of threatened freshwater fishes in these water bodies.

In the present study, a detailed survey was conducted

in the water bodies of Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, Rae Bareilly

to ascertain the present scenario of fish biodiversity within

protected areas. This study is the first attempt to explore the

fish diversity potential within Samaspur Bird Sanctuary.

STUDY AREA

Samaspur Bird Sanctuary is situated in Salon, Rae Bareilly

district of Uttar Pradesh (Fig.l ). It is spread over 799.37 ha and

has lentic water bodies comprising of six small inter-connected

lakes, with a water area of 305.46 ha. The lakes are perennial

and the main water sources are the various tail ends of canals,

which are connected to these lakes. During flooding these

lakes drain into villages adjacent to these lakes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Monthly sampling was carried out using stratified

random methods. The total water body was divided into three

sampling zones. Positional coordinates of the sampling points

of the water bodies were, 25° 59.55' N, 81° 23.32' E and

25° 59.92' N, 8 1 ° 23.5 P E, mean altitude 98.37 m above msl. The

fish sampling was done in many points covering all

representative habitat of the Sanctuary. Various mesh size of

gill nets, cast nets and dragnets were used for sampling. Colour

spots, if any, maximum size and other characters of the fishes

FISH BIODIVERSITY IN THE WATER BODIES OF SAMASPUR BIRD SANCTUARY

N

D iW.B 7W i;i2S tjSBto

Fig. 1 : Map of India showing the location of the Sanctuary

caught were recorded and the samples were preserved in 1 0%

formalin solution. Talwar and Jhingran ( 1991 ) and Srivastava

( 1988) were followed for fish identification. References to

conservation status categories within this paper are based

on IUCN classification as per CAMP-NBFGR ( 1 998).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The present study indicates that water bodies within

Samaspur Bird Sanctuary have a rich biodiversity of freshwater

fish. A total number of 46 species from 7 orders, 1 9 families,

and 33 genera were documented during the study period.

Cyprinids were the dominant group (38.4%), followed by

Perciformes (23.07%) and Siluroids ( 1 5.38%). Chinese big head

carp Aristichthys nobilis (n=2) was recorded on one occasion,

probably an escapee from culture system to natural waters.

The forty-six species documented are listed in Table 1 along

with their conservation status, local name and size distribution.

The dominant species was Gudusia chapra (RA, 7.25%), and

the subdominant species were Labeo bata (RA, 6.67%),

Salmostoma bacaila (RA, 5.51 %), Amblypharyngodon mola

(RA, 5.08%), Notopterus notopterus (RA, 4.50%) and

Eutropiichthys vacha (3.91%). An important observation was

that 28.26% of fishes that come under the threatened category

in other areas were stable in the Sanctuary waters. This was

recorded during experimental sampling of the waterbodies

throughout the study period (2000-2004).

In India, efforts have been made recently in bringing

together the studies of fish diversity in various rivers with

regard to freshwater habitat. However, fish diversity of many

water bodies within protected area network is not yet

investigated and the information related to species diversity,

conservation status of many species is unknown. Review of

literature indicates that few reports on fish diversity within

protected water bodies are available. Arunachalam and

Sankaranarayanan (1999) published a list of 31 species of

fishes from streams in Gadana river basin located in the buffer

zone of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of Western

Ghats, of which 4 species were reported to be first records by

the authors from Gadana river. Biju et al. (1999) described

40 freshwater fish species from Prambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary Palakkad district, Kerala. Labeo calbasu , Puntius

sarana , Puntius ticto , Chanda ranga and Mastacembelus

armatus were reported by Arunachalam and

Sankaranarayanan (1999) from Gadana river in Kalakkad

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Sarkar et al. (2002) described a

record size (22.5 cm TL) of Gudusia chapra from the

waterbodies of Samaspur Bird Sanctuary. Interestingly, the

average total length of many of the fishes sampled was larger

than fishes available outside the Sanctuary and natural waters.

Major Threats and Recommendations for Conservation

Presently, the flora and fauna of Indian national parks

and sanctuaries are legally protected from human intervention.

However, the boundaries of these areas are not large enough

to encompass the entire ecosystem, and many stresses that

affect the aquatic habitat originate beyond sanctuary

boundaries. Until now, most water bodies within protected

areas have been insufficiently recognized in India. The primary

ob jective for successful conservation of the high fish diversity

within the protected area network must be to develop effective

controls and management practices that enable life cycle

completion, dispersal and population maintenance within

stream systems. Drastic ecological and anthropogenic

changes of forest and aquatic habitat outside protected water

bodies are great threats for fish biodiversity, as well as aquatic

habitat. Spreading of fish diseases due to water pollution,

over exploitation of fish fauna, use of poison, river alterations

etc. are the main threats to fish fauna. Unless we take timely

measures, these valuable resources will become endangered

or extinct. Based on our observations, we recommend the

following for management of fish biodiversity in a scientific

manner.

1. The aquatic bodies within the Sanctuary should be

declared as an aquatic sanctuary.

2. Afforestation programme should be intensified on the

banks of water bodies.

52

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

FISH BIODIVERSITY IN THE WATER BODIES OF SAMASPUR BIRD SANCTUARY

Table 1 : Fish diversity of Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, Rae Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

53

FISH BIODIVERSITY IN THE WATER BODIES OF SAMASPUR BIRD SANCTUARY

3. Periodic monitoring of water quality parameters.

4. Existing suitable habitat should be protected from

erosion and deterioration of water quality.

5. Maintain water depth; should not be less than I -2 m.

6. Poisoning by villagers from the nearby villages should

be stopped by regular monitoring.

7. Community awareness programme for increased

participation in conservation.

8. Legislation should be implemented strictly for illegal

activities.

9. Strengthening of manpower for scientific management

of water bodies and fisheries.

10. Ranching programme can be undertaken for selective

fishes, which are not abundant in the protected area.

Anon (2004): National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR),

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Annual report,

2003-2004. 15 pp.

Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (1999): Fishes of Gadana

river in Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. ./. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 96(2): 232-238.

Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999): Fishes of

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad district, Kerala.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 82-87.

CAMP-NBFGR (1998): Freshwater Fishes of India. National Bureau

Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, and Zoo Outreach Organization,

Coimbatore. 327 pp.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House. Delhi. 551 pp.

Rodgers, W.A, H.S. Panwar & V.B. Mathur (2000): Wildlife Protected

There is need for more surveys so that more new records

could be documented. The availability offish species larger

than that reported in literature, and occurrence of many

threatened species in these protected water bodies, indicates

the urgent need for developing a fresh water sanctuary, with

scientific management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge Dr. R.L. Singh, Ex-Chief Conservator

of Forest, Department of Forests & Wildlife, Uttar Pradesh

for permission to carry out survey within the protected area.

We thank Range Officer, Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, for his

kind cooperation during the inventory.

Area Network in India: A review. Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun. 44 pp.

Sarkar, U.K., R.S. Negi, A.K. Pathak, S.K. Paul, V.S. Basheer &

P.K. Deepak (2002): Gudusia chapra attains record size in water

bodies of Samaspur Bird Sanctuary. Fishing Chimes 22(6): 36-38.

Srivastava, G. (1988): Fishes of U.P. & Bihar. Vishwavidyalaya

Prakashan, Varanasi. 207 pp.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent Countries, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi. Vol. I & II.

1 1 58 pp.

Wakid, A & S.P. Biwas (2003): Anthropogenic Pressure on the

Aquatic Habitats: A case study in the Laika Forest Village of

Dibru-Saikhowa National Park. Pp. 148-149. In: Participatory

Approach for Fish Biodiversity Conservation in North East India

(Eds: Mahanta PC. & L.K. Tyagi). NBFGR, Lucknow.

54

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

55-57

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW SPECIES OF MELINDA ROBINEAU-DESVOIDY

(DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE) FROM INDIA

WITH A KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THIS GENUS1

Devinder Singh2,3 and Inderpal Singh Sidhu2 4

'Accepted January 24, 2005

2Department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002, Punjab. India,

-’Email: [email protected]

’Email: inderpalsidhu76@ yahoo. co. in

Two new species of Melinda , M. chambaensis sp. nov. and M. chandigarhensis sp. nov. are described from India. A key

to the five species of this genus known from India is given.

Key words: Melinda, Diptera, Calliphoridae, new species

INTRODUCTION

The genus Melinda is represented by 26 species from

the Oriental region, including three from India. There has been

some controversy regarding the taxonomic status of this genus

and that of Paradichosia Senior-White. Senior- White et al.

( 1940) kept them as distinct genera while Kurahashi ( 1970)

synonymised the two. Because Fan et al. (1992) again

assigned them independent status, we consulted

Dr. Kurahashi (pers. comm.), who is of the firm opinion that

Paradichosia should be considered a junior synonym of

Melinda and we agree.

Melinda chambaensis sp. nov.

(Figs 1-4)

Male: Body length 13.0-13.5 mm.

Head: Eyes bare, subholoptic, facets uniform; ptilinal

angle strongly projecting; frons dark brown, triangular, gets

narrow as it approaches vertex; parafrontalia greyish,

narrower than frons; frontal bristles well developed; fronto-

orbital bristles absent; ocellus with weak ocellar bristles and

strong postvertical bristles; vertical bristles weak, prevertical

and outervertical bristles absent; parafacialia and face greyish

with silver tinge; facial carina very strong; epistome grey;

medianae and jowls dark brown, golden dusted, hairy; genae

and postgenae greyish black with black and golden hair;

vibrissae present just above oral margin; persitomal bristles

well-developed; postorbit golden with golden tomentum;

occiput greyish, covered with golden and black hair;

1st antennal segment brown, 2nd segment dark brown with

black setulae, 3rd segment black and its length only 1 ,5x that

of 2nd; arista black, long plumose; palpi black with bristles

present all over.

Thorax: Black, strongly golden dusted with dark

3

Figs. 1-4: Melinda chambaensis sp. nov.

1 . Fifth sternite of male (Magnification line = 0.5 mm);

2. Cerci and paralobi (Magnification line = 0.25 mm);

3. Dorsal view of chaetotaxy of thorax (Diagramatic);

4.Aedeagusand parameres (Magnification line = 0.1 7 mm)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 5-8: Melinda chandigarhensissp. nov.

5. Fifth sternite of male (Magnification line = 0.4 mm);

6. Cerci and paralobi (Magnification line = 0.29 mm);

7. Dorsal view of chaetotaxy of thorax (Diagramatic);

8. Aedeagus and parameres (Magnification line = 0.15 mm)

longitudinal stripes beyond transverse suture; humerus

golden dusted; postalar callus brown with golden dusting;

prothoracic spiracle brown; propleuron greyish with golden

dusting, hairy; prosternum hairy; post-alar declivity bare;

supraspiracular convexity bare; suprasquamal ridge with

anterior tuft.

Chaetotaxy (Fig. 3): Acrostichals 2+3; dorsocentrals

3+4; intra-alars 0+3; presutural present; humerals 4;

posthumerals 3; supra-alars 3; post-alars 2; notopleurals 2;

lateroscutellars 3; apicoscutellar and discoscutellar 1 each;

sternopleurals 2+1; propleural and prostigmatic present.

Wings: Hyaline, with yellowish tinge; veins brown; stem

vein (R) bare; R, bare; R, , black, setulose at basal node on

1 4+j

both dorsal and ventral sides; first posterior cell (R5) open;

epaulet and basicosta black; alar and thoracic squamae

brownish yellow; thoracic squama rounded at apex with soft

white hair at margin while bare dorsally; halteres yellow.

Legs: Black; fore- and hind-femora with bristles on both

dorsal and ventral sides while mid-femur with bristles on dorsal

side only; fore- and mid-tibiae with two bristles at middle and

three at apex; hind-tibia with two bristles at middle and one at

apex.

Abdomen: Black patched with golden dusting; tergite 2

darker than others, tergites 2 and 3 with weak marginal bristles

present at lateral side, tergites 4 and 5 with strong marginal

bristles; sternites 1-5 with long black hairs.

Genitalia: Fifth sternite (Fig. 1), Cerci and paralobi

(Fig. 2), Aedeagus and parameres (Fig. 4).

Female: Unknown.

Holotype: Male, Himachal Pradesh: Chamba-996M,

22.ix.2000, Coll. Inderpal Singh Sidhu.

Paratypes: (2d d) Himachal Pradesh: Chamba-996M

( 1 c?)21.ix.2000; Kandi -2355M(1 d) 14.ix.2000. Coll. Inderpal

Singh Sidhu.

Distribution: Himachal Pradesh, India.

Remarks: This new species is closely related to

M. pusilla pusilla (Villeneuve). However, it is separated from

the latter on the basis of following combination of characters:

frons dark brown (orange in pusilla pusilla ); antennae and

palpi dark brown to black (orange in pusilla pusilla ); first

posterior cell (R5) open (closed in pusilla pusilla ); basicosta

black (yellow in pusilla pusilla ); legs black (testaceous in

pusilla pusilla).

Etymology: The species name has been derived from

the name of the type locality.

Melinda chandigarhensis sp. nov.

(Figs 5-8)

Male: Body length 7.5 mm

Head: Eyes hairy, subholoptic, facets uniform; ptilinal

angle strongly projecting; frons reddish brown, narrower than

parafrontalia; parafrontalia brownish, hairy; frontal bristles

well-developed; fronto-orbital bristles absent; ocellus with

weak ocellar and postvertical bristles; vertical and

outervertical bristles absent, prevertical bristles present;

parafacialia orange with brownish tomentum, bare; face

brownish; facial carina present; epistome yellowish; medianae

reddish brown, bare; jowls and genae greyish brown with

black hair; postgenae brownish, with intermixed black and

pale hair; vibrissae present well above oral margin; peristomal

bristles well-developed; postorbit greyish with golden

tomentum, bare; occiput greyish, covered with black and

56

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pale hair; antennae dark brown, length of 3rd segment about

4.5x that of 2nd; arista brown, long plumose; palpi black with

bristles present all over.

Thorax: Shining black with purplish tinge, with dark

longitudinal stripes; humerus concolorous with dorsum;

postalar callus brown; prothoracic spiracle brown; propleuron

and prosternum bare at centre and hairy at margins; postalar

declivity and supraspiracular convexity bare; suprasquamal

ridge with anterior tuft.

Chaetotaxy (Fig. 7): Acrostichals 2+3; dorsocentrals

3+4; intra-alars 1+3; presutural present; humerals 4;

posthumerals 3; supra-alars 3; post-alars 2; notopleurals 2;

lateroscutellars 3; apicoscutellar and discoscutellar 1 each;

sternopleurals 2+ 1 ; propleural and prostigmatic present.

Wings: Hyaline; veins brown; stem vein (R) bare;

R, bare; R, setulose at base on both dorsal and ventral

sides; first posterior cell ( R?) open; epaulet and basicosta

brown; subcostal sclerite with fine pubescence; alar and

thoracic squamae dirty yellow, bare, with yellow marginal cilia;

both squamae bare on dorsal surface; halteres brown.

Legs: Brownish; fore- and hind-femora with bristles on

both dorsal and ventral sides and mid-femur with bristles on

ventral side only; tibiae with series of bristles.

Abdomen: Tergites 2 and 3 light brown, black in middle,

with decumbent marginal bristles; tergites 4 and 5 dark brown

with series of strong marginal bristles; stemites 1-5 with long

black hair.

Genitalia: Fifth sternite (Fig. 5), Cerci and paralobi

(Fig. 6), Aedeagus and parameres (Fig. 8)

Female: Unknown.

Holotype: Male, Chandigarh-300M 20. vi i i .2002.

Coll. Inderpal Singh Sidhu.

Distribution: Chandigarh, India.

Remarks: Because of hairy eyes, this new species

comes near M. abdominalis Malloch and M. scutellata Senior-

White. It can be separated from M. abdominalis by the

following combination of characters: parafrontalia and face

brownish without dusting (with silver grey dusting in

abdominalis ); palpi black (yellow in abdominalis ); antennae

dark brown (reddish in abdominalis ); postalar declivity bare

Fan, Z., Y. Zhong, F. Wu & C. Wang (1992): Key to the Common

Synanthropic Flies of China (2nd eif). Science Press, Beijing,

China.

Kurahashi, H. (1970): Tribe Calliphorini from Australian and Oriental

regions. 1. Melinda group (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Pac. Insects

(setulose in abdominalis). The following characters separate

it from M. scutellata : facial carina present (absent in

scutellata ); ptilinal angle strongly projecting (not projecting

in scutellata ); antennae dark brown (orange in scutellata );

length of 3rd antennal segment 4.5x that of 2nd (3x in

scutellata ); dorsoscentrals 3+4 (2+3 in scutellata ); humerals

4 (3 in scutellata ); posthumerals 3 (2 in scutellata)', post alar

declivity bare (hairy in scutellata ); basicosta brown (yellow

in scutellata)', squamae yellow (dark brown in scutellata).

Etymology: The name of this species has been derived

from the type locality.

Key to the Indian species of genus Melinda

1. Eyes hairy; legs orange to brownish; epaulet and basicosta

yellowish to brown; facial carina absent or weak 2

Eyes bare; legs black; epaulet and basicosta black; facial carina

very strong M. chambaensis sp. nov.

2. Presutural intra-alar present; length of 3rd antennal segment

at least 3x that of 2nd; stemopleural hair black; first posterior

cell (R ) open 3

— Presutural intra-alar absent; length of 3rd antennal segment 2x

that of 2nd; stemopleural hair yellowish; first posterior cell

( Rs) closed M. pusilla indica (Kurahashi)

3. Facial carina absent; ptilinal angle not projecting; length of

3rd antennal segment 3x that of 2nd; dorsocentrals 2+3;

humerals 3; post-alar declivity hairy 4

— Facial carina present; ptilinal angle strongly projecting; length

of 3rd antennal segment 4.5x that of 2nd’ dorsocentrals 3+4;

humerals 4; post-alar declivity bare

M. chandigarhensis sp. nov.

4. Posthumerals 3; palpi yellow; scutellum entirely yellow;

tergites 2-3 yellow with brownish hind margins; squamae

orange M. abdominalis Malloch

— Posthumerals 2; palpi orange; scutellum black with apex

yellow; tergites 2-3 greyish black; squamae dark brown

M. scutellata Senior- White

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The financial help rendered by the Department of

Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi

(Research Project No. SP/SO/C-30/97) is gratefully

acknowledged.

12(3): 519-542.

Senior-White, R.A., D. Aubertin & J. Smart (1940): The Fauna of

British India including the remainder of the Oriental Region

Diptera Vol. VI. Family Calliphoridae. Today & Tommorow

Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

57

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

58-63

CRAB SPIDERS (ARANEAE: THOMISIDAE) OF JALDAPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL - I1

Sumana Saha2 3 and Dinendra Raychaudhuri2 4

'Accepted April 06, 2005

’Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019,

West Bengal, India.

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected], [email protected]

The paper deals with the thomisid spiders recorded so far from the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary. Of these, Camaricus

( Indocamaricus ) siltorsus and Xysticus bengdakus are considered as new taxa. Hitherto unknown male morphs of

Misumena nicobarensis Tikader and Pistius kalimpus Tikader have also been recorded. Six species, namely Camaricus

khandalaensis Tikader, Misumena nicobarensis Tikader, Pistius barchensis Basu. P. gangulyi Basu, P roonwali Basu

and P. sreepanchamii Tikader, are identified as new for the state of West Bengal and one, Thomisus bulani Tikader, for

the district.

Key words: Thomisid spiders, new subgenus, new species, new morph, new record, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary,

Jalpaiguri, West Bengal

INTRODUCTION

Thomisid spiders of West Bengal, so far, are known to

belong to subfamilies Misumeninae and Philodrominae

(Tikader 1980; Biswas and Biswas 1992). Misumeninae is

represented by 25 species under nine genera and

Philodrominae by three species under two genera (Biswas

and Biswas 1992; Saha and Raychaudhuri (2004).

Philodrominae is now considered as a distinct family (Platnick

2003).

This paper deals with 1 I thomisid spider species

(Misumeninae) belonging to the genera Camaricus Thorell,

Xysticus Koch, Misumena Latreille, Pistius Simon and

Thomisus Walckenaer recorded from Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary. Of these, two species each of Camaricus and

Xysticus are considered new, and accordingly described and

illustrated. The Camaricus species is accommodated under a

new subgenus. Further, hitherto unknown morphs of

Misumena nicobarensis Tikader and Pistius kalimpus Tikader

are also described and illustrated.

The specimens have been deposited in the collection

of Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University

of Calcutta.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Collection and preservation of the spider samples was

canned out following Tikader (1987). The materials were

studied using a stereo zoom binocular microscope. All the

measurements are in millimetres, made with an eyepiece

graticule.

1 . Camaricus formosus Thorell

Camaricus formosus Thorell 1887. Ann. Mus. civ. stor.

Nat. Gen. 5(2): 261.

Material examined: Id1?, Jaldapara, 7.iii.2002; 2$,

Moiradanga, 7.iii.2002; 3 $ $ , DDG 25.iii.2002; 39?, Sissamara,

25.iv.2002; 1 9,TEC,26.iv.2002;4$ 9 , Bengdaki, 27.iv.2002;

1 9 , Kunjanagar, 27.iv.2002; 7 9 9, Hollong, 29.iv.2002; 39 9,

Bania, 8.vi.2002; 2 9 9 , 4c? <? , Chilapata, 8. vi. 2002; 4 9 9,1c?,

Celine, 9.vi.2002; 29 9, Mendabari, Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, 9.vi.2002.

Distribution: india: Andaman Islands, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, West Bengal (Tikader 1980; Biswas and Biswas

1992; Platnick 2003); Bangladesh; China; Indonesia;

Myanmar; Philippines; Sumatra (Tikader 1980; Platnick 2003).

2. Camaricus khandalaensis Tikader

Camaricus khandalaensis Tikader 1 980. Fauna of India:

Araneae: Spiders. Vol. 1, Pt. IThomisidae: 177-178.

Material examined: 1 9 , TEC, 26.4.2002; 1 9 , Mendabari,

9.6.2002; 29 9, Celine, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri,

9.6.2002.

Distribution: india: (Platnick 2003): Maharashtra

(Tikader 1980), West Bengal (new record).

3. Camaricus ( Indocamaricus ) siltorsus n. gen. et sp. n.

(Figs 1-5)

Female: Holotype: Total length 5.77; carapace length

2.58, width 2.38; abdomen length 3.00, width 2.54; legs as in

Table 1 .

Cephalothorax (Fig. 1 ) dark reddish brown, longer than

wide, front wide, parallel-sided, thoracic region marginally

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1 . Whole body, 2. Chelicerae, 3, Maxillae and labium, 4. Sternum, 5a. Epigynum, 5b. Internal genitalia

slightly laminate, medially slightly raised, clothed with dense

black hairs; eyes transparent, in two rows, both rows recurved,

laterals contiguous, eyes of anterior row basally ringed with

black band, posteromedians smallest, ocular quad squarish,

posteriorly wide; chelicerae (Fig. 2) reddish brown, robust,

inner margin only with single tooth, fangs yellowish red, small,

weakly curved; maxillae and labium (Fig. 3) brown, apically

whitish, both elongate and anteriorly scopulate; sternum

(Fig. 4) brown, heart-shaped, anterior margin concave,

posteriorly truncate, with hairs; legs yellow, segments distally

with brown band, robust, clothed with hairs and spines, femora

distally with black patch, tibiae and metatarsi 1 & II provided

with 3 pairs of ventral spines, leg formula 234 1 . Abdomen

yellow with black patch (Fig. I ), medially with 5 brown sigilla,

longer than wide, oval, widest behind the middle, clothed

with black hairs; venter black with mid-longitudinal broad

whitish band extending from epigastric furrow to near the

base of spinnerets, with few brown sigilla, epigyne and internal

genitalia (Figs 5a & 5b).

Material examined: Holotype: ? , Siltorsa, 7.vi.2002;

Coll. S. Bhattacharjee. Paratypes: 1 ? , Sissamara, 23.iii.2002;

2$ 9 , Moiradanga, 27.iii.2002; 1 9, Siltorsa, 24. iv.2002; 19 9,

Hollong, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, 29. iv.2002

(Regn. No. EZC 0005-03).

Distribution: india: West Bengal.

Etymology: The sub-generic and specific names are

derived from the names of the country and type locality

respectively.

Discussion: As the middle eyes of the present species

are closer to each other than to the laterals it does not seem to

be an ally of Camaricus Thorell s. str. However, following the

key to the Indian species (Tikader 1980) of Camaricus Thorell,

the taxon may at best be related to Camaricus formosus

Thorell because of the general pattern and somewhat similar

coloration. The other diagnostic features that support its

distinction are: marginally laminate thoracic region, cheliceral

inner margin with single tooth, apically blunt sternum, sigilla

on abdomen, leg formula 2341 and widely distant epigyne

and internal genitalia. Therefore, the present species is

considered as new to science.

Table 1 : Length of legs of $ holotype of Camaricus (Indocamaricus) siltorsus n. gen. et. sp. n. (in mm)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

59

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 6-11 : Misumena nicobarensis Tikader, male

6. Whole body, 7. Chelicerae, 8. Maxillae and labium 9. Sternum, 1 0. Male palp (ventral view), 1 1 . Male palp (lateral view)

4. Misumena* nicobarensis Tikader

(Figs 6-11)

Misumena nicobarensis Tikader 1980. Fauna of India,

Spiders. Thomisidae 1(1): 102.

Male: Measurements (in mm): Total length 7.53;

carapace length 3.58, width 3.74; abdomen length 3.74, width

3.47 ; legs as in Table 2.

Cephalothorax (Fig. 6) brown black, little wider than long,

cephalic region narrower, medially lighter and raised,

mid-longitudinally with narrow parallel dark brown lines, those

on the thoracic region short, thoracic region medially foveolate,

clothed with dense white pubescence; eyes pearly white, in

two rows, anterior row more recurved than the posterior row,

anterior eyes nearly equidistant, posteromedians smallest, ocular

quad rectangular, longer than wide; chelicerae (Fig. 7) dark

brown black, robust, inner margin with 3 and outer margin

60

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 2: Length of legs of c? of Misumena nicobarensis Tikader (in mm)

with 4 teeth, with long hairs, fangs reddish, small, weakly

curved; maxillae and labium (Fig. 8) brownish black, maxillae

robust, apically broad, anteriorly scopulate, labium almost

square, constricted before middle, anteriorly scopulate;

sternum (Fig. 9) reddish, typically heart-shaped, anterior

margin concave, posteriorly narrowing, with hairs; legs

brown, femora and patella I & II brownish black, tibiae and

metatarsi I & II with 4 and 3 pairs of ventral spines

respectively, with hairs black, set on black sockets, leg formula

1243.

Abdomen (Fig. 6) brownish with black patches,

pentagonal, little longer than wide, medially broadest,

anteriorly little concave, posteriorly narrowed. Venter uniformly

pale brown. Male palp as in Figs 1 0 & 11.

Material examined: 2? 9/2 $ 9 , Jaldapara, 7.iii.2002/

27.iii.2002; 5 9?, Malangi, 7.iii.2002; I d'/I 9/1 9 Sissamara,

23.iii.2002/25.iii.2002; 29 9. DDG 25.iii.2002; 1 9 , Kunjanagar;

1 5 .iii.2002; 49 9, TEC, 26.iii.2002; 7 9 9, Moiradanga,

27.iii.2002; 19, Chilapata, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary,

Jalpaiguri, 8.vi.2002.

Distribution: india: Nicobar Islands (Tikader 1980;

Platnick 2002), West Bengal (#new record).

5. Pistius barchensis Basu

Pistius barchensis Basu 1 965. Proc. zool. Soc., Calcutta

18:74.

Material examined: 1 9, Bania, Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, 8.6.2002.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh (Tikader 1980; Platnick

2003), West Bengal (new record).

Male: Measurements (in mm): Total length 6.08;

carapace length 2.88, width 2.77; abdomen length 3.19, width

2.77; legs as in Table 3.

Cephalothorax (Fig. 12) pale yellow with green spots,

each with a pale brown hair, almost as long as wide, oval,

somewhat narrow in front, clypeus high, obtuse, margin

provided with moderately long hairs; eyes black, set on white

tubercles, in two rows; anterior row more strongly recurved

than posterior row, ocular quad nearly as long as wide,

anteromedians slightly closer than posteromedians, laterals

larger, contiguous; chelicerae (Fig. 13) pale yellow, dorsally

with green spots, robust, inner margins devoid of any tooth,

outer margin with 7 minute denticles extending throughout

the length, fangs light brown, small, weakly curved; maxillae

and labium (Fig. 14) pale yellow, both elongate, scopulate;

sternum (Fig. 15) pale yellow, heart-shaped, anterior margin

straight, with very few hairs; legs pale yellow, tibiae and

metatarsi I and II ventrally armed with 4 and 6 pairs of spines

respectively, leg formula 1234.

Abdomen (Fig. 12) pale with chalk white patches, mixed

with black tint, longer than wide, oval, anteriorly straight,

posteriorly rather blunt, with brown small erect hairs arising

from brown sockets; venter pale medially darker. Male palp

not developed fully, therefore not illustrated.

Material examined: I d\ Bania, Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, coll. S. Bhattacharjee, 8.vi.2002; 3d d

(immature), Chilapata, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri,

8.vi.2002.

Distribution: india: West Bengal (Tikader 1980; Platnick

2003).

6. Pistius kalimpus Tikader

(Figs 12-15)

Pistius kalimpus Tikader 1970. Rec. Zool. Surv. India,

Calcutta 64: 58.

7. Pistius gangulyi Basu

Pistius gangulyi Basu 1965. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta

18:73.

Material examined: 19, Bengdaki, 8.xi.2001; 19,

Table 3: Length of legs of $ Pistius kalimpusTkader (in mm)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

61

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 12-15: Pistius kalimpus Tikader, male

12. Whole body, 13. Chelicerae,14. Maxillae and labium, 15. Sternum

Moiradanga, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary. Jalpaiguri, 9.xi.2001 .

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh (Tikader 1980; Platnick

2003), West Bengal (new record); China ( Platnick 2003).

8. Pistius roonwali Basil

Pistius roonwali Basu 1964. J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc.,

Darjeeling 32 (2): 104.

Material examined: ld\ Bania, Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, 7.vi.2002.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh (Tikader 1980;

Platnick 2003), West Bengal (new record).

9. Pistius sreepanchamii Tikader

Pistius sreepanchamii Tikader 1971. Mem. zool. Surv.

India 15(3): 30.

Material examined: ld\ Bania, Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary Jalpaiguri, 8.vi.2002.

Distribution: india: Meghalaya (Tikader 1980; Platnick

2003), West Bengal (new record).

10. Thomisus bulani Tikader

Thomisus bulani Tikader 1960. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 57(1): 178.

Material examined: 1 $ , Malangi, Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, 23.iii.2002.

Distribution: india: West Bengal (Tikader 1980; Platnick

2003) (dist. Jalpaiguri - new record).

1 1 . Xysticus beitgdakus sp. nov.

(Figs 16-20)

Female (Holotype): Total length 5.42; carapace length

1 .77, width 1 .77; abdomen length 3.35, width 2.85; legs as in

Table 4.

Cephalothorax (Fig. 16): Brown, medially pale, as long

as wide, cephalic region high, clothed with few long black

hairs; clypeus high, vertical, edge marked by 6 long brown

spines, eyes black situated on tubercles, in two rows, both

rows strongly recurved, laterals contiguous, ocular quad

squarish, slightly longer than wide, with 2 moderately long

black hairs, anteromedians closer to laterals than to each other;

chelicerae (Fig. 17) light yellow, robust, margins devoid of

any tooth, fangs yellow, small, weakly curved; maxillae and

labium (Fig. 18) light yellow, small, elongate, anteriorly

Table 4: Length of legs of ? holotype of Xysticus bengdakus sp.n. (in mm)

62

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

i

0.5 mm

I 1

0.5 mm

Figs 1 6-20: Xysticus bengdakus sp. n., female holotype

1 6. Whole body, 1 7. Chelicerae, 1 8. Maxillae and labium, 1 9. Sternum, 20a. Epigynum, 20b. Internal genitalia

scopulate; sternum (Fig. 19) light yellow, typically heart

shaped, with hairs; legs light yellow, moderately elongate,

tibiae I and II with 2 pairs of ventral spines, leg formula 2143.

Abdomen (Fig. 16) light yellow, with scattered patches

of black, chalk white and also brown small sigilla, globose,

with black hairs; venter pale yellow, laterally margined

by black patches, epigyne and internal genitalia as in

Figs 20a & 20b.

Material examined: Holotype: 1 $ , Bengdaki, Jaldapara

Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, India, Coll.

S. Bhattacharjee, 8.1 1.2001 (Regn. No. EZC 0006-03).

Distribution: India: West Bengal (known only from the

type locality).

Etymology: Species name is derived from the type

locality.

Remark: The present species with a pale median area

on cephalothorax and 6 strong forwardly directed spines on

clypeus shows a close affinity to Xysticus kamakhyai Tikader

but, is distinct in having anteromedian eyes close to

anterolaterals, laterals closely apposed, sternum heart-

shaped, very different abdominal decoration, sigilla and

epigyne. The species is therefore recognized as new to

science.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the University Grants Commission,

New Delhi for financial assistance (Project Sanction No.

F: 3-136/2001 (SR-II) dt. 28.3.2001 & dt. 20.4.2001), the

authorities of Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal, and

the Head, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, for

kindly providing the necessary facilities.

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. & K. Biswas (1992): Fauna of West Bengal. Part 3, State

Fauna Series: Araneae: Spiders. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta. Pp. 357-500.

Platnick, N.I. (2003): The World Spider Catalog, Version 3.5. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist. URL: http://research.amnh.org/entomology/

spiders/catalogS 1 -87/index, html.

Saha, S. & D. Raychaudhuri (2004): Hitherto unknown genera of

spiders, Ordgcirius Keyserling. Pasilobits Simon (Araneidae)

and Strigoplus Simon (Thomisidae) from eastern India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(3): 425-428.

Tikader, B.K. ( 1980): Fauna of India: Araneae Pt.l, Vol. I: Thomisidae.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta 247 pp.

Tikader, B.K. (1987): Hand Book of Indian Spiders. Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta. 251 pp.

I. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

63

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

64-67

A NEW SPECIES OF NAMANEREIDINAE: NAMALYCASTIS GLASBYI SP. NOV.

FROM INDIAN WATERS1

Olivia J. Fernando2,3 and R. Rajasekaran2,4

'Accepted July 05, 2005

2Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai 608 502, Tamil Nadu, India.

’Email: [email protected], [email protected]

+Email: [email protected]

A new species of the Genera Namalycastis. Subfamily Namanereidinae, Family Nereidae, is being described here.

Collections from Gorai creek, Mumbai, included Nereid worms previously undescribed. Namalycastis indica is a

species of Namalycastis recorded most frequently from India. Subsequently N.fauvlei has been described from Indian

waters. In addition to this N. abiuma species group has also been observed though not recorded. As N. indica and

N. abiuma resemble each other, there has been some confusion with regards to their occurrence from the different areas

studied. The present study records the occurrence of a new species Namalycastis glasbyi ; a key is being provided to

help distinguish the different species of Namalycastis occurring in Indian waters.

Key words: Nereidae, Namalycastis glasbyi sp. nov., Mumbai, Namalycastis indica , Namalycastis fauveli

Hartman ( 1 959) considered the genus Lycastis Savigny

1 822 of the subfamily Namanereidinae as a synonym of Nereis

Linnaeus 1758 and proposed the name Namalycastis to replace

it. Characters used to distinguish genus Namalycastis are:

presence of a mid-anterior cleft on the prostomium, two small

conical antennae, two conspicuous, broad palps with distinct

palpostyle, two pairs of tentacular cirri on either side in two

bundles of two tentacles each, of which the longest reaches

up to the fourth segment and absence of papillae and

paragnaths in the pharynx. Dorsal cirri anteriorly slender and

small, conical, posteriorly elongated, nearly one and a half

times the length of the dorsal cirrus of the anterior segment.

The reduced or lack of notopodial conditions of Namanereidinae

is a unique feature among this group. The presence of both

notoacicula and neuroacicula in the parapodia of the first two

setigers is also unusual among the Nereididae.

The earliest record of this genus in India is by Southern

(1921) from Chilika Lake as Lycastis indica. Since then,

Namalycastis indica has been recorded from several

estuaries, backwaters from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

and the east and west coast oflndia (Table 1 ). Southern ( 1921 )

also mentions two specimens collected from Cochin (now

Kochi ) backwaters and Garia, lower West Bengal, of which

the single specimen from Cochin is described to have a single

setae anterior to the dorsal aciculum and shorter antennae

and tentacular cirri, thus differing from Lycastis indica. Glasby

(1999) is of the opinion that this single specimen from Cochin,

collected by Southern, may likely be another species,

N. abiuma sp. group. Another species described from Bytarani

estuary by Rao (1981)- Namalycastis fauveli - has also been

frequently observed from several regions along the east coast

oflndia. (Table 1)

Table 1: Records of distribution of Namalycastis indica

and N. fauveli along the Indian coast

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During the present study four specimens of the genus

Namalycastis were collected from sandy, clayey intertidal

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Nemalycastis glasbyi : a. head; b. parapodia of segment 8; c. parapodia of segment 20; d. parapodia of segment 50;

e. parapodia of segment 100; f. parapodia of segment 160; g. jaw piece, ventromedial view; h. neuropodial setae

sediments, about 3 km upstream in Gorai creek, Mumbai. Gorai

creek situated in the suburbs of Mumbai (formerly Bombay)

(19° 12' N, 72° 48' E) extends 12 km inland through vast

mangrove mudflats and low-lying marshy area. South of the

creek mouth, lies the Akse-Madh coastal strip; the northern

bank of the creek is bordered by Manori village, which forms

a natural beach. As these specimens were different from the

species of Namalycastis described earlier, more detailed

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

65

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

observations were made.

Three of the four specimens were complete; the largest

had 289 segments up to 64 mm long and 1 mm wide. The

longest tentacular cirri reached up to the fifth segment.

Maximum width is at segment 1 5 after which it tapers gradually.

The prostomium has a shallow cleft with a narrow longitudinal

groove extending from tip to mid-posterior of prostomium.

Eyes are in a straight line at the posterior margin of the

prostomium and nearly coalescent. The proboscis is armed

with a pair of jaws but lacks paragnaths and papillae. Each

jaw has a distinct terminal tooth, a single subterminal tooth

(Fig. lg) and a group of four teeth ensheathed proximally. The

presence of a single subterminal tooth distinguishes this

specimen from all others of the TV. abiuma sp. group.

The parapodia are sub-biramous, each carries two

acicula. Neuropodial ligule bilobed with superior lobe

papilliform and inferior lobe globular. Notopodial spiniger

starts from setiger4-6 and varies in number from 1-3, extending

up to the 60th segment. Neurosetae are in two fasicles, one

below and one above the ventral aciculum. The fasicle above

the ventral aciculum (VA) has 8 spinigers and 5 falcigers; the

fasicle below the VA has 3 spinigers and 8 falcigers.

Joint of the dorsal cirri with cirrophore is indistinct,

posterior dorsal cirri nearly three and a half times as long as

the parapodial lobe. The dorsal cirri increase in length

posteriorly. On the anterior segment it is conical and only as

long as the podium, almost double in length 50th segment

onwards and nearly four times long at the 160th segment. At

the posterior end the length is five times its width (Fig. la-h).

Though there is no articulation, a slight constriction is present

in the dorsal cirrus.

DISCUSSION

TV. indica and TV. abiuma sp. group are similar in external

appearance, and unless setal types and distribution are

examined carefully the two species are very difficult to

separate (Glasby 1999). Glasby is also of the opinion that

most descriptions of TV. indica in the taxonomic literature fail

to give an adequate account of setal type distribution and

therefore it is quite possible that the two species have been

widely confused. Doubtful taxonomic reference to TV. indica

include those of Ghosh (1963), Day (1967) and Sunder Raj

and Sanjeeva Raj (1987). As there is considerable difficulty in

describing the distribution of setae, i.e. pre and post supra-

acicular neurosetae, and the pre and post subacicular

neurosetae, it is not surprising that there is considerable doubt

about earlier taxonomic references.

The present specimens differ from TV. indica by

presence of nearly coalescent eyes, unjointed dorsal cirrus

that is elongated and enlarged in the posterior segments. It

also differs from TV. fauveli in which the anterior cleft is absent,

the two pairs of eyes arranged transversely and presence of

2-3 subterminal teeth in the jaw. It differs from TV. abiuma by

the presence of notopodial setae (1-3) up to the mid body

region, in no particular order, and by the presence of unequal

number of heterogomph spinigers and falcigers in the

neuropodia.

The presence of a single subterminal tooth in the jaw

and the presence of notopodial setae ranging between 1 and

3 in the anterior part of the body distinctly separates these

specimens from the previously described species and is

therefore described here as a new species Namalycastis

glasbyi.

Key to distinguish genus Namalycastis

OBSERVED FROM INDIAN WATERS

1 . Acicular neuropodial ligule bilobed, superior lobe papilliform.

inferior lobe globular 2

— Acicular neuropodial ligule subconical or weakly bilobed ... 4

2. Antennae small, extending to tip of palpaphore 3

— Antennae small, usually extending short of tip of palpaphore,

jaw with 4-5 subterminal teeth & 3-5 ensheathed proximally

N. abiuma sp. group

3. Jaw with 4 subterminal teeth, 4 ensheathed proximally

TV. abiuma

— Jaw with 1 subterminal tooth and 4 ensheathed proximally

N. glasbyi

4. Jaw with 2-3 subterminal teeth, 2-4 ensheathed proximally,

heterogomph falcigers with boss extremely prolonged

N. fauveli

— Jaw with 2-5 subterminal teeth, 3-5 ensheathed proximally,

heterogomph falcigers with boss not prolonged N. indica

Habitat; Holotype from a tidal creek nearly 3 km

upstream, salinity unknown.

rIVpe locality: Gorai creek, Mumbai, west coast of India.

Etymology: Named after Dr. Christopher J. Glasby for

his detailed study of Namanereidinae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank The Director, CAS in Marine Biology and the

authorities of Annamalai University for facilities provided.

66

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

REFERENCES

Antony, A. & V.J. Kuttyamma ( 1983): The influence of salinity on the

distribution of polychaetes in Vembanad estuary, Kerala. Bull.

Dept. Mar. Sci. Univ. Cochin XIII : 121-133.

Balasubrahmanyan, K. (1960): Studies in the ecology of the Vellar

estuary: A preliminary survey of the estuarine bottom and

its fauna conducted on 11.9.59. J. Zool. Soc. India 12(2):

209-215.

Day, J.H. (1967): A monograph on the Polychaeta of Southern Africa.

Part 1 & 2. British Museum of. Natural History, London.

Ghosh, A. ( 1963): On a collection of polychaetes from the south-east

coast of India with a new eumcid record. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India

5(2): 239-245.

Glasby, C.J. (1999): The Namanereidinae (Polychaeta: Nereididae)

Part 1 , Taxonomy and Phylogeny. Rec. Aust. Mus. Supplement

25: 1-129.

Hartman, O. (1959): Catalogue of the Polychaetous Annelids of the

world. Allan Hancock Foundation Pitbl. Occ. Paper No. 23,

Pts. I & II: I -628.

Kalaiselvi, R. & K. Ayyakkannu (1986): Aspects of the ecology of

Lycastis sp. (Polychaeta: Nereididae) from the southeast coast

of India. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Polychaete

Conference (Eds: Petersen M.E. & J.B. Kirkgaard). Copenhagen.

Ophelia Supplement 5. 696 pp.

Misra, A. (1995): Polychaetes. Estuarine ecosystem series. Part 2,

Zoological Survey of India. Pp. 93-155.

Misra, A. & A. Choudhury (1985): Polychaetous annelids from the

mangrove swamps of Sunderbans, India. The Mangroves. Proc.

Nat. Symp. Biol. Util. Cons. Mangroves: 448-452.

Misra, A., R.K. Chakraborty & T.D. Soota (1987): Fauna of Orissa,

Polychaeta, State Fauna Series, Zoological Survey of India.

Pp. 69-89.

Misra, S., T.D. Soota & A. Choudhury ( 1984): On some polychaetes

from Gangetic delta. West Bengal, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India

81: 41-54.

Pillai, N.G.K. (2001): On some benthic polychaetes from Cochin

estuary. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 43(1 &2): 120-135.

Rao, C.A.N. (1981): On two new polychaetes (Nereidae: Annelida)

from estuarine waters of India. Bull. zool. Surv. India 3(3):

213-217.

Rao, C.A.N. (1993): Polychaetous annelids from Mahanadi estuary,

Orissa. Environ & Ecol. 11(4): 993-995.

Rao, C.A.N. ( 1995 ): Polychaete fauna of Chilika Lake, Orissa. Zoological

Survey of India, Wetland Ecosystem Series I Pp. 319-336.

Rao, C.A.N. (1998): Polychaeta: Annelida. Estuarine Ecosystem

Series 3: Mahanadi estuary. Zoological Survey of India.

Pp. 199-209.

Rao, C.A.N. ( 1999): Observations on a collection of polychaetes from

Godavari estuary, Andhra Pradesh. Rec. zool. Surv India 97(1):

43-47.

Rao, C.A.N. (2001 ): Fauna of Godavari estuary, Polychaeta: Annelida.

Estuarine Ecosystem Series 4, Zoological Survey of India.

Pp. 21-32.

Soota, T.D. & C.A.N. Rao (1977): On some polychaetes from Orissa

coast. Rec. Zool. Surv India 73: 327-336.

Southern, R. ( 1921 ): Polychaeta of the Chilika Lake and also of fresh

and brackish waters in other parts of India. Mem. Indian Mus.

Calcutta 5: 563-659.

Srinivasa Rao, D. & D.V. Rama Sarma (1981): Homogeneity and

diversity of intertidal polychaete fauna in the Vasishta Godavari

estuary. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 90(3): 321-331.

Sunder Raj, S.K. & P.J. Sanjeeva Raj (1987): Polychaeta of the Pulicat

Lake (Tamil Nadu). ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 84-104.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

67

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

68-71

ON THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW THRIPS RELATED TO

THE GENUS HAPLOTHRIPS AMYOT & SERVILLE FROM DELHI'

Vikas Kumar2’3, Kaomud Tyagi2-4, and J.S. Bhatti2’5

‘Accepted September 06, 2005

'Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India.

'Present address: Division of Entomology & Nematology, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta, Lake

Post, Bengaluru 560 089, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

'Present address: Insect Sysytematics Laboratory, Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru

560 024, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

A new genus and species of thrips, Ahamothrips maxima , collected from the monocot Urochloa maxima (Jack) R.D.

Webster (Poaceae) have been described. The new genus is related to the genus Haplothrips except for the absence of

ectoentarcine pseudunguis on the mid and hind tarsi.

Key words: Ahamothrips maxima , new genus and species, Phlaeothripidae, Urochloa maxima

The genus Haplothrips Amyot and Serville 1 843 is a

large cosmopolitan genus of the Family Phlaeothripidae in

the Order Tubulifera. The species of this genus possess an

ectoentarcine pseudunguis on all tarsi in both sexes (Bhatti

1994, 1998a). This structure is present in the type species

H. aculeatus (Fabricius) and in other species of the genus

that have been examined and in species of most genera of

Phlaeothripidae, and is therefore a tubuliferan plesiotypy. The

new species described here has the habitus of Haplothrips

but lacks a hamus on mid and hind tarsi. In common with

Haplothrips s. str., this species has asymmetrical antennal

segment III, 4 sense cones on segment IV, segment VIII not

constricted at base, 2 pairs of sigmoid setae on abdominal terga

II to VII, and transverse prostemal basantral plates. The fore

tarsus is armed in both sexes (Ananthakrishnan and Sen 1980).

Abbreviations Used

aa - anteroangular, am - anteromarginal, ml - midlateral,

pa - posteroangular, ep - epimeral, cx - coxal, / - length,

w - width

Ahamothrips gen. nov.

Head slightly longer than broad. Postocular seta well-

developed and pointed. Eyes not bulging, ventrally not longer

than dorsal ly. Proboscis short and broadly rounded. Maxillary

stylets retracted far into the head. Maxillary bridge present

(Fig. 1 ). Antennae 8-segmented; segment III asymmetrical.

Segment VIII not constricted at base, but its base is slightly

narrower than the apex of segment VII. Antennal segment III

with 1 to 2 sense cones, IV with 4 sense cones. Campaniform

sensillum on segment II situated in distal half of segment

(Figs 4, 5).

Prothorax. Notopleural sutures complete. All dorsal

prothoracic setae ( aa , am, ml, pa, ep) well developed, pointed,

blunt or expanded at apex, posteroangular (pa) and epimeral

setae (ep) are the longest. Coxal seta (cx) well-developed and

pointed or expanded at apex. Basantral plates present,

transverse (Fig. 1).

Mesoacrotergite deeply constricted at middle. Median

metanotal setae of group ‘a’ well-developed and pointed,

3 minute setae of group ‘b’ sublaterally on either side are

present, and setae of group ‘c’ are absent. Mesoprestemum

degenerate at middle.

Mesothoracic spiracle ventrally extends down to most

of the posterior margin of infrapreepistemum. Metathorax

without sternopleural sutures. Anapleural sutures complete.

Fore femur with apical margin somewhat raised exteriorly.

Fore tarsus 1 -segmented, mid and hind tarsi 2-segmented.

Fore tarsus with ectoentarcine pseudunguis (H-l hamus), mid

and hind tarsi without hamus (H-3 hamus) (Figs 8-10). Fore

tarsus armed with a tooth in female (Fig. 1) and a strongly

developed triangular tooth in oedymerous male (Fig. 3).

Fore wing constricted at middle, just next to median

bulge (MB) (Bhatti 1991: 46). Duplicated cilia present. Wing

basal setae expanded apically and arranged in a triangle.

Abdominal tergum I divided into 7 tergites: median tergite

(pelta) triangular; antepelta divided (Bhatti 1998b: 289, and

Fig. 10 on p. 299) into 2 discrete sclerites, the two halves very

wide apart; the spiracles are located on a lateral tergite.

Abdominal terga II to VII each with 2 pairs of sigmoid setae.

Tergum IX with S 1 and S2 setae pointed, about as long

as tube. In male the S2 setae are spine-like and much shorter

than SI. Tube short and conical, much shorter than head.

Anal setae as long as tube (Fig. 6). Male without gland area

on sternum VIII.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-7: Ahamothrips maxima n. gen. et. sp. n.:

1. Head and prothorax, dorsal, 9; 2. Head and prothorax, dorsal, <3 (Maximum gynaecoid);

3. Head and prothorax, dorsal, d (Maximum oedymerous); 4. Antenna, dorsal, 9; 5. Antenna, ventral. 9;

6. Abdominal segments 9-10, dorsal, 9; 7. Pseudovirga, <3

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

69

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fore

ungues + arolium

ectoentarc

pseudunguis

uniguitractor

plate

tarsal tooth

uniguitractor.

apodeme

8

Hind

Figs 8-10: Fore, mid and hind tarsi of Ahamothrips maxima n. gen. et. sp. n. $

Etymology: The name of the genus is based on the

absence of hamus (ectoentarcine pseudunguis) on the mid

and hind tarsi.

Type species: Ahamothrips maxima sp. nov.

Ahamothrips maxima sp. nov. (Figs 1-10)

Female: Macropterous.

Structure: Head 249 pm long, up to anterior margin of

eye 232 pm, widest across middle 194 pm. Postocular seta

24 pm long, blunt at apex. Maxillary bridge W 38 pm ( 1/5 times

width of head at that level ). Width of head at maxillary bridge

191 pm.

Antennae 8-segmented; segment III asymmetrical.

Segment VIII not constricted at base, but base is slightly

narrower than apex of VII. Antenna 317 pm long; L (W) of

antennal segments: III 37.5(31 ); IV 41 (32.4); V 39 (30); VI 41

Figs 11-13: Fore mid and hind tarsi of

Haplothrips aculeatus (Fabricius) ?

(24); VII 44.3 (20.5); VIII 25.5 (13) pm. Antennal segment III

with 2 sense cones, IV with 4 sense cones (Figs 4, 5).

Prothoracic notopleural sutures complete. Pronotum

157 pm long. Pronotal seta am slender and pointed, 14 pm

long; other major setae stout and blunt at apex, aa 17, ml 17,

pa 39; epimeral seta (ep) 4 1-50; cx 17 pm long.

Fore femur with apical margin somewhat raised exteriorly.

Fore tarsus armed, with a small tooth (Figs 1, 2).

Fore wing 837 pm long, with 5-8 duplicated cilia. Wing

basal setae SI 27; S2 27; S3 4 1 pm long, expanded apically and

fringed, arranged in a triangle; fringe cilia at apex of wings

smooth, not plumose.

Median tergite (pelta) triangular. Abdominal terga II to

VII each with 2 pairs of sigmoid setae. Tergum IX 89 pm long.

SI 97; S2 94-99; S3 70 pm long; SI and S2 on tergum IX

pointed.

Tube 123 pm long, w at base 65 pm, w at apex 34 pm.

Anal setae SI 1 19-124; S2 143; S3 92 pm long.

Total body length: 2. 1 -2.3 mm.

Male: Macropterous.

General structure similar to that of female. Fore tarsus

armed, with a small tooth (Fig. 2) (very well-developed in

oedymerous males. Fig. 3). Abdominal sternum VIII without

gland area. Tergum IX with S 1 pointed and S2 setae spine-like

(Fig. 6).

Total body length: 1.65 mm (maximum gynaecoid) to

1 .95 mm (maximum oedymerous).

Colour: Body dark brown, including legs, except the

pale yellow tarsi and distal end of fore tibia. Antennal segments

I and II dark brown, VII and VIII brown. III to VI yellow tinged

70

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

with faint brown. Wings clear, unshaded, but with light brown

clavus and adjoining area of wing blade.

Material Studied. Holotype 9 , Delhi, 29.vii.2002, from

Urochloa maxima (Jack) R.D. Webster (Poaceae), leg. Kaomud

Tyagi & Vikas Kumar. Paratypes 8 9,7c?, with the same data.

Etymology: The species name is the same as that of the

specific epithet of its host species Urochloa maxima.

Remarks: The new genus Ahamothrips is closely

related to Haplothrips, in the presence of asymmetrical

Ananthakrishnan T.N. & S. Sen (1980): Taxonomy of Indian

Thysanoptera, Zoological Survey of India. Handbook Series

No. 1.

Bhatti, J.S. (1994): Phylogenetic relationships among Thysanoptera

(Insecta), with particular reference to the families of the Order

Tubulifera. Zoology 4: 93-130.

Bhatti, J.S. (1991 ): Surface patterns of wings in the Order Tubulifera

antennal segment III, 4 sense cones on segment IV, segment

VIII not constricted at base, 2 pairs of sigmoid setae on

abdominal terga II to VII, and transverse prosternal basantral

plates. The fore tarsus is armed in both sexes, except for the

absence of ectoentarcine pseudounguis on mid and hind tarsi

(Figs 1 1-13).

Ahamothrips maxima also shows striking sexual

dimorphism in the width of maxillary bridge, a feature also

shared by some species in Haplothrips.

(Insecta). Zoology 3(1): 1-95.

Bhatti, J.S. (1998a): New structural features in the Order Tubulifera

(Insecta). 3. The tarsal hamus and thoracic appendages. Zoology

5(2): 253-284.

Bhatti, J.S. (1998b): New structural features in the Order Tubulifera

(Insecta). 4. The ovispan and other abdominal structures. Zoology

5(2): 285-352.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

71

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jam-Apr 2007

72-75

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS GASTRANCISTRUS WESTWOOD

(HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Ankita Gupta2-3 and M.A. Khan2-4

'Accepted September 27, 2005

’Biocontrol & Biosystematics Laboratory, Department of Entomology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar 263 145, Uttarakhand, India.

-’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

A new species of Pteromalidae, namely Gastrancistrus pantnagarensis Gupta and Khan sp. nov. from Uttarakhand,

India has been described and illustrated, and a revised key to the species of Indian Gastrancistrus given.

Key words: Hymenoptera, Pteromalidae, Gastrancistrus pantnagarensis sp. nov.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Gastrancistrus was erected by Westwood

in 1 833 with Gastrancistrus vagans Westwood as the type

species. Boucek ( 1988) enlisted the already known synonyms

of Gastrancistrus, namely Glyphe Walker (Walker 1834),

Tridymus Ratzeburg (Ratzeburg 1848) and Tripedias Forster

(Forster 1856).

Some of the species are extremely different from the

type species and the number of generic synonyms reflects

the fact that the genus is very plastic. The number of teeth on

mandibles, which are constant as four in European species,

varies greatly in Indian species. The females of the genus, as

understood by Boucek (1988), have five funicular segments

and the males six. In all the species, so far described, the

clypeal margin is only slightly or moderately produced.

Boucek (1986) described a new subgenus Magistrus

with Gastrancistrus (Magistrus) cherryi as the type species

from Procontarinia matteiana galls on mango leaves in

Bangalore, India. Narendran et al. (2001) described a new

species G. bengalicus which stands between Amuscidea

Girault and Gastrancistrus Westwood.

Boucek (1988) stated that when better known, the

presently separated genera Amuscidea Girault (Girault 1913)

and Premiscogaster Girault ( Girault 1933) will be merged with

Gastrancistrus. Since the species G. bengalicus and

G. bidentatus show intermediate characters between

Gastrancistrus and Amuscidea, Narendran et al. (2001)

reduced Amuscidea to a new junior synonym and a subgenus

of Gastrancistrus Westwood. In India, so far, only two species,

namely G muneswari (Yadav) (Yadav 1978) and G ( Magistrus )

cherryi Boucek are known. Boucek (1986) synonymised

Gastrancistrus mangiferae (Subba Rao 1981) with

G. muneswari Yadav. In this paper a new species is described

and a revised key of Indian species given. The holotype is

deposited in the collections of the Govind Ballabh Pant

University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar,

Uttarakhand.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens were studied in the Biological Control

Laboratory, Department of Entomology at the Govind Ballabh

Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, using

a trinocular microscope. The drawings were made using Camera

Lucida. Leaves parasitized with eggs were collected and stored

in labelled jars for the emergence of parasitoids. The collected

specimens were preserved in 70% alcohol in glass vials.

Permanent slides were prepared to enable detailed study of

important structures of the parasitoids.

Slides were prepared using the method mentioned below:

(1) It was ensured that the specimen was dry. As the

specimen to be mounted was in alcohol, it was dried in

an oven at about 60° C before proceeding.

(2) Specimen was soaked in a 7:5 mixture of glacial acetic

acid (or lactic acid) and lacto phenol (or chloral phenol)

at room temperature for 24-72 hrs, after which the

specimens were cleared and the body shape returned

to normal. The cleared specimens were mounted in

Hoyer’s medium.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Gastrancistrus pantnagarensis sp. nov. (Figs 1-11)

Female: Body length about 2.50 mm (Holotype); general

body colour black; eyes brown and ocelli yellowish brown;

antennae uniformly yellowish brown; lateral arms of pronotum

black and middle portion blackish brown; thorax black with

coarse reticulation; wings hyaline; legs brown; fore and middle

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-11: Gastrancistrus pantnagarensis sp. nov. Female: 1. Antenna; 2. Head in frontal view; 3. Thorax; 4. Left mandible;

5. Pronotum; 6. Forewing; 7. Hindwing; 8. Tarsi of fore leg; 9. Tarsi of mid leg; 10. Tarsi of hind leg; 11. Ovipositor

tibia and tarsi brownish black, hind coxa and femur black,

hind tibia brown; abdomen black with bright reflection.

Head: Wider than long in facial view (0.71:0.53);

frontovertex distinctly wide, more than half of the total head

width (0.36:0.7 1 ); ocelli arranged in obtuse angle triangle; POL

slightly smaller than OOL (0.06: 15); diameter of media ocelli

(0.035) smaller than POL (0.035:0.06), malar space smaller than

total eye width (0. 1 8:0.71 ); antennae inserted not so low on

face; width of frons between eyes is 6x more than distance

between two toruli (0.36:0.06); scrobe shallow, not reaching

front ocellus; clypeus not distinctly separated by groove or

line from face; right and left mandible tridentate (two teeth

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

73

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

and a truncation) with blunt margins, maxillary and labial palpi

4 and 2 segmented respectively. Antennal formula 11151; with

one ring segment; scape not exceeding fronocellus, more than

9.5x times as long as wide (0.39:0.04); pedicel slightly wider

than long (0.06:0.05); funicle five segmented; first funicle

segment longer than wide ( 1 .2:0.099); second funicle segment

slightly wider than long (0.095:0.09); third segment longer

than wide (0.095:0.085); fourth segment as wide as long

(0.09:0.09); fifth segment wider than long (0.09:0.08); club

unsegmented and two times longer than wide (0. 17:0.08).

Mesosoma: Densely setose with coarse reticulation;

pronotum narrow in dorsal view; antero-lateral arm of

pronotum bend inside anterior margins concave and posterior

margin convex; mesosoma longer than wide (0.12:0.8);

mesoscutum shorter than scutellum (0.55:0.625), mesoscutum

wider than head in dorsal aspect ( 1 .07:0.7 1 ); mesoscutum wider

than scutellum ( 1 .07: 0.94); axillae triangular, widely separated

from each other, notauli deep and complete, with distinct

rectangular cells.

Mesoscutum and scutellum with dense setae;

scutelloaxillar sutures meeting the hind margin of mesoscutum

at approximately almost at the same point as the hind ends of

notauli; apex of scutellum rounded; mesoscutum and

scutellum reticulate. Propodeum smooth without median

carina; plicae absent; spiracle oval, callus not pubescent;

hind coxa not pubescent on dorsal side. Forewing two times

as long as wide (1.57:0.8); densely setose; costal cell broad

and sparsely setose; speculum broad and closed below;

submarginal vein almost four and a half times marginal vein

(0.8:0.18); post marginal vein shorter than stigmal vein

(0.15:0.18); basal cell almost bare; marginal fringes short,

spaced by a distance almost equal to half their length. Hind

wing 3.3 times longer wide ( 1 .26:0.38); disc setose. Fore tibial

spur shorter than basitarsus (0.11:0.15); middle tibial spur

slightly shorter than basitarsus (0.07:0. 17). Hind coxa longer

than wide (0.5:0. 3); hind femur about four times as long as

wide (0.78:0.22); hind tibia slightly longer than hind femur

(0.82:0.78).

Metasoma: 2.3 times as long as mesosoma; longer than

wide (1.35:0.75), longer than combined length of pronotum,

mesoscutum and scutellum ( 1 .35:0.85); ovipositor projecting

(exserted); first valvifer triangular, third valvulae three times

as long as wide (0.23:0.7), second valvifer longer than the

length of outer plate of ovipositor, outer plate of ovipositor

five and a half times as long as wide (0.84:0.15).

Male: Not known

Holotype (Female): India, Pantnagar (29° N, 79° E),

unidentified egg patch on Saccharum officinarum plant,

10.ix.2004, Hym., Ptero., 01 BC, Ankita Gupta.

Paratype: 6 females of same data as Holotype. Hym.,

Ptero., 02 BC, 03 BC, 04 BC, 05 BC, 06 BC, 07 BC Ankita Gupta.

Host: Unidentified egg mass on Saccharum officinarum.

Remarks: This species G. pantnagarensis sp. nov.

differs from G. (G.) bengalicus Narendran in having FI and

F3 longer than wide, mesoscutum wider than head width,

scutellum wider than long, absence of frenal line, mesoscutum

and scutellum reticulated and scutellum more coarsely

reticulated as compared to the mesoscutum. This species

differs from G.(M.) cherry i Boucek in not having eye angularly

pointed toward sides.

Revised key to Indian species

of Gastrancistrus Westwood

1. Mandibles bidentate; eye angularly pointed towards side;

scutello-axillar sutures meeting a little mesad of the hind end of

notauli G. (M.) cherry i Boucek

— Mandibles tri or quadridentate; eye not angularly pointed

towards side; scutello-axillar sutures meeting at the hind margin

of mesoscutum at approximately the same point as the hind

ends of notauli 2

2. Mandibles tridentate; FI to F4 wider than long 3

— Mandibles quadridentate; FI to F4 longer than wide 4

3. Mandibles tridentate when viewed from outside (with a tubercle

inside on mandible); wider than long; FI to F4 not longer than

wide; occiput deeply concave; legs including coxae yellowish

white; head subtriangular G. (G.) bengalicus Narendran

— Mandibles tridentate (2 blunt tooth and a truncation); F2

slightly wider than long and F4 almost as wide as long; FI and

F3 longer than wide, legs brown, coxa dark brown

G. (G). pantnagarensis sp. nov.

4. Mandibles quadridentate; FI to F4 segments longer than wide;

occiput not deeply concave; fore coxa brownish black; hind

coxa pale yellowish brown with a black metallic patch above;

colour of femora pale yellowish brown with base and apex

paler, head not as above G. (G). muneshwari Yadav

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research for providing financial assistance under the project

entitled ‘Biodiversity of some Parasitic Hymenoptera of

Uttaranchal and adjoining areas of northern India’.

REFERENCES

Boucek, Z. ( 1986): Taxonomic study of chalcidoid wasps (Hymenoptera) Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). A

associated with gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on mango biosystematic revision of genera of fourteen families, with a

trees. Bull. Ent. Res. 76: 393-407. reclassification of species. 832 pp. CAB International,

74

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Wallingford, Oxon, U.K., Cambrian News Ltd, Aberystwyth,

Wales.

Forster, A. (1856): Hymenopterologische studien. 2 Heft. Chalcidiae

und Proctotrupii. Aachen. 152 pp.

Girault, A. A. (1913): Diagnosis of a new Chalcidoid Hymenoptera

from Queensland, Australia Arch. Naturggesch. 79a: 90-107.

Girault, A. A. (1933): Some beauties inhabitant not of commercial

boudoirs but of nature’s bosom, notably new insects. Published

by author, Brisbane. Pp. 5.

Narendran, T.C., B.K. Das & K. Rajmohana (2001): A study of

Gastrancistrus Westwood (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) of

India. Ecobiol. 13(2): 149-155.

Ratzeburg, J.T.C. (1848): Die Ichneumonen der Forstinsecten in

enotmologischer und forstlicher Beziehung. 2(4): 1-238, Berlin.

SubbaR ao, B .R. ( 1981 ): Descriptions of a new species of Pteromalidae

from the Orient (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci). 90: 473-482.

Walker, F. (1834): Monographia chalciditum (continued). Ent. Mag.

4: 349-364, 439-461.

Yadav, R.S. (1978): A new species of the genus Gastrancistrus

(Pteromalidae: Hymenoptera) from India. Indian J. Ent.

40: 466-467.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

75

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

76-78

A NEW SPECIES OF TELEOSTEI: PUNTIUS POOKODENSIS (CYPRINIDAE)

FROM WAYANAD, KERALA, INDIA1

T.V. Anna Mercy2-3 and Eapen Jacob2-4

'Accepted March 23, 2006

2College of Fisheries, Kerala Agricultural University, Panangad, Kochi 682 506, Kerala, India.

-’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Puntius pookodensis is described as a new species of Puntius from Pookode Lake, Wayanad, Kerala. It is characterised

by the combination of the following characters: serrated, spiny dorsal ray, incomplete lateral line, 22-23 scales in lateral

series, lateral transverse rows 4/3 Vi, 1 8 circumferential scales, a shoulder spot and one or two spots on the caudal

peduncle. The species is compared with its closest relatives, the widespread Puntius ticto and P. punctatus found in

southern India, and with a look-alike P. shalynius from north-east India.

Key words: Cyprinidae, Puntius pookodensis sp. nov., Puntius ticto , Puntius punctatus, Kerala

The genus Puntius Hamilton, belonging to Family

Cyprinidae, represented by small to tiny fishes, is widely

distributed in south and south-east Asia. The species of this

genus usually have a single pair of maxillary barbels or none,

and the principal dorsal spiny ray may be smooth, osseous or

serrated. During a survey of the Kerala waters for ornamental

species, the authors from Fisheries College collected an

interesting colourful Puntius species from a remote lake in

the pristine Wayanad hills. This, on further study, turned out

to be new to science and is described here.

Based on earlier studies (Day 1875-78, 1889;Talwarand

Jhingran 1991;Jayaram 1991, 1999;Menon 1999; Pethiyagoda

1991) and recent descriptions ( Vishwanath and Laisram 2004),

there are 17 species in the Indian subcontinent sharing

common features with the new species, namely absence of

barbels and serrated principal spiny ray of dorsal fin. A key to

all these species is provided, mostly based on colour pattern,

since this character seems to be species specific.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Descriptions are based on 27 specimens, 22 of them

deposited in the fish collections of the Zoological Survey of

India, Southern Regional Station, Chennai and five in the fish

collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calicut.

Measurements follow standard practices and the mean values

followed by range in parenthesis are provided.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Puntius pookodensis sp. nov. (Figs 1, 2)

Southern Regional Station) 40 mm standard length (SL),

Pookode lake 76° 0 1 ' E, 76° 1 8’ E and 1 1 ° 7’ N, 1 1 0 42’ N, Wayanad

district, Kerala, India, collected by Anna Mercy and Eapen

Jacob, November 2004.

Paratype: F.7636, ZSI/SRS, 21 exs. 26.0-42.0 mm. SL.,

data same as for holotype. 5 exs in the Zoological Survey of

India, Calicut ZSI. (WGRS) CLTNo. V/F. 13258.

Fig. 1: Puntius pookodensis sp. nov. Female

Fig. 2: Puntius pookodensis sp. nov. Male

Holotype: F.7635, ZSI/SRS (Zoological survey of India/

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Diagnosis: An elongate Puntius species not more than

the 43.0 mm SL, without barbels and with an osseous principal

spiny dorsal ray and mostly with seven branched rays; an

incomplete lateral line with 6-8 pored scales, 22-23 lateral scale

rows, with AVi / 3Vi lateral transverse scales; 1 8 circumferential

scales, a shoulder spot on the lateral line and one or two

spots on the caudal peduncle.

Description: D.iii/6(2), 7(21), 8(2); P. 1/12-13; V. 1/7/1;

A. iii/5; C.19. Body elongate, its depth 3.87 (3.97-4.27) in total

length (TL), 3. 10 (2.83-3.27) in standard length (SL); its width

2.21 ( 1.83-2.44) in its depth; head small, its length 4.46 (3.90-

4.90) in TL, 3.49 (3. 10-3.80) in SL; eyes large, its diameter 3.08

(2.75-3.75 ) in head length ( HL), 1 .07 ( 1 .00- 1 .43 ) in interorbital

width, 0.88 (0.7 1 - 1. 1 7) in snout; snout pointed 3.54 (2.86-4.00)

in HL; pectoral short, 1.36 ( 1 .25- 1.57) in HL; caudal peduncle

slender, its depth 1.46 (1.30-1.60) in its length, gill rakers 6 on

the lower arm of the first gill arch and 2-3 on the upper arm.

Scales large, lateral line incomplete, pored scales ceasing

after 6th or 8th scales; scales along lateral line 22-23; 4 rows in

lateral transverse series from dorsal fin origin to lateral line,

3.5 from lateral line to pelvic fin base; predorsal scales 8-9;

post dorsal 1 0- 1 OV2; prepelvic 9- 1 0; circumferential scales 1 8,

circumpeduncular scales 12.

Colour: Fresh specimens with an iridescent silver body

and yellowish fins; a shoulder spot on the 3rd to 4lh scale

along lateral line and another prominent spot on the 16th to

17th scale and sometimes a faint spot on the 1 9,h and 20"’ scales,

a thin dark line extends from the anterior to the posterior spot.

Maximum length observed: 43.0 mm SL.

Distribution: India: Kerala, Wayanad district, Pookode

lake.

Etymology: The new species is named after the type

locality.

Comparative material: Puntius ticto : F 6034 ZSI/SRS,

8 exs. 29.0-35.0 mm SL; 8.x. 1998 Singaperumal koil paddy field,

Chennai, coll. M.B. Raghunathan; F.6620, 7 exs. 25.0-34.0 mm

SL, 18.iv.2004, Singaperumal koil paddy field coll. M.B.

Raghunathan.

Puntius punctatus: 2 exs. 47.0-49.0 mm SL.

Muvattupuzha river, coll. Anna Mercy & Eapen Jacob.

September 2004.

Remarks: Seventeen Puntius species share certain

common characters, namely absence of barbels and a serrated

principal spiny ray of the dorsal fin. However, each bears

some unique features by which they can be differentiated

from the rest. The new species bears close resemblance to

the two spotted species, Puntius ticto and Puntius punctatus,

the former known to be widely distributed in India and replaced

by the latter in the south-western tip of peninsular India, and

perhaps also in Sri Lanka. However, the new species differs

from punctatus in its incomplete lateral line system and in the

position of the spots. The shoulder spot being present on

one scale row below the lateral pored scale and presence of a

larger spot in the middle of the caudal peduncle in punctatus

versus shoulder spot on the L.I. row and the caudal spot at

the anterior half of the caudal peduncle in the new species.

The new species can be separated from P. ticto in its less deep

body, circumferential scales (18 versus 22 in ticto).

The species further bears some resemblance in the lesser

number of branched dorsal rays (7) and paired caudal spots

to P. shalynius found in the streams, lakes and pools in the

Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya. However, the new species

differs from the same in the presence of a variable number of

branched rays in the dorsal (6-8), the presence of a shoulder

spot and in the caudal spots, which is paired and of equal size

in shalynius ; in the new species the anterior caudal spot is

larger and the posterior spot is fainter or absent in many

specimens. The new species seems to have evolved in isolation

in Pookode lake in the pristine Wayanad Hills in southern

Western Ghats from the same stock as the widespread P. ticto,

as would have its congener shalynius in the Khasi and Jaintia

Hills in the north-east.

Key to the Puntius species with a strong, osseous and

SERRATED PRIMARY DORSAL FIN RAY AND WITHOUT BARBELS

1. Lateral line scales (L.I.) more than 30 2

— Lateral line scales (L.I.) less than 30 3

2. Scales large, L.I 31-33. no spots on body P. nangalensis

— Scales small, L.I 36-39, a spot near caudal base. . . .P. guganio

3. Body with vertical bands 4

— Body without vertical bands but with one or two spots/

blotches 11

4. Body with 4 vertical bands Puntius phutunio

— Body with 3 or less number of vertical bands 5

5. L.I complete, body with 3 vertical bands 6

— L.I mostly incomplete, body with variable number of bands

7

6. Body deep, 2 in SL, L.tr. 5/4 P. nigrofasciatus

— Body less deep, 2.5 in SL, L.tr. 4. 5/3. 5 P setnai

7. Shoulder band absent, bands only on caudal peduncle 8

— Shoulder band always present 9

8. Two vertical bands on caudal peduncle; dorsal and anal base

dark, L.I. incomplete Puntius gelius

— Body with a single band around caudal peduncle, fin bases

not dark, L.I complete or incomplete P. ornatus

9. Dark saddle shaped band between eyes; dorsal, ventral

and anal fins dark, L.tr. scales between L.I and pelvic fin about

AVi P. bundula

— Coloration not as above; dorsal with bands or spots, L.tr.

scale rows less than AVi 10

10. Circumpeduncular scales 12 P. bizonatus

— Circumpeduncular scales 8-10 P. cumingii

1 1 . Two spots on body, a shoulder spot and one on caudal

peduncle 12

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

77

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

— Shoulder spot absent 16

12. Lateral line complete; shoulder spot not on L.l 13

— Lateral line incomplete; shoulder spot on L.l 14

13. Shoulder spot one row above 3rd scale of L.l.; dorsal fin not

spotted P. stoliczkanus

— Shoulder spot one row below L.l.; dorsal fin spotted in rows

P. punctatus

14. Body slender, circumferential scales less than 20 15

— Body deeper, circumferential scales 22 P. ticto

15. Dorsal fin with 8 branched rays, L.tr. 3V4 / caudal spot

above tip of anal fin

P. manipurensis

— Dorsal usually with 7 branched rays rarely 8; L.tr. 4-4l/2 /3 Vi;

caudal spot above anal fin, another faint spot posterior to this

P. pookodensis

16. Two spots on caudal peduncle P. shalynius

— A single blotch on caudal peduncle P. conchonius

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the National Agricultural Technology Project,

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (NATP-ICAR) and

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow ( NBFGR)

for financial assistance. We are also grateful to the Director,

Zoological Survey of India and the Offtcer-in-Charge, Southern

Regional Station, Chennai, and the College of Fisheries,

Panangad, for facilities provided.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India; being a Natural History

of the Fishes known to inhabit the Seas and Freshwaters

of India, Burma and Ceylon. Jagmander Book Agency, New

Delhi.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Fishes. Taylor and Francis, London.

Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the Genus Puntius Hamilton from

the India Region (Pisces: Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae) Rec. zool.

Surv. India , Occ. Paper. No. 135: 1-178.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.

Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Check list - Freshwater Fishes of India.

Rec. zool Surv. India , Occ. Paper No. 175: 366.

Pethiyagoda, R. (1991): Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. The Wildlife

Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi.

Vishwanath, W. & J. Laisram (2004): Two new species of Puntius

Hanulton-Buchanan (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from

Manipur, India with an account of Puntius species from the

state. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(1): 130-137.

78

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

79-81

REVIEWS

1. INSECTS OF INDIA, by Tapan Sengupta. Published by the author, Tapan Sengupta, 2005.

284 pp. Size: 24.5 cm x 18.5 cm. Hardback Price: Rs. 850/-, US$ 100/-.

I opened the book and read the first few pages - the

Foreword and Preface - with great enthusiasm, but was

disappointed with contents of the book. In the Introduction,

the author has mentioned 16 major orders of insects,

forgetting one of the important Orders - Dictyoptera( roaches

and mantids), though he has mentioned it in the main text.

The book has three different sections. Part One

provides information on Classification of insect species of

India and the world, but the author has not mentioned which

taxonomic classification is currently being used. The

information given on each Order is insufficient to get an

overall picture of that group. E.g. the fact that cockroaches

and mantis lay eggs in a case known as ootheca; the nymphs

of dragonflies are known as naiads; the Giant Water Bug is

Belostoma indicum and not Sphaerodema rusticm , but a

common name is given to both of them in the text. Under

Order Lepidoptera, butterflies are classified as per the old

classification. The information on insect collection and

preservation techniques, along with equipments required for

the same, will be of use to the students interested in the

study of insects. It also has information on important

protected areas in different states of India.

Part Two provides details on vegetation, climate and

different habitats of India. The information on important localities

for the study of various insect groups along with route maps to

reach these areas will help to plan insect surveys.

Part Three deals with learning about insects. The

author has tried to answer various questions that may be

asked by the common man. However some of the answers

are not complete: for instance in insect mimicry, the ideal

example of the female of the Danaid Eggfly butterfly mimicking

the Plain Tiger butterfly is not mentioned, similarly answers

to protective coloration and camouflage insects are same.

While listing the differences between butterflies and moths,

the author could have mentioned that though butterflies are

active during the day, some like the evening browns are active

at dusk, and similarly there are day flying moths. The mantids

are not mentioned in predatory insects. The illustrations and

photographs are of average quality. There are nine colour

plates having photographs of insect habitats and a few

insects like butterflies, moths and beetles. The book has no

popular appeal and is of little significance to insect lovers.

a NARESHCHATURVEDI

2. CATFISHES OF INDIA, by K.C. Jayaram. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 2006. 383 pp.

Size: 24.5 cm x 19 cm. Hardback. Price: Rs. 1695/-, US$ 165/-.

Constantly changing names have been the bane of

biologists dealing with the systematics of any group, and

fishes are no exception. Even though Sir Francis Day’s

monumental work on fishes of India was published over a

century ago, it still remains the Bible for Indian ichthyologists,

with its excellent illustrations and descriptions. It has become

dated only because many of the generic names of fishes have

since changed.

Just thirty years ago. Dr. K.S. Misra of the Zoological

Survey of India (ZSI) had published an excellent treatise on

the Catfishes of the Indian subcontinent, including those from

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Burma and Sri Lanka. There is a

silver lining to every cloud; changes in Nomenclature in these

thirty years have enabled Dr. K.C. Jayaram, also of the ZSI, to

bring out a revised version of Indian catfishes.

This work bears the individual stamp of Jayaram’s style

of writing. He has devoted a considerable part of his scientific

career to the systematic study of catfishes. Dr. Jayaram is

already well known across today’s generation of Indian

ichthyologists from his two books on Indian freshwater fishes

( 1981, 1 999). Marine ichthyologists, after a superficial glance

of these two books might have bemoaned the fact that he has

restricted his studies to freshwater fishes, but a more careful

perusal will reveal the inclusion of quite a few estuarine fishes,

which can tolerate freshwater conditions.

In his current book, too, a major portion is devoted to

fresh water catfishes. This restriction is not his personal

choice; it just happens that most catfishes are fresh water

denizens. However, a substantial portion, comprising 33 pages

(319 to 352) is devoted to marine catfishes belonging to

families Plotosidae and Ariidae.

No one can find fault with Jayaram’s taxonomic account.

Editing and proof-reading have been adequately done, unlike

his 1981 book, in which while reviewing it I could find as

many as 105 spelling mistakes in addition to many technical

mistakes. The quality of illustrations is also, on the whole,

very good. But it is the colour photographs which are not up

to the mark. In many publications where the text matter is

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

79

REVIEWS

mediocre, authors resort to embellishing their papers with

colour photographs. This is definitely not the case with this

book. I can understand the use of colour photographs when

describing coral-reef fishes, with their gaudy “poster” colours.

But, in a group comprising the usual fish coloration of steel-

grey on the dorsal region merging to white on the ventral

(nature’s strategy of camouflage by counter-shading), colour

photographs are superfluous, especially in the case of

preserved specimens with misshapen, distorted bodies. Or

was it because surplus funds were available?

Incidentally, the matter in the book will form part of the

All Catfish Species Inventory (ACSI) of the W.S. National

Science Foundation. But it can be used as an independent

reference material by students and ichthyologists alike.

■ B.F.CHHAPGAR

3. FOREST TREES OF SOUTH INDIA by S.G. Neginhal. Published by the author, S.G. Neginhal,

IFS (Retd.), 2004. lxxii + 447 pp. + 32 colour plates (92 photographs). Size: 22 cm x 14.5 cm.

Hardback. Price: Rs. 895/-

This book is in line and format of Dietrich Brandis’ Indian

trees ( 1906), and it covers 988 trees from Goa, Pondicherry,

Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, and partly

from Maharashtra.

The main purpose of conservation is maintaining the

biodiversity of any region. The first step towards this goal is

documentation. This baseline documentation serves the

cause of monitoring and evaluating the health of the

biodiversity. Once documentation is accomplished the results

have to reach the common people to inform and educate them.

Scientific works, on a number of occasions, are not clearly

understood by the lay man and therefore there is need to

place them in simple language. The purpose of this book is

precisely this.

Neginhal restricts the scope to the species found in

forest areas (introduced trees not included), but his concept

of a tree is not very clear. He has included species like Cocculus

laurifolius DC. (a scandent climber), Capparis decidua

(Forsk.) Edgew., Capparis sepiaria L. (low branched bushy

shrubs); while he has excluded woody climbers like

Ancistrocladus heyneana Wall., Entada pursaetha DC.,

Derris scandens (Benth.) Roxb., Calycopteris floribunda

(Roxb.) Lamk. among others.

The text is not uniform. The texts for some species like

the Bruguiera eriocarpaW. & A. and Eriolaena lushingtonii

Dun (one and half line). Acacia bolei Subhedar and

Memecylon modestum Cogn. (2 lines), Gyrinops walla Gaem.

and Glochidion litt oralis Bl. (3 lines) - are very short; while

that for some species like the Stereospermum colais (Buch.-

Ham.) Mabb. (40 lines), Alangium salvifolium (L. f. ) Wangerin

(31 lines) and Sponclias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz. - are too long.

Brandis’ Indian trees has many more species than this

book. In case one already owns a copy of Indian trees, this

will just be one more book on the shelf. Though Neginhal has

given the latest nomenclature for many species, he is not

always correct, hence some of his identification could also be

controversial.

Identity of species called Syzygium cumini , Memecylon

edule, Embelia basaal DC., Embelia tsjaricum-cottom D.C.

etc. require rechecking. I am yet to come across a species of

Memecylon with edible fruits. Some authors consider

Garcinia spicata (Wt. & Am.) Hk. f. (No. 90), Garcinia talbotii

Raizada ex Sant. (No. 92) and Garcinia xanthochymus Hk. f.

(No. 95 ) as conspecific, for which the correct name is Garcinia

dulcis (Roxb.) Almeida. Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack, and

M. exotica L., and similarly Cerbera manghas L. and

C. odollam Gaertn. are shown as synonyms. Modern taxonomic

conclusions on these are at variens.

Since the publication of Neginhal’s book, some names

have undergone changes in nomenclature. The following

names require fresh checking for which I invite the attention

of the readers to the dictionary of plants names by

M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida, 2005.

1 . Plate 4, Photo 96. Mammea suriga [= M. longifolia (W.f.)

Planch.]

2. Plate 9, Photo 299. Sapindus laurifolius [= Sapindus

trifoliatus L.]

3. Plate 15, Photo 505. Memecylon malabaricum

[= Memecylon randerianum Almeida]

4. Plate 16, Photo 539. Anthocephalus chinensis

[= Neolamarkia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser]

5. Plate 25. Photo 896. Jatropha curcas (This is actually

J. gossypifolia)

6. No. 541. Canthium dicoccum var. umbellatum (Wt.)

Sant. & Merch. (= Psydrax umbellatum (Wt.) Dresden)

7. No. 416 Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. (= Esclerona

xylocarpa ( Roxb. ) Almeida]

8. No. 184 Euodia luna-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr.

[- Melicope lunuankenda (Gaertn.)

9. No. 307 Buchanania lanzen sp. [= B. cochinchinensis

(Lour.) Almeida]

10. No. 36 Sageraea laurifolia (Graham) Blatter

| = S. laurina Dalz.]

■ MR. ALMEIDA

80

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

REVIEWS

4. TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS: AN ECOLOGICAL AND BIQGEOGRAPHICAL

COMPARISON, by Richard Primack and Richard Corlett. Blackwell Publishing, USA. 2005.

319 pp. Size: 25 cm x 1 7 cm. Elardback. Price: Not mentioned.

Tropical rain forests are one of the favourite habitats

for conservationists to plead for their protection and also to

lament about their continuing destruction. To the general

public these forests are awesome, steamy, humid, mysterious

and dangerous. To the biologists the tropical rain forest is the

highest expression of life form on this planet (the other being

the underwater tropical reefs).

The tropical rain forests form a broad belt around the

equator, extending 5° to 10° to the north and the south.

However, their presence and extent also depends on the

interaction between wind direction and mountain ranges,

variation in sea surface temperatures and other factors. It will

be cliche to say that almost half of the world’s tropical rain

forest is found in tropical America, mainly in Brazil, Colombia

and Venezuela. The second largest block of the tropical rain

forest is in Africa, centered on the Congo River Basin. The

third largest tropical rain forest area is in Asia - the Malay

Peninsula and the large islands of Borneo, Sumatra, Java and

Papua New Guinea. This rain forest extends westward through

Myanmar into north-eastern India. In India, the rain forest is

also found in the Western Ghats and the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. Perhaps not many people know that the tropical rain

forest is also found in a small area of northern Australia and

eastern parts of the Madagascar Island.

For most people, all tropical rain forests are similar. This

is far from true. While we see many cases of convergent

evolution and many similarities, each rain forest is different

from the other. There are numerous ecological and geological

factors, such as speciation, species dispersal and extinction,

soil nutrients, rainfall seasonality, geological upheavals and

movement of tectonic plates that create these differences. If

one wants to know more about the tropical rain forests, I

recommend this interesting book. While many technical books

have been written on tropical rain forests, especially on the

ecology of the Amazon forest, I find Primack and Corlett's

book comprehensive and easy to read. The book is divided in

to eight chapters, each ending with further reading on the

subject. At the end, a very exhaustive reference list is given,

covering latest research papers/books on this fascinating and

fast disappearing ecosystem. The book is neatly divided into

sub-chapters and sections. For instance, the chapter on

Primate Communities is further subdivided into ‘What are

primates?’, ‘Old World versus New World primates’ ‘Primate

diversity’, ‘Primate diets’ and ‘Primate communities’. The

subchapter ‘Primate diets’ is further divided into sections

such as Leaf-eaters, Insectivores and Frugivores. This makes

very easy readings. The sections that do not fit in the flow of

the book or which the authors want to highlight further are

given in boxes. At the end of each chapter, conclusions and

future research directions are given. The book is also profusely

illustrated with colour and black and white pictures, diagrams,

graphs and maps. The last chapter, ‘The Future of Rain

Forests’ makes sad reading. The authors make a strong plea

for the protection of the remaining tropical rain forests,

especially those in the Neotropics and Asia that are seeing

the fastest destruction.

The tropical rain forests are by far the richest in

biodiversity of all terrestrial ecosystems in the world. Despite

occupying only about 6% of the Earth’s land surface area, it

is believed that they support more than half of the total species

of land plants and animals. In central and western Amazonia,

in the Pacific Coast rain forests of Choco Province, Colombia,

in the Atlantic Coastal Forest of Brazil, and in Sarawak,

Malaysia, more than 250 species of trees have been found in

a single hectare (p. 35). In comparison, even the most

species-rich temperate forests have fewer than 25 tree species

per hectare, and most have fewer than 10. Knowing this, is it

not ecocide to destroy even a single hectare of tropical rain

forest anywhere in the world? Are our Governments listening?

Are world bodies like the United Nations Environment

Programme doing enough to stop this destruction? Are the

developed nations - the largest importers of the tropical forest

timber - helping the poor countries stop this destruction?

Like the ban on whaling, can’t we have a ban on the export

and import of timber removed (some say stolen) from the

tropical forests? Or, is it asking for too much from the rich

nations to pay? Incidentally, the largest importers of tropical

wood are the G-5 nations! Is there connection between the

loot of natural resources of one nation and richness of

another? Perhaps, we need another book on this subject.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

81

Journal of Lhe Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

82-123

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I . A NOTE ON THE LATEX LICKING HABIT OF FIVE-STRIPED

AND THREE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRRELS1

Satish Kumar Sharma2

'Accepted February 22, 2005

foundation for Ecological Security, 18, New Ahinsapuri, Fatehpura, Udaipur 313 001. Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

Information about the food habits of the

Five-striped Palm Squirrel ( Funambulus pennanti ) and

Three-striped Palm Squirrel (F. palmarum) comes from the

work of Balasubramanian ( 1989, 1995), Barnett and Prakash

(1975), Gupta and Agarwal ( 1 968), Harit ( 1 996), Mathew and

Lukose (1995), Prater ( 1980), Sadakathulla and Kareem (1995)

and Tiwari (1990). These squirrels primarily feed on fruits,

nuts, young shoots, buds and bark. The Five-striped Palm

Squirrel sometimes also feeds on birds (Harit 1996; Mathew

and Lukose 1995; Tiwari 1 990); the Three-striped Palm Squirrel

even feeds on nectar and insects (Balasubramanian 1989;

Prater 1980). Cannibalism has been recorded in both the

Five-striped (Gupta and Agarwal 1968) and Three-striped Palm

Squirrels (Sadakathulla and Kareem 1995).

During my field studies in various parts of Rajasthan,

Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka between 1996 and

2005 (Table 1 ), I found F. pennanti and F. palmarum licking

Table 1: Details of latex licking of Ficus benghaiensis leaves by striped squirrels

Fig. 1 : Position on the abaxial surface of the leaf

of Ficus benghaiensis licked by squirrels

latex from the leaves of Ficus benghaiensis. The latex is

procured from the furcating point of basal veins at the abaxial

surface of leaves (Fig. 1 ). Both the squirrels move quickly on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the extremities of branchlets to lick the latex from every mature

leaf. A gentle gnawing and/or licking at the vein furcating

point of the leaf initiates the flow of latex. Once the latex

begins to How, the squirrels lick it and go to another leaf and

this action is then repeated. A scar oT dried latex could be

seen on the underside of every licked leaf. The fresh scars

are whitish, while old dried scars are dirty white or black.

Presence of a latex-scar on the underside of a leaf is indicative

of it having been tapped by a squirrel. This behaviour of

squirrels is commonly seen in various parts of the country

(Table 1).

Balasubramanian, P. (1989): Nectar feeding by Three-striped Palm

Squirrel Funambulus palmarum at Point Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 437.

Balasubramanian, P. (1995): Some notes on the fruits, seeds and

nectar consumed by Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus

palmarum at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. Tamil Nadu.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 95(2): 256-258.

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash ( 1975): Rodents of Economic Importance

in India. Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi and London. Pp. 1 - 175.

Gupta, P.D. & V.C. Agarwal (1968): Cannibalism in Five-striped

Squirrel Funambulus pennanti. Sci. Cult. 34: 185.

Harit, D.N. ( 1996): Unusual feeding behaviour of squirrels Funambulus

The latex probably provides nutrition to squirrels; it

seems that the squirrels procure water, minerals and organic

nutrition from the latex.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Mr. Jagdeesh Rao, Executive Director,

Foundation for Ecological Security (FES), Anand; Mr. Dinesh

Reddy, Dr. Subba Rao and members of FES-Chintamani,

Madanapalle and Udaipur for extending help during the field

studies.

sp. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 84.

Mathew, K.L. & C. Lukose ( 1995): Five-striped Squirrel Funambulus

pennanti (Wroughton) feeding on fledgling House Sparrow Passer

domesticus. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 256.

Prater. S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society and Oxford University Press. Mumbai. Pp. 1-

324.

Sadakathulla, S. & A. A. Kareem ( 1995): Cannibalism in south Indian

Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

92(1): I 13-114.

Tiwari, J. (1990): Five-striped Squirrel Funambulus pennanti

(Wroughton) killing birds. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 137.

2. STRANDING OF A SPERM WHALE PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS (LINNAEUS 1758)

ON THE CHENNAI COAST1

K. Venkataraman2-3, M.C. John Milton2 4 and K.P. Raghuram2-5

'Accepted March 07, 2005

-Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, 130,

’Email: [email protected]

''Email: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]

Whales are the most dominant marine mammals of Order

Cetacea. They are mostly denizens of temperate and polar

oceanic waters, but they do migrate to tropical waters for

breeding and/or escaping extreme climatic conditions during

certain seasons (Corbett and Hill 1992). However, not all whales

that are denizens of temperate and polar oceanic waters migrate

to tropical waters, e.g. the Bowhead Whale Balaena

mysticetus , Bryde’s Whale Balaenoptera edeni are believed

to live primarily in tropical and subtropical waters all the year

round. There is no evidence of their migration away from

these regions. The body of the whale is protected by a thick

layer of oil rich blubber beneath the skin, which acts as a

thermal insulator, a store of energy for long migrations, and

plays an important role for maintaining its hydrostatic

buoyancy. Whales are usually found in the upper few metres

of the sea, but are capable of extensive deep dives. Depending

Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

on the presence of teeth or baleen plates, whales are classified

as toothed (Odontoceti) or baleen whales (Mysticeti). Toothed

whales mostly feed on fishes and cephalopods, while baleen

whales mostly feed on plankton such as euphausids, by a

filter-feeding mechanism, and sometimes pelagic fishes and

cephalopods (Bensam and Menon 1996).

Stranding of a Sperm Whale on the Chennai Coast

A Sperm Whale Physeter macrocephalus Linn, was

stranded on the Chennai coast, behind Napier’s Bridge

( 13°06' N, 80° 18' E), in the early hours of January 21, 2002. It

was a male, measuring about 995 cm long, and weighing about

3 tons. The animal had injuries throughout the caudal region,

which could have been caused by the propeller of fishing

boats. In general, however, the animal was in good condition

with all specific characteristic features.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

83

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Morphological features of P. macrocephalus Linnaeus 1758

Enormous truncate head, almost one-third the size of

the body, containing a large organ filled with spermaceti.

Dorsal fur. Low, small, pointed and ridge-like, followed

by a series of humps up to the tail.

Pectoral flippers: Broad, paddle-like, small.

Tail fluke: Broad and notched in the middle; dark below.

Teeth: No functional teeth on the upper jaw; 18-27 large

teeth on left side of the lower jaw.

Blowhole: An asymmetrical, S-Shaped blowhole on the

left side of the upper anterior extremity of the forehead.

Sexual dimorphism: Males nearly one and a half times

larger than females; end of snout squarish in males and

rounded in females (Agarwal and Alfred 1999; Muthiah etal.

1988; James etal. 1993).

REASONS FOR BEING STRANDED

The plausible cause for being stranded is the inability

of the animals to determine and avoid shallow areas, as a

result of parasitic infestations of the organs connected with

sonar wave perception. Hence, such whales get stranded on

gently sloping beaches, murky waters and tidal sites.

a. Interference with breathing: Despite many

impressive adaptations of whales to an aquatic environment,

they still breathe in air. Apart from those killed by man,

many die due to drowning. Illness, weakness and old age

could lead to death, but the gravest danger faced by all

cetaceans is their inability to breathe. There are numerous

reports of whales of all sizes coming to each other’s aid,

assisting ill or injured group members to the surface where

they can continue to respire. This phenomenon often becomes

a reason for mass stranding in shallow waters (Bensam and

Menon 1996).

Analyses of stranded whales on the British coast reveal

that toothed and baleen whales, deep and shallow water

species, young and old, male and female, solitary individuals

and social groups, apparently healthy but injured whales

could be stranded (Watson 1988).

In most cases, the animals are still alive when they first

become stranded, usually on gently shelving beaches. Post-

mortem often reveals air injury, infection or debility, which

probably caused discomfort, making it difficult for the whale

to behave normally in deep water. Under these circumstances,

faced with the risk of drowning, it would be natural for the

cetacean to seek a place where it could continue to breathe,

while marshalling its strength to deal with other problems

(Watson 1988).

b. Navigational errors: Pollution and other extreme

climatic conditions of oceanic waters may interfere with the

communication system of the whales, thereby reducing their

ability to perceive signals, resulting in navigational errors.

Many whales get trapped in icebergs while migrating to their

feeding/breeding grounds (Berzin 1972).

e. Pathogens: Like all animals, cetaceans are hosts to a

number of internal parasites, such as tapeworms, hookworms,

round worms and flukes. When the ancestors of the modern

whale left land to take up a new life in the sea, they simply

carried these lodgers with them, as their internal environments

were largely unchanged. Accumulation of viruses and

bacteria in the body of the whales has been proved to be an

important reason for the mass stranding of pilot whales

(Watson 1988).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

for the facilities provided, and the All India Coordinated

Project on Marine Biodiversity, Ministry of Environment and

Forests, New Delhi for financial assistance. We also thank

Mr. P. Oppili, Senior Reporter, The Hindu for providing

information about the stranding of the whale. I sincerely

acknowledge the support by Dr. P. Krishnamoorthy,

Dr. Ch. Sathyanarayana, Mr. S. Saravanan, Mr. A. Gokul,

Mr. B. Ashok Kumar, Mr. M. Nithyanandan and Mr. C. Suresh

Kumar.

REFERENCES

Agarwal V.C. & J.R.B. Alfred (1999): Handbook on Whales, Dolphins

and Dugongs. Zoological Survey of India. 150 pp.

Bensam, P. & N.G. Menon (1996): Conservation of Marine Mammals

In: Marine Biodiversity Conservation and Management, CMFRI,

Cochin (Eds: Menon, N.G. & C.S.G. Pillai). CMFRI, Cochin. 205 pp.

Berzin, A. A. ( 1972): The sperm whale. Pp. 84-94. In: (Ed: Yablokov,

A.V.). Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations.

Corbett, GB. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indomalayan

region. Oxford University, London UK. 488 pp.

James, P.S.B.R.. N.G. Menon & N.G.K. Pillai (1993): On a Blue Whale

Balaenoptera musculus stranded at Chellanam, Cochin. Mar. Fish.

Infor. Set: CMFRI 122: 23-24.

Muthiah, C., Sunil Mohamed, Ganesh Bhatkal & Bharmu

Melinmani (1988): On the stranding of a Humpback Whale

on the north Kerala coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Ser: CMFRI 85: 12.

Watson, L. (1988): Whales of the World. Hutchinson. 2635 pp.

84

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. FURTHER NOTE ON DEVELOPMENT OF A HYBRID BETWEEN

A FEMALE ORIENTAL WHITE IBIS THRESKIORNIS MELANOCEPHALUS

AND A MALE EURASIAN SPOONBILL PEATALEA EEUCORODIA'

Raju Vyas2

'Accepted September 10, 2004

2Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara 390 018, Gujarat, India. Email: [email protected]

Two Oriental White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus

were bom in May 1986 in captivity at the Sayaji Baug Zoo,

Vadodara, Gujarat. One of these showed some unusual

characters; it was believed to be a hybrid between a female

Oriental White Ibis and a male Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea

leucorodia , as reported by Jadeja and Vyas (1988).

The hybrid bird showed characters of both the species:

large snow-white marsh bird with long black legs, a long feathery

neck with black down, curved curlew-like bill, bill tip slightly

spatulate, face and throat black, and tail feathers white. The

hybrid bird stayed with the Oriental White Ibis most of the time.

In 1989, the hybrid bird was first observed to pair with

a female Oriental White Ibis and build a nest along in the

cage. The female Oriental White Ibis laid two eggs and both

the hybrid male and the female Oriental White Ibis incubated

them, but with no result, the birds later deserted the nest.

Both the eggs, when checked, were infertile. On the basis of

Table 1 : Comparison of some of the body measurements

of the White Ibis and the Spoonbill with that of the hybrid bird

'Source Ali & Ripley (1983): Measurements in mm

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of Birds of India and Pakistan

(Compact Edition). Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 737 pp.

Hoffman, W., J.A. Wiens & J.M. Scott ( 1978): Hybridization between

gulls (Lams glaucescens and L. occidentalis) in the Pacific

Northwest. The Auk 95(3): 441- 458.

Iles, G. (1960): At Home In the Zoo. W. H. Allen, London. 244pp.

Fig. 1 : A hybrid between a female White Ibis and a male Spoonbill

this behaviour, it was concluded that the hybrid bird was a

sterile male. This is common in higher vertebrates (Hoffman

et al. 1978; Weir et al. 2000) and has been reported in many

species of mammals (Iles 1960).

The hybrid Oriental White Ibis has grown well, and

after fifteen years, there is no difference in appearance except

that the head and anterior part of the neck are bare (Fig. 1 ). A

light pink coloured patch developed on its flanks and under

wings. The body measurements are given in Table 1 .

NCES

Jadeja, V. & R. Vyas (1988): The cross breeding between a Spoonbill

and a White Ibis at Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara. Zoos' Print J( 11):

13.

Weir, D.N., A.C. Kitchener & R.Y. McGowan (2000): Hybridization

and changes in the distribution of Iceland Gull (Larus glucoides/

kumlieni / thayeri). J. Zool. 252: 517- 530.

4. COMMUNAL HARRIER ROOST-SITES IN MUMBAI AND AKOLA DISTRICTS, MAHARASHTRA1

Ashok Verma2

'Accepted July 10, 2004

"Society for Research in Ecology and Environment (SREE), Sarafa Bazar. Rekha Naanga Gali, Bharatpur 321 001,

Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

Six species of harriers, namely Pallid Harrier Circus Harrier C. aeruginosus and Eastern Marsh-Harrier

macrounis , Hen Harrier C. cyaneus , Montagu’s Harrier C. spilonotus migrate to India every winter. Eastern Marsh-

C. pygargus , Pied Harrier C. melanoleucos , Western Marsh- Handers and Pied Hamers are restricted to east India. However,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

85

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Pied Harriers have scattered sightings from all over India

(Prakash 1988;Rahmani 1988; Vyas 1 992; Grimmett et al. 1999).

A harrier ringed at Bharatpur was recovered in Kazakh; SSR

(Ali and Ripley 1983), which probably indicates that part of

the harrier population comes to India from Asian breeding

grounds. In India, harriers generally arrive by end July, and

depart for their breeding grounds generally by March.

Juvenile Western Marsh Harriers, however, have been

recorded wintering as late as June (Verma 2002a), and they

probably go back the following year.

Harriers are interesting birds of prey as they are the

only diurnal raptors that breed and roost on the ground.

Among other raptors that occasionally nest on the ground,

probably due to absence of nest-sites and mammalian

predators, are the Common Buzzard ( Buteo buteo), the

Common Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus), and the Osprey

( Pandion lialiaetus ) (Newton 1979; Kenyon 1947). Another

interesting character of the harriers is their being communal

in wintering grounds while solitary or semi-colonial in breeding

grounds (Cramp and Simmons 1980; Newton 1979). They

generally roost on the ground in tall grasses and reeds, but

have also been recorded roosting in wetlands with floating

vegetation (such as the Water-hyacinth Eichhornia

crassipes) and bare grounds, during adverse conditions

( Verma 2002a). A scarcity of safe places may force birds into a

communal life, sometimes even with other species, on the few

good sites that are available (Peterson 1963). The reason

behind communal roosting may differ from species to species

depending upon the local situation. Conservation of

communal roost sites is critically important for harrier survival

in winter quarters. They have been reported travelling a

distance of about 40 km to join a roost (Verma 2002a).

During 2002-2003, during my visits to Mumbai and Akola,

I located two harrier roost-sites. In Mumbai, an exclusive roost

of marsh-harriers was identified, whereas a mixed roost of

three harrier species was identified in Akola. Harrier roosts

are reported from Velavadar National Park, Gujarat (Clarke et

al. 1998), Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh

(Rahmani and Manakadan 1986; Clarke and Prakash 1997/98),

Alwal wetland in Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh (Satheesan

and Rao 1990; Ganesh and Kanniah 2000), Banni grasslands

of Kutch (now Kachchh), Gujarat (Samant et al. 1995) and

Keoladeo National Park. Rajasthan (Verma 2002b).

A mixed hairier roost of nearly 200 individuals was

located in the grassland in Akola city (20° 43' N, 77° 04' E, 308 m

above msl ). The roost, comprising three species of harriers,

namely Montagu’s Harriers, Pallid Harriers and Hen Harriers,

was identified in February 2003. The Montagu's Harriers

dominated the roosting population. Of the 25 birds identified

to the species level, 76% were Montagu’s Harriers, 16% Pallid

Harriers and 8% Hen Harriers. Reports of marsh-harriers

(around 10 individuals) roosting here was also confirmed in

November 2003 (pers. comm.). Here, the grassland was spread

over less than a square kilometre (average height two metres).

The roost site was surrounded by crop fields, especially

cotton Gossypium sp., on three sides, and wild vegetation

(different grass and herb species) on the remaining side. The

actual roost site was a treeless patch; trees found in the adjacent

areas were Buteo monosperma , Acacia catechu , Acacia

nilotica , Prosopis chilensis , P. spicigera and Zizyphus

mauritiana.

Another roost-site was located in December 2002 in

Mumbai, which was situated near the Mahul creek (19° OP N,

72° 53’ E) on the east coast of Mumbai, along the Arabian Sea,

in the suburb of Chembur. Mangrove trees like Avicennia

marina and Excoecaria agallocha provided pre-roost

perches which they used for resting on, before settling down

on the ground, their final roost. The roost site extended over

a square kilometre. It was grassland dominated by perennial

aquatic grass species like Paspaldium and Paspalum , with

an average height of I m. Small temporary reservoirs dotted

the site teeming with water birds like waders, ducks and teals.

A stable population of Eurasian Marsh Harrier roosted

here. The roost was observed in December 2002, when about

50 harriers were counted roosting here, and the population

stabilized till February 2003. Birds of all age and sex classes

were present. The count made in February showed 48 birds at

the roost, of which 50% were juveniles, 25% females, 15%

males and 10% unidentified.

Threats

Although the Akola roost is located on government

land, there is risk of heavy disturbance with the coming up of

an irrigation canal in this area, which is presently under

construction. The use of pesticides will increase for intensive

farming, which, in turn, will drastically affect the number of

harriers and their prey, especially grasshoppers. Grass cutting

and burning is another threat for roosting harriers. The cutting

of grass by villagers for fodder and thatch during winter in

and around the roost site disturbs roosting harriers evidenced

by several of them shifting from one patch of grassland to

another. The local Parthi community bums the grasslands during

December-February, when the harrier population stabilizes, to

scan a larger area for hunting for mammals like hares, the

Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra , the Blue Bull Boselaphus

tragocamelus and birds, especially partridges and quails.

The roost at Mumbai is situated on the Rashtriya Chemical

Fertilizers (RCF) Fimited land. On the one hand grass cutting

from the roost-site by locals disturbs the roosting harriers, while

on the other, reclamation by the RCF itself poses a serious

86

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

danger of complete loss of roosting habitat for harriers.

An initiative by the public towards conservation of

roost-sites of migrant harriers is the need of the hour. The

RCF. by declaring the roost patch as a protected area, should

set an example for the private sector.

Long-term monitoring of roosting populations of

harriers can prove to be the best indicator of the changes in

our environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge Mr. Abhishek Patil,

Mr. Jegannath Patil, Mr. Ashok Patil and Mr. Ganga Reddy

from Mumbai and Drs. Jayant Deshmukh, Ajit Deshmukh

and Deepak Bhat from Akola for their kind cooperation and

logistic support during my harrier roost surveys in these

districts.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Pp. 737.

Clarke, R. & V. Prakash ( 1 997/98): The wintering ecology of harriers

at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary. Raptor 25 : 43-46.

Clarke, R., V. Prakash, W.S. Clark, N. Ramesh & D. Scott (1998):

World record count of roosting harriers Circus in Blackbuck

National Park, Velavadar, Gujarat, north-west India. Forktail 14:

70-7 1.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons ( 1980): Handbook of the Birds of Europe,

the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of Western Palearctic.

Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, London. Pp. 722.

Ganesh, T. & P. Kanniah (2000): Roost counts of harriers Circus

spanning seven winters in Andhra Pradesh, India. Forktail 16:

1-3.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds

of the Indian subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Pp. 384.

Kenyon, K.N. (1947): Breeding populations of the Osprey in Lower

California. Condor 49: 152-158.

Newton, I. ( 1979): Population Ecology of Raptors. Buteo Books Inc.,

Vermillion. S.D. Pp. 399 .

Newton, I. (1998): Population Limitation in Birds. Academic Press,

London. Pp. 597.

Peterson, R.T. (1963): The Birds. Life Nature Library. Time

Incorporated, New York. Pp. 192 .

Prakash, V. (1988): The General Ecology of Raptors in Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur. Pli.D. Thesis. Bombay University.

Rahmani, A.R. ( 1988): A Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos in northwest

Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 419-420

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1986): A large roost of harriers in

Andhra Pradesh, India. ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 203-204.

Samant, J.S., V. Prakash & R. Naoroji (1995): Ecology and Behaviour

of Resident Raptors with special Reference to Endangered Species.

Final Report ( 1990-93). Bombay Natural History Society. Pp. 111.

Satheesan, S.M. & P. Rao ( 1990): Roosting and feeding of handers in

Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh, ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1):

143.

Verma, A. (2002a): Wintering ecology of Marsh Harrier. Pli.D. thesis.

Mumbai University, Mumbai.

Verma, A. (2002b): A large roost of Eurasian Marsh Harriers Circus

aeruginosus at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India. Forktail

18: 150-151.

Vyas, R. (1992): Pied Harrier, Circus melanoleucos (Pennant) in

southeast Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 248.

5. KHASI HILLS SWIFT APUS ACUTICAUDA: FIRST RECORD FROM

NAGALAND AND MANIPUR, NORTH-EAST INDIA'

M. Firoz Ahmed2 4, Abhijit Das2-5, Vivoselih Meyase3

'Accepted July 10, 2004

2Aaranyak, 50, Samanwoy Path, Survey, Beltola, Guwahati

'KNCTS, Khonoma Village, Kohima. Nagaland, India.

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

The Khasi Hills Swift Apus acuticauda ( Jerdon 1 864) is

a poorly known vulnerable species from Meghalaya and

Mizoram in north-east India, as well as from Bhutan and

Thailand (Inskipp et al. 1999; Brooke 1969; Kazmierczak pers.

comm.). The known distribution of the species is shown in

Fig. 1.

Very little information is available on the distribution,

ecology and behaviour of this enigmatic species. Baker ( 1927)

collected and observed this species in Cherrapunjee,

Meghalaya (erstwhile Assam), and described its taxonomy

and breeding in detail. Brooke ( 1 969) dealt with the taxonomy

and distribution of this species. There have been recent

781 028, Assam, India.

observations on its distribution (Inskipp et at. 1999; BirdLife

International 2001 , Ahmed etal. 2001, 2002; Kazmierczak pers.

comm.).

The Khonoma Nature Conservation and Tragopan

Sanctuary (KNCTS) (25° 39' 32" N, 94° 02’ 01" E, 1900-2750 m

above msl), a 25 sq. km primary and secondary, temperate

broadleaf and subtropical evergreen forest, is located 16 km

south of Kohima city, bordering Manipur to the south. The

average annual rainfall is above 2000 mm. While the maximum

temperature reaches 30° C in summer (May-July) it drops

below zero in winter (December- January), particularly at

2,500 m above msl.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

87

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Distribution of Apus acuticauda

1 . Nepal; 2. Type locality: Bhutan; 3. Samdrup Zongkhar,

4. Cherrapunjee, 5. Blue Mountain and Tlungvel, India;

6. Khonoma, Thailand; Chang Mai Province

The KNCTS includes part of the Dzuku valley in

Nagaland through which Dzupfii river, a tributary of Barak,

flows down cutting deep gorges and cliffs in the narrow valley,

providing a suitable habitat for the Khasi Hills Swift. The

subtropical and temperate broadleaf forest in the Sanctuary

is a suitable habitat for Blyth’s Tragopan Tmgopcm blythii.

The call of the Tragopan was not uncommon in the KNCTS

during our visit.

On April 10, 2003, during a visit to the KNCTS, a

community initiated conservation area in southern Nagaland

(Fig. 1, location 5) we observed a breeding colony of the

Khasi Hills Swift. At the Sanctuary Falls (25° 36' N, 94° 1 ' E,

2470 m above msl), on the border of Nagaland and Manipur, a

series of tall cliffs with crevices, provide a suitable habitat for

this threatened bird. We observed 8-10 individuals along with

about 20-25 Pacific Swift A. pacificus. The Khasi Hills Swifts

were flying within 150 m from the cliff. During our 45 minutes

of observation we saw them collecting wind blown moss,

probably for nesting.

Though we did not see any breeding behaviour of the

Khasi Hills Swift other than that flying close to each other,

and collecting probable nesting material, we were convinced

that they were in breeding. MFA has observed the breeding

behaviour of this species in Cherrapunjee for a considerable

time from 2001 to 2003 (Ahmed etal. 2001, 2002). The Khasi

Hills Swift A. acuticauda is thus reported for the first time

from the states of Nagaland and Manipur in north-east India.

Khonoma is 235 km east of Cherrapunjee (25° 17.016' N,

91° 44. 1 14' E), and 248 km north-east of Aizawl (23° 45' N,

92° 43' E), the two nearest known localities where the species

was reported previously.

According to the locals, there may be other such Khasi

Hills Swift breeding colonies in the gorges and cliffs of the

river Dziipfii, which originates from the Dzuku Valley, and

flows into the Barak river.

The Angami Tribe of southern Nagaland has

traditionally been conserving forests, even within their hill

slope terrace cultivation. In 1989, the village council agreed to

protect the forest of the Khonoma watershed, an important

source of water for the village and its wet paddy cultivation.

They constituted an independent body called the KNCTS

Trust for the management of the Sanctuary. Khonoma is a

traditional village and has banned hunting within the village

boundary.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Bombay Natural History Society and

Aaranyak for financial and logistic assistance. We are grateful

to the Village Council of Khonoma, which was kind enough to

permit us to conduct the survey. We are grateful to Tsilie

Sakhire, Director, KNCTS for his all out support and hospitality,

and to the Secretary, KNCTS, Khrieto Mor, Petelhulie Ratsa,

Thomas Kent, Khekiho Shohe and Apil for their help.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, M.F., B.P. Lahkar & B.K. Talukdar (2001): Survey of the Dark-rumped Swift (Apus acuticauda) and its possible suitable habitat in

Meghalaya, India. Technical Report, Aaranyak. Pp. 1-21.

Ahmed, M.F., B.P. Lahkar & B.K. Talukdar (2002): Survey of the Dark-rumped Swift (Apus acuticauda ) and its possible suitable habitat in

Mizoram, India. Technical Report, Aaranyak. Pp. 1-10.

Baker, E.C.S. (1927): Fauna of British India: Birds. 8 Vols. Taylor and Francis, London. Pp. 327-328.

BirdLife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge. Pp.

1784-1787.

Brooke, R.K. (1969): Taxonomic and distributional notes on Apus acuticauda. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 89: 97-100.

Inskipp, C., T. Inskjpp & R. Grimmett ( 1999): Birds of Bhutan. A. & C. Black/ Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 192.

Jerdon, T.C. (1864): Birds of India. George Wymann & Co., Calcutta. [Vol 1: 177, No. 99 (Nepal); Vol. 2: 870],

88

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. FIRST RECORD OF BROWN SHRIKE LANIUS CRISTATUS SUPERCILIOSUS LATHAM

FROM INDIA1

Sujan Chatterjee2 and Sumit K Sen3

'Accepted December 11, 2004

DB 75, Salt Lake City, Kolkata 700 064, West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]

’508, Jodhpur Park. Kolkata 700 068, West Bengal. India. Email: [email protected]

At Narendrapur, 17 km south of Kolkata, near the 23-acre

Chintamani Kar Wildlife Sanctuary, at an altitude of 5- 1 0 m, on

May 14, 2002, at 1030 hrs, we saw and photographed two very

rich-coloured Brown Shrikes Lanins cristatus - that appeared

to have more contrast, at first glance, than the Brown Shrike we

were used to seeing - sitting on a dry branch near a paddy field.

Upon consulting field guides, we realised it was not like any

bird cited in the available literature; it had a stronger and whiter

forehead and superciliaries, upperparts reddish-brown,

underparts, chin and throat white and below a deeper ochre.

We checked the illustrations and texts in the Indian

field guides and they all suggested the presence of two

subspecies of Brown Shrike within Indian territories, namely

Lanins cristatus cristatus and Lanins cristatus Incionensis

(Ali and Ripley 1987; Grimmett et a/. 1998; Inskipp etal. 1996;

Kazmierczak 2000; Robson 2000). We later identified the bird

to be Lanins cristatus snperciliosns which none of the Indian

field guides mentioned, and it seemed that the bird was way

out of its known range. References to worldwide experts on

the group and their positive feedback helped us to confirm

the identification.

This bird breeds in Japan in Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu

and Tsushima, and in the Russian Federation throughout

Sakhlin. It migrates through Japan and eastern China to winter

in Fukein, Kwangtung and southern Yunnan in China, in

Vietnam, and in other parts of Indo-China, in the Malay

Peninsula, and on the islands of Java, Sumatra, Ball, Flores

and Sumba. The most westerly record is in Banguara in

peninsular part of Siam (Dementev et al. 1954); our record

could be the westernmost record in the birds’ range.

The avifauna of West Bengal, Eastern India, has not

been explored that well. Although many birders visit the hills

of northern West Bengal, few visit the Gangetic West Bengal,

the groves, the orchards or the water bodies that characterize

the area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our thanks to Norbert Lefranc, Craig Robson, Tim

Worfolk and Krys Kazmierzack who gave their valuable

comments about the photograph and helped us with

identification.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1987): Compact edition of the Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. Oxford University

Press, Delhi. Pp. 349.

Dementev, G.P. & N.A. Gladkov (1954): Birds of Soviet Union: Vol.

VI. Moscow.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford LIniversity Press. Delhi. Pp. 587.

Inskipp, T., N. Lindsey & W. Duckworth (1996): An Annotated

Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region. Oriental Bird

Club, UK. Pp. 116.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to

the Birds of India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and the Maldives. Om Book Service, New Delhi.

Pp. 196-197.

Robson, C. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East Asia. New

Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd., London, UK. Pp. 368.

7. THE CHALLENGE OF THE PHYLLOSCOPI'

T.J. Roberts2

'Accepted June 07, 2004

:Caer Gors, Rhoscefnhir, Nr. Pentraeth, Anglesey LL75 8YU, North Wales. Email: [email protected]

The universal appeal of birds, as we all appreciate, is in

their great variation in size and form, coupled with their

colourful and often intricate plumage patterns; add to this

the pleasure we all get from hearing bird song. What then of

a whole group (genus) of small birds that look remarkably

alike, are rather drab in coloration, and usually do not sing

until they reach their often remote breeding grounds?

Because they are in places, not only numerous but

widespread in occurrence, sooner or later, even the neophyte

‘birder’ tries to get to grips with their identification. Any area

of enquiry if pursued long enough creates its own attendant

enthusiasm, often deepening into a veritable passion, and

the study of these tiny, intensely active warblers can be greatly

rewarding. In most parts of the plains of India there can be

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

89

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

several different species of Leaf- Warblers present in the same

locality. Added to this the fact that they are largely arboreal,

flitting restlessly about high up in tall trees, and often largely

concealed amongst the foliage, and the challenge of

identification becomes especially acute.

Across the Subcontinent, there are 25 recognized

different species of Phylloscopits (Grimmett etaL 1998), but I

shall confine myself to just 13, all of which breed in Pakistan,

where I lived for many years. Learning to recognize the calls

of birds, and their songs, is always one of the first things a

birdwatcher learns, as this is often the short cut to locating

the birds themselves, and to knowing what is in the vicinity.

The Leaf- Warblers all have rather similar contact calls, but

they are usually constantly uttered while they search for their

insect prey. With practice you can learn to recognize even

these brief contact calls, and in some species these are quite

distinct (Dymond 2003).

The next step is to try and see as much of the bird as

possible, often an uncomfortable neck-stretching exercise!

Does it have a single pale creamy bar across its wing coverts,

or does it have two bars, the upper one often rather obscured,

and if there are no wing bars, the colour of the pale superciliary

stripe above the eye, and that of its breast and flanks are also

useful clues. If it has two pale wing bars, look at the top of its

crown. Is there a median pale streak or just two pale streaks

on either side of the crown? Finally, less helpful, is the area

likely of occurrence for that particular species? There are

eleven species with two wing bars, but of these only four are

likely to occur in the western part of the Himalaya and in the

plains of Pakistan. Species such as P. maculipennis,

P cantator and P. coronatus are largely confined to the eastern

parts of the Himalaya and adjacent lowlands. If you can afford

it, try to have two or more bird books with illustrations of

Asian Leaf-Warblers. Familiarize yourself with their

appearance, allowing for the slight differences between each

artist’s interpretations of plumage colour. And, more

importantly, are the illustrations of a bird in worn summer

plumage or fresh winter plumage?

Now, to get down to specifics of the 13 Leaf- Warblers

with which I am familiar. I will start with those five species

that have no trace of any pale wing bar. Following on with

those having one wing bar, and thirdly the group with two

wing bars.

1 . Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita: This is

probably the commonest Leaf-Warbler in winter in the plains

of the western part of the Subcontinent. It is distinguished

by its rather drab brown plumage without any noticeable

greenish tinge to its upper plumage, nor any yellowish tinge

to its belly. The sub-species tristis differs from the European

breeding Chiffchaff, which is much more olive green above.

and yellowish on the flanks. So beware of looking at European

Field Guides! It does not breed within the Subcontinent, but

in Pakistan in early April; birds on passage can be heard

giving their full song, the rising and falling chiff-chaff-chiff-

chaff )exky song being easily recognized. In winter, this species

strangely does not call frequently, but when it does so, it is a

single rather plaintive hweet , hence the sub-specific name,

tristis. This species often forages around reed beds and in

the open amongst low shrubs, as well as in the tops of trees,

and very characteristically often makes short aerial sallies to

seize a flushed insect.

2. Mountain C h i ffc h aff Phylloscopus sindianus : In

appearance this is probably indistinguishable in winter from

the Common Chiffchaff, though Brooks ( 1 879) was the first to

recognize it as distinct, from its very different call note, and

consistent differences in the colour of the lower bend of the

wing, showing more yellowish tones. Its contact call is a two-

noted clear high pitched tisss-yip sometimes almost sounding

three-noted tiss-yooitt. The writer has tape recorded singing

males on their nesting ground, and there is really very slight

difference between its ‘Chiffchaff’ song and that of the

previous species. At the time, I wrote in my diary that it sounded

slightly less mellifluous and more disjointed than that of

P. collybita trisitis. The song itself lasts only three to four

seconds, and can be syllabalised chit-chiss-chyi-chiss-chit-

chiss-chyi-chip-chit chyi.

3. Plain Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus neglectus : Very

similar to the above two species, but distinctly smaller

(about the size of a Gold Crest), with a somewhat shorter

tail. It is grey brown with a quite short whitish supercilium

and a trace of creamy tones along the flanks. This species is

more Palaearctic in distribution than any of the other species

in the Subcontinent, and only rarely occurs outside of the

western part of the Subcontinent. In winter, it is common

in the Sind Province, less common in Punjab, and breeds in

the higher mountain ranges of Baluchistan. Its song is very

brief but quite distinctive, and can be syllabalised

chit-chuwich-chissa or chit-chu-chit chit chu-twissa-twit.

It has two different contact calls, twissa-twissa and a harder

tak-tak contact call, and when warning a harsher tshak-tshak,

like a Lesser Whitethroat. Some authorities have argued

that it should be treated as no more than a sub-species

of P. collybita (Martens 1980; Johansen 1947). Recent

studies based on response to playback of calls and song

would confirm that it should indeed be treated as a good

species.

4. Olivaceous Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus griseolus:

This is one of the easiest Phylloscopus warblers to recognize.

Not only does it most frequently forage on the ground with a

preference for rocky places, but it has a loud distinctive contact

90

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

call note, quit-quit. When it can be clearly seen, it is a dark

olive brown on the upper parts, with quite a bright cheesy

yellow supercilium, and dull yellow breast. Its winter

distribution is mainly in the Deccan plateau, across Madhya

Pradesh south to Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. It is

absent from the north-western plains, with a sizeable

population wintering in the foothills of the Eastern Himalaya,

and migrating in spring in a westerly direction across the

foothills. It breeds in the far north in high alpine regions

beyond the forested zones and is also quite a common breeder

in Baluchistan. The song is very brief, and at the beginning of

the nesting season, only in the early morning and evening. It

lasts about half to one second, starting with a high pitched

barely audible whistle, followed by four or five, rapidly

repeated, shorter notes, tseeep-tyi-tyi-tyi-tyi-tyi, these notes

all being in the same key. The nest which I have often found

is a large domed ball, with side entrance, located usually low

down in a thorny bush. It can be encountered while still on

passage in the lower forested valleys of the Himalaya into

mid- April, as it does not reach its northern alpine nesting

areas until May, when they are freer of snow.

5. Tiekell’s Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus affinis. This

looks closely similar to P. griseolus , with which it has been

shown to be closely related by molecular fingerprinting. It is

also very bright yellow on the supercilium, and breast, with

slightly paler more greenish upper parts, and underneath more

lemony yellow, less sulphurous, than in P. griseolus. In winter

it occurs mainly in the plains and foothills of north-east India

migrating westwards across the foothills in spring. A

population also winters in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. In summer,

it is plentiful across the alpine or un-forested slopes of the

Himalaya, mainly from above 3,200 m elevation. In Gilgit I

encountered many singing males on scrub-covered hillsides

with Artemesia maritime! , Berberis lycium and Wild

Gooseberry ( Ribes grossularia). Its contact calls, similar to

those of P. griseolus are quite loud, short and Sparrow-like

chip-chip and its warning calls a harsher tak-tak. The song

lasts less than half a second and opens with a short chip

followed by a trill of 3 to 4 up to a maximum of 6 rapid metallic

notes chip-1 pause), whi-whi-whi-whi . Individuals do vary

this song in length and pitch. They always sing from the top

of a prominent rock or bush and one male recorded, repeated

its song six times over a period of fourteen seconds.

6. Tytler’s Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri: This

species is often called the Slender-billed Leaf- Warbler, and its

bill does look rather long and thin (Dymond 2003) but it is not

enough for identification unless other Leaf- Warblers without

wing bars can be compared in the same vicinity. Its upper

parts tend to be quite dark olive and its breast rather white in

contrast, and its supercilium is quite long and prominent and

white, not yellow as in the previous two species. Also its tail

looks comparatively short. It is an arboreal bird, foraging in a

broad-leaved forest in winter in the Western Ghats, and on its

breeding grounds, mainly in the Western Himalaya, it breeds

usually high up in conifer trees, unlike most other species

which build low down in bushes or on the ground. Its contact

call is weak and not often uttered, yi-it. The song is very brief

and stereotyped, consisting of four rising and falling short

phrases kitchu-qwishu-kitchu-qwishu and another individual

jitsu-chissyup-jitsu-chissyup. It calls throughout the day

during the breeding season as it Hits about in the tree tops.

7. Greenish Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides.

This warbler can be variable in appearance and has been

divided into four sub-species. It is easier to recognize from its

call notes and song. In its breeding plumage, a faint pale wing

bar is visible, even sometimes traces of a second higher wing

bar, but in abraded summer plumage, these are usually worn

away and not visible. It has a distinct yellowish supercilium,

and a greyish wash to the flanks, and the upper parts are a

greyish olive green. The base of the lower mandible shows

flesh tones, the tip being dark. The call note is a cheery

so-chiwee-chiwee-chiwee , and the song is a rapid repetition of

the call, a high pitched fluting ti-psityee-psityu-psi-ti-ti-ti-psi. It

nests in the inner higher forested parts right across the

Himalaya, often in the sub-alpine Birch and scrub Juniper

zone. Its nest a domed ball made largely of moss, and hidden

in hollow under roots or rocks or low down in a tree hole.

8. Bright Green Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus nitidus:

This warbler is treated as a sub-species of P. trochiloides by

many authors, but is allopatric in the breeding season with

the former and much more yellow on the breast and quite a

bright olive green on the back. Its supercilium is also bright

yellow, and one wing bar easily discernible in fresh autumn

plumage. I have come across it as uncommon in the

mountainous regions of Baluchistan in May, when it was

presumed to be nesting and earlier authors found them feeding

fledglings in Baluchistan (Williams and Williams 1929).

However, most of the population, which winters in India,

breeds extra-limitally in the Caucuses and northern Iran. It

was an all winter visitor to southern Sind, in the writer’s

experience, and its call note could be heard throughout the

day, a two-noted high pitched chiwee chiwee. Its song is

quite complicated, being a rapid sequence of warbles and

short trills similar in pitch to its contact calls tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-che

weet-chirir-chirichi-cheweet-chichi.

9. Large Billed Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus

magnirostris : This is one of the larger Leaf- Warblers, with

two wing bars, and easily recognized by its preference for

foraging in proximity to water even in its winter quarters, and

by its distinctive call notes. There is no trace of any pale

J. Bombay Nat. Elist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

91

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

coronal stripes, and the bill though not noticeably strong, is

all dark on the lower mandible. It looks like P. trochiloides ,

but has a noticeably olive wash along the flanks, and the

supercilium is quite long and yellowish white, whilst the wing

bar is dull white. In flight the inner webs of the tail feathers

show white. The call note carries far and is dirtee-dirtee, and

its song, which is unusual for a Phylloscopus , can be heard

above the sound of rushing water where it invariably nests. It

consists of a very stereotyped five notes, teee-ti tii-tu-tu.

These notes are well spaced, the first being highest in pitch,

the second and third lower in pitch and shorter, with the last

two notes drawn out and again lower in pitch. The song is

usually repeated in bouts of 5 or 6, followed by a long interval

of silence. I have heard it giving an abbreviated but distinctive

version of its song in winter in the Periyar Sanctuary.

10. Brooks’s Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus subviridis :

This is one of the smaller Leaf-Warblers, with two wing bars,

a long creamy supercilium meeting over the fore crown, in

which area it becomes more yellow, a most helpful point in

separating it from Hume’s Leaf-Warbler, which occurs

sympatrically. It has a less distinct but definite mid-cotonal

pale line, and the upper plumage is olive green with the breast

pale creamy yellow, and the short tail lacks any white tips to

the outer feathers. This species winters mainly in the plains

and foothills of Pakistan, and breeds in the western Himalaya

in coniferous forest. It breeds on the ground, in hollows under

tree roots and prefers the edge of forest clearings. Its call

notes are of two sorts. The most frequently uttered is a short

chwit-chwit. Another call consists of a short elided three-

noted tissuwee-tisuwee. Its song, which has often been

wrongly described in many books (Ticehurst 1938; Ali and

Ripley 1973), is long and complicated, continuing for three to

four minutes. The song comprises widely spaced repeated

sequences of short Sparrow-like chirps, often followed by

shorter chips rapidly repeated, and then a sibilant rapid trilling

si-si-si-trrrrrh. This trill at the end is soft and difficult to hear,

as it often sings while foraging in the top of a conifer, and is

not as clear as the drawn out “beeeze” of P. humei which

often sings on the same tree during the breeding season.

1 1 . Hume’s Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus humei: Very

similar in size and appearance to Brooks’s Warbler, being small

with two wing bars, a fairly short tail and bright olive green

upper plumage. On its crown there are two creamy white long

superciliary lines, which also meet in front of the crown, but

which in contrast to Brooks’s Warbler are the same pale colour,

not more yellow in front of the eye. In older publications this

Leaf-Warbler was called the Yellow Browed Warbler or

Inornate Warbler (Ali and Ripley 1973), but since the early

1 990s it has been split into two species (S vensson 1 992), with

the Yellow Browed Warbler inhabiting the eastern part of the

Himalaya in the breeding season, and Hume’s Warbler

inhabiting the western part, as well as the adjacent plains in

winter. This little warbler can only be distinguished from

Brooks’s Leaf- Warbler with difficulty, but it never shows the

paler mesial cream line on top of the crown, which the former

species possesses. Its rump is concolorous with its back,

though in some lights can appear paler olive. It is not difficult

to separate from the next species, Pallas’s Leaf- Warbler, which

not only has more prominent wing bars, which are bordered

above with darker olive, and also more prominent superciliary

pale streaks, which are similarly bordered above by darker

olive green, but also shows a much paler lime green rump

band. Its contact calls, uttered continuously when foraging

are also different. The call is a two-noted tiss-yip-tiss-yip.

The song is not so variable and shorter than that of

P. subviridis, and starts with repeated two-noted calls tissoo-

tissoo-tissoo-tissoo followed by a curious buzzing s-s-s-s-s-

zvip . The buzz falls in pitch towards the end and becomes

louder, lasting about 0.5 seconds. Like Brooks’s Warbler it is

extremely active and forages mostly high up in trees, and in

Pakistan in the same localities as the former. In its breeding

grounds it can be extremely common, with densities of up to

four pairs per hectare (Price and Jamdar 1989). One unfinished

nest I stumbled upon was a ball woven with fine grass fibres

and a lot of moss, concealed under a stone on a steep slope

covered with tumbled rocks; the agitated nest builder

affording good views for identification.

12. Lemon-rumped Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus

chloronotus: This Leaf-Warbler is one of the easiest to

identify, but first, it is necessary to offer some comment on

the use of two different specific names and common names.

Until 1990, they were considered the same species (Inskipp

and Inskipp 1985), but studies by Alstrom and Olsson (1990)

using tape playback of their recorded songs to ascertain levels

of response by individual birds, suggested that Pallas’s

Leaf-Warbler, in their view was largely confined to China and

the eastern Himalaya, and that it did not respond to played

calls of P. chloronotus ( see also Inskipp et a I. 1996). However,

they did write that the differences need more detailed analysis,

and experts in Britain for example, do not appear to accept

P. chloronotus as a separate species (Nightingale and

McGeehan). Modern field guides for the Indian region now

list only P. chloronotus (Kazmierczak and van Perlo 2000). In

appearance, this is also a small, short-tailed Leaf- Warbler,

with two prominent creamy wing bars, two creamy superciliary

stripes, bordered above and below with darker olive green

bands, and most conspicuously, a broad pale lime green rump

band, as well as a conspicuous mid coronal or mesial pale

creamy line. I have found that this extremely active bird may

forage for as long as an hour in the tops of trees, without ever

92

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

opening its wings or fluttering out to catch an insect, and

thus never revealing its pale rump patch. It is very much an

arboreal species preferring to hunt in tall trees, and whenever

a mixed species hunting guild passes through its breeding

territoryjoining the throng in their search. In winter it does

not migrate far down into the plains, remaining often in the

foothills, and in Pakistan, I have encountered it in December

in Gilgit. These birds build their nests high up in trees, usually

conifers, and are very difficult to locate. Both in winter and

summer they call in bouts, falling silent for long intervals,

and it is a not very loud, short tsip. The song is usually

given from high up in the top of a favourite tree. It is a long

and complicated sequence of two-noted chirping notes

interspersed with more Sparrow-like chirrups, and rapid titters

or trills. It is surprisingly loud for the size of the bird, and

each individual will use different combinations or sequences

of these phrases. One male tape recorded, sang non-stop for

four minutes in late June, when the female was presumed to

be incubating. It can be syllabalised titsu-titsu-tissyip-tissyip-

tissyip-titititti-t-t-t-syisu-syisu-titertitertiter tissyip-tissyip-

titu-titu-tititit-t-t-t.

13. Western Crowned Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus

occipitalis'. This is by far the commonest Leaf- Warbler in the

western Himalaya, and can be described as literally swarming

in the forests from about 1 ,980 m up to the limit of the tree line

at 3,200 m. In winter it migrates as far south as peninsular

India, from Gujrat to Kerala, and passing rapidly north through

Pakistan in the spring. It is a largish Leaf- Warbler with two

wing bars, and a distinctive head pattern with two pale creamy

supercilium lines above the eyes, a darker olive green crown,

divided in the middle by a greyish white mesial or mid coronal

line, and with the upper back or mantle showing a greyish

wash. The upper plumage is otherwise greenish olive and the

pale whitish belly shows yellow streaks in fresh plumage with

some grey along the flanks. It nests on the ground or low

down in a tree hole, and the nest is usually located more than

an ami’s length from the hole opening. The writer had a summer

cottage in the Murree Hills at about 2,500 m elevation. And

two pairs bred in the gable end of our stone built cottage; one

each year in a weep hole near the foundations, and the other

under the roof eaves. I estimated the nesting density in that

patch of forest as roughly 0. 1 per hectare. They call incessantly

during the day, a two-noted chiwee-chiwee or by-syllabic

wichee-wichee. Its song is a variation of the call note, being

a rapidly repeated but elided version of the call notes, chwi-

chwi-chwi-chwi-chwi.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1973): A Guide to the Birds of India and Pakistan.

Vol. 8, Warblers to Redstarts. Oxford University Press. Bombay.

Pp. 352.

Alstrom, P. & U. Olsson (1990): Taxonomy of the Phylloscopus

Complex. Bull. BOC 110 (1): 38-43.

Brooks, E.W. ( 1879): Ornithological observations in Sikkim, the Punjab

and Sind. Stray Feathers 8: 464-487.

Dymond, N. (2003): Field Identification of Tytler's Leaf-Warbler

Phylloscopus tytleri. Oriental Bint Club Bull. 37: 57-59.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. The Helm Guide Series, London. Pp. 888.

Inskipp. C. & T. Inskipp (1985): A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. Croom

Helm Ltd., Kent. Pp. 392.

Inskipp. T., N. Lindsey & W. Duckworth (1996): An Annotated

Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region. Oriental Bird Club.

Bedfordshire. 294 pp.

Johansen. H. ( 1947): Notes on the geographical variation of the Chiff

Chaff (Phylloscopus collybita (Vieillot)). Dansk. Ornithol. F.

Tidsska. 41: 198-215.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of

India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the

Maldives. Pica Press, Sussex, UK. Pp. 352.

Martens, J. (1980): Latauberungen, verwandtschaftiche Beziehungen

und Verbreitungsgeschichte Asiatischer Laubsanger (Phylloscopus).

Zeitschr Tierpsyschologie Suppl. No. 22.

Nightingale, B. & A. McGeehan (2003): Recent reports (with coloured

photographs) of P. proregulus. Brit. Birds 96(12): 665-672.

Price, T. & N. Jamdar (1989): Where Eight Leaf- Warblers

breed. Hornbill, April-June. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai.

Svensson, L. (1992): Identification of European Passerines. 4th Edn.

Published by the Author, Stockholm. Pp. 312.

Ticehurst, C.B. (1938): A Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus.

Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). 193 pp.

Williams, C.H. & C.E. Williams (1929): Some notes on the birds

breeding around Quetta. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 598-613.

8. BROAD-TAILED GRASS-WARBLER SCHOENICOLA PLATYURA IN NASHIK, MAHARASHTRA1

Bishwarup Raha2-3, Rameshwar Sarda2-4, Viral K. Mistry2 5

‘Accepted September 10, 2004

’Nature Conservation Society of Nashik 1 3, Hemant Vihar, Veer Savarkar Nagar, Off Gangapur Road,

Nashik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

The Broad-tailed Grass- Warbler Schoenicola platyura Ghats and the Nilgiri hills, occurring largely in Karnataka,

is found in the damp high montane grasslands of the Western Kerala and Tamil Nadu (BirdLite International 2001 ). The

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

93

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

species is considered to occur in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra

Pradesh (Price 1979; Grimmett etal. 1998; BirdLife International

200 1 ) and more recently has been recorded from Lonavala in

northern Maharashtra (Singh 2002). Except for its recent

sighting in Lonavala, this species has not been recorded north

of Karnataka. In this note, we present the details of our recent

sightings in Nashik.

While watching birds on the slopes of Ramshej, a hill

about 15 km from Nashik city, adjacent to the Peth Road near

Ashewadi village, a Broad-tailed Grass- Warbler was sighted

in February 2003, its identity confirmed from Grimmett etal.

(1998). Subsequently, between August 1-15, 2003, the bird

was seen on ten occasions in the same locality. During this

period, the bird was videotaped and photographed; it was

again seen in the locality on December 23, 2003.

The grassy slopes of Ramshej, where the Broad-tailed

Grass- Warbler was sighted, comprise a mixed growth of

Heteropogon contortus, Cymbopogon martini , Themeda

spp., Cynodon dactylon , and Apluda mutica grasses. The

grassy slopes were also interspersed with sparsely growing

and widely scattered Bombax ceiba. Butea monosperma,

Wrightia tinctoria , Carrisa conjesta and Lantana camara,

whose average height was less than 2 m. The general area

surrounding Ramshej is basically grassland contiguous with

other hills. These grasslands remain dry for most of the year,

except during the monsoon months of July-September.

On all occasions when the Broad-tailed Grass-Warbler

was sighted, it was seen singing from two regular perches,

one of which was a dwarf B. ceiba , about 1 .5 m in height, and

the other was an overhanging electricity supply cable. It is

An, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 8: 91-92.

All S. & H. Whistler (1935-1937): The ornithology of Travancore

and Cochin. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 814-843; 38: 61-92,

282-320, 484-514, 759-790; 39: 335, 320-342, 569-593.

Birdlife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife

International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge.

Pp. 1969-1973.

Ferguson, H.S. & T.F. Bourdillon (1903-1904): The birds of

Travancore with notes on their nidification. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

interesting to note that in 1881 Butler observed the bird

perching even on telegraph wires. At times, the bird was

observed to circle overhead, fanning its tail and fluttering its

wings in a peculiar manner, singing continuously all the time,

as if on display. It was regularly seen visiting a particular

patch a few metres away from the dwarf Silk Cotton tree. Only

once while this particular bird was perched on the Silk Cotton

tree, did we sight another bird, which flew out of the same

grass patch and flew a few metres away. No effort was made

to search the grassy slopes for nests.

Although, Ali and Whistler (1935-1937) describe the

species as an “inveterate skulker”, except in the early mornings

when it was seen “clambering up the grass stems to exposed

situations”, our observations are more in line with the

observations of Ali and Whistler (1935-1937), BirdLife

International (2001 ), and Ferguson and Bourdillon ( 1903-1904),

who found the species to be “far from shy” and “not a shy

bird”, that “may often be seen perched on the top of a bush

or tuft of grass”. Although, the species is considered to be a

seasonal visitor in many localities, being capable of altitudinal

movements (Birdlife International), our sightings of the bird

in February, August and December indicate that the species,

as indicated by Ali and Ripley (1987), could possibly be a

resident in Nashik.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. S. Subramanya for viewing the videotape,

accompanying us on one of the trips to Ramshej, and

reviewing earlier drafts of this manuscript.

Soc. 15: 249-264,455-474,654-673; 16: 1-18.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 888.

Price, T. D. (1979): Some observations on the warbler (Aves: Sylvinae)

populations of the upland perennial wetlands in the Eastern Ghats.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 488-490.

Singh, K.B. (2002): Broad-tailed Grassbird and few more

interesting sightings, [email protected],

[email protected], [email protected].

Monday, November 11, 2002 8:92 pm.

9. PATERNAL AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS OFFSPRING

IN PURPLE-RUMPED SUNBIRD NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA 1

Anand Prasad2

‘Accepted May 31, 2004

2Middlewood, Roebumdale West, Lancaster, LA2 9LL, UK. Email: [email protected]

On August 2 1 , 2003, at Candolim, Goa, from my balcony, zeylonica leave their nest for the first time. Their first flight

I watched two young Purple-rumped Sunbirds Nectarinia was clumsy and amusing to watch, and I was eager to observe

94

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

their first experience of the big, wide world. I was therefore

surprised, upon discovering the location of one of the newly-

fledged youngsters, which was identified by its yellow throat,

to witness the following scene. The female, which was perched

close to the juvenile, was calling vigorously and the juvenile

was begging for food. The male landed close by and there

was some wing fluttering and display, and much calling from

the adults before the female flew off. The adult male then

proceeded to peck vigorously at the body of the juvenile and

continued violently until the juvenile, whilst still clinging to

the branch, dropped upside down into a hanging position,

and froze as if dead. I was sure the bird was actually dead, but

the attacks on the apparent corpse slowed down and

eventually stopped, and then the male flew off. This happened

very quickly and I had no time to react, and was also unsure

whether to interfere. I then waited to watch the behaviour of

the female and to see if the juvenile was dead or unconscious.

After a few minutes, the juvenile revived and it seemed that it

had been feigning death, as the blows had all been to the

body which 1 had thought unlikely to cause unconsciousness.

The juvenile was obviously hesitant to start calling again

after this treatment but slowly gained confidence and began

to resume begging for food. The female appeared and fed the

juvenile, which appeared completely unharmed. The male also

soon returned to the juvenile, which was at first very nervous,

but quickly resumed its normal begging behaviour. Although

I did not see the male feeding the juvenile, no more aggressive

behaviour was noted.

The only explanation for such behaviour was that the

female was calling vigorously, on the onset of fledging,

presumably to inform the male that a new phase of parental

care had now started and that not only would it need to bring

food to the nest, but that the fledglings would need constant

locating, being warned of dangers, feeding and all the other

activities involved with rearing the juveniles to complete

independence. It is not preposterous to assume that the male

may have got the calls from the female instigating the next

phase of parental behaviour, confused it with that of courtship,

and this therefore triggered an aggressive territorial display

from the male towards a rival.

10. RANGE EXTENSION OF JUNGLE MYNA ACRIDOTHERES FUSCUS FUMIDUS'

Sujan Chatterjee2, Sumit K. Sen3 and Dipankar Ghose4

'Accepted October 28, 2004

2DB 75, Salt Lake City, Kolkata 700 064, West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]

’508, Jodhpur Park, Kolkata 700 068, West Bengal. India. Email: [email protected]

4WWF-India Sikkim Prog. Office, Deorali, Near Forest Secretariat, Gangtok, Sikkim 737 102, India.

Initially aiming to generate a check-list of the birds of

Kolkata, we have been studying the avifauna of Kolkata since

1990; since early 2000, we also photographed the birds. On

August 3, 2001, at 1 100 hrs, a Jungle Myna Acridotheresfuscus

was sighted at Eden Gardens in the heart of the city of Kolkata;

one of our members photographed it. Not much attention was

paid to this sighting, as the Jungle Myna is a fairly common bird

in Kolkata. A few months later, while sorting the photographs,

we chanced upon this particular photograph; the bird looked

like a Jungle Myna, but a closer look revealed some differences

in coloration of the bird. The bird had an almost black head and

a very dark slaty grey on the back. It had an orange eye-ring

similar to the nominate species Acridotheres fuscus, but what

was most striking was that it had a dark slaty grey vent instead

of pale cream colour vent. After consulting the field guides (Ali

and Ripley 1987; Grimmett etal. 1998; Kazmierczak and van

Perlo 2000 and Robson 2000), it was identified as the eastern

race of Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus fumidus. The bird

appears to exist very far from its range, which is Nagaland,

eastern Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Edition of the Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Pp. 371.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 672-673.

Kazmierczak K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of

India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the

Maldives. Om Book Service, New Delhi. Pp. 198-199.

Robson, C. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East Asia. New

Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd., London. Pp. 412.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

95

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION

OF MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN SRI LANKA1

Eben Goodale2 and Sarath W. Kotagama3

'Accepted February 28, 2005

-Graduate Programme in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01003-5810, USA.

Current Address: Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected]

-’Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3. Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected]

Mixed-species bird flocks are a prominent feature of

the avifauna of the Indian subcontinent. Many species

participate in flocks, in at least some of their range, as

frequently noted in the species accounts by Ali and Ripley

(1987). In some areas, such as the Sinharaja World Heritage

Reserve in Sri Lanka, the majority of common species are

more readily observed inside of mixed flocks than outside of

them (Kotagama and Goodale 2004). Descriptions of flock

systems in different parts of the Subcontinent are now

beginning to accumulate (Partridge and Ashcroft 1976;

MacDonald and Henderson 1977; Robin and Davidar 2002;

Kotagama and Goodale 2004).

One limitation in most flock studies is that they are

conducted at one field site (see, however, Robin and Davidar

2002 for a comparison between teak plantations and moist

deciduous forest). The question then arises as to how

representative these studies are of flocks in the geographical

region, where ‘region’ may be defined at different spatial scales.

In Sri Lanka, flock systems have been described at montane

elevations (approximately 2000 m above msl. Partridge and

Ashcroft 1976), and at low elevations in the wet-zone

(approximately 500 m above msl, Kotagama and Goodale 2004).

The kinds of flocks that occur at intermediate elevations are

hitherto unknown.

We undertook a short-term study to investigate

altitudinal variation, within a 20 km radius area, around our

main research site in the Sinharaja World Heritage Reserve,

where flock studies have been going on since 1 98 1 ( Kotagama

and Goodale 2004). A total of 10 transects were placed in the

Sinharaja Reserve, the Delwala Proposed Lorest Reserve and

the Walankanda Lorest Reserve. Transects were placed inside

forests with continuous canopy, either in primary forest, or in

secondary forest, logged in the 1970s and 1980s and was now

at least 1 5 m in height. Transects were positioned at a distance

of at least 250 m, and at different elevations - four between

400-600 m above msl, three between 600-800 m, and three

between 800-1100 m. Each transect was 0.75 km long, except

for one 0.5 km transect in the Walankanda Reserve, where

bamboo thickets made walking difficult.

We visited each transect for at least three and up to six

consecutive days, spending at least three days without rain

at each transect, for a total of 42 days. We started observations

at 0630 hrs and walked up and down the transect till 1 630 hrs,

with scattered breaks. A flock was not included in the analysis,

if another flock had been seen earlier during the day within

250 m. We, however, counted flocks that were seen in the

same 250 m area on separate days. These flocks undoubtedly

contained some individuals from earlier flocks; however, as

flocks re-form every morning we consider them independent

observations (see also discussion of independence in

Kotagama and Goodale 2004). Visits to the different transects

were scattered between January 29 and June 25, 1998. During

extensive fieldwork in the Sinharaja Reserve, we found

seasonal variation in flock composition and size to be low

(Kotagama and Goodale 2004).

A majority of the flocks encountered (42 of 58) were

similar to flocks previously described by us from the Sinharaja

Reserve, as they centred around the gregarious Ceylon Rufous

Babbler ( Turdoides rufescens ) and included a high number of

species and individuals (an average of 10.4 species and

3 1 individuals). In particular, these babbler-led flocks included

three of Sri Lanka’s endemic and vulnerable species (BirdLife

International 2001) - 23 flocks included Ashy-headed

Laughingthrush (Garrulax cinereifrons), 17 flocks included

Ceylon Starling ( Sturnus albofrontatus ), and 15 flocks

included Red-faced Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus

pyrrhocephalus). At least two of these three species were

seen in 1 8 babbler-led flocks, and the three species were found

in such flocks in all the forest reserves. However, these species

were rarely involved in flocks without babblers

(laughingthrushes were found in one such flock, malkohas

and starlings in none).

Blocks without babblers were found primarily on the

transect at the lowest elevation (all of the six flocks found on

the 400 m transect in the Delwala Reserve), and on the transect

at the highest elevation (five of the eight flocks found on the

1 100 transect near the former Momingside Estate in the eastern

sector of the Sinharaja Reserve). Such flocks were

substantially smaller than those that included babblers

(averaging 7.4 species and 15 individuals; comparison to

babbler-led flocks, two sample t-tests, t56 = 2.69, P < 0.01 for

species, and t = 4.37, P< 0.001 for individuals). At the lowest

96

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

elevation transect, babblers were not present inside or outside

flocks, during our visit. The one constant in flocks at this

transect was the presence of Greater Racket-tailed Drongos

(. Dicrurus paradiseus ), which were in every flock, and for the

entire observation period. At the highest elevation transect,

flocks similar to the montane system co-existed with the larger

babbler-led system. These flocks were led by the Ceylon

White-eye ( Zosterops ceylonensis) and the Grey-headed

Flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis), the two most numerous

species in the montane system (Partridge and Ashcroft 1 976).

Three times we saw these montane-like flocks join a babbler-

led flock and then split away less than half an hour later.

The observation that several of the vulnerable species

that participate in flocks were found almost exclusively with

Ceylon Rufous Babblers, indicates the importance of babblers

for other birds that associate with them. Babblers have all the

characteristics of ‘nuclear’ species in flocks (in sensu

Moynihan 1962, Hutto 1994); they are found in most flocks,

are rarely found outside of them, and lead the flocks ( Kotagama

and Goodale 2004). Other species are attracted to the playback

of the calls of this species (Goodale and Kotagama 2005b).

Observations of flocks without babblers at the lowest

elevation transect suggest that the Greater Racket-tailed

Drongo can also be considered a nuclear species. Drongos

are frequent members of babbler-led flocks and are rarely

found outside flocks. However, their role in flocks is not as

clear as that of the Ceylon Rufous Babbler, because they lead

fewer flocks than do babblers, and also are inter-specifically

aggressive, sometimes stealing food from other species ( King

and Rappole 2001). We have previously argued that drongos

may be beneficial to other species because they make reliable

and sensitive alarm calls (Goodale and Kotagama 2005a), and

that they should be considered nuclear species, because like

babblers, their calls attract other species in playback trials

(Goodale and Kotagama 2005b). The observations on the

lowest elevation transect support this idea, by demonstrating

that mixed flocks form around drongos, when babblers are

absent.

Observations at the highest elevation transect

demonstrate that montane-like flocks may co-exist with

lowland flocks in areas of intermediate elevation. One question

raised by these observations is whether species prefer to

participate with one flock system more than the other. We

found that the smaller sized species associated with the

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan, together witli those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka, 2nd edn., Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

736 pp.

Bell, H.L. (1983): A bird community of lowland rainforest in New

montane-like flocks, the nine most frequent species in them

(present in at least two of five flocks), averaged 23.8 g, whereas

the eight most frequent species in the babbler-led flocks at

the same transect (present in at least two of three flocks)

averaged 50. 1 g (two sample t-test, t - 2.25, P< 0.05; weight

data from Ali and Ripley 1987 and, if not available, estimated

from closely related, similarly sized species). Separate flock

systems with birds of different sizes have also been described

from New Guinea ( Bell 1 983). Such a phenomenon might arise

if birds prefer to associate with other species that share the

same predators, particularly since the species’ propensity to

flock is associated with their vulnerability to predation (Thiollay

andJullien 1998).

While this study shows that certain phenomena, such

as flocks centred around drongos, and separate flock systems

co-existing in intermediate elevations exist, our understanding

of how flocks vary by elevation would clearly be expanded

by further sampling in different areas and over longer time

intervals. Similar studies should also determine how land-use

patterns affect flocks. Management plans that target a flock

system, or a nuclear species like the Ceylon Rufous Babbler,

may benefit several threatened species that participate in

flocks, such as the Ashy-headed Laughingthrush, the Red-

faced Malkoha, and the Ceylon Starling. A few studies in the

neotropics have shown that participants of flocks may be

particularly vulnerable to disturbance, and sometimes the

whole flock system may disappear (Thiollay 1992; Stouffer

and Bierregaard 1995). Such studies are needed on the Indian

subcontinent to develop community-wide conservation

strategies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank RS. Ashton, the late D.R. Griffin,

C. V.S. Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. Gunatilleke, T.A. Jayatilaka,

U.K.G.K. Padmalal and N.E. Pierce, for their advice and

encouragement that made this research possible. D.I. King,

D. E. Kroodsma, and an anonymous reviewer gave helpful

suggestions on the earlier drafts. The first author is grateful

for the financial support of a Junior Fulbright Fellowship and

a pre-doctoral fellowship from the National Science

Foundation (USA). We thank the Sri Lanka Forest Department

for granting permission to do this work. U.M. Goodale and

S.G. Ramachandran made the field work a wonderful experience.

Guinea. 5. Mixed-species feeding flocks. Emu 82: 256-275.

BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge,

U.K. 3,038 pp.

Goodale, E. & S.W. Kotagama (2005a): Alarm calling in Sri Lankan

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

97

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mixed-species bird flocks. Auk 122: 108-120.

Goodale, E. & S.W. Kotagama (2005b): Testing the roles of species

in mixed-species bird flocks of a Sri Lankan rainforest. J. Trop.

Ecol. 21: 669-676.

Hutto, R.L. ( 1994): The composition and social organization of mixed-

species flocks in a tropical deciduous forest in Western Mexico.

Condor 96: 105-118.

King, D.I. & J.H. Rappole (2001): Kleptoparacitism of laughing-

thrushes by Greater Racket-tailed Drongo in Burma (Myanmar).

Forktail 17: 121-122.

Kotagama, S.W. & E. Goodale (2004): The composition and spatial

organization of mixed-species flocks in a Sri Lankan rainforest.

Forktail 20: 63-70.

Macdonald, D.W. & D.G. Henderson ( 1977): Aspects of the behaviour

and ecology of mixed species bird flocks in Kashmir. Ibis 119:

481-491.

Moynihan, M. (1962): The organization and probable evolution of

some mixed-species flocks of Neotropical birds. Smithson. Misc.

Coll. 143: 1-140.

Partridge, L. & R. Ashcroft (1976): Mixed-species flocks of birds in

hill forest in Ceylon. Condor 78: 449-453.

Robin, V.V. & P. Davidar (2002): The vertical stratification of birds in

mixed-species flocks at Parambikulanr, South India: A comparison

between two habitats. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 99: 389-399.

Stouffer, PC. & R.O. Bierregaard, Jr. (1995): Use of Amazonian

forest fragments by understory insectivorous birds. Ecology 76:

2429-2445.

Thiollay, J.M. (1992): Influence of selective logging on bird species

diversity in a Guanian rain forest. Conserv. Biol. 6: 47-60.

Thiollay, J.M. & M. Jullien (1998): Flocking behaviour of foraging

birds in a neotropical rain forest and the antipredator defence

hypothesis. Ibis 140: 382-394.

12. ADDITIONS TO THE AVIFAUNA OF GOA, INDIA1

S.D. Borges2,3 and A.B. Shanbhag2,4

'Accepted June 07, 2004

’Department of Zoology, Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, 403 206, Goa, India.

’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

The first report on the birds of Goa in 1976 recorded

154 species (Grubh and Ali 1976). Subsequently Saha and

Dasgupta ( 1992) raised the number of species to 208. All the

reports thus far were based on opportunistic surveys, mostly

of forested regions, none of them exceeding 16 days. In

1996, the ecological research on wetlands and waterbirds

of the state was initiated at three freshwater bodies

(Walia and Shanbhag 1996; Shanbhag et al. 2001).

Around the same time, Lainer (1999a, b) reported 382

species, increasing the number of avian species of Goa

to 174.

However, not much was known of the ecology and

bird fauna of estuarine wetlands in the state. The Salim Ali

Bird Sanctuary, the only one of its kind in the state within the

estuarine belt, though notified in 1988, was not an exception.

Therefore, a detailed three year study was initiated to

understand the ecology of the Mandovi estuarine wetland

in general and its avifauna in particular (Borges 2003). In the

course of this study, encompassing the deltaic islands of

Chorao, Diwar, Chorao Minor and the estuarine banks of

Ribandar (Fig. 1), observations were carried out by boat as

well as on foot, using 12 x 25 binoculars and a 15-45 x 60

spotting scope. Birds were identified using standard

field guides (Sonobe and Usui 1993; Ali 1996; Grimmett etal.

1998).

During the study, a total of 151 species, both resident

and migratory birds were recorded, eight of which were new

sightings or confirmations for the Goa region.

These eight species were sighted on more than one

occasion. This paper records sightings, microhabitat utility

and behavioural attributes of these species.

sa-Of*. .&TJS.7E

STUDY SITE

mrn&m

mpBK

H MtZSd gfft&S .• MsWSijf;

# srmK cam m

* MSnar

Fig. 1 : Map of the study site

98

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus

Some bitterns, slightly smaller than the chestnut bittern

frequented the estuarine islands during the monsoon of 1999

and 2000. The distinct greyish black crown and brown

scapulars confirmed that the birds were female little bitterns.

A lone female bird was sighted on the northern side of Chorao

Minor on June 17 1999, and again on September 27, 1999. Two

more birds were encountered, one each in the driest region of

the exposed mudflat of Chorao Minor (August 29) and Chorao

(September 5). In 2000, three female Little Bitterns were flushed

from reed-beds of Chorao in August, while another was observed

at Chorao Minor in September. The solitary female was seen

again in December at Chorao Minor. Three more females were

flushed from the reed-beds at Chorao a month later.

In November 2000, a similar sized bittern was seen

crouching amongst the pneumatophores and stilt roots in the

interiors of the Bird Sanctuary. Initially mistaken for a male Yellow

Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis , it was confirmed to be a male Little

Bittern, owing to its deep black back, and the absence of a dark

strip along the centre of the neck. Two more male little bitterns

were sighted at Chorao Minor in February 200 1 .

Little Bitterns are known to breed in the tall reed beds

of Kashmir and Assam during the monsoon (Holmes and Parr

1989). Although there have been a few stray sightings

elsewhere, only a couple of these sightings have been from

as far down as coastal islands off Mumbai (Abdulali and

Grubh 1966), and southern Karnataka (Grimmett etal. 1998).

Sporadic sightings of a few little bitterns in the estuary

numbering not more than three per encounter may be

construed as their being stranded break-away exploratory

factions, or even failed wintering attempts by small non-

breeding populations towards the west coast of the country.

2. Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis

Two male birds were sighted perched on fishing stakes,

one at Ribandar and one at Chorao Minor in June 5, 1999 and

November 21,1 999 respectively. On December 21,1 999, two

more birds were observed perched on stilt roots at Chorao

Minor while a lone bird was sighted on a mound of stones

along the river’s edge at Chorao. The bird was seen yet again

in January and March 2000, at Chorao and Ribandar

respectively. In August 2000, three black bitterns were

noticed at Chorao while one bird was seen at the same site in

November. Two birds were observed at Chorao Minor in

December 2000 and one bird each was sighted at Ribandar,

Chorao and Chorao Minor in January 200 1 .

The Black Bittern has been described as a widespread ,

resident throughout India with scattered distribution (Ali

1 996). It has been observed to breed in Kerala (Neelakantan

1 956), and move towards Tamil Nadu during the non-breeding

season (Joshua and Johnsingh 1985). Considering its

distribution all along coastal Kerala and Karnataka, on the

west coast of India, its sighting in the coastal belt of Goa only

amounts to marginal extension in the range of the species.

3. Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa

Three of these red-capped black birds with white

shoulder patches were observed feeding actively on the

insects and crustaceans on the exposed mudflats of Chorao

Minor and Ribandar on April 21, 1999. At Ribandar, one of the

birds was seen jabbing at a mudskipper, Boleopthalmus sp.

In April 2000, two Black Ibises were sighted on the Ribandar

mudflats, while four birds were recorded at Chorao Minor.

The latter were present for approximately 20 minutes and took

off en bloc in a north-easterly direction. Exactly a year later,

two more birds of the species were sighted at Ribandar.

The Black Ibis, a resident throughout the Indian

peninsula is a regular visitor to the better-watered parts of

Maharashtra ( Jamdar and Shrivastava 1990). As Goa neither

lacks the habitat requirements for Ibises in general (Lainer

1999a; Shanbhag et al. 2001 ), nor is it too far flung from

Maharashtra, the regular seasonal sightings of a few

individuals of the species can be taken as probable attempts

towards its range extension.

4. Jack Snipe Lymnocryptcs minimus

On the evening (1500 hrs) of April 12, 2000, a bird each

of the species was flushed out at two separate locations from

the tall reed swamps adjoining the mudflat at Chorao. The

birds were smaller than other snipes, had shorter and stouter

bills and a split supercilium. Both birds were flushed during a

foot trail through the northern side of the marsh, at a distance

of roughly 40 m from each other. These sightings confirm the

earlier ‘unconfirmed report' (Lainer 1999b), as to the possible

occurrence of the species in the state.

5. Red Knot Caiidris canutus

Two sandpipers slightly larger than Little Stints were

observed feeding actively in mixed flocks of waders. The

birds were observed to feed on larger benthic polychaetes,

particularly nereids, on the mudflats of Chorao on October

25, 1999. The birds were confirmed to be Red Knots owing to

their stout stature, short straight bill and dull grey upper-

parts. In the year 2000, a single bird each was sighted in

January on the Ribandar mudflat, and in March and

November at Chorao Minor. On all three occasions, the birds

were feeding actively on the algae and the wet sediment

close to the surf line, probably on crustaceans. However, at

all the sites the birds were present for a brief period of less

than 45 minutes.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

99

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta

This conspicuous pied wader with a slender, but

prominently upturned bill, was observed feeding in the

shallow water below the surf line at Chorao Minor on April

21 , and May 19, 1999. The birds fed by continuously moving

their heads from side to side with half the bill immersed in

water, a characteristic of avocets. In December 1999, two

Pied Avocets were seen feeding actively in the shallow

waters of Diwar at about 1600 hrs. In April 2000, a lone Pied

Avocet was seen foraging at Chorao Minor, amidst other

waders.

In India, there are records of Red Knots and Pied

Avocets wintering in parts of Kerala (Namassivayan and

Venugopal 1989), and on the coast of Tamil Nadu

(Balachandran 1995). Considering the contiguity of the long

coastline of Kerala/ Karnataka with Goa, the regular sightings

of a few Red Knots and Pied Avocets along with other waders

may be logically acceptable, as tropical estuarine wetlands

are known to be of great dietary significance to migrant

waterbirds (Wootton 1997). Hence, the occurrence of Red

Knots and Pied Avocets on the Mandovi estuarine mudflats

is not surprising, as the sites are rich in benthic invertebrates

(Borges 2003). The regular sighting of a few avocets

particularly in summer indicates that the Mandovi estuarine

mudflats are probably being used as potential stopover sites

by the species.

7. Great Stone-Plover Esacus recurvirostris

A single bird was sighted consistently for a period of

three months from November 2000 to January 2001 in the

deeper reaches of the bird sanctuary. The shy wader with

large eyes and a stout bill was observed to feed on mud

crabs, Grapsus sp. The bird was quick to dart away into the

thick mangrove vegetation when confronted with even the

slightest disturbance.

The Great Stone-Plover is known to inhabit a variety

of habitats ranging from semi-dry pockets of the Thar

desert (Sangha 2002) to the coastal mudflats of Kerala

(Nameer 1992) and Tamil Nadu (Balachandran 1995).

The sighting of the Great Stone-Plover at Chorao was an

extremely rare occurrence, considering that only one bird

was sighted during the entire study period of three years.

The species is described to be ‘resident subject to local

movements’ with one of the breeding stretches across

Karnataka (Grimmett etal. 1998). As the bird sighted did not

show any indication of injury, it could be a case of sheer

stray vagrancy.

8. Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti

The sandy buff-coloured sparrow-sized birds were

observed, perched in small flocks, on electric wires,

overlooking freshly harvested paddy fields at Chorao and

Di war in September 2000. The birds were confirmed as Desert

Wheatears by their black throats, buff white underparts and

blackish brown wings and tails. While seven birds were

counted at Chorao, 1 2 of them were sighted at Di war. At both

the sites, the flocks consisted of both the sexes. At Chorao,

the birds remained undisturbed by the paddy-thrashing

activity nearby, regularly alighting on the ground to pick the

insects.

Desert Wheatears affect habitats ranging from dry

scrubland to canal irrigated agricultural plots. The species, a

regular winter visitor to central Maharashtra and north

Andhra Pradesh, tends to winter even in Madras (Santharam

1989). As such, the species may have strayed into the state

and having found suitable conditions, stayed on, as was the

case with the Great Stone-Plover.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Goa State DSTE for funding part of the

work through research project No.3-2-91-STE/(Part)/1063 to

Dr. A.B. Shanbhag. The facilities provided by the Goa

University are duly acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. & R.B. Grubh (1966): Extension of range of Ixobrynchus

minutus minutus (Linnaeus) an addition to the avifauna of

Bombay area. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 63(1): 198.

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural History

Society and Oxford University Press, Mumbai. Pp. 354.

Balachandran, S. (1995): Shorebirds of the marine national park in

the Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc.

92(3): 303-311.

Borges, S.D. (2003): Studies on the ecology of wader birds of the

Mandovi estuary of Goa, India. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Goa

University.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 888.

Grubh, R.B. & S. Ali (1976): Birds of Goa. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

73: 42-53.

Holmes, P.R. & A.J. Parr ( 1989): A checklist of the birds of Haigam

Rakh-Kashmir. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3): 465-473.

Jamdar, N. & K. Shrivastava (1990): Black Bittern Ixobrynchus

flavicollis (Latham) and addition to the avifauna of Maharashtra.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 289.

Joshua, J. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1985): Observations on birds of

Mundanthurai Plateau, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

85(3): 565-567.

Lainer, H. (1999a): The Birds of Goa (Part 1). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

100

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Soc. 96(2): 203-220.

Lainer, H. ( 1999b): The Birds of Goa (Part II). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 96(3): 405-422.

Namassivayan, L. & P. Venugopal (1989): Avocet Recurvirostra

avosetta in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3): 447.

Nameer, P.O. (1992): Great Stone-Plover Esactts magnirostris ( Viellot)

in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 1 18.

Neelakantan, K.K. (1956): Some observations on the breeding

behavior of the Chestnut Bittern Ixobrynchus cinnamomeus

(Gmelin) and the Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis (Latham).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 53(4): 704-705.

Saha, B.C. & J.M. Dasgupta (1992): Birds of Goa. Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta. Pp. 56.

Sangha, H.S. (2002): A supplementary note on the avifauna of the

Thar desert (Rajasthan). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 99(1):

120-126.

Santharam, V. (1989): The Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti in

Madras. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3): 452.

Shanbhag, A.B., R. Walia & S.D. Borges (2001): The impact of

Konkan Railway Project on the avifauna of Carambolim Lake

in Goa. Zoos' print Journal 16(6): 503-508.

Sonobe, K. & S. Usui (1993): A Field Guide to the Waterbirds of Asia.

Wildbird Society of Japan, Tokyo. Pp. 224.

Walia, R. & A.B. Shanbhag (1996): Birdlife at Santa Monica Lake,

Goa: An integrated ecological study. Pp. 63. In: Proceedings of

Pan-Asian Ornithological Congress and XII Birdlife Asia

Conference, Coimbatore, India. 9-16 November.

Wootton, J.T. (1997): Estimates and tests per capita interaction

strength: diet abundance and impact of intertidal foraging birds.

Ecol. monogr. 67(1): 45-64.

13. HOLE-NESTING IN CAPTIVE INDOTESTUDO TRAVANCORICA'

Madhuri Ramesh2

'Accepted September 10, 2004

2Centre for Herpetology, Madras Crocodile Bank, Mamallapuram, P.O. Bag 4, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Travancore Tortoise Indotestudo travancorica is

a medium-sized testudine endemic to the Western Ghats of

India. Auffenberg (1964) reported the breeding season as

extending from November to January, but other authors

believe that this tortoise may breed at other times of the year

(Vijaya 1983; Moll 1989; Sane and Sane 1989; Das 1991 ). While

nesting the female lays 1-3 eggs on the ground or in a shallow

nest of leaf litter, and hatchlings are obtained in June (Das

1991).

In India, the Centre for Herpetology, Madras Crocodile

Bank has the only captive breeding group of this species

(Andrews and Whitaker 1993), consisting of three males and

six females (Table 1; individual animals could be clearly

Table 1 : Measurements of the captive breeding group of adult

Indotestudo travancorica at the Madras Crocodile Bank

CCL: curved carapace length, CCW-F: curved carapace width (front),

CCW-R: curved carapace width (rear), PL: plastron length, PW:

plastron width; all in cms. WT: weight (kg), M: Male, F: Female.

distinguished by natural markings on the carapace, and were

assigned an alphabetic identity code). Enclosure utilization

(Ramesh 2002) and breeding behaviour of the Travancore

Tortoise was observed from July to December 1999. Contrary

to existing literature, hole-nesting was observed during the

study period, and has been reported here for the first time.

Table 2: Measurements of eggs of captive

Indotestudo travancorica at the Madras Crocodile Bank

Av. L: Average Length, Av. W: Average Width,

Av. Wt: Average Weight

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

101

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fifteen clutches of eggs were found during the study

period, first in June 1999 and later in December 1999

(Table 2). They had been laid near the roots of trees or shrubs,

and in areas that had scanty leaf litter cover (c. 2 mm; average

depth of litter in enclosure = 53.45 mm). The eggs had been

deposited in a chamber dug in the ground and covered up

with earth. Mean nest dimensions were 13.6 cm (depth) x 8.5 cm

(width). On candling the June clutches, most eggs were found

to be infertile or dehydrated, some had rudimentary, but

disintegrating embryos. The only egg with an intact embryo

was monitored in the laboratory, but after 46 days, it cracked

open to reveal a fully-developed, rotting embryo. Oviposition

was observed for the first clutch laid on December 4, 1999 at

1735 hrs, and the behavioural sequence is given below:

0 mins - (Female was seen sitting near the root of a tree

throughout the day.) Female cleared leaf litter away with hind

legs using small, slow movements.

09 mins - She excavated a hole and lowered her posterior

Andrews, H.V. & R. Whitaker (1993): Captive breeding of freshwater

turtles and tortoises at the Centre for Herpetology, Madras Crocodile

Bank. Zoos' Print 8: 12-13.

Auffenberg, W. ( 1964): A first record of breeding colour changes in a

tortoise. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 191-192.

Das, I. ( 1991): Colour guide to the Turtles and Tortoises of the Indian

Subcontinent. R & A Publishing Ltd., Portishead. vi + 133 pp + 16 pi.

Moll, E.O. (1989): Indotestudo forstenii Travancore Tortoise.

In: The Conservation Biology of Tortoises (Eds: Swingland, I.R. &

end towards it. The carapace covered the hole completely,

and hence actual oviposition could not be seen.

20 mins - She moved the hind legs alternately towards

the tail, covering the eggs with earth and compacting it by

pressing with hind legs. This continued for another 29 mins.

50 mins - She finished covering the nest and walked

away. The nest was excavated and measured. Four white,

hard-shelled eggs covered by a thin layer of mucus were

found along with an older desiccated egg.

Substrate temperature recorded at 1 700 hrs was 22.9° C.

ACKNOWJJ2DGEMENTS

I thank everyone at the Madras Crocodile Bank,

particularly Harry Andrews for guidance, and Romaine for

hospitality. I am also grateful to Dr. Ajith Kumar, Dr. N.M.

Ishwar and S.U. Saravanakumar for their comments on an

earlier draft.

M.W. Klemens). Occasional Paper, IUSN/SSC No. 5. IUCN, Gland.

202 pp.

Ramesh, M. (2002): Observations on the Travancore Tortoise

(Indotestudo forstenii) in captivity. Rept. Rap 4: 4.

Sane, L.S. & S.R. Sane ( 1989): Some observations on growth of the

Travancore Tortoise (Geochelone travancorica). J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 86(1): 109.

Vijaya, J. (1983): The Travancore Tortoise Geochelone travancorica.

Hamadryad 8(3): 11-13.

14. FURTHER NOTES ON BREEDING COLOUR IN MALE CALOTES VERSICOLOR 1

Satish Kumar Sharma2

'Accepted February 26, 2005

foundation for Ecological Security, 18-New Ahinsapuri, Fatehpura, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Indian Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor is one of

the commonest arboreal lizards in Rajasthan. It can be seen

everywhere, scaling rough-barked trees, especially Acacia

nilotica and Prosopis cineraria. During the non-breeding

season, males are brown or sand grey above, uniform or with

a pattern of spots and bars on the back and the sides (Daniel

2002), but as the breeding season commences (late summer to

early monsoon), males acquire a brilliant crimson or scarlet

colour on the forehead and the shoulders. Black patches also

appear upon the neck, the cheeks and on the throat (Smith

1 935; Tikader and Sharma 1992; Daniel 2002; Sharma 1998,

2001).

Two colour morphs have been recognized in the male

C. versicolor in Rajasthan (Sharma 2001). Individuals,

confined to the southern end of Rajasthan (Udaipur) differ in

colour pattern from those in the northern part (Jaipur). The

major difference is seen in the extent of its black patch. The

black patch in the southern form is confined to the neck region,

just touching the swollen cheeks and far from the tympanum,

while in the northern form the broader black patch extends up

to the swollen cheeks and passes below the tympanum. Both

morphs have blackish lower eyelids, but the black is more

prominent in the southern morph.

During a recent survey, a third colour morph was found

in north-east Rajasthan (Alwar). During the breeding season,

the males of this area attain a scarlet colour on the head, gular

pouch and dorsal side. Black colour appears on the trunk and

forelimb, extends towards the anterior half of its belly and

102

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (1), Jan-Apr 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

disappears just near the lumbar zone. No black patch is

present on the lower eyelid. Alternate whitish and blackish

bands are present on the dorsal side of the distal end of the

tail. This colour form seems larger then the other two colour

forms.

It is a well-established fact that, just after mating, males

lose their scarlet coloration quickly, but the black patches

remain (Sharma 1998). From May 7, 2002 to June 14, 2002,

while studying the colour pattern of the male C. versicolor

on the Alwar-Behror Road in Alwar district, many trampled

specimens were observed and it was found that males lose

Daniel, J.C. (2002): The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.

Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press,

Mumbai. Pp. 50-52.

Sharma, S.K. (1998): Fading of breeding colour in male Calotes

versicolor after copulation. Cobra 34: 20-21.

Sharma, S.K. (2001): Difference in breeding coloration in Calotes

their breeding colours after death. Although a light tinge of

scarlet colour can be seen after death, no black colour is visible.

Photographic evidence for the morphs has been

provided.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to V.S. Sharma, D.P. Govil, R.G. Soni,

R.P. Kapoor, U.M. Sahai and Bharat Taimini for their

encouragement. 1 am also thankful to I. Das for suggestions

for improving the manuscript.

versicolor of the southern and northern Aravallis in Rajasthan.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 121-22.

Smith, M.A. ( 1935): The Fauna of British India. Vol. Il-Sauria. Taylor

and Francis, London. Pp. 189-193.

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Hand Book: Indian Lizards.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 97-98.

15. RECORD OF BOIGA BEDDOMEI (WALL 1909) FROM SRIHARIKOTA,

ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA1

S. SlVAKUMAR2'3 AND RaNJIT MaNAKADAN2'4

'Accepted December 15, 2004

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

-’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

On March 30, 2004, while carrying out herpetofaunal

sampling in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, we recorded a

greenish cat snake in a Casuartna plantation. The plantation,

raised as a shelter belt, was c. 300 m from the Bay of Bengal.

The average tree height was 19 m, with about 90% canopy