JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

M.R. Almeida, D. Litt.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,

Hebbal, Bangalore

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research,

Bangalore

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

P.T. Cherian, Ph. D.

Emeritus Scientist, Department of Zoology,

University of Kerala, Trivandrum

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehrdun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bangalore, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bangalore

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Sonali P. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 104 (2): AUGUST 2007

V. Prakash, R.E. Green, D.J. Pain, S.P. Ranade, S. Saravanan, N. Prakash,

R. Venkitachalam, R. Cuthbert, A.R. Rahmaniand A. A. Cunningham

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT CATREUS WALLICHII IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA

M.S. Bisht, S. Phurailatpam, B.S. Kathait, A.K. Dobriyal, Asha Chandola-Saklani and Rahul Kaul

POPULATION STATUS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI OVIS AMMON WITH REFERENCE TO SUSTAINABLE USE

MANAGEMENT

Michael R. Frisina, Yondon Onon and R. Margaret Frisina

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF THE RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK ELEPHANTS, NORTH-WEST

INDIA

Amirtharaj C. Williams, Asir J.T. Johnsingh and Paul Krausman

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA: DISTRIBUTION AND SIGHT RECORDS

H.N. Kumara and Mewa Singh

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP AND RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF JUVENILE GOLDEN MAHSEER

TOR PUTITORA (HAMILTON 1822), IN THE TRIBUTARIES OF RAMGANGA RIVER, UTTARAKHAND

Vidhyadhar M. Atkore, K. Sivakumar and A. J.T. Johnsingh

BIONOMICS OF A CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC CATFISH, HORABAGRUS NIGRICOLLARIS FROM

ITS TYPE LOCALITY IN KERALA

PH. Anvar Ali and G. Prasad

ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION TO THE STATE AND COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC

DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

Lakpa Tamang, Shivaji Chaudhry and Dhrupad Choudhury

FOOD HABITS OF LEOPARD (PANTHERA PARDUS FUSCA ), DHOLE (CUON ALPINUS) AND STRIPED HYENA

(HYAENA HYAENA) IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST OF SOUTHERN INDIA

C. Arivazhagan, R. Arumugam and K. Thiyagesan

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF VACCINIUM L. (ERICACEAE) FROM INDIA

S. Panda and M. Sanjappa

A NEW BUTTERFLY SPECIES OF THE GENUS YPTHIMA HUBNER (NYMPHALIDAE: SATYRINAE) FROM

GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA

Arun P. Singh

REVIEWS

1 . GOLDEN TREES GREENSPACES AND URBAN FORESTRY

Reviewed by Naresh Chaturvedi

2. VERTEBRATE PESTS IN AGRICULTURE - THE INDIAN SCENARIO

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

3. SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIODIVERSITY IN CRISIS

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

4. BIRDS OF PREY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

125

127

134

140

145

153

161

165

170

178

188

191

195

196

197

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . The eastern limit of distribution of the Hanuman Langur

Semnopithecus entellus Dufrense

Anwaruddin Choudhury 199

2. Macaques ‘kidnap’ infant Palm Civets

By Su Su 200

3. Livestock-Dhole conflict in Western Bhutan

By A.J.T. Johnsingh, Deki Yonten and

Sangay Wangchuck 201

4. Five-striped Palm Squirrel (Funnambulus pennantii) in

Rishi Valley, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh

By V. Santharam 202

5. The Gaur Bos frontalis Lambert in Manipur

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 203

6. Significant new low elevation record for Goral

Nemorhaedus goral (Hardwicke)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 204

7. Discovery of Leaf Deer Muntlacus putaoensis

Rabinowitz etal. in Nagaland with a new northerly record

from Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 205

8. Status of Hog Deer Axis porcinus Zimmermann in

Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 208

BIRDS

9. First sighting of White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in

Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhutan

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 209

10. Sighting of large number of Short-toed Eagle Circaetus

gallicus and Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius in

Kaziranga National Park

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 210

11. The Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps: are they

disappearing in Karnataka?

By H.N. Kumara and V. Vijay Mohan Raj 211

12. Recent records of Yellow-eyed Pigeon Columba

eversmanni in Rajasthan

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and Shantanu Kumar 212

13. On the sighting of the Lesser Coucal Centropus

bengalensls in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands

By Manish Chandi 213

14. Sighting of Stoliczka’s Bushchat Saxicola macrorhynchus

in Pune district, Maharashtra, Western India

By Rahul Rao 214

REPTILES

15. Status of Mugger Crocodylus palustris in Similipal Tiger

Reserve, Orissa, India

By Debabrata Swain and Hemanta K. Sahu 214

16. Observations on burrows dug by Mugger Crocodiles

( Crocodylus palustris) in Bundala National Park,

Sri Lanka

By Rom Whitaker, Brady Barr, Anslem de Silva and

Pradeep Ratnasiri 217

17. A report of Geckoella nebulosa (Beddome, 1870) from

Seoni district, Madhya Pradesh

By Ishan Agarwal 222

1 8. Rediscovery of the missing syntypes of Mabuya nagarjuni

Sharma 1969 (Reptilia: Scincidae) in the Collection of

the Zoological Survey of India

By C. Srinivasulu and Indraneil Das 223

AMPHIBIANS

19. Range extension of Chirixalus simus Annandale 1915

(Anura: Rhacophoridae)

By Rakesh Soud, R. Das and K. Deuti 224

FISHES

20. Sexual dimorphism in the Cyprinid Fish Puntius

conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

ByAnoop K. Dobriyal, Pankaj Bahuguna,

Shiv Prasad Uniyal and Hemant K. Joshi 225

21. Sexual dimorphism in Flathead Grey Mullet Mugil

cephalus (Linnaeus)

By Jency Paul, Honey Sebastian, N.D. Inasu and

C.O. Joshi 226

22. New records of two eel fishes from Great Nicobar Island,

Bay of Bengal

By R. Rajaram, M. Srinivasan, S. Ajmal Khan,

L. Kannan, D.V. Rao and Kamala Devi 228

23. Balltora brucei( Gray) and Glyptothorax telchitta (Hamilton),

two new reports for Arunachal Pradesh, India

By Lakpa Tamang, Shivaji Chaudhry and

Dhrupad Choudhury 229

INSECTS

24. Type specimen of insect Acanthacorydalis horrenda

Navas (Megaloptera) in the Collection of Bombay Natural

History Society

By Naresh Chaturvedi 231

25. Additions to the Coccinellid fauna of the Andamans

Islands and the biology of the endemic Chilocorus

coelosim/lis Kapur 1966 (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

By K. Veenakumari and Prashanth Mohanraj 232

26. Additions to larval host plants of butterflies of the

Western Ghats, Kerala, southern India (Rhopalocera,

Lepidoptera): Part 1

By S. Kalesh and Satya Krishna Prakash 235

PROCHORDATA

27. New records of two species of simple ascidians -

Microcosmus pupa (Savigny, 1816) and Microcosmus

squamiger Hartmeyer& Michaelsen, 1928 -from Indian

seas

By V.K. Meenakshi and S. Senthamarai 238

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

28. New record of Wolf Spiders (Araneae: Lycosidae) of

the genus Hlppasa Simon from Bangladesh

By V. Biswas and D. Raychaudhuri 240

BOTANY

29. Additions to the grass genera of north-west Rajasthan

By H.K. Takhar and S.S. Katewa 246

30. Ponerorchis nana (King & Pantl.) Soo (Orchidaceae): a

new record for Uttarakhand

By Jeewan S. Jalal, Gopal S. Rawat and

Y.P.S. Pangtey 247

li

31. A note on the occurrence of Listera tenuis Lindl.

(Orchidaceae) in Kumaon Himalaya

By Jeewan S. Jalal, Gopal S. Rawat and

Y.RS. Pangtey

32. Synotis atatus (Wall, ex DC.) Jeffery (Asteraceae) - a

new record for Arunachal Pradesh

By S.P. Jain

33. Herniaria cinerea DC. (Caryophyllaceae) - a new record

for India

By Prashant K. Pusalkar and D.K. Singh

34. A note on distributional record of Spergularia diandra

(Guss.) Heldr. & Sart from Pin Valley National Park in

India

248 By K. Chandra Sekar and S.K. Srivastava 251

35. A note on the identity and range extension of Riccia grollei

Udar

248 By Adarsh Kumar and Shazia Kazmi 252

Cover Photograph: Red Lacewing Cethosia biblis (Drury)

249 By Isaac Kehimkar

ERRATA

Volume 104 (1), January-April 2007. page 88, Fig. 1.

For

“Fig. 1: Distribution of Apus acuticauda. 1 . Nepal; 2. Type locality: Bhutan; 3. Samdrup Zongkhar, 4. Cherrapunjee, 5. Blue Mountain and

Tlungvel, 6. Khonoma; Thailand; Chang Mai Province.”

Read

“Fig. 1: Distribution of Apus acuticauda. Nepal: 1. Type locality; Bhutan: 2. Samdrup Zongkhar; India: 3. Cherrapunjee, 4. Blue Mountain

and Tlungvel, 5. Khonoma; Thailand: 6. Chang Mai Province.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

Editorial

Ramsar Convention: A tool for wise use of wetlands

Wetlands are transitional areas between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems where the water table is usually

at or near the surface, or the land is covered under shallow water. Wetlands include marshes, swamps, flood plains,

bogs, peat lands, shallow ponds, littoral zones of larger water bodies, and tidal marshes. Wetlands are very

diverse, but they all share one fundamental feature: the complex interaction of their basic components — soil,

water, animals and plants — that fulfil many functions and provide many products that have sustained humans

over the centuries (Wetlands International 2002). Of course, not every wetland performs all these functions, but

most do.

In India, wetlands are distributed in all the biogeographic regions and exhibit significant ecological diversity,

primarily because of the variability in climate, geology, habitat and topography. Wetlands provide a multitude of

services, including water purification and regulation of flows, fisheries, habitats for plants, animals and micro-

organisms, opportunities for recreation and tourism, and so forth (Wetlands International 2002).

The Ramsar Convention came into force in 1975; there are 157 Contracting Parties. In all, 1,704 wetland sites

have been designated as Ramsar sites, with a total area of 152 million hectares (www.ramsar.org). India

became a Contracting Party to the Convention in October 1981, and designated the Chilika Lake (Orissa) and the

Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) as its first two Ramsar sites. Four additional sites were designated in 1990:

SambharLake (Rajasthan), LoktakLake (Manipur), Harike Lake (Punjab), and Wular Lake (Jammu & Kashmir). In

2000, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, identified 13 new wetlands and designated

them as Ramsar sites. The decision came in the wake of the announcement by the Government at the 7"’ Conference

of the Parties to the Ramsar Convention (COP7) held at San Jose (Costa Rica) in May 1999. In 2005, six more sites

were designated as Ramsar Sites. At present, 25 wetlands have been designated as Ramsar sites in India. However,

these 25 Ramsar sites do not represent even a fraction of the diversity of wetland habitats existing in the country.

In India, the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) is the nodal agency for implementing the conservation

programme on wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs. Started in the 1980s, the programme is guided by a National

Committee on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs, constituted to advise the government on appropriate

policies and programmes for the conservation of these ecosystems, to suggest specific sites for conservation

action, and to identify research and training priorities. Several wetland sites in the country have been selected on

a priority basis for conservation and management action, financial support for which is being extended by the

Ministry (MoEF 200 1 ).

Ten biogeographic zones have been identified in India: Trans-Himalaya, Himalaya, Semi-arid, Desert, Gangetic

Plain, Deccan, Western Ghats, North-east, Coasts and Islands (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The wetlands in the

Trans-Himalaya are extremely important for the protection of birds, especially for globally threatened species such

as the Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis.

Some of the important high altitude lakes such as Tso Kar, Tsomoriri, Pangong Tso, and marshes such as

Hanley, Phoktsey and Chushul, are located in this region; most of them have been identified as IBAs and potential

Ramsar Sites.

The Gangetic Plain is one of the most fertile regions of the world, with a nearly 3,000 year history of human

occupation. This region is famous for its flood plain wetlands — results of copious rainfall in the Gangetic Plain

and also in the Himalaya from where most of the rivers originate. Large areas are annually flooded and when the

flood recedes, it leaves low-lying areas under water. These wetlands are extremely productive in terms of vegetation

biomass and avian diversity (Howes 1995). Some of the most important wetland IBAs and potential Ramsar Sites

are found in this region with significant populations of waterfowl. Sultanpur in Gurgaon, Bhindawas in Rohtak,

Patna jheel in Etah, Lakh-Bahosi in Farrukhabad, Saman in Mainpuri, Sandi in Hardoi, Kawar in Begusarai and

Nawabganj in Unnao, are some of the more spectacular wetlands for migratory waterfowl in winter. The marshes

and wetlands of the Gangetic drainage system show a long history of stability in the geological sense. Thus, a

large number of marsh-dependent species are found such as the Striated Marsh Warbler Megalurus palustris ,

Bristled Grassbird Chaetornis striatus, Rufous-rumped Grassbird Graminicola bengalensis , Yellow-bellied Prinia

Prinia flaviventris, Swamp Francolin Francolinus gularis, Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis and a

variety of ducks.

The flood plains of the Brahmaputra and the marshes and swamps in the hills of north-east India and the

Himalayan foothills are important for humans and biodiversity. The Brahmaputra Valley, with its high rainfall and

numerous rivers provide wintering grounds to large congregations of waterbirds. Most of these waterbirds are

migratory while some are resident and breed in this region. The wetlands of this region support a number of

threatened species; a number of IBAs and potential Ramsar Sites have been identified in this region.

In the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, vast saline expanses are found where both Greater Phoenicopterus roseus

and Lesser P. minor flamingos breed when conditions are suitable. The wetlands of the Deccan peninsula support

a high proportion of the global population of the Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis , with many colonies

associated with the water storage reservoirs or ‘tanks’ on the Deccan plateau in southern India. The coastal areas

of India perhaps form the most neglected biogeographic zone of India, mainly because they do not have charismatic

species such as the Tiger and the Rhinoceros. However, they do have fabulous bird congregations, as seen in the

Chilika Lake ( IB A and Ramsar Site) and Bhitarkanika ( IB A and Ramsar Site) in Orissa, the Point Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary (IB A and Ramsar Site) in Tamil Nadu, the Sunderbans (IB A and Ramsar Site) in West Bengal, the Sewri

mudflats (IBA and potential Ramsar Site) in Maharashtra and the Kori Creek in Gujarat.

The existing Ramsar site list of 25 sites in India clearly proves that all the biogeographical regions of India

are not properly represented, and some of the potential sites are missing, e.g. many important sites in the Gangetic

Plain, North-east, Semi-Arid, Desert and Deccan. Under the Important Bird Areas Programme of the BNHS and

BirdLife International we have prepared a list of additional 135 wetlands which are potential Ramsar Sites. This

exercise is done objectively taking into consideration IBA and Ramsar criteria. We have identified potential

Ramsar Sites mainly based on their biodiversity values, which was the original aim of the Ramsar Convention. We

have also tried to cover the whole country and all biogeographic regions and their provinces.

We hope that many of these potential sites will be considered by the Government of India under the Ramsar

Convention.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

ZAFAR-UL ISLAM

REFERENCES

Ui .

Howes, J.R. (1995): Conservation and Sustainable Use of Floodplain Wetlands. Asian Wetland Bureau, Kaula Lumpur, 123 pp.

(Proceedings of the Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Floodplain Wetlands, December 1993, Calcutta

-AWB Publication No. 113).

Ministry of Environment and Forests (2001): State Forest Report 2001. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988) Planning a Protected Area Network in India. 2 volumes. Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun.

Wetlands International (2002): Waterbird Population Estimates: Third Edition. Wetlands International Global Series No. 12,

Wageningen, The Netherlands.

126

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

127-133

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES IN INDIA1

V. Prakash2-6, R.E. Green3, D.J. Pain412, S.P. Ranade2-7, S. Saravanan2-\ N. Prakash2-9,

R. Venkitachalam210, R. Cuthbert4-13, A.R. Rahmani2-11 and A. A. Cunningham5

‘Accepted

’Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK. Email: [email protected]

JRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SGI 9 2DL, UK

institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK. Email: [email protected]

‘’Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

‘'Email: [email protected]

‘“Email: [email protected]‘

“Email: [email protected]. in

“Email: [email protected]

‘-'Email: [email protected]

Nine species of vultures are recorded from the Indian subcontinent. The populations of three resident Gyps species,

namely Oriental White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis , Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus and Slender-billed Vulture

Gyps tenuirostris crashed during the mid nineties of the last century. Vulture declines were first documented at Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Subsequently, the crash in populations was documented across the country.

During the present study, surveys on identified tracks were done in 2007 to repeat surveys done previously in 1992,

2000, 2002 and 2003. This was done to determine the population trend in the three species of vultures and also to get

a rough estimate of the surviving population of vultures in 2007. The latest repeat surveys were carried out from March

to June 2007 by driving in a motor vehicle and recording vultures within 500 m on either side of each transect.

The results indicate that the population of the three species of vultures continues to decline at an alarming rate. Numbers

of Oriental White-rumped Vulture declined by 99.9% between 1992 and 2007 on the transects surveyed each year

during that peiiod. The equivalent decline in the combined total of Gyps indicus and G. tenuirostris was 96.8%. The

population of Oriental White-rumped Vulture has an average annual rate of decline of 43.9% between 2000-2007,

whereas the combined average annual rate of decline of G. indicus and G. tenuirostris is over 1 6%. A complete ban on the

use of diclofenac in livestock and the establishment of conservation breeding centres are suggested to prevent the

extinction of these three species of vultures.

Key words: Oriental White-rumped Vulture, Long-billed Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture, annual rate of decline, population

estimates, diclofenac, extinction, conservation breeding

INTRODUCTION

Nine species of vultures are recorded from India of which

five belong to the genus Gyps (Prakash 1999). Three Gyps

vultures, namely, the Oriental White-rumped Vulture ( OWRV )

Gyps bengalensis. Long-billed Vulture (LBV) Gyps indicus

and Slender-billed Vulture (SBV) Gyps tenuirostris are

residents, and the remaining two, the Eurasian Griffon Gyps

fulvus and Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis are largely

wintering species (Prakash etal. 2003). OWRV and LBV were

abundant across large parts of India until the 1990s. The SBV,

which was not distinguished as a separate species from LBV

until recently (Rasmussen and Parry 2001 ), was also locally

common in north and north-eastern parts of the Indian

subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1983). During the 1980s, OWRV

was thought to be the commonest large bird of prey in the

world (Houston 1985). Gyps vulture densities were so high in

some areas that they were considered a hazard to aircraft

(Grubh et al. 1990). This abundance was the result of plentiful

food supply, in the form of carcasses of domesticated

ungulates. The keeping of livestock for milk production is

common in rural areas, and cattle are abundant in many towns

and cities. In large parts of India, Hindu beliefs prohibit the

slaughter of cows and consumption of their meat. Dead feral

and domestic cows are left in the open in rural areas or

disposed of in carcass dumps around towns and cities

(Prakash etal. 2003). Whilst vulture populations were able to

exploit the large amounts of food available, Indian society

benefited from the rapid and hygienic removal of dead

livestock by vultures, a flock of which can pick a cow carcass

clean in a matter of minutes (Ali and Ripley 1 983 ).

The population of resident Gyps vultures in the Indian

subcontinent crashed during the 1990s. This was first reported

in the media in 1996-97 and later documented by the Bombay

Natural History Society (BNHS), whilst monitoring raptor

numbers in Keoladeo National Park, at Bharatpur in Rajasthan

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES

(Prakash 1999). The BNHS conducted nationwide raptor

surveys in many parts of India between 1991 and 1993 using

a road transect method (Samant et al. 1995). The survey was

repeated in 2000 and the results were dramatic. Both OWRV

and LBV had almost disappeared from the areas surveyed.

The populations of OWRV and LBV had declined by more

than 92% between 1991-93 and 2000 (Prakash et al. 2003;

2005). Repeat surveys (in 2002 and 2003) showed that between

2000 and 2003, average annual decline rates were 48% for

OWRV and 22% for LBV (Green etal. 2004). SBV and LBV

were considered, and counted, as one species until the 2002

count, when SBV was found to comprise less than 2% of the

combined total ofLBV andSBV (Green etal. 2004). Results

from the 2002 and 2003 counts suggested that the population

of SBV was declining in India at approximately the same rate

as the other two species.

In the Punjab province of Pakistan, an annual

population decline rate of 50% was reported for breeding

pairs of OWRV in nesting colonies between 2000 and 2003

(Gilbert et al. 2004; 2006; Green et al. 2004). Monitoring of

nesting LBV in Sind province, Pakistan (Gilbert etal. 2004),

showed that the numbers there had declined by about

two-thirds between 2002 and 2006; an average annual decline

rate of 25% per year (AVPP2007). These results indicate that

in both India and Pakistan, LBV has declined at a slower rate

(22% and 25% per year respectively) than OWRV (48% and

50%). All three resident Gyps spp. in India are now listed as

critically endangered by the IUCN.

The veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-

inflammatory drug (NSAID) - diclofenac - in livestock is the

main, and perhaps the only, cause of the population declines

(Green etal. 2004; Oaks etal. 2004; Shultz etal. 2004). Vultures

are exposed to toxic levels of diclofenac when they feed on

carcasses of livestock which have died within a few days of

treatment, and which contain residues of the drug (Oaks

etal. 2004). Vulture that consumes sufficient tissue from such

carcasses die from the effects of diclofenac induced kidney

failure. Green et al. (2004) estimated that no more than 0.8%

of ungulate carcasses available to foraging vultures would

need to contain a lethal dose of diclofenac to have caused

the observed population declines. Schultz etal. (2004) found

that a high proportion of Oriental White-rumped and

Long-billed vultures found dead in the wild had severe visceral

gout, consistent with diclofenac poisoning being the main or

sole cause of the population declines. The license to

manufacture the drug diclofenac was withdrawn by the Drug

Controller General of India via a letter dated May 1 1, 2006

addressed to all the State Drug Controllers. The toxicity of

diclofenac to vultures and the strong evidence of its effect

on their populations were the reasons for withdrawal.

In this paper, we report the results of surveys across

much of India during March to June 2007, which follow the

same methods and transects as those used during 2003, 2002,

2000 and 1992. We use these results to estimate the present

population trend of the three critically endangered species of

Gyps vultures and to make a rough assessment of the number

of vultures which might remain.

METHODS

Vulture surveys

In 2007, vultures were counted on road transects widely

distributed across northern, central, western and northeastern

India. Transects were positioned in and near protected areas

and also along roads distant from protected areas. The core

set of transects repeated a survey carried out in 1991-1993,

but additional transects were added during further surveys

in 2000, 2002 and 2003. The first set of surveys, carried out

during 1991-1993, will be referred to as the 1992 surveys for

brevity. Routes followed in 2007 were the same as in previous

surveys. Each transect was driven in a motor vehicle by a

driver and observer, and vultures seen by the observer within

500 m on either side of the route were recorded. Vultures were

identified to species, but Gyps indicus and G. tenuirostris

have only been separated recently. Hence, the 1992 and 2000

counts do not distinguish between these two species,

whereas the 2002, 2003 and 2007 surveys record them

separately. In the 1992 surveys, only vultures in groups of

five or more were counted because they were so numerous

then, but in 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2007 all vultures were

recorded. Transects were driven between March and June.

The numbers of transects surveyed in 1992, 2000, 2002, 2003

and 2007 were 92, 98, 1 59, 149 and 165 respectively. The total

length of transects driven in 2007 was 18,884 km. Further

details of the methods are given by Prakash et al. (2003) and

a map showing the area in which transects were carried out is

in Green etal. (2007).

Estimates of population trend

Not all transects were surveyed in all years. Some

transects were only surveyed for the first time after several

previous surveys had been carried out elsewhere, some

ceased to be surveyed after a few years of coverage and

some had gaps in coverage. For this reason it is not possible

to estimate changes in population by comparing the total

number of vultures counted on all surveys across years.

Furthermore, it is also not desirable to compare numbers of

vultures seen per kilometre of transect across survey years

because vulture density varies substantially geographically

and the composition of the sample of transects changes over

128

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES

time. We adopted two approaches to overcome this problem:

( 1 ) we compared total number of vultures recorded on subsets

of transects all of which were surveyed in all years within a

specified period, and (2) we fitted log-linear Poisson regression

models that allow for the effects of changing composition of

the sample of transects.

In the Poisson regression analyses, the vulture count

on each transect was treated as the dependent variable. The

effects of transect and survey year on the number counted

were modelled as factors. Including the effect of transect

allows to some extent for changes across years in the

representation of transects in the surveyed sample. Models

were fitted in GLIM 4, with a Poisson error term and a

logarithmic link function. The regression coefficients

representing the year effects are the logarithms of the

abundance of birds in a given survey year as a proportion of

the abundance during the first survey year. Hence, the

analyses yield an index of population density, which is relative

to that to the first year of the series. In some analyses we

included all the surveys (1992-2007), but in others we only

considered the surveys during the periods 2000-2007 or

2002-2007. In particular, we analysed data for 2002-2007 for

Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris because these two species

were separately recorded only during this period. In other

periods we modelled the population index for the combined

counts of these two species. However, because the total

numbers of Gyps tenuirostris are much smaller than those of

G. indicus (<2%), the index for the two species together can

be regarded as approximately representing the situation for

G. indicus alone.

We wished to estimate the average annual rate of

population change and also to determine if it was changing

over time. To do this, we fitted Poisson regression models

with a logarithmic link function and transect as a factor, as

described earlier, but with the effect of year modelled as a

continuous explanatory variable; the number of years elapsed

since the first year of the series being used. We only did this

for the period 2000-2007, and not 1992-2007, because the

vulture population decline probably began during 1992-2000,

so it would be unrealistic to expect a constant rate of decline

over the whole of this period. With this approach, the

regression coefficient b of count on year represents the natural

logarithm of the population multiplication rate X, which is the

ratio of the population in one year to that in the previous

year. Hence, X can be obtained as exp(£>). To determine whether

the rate of population change accelerated or decelerated

during the study period, we fitted quadratic Poisson regression

models in which both the year and the square of year were

included as explanatory variables. The rate of decline is

considered decelerating if the regression coefficient for the

square of year is positive and is considered accelerating if

this coefficient is negative.

We carried out significance tests of hypotheses about

population changes using F tests, with the ratio of the residual

deviance of the model with the most estimated parameters to

its residual degrees of freedom being used as the error mean

square. Likelihood-ratio tests were not performed because

vultures often occur in groups, leading to counts being

overdispersed. For this reason, asymptotic standard errors

of parameter estimates are likely to be unreliable, so we

obtained 95% confidence intervals for estimates using a

bootstrap method. We took random samples of k transects,

with replacement, from the k transects available for a particular

time period. We then fitted the regression model for this

bootstrap sample and recorded the value of the parameter

estimate of interest. This procedure was repeated 1 ,000 times

and the central 950 of the bootstrap estimates were used to

define the 95% confidence interval. Further details of log-linear

Poisson regression modeling of vulture counts are given by

Green etcd. (2004) and Green etal. (2007).

Crude estimates of vulture population size in 2007

We calculated rough estimates of vulture population

size in northern, western, central and north-eastern India by

assuming that the transect routes covered a random sample

of this region. In fact, we think that this assumption is incorrect

because many routes are located in or near protected areas,

but we have ignored this problem in order to obtain crude

estimates. We assumed that all vultures within the 1 km-wide

recording strip on either side of the transect were detected.

Hence, the area in square kilometres covered by a transect is

approximately the same as its length in kilometres. We divided

the total number of vultures counted on the transects covered

in 2007 by their total length in kilometres to obtain an estimate

of the number of vultures per square kilometre. We took the

total size of the region of northern India within which the

surveys were made as being approximately given by that of

the states of India, excluding Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Multiplying this area by the vulture

densities gives rough estimates of population size.

RESULTS

Long-term trend in vulture populations

Comparison of number of vultures counted on subsets

of transects in which the same routes were surveyed in all

years indicates very marked declines in numbers over the

period 1992-2007 (Table 1). Numbers of Gyps bengalensis

declined by 99.9% between 1992 and 2007 on those transects

surveyed in every year during that period. The equivalent

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

129

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES

*Each row shows the total number of vultures of a given species recorded in a set of transects covered in all of the survey years within

the specified time period

decline in the combined total of G. indicus and G. tenuirostris

was 96.8%.

The population indices derived from log-linear Poisson

regression models give similar results to those from the simpler

approach adopted in Table 1. The population index for Gyps

bengalensis in 2007 was 0. 1 % of that in 1 992 and the index for

G. indicus and G. tenuirostris was 2.6% of the 1992 value

(Table 2). Even over the shorter period 2000-2007. the declines

have been large. The index for G. bengalensis in 2007 was

2.7% of that in 2000 and the index for G. indicus and

G. tenuirostris was 34.1% of the 2000 value. Averaged over

the whole period 2000-2007, the declines have proceeded at

an average rate of 43.9% per year for G. bengalensis and 16.1%

per year for G. indicus and G. tenuirostris combined

(equivalent to A, = 0.5608 and 0.8387 respectively; Table 2).

Recent trends of Gyps tenuirostris

By 2007, the population index for G. tenuirostris had

fallen to 13.4% of its value in 2002, when the species was first

surveyed separately. Although, the index values suggest that

the entire decline occurred between 2002 and 2003, the

confidence intervals for the indices for this species are large

because few individuals are recorded. For this reason, we

cannot be sure about the exact pattern of decline, though the

overall reduction in numbers from 2002 to 2007 is statistically

highly significant.

Have rates of population decline slowed recently?

Inspection of graphs of population index against year

suggests that the population decline of G. bengalensis

showed no clear tendency to speed up or slow down over the

period 2000-2007. If the rate of decline had remained constant,

a straight line relationship would give a good fit to the data in

a plot of index against year, with index on a logarithmic scale.

A straight line relationship appears to give a reasonably good

fit to these data (Fig. 1). A statistical test for progressive

acceleration or deceleration of the rate of decline is provided

by comparing a quadratic log-linear effect of year with the

log-linear model. This test indicates no significant tendency

for a change in rate of decline in G bengalensis (F] = 0.05,

P >0.4). For G. indicus and G. tenuirostris combined,

inspection of Fig. 2 and Table 2 suggests that the rate of

decline might have slowed because the index values for 2003

and 2007 are similar. However, the statistical test for a change

in rate shows no significant slowing (F] = 1.20, P >0.2).

This is because the confidence intervals for the population

indices are too wide for the apparent pattern to be reliable.

Crude estimates of vulture population size in 2007

During the 2007 survey, 80 G. bengalensis , 337 G. indicus

and 7 G. tenuirostris were counted on transects, i.e. a density

of 0.0042, 0.0178 and 0.0004 birds per sq. km respectively.

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

Fig. 1 : Population indices and trend of Otiental White-rumped

Vulture Gyps bengalensis from road transect counts in India

'Circles show indices of population density, relative to that in 1992,

estimated by log-linear Poisson regression, together with their 95%

bootstrap confidence limits (vertical lines). The thick line shows the

log-linear population trend fitted to data for the period 2000 - 2007

and the thin curves show 95% bootstrap confidence limits about

the fitted line.

130

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Table 2: Population indices and trends of vultures estimated by log-linear Poisson regression from road transect counts in India.

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

131

*Each column shows results for a particular species and time period. Informative transects are those that were surveyed more than once and on which at least one vulture of the

species concerned was recorded during the time period. Population indices are estimates of the population density as a proportion of that in the first year of the period. A 95 o bootstrap

confidence interval is shown for each index (in brackets). The log-linear average population trend over a given period is shown as the population multiplication rate X, together with its

95% confidence interval (in brackets).

Ftests of significance are shown with P values indicates as; *** P<0.001 , ** P<0.01

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES

Year

Fig. 2: Population indices and trend of Long-billed and Slender-billed

Vultures combined (Gyps indicus and G tenuirostris) from road

transect counts in India.

‘Circles show indices of population density, relative to that in 1 992,

estimated by log-linear Poisson regression, together with their 95%

bootstrap confidence limits (vertical lines). The thick line shows the

log-linear population trend fitted to data for the period 2000 - 2007

and the thin curves show 95% bootstrap confidence limits about

the fitted line

Multiplying these densities by the approximate area of the

region gives a total population of 1 1,000, 45,000 and 1,000

birds for the three species respectively.

DISCUSSION

The OWRV, which was the most numerous vulture

species in India, is now in dire straits, with only one thousandth

of the 1992 population remaining. The poisoning of vultures

when they feed on the carcasses of diclofenac-treated

livestock is well established and appears to be the major or

the only cause of the vulture declines (Oaks et al. 2004; Green

et al. 2004; Green et al. 2007). Simulation modeling has

indicated that less than 1% of the livestock carcasses available

to vultures need to contain levels of diclofenac lethal to

vultures to cause the recorded rates of decline across the

country (Green et al. 2004). A recent study carried out on the

prevalence of diclofenac in the livers of livestock carcasses

across India reveals that over 10% of livestock carcasses

contain diclofenac. Modeling based upon diclofenac

concentrations in tissues available to vultures relative to that

in the liver, and the proportion of vultures killed after feeding

on a carcass with a known level of contamination, indicates

that there is sufficient diclofenac in livestock carcasses to

have driven the vulture population declines in India (Taggart

etal. 2007; Green etal. 2007).

The results of the recent surveys of vultures indicate

that the three species of resident Gyps vultures in the Indian

subcontinent continue to be in great peril. Although numbers

of two species (LBV and SBV) appear to have declined less

rapidly since 2003, the numbers available counted are now so

small that there is no statistically robust evidence of any

deceleration of the rate of decline. The population of OWRV

is evidently continuing to decline rapidly. Annual rates of

decline consistently over 5% are very unusual in

slow-breeding and long-lived birds like vultures and place

them at grave risk of extinction (Newton 1979; Sarrazin etal.

1994). With average decline rates (2000-2007) of 43.9% and

16.1% for OWRV and LBV/SBV respectively, these species

are at severe risk of extinction in India unless survival

increases dramatically over the next few years.

Although our estimates of vulture population trends

are likely to be reliable, our crude estimates of the absolute

numbers of vultures remaining in northern India are tentative

and must be treated with caution. Their most serious defect is

that they assume that the densities of vultures in the areas

surveyed are representative of the whole of northern India.

This is unlikely to be the case because transect routes were

not selected at random, and even if they had been, they must

follow roads and tracks, which may not have typical vulture

densities in their vicinity. If anything, because the transects

cover more protected areas than a random set would have

done, our surveys may overestimate total numbers. Although

thousands of vultures may remain, they are now spread very

thinly across a huge area. This is a dangerous situation for

such social birds, which nest and roost communally and rely

on information gained from one another when searching for

widely dispersed food sources. Our population estimates and

measurements of decline rates suggest that all three species

could be down to a few hundred birds or less across the

whole country, and thus functionally extinct, in less than a

decade.

If wild vultures are to persist in India, it is essential that

their survival is increased both rapidly and dramatically. The

ban on diclofenac production for veterinary use was an

excellent first step. However, this action is insufficient on its

own to save these species. It is essential that diclofenac is no

longer used for the treatment of livestock, and this requires a

rapid ban on the use of diclofenac in livestock. The

manufacture of diclofenac for veterinary use was banned by

the Drug Controller General of India in August 2006. The

drug has a shelf life of 2-3 months and remaining stocks should

have been out of the system by now. However, the drug

continues to be available at many retail outlets and diclofenac

formulated for human use filters into the veterinary sector

(Nita Shah, BNHS Vulture Advocacy Programme pers. comm.).

It is imperative that the drug is removed completely from use

in livestock without any further delay to avoid the extinction

of the three vulture species.

132

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES

In addition, with small populations and the continued

high mortality rates suggested by the rapid decline, it is

essential that birds are brought into conservation breeding

programmes as rapidly as possible, to ensure that birds are

available for reintroduction once the environment is free of

diclofenac. It is important to do this for all three species, but

the strong evidence for continued rapid decline of OWRV

makes vigorous action to safeguard this species in captivity

an especially urgent priority. The rapidity of vulture decline

and the uncertainty about when diclofenac contamination

will be removed make the rapid expansion of the conservation

breeding programme a continuing necessity. The

recommendations of the Vulture Recovery Plan 2004 ( IS ARPW

2004) of setting up six Vulture Conservation Breeding centres

in South Asia with three in India should be implemented

forthwith. It is urgent to have the full complement of

25 breeding pairs of each of the three species in each of the

centres to provide a viable captive population with sufficient

genetic diversity and security against stochastic events. The

Conservation Breeding Programme appears to be the only

effective method for ensuring that further delays in removing

diclofenac from the vultures’ food supply do not lead to their

extinction in India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the Ministry of the Environment

and Forests, Government of India for their support of this

project. We are grateful to the Chief Wildlife Wardens of

various states where surveys were carried out for permissions

and facilities provided to the survey team. The work was

funded by the UK Government's Darwin Initiative for the

Survival of Species (grant ref. 10-013 EIDPO05). We would

like to thank Mr. Sashi Kumar, Dr. Jeherul Islam and

Ms. Sonali Ranade for the assistance in carrying out the

surveys.

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Gilbert M., J.L. Oaks, M.Z. Virani, R.T. Watson, S. Ahmed,

M.J.I. Chaudhry, M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, A. All R.M. Khattak

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Gilbert, M., R.T. Watson, M.Z. Virani, J.L. Oaks, S. Ahmed,

M.J.I. Chaudhry, M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, A. Ali, &

A. A. Khan (2006): Rapid population declines and mortality clusters

in three Oriental white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis colonies

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Green, R.E., I. Newton, S. Shultz, A. A. Cunningham, M. Gilbert,

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Green, R.E., M.A. Taggart, K.R. Senacha, D.J. Pain, Y. Jhala &

R. Cuthbert (2007): Rate of decline of the oriental white-backed

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ISARPW (2004): Report on the International South Asian Recovery

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Newton, 1. (1979): Population Ecology of Raptors. Poyser,

Berkhamsted, UK.

Oaks, J.L., M. Gilbert, M.Z. Virani, R.T. Watson, C.U. Meteyer,

B. Rideout, H.L. Shivaprasad, S. Ahmed, M.J.I. Chaudhry,

M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, A. Ali & A. A. Khan (2004): Diclofenac

residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan.

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Bharatpur, Rajasthan, with special reference to population crash

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Prakash, V„ D.J. Pain, A. A. Cunningham, P.F. Donald, N. Prakash,

A. Verma, R. Gargi, S. Sivakumar & A.R. Rahmani (2003):

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A. A. Khan, H.S. Baral, Y.V. Jhala, R. Naoroji, N. Shah,

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long-billed vulture Gyps indicus. Vulture News 44: 18-21.

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( 1 994): High survival of griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus fulvus) in

a reintroduced population. Auk 111: 853-862.

Shultz, S., H.S. Baral, S. Charman, A. A. Cunningham, D. Das,

D. R. Ghalsasi, M.S. Goudar, R.E. Green, A. Jones, P. Nighot,

D.J. Pain & V. Prakash (2004): Diclofenac poisoning is

widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian

subcontinent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B

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(available online).

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

133

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

134-139

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT CATREUS WALLICHII

IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA1

M.S. Bisht2-5,

S. Phurailatpam2-6, B.S. Kathait2, A.K. Dobriyal2,7, Asha Chandola-Saklani3 and Rahul Kaul4

'Accepted December 2005

department of Zoology, HNB Garhwal University Campus, Pauri 246 001, Uttarakhand, India.

’Department of Zoology, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) 245 174, Uttarakhand, India.

Email: [email protected]

4WPA-India, SAFO. J-7/21A, DLF Phase II, Gurgaon 122 002, Haryana, India. Email: [email protected]. in

’Email : bisht_msgwl @ rediffmail .com

"Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

From October 2000 to December 2001, a survey on distribution of Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii was conducted in

Pauri and Chamoli districts of Uttarakhand, India. Twenty-six sites in thirteen areas were identified to hold Cheer,

between altitudes of 950-2,250 m in the chir pine and pine mixed forest. At all the sites, except Adwani Reserve Forest

of Pauri Division, the density of Pheasant was found quite less (<2 birds/sq. km). Habitat destruction, due to fire, heavy

grazing, fuel, and fodder collection was apparent at most sites. Hunting, collection of eggs and loss of brood due to fire

were identified as main reasons for population decline.

Key words: Threatened, Cheer Pheasant, Catreus wallichii, Garhwal Himalaya, habitat degradation

INTRODUCTION

Cheer Pheasant (Order Galliformes, Family Phasianidae)

is one of the pheasants of the Indian subcontinent. Its range

was formerly along the Himalayan region, between the Indus

and Kali-Gandaki rivers, within an altitude of 1 ,000-3,250 m

(Garson etal. 1 992). It prefers steep hillsides with precipitous

cliffs, open ground with scattered trees (Delacour 1977; Ali

and Ripley 1983; Johnsgard 1986).

In the past, over hunting and habitat destruction

caused huge decline in population of this endemic species.

A few decades ago, many Cheer sites were located and

studied also in Nepal (Lelliot 1981, 1987;Bland 1 987 ), Pakistan

(Roberts 1970; Severinghaus et al. 1979) and India, namely

Himachal Pradesh (Gaston et al. 1981, 1983; Garson et al.

1992; Sharma and Pandey 1989) and Kumaon region of

Uttarakhand (Rasool 1984; Young et a l. 1987). The Garhwal

Himalaya had only accounts written by British naturalists

living in India before independence (Jerdon 1864; Hume and

Marshall 1879; Osmaston 1921). Post Independence there

has been a solitary sighting of a female Cheer Pheasant at

Mandal (near Gopeshwar), Chamoli district by Sathyakumar

et al. (1992) and observations (extensive throughout the

Cheer range) by Gaston (1987b). Gaston (1987b) stressed

the need for surveys in Uttarakhand (formerly UP hills) and

Sathyakumar et al. (1992) mentioned certain areas within

Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary as possible sites.

In this paper we describe the findings of a year-long

survey when many Cheer sites were accurately located for

the first time in the districts of Pauri and Chamoli of

Uttarakhand, India.

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

Survey for Cheer Pheasant was carried out in the

districts of Pauri and Chamoli of Uttarakhand (29° 22' - 31° 07' N

and 78° 07' - 80° 10' E, 750-3,750 m altitude). The vegetation of

the study area can be broadly divided into sub-tropical

deciduous forest, chir pine forest, temperate forest, coniferous

forest, subalpine forest, alpine scrub and meadows (Champion

and Seth 1968). In the local (Garhwali ) dialect, in many areas

of Pauri and Chamoli district, Cheer pheasant is known as

‘Chair’ or ‘Phaklas’. Information regarding the occurrence of

Cheer Pheasant was gathered from local rural fodder and fuel

collectors, hunters and forest personnel. On the basis of

available information, a team consisting of 2-3 observers

visited the potential sites. At each site, the survey was

conducted for 2-7 days, in the morning from 0500 to

1000 hrs, and in the afternoon from 1 400 hrs to dusk.

Trail Walk Method (Gaston 1980) was undertaken for

the presence/sightings of the Pheasant. From October 2000

to December 2001, many sites in different localities were

surveyed. At each site trail walks of 4-8 km (depending on the

topography and the area of the site) were covered silently

and information was recorded on: (i) location of site, (ii) habitat

types (iii) main vegetation (iv) number of Cheer Pheasant

sighted (v) distance covered and (vi) time spent by the survey

team. Area of each site surveyed for the sightings was

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT

Fig. 1 : Sighting areas of Cheer Pheasant in Garhwal Ftimalaya (1 -Pauri, 2-Adwani, 3-Agrora, 4-Lansdowne, 5-Chhantikhal,

6-Karanprayag, 7-Gairsain, 8-Narayanbagar, 9-Nandprayag, 10-Trisula, 11 -Ghat, 12-Peepalkotiand 13-Joshimath)

calculated from toposheets.

All the walks were repeated at least thrice to as many as

14 times to make direct sightings of maximum number of

individuals at each site. The distance covered and time spent

at each site was not proportional because of differing

topography and difficult terrain. Chicks (being a seasonal

phenomenon) were not taken as part of a population.

A cumulative area of 3 10 sq. km of 56 sites was surveyed in

67 visits (does not include number of repeated trails on

consecutive days/site). Only sites with direct sightings were

taken into account.

Density is defined as maximum individuals per site

divided by area of the site, and encounter rates (Birds/km and

Birds/hour) as total birds sighted at each site divided by

distance covered and total birds sighted at each site divided

by time spent respectively.

Sampling effort (area available, distance covered, time

spent and average of the three) in different habitats and altitude

categories is given as proportions of the respective totals

and compared with proportions of observed number of birds

in each category. For the aspect category, an impression of

sampling intensity is presented in terms of area covered, as

the complex topography hinders the generation of required

data for different aspects of the habitat surveyed. The

observed pattern may have biases, as it is not corrected for

availability.

RESULTS

Distribution and Status

Table 1 represents the sites holding Cheer with the

associated data on altitude, slope aspect, habitat type,

sightings, number of birds sighted, encounter rate (birds/km

and birds/hour), density and hunting pressure. In 13 areas

(Fig. 1), Cheer Pheasant was observed in 89 sightings at

26 different sites (covering an area of 124.4 sq. km). It was

sighted in 5 areas of Pauri district, namely Pauri, Adwani,

Agrora, Lansdowne and Chhantikhal and in 8 areas of Chamoli

district, namely Karanprayag, Gairsain, Narayanbagar,

Nandprayag, Trisula, Ghat, Peepalkoti and Joshimath.

The highest number of birds ( 12 individuals, including

3 males, 5 females and 4 subadults) were observed in Adwani

Reserve Forest when the area was surveyed in the beginning

of winter season. Other than adult individuals, two nests with

6 and 8 eggs were observed at Ghurdori ( 1 .680 m) and Paukhal

( 1.600 m) respectively in May 2001 . Out of the eight eggs (at

Paukhal), 7 hatched in the following month. Chicks and

subadults were also sighted at Bingarh, Gumkhal and

Joshimath from June to August 2001; the highest number of

chicks (8) was sighted at Joshimath.

Density of Cheer Pheasant was recorded to be

< 2 birds/sq. km except at Adwani (2. 18 birds/sq. km), and the

lowest density of 0.34 birds/sq. km was observed at Joshimath.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

135

Table 1 : Records of Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii in Garhwal Himalaya (Based on actual sightings)

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Total distance walked = 967.6 km; Total area covered = 1 24.4 sq. km; Total time spent = 387.60 hours

Values in the parentheses indicate density/sq. km; * chicks, CPF- chir pine forest; PMF- pine mixed forest

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT

Fig. 2a: Sampling intensity and number of Cheer observed across

different habitats and altitude categories

Encounter rate per kilometer was highest (0.95) at Bingar and

lowest (0.10) at Khateli, whereas encounter rate per hour was

highest (2.1 1) at Agrora and lowest (0.35) at Paukhal.

Habitat Preference

Cheer Pheasant was recorded between 950-2,250 m

altitude and on all aspects in the chir pine and pine mixed

forests comprised by Pinus roxburghii , Phyllanthus

embellica, Quercus incana, Rhododendron arboreum,

Myrica nagi (trees); Rhus parviflora, Woodfordia fruticosa,

Argemone sp. (shrubs) and grass species like Cymbopogon

martinii, Heteropogon contortus, Anthistiria gigantea,

Saccharum sp.

Table 2 shows sighting of Cheer at different altitudes

and habitats, where the largest number of Cheer were found

between tire altitude 1 ,50 1 - 1 ,750 m and in chir pine habitat. Cheer

was observed to use chir pine forest (CPF) below 2,000 m and

pine mixed forest (PMF) above 1 ,500 m. The sampling efforts

Slope aspect

Fig. 2b: Sampling intensity and number of Cheer observed across

different aspects

(three different parameters used) in each altitude and habitat

category are fairly consistent (Fig. 2a). About 75% of the

surveyed areas are of chir pine forest; and the altitude range

of 1 ,50 1 - 1 ,750 m comprises approximately 60%. The number of

birds sighted in the altitude range and habitat category is more

or less proportional to the sampling efforts, except in the PMF

habitat in the 2,001-2,250 m altitude category where a significantly

higher number of birds were sighted.

Table 3 illustrates that the NE aspect was used more in

both the habitat types. The proportion of birds sighted in the

NE aspect is significantly greater as compared to the sampling

intensity (Fig. 2b). In the SW, S and SE aspects less birds

were sighted. The sampling effort is lowest in SW aspect.

DISCUSSION

The present study is the first species-specific survey

on Cheer Pheasant in Garhwal Himalaya. Because the survey

team was very small, and as our data is based on direct

sightings, the calls count method also suitable for surveying

Cheer Pheasant (Gaston 1980) was not used. Cheer Pheasant

is one of the most soberly feathered Indian pheasants (Singh

Table 2: Number of Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii sighted at different altitude and habitats

CPF- Chir pine forest, PMF- Pine mixed forest

Table 3: Number of Cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii sighted at different aspects and habitats

CPF- Chir pine forest, PMF- Pine mixed forest

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

137

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT

and Singh 1995) and a very shy bird. It emerges from thick

vegetation cover only in the morning (from their roosting

tree) and also from late afternoon till dusk. Again, it exhibits

perfect camouflage with fallen pine needles and dry grass

cover of the habitats. Despite the difficulties in locating this

pheasant, 129 individuals of Cheer Pheasant were recorded

(this does not represent the actual population) at 26 sites.

129 individuals represent the cumulative total of the

maximum individuals sighted at each site. The mean of total

individuals sighted at each site (other than in case of single

sighting) would give a lower value (as the difference between

maximum and minimum individuals sighted are as high as 5);

and 350 individuals recorded are the cumulative total of all

the 89 sightings, where many individuals/groups were

repeatedly sighted. The maximum individuals sighted at each

site give a number closer to the actual population size. The

higher number of birds recorded during winter season is a

function of winter flocking (Kaul 1 989) and might represent the

actual population size. The observation of maximum individuals

( more than a pair in a single sighting) during the breeding season

may be the result of subadults (that cannot find a mate) of the

previous year accompanying the breeding pair.

Sightings of the Cheer Pheasant at 26 different sites

indicate a fair occurrence of this threatened pheasant in

Garhwal, Uttarakhand. But low densities of pheasant indicate

that this threatened species is not safe in Garhwal also. More

than a century ago, Hume and Marshall (1879) described

Cheer Pheasant as common in Garhwal and Kumaon regions.

The decline in populations of Cheer from a common status in

the late 19th century to its current threatened state in the

Garhwal region of Himalaya is the cumulative effect of more

than a century long practice of excessive hunting and habitat

degradation.

Despite the complete ban under the Wildlife Protection

Act ( 1972), hunting of pheasants during the winter months

is a prevailing and increasing phenomenon. Most of the Cheer

sites that have been located are under hunting pressure. For

instance, at the Agrora site, 8 of the 9 birds sighted were

shot, leaving a single male; and at Ghurdori and Gumkhal

(August 2001), we found the remains of hunted birds.

The presence of Cheer Pheasant at 950 m at Birahi (in

Chamoli district) is a significant observation, as these

pheasants have never been observed at such low altitudes.

Gosh ( 1 997) had unusual sightings of a pair of Cheer Pheasant

at 4,545 m in Uttarakashi, but we never encountered the bird

above 2,050 m. We believe that there might be more sites,

which we could not locate due to lack of surveys at such

potential sites.

Cheer prefers an altitude range of 1 ,25 1 -2,250 m (Table 2)

in chir pine and pine mixed forest. A gradual change in habitat

(pine mixed forest) selection occurs from 1,501 m onwards,

which illustrate that topography is an important component

of cheer habitat. The proportionately significant sighting of

Cheer Pheasant in PMF at the altitude category of 2,001-2,250 nr

(Fig. 2a) is due to their greater availability (maximum number

of Cheer- 12, was sighted in this category). The sightings of

Cheer in chir pine forest (approximately 75%, in terms of area

and number of sites) suggest a close relationship. Many of

the habitats (Garson 1983; Young et al. 1987; Sharma and

Pandey 1989; Garson etal. 1992) in other areas of Cheer range

are also of Chir pine. Cheer was observed more on NE slope

aspect (in both the habitats) and is more or less concentrated

from NW to E through N. This gives a clear impression that

Cheer prefers slopes that do not receive direct sunlight most

of the day; and have comparatively softer soil, which enables

it to dig out the dietary tubers and roots.

Restriction of habitat selection to chir pine and pine

mixed forest makes the Pheasant vulnerable to extinction as

the grass cover of Anthistiria gigantea, Cymbopogon

martinii, Heteropogon contortus, Saccharum rupifilum is

used for making brooms, cords, thatch of cattle sheds. In all

surveyed Cheer habitats, it attracted the adjoining villagers

and nomadic tribes, leading to frequent habitat disturbance.

Fires, extensive grazing, fodder and fuel collection within the

Cheer habitat is a common practice, except at few sites,

e.g. Adwani, Bingar, Uttraun and Joshimath, where the habitats

were intact and almost free from human interventions during

the survey.

Though Cheer adapts well to the human interventions

described; fires necessary for maintenance of the open grass

and scrub communities (Gaston 1987a) can also result in

brood losses during the nesting season. The eggs observed

at Ghurdori were destroyed due to forest fire. Such losses

along with predation (by Vulpes and Martes) and hunting

could lead to extermination of this threatened bird from the

various Cheer holding sites of this region.

Thus, the persistence of the threatened monotypic

Cheer Pheasant in the Garhwal region and elsewhere could

only be ensured through proper habitat management, regular

monitoring of populations and particularly a strict and effective

prohibition on poaching.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Govt, of India for granting the financial assistance. Thanks

are also due to the Chief Wildlife Warden of Uttarakhand for

granting permission to carry out the survey. We also extend

our thanks to many other people who provided us secondary

information on occurrence of the Cheer Pheasant.

138

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT

REFERENCES

Ail, S. & S.R Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi,

737 pp.

Bland, J.D. (1987): Notes on the distribution and ecology of some

Himalayan pheasants. / World Pheasant Ass. 12: 22-29.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of the Forest

Types of India. Government of India Publication, Delhi, 404 pp.

Delacour, J. (1977): The Pheasants of the World. 2nd edn. Spur

Publication, England, 395 pp.

Garson, P.J. (1983): The Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii in Himachal

Pradesh: an update. J. World Pheasant Ass. 8: 29-39.

Garson, P.J., L. Young & R. Kaul (1992): Ecology and Conservation

of the Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii: Status in the wild and the

progress of a reintroduction project. Biol. Conserv. 59: 25-35.

Gaston, A.J. (1980): Census techniques for Himalayan pheasants

including notes on individual species. J. World Pheasant Ass.

5: 40-53.

Gaston, A.J. (1987a): Survey, census, monitoring and research - their

role in pheasant conservation. Pp. 33-39. In: Savage, C.D.W &

M.W. Ridley (Eds.), Pheasants in Asia 1982. Rekha Printers Pvt.

Ltd., New Delhi.

Gaston, A.J. (1987b): Maps of recent pheasant observations in the

Himalayas. Pp. 65-77. In: Savage, C.D.W & M.W. Ridley (Eds.),

Pheasants in Asia 1982. Rekha Printers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Gaston, A.J., P.J. Garson & M.L. Hunter (1981): Present distribution

and status of pheasant in Himachal Pradesh. J. World Pheasant

Ass. 6: 10-30.

Gaston, A.J., P.J. Garson & M.L. Hunter (1983): The status and

conservation of forest wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, Western

Himalaya. Biol. Conserv. 27: 291-314.

Gosh, S. (1997): Record of Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii above

4,545 m in the western Himalaya. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

94(3): 566.

Hume, A.O. & C.H.T. Marshall (1879): The Game Birds of India,

Burma and Ceylon. Calcutta, 1: 169-176.

Jerdon, T.C. (1864): The Birds of India. George Wyman, Calcutta,

876 pp.

Johnsgard, P.A. (1986): The Pheasants of the World. Oxford

University Press, 300 pp.

Kaul, R. ( 1989): Functions of Winter flocking in the Cheer Pheasant

pp. 183-185. In: Hill, D.A., P.J. Garson & D. Jenkins (Eds.),

Pheasants in Asia 1989. World Pheasant Association. Reading U.K.

Lelliott, A.D. ( 1981 ): Cheer pheasant in West-Central Nepal. J. World

Pheasant Ass. 6: 89-95.

Lelliott, A.D. (1987): Surveys of Cheer pheasants near Dhorpatan,

West Nepal, pp. 58-61.1981. In: Savage, C. D.W. & M.W. Ridley

(Eds.), Pheasants in Asia 1982. Rekha Printers Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi.

Osmaston, A.E. (1921): A note on the nidification and habits of some

birds in British Garhwal. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 140-160.

Rasool, T.J. (1984): Some observations on natural Cheer Pheasant,

Catreus wallichii population at Mukteshwar reserve forest,

Kumaon, Nainital, U.P J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2):

469-47 I .

Roberts, T.J. (1970): A note on the pheasants of West Pakistan.

Pakistan J. For. 20: 319-326.

Sathyakumar, S.. R.M. Athreya & V.R. Athreya (1992): The Cheer

Pheasant - A new recording. WPA Newsletter , pp. 37: 28.

Severinghaus, S.R., M. Asgar & Z.B. Mirza (1979): Selection of a

release site for the reintroduction of Cheer pheasants in Pakistan.

J. World Pheasant Ass. 4: 100-115.

Sharma, V. & S. Pandey (1989): Pheasant surveys in the Shimla hills

of Himachal Pradesh, India. J. World Pheasant Ass. 14: 64-78.

Singh, K.R. & K.S. Singh (1995): Pheasant in Asia and their aviculture.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 176 pp.

Young, L., P.J. Garson & R. Kaul ( 1987): Calling behavior and social

organization in the Cheer Pheasant: implication for survey

technique. ./. World Pheasant Ass. 12: 30-43.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

139

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

140-144

POPULATION STATUS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI OVIS AMMON

WITH REFERENCE TO SUSTAINABLE USE MANAGEMENT'

Michael R. Frisina2, Yondon Onon3 and R. Margaret Frisina4

'Accepted December 2005

-’Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 1330 West Gold Street, Butte, MT 59701. Email: [email protected]

'Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Email: [email protected]

'Member, Rocky Mountain Outdoor Writers and Photographers, 1330 West Gold Street, Butte, MT 59701.

Email: [email protected]

Using repeatable protocols, a survey of Argali sheep (Ovis cimmori) in Mongolia was conducted across their range during

November 2002. A country-wide population of 20,226 was estimated. Approximately 7% of Mongolia’s 34,873 sq. km

Argali range was surveyed. This was Mongolia’s first repeatable survey for monitoring purposes. Other population

estimates have been made, but the survey protocols were not given, making them unrepeatable and unusable for

monitoring population trend. Population trend was established for a number of specific survey sites by comparing data

collected during this survey with those done earlier in which the protocols were described. Population levels in some

areas were depressed while in other areas population trend was stable or increasing. If the Mongolian Government

implements a country-wide and site-specific Argali sustainable use management plan, potentially between 202-404

trophy rams could be harvested annually.

Key words: Argali, Ovis ammon, national population status, wild sheep, Mongolia, harvest quota

INTRODUCTION

Argali ( Ovis ammon) wild sheep occur throughout

central Asia, including Mongolia’s steppe, undulating desert,

and rugged mountainous landscapes (Valdez 1982; Geist 1991;

Mitchell and Frisina 2007). Although their ranges are not well-

defined, and some overlap may occur, Shackleton and Lovari

(1997) are among those who recognize two subspecies of

Argali as occurring in Mongolia: the Altai Argali (O.a. ammon)

of western Mongolia, and the Gobi Argali (O.a. darwini) of

the Gobi Desert in southern Mongolia. Both are listed as rare

by the Mongolian Government (MNEM 1997), and are

included in the United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of

endangered and threatened wildlife and plants (USFWS 1 997).

In addition, they are listed as vulnerable and endangered by

the IUCN (2000) and in Appendix II of CITES (USFWS 2001).

Mongolia, a central Asian landlocked country,

encompasses about 16,56,000 sq. km of which c. 25% is

potential Argali habitat (ASM 1990). Limited international

sport hunting has been permitted since 1968. The current

Mongolian law on hunting, established in 1995 and

administered by the Mongolian Ministry for Nature and the

Environment, regulates the commercial use of wildlife. Hunting

fees are an important source of foreign currency in a badly

depressed economy (MNEM 1995; Wingard and Purevdolgor

2001).

Argali populations are believed to have declined in

Mongolia and throughout central Asia during the last century

(Harper 1945;Mallon 1985; Heptner et al. 1989; Mallon etal.

1997; Reading etal. 1997). Specific and comparable country-

wide population status and trend information for this species,

a fundamental requirement for conservation (Wegge 1997), is

lacking. Our paper provides an Argali population estimate for

Mongolia. While other estimates have been published

(Amgalanbaatar et al. 2001), ours is the first estimate

determined through clearly defined field survey protocols

and estimate calculation. Our estimate is repeatable for future

surveys, and thus suitable for monitoring Argali population

trend in Mongolia. We also discuss recent population trends

at a number of specific survey sites and provide

recommendations for applying our data to sustainable use of

Argali.

STUDY AREA

Our study area encompassed the entire Mongolian

Argali range, including the 2,435 sq. km Argali habitat in which

the population surveys were conducted (Fig. 1 ). The Argali

range in Mongolia is diverse, ranging from alpine communities

in the Altai Mountains in western Mongolia, to steppe and

desert communities in central and eastern Mongolia. Plant

communities in Mongolia are diverse and typical of the central

Asian plateau (Hilbig 1995; Gunin etal. 1999). Several of out-

survey sites were previously described in detail (Frisina and

Boldbaatar 1998; Frisina and Gombosuren 1999; Frisina and

Gombosuren 2000; Frisina et al 2004).

Mongolia’s climate is characterized by long, cold winters

and short, humid summers. January is the coldest month with

temperatures of -40° C or colder in contrast to >38° C during

summer. Rainfall is highly variable, averaging 46 cm in the

POPULATION STATUS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI WITH REFERENCE TO SUSTAINABLE USE MANAGEMENT

Fig. 1: A schematic of Mongolia showing observation zones, survey site locations by number, and general area in which the Argali

distribution is scattered (shaded gray). Survey sites areas follows: 1 = Buraat, 2 = Boorug Nuruu, 3 = Ahuunt, 4 = Ushgug,

5 = Ulanchulu, 6 = Darkhan, 7 = Togrug, 8 = Yurlug, 9 = Argiin Khad, 1 0 = Ik Nart, 1 1 = Choir

mountains and 10 cm in the Gobi Desert. The 1 999-2000 winter

was the most severe in 30 years and was preceded the

previous summer by the most severe drought in 60 years

(Tsend-Ayushin 2000). The climatic conditions of summer

drought followed by severe winters continued through 2002

(Oyunbayar 2002; Horekens and Missiri 2002). During the

3-year period of 1 999-200 1 , one third of Mongolia’s domestic

livestock (11 million) died due to these severe prolonged

climatic conditions.

METHODS

Wild sheep were systematically surveyed at 1 1 sites

within Mongolia's occupied Argali range (Fig. 1 ). The total

area surveyed was 2.435 sq. km or c. 7% of Mongolia’s

occupied Argali range (34,873 sq. km). Occupied Argali range

was determined by seeking Argali in the field during country-

wide ground surveys conducted in 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999,

2001 , and 2002. During these years we also interviewed local

herders, hunting guides, game guards, and wildlife biologists

about the distribution of Argali. Only those areas considered

to be well established ranges, habitually used by Argali, were

included. Many areas where Argali are only occasionally

observed, or may occur only in very small numbers, were not

included. Our Argali range estimate emphasizes the fall range

used by wild sheep during the rutting season, the time of

year they are most concentrated and readily observed for

census purposes. Argali surveys done during summer or

spring usually result in a relatively lower number of animals

observed due to their being more widely dispersed and the

adult males are in groups separate from the females.

Surveys were conducted on foot following ridgeline

travel routes and from high observation points. Sheep were

also observed by jeep during travel between observation

points. Drop off points, base camp locations, and observation

points were documented using GPS for future repetition. One

observation group of 3 to 4 observers went into the field each

day to observe Argali. Surveys were conducted during

November 6-25, 2002, with 10 field days actually observing

Argali; the remaining days were spent travelling between

survey sites. Each of the 1 1 sites was surveyed systematically

and as rapidly as conditions permitted to minimize double-

counting animals. When the possibility existed that the same

animals were observed more than once, only the first

observation was recorded. Location and altitude at sheep

sightings were recorded using a GPS.

Survey sites were chosen based on accessibility during

November, their location within Mongolia’s sheep range, and

the availability of data collected during earlier surveys for

trend comparison. We sought a representative sample from

within each of the observation zones (Fig. 1 ). A selection of

sites where hunting regularly occurs (Sites 1 , 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8)

were included in the survey (Fig. 1 ). Wegge ( 1997) emphasized

the importance of surveying hunted populations.

Observed Argali densities were determined by dividing

the number of animals seen by the size of the survey area.

Each sheep observed was classified into one of the following

categories: adult ewe, lamb, or ram. Rams were further

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

141

POPULATION STATUS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI WITH REFERENCE TO SUSTAINABLE USE MANAGEMENT

classified into age classes based on horn length (Geist 1966;

Fedosenko et al. 1995) as follows: Class I (1-2 years old),

Class II (3-4 years old). Class III (5-6 years old) and Class IV

(>6 years old).

An estimate of argali population size was made by

multiplying the average density of each zone by that zone's

size (Fig. 1, Table 1). To adjust for size differences between

zones, the number of argali estimated for each of the 3 zones

was summed and divided by 34,873 sq. km (the total amount

of occupied Argali habitat in Mongolia), which provided an

adjusted density. The adjusted density was then multiplied

by 34,873 sq. km for a November 2002 population estimate.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Population Structure

A total of 1 ,085 Argali were observed during the survey,

of which 1 ,054 were classified by sex and age. Ewes comprised

65% of Argali classified, lambs 19%, and rams 17%.

During the November 2002 survey 684 ewes and

196 lambs were counted, yielding a ratio of 29 lambs:

100 ewes, which is within the range of 10 to 63 lambs:

100 ewes reported for fall surveys by other authors (Frisina

and Boldbaatar 1998; Frisina and Gombosuren 1999; Frisina

etal. 2004). The ratio from this survey is similar to that reported

for the Hangai Mountains (26.3) and higher than reported for

Togrugin the south Gobi (13) during November 2000 surveys

(Frisina and Onon 2000). Frisina and Onon (2000) concluded

that these relatively low age ratios were likely the result of a

severe winter the previous year followed by severe drought

during summer 2000. Difficult weather conditions continued

through 2002 with winter weather being particularly severe in

the Hangai Mountains (Tsend-Ayushin 2000; Oyunbayar

2002; Horekens and Missiri 2002). Severe climatic conditions

for a 3-year period immediately prior to our 2002 survey are

likely the reason for the relatively low age ratios.

The 17% rams observed is slightly lower than the range

of 2 1 .5% to 37% reported by other authors for four fall surveys

Table 1: Summary of observed Argali (Ovis ammori) density

zonewise, November 2002

' Number of Argali observed per sq. km

(Frisina and Gombosuren 1999; Frisina and Onon 2000). As

with the depressed ewe: lamb ratio, the lower proportion of

rams in 2002 is likely a result of winter mortality during the

severe winters from 1991-2002 (Tsend-Ayushin 2000;

Oyunbayar 2002; Horekens and Missiri 2002).

Of males. Class IV comprised the largest segment (45%),

followed by Class III (28%), Class II (17%), and Class I (10%).

Frisina and Gombosuren (2000) also reported Class IV rams

as the largest male segment. However, the 45% observed

during our survey is slightly lower than the range of 54.5% to

75% reported by Frisina and Gombosuren (1999), and Frisina

and Onon (2000) for five fall surveys in Mongolia.

Population Size

For purposes of determining population size, Mongolia

was divided into 3 zones: West Zone, North Zone, and South

& East Zone (Fig. 1, Table 1). These divisions are based on

differences in topography, access, and distribution of Argali

that affect one’s ability to sight Argali while conducting ground

surveys. The West Zone includes the steep, rugged Altai

Mountains, where Argali normally inhabit elevations as high

as 3,600+ m. The Altai Argali habitat is a vast open landscape

of interconnecting mountain ridges in which Argali are widely

dispersed. Much of the Altai sheep range can only be accessed

by foot and/or horseback; jeep access is very limited. The

Altai Mountains have very little tree cover enabling Argali to

spot potential predators from long distances. Thus, Argali

survey efficiency is the most difficult in this zone, partially

explaining why the lowest density (0. 1 1 per sq. km) occurred

in the Western Zone. Compared to the Western Zone, the

Northern Zone is at lower elevation; the topography is less

severe, and jeep access is less restricted. The Northern Zone

includes the Ovorkhangai Mountains and is intermediate

between the Western Zone and the South & East Zone for

ability to survey Argali (0.51 per sq. km). The South & East

Zone includes the vast Gobi Desert; it is the lowest in elevation,

is the least severe in topography, and is highly accessible by

jeep. Argali tend to concentrate within rocky areas or small

mountain ranges with the desert during fall, and they tend to

be more concentrated, making them more observable than

within the other zones (2.24 per sq. km).

The adjusted density allowing for differences in size of

the zones was 0.58 argali per sq. km. The adjusted density

was used to calculate a November 2002 population estimate

of 20,226 Argali for Mongolia. This is a conservative estimate;

it only includes those specific areas determined to be well

established Argali ranges. Areas of marginal habitat only

occasionally used by Argali were excluded. The numbers of

Argali counted per unit of area were assumed to be the total

number inhabiting the area. Probably not all Argali within the

142

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

POPULATION STATUS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI WITH REFERENCE TO SUSTAINABLE USE MANAGEMENT

survey area were observed. Even aerial surveys underestimate

population density (Pollock and Kendall 1987). When

conducting fall surveys utilizing a helicopter, the most

accurate census method, one can only expect to observe

20 to 50% of the population (Remington and Welsh 1989).

Population TVend

The country-wide population trend for Argali in

Mongolia is unknown. Although a number of different

population estimates (ranging from 10,000 to more than 50,000

Argali) have been made (Amgalanbaatar et al. 2001), the

protocols have not been described, making comparison of

estimates impossible. Establishing population trend for a

number of specific survey sites is possible by comparing

data collected during our survey with earlier surveys at sites

in which the survey protocols were described. During surveys

in the Western Zone (Altai Mountains - Khovd and Bayan

Olgi Provinces) Frisina and Boldbaatar ( 1998) and Frisina and

Gombosuren (2000) reported 27 and 24 Argali per day afield

during July surveys in 1997 and 1999 respectively. During

November 2002, 37 Argali were observed per day. Although

the earlier surveys were conducted during July, they are

comparable with the November 2002 survey because very

little snow was present during November 2002; the weather

during the survey was mild, and sheep were widely scattered

at sites they typically use during July. Our findings indicate

population trend at these sites within the Altai is up slightly

or at least stable since 1997. During surveys in the Northern

Zone (Ushgog - Ovorkhangai Province), Frisina and

Gombosuren ( 1999) and Frisina and Yondon (2000) reported

densities of 1 .73 and 1 argali per sq. km during fall surveys in

1998 and 2000 respectively. During a survey of this same area

during November 2002, 0.48 Argali per sq. km were observed,

indicating population trend is down at Ushgig. During surveys

in the South & East Zone (Ikh Nart - Domogovi Province),

Frisina and Gombosuren ( 1999) reported densities of 0.99 and

1 .04 argali per sq. km for fall 1 993 and 1998 respectively. During

November 2002, 1 .68 argali per sq. km were observed in this

same area indicating population trend is up. At another location

in the South & East zone (Togrug - Omnogobi Province),

Frisina and Onon (2000) reported a density of 3 Argali per

sq. km during a November survey in 2000. The survey of this

same area during November 2002 yielded 1 .7 1 Argali per

Amgalanbaatar, S. Dulamtseren, Y. Onon, L. Amgalan &

L. Hagvasuren (2001): Argali sheep (Ovis amnion Linnaeus

1758) resource estimation, distribution, herd size, and population

structure in Mongolia. In: Proceedings of the Institute of Biology

No 23. Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Pp. 47-54.

ASM (1990): The national atlas of the Mongolian Peoples Republic.

sq. km, indicating population trend at Togrug may be down.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Comparing this survey with previous surveys by Frisina

and Boldbaatar' (1998), Frisina and Gombosuren (2000), Frisina

and Onon (2000), and Frisina etal. (2004) indicates population

levels in some areas are depressed while in other areas

population trend is stable or increasing. The moderate

percentage of rams observed (45%) and low proportion of

lambs observed (29 lambs; 100 ewes) is reflective of several

years in succession of severe summer drought followed by

harsh winters (Tsend-Ayushin 2000; Oyunbayar 2002;

Horekens and Missiri 2002). If Argali populations were

experiencing a catastrophic event, such as a disease epidemic,

high mortality would be expected to occur across all age

classes, not primarily with lambs and older males as

experienced during this survey. The relative abundance of

older rams in the population (Class III and Class IV ) indicates

trophy hunting has not been excessive.

As part of an overall plan for sustainable use

management similar to that described by Frisina and

Gombosuren (2000), and following recommendations of Hams

( 1993), the estimated population of 20,226 Argali in Mongolia

could potentially sustain a trophy harvest of 202-404 rams

annually. Harris ( 1993) indicated 1 -2% of the total population

may be safely harvested annually without negative

consequences. To accurately monitor population trend and

maintain sustainable harvest quotas it is important that Argali

population trend be monitored through repeating the

protocols established by this survey once every 3 to 5 years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grand Slam Club/Ovis, Mongol Tours, Genesis

Company and the Mongolian Ministry for Nature and the

Environment funded the project. The authors personally thank

Dennis Campbell, Baasanhu Jantzen, and B. Galbadrakh for

their dedication to the conservation of Argali. Special thanks

are due our driver and guide Nyamdorj Gombo for his tireless

energy and skill. We also thank Dr. Carl L. Wambolt, Montana

State University, and anonymous referees for their review of

the manuscript.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), Hay-Aug 2007

145-152

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF

THE RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK ELEPHANTS, NORTH-WEST INDIA1

Amirtharaj C. Williams2, Asir J.T. Johnsingh3 and Paul R. Krausman4

'Accepted March 2006

2Present address: c/o WWF-Nepal Program, P.O. Box 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: [email protected]

’Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand. India. Email: [email protected]

4Boone and Crockett Professor of Wildlife Conservation. College of Forestry and Conservation,

Wildlife Biology Program, 32 Campus Drive, Forestry Building, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812.

Email: [email protected]

The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) population in Rajaji National Park, north-west India is an important part of

India’s heritage, but has not been intensively studied until recently. Understanding the population dynamics is important

for managers if the population is to remain viable. We used marked adult male Asian Elephants in a mark re-sight method

to estimate the male segment of the population and the estimated number of female and associated young using their

proportions relative to the adult male segment from classification data. We collected data on inter-calving period and calf

survival from adult females present in groups with radio collared females. The number of adult males in the study area

was estimated to be 3 1 (95% Cl = 23-41 ). We computed the relative proportions of other age-sex classes to the adult

males and estimated 188 elephants (95% Cl = 139-248). Ninety per cent of the adult males had tusks (tuskers) and the

adult male to adult female ratio was 1 : 1 .87. This is one of the least skewed sex ratios reported for Asian Elephants and

is comparable to areas in Sri Lanka where 95% of males are tuskless. Over 90% of the adult females were accompanied

by juveniles or calves <5 years old. We estimated the inter-calving period to be around 4.23 years and the calf survival

over the first year was almost 100%. One calf was killed when hit by a train. The high proportion of males, low

inter-calving period, and high neonate survival of the Rajaji elephant population indicates that the population is

demographically healthy. However, more adult elephants died in train accidents than due to natural causes and viability

of this small population could be seriously threatened if losses to train accidents continue.

Key words: Asian Elephant, inter-calving period, radio collared females, Rajaji National Park, population estimation,

demography

INTRODUCTION

The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) is an

endangered mammal with an estimated 35,000 to 50,000

elephants occurring in 13 countries across Asia (Kemf and

Santiapillai 2000). They are long-lived animals that reproduce

slowly and live in forested habitats; observations in the wild

are difficult to obtain. Therefore, demographic status is

uncertain for many Asian Elephant populations. Estimates of

population numbers or densities are some of the basic

information required to formulate proper management and

conservation strategies. However, very few Asian Elephant

populations have been studied (Sukumar 1991; Katugaha

et al. 1999). Population estimates using scientific repeatable

methods are rare and therefore their usefulness across the

elephant range in Asia to assess viability is limited. In addition

to data on demographic parameters (i.e. age-sex structure,

estimates of inter-calving period, age at first conception,

mortality rates) population estimates are very important to

assess the status and viability of a population, yet such data

is non-existent for the majority of Asian Elephant populations.

The Asian Elephant in India (c. 17,000-22,000) occurs in

5 major disjointed populations (Sukumar 1991; Daniel 1998).

In north-west India, an estimated 800- 1 ,000 elephants occur

in Rajaji National Park (RNP), Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR)

and the adjoining forest areas. This range has been designated

as Elephant Reserve 1 1 by the Government of India (Anon.

1993). However, the area is fragmented into 3 sub-populations

(Johnsingh and Joshua 1994) and genetic continuity between

them is probably maintained only by a few adult males that

migrate through narrow and highly disturbed corridors.

One of the sub-populations lies between the Ganga

and Yamuna rivers (Johnsingh and Joshua 1994). Elephants

in this area stopped crossing the Ganga river due to the

construction of a 14 km long power channel on the eastern

bank (Singh 1978) and loss of a portion of the corridor area to

resettlement programmes for villagers displaced by the

construction of a dam upstream. In addition to the power

channel, a state highway and a railroad in a corridor area

prevented female movement across the Ganga river. Today

potential genetic continuity between populations on either

bank of the Ganga river is due to 3 or 4 bulls crossing through

a narrow corridor (A. C. Williams, Unpublished data).

Information on how many elephants were present on

the west bank of the Ganga river prior to and after the

construction of the power canal in early 1970s is not available.

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF RNP ELEPHANTS

Singh ( 1 995 ) reported a population of 1 80 elephants between

the Yamuna and Ganga rivers. Though ecological research

on elephants in this area began in 1986, no detailed study on

the elephant demography in this tract was done. As a result

effective management plans could not be developed with

elephant conservation as the focal point. At the same time

elephants were "being killed in elephant-human conflict and

the effect of these losses could not be predicted, due to lack

of data. Therefore, we conducted a study on elephant

demography in the areas to the west of the Ganga river between

1996 and 1999. Our objectives were to investigate population

parameters, like age-sex structure, inter-calving period, and

calf and adult survival, and to use population models to predict

the viability of this elephant population.

STUDY AREA

This study was conducted in RNP west of the Ganga

river (Fig. 1) between January 1996 and June 1999. The area

includes the Rajaji and Motichur sanctuaries and portions of

the Shivalik and Dehradun east Forest Divisions covering an

area of c. 500 sq. km. The distinct spine of the Shivalik ridge

forms a natural boundary between Rajaji and Motichur

sanctuaries. Terrain in the Rajaji Sanctuary consists of deeply

dissected steep southern slopes of the Shivalik hill range.

which form a series of sharp ridges, interspersed with

V-shaped valleys running from north-east to south-west. The

southern portion of the Sanctuary is a flat land constituting

the northern fringe of the Gangetic plain (J.B. Sale, Wildlife

Institute of India, unpublished report 1987). The altitude

ranges from 400 to 1 ,000 m above sea level. Rajaji Sanctuary

is divided into hills and plains. Over 1,40,000 people live along

the periphery (D. Kumar, Wildlife Institute of India,

unpublished report 1998). Their main source of livelihood is

agriculture. The study area is bounded by intense cultivation

to the north and south, and by the suburbs of the town

Haridwar, on the bank of the Ganga River, to the east; to the

west the Delhi-Dehradun highway separates the RNP from

the Shivalik Forest Division.

Rainfall ranged from 1,300 to 1,900 mm during 1996-1999

with most of the rain falling during July to October. However,

there are brief periods of rainfall throughout the year. Three

distinct seasons are recognized: winter (November to March),

summer (March to July) and monsoon (July to November).

The major vegetation associations in this area are tropical

dry deciduous dominated by Shorea robusta, tropical mixed

forest containing Shorea robusta , Mallotus philippinensis,

and Ehretia laevis , miscellaneous forests with Zizyphus

xylopyrus, Helicteres isora , Anoegesis latifolia,

Dendrocalamus strictus and plantations with Dalbergia

146

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF RNP ELEPHANTS

sisoo , Acacia catechu , Garuga pinnata and Aeilanthus

excelsa. In addition to elephants, the study area provides

habitat for other large mammals including Sambar ( Cervus

unicolor ), Chital (Axis axis), Muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjak).

Nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus), Goral (Nemorhaedus

goral ), Wild Pig (Sus scrofa). Tiger ( Panthera tigris), and

Leopard (Panthera pardus). There are more than 4,000

nomadic pastoralists (i.e., Gujjars) and about 8,300 of their

livestock within the study area. These Gujjar families live

scattered all over the study area in small colonies. Recently,

there has been a resettlement programme under which the

Gujjar families are being moved away from the Park into more

permanent settlements. Therefore, the biotic pressure exerted

by the Gujjars is decreasing within the Park. The majority of

the people in and out of RNP depend on the forests in the

study area to meet their fuel wood and forage requirements.

METHODS

We immobilized four male and four female elephants

with Immobilon (a mixture of Etrophine hydrochloride and

Acepromazine), delivered with a dart gun, and fitted them

with radio transmitters embedded on an acrylic collar (Telonics

Inc., Arizona, USA). Three males and four females were radio-

tracked for 1 to 2 years. We used the Mark Re-sight method

(White 1996) between January 1997 andJune 1998 to estimate

the size of the adult male population. We identified 10 adult

male elephants using distinctive naturally occurring marks

(e.g. tusk shape and length, and cuts, notches and degree of

ear folding) and used them with 3 adult males fitted with radio-

transmitters as the marked sample. Females were difficult to

identify as they did not possess tusks and it was difficult to

approach them undetected close enough to be able to use

other physical characteristics with any degree of success.

Since no female groups encountered could be identified with

certainty either as marked or unmarked, we chose to estimate

only the male population size using the Mark Re-sight method.

Forest blocks chosen randomly were searched for 21 1 days

from January 15, 1997 to June 1, 1998 for 2 to 4 hours. All

elephants (adult males and female groups) encountered were

recorded and if marked, their identity was noted. The radio-

transmitter frequencies were used only to confirm the identity

of the individual male. We used the Bowden’s estimator

(Bowden and Kufeld 1995) to estimate the number of adult

males in the population. These authors came up with a

modified estimator of the Minta-Mangel model (Minta and

Mangel 1989) where the variance on the re-sighting

frequencies of marked animals was used for computing the

confidence interval. Each animal in a population has a sighting

frequency f . The values of f for marked samples are known

and the sum of f for the unmarked animals is also known

1

when the mark re-sighting sampling is done. Using this as an

unbiased estimator and its variance were suggested (see

Bowden and Kufeld 1995 for more details). The advantage of

the Bowden estimator is that it allows for heterogeneity in

capture probabilities and for sampling with or without

replacement. The calculations were done using the

Programme NOREMARK (White 1996).

We collected data on age-sex structure of the elephant

population from March 1996 to June 1998. We encountered

elephants when we were either searching randomly chosen

forest blocks or while radio-tracking collared elephants.

Whenever a female group was encountered, we classified the

elephants into various age-sex categories based on relative

height and morphological characteristics (McKay 1973; Kurt

1974; Daniel etal. 1987). Younger elephants (< 1 5 years) were

classified by comparing their height to the oldest adult female

in the group (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). Elephants were

placed in broad age groups; calves (<1 year old), juveniles

(1-5 years old), subadults (5-15 years) and adults (> 1 5 years).

We included radio collared elephants in the classification data

only if they were encountered randomly while searching for

other elephants, not when they were located with the help of

a radio signal.

We classified all adult males. However, female groups

were larger and more difficult to classify than males that were

usually solitary in a forested habitat like RNP. A female group

was considered fully classified when all the members, except

calves (< 1 year old ), were assigned to specific age-sex classes.

Computing sex ratios using only the fully classified groups

led to under-estimation of the other age-sex class proportions

in the population. To correct this under-estimation, we applied

the age-sex ratios of the fully classified groups to those

unclassified groups in which all the elephants were counted.

For those groups that were not fully counted we applied the

average group size and age-sex ratios of the fully classified

groups. The above correction would be wrong if unclassified

groups were smaller or larger than the fully classified groups.

Hence, we tested for differences in mean group sizes and

distribution of group sizes between fully classified and

unclassified groups. Thus, we had calculated proportions of

the various age-sex classes (adult male, adult female, subadult

male, subadult female, juveniles and calves) out of the total

animals classified. Since we had also estimated the number of

adult males in the population using mark re-sight, we estimated

the numbers of the other age-sex classes by computing their

proportions relative to the adult male segment and using the

following simple calculation;

No. of elephants in a particular age-sex class =

(Rm/PJ/N

v iM AS7 m

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

147

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF RNP ELEPHANTS

Where PjM = Percentage of males in total elephants age-

sex classified, PAS = Percentage of elephants in a particular

age-sex class, in total elephants age-sex classified, for which

we are estimating numbers, N = No. of males estimated by

the Mark Re-sight method.

To estimate inter-calving period and calf survival, we

followed 19 identified females in the four collared groups and

recorded the number of calves born and their survival for

3 years until May 1999. We recorded all the elephant deaths

in the study area and classified them as either natural mortality

or mortality related to human influence.

We used Kruskal- Wallis (K-W) One Way Analysis of

Variance ( ANOVA) when testing for differences in group sizes

between 3 years and 3 seasons. We used Mann-Whitney

(M-W) U for testing between years and seasons. We used

Kolmogorov-Smimov (K-S) two-sample test when testing for

differences in the distribution of group sizes between years

and seasons.

RESULTS

We recorded 101 sightings of adult males with

42 re-sightings (Table 1 ) of 1 3 marked males. All the marked

animals were re-sighted during the sampling period and there

was heterogeneity in sighting probabilities (Table 1). The

number of adult males in the study area was estimated to be

31 (95% Cl = 23-41 adult males). Males formed 16.5% of the

total elephants classified (Table 2). The estimates for the other

age-sex classes were computed from their relative proportions

to the male segment (Table 3). There were 3 tuskless adult

bulls in the population of 3 1 adult males indicating that >90%

of the males are tuskers. We estimated a population of

1 88 elephants (95% Cl = 1 39-248 ) in Rajaji National Park and

adjoining forest areas to the west of the Ganga river (Table 3).

We found the adult male to female sex ratio was 1 : 1 .87. This

gives a crude density of 0.33 elephants/sq. km.

Between March 1996 and June 1998, we encountered

males on 121 occasions and female groups on 91 occasions.

Forty five percent of the female groups encountered (n = 91)

were fully classified and in another 3 1% of the encounters, a

count of all the group members was made, but they were not

classified into the various age-sex categories. We found no

difference (Mann-Whitney U, z = -1 .0562, P = 0.29) in the

mean group size or in the distribution of group sizes

Table 1: Sighting frequencies of 13 identified male elephants in

Rajaji National Park, India and adjoining forest areas, 1997-1998

No. times sighted 1 23456789

Number of 2 42310001

elephants

(K-S test, z = 0.750, P = 0.627) between fully classified groups

(X = 7.20, n = 41 ) and unclassified groups (X = 6.64, n = 28).

This indicated that size of the group did not influence whether

a group was classified or not. We also did not find differences

in mean group sizes (Table 1, K-W ANOVA, X2 = 3.516,

P = 0.17) or in age-class structure of the female groups

(X2 = 1 .5067, P = 0.99) between years. Elephants formed smaller

groups in rainy season (Table 4), but we could not detect a

difference in the mean group size between the seasons

(K-W ANOVA, X2 = 3.472,P = 0.17).

We classified 300 elephants encountered in 41 female

groups and 125 elephants in 121 male groups into age-sex

classes. Most of the adult male sightings (>80%) were solitary.

We applied the proportions estimated from the fully classified

groups to the unclassified female groups to correct for under

representation of the female, juvenile and subadult segment

of the population (Table 2). The juvenile sex ratio was almost

Table 2: The age-sex structure of elephants classified (N=756)

in Rajaji National Park, India 1996-1999

148

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF RNP ELEPHANTS

equal among the juveniles that were classified by sex (n = 61 ).

Forty one percent of the adult females were accompanied by

a calf and >92% of the adult females had at least one young

(<5years old) at heel. There were more subadult males than

subadult females in the population (Table 2).

The 19 identified adult females in the four collared

groups gave birth to 1 3 calves between 1 996 and 1 999. In the

third year, one of the adult females and her calf were killed

and another female could not be traced. All the females gave

birth to their calves at the end of monsoon season. The number

of calves born to the 19 identified females between 1996 and

1999, and surviving at the end of the first year is given in

Table 5. The total adult female years monitored was 55 years

and we calculated an inter-calving period of 4.23 years. All

calves (n = 5) bom during 1996-1997 survived for >2 years,

and all but one of the calves (n = 7) born during 1997-1998

have survived for more than 1 year and 8 months.

Elephants died due to natural causes including old age

and disease, and due to human related causes including train

accidents, electrocution, and being killed while crop raiding.

We found that twice as many elephants were killed due to

human related causes as from natural causes (Table 6). Trains

were responsible for more than 88% of the females and young

killed (n = 9). Proportionately more adult males (3.87 males/

100 males/year) died than adult females (1.72 females/

100 females/year). This also held true when only adult

elephants killed due to human related causes were

considered; more adult males ( 1 .94 males/ 100 males/year) were

killed than adult females ( 1 .23 females/1 00 females/year). Two

female elephants and one male elephant were killed during

attempted crop raiding while another adult male was almost

electrocuted in the process of crop raiding.

DISCUSSION

All the males encountered were classified, as more than

95% of the sightings were of solitary males and thus close

approach was possible to classify the individual. Females

live in social groupings comprising of related females and

their young (Douglas-Hamilton 1972) and were less tolerant

of the presence of humans and hence they were difficult to

approach and classify in the thick vegetation. Our results

Table 5: Annual birth rate of the elephant population in

Raj aji National Park, India 1996-1999

indicate that the size of the group did not influence whether a

group was classified or not and also that group sizes did not

differ between years or seasons. Therefore our decision to

apply the age-sex structure and the average group size to

unclassified groups to correct for under-representation of

the female and associated age-sex classes was justified. Except

for studies conducted in fairly open habitats (Katugaha 1999;

de Silva etal. 1995), most Asian Elephant habitats are similar

in structure to our study site.

The female elephants in our study area lived in social

groupings of one or more adult females and their offspring as

reported from Africa and Asia (Moss and Poole 1 983; Moss

1988; de Silva et al. 1995). The females also formed similar

sized groups to those reported from other studies (range 5.5

to 13.9) in Asia (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; McKay 1973;

Kurt 1974; Daniel et al. 1987; de Silva et al. 1995). Mean

group size varied between the monsoon season and the other

seasons (Table 4). Mean group size can be expected to

decrease when the forage is scarce and poor in quality.

However, in the rainy season the quality of the forage is high.

A favoured monsoon season forage species like

Dendrocalamus strictus is distributed patchily, and smaller

groups of elephants may be better able to utilize such a

resource than a large group. Such a pattern has been reported

for forest elephants in Africa where fruit resources are

distributed patchily (White etal. 1993). Few adult males were

seen with female groups outside of their musth period. Adult

males were usually solitary as reported from other areas in

Asia (Santiapillai et al. 1984; Daniel et al. 1987; Katugaha

etal. 1999) and in Africa (Croze 1974; Poole and Moss 1981 ).

Adult dominated age-structures are common in Asian

Elephant populations (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1 972; Chandran

1990; Katugaha et al. 1999) given their long life span and

slow reproductive rate. However, we found that there were

more subadult and young elephants in the population than

Table 6: Number of elephant deaths due to natural and human

related causes in the study area, 1 992-1 999a

a - Deaths of adult and subadult males recorded only from 1994

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

149

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF RNP ELEPHANTS

adult elephants, which was similar to two other studies in

southern India (Daniel et al. 1987; Sukumar 1991). Age

structure of a population can lean towards the younger age

classes due to improved fertility rates and calf survival

(Caughley 1974), or due to higher mortality of adults

(Jachmann 1986; Ottichilo 1986). Because there has been no

report of increased mortality of adults in the study area, we

think that improved fertility and calf survival is a major factor

for the age structure being in favour of younger age-classes.

In contrast to other studies on elephants on mainland

India (Daniels al. 1987;Chandran 1990; Sukumar 1991). there

were more subadult males than females in this population. In

the other studies, poaching played an important role in

reducing the proportion of males (subadult and adult). We

did not record a single incident of poaching in the study area,

but this does not explain why there is a male biased sex ratio

at the subadult level. We found an almost equal sex ratio

among the juveniles between 3-5 years old. The percentage

of young (<5 years old) observed in this study was within the

range reported for Asian Elephants in India (Daniel et al.

1987; Chandran 1990; Sukumar 1991 ).

The adult sex ratio was the least skewed among the

populations studied, so far, in India. In fact the adult sex

ratios were comparable to those reported from Sri Lanka

( 1 male: 1.9 females) where >90% of the males are tuskless

( Katugaha et al. 1999) and hence poaching is not a problem.

The north-west Indian population is the only Asian Elephant

population in India where the adult sex ratio is comparable to

those of the Sri Lankan populations. The proportion of adult

males ( 16.5%) in the population is the highest when compared

to other studies in mainland India (Daniel etal. 1987; Chandran

1 990; Sukumar 1991). The reason for this is the lack of poaching

in the study area during the study period.

We used the Mark-Resight method for the first time in

Asia to estimate elephant numbers. We had a very high

re-sighting percentage of males. However, there was a wide

variation between the identified males in the number of times

they were re-sighted (Table 1). We think one of the reasons

for this is that some males in the study area have home ranges

twice as large as other males, and thus could have been sighted

by chance more often. This was the first study on Asian

Elephants where numbers of males or estimates of any other

age-sex class have been presented with a 95% confidence

interval and therefore direct comparisons cannot be made to

other studies. The estimate of 1 80 elephants reported by Singh

(1995) was within the 95% confidence interval of 139-248

elephants estimated by us, indicating concurrence with

estimates by another method. The proportion of males having

tusks was similar to those of the populations studied in

southern India (Daniel etal. 1987; Sukumar 1991). The effective

population size of 80+ is higher than the minimum of

50 recommended (Franklin 1980; Frankel and Soule 1981 ) for

the population to be safe purely from environmental and

demographic stochasticity in the short term (100 years).

Though this thumb rule has been criticized, Boyce’s (1992)

review of data showed that these are safe estimates for large

mammals.

In certain populations (Chandran 1990) lack of adult

males due to poaching has caused a drop in calving rates

because of inability of females to find a male. We found that

>95% of the adult females in our study had one young

<5 years old at heel, indicating that most females do not have

problems finding mates. There is a birth peak in most of the

populations studied (Ishwaran 1981; Sukumar 1 99 1 ; Katugaha

1993) even though newborn calves are seen throughout the

year. We found that females gave birth mainly after the peak

monsoon season. During the entire study period only one

newborn calf was observed outside September-October. Cows

need extra nutrition to support lactation (Barnes 1983;

de Silva et al. 1 995 ) and they also need to be in the best body

condition. There is abundance of high quality food, especially

new flush grass, immediately after peak monsoon season and

this also coincides with the peak calving period. In the first

two years of the study elephant births were high (Table 5).

We calculated an inter-calving period of 4.23 years, which

was similar to the inter-calving period calculated from two

other studies in India (Daniel et al. 1987; Sukumar 1991).

However, if 90% of the remaining six identified females give

birth in the following year ( 1998-99), the inter-calving period

would be around 4 years, the lowest recorded for Asian

Elephants. We believe this is possible because the inter-

calving period recorded from the birth of one calf to another

for an identified female tracked in an area adjacent to our

study site was 3.1 years (J. Joshua, Wildlife Institute of India,

Unpublished Report 1993). This was the shortest recorded

for elephants (Asian and African) (Laws et al. 1975; Smuts

1977; Jachmann 1986) indicating that elephants in RNP are

experiencing a phase of high fecundity.

Earlier there were only estimates of calf survival and

mortality was assumed to be around 10-25% (Daniel et al.

1987; Sukumar 1991 ). Ours was the first study which followed

12 identified female-calf units for over a year to estimate calf

survival and we found that it was >90%. The only calf which

died was involved in a collision with a train, which is not

natural mortality. In the future the age-structure is going to be

dominated by younger age classes. However, the age-ratios

need to be interpreted cautiously (Caughley 1974;

McCullough 1994) as the study population is undergoing an

increased rate of mortality of adult females due to human

induced causes.

150

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF RNP ELEPHANTS

More elephants died due to human induced causes

than natural mortality. The chance of an adult male dying

was higher than that of adult females, even when only deaths

due to human induced causes were considered. In recent

years, there have been losses of whole family groups or part

of groups in train accidents. Sometimes the matriarch gets

killed in these accidents. The matriarchs play an important

role in elephant society and are repositories of traditional

knowledge, knowing where to go during times of drought ( which

may occur once in 20-25 years) in search of food and water

(Moss 1 988 ). The younger females may not have this knowledge,

as they might not have experienced a drought since they were

bom, and the effects of such losses are yet to be quantified.

Barnes and Kapela (1991) showed that the Ruaha

elephant population had very poor recruitment when the

adults were being poached at a high rate, illustrating that loss

of adult females had an impact on every aspect of the

population biology. Simulations have shown elephant

populations to decline even with adult mortality rates as low

as 1.5-5% if the fertility rates went down (Hanks and McIntosh

1973). Females may stop conceiving if a large number of

females were to be killed every year, as happened in Ruaha

(Barnes and Kapela 1991). Even if accidents were stopped,

habitat degradation, which is a major problem, might affect

the population parameters, thus increasing the probability of

extinction ( Armbuster and Russell 1 993). The high proportion

of males in the population, low inter-calving period and high

neonate survival of the population in RNP point to a

demographically healthy population. The age-structure and

population parameters compare very favourably with African

elephant populations known to be increasing (Douglas-

Hamilton 1972; Smuts 1977). However, it would only take the

death of a few more adult females/year to seriously threaten

the population viability, as it is a small population. We must

take urgent steps to minimize the loss of adult females to

accidents and stop habitat degradation in order to keep this

small elephant population viable.

Anon. (1993): Project Elephant ( Gajatme ). Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.

Armbuster, P. & R. Russell (1993): A population viability analysis for

African elephant (Loxodonta apricana ): How big should reserves

be? Conservation Biol. 7(3): 602-610.

Barnes. R.F.W. (1983): Elephant behaviour in a semi-arid environment.

Af. J. Ecol. 21: 185-196.

Barnes, R.F.W. & E.B. Kapela ( 1991 ): Changes in the Ruaha elephant

population caused by poaching. Apr. J. Ecol. 29: 289-294.

Bowden, C.D. & R.C. Kufeld (1995): Generalized mark-sight

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Manage. 59(4): 840-851.

Boyce, M.S. (1992): Population viability analysis. Ann. I Rev. Ecol.

CONCLUSION

The Rajaji elephant population is demographically

healthy from the population characteristics (sex ratios,

age-structure, inter-calving period and calf survival). However,

the occasional crossing of a few elephant bulls between

Motichur and Chilla across Ganga river needs to be maintained

to ensure the chance of genetic flow between the otherwise

fragmented populations. This will be crucial to ensure that

effective population size above the critical minimum is

maintained. However, too many elephants are being lost to

train accidents in the study area. An analysis of future

population trends, using mathematical models, indicates that

a slight rise in the number of females getting killed would

significantly increase the chances of this population going

extinct in 100-200 years ( A.C. Williams, unpubl. data). Poaching

was not a problem in the study area, but a few cases were

seen suddenly in 2001, and this is a cause for worry as it

exposed the inadequacy of protection resources. It is urgent

for the Government to take steps to reduce elephant deaths

due to train accidents and poaching to ensure that this small

population survives.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Officers of the Uttarakhand Forest

Department, the Additional Inspector General of Forests

(Wildlife), Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government

of India and Director, Project Elephant, Government of India

who granted the permissions for this study. We wish to thank

the faculty and staff at the Wildlife Institute of India and the

University of Arizona who helped us during analysis and

writing of the first authors’ PhD thesis, which led to this

manuscript. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service

funded this project and we particularly thank Dave Ferguson

and Fred Bagley for all the encouragement and support

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

153-160

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA: DISTRIBUTION AND SIGHT RECORDS1

H.N. Kumara2 3 and Mewa Singh2,4

'Accepted November 2006

2 Biopsychology Laboratory, University of Mysore, Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India.

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: msingh@ psychology. uni-my sore. ac. in

During a study from November 2001 to July 2004 on ecology and status of wild mammals in Karnataka, we sighted 1 43

animals belonging to 11 species of small carnivores of about 17 species that are expected to occur in the state of

Karnataka, The sighted species included Leopard Cat, Rustyspotted Cat, Jungle Cat, Small Indian Civet, Asian Palm

Civet, Brown Palm Civet, Common Mongoose, Ruddy Mongoose, Stripe-necked Mongoose and unidentified species

of Otters. Malabar Civet, Fishing Cat, Brown Mongoose, Nilgiri Marten, and Ratel were not sighted during this study.

The Western Ghats alone account for thirteen species of small carnivores of which six are endemic. The sighting of

Rustyspotted Cat is the first report from Karnataka. Habitat loss and hunting are the major threats for the small

carnivore survival in nature. The Small Indian Civet is exploited for commercial purpose. Hunting technique varies from

guns to specially devised traps, and hunting of all the small carnivore species is common in the State.

Key words: Felidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae, Mustelidae, Karnataka, threats

INTRODUCTION

Mammals of the families Felidae, Viverridae,

Herpestidae, Mustelidae and Procyonidae are generally

called small carnivores. This category excludes Family

Canidae. About 37 species of small carnivores are reported

from India. They belong to the families Felidae (cats),

Viverridae (civets, linsangs and binturong), Herpestidae

(mongooses), Procyonidae (Red Panda) and Mustelidae

(otters, martens, weasels, and badgers). Karnataka state may

have 16 to 17 species of small carnivores, being a highly

diverse group of mammals.

Small carnivores occupy a variety of habitats ranging

from dry plains, thick evergreen forests to coastal plains.

However, in Karnataka most species are restricted to the

forests of the Western Ghats. They play an important role as

pest controllers, prey base for many animals, seed dispersers

and pollinators. Some of them are also known to kill domestic

chickens, and hence they are considered pests. Most species

have similar food habits, feeding mostly on invertebrates,

amphibians, reptiles, birds and small mammals. Although they

are called carnivores, some of them also feed on fruits and

seeds. Many of them are nocturnal in habit, solitary in nature,

small in body size and occupy habitats with thick vegetation.

Such cryptic nature of these animals made it difficult to study

them, and as a result, we know little about them.

There are no detailed studies from Karnataka on any

aspect of small carnivores. This is true also for other regions

of India, as well as other parts of the world. However, few

studies have been initiated in recent years to document the

ecological aspects of these species in peninsular India

(Mukherjee 1989; Mudappa 2001; Rajamani et al. 2003;

Mukherjee et al. 2004). Other than these studies, most of the

information on these animals comes from anecdotes or sight

records, which no doubt, have significantly contributed in

understanding the distribution and comparative status of

these species. We have attempted to gather basic information

on the distribution of small carnivores through direct

sightings, and from secondary sources in Karnataka. Each

species being elusive requires a long-term investigation,

even to learn its distribution and basic biology. What is

presented in this paper, therefore, is an updated review

based on previous information, and data from the present

study.

STUDY SITE

Karnataka State is located between 1 1° 31 '-18° 45' N

and 74° 12'-78°40' E with a total area of 1,91,791 sq. km. The

State receives rainfall between 450 and 7,500 mm annually,

with a mean rainfall of 1 ,975 mm. Karnataka has been divided

into four biogeographical zones, these include Coastal

Karnataka with mangrove forests, Hill Region (the Western

Ghats) with rainforests and moist deciduous forests.

Southern Plateau and Northern Plains with deciduous

forests, scrub forests and open grasslands (Prasad et al.

1978; Karan th 1986).

METHODS

The present study was carried out from November 2001

to December 2006 as a part of a larger study on mammals in

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA

Fig. 1 : Map of Karnataka with some localities mentioned in the text

Karnataka. During this period, we travelled c. 30,000 km across

different talukas* of all districts* * of the State. During these

visits, we gathered secondary information on occurrence of

species in the past, present status of the species, hunting

practices in the region, man-animal conflict and pressure on

wildlife by talking to the locals (especially elders), hunters,

shepherds and forest personnel.

Apart from this, we also conducted a vehicular road

survey of 9,853 km in different forests. On the basis of the

information from secondary data, literature, forest types and

forest status, we selected a few sites for intensive study. In

those selected sites, we made ‘Reeky Walks’ (Walsh and

A taluka is a revenue jurisdictional unit of about 1000 sq. km.

1 A District is a revenue jurisdictional unit of eight to twelve talukas.

White 1 999) of a total of 1 ,808 km during day and 1 ,096 km

during night. The day survey was made from 0600 hrs,

covering about 5 km/day at 0.8 km/hr, on both pre-existing

trails and new routes. A pedometer recorded the distance

walked. The routes were laid through different forest types.

The direct evidence of traps and snares, animal remains left

by hunters, hunting camps and presence of hunters was

recorded in order to assess the biotic pressures. The night

survey was done on foot and in vehicles; we walked after

2000 hrs on pre-existing trails at the speed of 0.5 km/hr, flashing

light on both sides of the trail. During the vehicular survey, a

researcher sat atop a jeep moving at a speed of 5 to 10 km/hr and

flashed light connected to the jeep battery. Whenever an

animal was spotted and its identity was doubtful, it was

approached as close as possible and a ImillionCP spotlight

154

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA

was flashed. The details on the methods adopted for data

collection on hunting practices are published elsewhere

(Kumara and Singh 2004).

OBSERVATIONS

Table 1 presents a summary of the information on

different species regarding their IUCN status (IUCN 2003),

place in various Schedules of the Indian Wildlife (Protection)

Act 1972, and the type of habitat inhabited by each species.

We sighted a total of 143 animals of 1 1 species of small

carnivores in the State during the present study (Table 2).

Family Felidae

Four species of small cats - Leopard Cat (Prionailurus

bengalensis), Rustyspotted Cat ( P. rubiginosus). Fishing Cat

(P. viverrinus ) and Jungle Cat ( Felis chans) - are expected to

be present in the State. The Jungle Cat is the largest, while

the Rustyspotted Cat is the smallest weighing 1 -2 kg (Nowell

and Jackson 1996). Jungle Cat has the widest distribution

globally; Fishing and Leopard cats are distributed in several

Southeast Asian countries, and Rustyspotted Cat is endemic

to India and Sri Lanka (Nowell and Jackson 1996).

Leopard Cat; It has been reported to occur in some

reserves of Karnataka (Karanth 1986), on the basis of

secondary information. A total of eleven animals were sighted

during this survey: five in Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary,

two each in Bandipur National Park and Talakavari Wildlife

Sanctuary, and one each in Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

and in a coffee estate in Virajpet adjacent to Brahmagiri Wildlife

Sanctuary in Kodagu district (Fig. 1 ). The animal in the coffee

estate was seen among bushes, along the fence of the estate.

The local information revealed that Leopard Cats are quite

common in Kodagu. The species is found to occur along the

forests of the Western Ghats, and also adjacent deciduous

forests. No information was available from the drier plains of

the State. It has also been sighted on the fringes of a coffee

estate adjacent to Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in Chikmagalur

(Narsimha, pers. comm.). Leopard Cats have often been

recorded in evergreen forests and adjacent croplands in

Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa 2002) and

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Kumar etal. 2002).

Rustyspotted Cat: We sighted three Rustyspotted Cats

during the study period. One animal was sighted in Nugu,

one in Bandipur National Park and one in Sira of Tumkur. The

sighting in Nugu was at 1950 hrs, on a fig tree ( Ficus

bengalensis) at a height of about 5 m, the tree was 16 m tall.

Because of the disturbance caused by our presence, the animal

moved to an open area and became completely visible to us.

We watched the animal for about 20 minutes. The white ventral

portions were dotted with black spots. The dorsal gray hair

with a reddish tinge had rusty spots, and the tail was without

Table 1 : Official status and distribution of small carnivores of Karnataka

IWPA-Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.

lUCN-The World Conservation Union.

1,11 and IV-Schedules In Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.

VU-Vulnerable; CR-Critically Endangered; DD-Data Deficient

1 -Wet forests of the Western Ghats (evergreen forest), 2-Dry forests adjacent to Western Ghats (deciduous forests),

3-Dry forests of southern plateau (deciduous forests, including forests of Eastern Ghats), 4-Northern plains

?-No reliable information

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

155

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA

any spots or markings. We identified the animal as

Rustyspotted Cat and later confirmed it by referring to Prater

(1971). The animal was in a tree at the border between the

Sanctuary and cultivated croplands. The closest village was

about half a kilometer away. The other sighting at three and a

half kilometers from Sira town was at a roadside Tamarind tree

(Tamarindus indica ) at 2330 hrs. It was at a height of about

2 m, the tree was about 6 m tall. The cat remained on the tree

for about 5 min. It moved to another branch, due to

disturbance, but remained there in spite of our presence. The

sighting locality was close to human habitation, which is

adjacent to a reserve forest. The general forest type of the

region is dry scrub or dry deciduous. The interesting

observation was that both the sightings were on trees, and

the animals were not unduly disturbed. Rustyspotted cats

are known to be arboreal and nocturnal (Nowell and Jackson

1 996). The sighting in Bandipur National Park was on October

11, 2006 in Bandipur Range at 2130 hrs. The animal was on

ground adjacent to bushes and remained there without any

movement for about 12 min. It later moved inside the bushes.

The only published report on the occurrence of

Rustyspotted Cat from southern India was from Andhra

Pradesh (Rao et al. 1999) and drier forests of Kalakkad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Mudappa 2002).

Mudappa (pers. comm. ) also reported its occurrence in Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. Karanth (1986)

considers southern plateau as a nominal distribution range

of this species, but no sighting or occurrence was reported in

Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary (Karanth 1982) and Bandipur

(Karanth 1988). However, the recovery of one skin from the

outskirts of Bangalore city was reported. Although there are

no published sight records, there are few sightings from

different parts of the State, e.g. the animal was sighted in

Chikmagalur (Fig. 1), Kadur and Ranebennur (D.V. Girish,

pers. comm.). Our report confirms its occurrence in Karnataka.

Fishing Cat: Prater ( 1971) reported the Fishing Cat to

occur in some coastal districts of Karnataka; no recent

sightings are reported from any part of the State. Along the

coastal districts, the local information revealed no sightings

of this species in recent years. Even in the past, the information

on the species was vague. Karanth (1986) also reported no

reliable information on this species in recent years from the

West coast, and he suspects that the species could be locally

extinct.

Jungle Cat: This is one of the most common species of

small carnivores found to occur in all the districts of the State.

They occur at all altitudes ranging from the coast to high

altitudes of the Western Ghats. Further, they occupy most of

the habitat types varying from coastal habitat, evergreen

forests of the Western Ghats to dry plains. We saw scats and

pugmarks of the species in the forests in the Western Ghats,

one animal was sighted at Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, twice

in Nugu, five times in Tumkur, once in Kolar and once in the

Chamundi hill near Mysore (Fig. 1). All sighted animals were

adults. Most sightings were close to some water bodies or in

the croplands.

Viverridae

Four species of civets: Malabar Civet ( Viverria

civettina ), Small Indian Civet ( Viverricula indica ), Asian Palm

Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), and Brown Palm Civet

(P. jerdoni) are expected to occur in Karnataka. The Malabar

and Brown Palm civets are endemic to the Western Ghats,

whereas the Small Indian and Asian Palm civets have wide

distribution in South-east Asia.

Malabar Civet: The species is extremely rare, and is

listed under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection)

Act. We did not sight the animal during the present study.

The only information available on this species is ‘a possible

sighting in Kudremukh’ (Karanth 1986). A later survey (Rai

and Kumar 1993) also revealed a ‘possibility of occurrence’

along certain regions of the Western Ghats in Karnataka. The

only evidence of its occurrence in its distributional range is

the recovery of two skins from Nilambur in northern Kerala

(Ashraf et al. 1993). According to Rai and Kumar (1993),

Malabar Civets probably occur widely in Karnataka due to

the presence of extensive lowland forests along the Western

Ghats.

Small Indian Civet: The Small Indian Civet is widely

distributed in Karnataka, and is found to occur in various

habitat types. The habitats range from coastal plains to wet

evergreen forests, deciduous forests, dry scrub and rock

dominated dry forests. They occur at altitudes ranging from

<50 m to 1 ,400 m above msl. We sighted 1 3 animals during

this study, one animal each in Brahmagiri-Makut, Bandipur

National Park and Nugu, five animals in Nagarahole, three

animals in Tumkur district and one each in Kolar and

Chikmagalur districts. The sightings varied from crop fields

in the drier plains to evergreen forests of the Western Ghats.

All sightings were during night.

Asian Palm Civet: Asian Palm Civet is found in most of

the forest types including coast to dry plains, except in high

altitude evergreen forests. The species is capable of adapting

to various habitats, forest types, including living in townships.

They have often been observed to breed in house roofs in

coastal plains of Udupi, and also in dry plains, such as Bidar

district with little forest. However, they are very rare or absent

in areas completely bare and without any vegetation. We

sighted 32 animals during the present study. The sightings

included two animals each in Brahmagiri-Makut and Sirsi-

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA

Honnavara, nine animals in Nagarahole (Fig. 1 ), five animals

in Chamundi hill, three animals each in Sharavathi Valley

Wildlife Sanctuary and Bandipur National Park, and four

animals each in Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary and Pushpagiri

Wildlife Sanctuary. Although 15 animals were sighted in the

Western Ghats region, the sightings were mostly from moist

deciduous or deciduous forests.

Brown Palm Civet: Brown Palm Civets are considered

to be restricted to the evergreen forests and the adjacent

forests of the Western Ghats, ranging from Brahmagiri in the

south to Khanapur (Belgaum district) in the north. During the

present study, we found them to be absent in deciduous

forests adjacent to the Western Ghats. We have not sighted

the species in Nagarahole in spite of every effort. We sighted

a total of 1 8 animals in different regions of the Western Ghats.

The sightings were more in Brahmagiri-Makut and Sharavathi

Valley Wildlife Sanctuary (5 animals each) followed by Sirsi-

Honnavara (4 animals) and Pushpagiri-Bisale and Pushpagiri

Wildlife Sanctuary (2 animals each). Rajamani et al. (2003)

reported high encounter rate of Brown Palm Civet in other

parts of the Western Ghats in Karnataka. All sightings were

during nights in evergreen forests and on trees. Earlier, it was

thought that the species is rare in its entire distributional

range, but recent studies show that it is quite common

(Mudappa 2001), and is distributed from the southern

extremity of the Western Ghats in Kalakkad-Mundanthurai

Tiger Reserve to Dhud Sagar in Goa in the north (Rajamani

et al. 2003). Rajamani et al. (2003), based on the specimen

collected by R.C. Morris in Bombay Natural History Society

Museum, considered the species to occur in Biligirirangan

Hills near Mysore. However, it needs further investigation

since no information was found on occurrence of this species

in these hills during the present study.

Family Herpestidae

Four species of Herpestidae: Common Mongoose

( Herpestes edwardsii ), Ruddy Mongoose (H. smithii ), Stripe-

necked mongoose (H. vitticollis), and Brown Mongoose

( H.fuscus ) are expected to occur in Karnataka. The Common

Grey mongoose has a wide range in India, Persia, Mesopotamia

and southwards to Sri Lanka. The Stripe-necked and Brown

mongoose are restricted to the Western Ghats and the Ruddy

Mongoose is restricted to central and southern India (Prater

1971).

Common Mongoose: It is one of the common animals in

the open countryside in India. In Karnataka, they are found

in coastal plains, disturbed evergreen forests and dry plains.

However, they may be rare or even absent in high altitude

rain forests. We sighted two animals each in Tumkur, Nugu

and Chikmagalur, three in Bandipur National Park, four in

Mysore, and one in Bangalore (Fig. 1 ). In spite of the vigorous

efforts in evergreen forests of the Western Ghats and

deciduous forests of Nagarahole, no animal was sighted. All

the sightings were during the day. We sighted young ones

during September-October (2003).

Ruddy Mongoose: Ruddy Mongoose is absent in

coastal and evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. They

occur in dry forests and forests with rocky outcrops, and are

absent in completely barren areas. We sighted five animals in

Nagarahole, three in Bandipur National Park, one each in

Hasanur forests in Chamarajnagar and Savandurga forests in

Magadi of Bangalore district, and six in Daroji Bear Sanctuary

(Fig. 1) in Bellary district. All sightings were either in the

morning or in the evening, in dry forests or rocky areas. Animals

were seen in pairs thrice. Animals are also sighted frequently

in Bhadra (Narasimha, pers. comm.) and Bandipur (Karanth

1986,1988).

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

157

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA

Stripe-necked Mongoose: Stripe-necked Mongoose

occurs in evergreen forests of the Western Ghats and adjacent

dry deciduous forests in the State. We sighted 12 animals in

Nagarahole, five in Bandipur, and four in Talakaveri Wildlife

Sanctuary. They have been frequently sighted in Bhadra

(Narasimha, pers. comm.). All sightings were during the

daytime, especially in the early mornings and late evenings.

Pairs were sighted four times. It appears that Stripe-necked

Mongoose is more common than other mongoose species in

deciduous forests like Nagarahole and Bhadra.

Brown Mongoose: It is a rare species sighted very

infrequently. There are no sighting records from Karnataka in

recent years, and they were not sighted during the present

study too. Karanth (1986) reported the occurrence of the

species in the Western Ghats and in the southern plateau,

especially in Nagarahole, but we doubt its occurrence in

Nagarahole. They are relatively rare even in other parts of its

distribution in India (Mudappa 2002).

Family Mustelidae

Of the Mustelids, Smooth-coated Otter ( Lutrogale

perspicillata ), Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus ), Eurasian

Otter ( Lutra lutra ), Nilgiri Marten ( Martes gwatkinsi) and

Ratel (Mellivora capensis ) are known to occur in the State.

Among otters, the Eurasian Otter has a large distribution

ranging across different continents, including Europe, North

Africa and Asia, whereas the other two species are restricted

to South-east Asia. The Small-clawed and Eurasian otters

usually inhabit high altitude mountain streams, whereas the

Smooth-coated Otter inhabits streams and lakes of plains.

The distributional range of Nilgiri Marten is restricted to the

Western Ghats, and the Ratel has a wide distribution from

south-western Asia to Africa (Prater 1971).

Otters: During this study, we encountered otters only

at two sites of Cauvery river nearT. Narasipura (three animals)

and at Sangama (one animal). The species could not be

identified with certainty and hence the distribution could not

be provided at species level. The otters occur in Bheema,

Krishna, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Tunga, Bhadra,

Hemavathi, Kapila, and Cauvery rivers that run east of the

Western Ghats, and in the Western Ghats and rivers draining

towards west. We noticed large number of scats along the

River Cauvery and its tributaries, indicating high density of

otters. The rivers draining west from the Ghats in Dakshina

Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada also appear to have

good population of otters. The local information revealed

that during the high tide and monsoons, otters are seen even

at the coastline; otherwise they are seen at estuaries or just

before the estuaries where the population is continuous

towards fresh water. Karanth (1982) reported the Common

Otter from the Bhadra Reservoir in Shimoga district.

Nilgiri Marten: Nilgiri Marten is endemic to the

Western Ghats, and is reported from Nilgiris, south Coorg

and Travancore (Prater 1971 ). During the present study, we

sighted one animal in Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary. However,

local information revealed that the Nilgiri Marten is still found

along the Western Ghats. Earlier they were present in large

numbers, but due to the conversion of the forests of the

Western Ghats to coffee plantations and honey culture, the

intensity of hunting increased. Nilgiri Martens were believed

to raid Bee hives, and hence planters considered them as

pests, and killed them. Even today, people have a tendency

to kill martens if they see them. Marten is also hunted for

domestic consumption. Although no data are available

regarding its earlier status, the local information revealed

that the population of Nilgiri Marten in Karnataka has gone

down drastically.

Ratel: Ratel is usually found in plains and lives by

making a den in the earth. Before 1960s, it was reported from

some parts of Kolar district in Karnataka. However, there has

been no information during the recent decades on this species.

We talked with the people, described the animal, and showed

its picture, but there was no positive response for the

occurrence of this species from any part of the State. However,

during 2003, one animal was recovered from 'Sathanuri of

Kanakapura taluka of Bangalore (Rural) district. The animal

was found in a shallow well, just outside the village, where

cropland and shrub forest is interspersed (Doddalanahalli

village). The animal was shifted to Sri Chamarajendra

Zoological Garden, Mysore. It survived for only a few days.

Interviews with the villagers and forest officials in the range

revealed no sighting of the species in the same locality. The

species is present probably in very low numbers.

Threats

Local hunting and habitat loss are the major factors

affecting the status and distribution of small carnivore species.

In addition, road network with busy traffic in forest areas also

causes many road kills of small mammals ( Kumara et al. 2000 ).

Although Western Ghats, where most of the small carnivore

species occur, have been recognized as one of the Hotspots

of World Biodiversity (Myers et al. 2000), the attention paid

to conserve this region is still not satisfactory. Among such

biodiversity hotspots. Western Ghats also have high human

density (Cincotta etal. 2000). Menon and Bawa (1997) reported

a 40% loss in forest cover between 1920 and 1990 in the

Western Ghats. Such a sharp decline of forests results in

habitat alteration, degradation of the forest and an increase

in number of forest fragments. Such factors certainly make an

uncertain future for small carnivores.

158

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA

In addition to habitat loss, local hunting has made small

carnivores uncommon in their natural habitats. All small

carnivore species are hunted. There are no taboos attached

to hunting of such species in any community or ethnic group.

The hunting or capturing techniques vary between species.

Jungle Cat, Leopard Cat, Asian Palm Civet, mongoose species

and Nilgiri Marten are hunted for meat throughout their

distributional range in the State. Commercial hunting of these

species has gone unnoticed in the State. Common mongooses

are hunted for their hair, and they are also captured to keep as

pets and for use in the local circus or road shows for snake -

and-mongoose fights. The hunting methods vary from use of

muzzle load guns to various types of traps, depending on the

access to arms.

Along the west coast, especially in Dakshina Kannada,

commercial captive rearing of the Small Indian Civet is

common. Animals are captured from the forest and they are

kept in specially designed cages. The cage could be of a

circular or a rectangular shape with about 1 m each in radius

and height. It has a smooth pole at the centre, and the rest of

it is fixed with wire mesh. The animals rub their glands on the

pole and deposit the secretions. Once the deposition reaches

a certain amount, it is scraped. Each gram of this secretion

costs around Rs. 900 to Rs. 1000 in the market, as it is used in

ayurvedic medicine and for perfume manufacture. This

practice has resulted in an indiscriminate capture from nature

without any legal approval. If this practice continues

unchecked, it can significantly affect the status of the species.

Small Indian Civets are also hunted using various methods

throughout Karnataka for meat. In spite of its widespread

distribution and adaptability to a variety of habitats, the above

factors can cause local extinction of this species.

The body weight of Brown Palm Civets varies across

seasons. They are believed to hunt more during August and

October, when they become fat. People who hunt this species

consider its meat very relishing. Hence, the hunting pressure

on this species is severe and people go on hunting expeditions

during the post-monsoon period. Locals also devise special

traps designed exclusively to capture brown palm civets.

Brown Palm Civets usually use dead wood or exposed rocks

to excrete, and use fallen wood (especially fallen wood across

valleys/streams) to move. The traps are fixed on such fallen

wood. On several occasions we found leftovers, such as skin

and bones after the hunting expeditions. Brown Palm Civets

are also recovered from the nests of Giant Squirrels. However,

no commercial trade of this species was observed in

Karnataka.

In some regions of the Western Ghats, especially

Kodagu and Dakshina Kannada districts, people of certain

communities (Erava, Kuruba, Kodava, Naika) hunt otters. The

otters are caught in nets fixed in shallow waters. Trained dogs

are used to catch the animal from these nets. Otters are also

killed using guns, and retrieved using trained dogs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was sponsored by the Department of Science

and Technology, Government of India (Grant No.SP/SO/

C- 16/99) to Mewa Singh and the Rufford Foundation, UK, to

H.N. Kumara. We thank the Karnataka Forest Department for

permission to carry out this study and for the cooperation of

its staff in the field. We thank B.S. Narasimhamurty and

D.V. Girish for local information. We acknowledge the

assistance of M. Mohan Kumar, Somashaker, Sunil, Anil,

Goutham, Shanthala Kumar and many volunteers and field

assistants in the field and analysis of the data. Thanks

are also due to Josh Cole, W. Kaumanns, A. Kumar and

S.M. Mohnot.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), Miay-Aug 2007

161-164

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP AND RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR

OF JUVENILE GOLDEN MAHSEER TOR PUTITORA (HAMILTON 1822),

IN THE TRIBUTARIES OF RAMGANGA RIVER, UTTARAKHAND1

VlDYADHAR M. ATKORE2, K. SlVAKUMAR2'3 AND A.J.T. JOHNSINGH2'4

'Accepted November 2006

’Wildlife Institute of India, Post bag # 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

-’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

The length-weight relationship and condition factor of juvenile Golden Mahseer Tor putitora was observed from

samples collected between November 2004 and May 2005, in the Khoh, Kolhu and Mandal rivers, tributaries of the

Ramganga river, in Uttarakhand. Golden Mahseer found were mostly less than one year old. There was no significant

difference found between rivers in respect of length-weight relationship and condition factor of Golden Mahseer. The

estimated condition factor for Golden Mahseer across rivers was low (Kn = 1.10), however, the condition factor of

larger fish in the samples was good.

Key words: rivers, length-weight relationship, condition factor, umbrella species

INTRODUCTION

Golden Mahseer Tor putitora (Hamilton 1 822) belongs

to the Family Cyprinidae. It has wide distribution all along the

foothills of Himalaya. It also occurs in Nepal, Myanmar,

Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Body size of fish is an important

predictor for species diversity and density distribution

(Knouft 2002; Ulrich 2004). The length-weight relationship is

an important indicator for predicting gonadal development,

metamorphosis, maturity, and condition of fish (Le Cren 1951).

The length-weight relationship (L / W) has been widely used

in fish biology with several purposes, e.g. to estimate the

mean weight of the fish, based on known length (Bayer 1987),

and weight as a function of length (Hile 1936). The condition

factor Kn (Le Cren 1951) is a quantitative parameter for the

well-being of fish and reflects recent feeding conditions. This

factor varies according to influence of physiological factors

fluctuating according to different stages of development.

Anderson and Neumann ( 1 996) refer to length-weight data of

a population, as a basic parameter for monitoring study of

fisheries, since it provides important information concerning

the structure and function of populations. According to

Le Cren (1951), the relative condition factor is affected by

length as well as several other factors like environment, feeding

and breeding.

Studies on spawning ecology (Nautiy al and Lai 1981),

migratory behaviour (Nautiyal and Lai 1983) and length-

weight relationship of Golden Mahseer (Nautiyal 1 985a) have

been carried out in the Garhwal Himalaya. Tributaries of the

Ramganga river of lower Garhwal Himalayan region were

identified as one of the important Mahseer areas (MacDonald

1936); however, there was no study on the ecology of the

Golden Mahseer from this region. The objective here is to

determine the length-weight relationship and variations in

the condition factor of Golden Mahseer Tor putitora among

different tributaries of the River Ramganga.

STUDY AREA

River Ramganga is one of the principal rivers of the

Shivalik range or lower Garhwal Himalaya. Khoh, Kolhu, and

Mandal are the tributaries of this river. Khoh originates from

Dwarikhal in the north and drains through Shivalik ranges

and is situated between 29° 45' 27"-29° 48' 22. 1" N and 78° 32'

22.4"- 78° 36' 1 8.5" E in the southern part of the Pauri-Garhwal

district of Uttarakhand state (Fig. 1 ). Kolhu is situated between

29° 41' 39.2"-29° 42' 46.3" N and 78° 31' 42.3"-78° 37' 41” E.

Mandal is situated between 29° 35' 5"-29° 38' 9.9" N and 79° 00'

34.1 "-78° 57' 9.7" E, rises in the eastern heights in Chamoli

district and flows north to east of Corbett National Park, where

it meets the Ramganga river.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Survey of fish fauna in the tributaries of River Ramganga

was carried out using a cast net having mesh size of 1 x 1 cm

over a period of five months during December 2004 to April

2005. Sampling was carried out throughout the day. Collected

fishes were placed in a bucket of water, and the total length

(L) in cm, and body weight (W) to the nearest O.lg were

measured using Vernier caliper and pasola spring balance.

After recording various morphometric characters, such as

head length, body depth, eye diameter and total body length,

the fishes were released back into the rivers.

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP AND RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF JUVENILE GOLDEN MAHSEER

Fig. 1 : Map of study river - Khoh, Kolhu and Mandal tributaries of the Ramganga river Uttarakhand, India

Length-weight relationship and condition factor were

assessed from measurement of total weight (W) and total

length (L). The general parabolic form of equation, W = a Lh,

(where ‘W’ is weight of the fish in gm, ‘L’ is length in cm, ‘a’ is

scaling constant, ‘b’ is allometric growth parameter) was used

to show the statistical relationship between length and weight.

Since the length-weight ratio is a power relationship,

logarithms were used, so that the exponential relation could

be expressed by a linear equation: Log W = log a + b log L.

For each individual fish, regression was used to estimate the

intercept (log a) and regression coefficient or slope b using

SPSS ( ver.8.0) programme.

Condition factor ( Kn ), assessed for comparisons among

sites, was determined by the following expressions: Kn = W/Lb,

where Kn corresponds to the condition factor and b is the

allometry coefficient related with the form of the individuals

growth, calculated from the length-weight relationship.

RESULTS

A total of 758 individuals were analyzed for length-

weight relationship. The Golden Mahseer found were mostly

juveniles to subadults in these rivers. The size class of 6-10 cm

(total length) was dominant in all three rivers followed by

11-15 cm; 26-30 cm and above were caught only in Kolhu

river. The mean fresh total length were Log 0.891 ± SE 0.009 in

Khoh (Fig. 2), Log 0.997 ± SE 0.024 in Kolhu (Fig. 3) and Log

0.844 ± SE 0.003 in Mandal rivers (Fig. 4). Similarly, mean fresh

body weight were Log 0.895 ± SE 0.01 8, Log 1 .097 ± SE 0.052,

Fig. 2: Golden Mahseer in the Khoh river (n = 1 90)

162

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP AND RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF JUVENILE GOLDEN MAHSEER

Table 1 : Showing detail description of Golden Mahseer Torputitora in the tributaries of the Ramganga river

n - number of individuals, r - regression value, b - allometric growth parameter, a - scaling constant, Kn - condition factor assessed for

comparison among sites, In - length of fish, wt - weight of the fish

and Log 0.82 1 ± SE 0.008 respectively in these rivers.

There was no significant difference between rivers

in respect of length-weight relationship of Golden Mahseer

(One way ANOVAtest, F, 757 = 62.525, P<0.095). The estimated

regression coefficient, b was 1.863 in case of Khoh, 2.016 for

Kolhu and 1 .760 for Mandal rivers (see Figs. 2, 3, 4).

The condition factor of Golden Mahseer was

better (i.e. Kn >3 ) in the size classes above 20-25 cm body

length, but the condition factor of young ones, which were

shorter than 20 cm in length, was poor and Kn value varied

from 0.8 to 2.7 in these size classes. One-way ANOVA result

shows that there were no differences in condition factor (Kn)

of fishes in these three rivers (F, 777 = 1.480, p > 0.05, Table 1 ).

DISCUSSION

Tributaries of the Ramganga river of Lower Garhwal

Himalaya were identified as one of the important mahseer

areas (MacDonald 1936). However, the present study shows

that upstream of River Ramganga, which largely falls in the

buffer zone of the Corbett Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand, also

serves as an important spawning ground for the Golden

Mahseer, as most of the fishes caught here were fingerlings

and juveniles.

The length-weight relationship (W/L) and condition

factor were observed for both the sexes of the Golden Mahseer

in the Beas River System (Bali and Sharma 2000). Length-

weight relationship of Golden Mahseer in other parts of

Garhwal Himalaya (Nautiyal 1985a) is different from those in

the upstream of Ramganga tributaries. This may be due to the

different environmental factors.

The estimated condition factor for Golden Mahseer

across rivers was similar, i.e. Kn = 1 . 1 0. It is quite far removed

from the ideal condition factor, i.e. Kn = 3. This ideal situation

applies if the study was conducted throughout one complete

breeding cycle of fish, which includes all size classes from

juvenile to adult. We found that the majority of the Golden

Mahseer individuals caught were in juvenile stage, as the

sampling period was after the spawning season. The result

shows that the condition factor of adult Golden Mahseer

(Kn) was better than the juveniles in the upstream of the

Ramganga river. Juveniles are normally slender with a

maximum length to weight ratio resulting in low Kn value

(Hile 1936). Condition factor observed was similar in all rivers,

but different from the standard Kn value. Further, various

anthropogenic disturbances (sand mining and indiscriminate

fishing) were also observed in the Kolhu and Khoh

rivers.

Golden Mahseer is well known for its delicacy, sport

angling and most importantly it is an umbrella fish species in

Himalayan streams. It is an endangered Himalayan fish under

continuous threat due to various anthropogenic pressures

0 J I > > t t 1 I ’

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 8 1 1.2 1 4 1 6

Log Fresh Total Length

0

0 0.2 0 4 0.6 0 8

Log Fresh Total Length

12

Fig. 3: Golden Mahseer in the Kolhu river (n = 70)

Fig. 4: Golden Mahseer in the Mandal river (n = 498)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

163

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP AND RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF JUVENILE GOLDEN MAHSEER

(Nautiyal 1985b). The tributaries of the River Ramganga

provide a good spawning ground for the Golden Mahseer,

and hence need immediate protection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Uttarakhand Forest Department for

granting permission for this study. We sincerely thank the

NOAA Central Library, USAfor providing references on similar

topic. We also thank the Director, WII, and MoEF for

permission to carry out this study. We thank Abishek Harihar

for help in the analytical part. We also thank the anonymous

referee for valuable comments and for editing.

REFERENCES

Anderson, R.O. & R.M. Neumann (1996): Length, weight, and associated

structural indices. Pp. 447-481. In: (Eds: Murphy, B.R. &

D.W. Willis) Fisheries Techniques. 2nd edition. American Fishery

Society, Bethesda, Maryland.

Bayer, J.E. ( 1987): On weight-length relationships. Part- 1: Computing

the mean weight of the fish of a given length class, Manila.

Fish byte 5: 11-13.

Bali, R.K. & K.B. Sharma (2000): Length, weight and relative condition

factor of Tor putitora (Hamilton) inhabiting in Beas river system

and its tributaries in the district Kangara in Himachal Pradesh.

In: ‘Abstract: Proceeding of the Symposium - Sustainable

Development and Conservation of the Cold Water Fish Genetic

Resources’. Organized by The Nature Conservators,

Muzaffarnagar, and Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,

Palampur. 7-8lh June

Hile, R. (1936): Age and Growth of the Cisco, Leucichthys artedi

(Le sueur), in the Lakes of the Northeastern Highlands,

Wisconsin. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 48(19): 211-217

Knouft, J. (2002): Regional size of body size and population density in

stream fish assemblages: testing prediction of the energetic

equivalence rule. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59: 1350-1360.

Le Cren, E.D. (1951): The length weight relationship and seasonal

cycle in gonad weight and condition in the Perch (Perea

fluviatilis). J. Animal Ecology 20: 201-219.

MacDonald, A.S.J. (1936): A fishing trip in Kumaon. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 38: 598-600.

Nautiyal, P. (1985a): Length-weight relationship and relative

condition factor of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer with

reference to the fishery. Indian J. Animal Science 55(1):

65-70.

Nautiyal, P. (1985b): Mahseer conservation-Problems and Prospects.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 32-36.

Nautiyal, P. & S. Lal (1981): Destruction of spawning grounds of

Mahseer and other fish in Garhwal Himalayas. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 85: 311-314.

Nautiyal, P. & S. Lal (1983): Preliminary observations on the

migratory behaviour of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 204-208.

Ulrich, W. (2004): Allometrical ecological distribution in a local

community of Hymenoptera. Acta Oecologica. 25: 179-186.

164

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

165-169

BIONOMICS OF A CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC CATFISH,

HORABAGRUS NIGRICOLLARIS FROM ITS TYPE LOCALITY IN KERALA1

P.H. Anvar Ali 2,3 and G Prasad2-4

'Accepted December 2006

"Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, University Campus, Kariavattom. Thiruvananthapuram 695 581, Kerala, India.

"Email: [email protected]

Data on some aspects of the bionomics of the Bagrid Catfish Horabagrus nigricollaris are presented. The Imperial

White-collared Catfish is confined to the regime reaches of its type locality - the Chalakudy river, Kerala and is listed

as critically endangered. The present sample consists of specimens with a total length ranging from 70- 1 87 mm and total

weight ranging from 3.7-66.95 g. The growth was found to be allometric and the regression equation of combined sexes

was log W= 1.839+2.855 log ‘L’. H. nigricollaris is a benthophagic omnivore fish, feeding on insects, algae, and

crustaceans. The absolute fecundity of a ripe specimen having a total length of 156 mm and weight 33.70 g was

1,320 eggs with a relative fecundity andGSI value of 413 eggs/g body weight and 9.5 respectively. The male:female sex

ratio was 1:1.1. The information generated from this study is the first of its kind on the knowledge of the biology of this

endemic catfish.

Key words: Horabagrus nigricollaris, endemic catfish, food and feeding habits, reproductive biology, length-weight

relationship.

INTRODUCTION

Horabagrus nigricollaris (Pethiyagoda and Kottelat

1994) known as ‘Manja koori’ locally is confined to the type

locality; Vettilapara ( 1 0° 17' N, 76° 32' E) in Chalakudy river,

Kerala and is listed as Critically Endangered (CAMP Report

1998). It is a bottom inhabitant of the regime reaches of the

stream with rocky and sandy/gravelly bed, well adapted to

the cold, and free flowing waters of the river. The species is

relished and generally consumed by the locals. The study

made so far on this species is only on the description and

taxonomic aspects by Pethiyagoda and Kottelat (1994), and

Shaji and Easa (2003). Studies on biological aspects of the

species are lacking therefore, some aspects of the biology

such as length-weight relationship, food and feeding and

reproductive biology are reported here.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fish samples for the present study were collected from

the type locality, Vettilapara in Chalakudy river in Kerala from

January, 2005 to December, 2005. Atotal of 48 specimens were

collected from the local fishermen that were caught by diverse

gears such as cast nets, gill nets, and hook and line. Being a

nocturnal fish, fishing was earned out at night. In the rocky

pools, hook and line and in the shallow region of regime reach

the cast nets were used. Cast nets were hauled by walking

through the stream a 100 m stretch throughout the sampling

period. For hook and line, prawns caught from the same

habitat were used as bait. Throughout the sampling period

the catch/unit effort of the species was found to be very low,

when compared to other species in the area. Usually the fishing

time/duration was 2100 hrs - 0400 hrs at night. Specimens

having a total length between 7.0 and 18.7 cm, and weight

3.7 to 66.95 g were examined during the study. Immediately

after collection, the specimens were preserved in 10% formalin.

The data of the length-weight relationship were analyzed

following Le Cren ( 1961 ) by the formula, W=aLn. The constants

‘ a ’ and 'n' in the equation were estimated using the method of

least squares. The linear equation was fitted separately for

males, females, indeterminate and the combined class. After

taking the morphometric measurements such as total length,

standard length, and total weight, the guts were dissected.

The length, weight and volume of the gut were recorded and

the contents taken out for food and feeding analysis. The gut

contents were analyzed using Point’s method described by

Hynes (1950) and Pillai (1952). The index of preponderance

was worked out following Natarajan and Jhingran (1961).

Ovaries were removed from fresh specimens and their length

and weight were recorded. They were then preserved in

10% formalin for ova diameter measurements and fecundity

estimation. Excessive formalin was removed from preserved

ovaries by washing with distilled water, when sufficiently

hard the ovaries were weighed to the nearest milligram.

RESULTS

Length-weight relationship

Table 1 shows the corresponding statistics such as

sample size (n), the length-weight ranges (minimum &

BIONOMICS OF CATFISH HORABAGRUS NIGRICOLIARIS IN KERALA

maximum), estimated parameters of length-weight

relationships ( a , n) and the standard error (SE) and r. Overall,

parameters n ranged from a minimum of 2.657 for males to

maximum of 2.934 for females. Fish samples were included

throughout the sampling period, but the data are not

representative of a particular season, consequently the

parameters 'a ' and 'n ’ should be treated as mean annual values.

The length-weight relationship of the pooled data has been

represented as Fig. 1 .

Food and Feeding Habits

The alimentary canal of H. nigricollaris consists of the

mouth, buccal cavity with a number of patches of teeth, well-

developed stomach, moderately long intestine and rectum.

The mouth is sub-terminal in position. The stomach contents

include insects, algal remains, semi-digested animal and plant

matter, fish molluscs and crustaceans. Insects could be

identified from general exoskeletal characteristics. Larvae and

nymphs were identified by the characteristic features of

different groups. Only generic identification was possible.

The insects mainly consisted of the adult, larvae and nymphs

of Plectoptera (Stonefly larvae), Ephemeroptera (Mayfly

larvae), Hemiptera (Notonecta), Dipterans and Coleoptera

( beetles & water penny ).The crustaceans consisted of prawns

( Palaemon spp.) and appendages of crabs ( Barytelphusa

spp.). Molluscs were constituted by snails of the Family

Viviparidae. Bits of leaves, fruits and tender shoots of aquatic

plants, dried twigs and leaves of other plants that are

occasionally washed off in the river waters and the decaying

organic matter constituted the plant matter and detritus. The

teleosts could be readily identified by the skeletal remains.

Their specific identification often becomes difficult due to

their being in advanced stages of digestion in the stomach.

Besides the above food items, the presence of sand grains,

mud and small pebbles in large quantities were noted. Ripe

specimens examined during breeding season had almost

empty guts. Index of preponderance worked out for

H. nigricollaris is shown in Fig. 2.

Log Length (mm)

Fig. 1 : Length-weight relationship of Horabagrus nigricollaris

Reproductive Biology

Each testis had numerous thin-walled lobules. During

the breeding season the lobules became greatly distended

with spermatids and spermatozoa. The ovaries are paired,

rounded, elongated organs, which on attainment of full

maturity, occupy nearly the entire body cavity. The two lobes

of the ovaries gradually taper down towards the posterior

extremity where they unite to form a short oviduct, which

opens to the exterior, slightly behind the anal opening. The

ovaries in mature condition were light orange. Subsequent to

spawning the superficial blood vessels supplying the ovaries

become enlarged and conspicuous. The smallest mature male

and female collected in the present study had a size of TL=14,

Plant remains

4%

Semi digested

animal matter -

4%

Crustaceans

6%

Algal remains

23%

Molluscs

3%

Insects

58%

Fig. 2: Index of Preponderance of Horabagrus nigricollaris

Table 1 : Coefficients of length-weight relationship and statistical analysis of H. nigricollaris

166

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

BIONOMICS OF CATFISH HORABAGRUS NIGRICOLLARIS IN KERALA

TW=26.15 and TL=1 5.6, TW=33. 70 respectively. Ripe males

and females were collected only during January, February,

November and December and hence it is concluded that the

breeding season of the species is from November to February

in this habitat. Most of the collected individuals had

predominantly ripe ovaries from November-January. In

February gravid fishes became less numerous. It can be

inferred that the species is a total spawner and November-

January is the spawning period of the species. The absolute

fecundity of the ripe female of total length (TL) 15.6 cm and

weight 33.70 g was 1 ,320 eggs, with a relative fecundity and

GSI value of 39 eggs/g body weight and 9.5 respectively. The

sex ratio of the male to female was 1:1.1. The mean ova diameter

was 1.80 mm. The juveniles of the species were available from

February onwards in the shallow stretches of the regime

reaches during night and are easily vulnerable to simple

fishing gears. Fingerlings (50-80 mm) have been collected by

us from February to June in the vicinity of its microhabitat.

The cyclic changes were studied in relation to different

maturity stages. Qayyum and Qasim ( 1964a, b, c) and Bhatt

(1971) were followed to observe the following maturity stages.

The characters used for the classification of the ovary were

appearance, colour, size, state of distension, relative space

occupied in the body cavity, the size of the ova and their yolk

content. In the case of testes, besides the general appearance.

colour, size, etc., the extent of lobulation of the edges was

used for determining the stage. Following maturity stages

(Table 2) have been observed seasonally for H. nigricollaris.

DISCUSSION

The scrutiny of T’ values showed very good correlation

between length and weight. The exponent value V for males,

females, indeterminate and combined class of H. nigricollaris

in the present study was less than ‘3’ indicating that increase

in weight is relatively less compared to length. The growth in

weight relative to length is allometric showing deviation from

the ‘cube law' (Le Cren 1951). From the above it may be seen

that the value of V was higher in females, since the females

have better condition and growth than the males. The value

of exponent V for an ideal fish which maintains the same

shape throughout its life cycle without any change, is equal

to 3.0 (Allen 1938). According to Martin ( 1949), the value of

exponent V in the parabolic equation usually lies within a

range of 2. 5-4.0. The change in exponent is due to changes in

specific gravity and shape of the body contour and in such

cases, the cube law need not always hold good. Morphological

changes due to age also cause substantial changes in the

exponent of length on weight. While discussing the merits of

allometric growth formula, Beverton and Holt ( 1957) stated

Table 2: Gonadal condition of different maturity stage of male & female H. nigricollaris

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

167

BIONOMICS OF CATFISH HORABAGRUS NIGRICOLLARIS IN KERALA

that instances of important deviation from isometric growth

in fishes are rare. In the present study, deviation from the

isometric value of ‘3’ was evident, and such deviations from

the isometric value of ‘3’ have also been reported in many fin

fishes.

Insects were the dominant food item contributing

59% of the total gut content. The second major item is the

algal remains contributing 23% followed by crustaceans, semi-

digested animal matter, plant matter, molluscs, fish in the ratio

of 5.8%, 3.7%, 3.6%, 2.7%, 2.2% respectively. In general, the

gut contents of animal origin contributed the major share

(73%) followed by material of plant origin (24%) and the rest

by others. The dense overhanging vegetation of the forest

habitat is an important allochthonous source of food

particularly insects, fruits and larval forms of fish. In addition,

the leaf litter supports large numbers of aquatic insects,

gastropod molluscs and young fish. The occurrence of scales

along with fish remains shows that the species often feeds

on fish probably on dead or decaying fish. Sand and mud are

accidentally taken while feeding on other food items

particularly insects and crustaceans. The presence of sand

and mud in the stomach also indicates the bottom feeding

habit of the fish.

H. nigricollaris possesses a well-marked single group

of oocytes and the breeding season is short and lasts for

about four months. According to Qasim and Qayyum ( 1961 )

in fishes which possess single group of oocytes during the

breeding season, the cycle of spawning in each individual

occurs only once a year and the state of maturity at any given

time is fairly uniform throughout the population. In the ovaries

of fishes which spawn only once a year and in which the

duration of spawning is restricted to a definite and short

period, the mature stock of ova can be differentiated from the

general egg stock; ovary has only one batch of mature eggs

to be shed during the succeeding spawning season. Fecundity

of any species of fish depends not only upon the size and age

of the fish, but also on the size of the egg. The fish in which

the eggs are larger, the fecundity will be lower when compared

to fish with smaller eggs. According to Svardson (1949) larger

larvae produced from larger eggs have a better chance in

natural selection than smaller larvae produced from smaller

eggs.

The length-weight relation clearly indicates that the

Imperial White-collared Catfish follows allometric growth in

its type locality in Chalakudy river. From the above

observations it can be concluded that H. nigricollaris is a

benthophagic omnivore showing preference towards animal

diet. H. nigricollaris possesses a well-marked single group

of oocytes and the breeding season is short and lasts for

about four months (November to February). The conservation

actions needed include judicious exploitation of the fish

stocks, artificial propagation and regular ranching programmes

and also enforcement and declaration of closed season during

the breeding season. The protective measures include

protection of riverine pools and crevices which act as the

microhabitat of the species. Urgent attention to declare certain

rocky pools and crevices as sanctuaries is essential as the

species is on the verge of extinction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Kerala State Council for Science,

Technology & Environment for funding the project, DST-FIST

for providing the facilities, and to Dr. Oommen V. Oommen,

Professor & Head, Department of Zoology, University of Kerala

for his encouragement and support for this study.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

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Institute of Freshwater. Research, Drothingham. Rept. 29:

115-122.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

169

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

170-177

ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION TO THE STATE AND COMPARISON

OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM,

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

Lakpa Tamang24, Shivaji Chaudhry2,5 and Dhrupad Choudhury3

‘Accepted March 2007

:GB. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, North East Unit, Vivek Vihar,

Arunachal Pradesh 791 113, India.

’International Center for Integrated Mountain Development, G.P.O. Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5 Email: shivaji. chaudhry @ gmail.com

The Eastern Himalayan region has been identified as one of the 18 mega-biodiversity ‘hotspot’ areas of the world

(Myers et al. 2000). Arunachal Pradesh constitutes 60.93% of the Eastern Himalayan region. Some documentation

exists on the flora, but documentations on faunal aspects are still scanty, with scattered reports, mostly on birds and

some large mammals. Although contributions to the fish fauna of the State have also been made, accounts of species

compositions of many water bodies still remain undocumented awaiting explorations and studies of such aquatic

systems. Descriptions of most faunal works have been added with special emphasis on fishes. The preliminary findings

suggest 7 first reports for the district and 3 first reports for the State. Senkhi stream contributed 31.37% of the

icthyofaunal families of the district and 29.52% of genera while the species representation was found to be 27.32%. The

correlation matrix reveals an interesting fact that Dikrong and Pachin have more common species than Senkhi, which is

a hill stream. The striking feature is the even distribution of species under family Badidae, Psilorhynchidae and Olyridae

though their contribution of each lotic (Senkhi, Pachin and Dikrong) water body is merely a single species and hence

these species will be most vulnerable once a mega dam comes in-between, restricting the migration of already threatened

population.

Keywords: Eastern Himalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Lotic, Icthyofauna

INTRODUCTION

Myers et al. (2000) identified 18 mega-biodiversity

‘hotspot’ regions of the world, based on the criterion of

exceptional concentration of species and endemism as well

as exceptional degrees of threat arising out of increased

pressures of human intervention, with the possibility of

potential extinction of constituent species caused by the latter.

Myers et al. (2000) predicted the possibility of a major

extinction spasm impending in these areas. However, they

also pointed out that if key localities of biotic richness can be

identified, conservation priorities could be determined in a

more informed and methodological manner than has been the

case (Mittermeier et al. 1999 and Myers et al. 2000). The

principal drawback, however, has been the lack of basic data,

especially of animal species.

Out of the 18 ‘hotspots’ the Eastern Himalayan region

was assessed to have an ‘ultra-varied’ topography, a factor

thought to be the working principle which fosters species

diversity and endemism. However the lack of data, particularly

of species number and distribution, seems especially acute

for this region with large parts remaining unexplored

scientifically.

The state of Arunachal Pradesh, stretching from 26° 30'

to 29° 30' N and 91° 30' to 97° 30' E, falls within the Eastern

Himalayan region. In fact, Arunachal Pradesh, with a total

geographical area of 83,743 sq. km, constitutes a substantial

proportion of this mega-biodiversity ‘hotspot’ region. It is

known for its topographic and altitudinal diversity, its rich

forests and numerous riverine bodies. Among the constituents

of the Eastern Himalayan Hotspot region (Nepal, Bhutan and

Yunnan in China), Arunachal Pradesh probably still retains

the highest forest cover. Given the low density of human

population and difficult terrain, many of its forests and rivers

remain pristine and undisturbed. Inaccessibility, arising out

of the attributes of topography and climate, has helped to

conserve the natural resources of the State, but this has also

meant that the rich biological resources of the State remain

largely undocumented.

In context of Arunachal Pradesh, the efforts made by

governments (both State and Central) for the development of

the state and its populace has been relatively slow as

compared to other parts of country. There is urgency for

extensive studies on biodiversity related issues keeping in

mind the immense bioresources of Arunachal Pradesh. One

of the immediate visible signs of development efforts in

Itanagar, the capital, is the rapid urbanization and spread of

settlements which have adverse effects on the flora and fauna

ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

of a given location. Apart from the local extinction of biological

elements consequent to permanent changes of land use,

urbanization also has its deleterious impact on the water bodies.

The disposal of urban waste into water bodies, removal of

sand, boulders and stones change the micro-habitats of the

stream and bring about a consequent depletion of species

inhabiting such systems. Arunachal’s network of riverine

systems offers tremendous potential for hydro-power

generation. Each hydro-power project involves the

construction of major dams. The impact of such major changes

on the resident biological elements is well known and

contributes to the depletion of biodiversity. It is imperative,

therefore, to carry out extensive documentations so that

baseline data and information are generated, thereby

contributing to conservation strategies and prioritization of

ecological (and evolutionary) sensitive locations.

So far as icthyofauna is concerned, the earliest report

seems to be of McClelland (1839) who mentioned four species

from Lohit (Mishmi hills) in his account of Indian Cyprinids.

This is followed by Chaudhuri (1913) who reported 2 1 species

from the State. Hora (1921), Jayaram (1963), Jayaram and

Mazumdar (1964), Srivastava (1966), Dutta and Sen (1977),

Dutta and Barman ( 1984, 1985), Sen ( 1985), Sen (1999), and

Nath and Dey (2000) are the other workers who have

contributed to the fish fauna of the State. The reports of the

above workers are accounts from different parts of Arunachal

Pradesh and cover West Kameng, Upper and Lower Subansiri,

East and West Siang, Lohit, Tirap and Changlang districts of

Arunachal Pradesh. While reports on the icthyofauna seems

to cover the State fairly well, gaps remain in regard to a

complete coverage of a given drainage system and the reports

do not give accounts of seasonal variations of the fish fauna

from a given location. While surveys can provide an indication

of species diversity of the given location at a given time, they

fail to provide an indication of seasonal fluxes and hence, fail

to record species with seasonal immigration into the system.

The present investigation was conducted in Senkhi stream, a

lotic system that drains into the Brahmaputra through the

Pachin and Dikrong rivers. Regular monitoring of species

diversity and richness has been initiated from September 14,

2004 and the present report is a compilation based on the

thirteen months monitoring.

METHODOLOGY

Weekly samples were collected from three permanent

sites on the Senkhi stream, using a cast net of 0.007 m mesh

size and radius of 2.29 m. Samplings were done after dusk

(from 1 800 to 2200 hrs, except for one occasion, when sampling

was carried out between 0100 and 0400 hrs). To supplement

the above efforts, regular sampling was also done on a 5 km

stretch in order to assess the species diversity found in catches

from the study sites. It may be worth mentioning that the 5 km

stretch was abandoned after 52 weeks of sampling and hence

was termed as non regular, while the study was continued in

the regular sampling sites till November 14, 2005. The species

diversity reported here includes all the samplings outlined.

Taxonomic identification used here follows those reported

by Jayaram ( 1999). Representatives have been preserved and

deposited in the NE Unit's office and this is supplemented

with photographic documentation of each species, taken on

the day of the catch. Senkhi, Dikrong and Pachin are

contiguous water bodies (Fig. 1 ), there is no barrier for

migration of fishes from each water body to other. Assuming

that all fishes have equal chances of migration to and fro from

all the three water bodies, the taxonomical enumeration of

fishes of all the three water bodies can be used to find effect

of contiguity on taxonomic diversity. Senkhi form the

uppermost part of the water body and was sampled by us;

however at mid elevations Pachin and lower plain river Dikrong

was sampled by Nath and Dey 2000. Therefore, present

enumeration of fishes was subjected to comparison with that

of Nath and Dey 2000 to asses the effect of habitat contiguity

on taxonomic distribution of fishes. The species were

compared for their correlation matrix in all three lotic water

bodies using StatSoft 200 1 , also their higher taxa appropriation

was calculated corresponding to each lotic water body.

RESULTS

The icthyofaunal diversity of the study site is restricted

to 47 species belonging to 3 1 genera, spread over 1 6 families

(Table 1 ). The species diversity listed is the cumulative total

of fifty two regular samplings spread over a time period of

thirteen months beginning September 14, 2004. The frequency

of occurrence of each species was calculated based on the

number of occasions the species was collected during the

samplings. The results presented in Table 1 , suggest that of

the 47 species collected, 3 species belonging to the families

Cyprinidae, Cobitidae and Psilorhynchidae were common in

the study sites. The analysis also indicates that 9 more

species, belonging to Cyprinidae, Sisoridae, Channidae,

Bagridae, and Cichlidae, are rare. Of these, three species -

Glyptothorax telchitta, Labeo gonius, and Oreochromis

mossambica - are extremely rare, having been collected only

once during the whole study period. It is important to note,

however, that the occurrence of Oreochromis mossambica in

the lotic system may be accidental and a result of introduction

through Hood waters from fishery ponds nearby where they

occur as a common culture fishery species. Thus, although

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

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ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

the species is included in all the assessments reported

subsequently, it must be considered as an accidental migrant

not normally native to such systems.

An analysis of the taxonomic composition of the fish

fauna suggests Cyprinidae to be the most dominant family

with 22 representative species (43%) occurring in the study

site. Cobitidae, the next dominant family, has 6 species

inhabiting the site (17%), followed by Sisoridae with

3 representative species (10%). Whereas Amblycepitidae,

Psilorhynchidae, Homalopteridae, Heteropneustidae,

Chandidae, Channidae, Clariidae, Cichlidae, Olyridae, Badidae,

Erethistidae and Bagridae are the other 1 2 families each having

single species representation.

In addition to the 47 species reported above, another

1 1 species belonging to 8 genera, spread over 6 families were

also caught during the single survey of a 5 km stretch

downstream from the study site. The species caught during

this survey are listed in Table 1. The taxonomic diversity in

this catch shows a co-dominance of the families Cyprinidae

and Cobitidae, with 7 species representation (70%). Cobitidae,

Clariidae and Mastacembelidae with 1 species each (30%)

follow next.

The higher taxa diversity, on combining of the results

of the two sample sets, shows an interesting transformation.

While Family Cyprinidae with 22 species (48%) retains its

predominance, Cobitidae follows as a poor second with

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ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

Catch frequency with-Common: 91 -100%, Abundant: 81-90%, Frequent: 61-80%, Occasional: 31-59%, Sporadic: 15-30%, Rare: 05-14%,

Extremely rare: <05%, *: represents the species caught outside the regular sampling site; f: represents the first report for the state;

•: represents first report for the district

6 representative species, contributing 13% to the species

composition. The Family Sisoridae, with 4 species, contributes

9% to the icthyofaunal diversity, followed by

Mastacembelidae and Chandidae with 2 species at 4%

contribution each. Families Amblycipitidae, Badidae, Bagridae,

Channidae, Cichlidae, Clariidae, Sisoridae, Heteropneustidae,

Homalopteridae, Olyridae, and Psilorhynchidae, were each

represented by a single species, thereby contributing a mere

2% to the higher taxa diversity of the lotic system (Table 3).

An interesting aspect of the composition is the restrictive

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ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

Table 2: Comparison of Icthyofauna of three lotic bodies in the Papum Pare district

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ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

Table 2: Comparison of Icthyofauna of three lotic bodies in the district (contd.)

V indicates presence of species; indicates absence of species(s)

distribution of certain families even within the localized

sampling area. Species of Mastacembelidae and Olyridae seem

restricted to the lower stretches of Senkhi stream as they do

not figure in the catches from the study site upstream.

Table 3: Total taxa in all three water bodies

Conversely, representatives from Psilorhynchidae,

Homalopteridae, Heteropneustidae, Channidae and Bagridae

seem confined to the upper stretches of Senkhi stream Thus,

on a higher taxa level, while members of Cyprinidae are the

most common and contribute most to the diversity of this

lotic system, Psilorhynchidae, Homalopteridae,

Heteropneustidae, Channidae and Bagridae appear to be

taxonomic groups with both restricted diversity and

distribution in this system.

There were in all 95 species (Table 2) in all the three

lotic water bodies out of which Dikrong had 85 species

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

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ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

Table 4: Total taxa exclusive to Dikrong, Pachin and Senkhi

Table 5: Total taxa common to Dikrong, Pachin and Senkhi

(89.47%), followed by Senkhi with 47 species (49.47%) and

lastly by Pachin with 41 species (43. 16%). There are 29 species

under 20 genera and 8 families which were common to all the

three lotic bodies and hence can be considered as migratory

elements. While there were 47 species which showed exclusive

distribution, out of which Dikrong shared the maximum

37 species with 78.72% contribution while Senkhi shared the

second slot with 9 species corresponding to 19.15% share

while Pachin was far behind in having 1 species with mere

2.13% contribution (Tables 3, 4, 5).

The correlation matrix analysis showed that there is a

positive correlation between Dikrong and Pachin at 95% Cl,

Table 6: Taxonomic diversity of Icthyofauna

in the three lotic systems

Gen.: Genus, Sp.: Species

which can be attributed to the taxa having lower altitudinal

distribution. While Senkhi and Dikrong showed a negative

correlation at 95% Cl, which may be due to more of species

having adaptation to the high current waters. While the

species in the Senkhi stream and Pachin have positive

correlation at 95% Cl, which is attributed to the migratory

nature of the fishes common to these two lotic water bodies.

Hence, it can be said that Dikrong and Pachin had more of

common elements than Senkhi.

The higher taxa appropriation in all the three lotic water

bodies was carried out (Table 6). The striking feature is the

absence of the Cichlid family from the lower plain rivers, namely

Dikrong and Pachin, it may be mentioned that such cases

may be treated as accidental (exotic species) as they may

have escaped from nearby culture fishery reservoir. Families

like Cyprinidae contribute 45.68% in Dikrong, 27. 16% of Pachin

and Senkhi respectively and Cobitidae (43.48% in Dikrong,

30.43% in Pachin and 26.09% of Senkhi ), which contributes

to the largest number of the species in all the three lotic water

bodies may be termed as true freshwater Icthyo-families.

DISCUSSION

Senkhi, Dikrong and Pachin constitute three

contiguous water bodies of Papum Pare district of Arunachal

Pradesh. The district harbours one of the most urbanized

centres in the State as 15.7% of the people are urban. The

anthropogenic pressure coupled with the developmental

aspiration of state capital, Itanagar has done more harm to

the ambient water bodies. The present enumeration reveals

that district holds 59.37% of the state icthyofauna (Jayaram

1964; Nath and Dey 2000; Dutta and Barman 1985; Srivastava

1966; Sen 1999).

Three new reports have been added to the state, namely

Balitora brucei, Glyptothorax telchitta and Oreochromis

mossambica. It may be worth mentioning that Oreochromis

mossambica is an exotic species, and hence may be accidental

or introduced, such species needs good quarantine as it is

known to be a voracious predator. There were 29 species

that are common to all the three water bodies, and hence can

be termed as migratory elements. Dikrong leads the tally with

highest number of exclusive taxa 78.72% (lower floodplain

elements) followed by Senkhi 19.15% (hill stream elements).

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ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION & COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM

The comparative study reveals that Dikrong and Pachin

have more common species than Senkhi, which is obviously

a hill stream. It follows an interesting trend that the Chandidae

and Mastacembelidae are also in continuous distribution in

the lotic habitat though their species contribution is 8 and 5

respectively. Families like Clupeidae, Notopteridae, Gobiidae

and Synbranchidae have distribution only confined to

Dikrong, and hence can be treated as lowland riverine families

(Das et al. 2002). Balitora brucei is the only Homalopterid

not found in the Dikrong and Pachin. It may be mentioned

that this is a true hill stream species. The Sisorids diversity in

the hill stream of Senkhi is also a marked feature, which is

attributed to adaptative radiation of these catfishes to the

high current water (Hora 1922; Tilak 1976; de Pinna 1996).

Striking feature is the even distribution of species under

families Badidae, Psilorhynchidae and Olyridae, though their

contribution to each lotic water body is merely a single species,

and hence these species will be most vulnerable once a mega

dam comes between restricting the migration of already

threatened population.

REFERENCES

Chaudhuri. B.L. (1913): Zoological results of the abor expedition.

1911-1912 XVIII. Fish. Rec. Indian Mus. 8: 243-258.

Das, D.N. (2002): Fish farming in rice environments of North Eastern

India. Aquaculture Asia 7(2)\ 43-47.

Dutta, A.K. & R.R Barman (1984): On a new species of the genus

Garra Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Namdapha Wildlife

Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Bull. Zool. Surv. India

6(1-3): 283-287.

Dutta, A.K. & R.P. Barman (1985): Fauna of Namdapha, Arunachal

Pradesh (Pisces). Rec. zool. Surv. India 6(1-3): 275-277.

Dutta, A.K. & T.K. Sen ( 1977): Schizopygopsis stoliczkae Steindachner

- First record from Arunachal Pradesh, India, with observation on

geographical range. Newsl. zool Surv. India 3(4): 143-144.

Hora, S.L. ( 1921 ): On some new record and rare species of fishes from

Eastern Himalayas. Rec. Indian Mus. 22(5): 731-744.

Hora, S.L. (1922): Structural modifications in the fish of mountain

torrents. Rec. Indian Mus. 24: 31-61.

Jayaram, K.C. ( 1963): A new species of Sisorid from Kameng frontier

division (NEFA). J. Zool. Soc. Ind. 15(1): 85-87.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, India. Pp. 551.

Jayaram, K.C. & N. Mazumdar (1964): On a collection of fish from

Kameng frontier division, NEFA. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 61(2):

264-280.

McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiatic Res. 19(2):

217-471.

Mittermeier, R.A., N. Myers, R.P. Gil & C.G. Mittermeir (1999):

Hotspots: Earth’s biologically richest and most endangered

terrestrial ecoregions. Cemex, S.A. and Conservation

International, Mexico City: Pp. 432.

Myers, N„ R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier . G.A.B. da Fonseca

& J. Kent (2000): Biodiversity hotspots for conservation

priorities. Nature 403: 853-858.

Nath, P. & S.C. Dey (2000): Fish and Fisheries of North Eastern India

(Arunachal Pradesh). Narendra Publishing House, Delhi.

Pp. 161-170.

de Pinna, M.C. ( 1996): A phylogenetic analysis of the Asian catfish

families Sisoridae, Akysidae, and Amblycipitidae, with a

hypothesis on the relationships of the neotropical Aspredinidae

(Teleostei, Ostariophysi). Fieldiana: Zoology (New Series) 84:

1-83.

Sen, T.K. (1985): Fish fauna of Assam and neighbouring North

Eastern states of India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Occ. Pap. 64:

1-216.

Sen, N. (1999): On a collection of fishes from Subansiri and Siang

districts of Arunachal Pradesh. Rec. zool. Surv. India 97(1):

141-144.

Srivastava, C.B. (1966): On a collection of fishes from Tirap frontier

division (NEFA), India. ./. Zool. Soc. India. 18: 122-128.

Tilak, R. (1976): The adhesive thoracic apparatus in the evolution

of glyptothoracoid fishes (Sisoridae: Siluriformes). Zool. Anz.

196: 255-261.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

178-187

FOOD HABITS OF LEOPARD ( PANTHERA PARDUS FUSCA), DHOLE (CUON ALPINUS)

AND STRIPED HYENA ( HYAENA HYAENA) IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

OF SOUTHERN INDIA1

C. Arivazhagan2, R. Arumugam3 and K. Thiyagesan4

‘Accepted May 2005

2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

3Indian Institute of Science Field station, Masinagudi, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

JDepartment of Zoology, A.V.C. College, Mannantpandal, Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: kthiyagesan 1 @rediffmail.com

Food habits of the Leopard ( Panthera pardus fusca) were studied in the Sigur (Nilgiri district) and Thalamalai (Erode

district) Reserve Forests of Tamil Nadu, southern India from June to October 1997. A comparison of Leopard food

habits with the diet of the co-predators. Dhole ( Cuon alpinus) and Striped Hyena ( Hyaena hyaena), in the study area

was carried out to understand niche overlaps. Chital (Axis axis) was the major prey of the Leopard in both areas; found

in 40% leopard scats in the highly disturbed area (HDA) and 65% in the less disturbed area (LDA). Other important

prey species were Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis),

Indian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Indian Porcupine ( Hystri.x indica). Common Langur (, Semnopithecus entellus) and Indian

Peafowl (Pavo cristatus). The Leopard had a wider niche-breadth value in the highly disturbed (0.32) than in the LDA

(0.20). The food niche of the three predators - Leopard, Dhole and Striped Hyena overlapped considerably. Niche-

overlaps were higher in the less disturbed than in the HDA. Prey preference estimates showed that the most favoured

prey of the Leopard was Chital. Domestic livestock formed a sizeable portion of the Leopard diet in both areas; more

in the highly disturbed (33.3%) compared to the less disturbed ( 14.7%). Twenty cases of livestock kills by Leopards

were recorded during the 5-month study. Anthropogenic pressure is not the direct reason; depletion of prey base caused

by disturbance and higher encounter rate with domestic livestock are possibly the reasons.

Key words: prey preference, Panthera pardus fusca, Cuon alpinus. Hyaena hyaena, conflict, thorn forest, southern

India

INTRODUCTION

The Leopard Panthera pardus fusca is a large cat

distributed throughout Peninsular India. According to Nowell

and Jackson ( 1996) it is the most widely distributed of all the

wild cats. It is found in almost every kind of habitat from rain

forests of the tropics to deserts and temperate areas ( Kitchener

1991). In Peninsular India, its principal habitat varies from

tropical evergreen rain forest to open tropical dry thorn forest.

It also lives outside forest areas (Prater 1971 ).

Leopards hunt by stalking, taking their prey

opportunistically and mostly at night, especially where people

have persecuted it (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The prey of

Leopards varies in different geographical areas. In Kruger

National Park, South Africa, Leopards were found to kill mainly

medium-sized prey such as Impala ( Aepyceros melampus),

though a wide variety of small animals including hyraxes, civets

and mongooses also formed part of their diet (Bailey 1993). In

Tai National Park, Ivory Coast, leopards prey on about 30 species

of animals (Hoppe-Dominik 1 984 ). Small prey also constituted a

significant proportion of Leopard diet inTsavo, Kenya (Hamilton

1976). Bothman and Riche (1984) found that in the Kalahari

Desert leopards fed on small prey like Bat-eared Fox (Otocyon

megalotis), jackals (Canis spp.), genets ( Genetta spp.), hares

(Lepus spp.), duiker (Cephalopus spp.) and porcupine (Hystri.x

spp.). In the Serengeti, Tanzania, Bertram (1978) found 30

species in a sample of 150 Leopard kills. Muckenhirn and

Eisenberg (1973) reported that in Sri Lanka leopards preyed

mainly on Chital (Axis axis) and Indian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa),

while also feeding on Sambar (Cervus unicolor). Common

Langur (Semnopithecus entellus), Black-naped Hare

(Lepus nigricollis), Indian Porcupine (Hystri.x indica) and

calves of domestic buffalo. In India, Schaller (1967), Johnsingh

(1983), Karanth and Sunquist ( 1995, 2000) and Venkatraman

et al. (1995) studied leopard food habits; the major prey

reported were Chital, Sambar, Barking deer (Muntiacus

muntjak), Goral (Nemorhaedus spp.) and livestock. According

to Edgaonkar and Chellam (1998), the major prey of leopard

was found to be domestic dog, domestic buffalos and rodents

in Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Maharashtra. In the

Mundanthurai plateau of Tamil Nadu, Sathyakumar (1992)

reported that leopards prey mainly on Sambar, Black-naped

Hare, Chital and livestock, hi Bandipur, Johnsingh ( 1983) found

that 66% of Leopard kills were Chital. Chellam ( 1993) found

that in Gir, 40% of Leopard scats were Chital and 25% Common

Langur. In the tropical forest of Nagarhole, southern India,

Karanth and Sunquist (1995) found that Chital constituted

the major prey base of leopards.

FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

Leopards have been found to coexist with other large

carnivores across most of their range. In Asia, it shares its

habitat with the Tiger and Dhole ( Karanth and Sunquist 1995,

2000; Venkataraman et al. 1 995 ). In Zaire, Central Africa, Hart

et al. (1996) found the Leopard coexisting with the Golden

Cat ( Felis aurata ) by specializing on different prey. In

Nagarhole, southern India. Karanth and Sunquist (2000)

found that the Tiger, Leopard and Dhole selectively killed

different prey in terms of species, size and age-sex classes,

allowing for the coexistence of all three predators.

In this paper we aim to study (i) the food habits of the

Leopard in disturbed and undisturbed habitats, (ii) overlap

of their diet with that of the Dhole ( Cuon alpinus) and the

Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena ), (iii) assessment of habitat

quality, wild prey abundance and human pressure near and

away from the villages, and (iv) impact of leopards on

domestic livestock. We use the results to suggest possible

ways to minimise and mitigate human-leopard conflicts.

STUDY AREA

The study was carried out in the Sigur Reserve Forest

(Nilgiris district) and part of Thalamalai Reserve forest

(Erode district) (1 1° 30’ 1 1° 35' N and 76° 45' 76° 52' E), Tamil

Nadu state. The Sigur plateau abuts this area on the west.

The study area acts as a corridor between the Western and

Eastern Ghats. The perennial Moyar and Kukkalthorai

Halla rivers drain the entire area, which receives rainfall mostly

from the north-east monsoon between September and

November. However, the annual rainfall is very low (400 mm)

as the area falls in the rain shadow. The altitude is around

350 m above msl. Vegetation is tropical dry thorn forest

(Champion and Seth 1968) dominated by Strychnos

potatorum , Canthium parviflorum . Zizyphus mauritiana .

Azaclirachta indica , Moringa concanensis . Hardwickia

binata . Bridelia retusa and Diospyros montana. The Moyar

riverbeds in Mangalapatti Bhawanisagar and adjacent

areas are dominated by an introduced species Prosopis

juliflora.

The large mammal fauna in this area includes the Asian

Elephant ( Elephas maximus), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Sanrbar

( Cervus unicolor ), Chital (Axis axis). Blackbuck (Antilope

cervicapra). Four-horned Antelope (Tetracerus

quadricornis). Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata ), Common

Langur (Semnopithecus entellus), Indian Wild Boar

(Sus scrofa) and Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica).

Mammalian predators include Leopard (Panthera pardus).

Tiger (Panthera tigris). Asiatic Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus).

Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and Jackal ( Canis aureus).

Other fauna of the study area include Black-naped Hare

(Lepus nigricollis). Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus

hennaphroditus). Jungle Cat (Felis chans), Indian Peafowl

(Pavo cristatus). Grey Junglefowl (Callus sonneratii). Python

(Python molurus), Marsh Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris),

Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans), Indian Black

Turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), Leith’s Softshell Turtle

(Aspideretes leithii) and Monitor Lizard (Varanus

bengalensis).

A large number of cattle are reared in the adjacent

villages of Thengumarahada, Pudukadu, Hallimoyar and

Kallampalayam. Cattle compete for food with natural prey of

larger carnivores besides spreading diseases such as foot

and mouth, rinderpest and anthrax to wild animals.

Overgrazing by cattle is a serious problem in these villages.

Firewood and timber collection by locals also contributes to

the degradation of the forest.

METHODS

The study area was divided into ‘Highly disturbed

area’ HD A (high prevalence of woodcutting and cattle

grazing) and ‘Less disturbed area’ LDA (relatively little human

disturbance). The HD A included 10 sq. km of dry thorn forest

adjacent to the villages of Thengumarahada, Pudukadu and

Hallimoyar. The less disturbed area covered an area of

10 sq. km, and was also dry thorn forest, but at least 10 km

away from any village.

Leopards are known to be largely nocturnal and not

easily seen ( Bertram 1978). Direct observation of prey capture

is not easy and hence most studies on leopard food habits

rely on indirect evidence from kills and scats (Bertram 1978;

Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In our study we use indirect

evidence to understand the food habits of the Leopard, Dhole

and Striped Hyena.

Scat analysis

Scats of leopards, dholes and striped hyenas were

collected once a week each on Mangalapatti Road ( 12 km),

Palamarapatti Road ( 12 km), Hallimoyar Road (8 km), and

Bhawanisagar Road (8 km).

The scats were identified from their characteristic

appearance and supplementary evidence in the form of

tracks, scrapes and size of the scat (Karanth and Sunquist

1995). Scats were air-dried and kept in separate polythene

bags.

For diet analysis, scats were soaked in water, washed,

and strained thoroughly to separate prey remains like bones,

hooves, hair, quills and feathers. Samples of hairs from the

scats were washed in water, dried and passed through ether

and xylene (Koppikar and Sabins 1975). They were then

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

mounted on a slide in liquid paraffin and examined under a

binocular microscope (15x). At least twenty hairs were

examined from each scat (Mukherjee etal. 1994). Prey species

were identified using features such as colour, length, thickness

and characteristic medullar configurations (Karanth 1993).

Hair samples were also compared to reference slides prepared

from hair of known species and collections of the Indian

Institute of Science Research Station. Identification keys

given by Koppikar and Sabins (1975), Oli (1993) and Easa

( 1995) were also used. Schaller’s method (1967) was adopted

to obtain the frequency and percentage of food items in scat

(the annual prey requirement of the Leopard appears to be

about 1,000 kg; based on this the frequency of food items in

scats and their percentages were calculated). Jaws of

ungulates were identified following Cohen's ( 1 977 ) guidelines.

Wilcoxon matched pairs test was done to look at the difference

in highly disturbed and less disturbed areas within each

species and also to compare dietary composition between

pairs of species.

Kill data collection

An intensive search for kills over the entire study area

was a daily routine. Clues like smell of carcass, alarm calls of

Chital and Common Langur, predator signs and calls, and

movement of vultures and crows aided in detecting kills.

Whenever kills were found, the following information was

recorded; identity of the predator by ancillary evidences such

as tracks, scats, scrape marks, tooth marks, type of killing

injury, feeding method and catching behaviour, the species

killed, sex and approximate age of the individual; description

of microhabitat.

Calculation of niche-breadth, niche-overlap and food

preference indices

Niche breadth was estimated using formula described

by (Hurlbert 1978): Bi= 1 /I Pi2

Bi = Levins’ measure of niche breadth

where Pi is the proportion of individuals found in or

using resource state T or fraction of items in the diet. This

measure was standardized to a scale of 0-1 by using the

formula B = (B-l )/(n-l )

A

where B , = Levins' standardised niche

A

B = Levins’ resources of niche breadth

n = number of possible resource states

Niche-Overlap

The niche-overlap between leopards, dholes, and

striped hyenas were calculated as described by Schoener

( 1970) using the following formula:

Niche-overlap = 1 - 1/2 X I P - P , I

,=i u ,k

where ‘P7 is the proportion of use of ‘i’ th resource by

species ‘j’ and

‘P|k’ is the proportion of use of T th resource by species ‘k’

Food Preference Index

Ivlev’s (1961) index was used as an index of food

preference:

Ivlev’s index of selection = (U-A)/ (U+A)

where ‘U’ denotes percent use and ‘A’ denotes percent

available and lies between +1 to -1 .

Assessment of prey abundance

Prey abundance was estimated by two methods:

1 . Direct counts (encounter rates): Population of Chital,

Blackbuck, and cattle were estimated based on direct counts.

Known sites of prey aggregations were visited and animal

numbers in each area were recorded. In addition to this, all

wild prey and livestock encountered (encounter rate = number

of animals sighted per km of trail walked) in the study area

were recorded. The data so collected gave an approximate

index of wild prey and livestock inhabiting the area. From

these estimates, the prey biomass in the area was calculated

by multiplying the number of animals of a species inhabiting

the area with the average weight of the species. The direct

count method is preferred to transect for the following reasons.

a. The prey species populations were very low

(R. Arumugam pers. obs.) and the effort required would

have been very high for species like Chital and

Blackbuck.

b. Since the prey aggregate at known sites during the

evening, direct counts should give a better estimate.

2. Pellet counts: Pellet count method was adopted to

estimate the relative abundance of some of the more

elusive, secretive and nocturnal animals (Indian Porcupine,

Black-naped Hare and Sambar) which were not censused by

the direct counts. This will give an indirect estimate of prey

abundance. A grid was laid across the study area and random

blocks were chosen for sampling. Fixed width transects

(rectangular plots of 10 m x 2 m) were laid in these randomly

chosen blocks and all the pellets (pellet groups) encountered

in these strips counted. In all 66 plots were laid in the HDA

and 59 plots in the LDA and the number of pellet groups of

each species was recorded.

Assessment of Human disturbance

Tree density was estimated by counting all woody

stems above 10 m x 2 m girth within the same plots that were

used for estimating pellet abundance. Intensity of tree lopping

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

signs and cattle grazing signs were taken as a measure of the

extent of human disturbance in an area. Lopping signs were

also recorded in the same plots. Then the percentage of

lopping was calculated as: (r^/N ) x 100, where n^trees lopped,

N = total trees

Similarly, cattle dung density per hectare (number of

dung piles) was used to quantify the impact of livestock

grazing in an area.

RESULTS

Extent of human disturbance in the two study sites

Strychnos potatorum , Canthium parviflorum and

Capparis zeylanica were the major woody plant species in

both the highly disturbed (HDA) and less disturbed (LDA)

areas in the study sites. However, overall tree density was

lower in the HDA (348.44/ha) than in the LDA (398.22/ha) (see

appendix 1 ). Lopping signs were present on 9 plant species in

the HDA and only on 2 species in the LDA (see appendix 1).

Strychnos potatorum suffered the most in both areas, with all

the trees of this species suffering damage in the HDA. The

number of plants that suffered damage was 1 5 1 .50/ha (43.48%)

in the HDA and 76. 1 6/ha (19.13%) in the LDA.

Scat Analysis

Leopard: Seventy-four leopard scats were analyzed, of

which 45 were from the HDA and 29 from the LDA. Chital was

Prey species

Fig. 1 : Diet composition of Leopard in the highly disturbed

and less disturbed areas

the commonest prey in both as its remains constituted 35.3%

of the scats in the highly disturbed, and 55.9% in the LDA

(Table 1 , Fig. 1 ). The Leopard’s use of livestock was more in

the highly disturbed (33.3% ) than in the LDA ( 14.7%). Sambar

was another common prey in both. Blackbuck remains were

found only in the scats collected from the LDA. Wild boar

and Indian Porcupine were a part of the diet only in the HDA.

Table 1 : Percent occurrence of different prey remains in Leopard, Dhole, and Striped Hyena scats in the highly disturbed

and less disturbed areas during the study period

- Number of scats analysed in the highly disturbed and in the less disturbed area: Leopard 45 and 29, Dhole 21 and 1 6, and Hyena 8 and 9

- * Others’ include reptilian scales and unidentified remains.

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

Prey species

Fig. 2: Diet composition of Dhole in the highly disturbed

and less disturbed areas

Leopards in both areas (Table 1 ) preyed on Black-naped Hare

and Common Langur.

Percent occurrences of prey items in the Leopard’s scat

are given in Table 1 . Wild prey constituted a major portion of

Leopard diet in the less disturbed (88.4%) while livestock

formed a significant portion (33.3%) in the HDA (Table 1 ).

The estimated biomass of different prey species taken

by leopards are given in Table 2. In the HDA the biomass of

livestock consumed (2,664 kg) exceeded all other prey species

collectively (2,394 kg). On the other hand, leopards depended

more on its natural wild prey in the LDA, with Chital forming

the bulk (2,683.2 kg). Cattle biomass consumed by leopards

in the LDA was 1,176 kg, under half that in the highly disturbed.

Dhole: Twenty-one scats from the highly disturbed and

1 6 scats from the LDA were analyzed. Chital was the major

prey species in both areas and their remains were found in

71% of scats in the highly disturbed and 52.6% of scats in the

LDA (Table 1 , Fig. 2). Other prey items were Sambar and Black-

naped Hare in the highly disturbed and Blackbuck, Black-

naped Hare, and Indian Wild Boar in the LDA. One scat from

the LDA had remains of livestock.

Striped Hyena: Seventeen scats, eight from the highly

disturbed and nine from the LDA were analyzed. Only Chital

(88%) and livestock ( 13%) remains were found in the scats

from the HDA (Table 1, Fig. 3). In the LDA, Striped Hyena

scats had remains of Chital (67%), Black-naped Hare ( 1 1 %),

and livestock (22%).

Prey abundance

Abundance and biomass availability of Chital and

livestock were analysed. The LDA had a higher density and

biomass of Chital than the HDA (12.1 animal/sq. km and

555 kg/sq. km vs 4.1 animal/sq. km and 185 kg/sq. km,

respectively). On the other hand, livestock density and

biomass were greater in the highly disturbed than the LDA

(53.3 animal/sq. km and 1700 kg/ha vs 1.0 animal/sq. km and

200 kg/sq. km respectively). Relative abundance of other prey

species in the highly disturbed and LDAs was assessed by

the pellet densities (Table 3 & 4). Chital, Sambar and Blackbuck

(the natural prey of leopard) were more abundant in the LDA

while livestock relative density was greater in the HDA.

Table 2: Estimates of relative biomass of prey taken by leopards in the study area

a- Approximate weights of prey species from Karanth and Sunquist (1995) except for livestock, for which an assumed weight of 80 kg

was used; for blackbuck the average weight of 48 kg is assumed based on a similar species, the Chital.

b- Relative Biomass = Average weight x Relative frequency.

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

Prey species

Fig. 3: Diet composition of Striped Hyena in the highly disturbed

and less disturbed areas

There is no difference in the dietary composition in

HDAs and LDAs of Leopard, Dhole and Striped Hyena using

Wilcoxon Matched Pairs test with p >0.05. There is also no

difference in relative prey abundance between HDAs and

LDAs using Wilcoxon Matched Pairs test (p=l .0). However,

when the relative availability of prey and the relative proportion

of prey eaten were compared using chi-square test, there was

significant difference for all species (leopards %2 = 303.31,

df = 6, p <0.00 1 , dholes %2 = 3 1 1.32, df = 6, p <0.00 1 and striped

hyenas %2 = 1 12.76, df = 6, p <0.001 ).

Table 3: Comparison of prey species abundance in the highly

disturbed and less disturbed area of the study region during the

study period (Based on pellet counts)

Niche breadth

Leopards had a wider niche breadth in the HDA (0.323)

than in the LDA (0.202), but dholes and striped hyenas had a

wider niche breadth values in the LDA (Table 5 ).

Niche-overlap

Food niche-overlaps between the three predator species

as derived from the data from scat analyses are given in

Table 6. Leopards had a higher overlap with both dholes and

striped hyenas in the LDA than in the HDA. The overlap

between dholes and striped hyenas was higher in the HDA.

In most cases, overlap values were higher than 0.5, indicating

a high degree of similarity in food habits among the predators.

Prey preference

Prey preference values are shown in Table 7. Results

showed that the Leopard had a positive preference for Chital

in both areas with the values of +0.49 and +0.48 in highly

disturbed and LDAs, respectively. A negative preference for

Black-naped Hare was shown in both areas, while there was a

positive preference for Sambar (+0.10) in the HDA and

negative preference in the LDA (-0.25). Blackbuck remains

were found in the scats of LDA only; the species had a negative

Table 4: Relative abundance of prey species and their

proportions in the diet of predators

# Chi-square tests for abundance of prey species and their

proportion in the diet of predator.

(Leopard - x2 = 303.31 , df = 6, p < 0.001 ,

Dhole - 1 = 31 1 .32, df = 6, p < 0.001 ,

Striped Hyena ~x2= 112.76, df = 6, p < 0.001 )

Table 5: Food niche - breadth values for Leopard, Dhole and

Striped Hyena during the study period

Part of the study area Predator Species

Striped

Leopard Dhole Hyena

Highly disturbed area 0.323 0.094 0.031

Less disturbed area 0.202 0.202 0.107

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

Table 6: Food niche - overlaps among the three predator species

during the study period

preference value of -0.78. Wild Boar and Indian Porcupine

remains were recorded from Leopard scats in HDA only and

their preference indices were +0.29. Livestock preference

values were -0.04 in the HDA and -0.29 in the LDA. Chi-square

tests showed that leopard prey preferences were significantly

different in both habitats. (%2 = 159.34, df = 9 and p <0.0, for

disturbed area; x2 = 255.06, df = 9 and p <0.0, for LDA)

Prey preference values for Dhole are given in Table 7.

Chital had a positive prey-preference index in both areas.

Even though Sambar and Black-naped Hare were fed on by

dholes in the HDA, they had negative preference values of

-0. 1 7 and -0.35, respectively, in the HDAs. Blackbuck and cattle

had negative preference values in the LDA, whereas Black-

naped Hare and Indian Wild Boar had positive preference values.

For Striped Hyena, the prey preference index values

were positive for Chital in both areas (Table 7). Livestock had

a negative preference of -0.54 in the HDA and a positive

preference of +0.38 in the LDA. Black-naped Hare remains

were found only in the scats of the HDA with a negative

preference (-0.32). Differences in prey preference were

significant (x2 = 441.57, df = 9 and P=<0.0, for HDA;

X2 = 256.88, df = 9 and P=<0.0, for LDA).

Kill data

In all, 30 leopard kills were recorded during the study

period. Six human deaths and injuries to two had been recorded

during 1992-1997 in the study area. Of the leopard kills,

20 were cattle, 9 were Chital and one was a Sambar. On four

occasions, cattle escaped with injuries from leopards. In most

cases, the prey was found eaten almost completely with only

a few bones left. Most of the kills were found in the open dry

thorn forest area. Of the 20 cattle killed, four each were adult

males, subadult males and adult females; six were subadult

females and two were calves. Among the nine Chital killed,

three each were adult males, adult females and fawns. The

two Sambar kills recorded were both sub adults. On a few

occasions, the local people collected the skin and meat,

especially when the kill was that of a Chital or Sambar. Once a

crocodile was seen eating a cattle carcass killed by Leopard.

DISCUSSION

Prey selection by leopards

The major wild prey of Leopards in the study area was

Chital, which constituted 35.3% and 55.9% of the diet in the

highly disturbed and LDAs, respectively. This might be due

to higher Chital population in the study area compared with

other natural prey like Sambar. On the other hand, Sathyakumar

(1988) found Sambar to be the preferred prey in the

Mundanthurai plateau and attributed this to the fact that

Leopard and Sambar are nocturnal animals and the Leopard,

as a stalker, could easily stalk and kill Sambar. In both studies,

as in Africa (Bailey 1993), ungulates constituted a major portion

of the diet.

Schaller ( 1 972) found the Leopard was mainly preying

on animals in the 20-70 kg class. In our study also, smaller

prey constituted a lower proportion of the Leopard’s diet.

However, Seidensticker et al. ( 1 990), found that 36% of the

Leopard's prey in Chitwan was under 25 kg. Leopards are

highly adaptable animals that can co-exist with the tiger

because their diet includes a variety of smaller animals that

are usually ignored by tigers (Sankhala 1977).

Table 7: Prey preference indices for leopard, dhole and striped hyena in the highly disturbed and less disturbed area

of the study region during the study period

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

Black-naped Hare remains were found in the scats

of Leopards both in the highly disturbed and LDA, in

both of which Black-naped Hare pellets were quite abundant.

Chellam ( 1 993 ) did not find Black-naped Hare to be a preferred

food item in the Mundanthurai plateau, while Karanth

and Sunquist (1995) estimated that about 5% of prey in

Nagarhole comprised Black-naped Hare, Sathyakumar ( 1 988)

stated that the presence of Black-naped Hare remains

in the Leopards’ diet might be because it could be easily

hunted.

Arboreal prey (Indian Peafowl and Common Langur)

comprised 3.9% in the HDAand 5.8% in the LDA. According

to Sankhala (1977), the ability of the Leopard to climb trees

with ease provides access to prey like arboreal animals like

squirrels, langurs and other monkeys. Karanth and Sunquist

(1995) also attributed the comparatively high degree of

predation on Common Langur by Leopard at Nagarhole to

the Leopard's greater arboreal habits and cryptic nature in

comparison to the tiger. Another possible interpretation is

that Leopards kill primates when they descend from trees

(Singh 1985). Sathyakumar (1988) also observed Nilgiri Langur

( Presbytis johni ) and Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata ) in

the food of leopards in the Mundanthurai plateau, but

Seidensticker (1983) stated that when the prey base was

abundant the leopard would take the primates only

occasionally. On the other hand, Schaller (1967) found

leopards to be killing Common Langur frequently in Kanha

Tiger Reserve, in Madhya Pradesh. Many other studies have

documented the opportunistic nature of the Leopard’s

hunting pattern (Bothman and Le Riche 1984; Eisenberg 1986;

Bailey 1993).

Remains of Indian Wild Boar were found only in 2 scats

(4.4%) in the HDA. Similar findings were reported for the

leopards of Mundanthurai plateau by Sathyakumar ( 1988).

Killing Indian Wild Boars is not easy for leopards as they are

formidable adversaries (Sankhala 1977; Karanth and Sunquist

1995).

Livestock were an important component in both the

highly disturbed (33.3%) and less disturbed ( 14.7%) parts of

the study area. Many livestock kills were recorded in the

surrounding villages, and Sathyakumar ( 1 988) also reported

cattle kills in the Mundanthurai plateau. Seidensticker et al.

(1990) found livestock to be a major component of the

Leopard’s diet at the fringes of the Royal Chitwan National

Park, where the densities of domestic ungulates were higher

than those of wild ungulates inside. Edgaonkar and Chellam

(1998) were found domestic dogs, domestic buffalos and

rodents are the major prey for leopard in SGNP According to

Singh (1986), an increased trend of cattle killing behaviour

suggests highly disturbed behaviour.

Niche-overlaps with other predators

There was substantial dietary overlap between the

Leopard, Dhole and Striped Hyena, with values from

0.5 1 6-0.690 between Leopard and Dhole, 0.479-0.706 between

Leopard and Striped Hyena and 0.684-0.7 14 between Dhole

and Striped Hyena. Colwell and Futuyma (1971) define niche

overlap as joint use of a resource by two or more species.

Hutchinson (1958) describes it as the area of space shared by

two or more continuous niches. A substantial overlap between

the diets of leopard and dhole in the Mundanthurai plateau

was reported by Sathyakumar (1988) and by Karanth and

Sunquist (1995) in Nagarhole. The results are consistent with

the hypothesis of Bekoff et al. ( 1984) that larger predators

take more prey types, since leopards took at least nine prey

types, dholes 6 prey types and hyenas three prey types in the

study area.

Dietary Preference

The present study showed that Chital was the preferred

prey species for all the three predators studied, but overall

prey preferences differed among them. A difference in the

selectivity of prey species between leopards and dholes has

been documented (Sathyakumar 1988; Karanth and Sunquist

1995). Livestock was selected by leopards according to

availability, suggesting chance encounters were by primarily

due to cattle grazing inside the natural habitats. Leopards did

not seem to target cattle intentionally.

Though we identified hair from the scats to species

level, we are not able to quantify the numbers of individuals,

which could vary amongst predators. Therefore, these

predators may not be competing with each other as much as

the data from scats appears to show.

Human-leopard conflicts

Twenty cattle kills in five months, and eight human

attacks in 1 992- 1 997, of which six were fatal, were recorded in

the study area. The problem clearly needs immediate attention.

As Sawarkar (1989) pointed out, when large cats live in

proximity to humans, some amount of conflict at the interface

is inevitable. But the extent of cattle killing in the study area is

very high and seemed to be the outcome of human interference

in the natural habitat of Leopards, since more casualties were

in the HD As where large scale habitat destruction had taken

place.

Man-eating by Leopards was another disturbing factor.

Schaller (1967) mentioned that Leopards may eat humans

occasionally. As Daniel (1996) mentions, when a Leopard

becomes a man-eater it could be more dangerous than a Tiger

because of its boldness and cunningness in entering villages.

Corbett (1981) reports that leopards turn to human prey under

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

special circumstances. For instance when an epidemic killed

a large number of people in the Himalaya, the bodies were not

cremated but simply pushed down into the valleys and the

leopards scavenging on the corpses acquired a taste for

human flesh. According to Sunquist and Sunquist (1989),

small island-like reserves of ideal habitat may be sources for

man-eaters, with dispersing young adults being pushed out

of prime habitat taking to man-eating in human habitation.

Saberwal et al. ( 1 994) also found it was sub-adult lions which

were disproportionately involved in conflict situations in Gir

and attributed this to the high density of lions in the park and

poorer habitat quality at the fringes. The cattle-lifting and

man-eating by leopards observed in the present study were

mainly due to poor habitat quality and human intrusion into

their natural habitats for wood cutting and cattle grazing. To

overcome the problem the following management

recommendations are suggested.

Because cattle compete for food with natural prey

species such as Chital, Sambar, Blackbuck and Black-naped

Hare, cattle populations should be reduced in villages near

Leopard habitats. Since, man-eating and cattle-lifting traits in

leopards may be transmitted from generation to generation.

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Bertram, B.C.R. ( 1978): A Pride of Lions. Scribner’s, New York. 253 Pp.

Bothman, J.DuP. & E.A.N. Le Riche (1984): Aspects of the ecology

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Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the forest

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ChellamRavi (1993): Ecology of the Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica.

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Colwell, R.K. & D.J. Futuyma (1971): On the measurements of niche

breadth and overlap. Ecology 52(4): 567-576.

Corbett, J. (1981): The Man-eating Leopard of Rudraprayag. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Daniel, J.C. (1996): The Leopard in India - A Natural History. Natraj

Publishers, Dehradun. 228 pp.

Easa, P.S. (1995): Prey predator studies in Eravikulam National Park.

KFRI Research Report No. 105, Peechi, Kerala. 58 pp.

Eisenberg, J.F. ( 1986): Life history strategies of the Felidae: Variations

on a common theme. 293-303 pp. In: (Eds: Miller, S.D. &

D.D. Everett) Cats of the World: Biology, Conservation, and

Management . National Wildlife Foundation, Washington, D.C.

Edgaonkar, A.J . & Ravi Chellam (1998): A preliminary study on the

Ecology of the leopard (Panthera pardus fused) in the Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, Maharashtra RR-98/002, August 1998,

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 33 pp.

an individual Leopard that frequently kills cattle and human

beings should be trapped and removed as soon as possible.

Leopards need a certain amount of vegetational cover

to hunt wild prey, therefore wood collection in forest areas

should be minimised. Local people use domestic dogs to kill

wild herbivores such as Chital, Sambar and Black-naped Hare,

which not only reduces wild prey density near villages but

also drives the remaining wild prey to the interior of the forest.

Hunting of wild animals should, therefore, be severely

punished. Local people should be made to understand that

poisoning is not a solution for the problem, since when a

leopard is removed from its natural habitat another will soon

occupy its territory.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Prof. R. Sukumar for his help and funding for

this study. Permissions for fieldwork were provided by the

Tamil Nadu Forest Department. We also thank Mr. Ajay Desai,

Dr. Arun B. Venkataraman, Dr. T.R. Sankar Raman and

Dr. T.N.C. Vidya for their valuable suggestions and advice for

preparing the manuscript.

Hamilton, P.H. ( 1976): The movements of leopards in Tsavo National

Park, Kenya, as determined by radio tracking. M.Sc. thesis.

University of Nairobi.

Hart. J.A., M. Katembo & K. Punga (1996): Diet, prey selection and

ecological relationships of leopard and golden cat in the Ituri

Forest, Zaire. Aft: J. Ecol. 34: 364-379.

Hoppe-Dominik, B. (1984): Etude du spectre des proies de la panther

Panthera pardus , dans le Parc National de Tai e Cote d' Ivoire.

Mammalia 48(4): 477-87.

Hurlbert. S.H. (1978): The measurement of niche overlap and some

relatives. Ecology 59: 67-77 .

Hutchinson, G.E. (1958): Concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor

Symp. Quant. Biol. 22: 415-427.

Ivlev, V.S. ( 1961): Experimental ecology of the feeding of fishes. Yale

University Press, New Haven, Conn., USA. 302 pp.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian predators in Bandipur.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 1-57.

Karanth, K.U. (1993): Predator prey relationship among large

mammals of Nagarhole National Park (India). Ph.D. thesis,

Mangalore University.

Karanth, K.U. & M.E. Sunquist (1995): Prey selection by tiger,

leopard and dhole in tropical forest. J. Anim. Ecol. 64(4):

439-450.

Karanth, K.U. & M.E. Sunquist (2000): Behavioural correlates of

predation by tiger ( Panthera tigris), leopard ( Panthera pardus)

and dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Nagarhole, India. ./. Zool.. Lond.

250: 255-265.

Kitchener, A. ( 1991 ): The natural history of the wild cats. Christopher

Helm, A & C Black, London. 279 pp.

Koppikar, B.R. & J.H. Sabins (1975): Identification of hairs of some

Indian mammals. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 5-20.

Levins, R. (1968): Evolution in changing environments. Princeton

University Press, Princeton. New Jersey. 120 pp.

186

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FOOD HABITS OF SOME CARNIVORES IN A TROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST

Muckenhirn, N. & J.F. Eisenberg ( 1973): Home ranges and predation

in the Ceylon leopard. Pp. 142-175. In: (Ed: Eaton, R.L.) The

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Safari, Winstone, Oregon.

Mukherjee, S., S.P. Goyal & R. Chellam (1994): Refined techniques

for the analysis of Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica scats. Acta

Theriologica 39: 425-430.

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Group. IUCN/SSC Report, Geneva. 97-99 pp.

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of a snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat. J. ZooL, Lond.

231: 71-93.

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501-507.

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Schuster, New York. Pp. 220.

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at Mundanthurai plateau, Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil

Nadu, M.Sc., thesis submitted to A.V.C. College. Department of

Zoology. Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai.

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Mundanthurai plateau, Tamil Nadu, India. Tiger paper Vol. XIX:

8-9.

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livestock by large carnivores. Indian Forester 112(10): 858-866.

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India. University of Chicago Press. Illinois, 370 pp.

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Chicago. 444 pp.

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patchy habitats. Ecology 51: 408-418.

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of human influence in habitats of South Asian monkeys. Int. J. of

Prim. 14(3): 323-326.

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living at the edge of Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal.

Pp. 451-423. In: (Eds: Daniel, J.C. & J.S. Serro) Conservation in

developing countries: problems and prospects. Bombay Natural

History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Singh, GR. (1985): Alarm call, Chital 26-3 and 4: 41-43.

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Tiger Reserve - An analysis. Chital 27(4): 26-30.

Sunquist, M.E., & F.C. Sunquist (1989): Ecological constraints on

predation by large felids. Pp. 283-301. In: (ed. J.L. Gittleman)

Carnivore Behavior, Ecology and Evolution. Cornell University

Press, Ithaca.

Venkatraman, A.B.. R. Arumugam & R. Sukumar ( 1995): The foraging

ecology of dhole ( Cuon alpinus) in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Southern India. J. Zoo., Lond. 237: 543-561

APPENDIX 1

Vegetation density and percentage of lopping signs in the highly disturbed and less disturbed regions of the study area

J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

187

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

188-190

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF VACCINIUM L. (ERICACEAE) FROM INDIA1

S. Panda2'3 & M. Sanjappa2-4

'Accepted October 03, 2006

2Botanical Survey of India, CGO Complex, 3rd MSO Building, Block-F, 5"’ Floor, Sector I, Salt Lake City,

Kolkata 700 064, West Bengal, India.

"Present address: P.G Department of Botany, Barasat Government College. Barasat 700 124, North 24 - Parganas,

West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Vaccinium myodianum Panda & Sanjappa (Ericaceae) is described as new from Dibang Valley district of Arunachal

Pradesh in India. The new species is also provided with illustration and probable affinities of its close allies.

Key words: Vaccinium myodianum sp. nov., Ericaceae, Dibang Valley district, Arunachal Pradesh

INTRODUCTION

The genus Vaccinium L. consists of about 450 species

(Mabberley 1997), distributed in tropical Asia, Europe, south-

eastern Africa. Madagascar and America. Of these, about

28 species are reported to occur in India (Panda 2006),

distributed in the eastern Himalaya, north-eastern India

(except Tripura) and hill tops of south-western Ghats.

Sleumer (1941) reported 33 sections in the genus, of

which the Indian taxa represent six sections, namely

Galeopetalum (J.J. Sm.) Sleumer, Cyanophthalmos Sleumer,

Vitis-idaea (Moench) W.D.J. Koch, Bracteata Nakai,

Epigynium (Klotzsch) Hook./, and Eococcus Sleumer. Airy

Shaw ( 1948) included a seventh section, Aethopus Airy Shaw.

The new species described below clearly falls in the section

Epigynium (Klotzsch) Hook./., mainly on account of the

lenticillate stem and branches beset with lanceolate scales

up to 5 mm long, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate glabrous

leaves, perulate racemes and spurless anthers.

As a result of revisionary work on the Family Ericaceae

in India under ‘Flora of India Project’, several field trips to the

eastern Himalaya and north-eastern India and herbarium visits

to several Indian herbaria were made. During a herbarium

visit to Arunachal Field Station (ARUN) under the Botanical

Survey of India, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh (December

2002), an interesting specimen of a species of Vaccinium L.

was consulted. A critical study of this specimen revealed that

it is new to science and is described and illustrated here.

Vaccinium myodianum Panda & Sanjappa, sp. nov.

Fig. 1

Species nova Vaccinium venosum Wight valde affinis,

sed foliis lanceolatis vel oblong-lanceolatis, rhachidibus

25-35 mm longis, bracteis majoribus (c. 6x3 mm), lobis calycis

acuminatis et antherae thecis glabris differt, et a

V. subdissitifolium P.F. Stevens differt ramulis glabris, foliis

lanceolatis vel oblong-lanceolatis, basi anguste cuneatis, non

rotundatis, lobis calycis acuminatis, corollis intus densissime

pilosis et antherae thecis glabris.

Typus: India: Arunachal Pradesh, Dibang Valley district,

1 0 km from Tewarygram, near Myodia, 2.ii. 1 988, S.K. Das 2985

(holotype: ARUN!).

Stout, erect shrub to treelet, up to 9 m high. Stem terete,

profusely branched, lenticillate, glabrous, often covered with

lanceolate scales up to 5 mm long; branches and twigs terete,

glabrous. Leaves alternate, chartaceo-coriaceous, lamina

lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 70- 1 20 x 1 2-23 mm, serrate at

margin, narrowly cuneate at base, acuminate at apex, glabrous;

venation brochidodromous with 8-10 pairs lateral nerves,

obscure above, conspicuous beneath; petioles 1-2 mm long,

glabrous. Racemes axillary or pseudoterminal, perulate; rachis

25-35 mm long, 20-24-flowered, glabrous. Flowers 7-9 mm long;

pedicels 3-4 mm long, glabrous; bract 1, basal, broadly ovate,

c. 6 x 3 mm, ciliate at margin, shortly acuminate at apex, glabrous;

bracteoles 2, opposite, basal, ovate-elliptic, c. 2x1 mm, ciliate at

margin toward upper half, long acuminate at apex, glabrous.

Calyx lobes broadly ovate, c. 1 x 0.5 mm, entire at margin,

acuminate at apex, glabrous. Corolla urceolate, c. 4x2 mm,

glabrous outside, densely pilose inside, lobes ovate, minute.

Stamens 10, c. 4 mm long; filaments c. 1 mm long, slender,

glabrous, dilated at base; anther lobes c. 1 mm long, glabrous

except spinuous margin, each lobe with c. 2 mm long single

tubule. Pistil c. 6.5 mm long; ovary subglobose, c. 2 x 1.5 mm,

glabrous, ovules 6-8 on axile placenta in each locule; disc

obscure; style c. 4.5 mm long, slender, glabrous. Fruits not seen.

Distribution: India: eastern Himalaya (Arunachal

Pradesh).

Flowering: February.

Etymology: This species is named after its type

locality.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Vaccinium myodianum Panda & Sanjappa, sp. nov.

A. Habit; B - C. Flower buds; D. Corolla split open; E - F. Bracteoles; G. Abaxial leaf; H. Pistil;

I. Corolla lobe; J - K. Bracts; L - M. Calyx lobes; N. Ovary (t.s.); O - Q. Stamens.

Scale bars: A = 2 cm; B - D, H = 2 mm; E - F, J - Q = 1 mm; G = 1 cm (A - Q: drawn from S.K. Das 2985)

DISCUSSION

Vaccinium myodianum is closely related to V. venosum

Wight, a Sino-Himalayan species, from which it differs in

having lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaf blades, short

racemes (25-35 mm long), larger bract (c. 6 x 3 mm), acuminate

calyx lobes and glabrous anther lobes. By contrast,

V. venosum showed elliptic-oblong leaf blades, comparatively

longer racemes (65-75 mm long), smaller bract (c. 2x1 mm),

acute calyx lobes and granular anther lobes. V. myodianum

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

189

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

is also allied to another Sino-Himalayan species,

V. subdissitifolium P.F. Stevens, but differs from it in having

glabrous branches, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaf

blades, narrowly cuneate leaf-base, acuminate calyx lobes,

densely pilose corolla inside and glabrous anthers. By

contrast, V. subdissitifolium showed usually densely setose

branches, oblong, obovate to ovate leaf blades, broadly to

narrowly rounded leaf-base, acute calyx lobes, glabrous

corolla and granular anthers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

S. Panda is thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey

of India for awarding the research fellowship.

REFERENCES

Airy Shaw, H.K. (1948): Studies in the Ericales VIII: A new section of

Vaccinium from the Eastern Himalaya. Kew Bull. 1948:

245.

Mabberley, D.J. (1997): Ericaceae. The Plant-Book: A portable

dictionary of the vascular plants 2. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, England.

Panda, S. (2006): Taxonomic revision of some selected genera of

Ericaceae in India. Ph.D. thesis. Vidyasagar University.

Sleumer, H.O. (1941): Vaccinioideen-Studien. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 71:

375-510.

190

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

191-194

A NEW BUTTERFLY SPECIES OF THE GENUS YPTHIMA HUBNER

( N YMPHALID AE: SATYRINAE) FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA1

Arun P. Singh2

'Accepted September 07, 2007

2Entomology Division, Forest Research Institute. RO. New Forest, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248 006, India.

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

The sakra species group tinder the genus Ypthima Hubner is represented by two species, Y. sakra and Y. nikaea , in the

western Himalaya. During a survey of the Kedamath Musk Deer Reserve (KMDR), Uttarakhand, India, a new species,

Y. kedarnathensis sp. nov. belonging to this group was discovered, which is described in this paper.

Key words: Ypthima sakra , Y. nikaea, Y. kedarnathensis sp. nov., wing pattern, ocelli

INTRODUCTION

The Himalayan Five Ring Ypthima nikaea Moore ( 1874)

is a species known from western Himalaya and Nepal with

both the sexes having similar wing pattern (D’Abrera 1985;

Smith 1989; Haribal 1992). Previously, Y. nikaea was treated

as one of the three subspecies of Y. sakra found in India. The

other two subspecies are Y.s. sakra Moore, which is more

common in eastern Himalaya than in the western Himalaya,

where its distribution extends up to Kullu in Himachal Pradesh,

and Y.s. austeni Moore, which is restricted to north-east India

(Assam) and Burma (now Myanmar) (Evans 1932; D'Abrera

1985).

During field surveys (2006-2007) of butterflies in the

south-eastern part of Kedamath Musk Deer Reserve ( KMDR),

in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India, 1 8 specimens of

the sub-group nikaea were collected and two live specimens

examined around the Mandal village (30° 27'-30° 28' N and 79°

1 5'-79° 16' E lying 1 0 km west from Gopeshwar town of Chamoli

district). Out of these, five specimens (three collected and

two live individuals examined were from two different

locations 10 km apart), revealed uniform variation in wing

pattern with respect to Y. nikaea and are described as a new

species, Ypthima kedarnathensis sp. nov. The remaining

fourteen specimens belonged to E nikaea and were distinct

from the new species. E sakra was not represented in the

collections from this area. The new species is described here

based on wing pattern and its distinguishing features.

Systematic Account

Genus: Ypthima Hubner

Common name: The Rings

Ypthima Hubnerl818, Zutr.z.samml.exot.Schmett, 1 ; 1 7.

Diagnostic characters for genus Ypthima

Small sized butterflies with ocelli on fore and hind wings.

Forewing has a large prominent two-pupilled ocellus located

just below the apex in space 5 and at least an ocellus in space

2 on the upper hind wing (Fig. 1). Hind wing has varying

number of rings on the outer discal area, which form the basis

for identification of this genus. They also have striations and

band on the underside of the wings. Some have seasonal forms;

in dry season forms the ocelli are reduced to spots (Wynter-

Blyth 1957; Haribal 1992). Forewing lower discocellular vein

(between the origins of v6 and v4) (Fig. 1 ) is straight or

concave; v 10 always arising from v7 (Fig. l)(Evans 1932).

Description

Ypthima kedarnathensis sp. nov.

Wing pattern (male; wsf)

Wing span: 44-45 mm.

Upper side: Dark brown with thorax dorsally studded

with reddish hairs which extend to basal area of forewing;

Fig. 1 : Wing pattern of wet season form of Ypthima kedarnathensis

sp. nov., (Holotype) showing the position of ocelli on the wings.

The arrow depicts the position of an additional apical ocelli in this

species in relation to Y. nikaea, which is visible on both upper and

under sides of the hind wing between veins 4 and veins 5 in this

species

Table 1 : Distinguishing features in wing pattern between Ypthima sakra, Y. nikaea and Y. kedarnathensissp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

posterior ocelli.

The 3 posterior ocelli are arranged in a linear series

from anal angle, the tornal ocellus is bi-pupilled

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pupils of ocelli silvery blue. Forewing with an oval sub-apical

bi-pupilled black ocellus which is yellow ringed with sharply

defined edges.

Hind wing is with two prominent ocelli in space 2 and 3

between v2 and v4 and an additional very minute and faintly

marked third ocellus in lc (Fig. 1 ). An additional fourth sub-

apical ocellus is present in space 4 between v4 and v5 (Fig. 1 ),

and is visible also on the lowerside of hind wing at the same

location.

Under side: Bright yellow with numerous short brown

narrow strigae (quite similar to K nikaea). Forewing has an

oval sub-apical bi-pupilled black ocelli, same in size as in

Y. nikaea and smaller than in Y. sakra. Hind wing with

6 prominent ocelli. Location and size of 5th ocelli is similar to

those in Y. nikaea , but differs in the presence of an additional

small ocelli attached below the double apical ocelli [in space

4 between v4 and v5 (Fig. 1 )]. All the three apical ocelli are

connected together but have an intervening yellow band

which is a common characteristic of Y. nikaea. The pupils of

all the 3 apical ocelli form a 1 35 degree angle directed towards

the ‘apex’. The other three posterior ocelli are in a

linear series from anal angle, the tornal/anal one being

bi-pupilled.

The differences between the wing pattern of

Y. kedarnathensis sp. nov., K nikaea and Y. sakra are given

in Fig. 2 and discussed in Table 1 . The wing pattern of Y. sakra

and K nikaea described here are based on published literature

(Moore 1874, 1893-1896; Marshall and deNiceville 1882;

Bingham 1905; Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957; D’Abrera

1985; Smith 1989 and Haribal 1992).

MATERIAL EXAMINED

Holotype: Male, india: Uttarakhand, KMDR, Mandal,

1,700 m above msl, 25.vii.2006. Coll. Arun P. Singh, Type

material in ‘National Forest Insect Collection’, Entomology

Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand,

India; under Accession No. NFIC-FRI-2 1,800.

Paratypes: Uttarakhand: Mandal village ( 1 ,600- 1 ,800 m):

1 male. 26.ix.2006-29.ix.2006 and 1 male 4.x. 2007; Coll Amn P.

Singh; wingspan: 44-45-mm. Type material in ‘National Forest

Insect Collection’, Entomology Division, Forest Research

Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India; under Accession No.

NFIC-FRI-2 1,800.

Etymology: The species is named after its type locality

- Kedarnath Musk Deer Reserve where Mt. Kedamath (6,838

m), the highest peak in the area, is situated in this Reserve.

Habits and Habitat

The species was recorded from KMDR on three

Fig. 2: Under side wing patterns of Ypthima sakra, Y. nikaea and

Y. kedarnathensis sp. nov., depicting variation in shape, structure

and location of apical ocelli on hind wing

occasions July 26-29, 2006, September 26-29, 2006 and October

3-8, 2007. It was not represented in the collections during the

winter survey (November 2006 - December 2, 2006) when it

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

193

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

was probably hibernating. During the wet season individuals

were observed flying low, close to the ground near the forest

edge and in openings inside mixed tree stands of sub-tropical

and moist temperate vegetation dominated by Quercus

leucotrichophora and Rhododendron arboreum between

1,600-1,800 m.

Relative Abundance

As many as five individuals of Y. kedarnathensis

sp. nov. were identified from a total of 18 individuals of the

sakra species group examined in the area. This species was

relatively uncommon in relation to Y. nikaea found in the area.

DISCUSSION

The new species described is closely allied to Y. nikaea

but differs from it mainly in the presence of an additional third

apical ocellus between v4 and v5 on the hind wing, which is

also visible on the upper side of hind wing at the same location.

The presence of the third apical ocellus has not been reported,

so far, from anywhere in the Himalaya. Even the recent butterfly

Bingham, C.T. (1905): Fauna of British India. Butterflies Vol. I Taylor

and Francis. London. Pp. 137-138.

D’Abrera, B. (1985): Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Part II

(Nymphalidae, Satryridae and Amathusiidae). Hill House,

Victoria, Australia. Pp. 295-534.

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd ed.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 464 pp.

Haribal, M. (1992): The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their

Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation.

Sikkim. 217 pp.

Marshall, G.F.L. & L. de Niceville (1882): Butterflies of India,

Burma and Ceylon. Vol. I. Calcutta Central Press. Calcutta.

Pp. 232-233.

surveys conducted in Garhwal and Kumaon (Rose and Sharma

1998) did not reveal the presence of such an apical ocellus in

the hind wing in any of the species of Ypthima. These

specimens collected from two different locations represent a

new species. As a total of six distinct ocelli are present on the

lower side of the hind wing of this species, it can be commonly

named the 'Garhwal Six Ring’.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present study is part of a project (FRI-348/FED-23)

on 'Butterfly diversity in moist temperate forests of Garhwal:

Evaluating species of conservation priority and indicator taxa

of habitat disturbance’ being carried out by Entomology

Division, Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun, India

and funded by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and

Education. I am thankful to the Director (FRI) and Head,

Entomology Division (FRI) for extending support and

providing facilities. Thanks are also due to Mr. B.C. Pandey

and Mr. R. Kumar (Technical Assistants, Entomology

Division) for help in field work.

Moore, F. ( 1 874): Description of new Asiatic Lepidoptera. Proceedings

of the Zoological Society London. Taylor and Francis, London.

Pp. 567.

Moore, F. (1893-1896): Lepidoptera Indica. Vol II. (Family:

Nymphalidae). Lovell Reeve Co. Ltd., London. Pp. 68-69.

Rose, H.S. & N. Sharma (1998): Two new species of the genus Ypthima

Hubner from the west and north-west Himalaya, India

(Lepidoptera: Papilionidea: Satyndae). Geobios New Reports

17(2): 105-112.

Smith, C. (1989). Butterflies of Nepal (Central Himalayas). Craftsman

Press, Bangkok. 352 pp.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society. 523 pp.

194

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

195-198

REVIEWS

1. GOLDEN TREES GREENSPACES AND URBAN FORESTRY by S.G. Neginhal. Published

by the author, S.G Neginhal, 2006. xxxvi + 342 pp. + 72 colour plates. Size: 22 cm x 1 4 cm. Paper back.

Price Rs. 750/-; discounted price to bird watchers: Rs. 650/-.

In this era of urbanization, more and more land is being

reclaimed to raise concrete jungles, and there is an urgent

need to maintain and restore green spaces by planting trees.

But for the common man there is always the question “which

tree should I plant?” This book is a useful guide for those

who want to know about trees suitable for planting in different

localities of urban environment.

The book is in four parts. Parts one and two provide

information on trees for rural and urban areas respectively. In

all 142 species of trees are described. Part three titled ‘Elements

of urban planting’ has information on tree species suitable

for various purposes, i.e. for ornamental avenues, highways,

parks, gardens, residential complexes and sacred places. The

chapters in this part also deal with nursery techniques, tree

maintenance and environmental values of the trees.

The six chapters of part four ‘Basics of urban forestry

and managing greenspaces’ have information on management

of trees, green spaces, gardens and parks, and advantage of

urban vegetation.

For an easy identification of trees, there are 72 colour

plates depicting leaves. Bowers and fruits of various tree

species. The photographs are of an average quality and have

not reproduced well.

I have reviewed earlier publications of Mr. Neginhal,

i.e. CITY TREES AND URBAN PLANTING and FOREST TREES OF SOUTH

India; this book too is an important publication for tree lovers.

■ NARESH CHATURVEDI

2. VERTEBRATE PESTS IN AGRICULTURE - THE INDIAN SCENARIO by

Prof. Shakunthala Sridhara. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, 2006. 605 pp. Size: 24 cm x 18 cm.

Hardback. Price not given.

This is a heavy tome of more than 600 pages, edited by

a professor researching on vertebrate pests, particularly

rodents, for the last 33 years. The book is dedicated to the

late Dr. Ishwar Prakash, another rodent specialist who died a

few years ago. The book consists of 26 chapters written by

experts, out of which Prof. Shakunthala Sridhara is the author

or co-author of 12 chapters. Some chapters are full of

information, not necessarily new but nevertheless interesting.

All chapters include relevant references for further reading,

which makes this book useful for researchers and scholars.

The cover depicts 17 pest species of vertebrates,

including the Asian Elephant, the Saras Crane, and the Sloth

Bear - species listed in Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection)

Act, 1972. However, in most of the chapters, killing of these

so-called pests is not recommended, keeping in mind the

country’s laws and prevalent social attitude against killing of

wildlife. Crop raiding by Wild Elephant is a very controversial

subject, with no clear-cut solutions. Though she is an expert

on rodent pests. Prof. Sridhara has written a well-researched

chapter ‘Management of Crop Raiding Elephants’, covering

most aspects of this issue, and referring to 44 relevant papers

and theses.

The book is full of spelling mistakes, particularly animal

names. For example, Blackbuck is always written ‘black buck’.

and Bluebull as ‘blue bull'. Rose-ringed Parakeet should have

a hyphen between ‘Rose’ and ‘ringed’, similar is the case

with Red-vented Bulbul. There are other mistakes, such as

Rhesus is written in upper-lower case, while Bonnet is always

written in lowercase (p. 479). Some of the scientific names are

outdated, e.g. Gazella gazelle bennetti is now called Gazella

bennettii. The langurs have been divided into seven species

by C. Groves (primate taxonomy. Smithsonian Institute Press,

Washington, DC, USA), but in this book it is treated as one

species. Inclusion of latest scientific information by the

authors of this chapter would have enhanced the value of

this book.

The book also has some funny statements. For example,

“Every second day we receive innumerable calls from the

residents of Delhi facing monkey problems in their colonies”

(p. 471 ). Why these ‘innumerable calls’ come ‘every second

day’, why not every day?

Most of the chapters talk about ‘management’ in the

title, but either there is very little discussion on management,

or it is cursorily treated, almost as an afterthought. Wildlife

management is a very complex issue and our knowledge is

still at a very preliminary stage for most species to suggest

their ‘management’. For example, in Chapter 20 ‘Rhesus

Monkey problems in India and their management’, it is

REVIEWS

recommended that Transit Homes be established. Once we

catch and house 2,000 out the 5,000 Rhesus monkeys of Delhi

to this Transit Home, what is the next step? If we keep these

2,000 monkeys in captivity permanently, then how can we call

it a Transit Home? The conclusions given in this chapter are

very general.

There are many scientific mistakes. For instance, in

Table 1 of Chapter 20 ( p. 461 ), it is shown that 95.5% resident

of Delhi and Vrindavan are harassed by Rhesus monkeys,

and 19% are bitten. Considering the population of Delhi and

Vrindavan (20 million), we are talking of about 19 million people

harassed by monkeys! Do the authors of this chapter (Ekwal

Imam and Iqbal Malik) mean that about 19 million residents

are harassed and 2 million bitten, but they are still keeping

3. SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIODIVERSITY IN

Cambridge University Press, U.K., 2006.

Price: 65 Euros (US $ 120).

This is an expensive 190-page book, with only six

chapters, by two well-known field biologists - Prof. Navjot S.

Sodhi, an Associate Professor of Conservation Ecology at

the National University of Singapore, and Barry W. Brooks, a

Senior Research Fellow at the Key Centre for Tropical Wildlife

Management, Charles Darwin University, U.K. The book is

so full of information that it makes heavy reading. It is for

experts, researchers and post-graduate students, not for the

general public, as prior knowledge of ecology, conservation

issues, and scientific terms is required. Each chapter is a

treasure trove of knowledge.

Although the title is southeast asian biodiversity in

crises, the book covers only terrestrial biodiversity and not

marine biodiversity, which is equally rich and threatened,

and perhaps requires another book by the authors. The

region covered in this book extends from Myanmar to

Indonesia. In this biogeographic region, one has to use

superlatives very often. For example, it is one of the most

diverse biological regions in the world, one of the most

densely-populated regions in the world, it has the highest

rate of rainforest deforestation in the world, 4 out of 25

biological hotspots are found here, 40% of the world

mangrove is found here, one of the highest regions in the

world per unit area in terms of species richness and endemism.

I cannot list all the biological and geographic uniqueness of

this region given in this book. It is better to get hold of a

copy of this wonderful book.

I must say that I enjoyed and was also saddened while

reading this book. Enjoyed because it is full of scientific

knowledge, but saddened, because most of the natural

biological wealth of this region will disappear in another

quite? Indians are known to be very tolerant, but this is the

height of tolerance of a public issue! In the same table, it is

mentioned that only 5% of the visitors to Tughlaqabad Fort

are harassed and 2% bitten. Incidentally, Tughlaqabad is also

inside Delhi. So, where does this data stand in the overall

data of Delhi? I am shocked to read in this chapter that 88% of

the office goers of Delhi are harassed by monkeys. I am lucky

for I work in Mumbai - the daily trials and tribulation of this

metropolitan is nothing compared to what Delhites face every

day! The whole table does not make any sense. With good

editing such types of scientific errors in this otherwise good

book could have been avoided.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

’ISIS, by Navjot S. Sodhi and Barry W. Brook.

>0 pp. Size: 23 cm x 14.5 cm. Hardback.

40-50 years. For example, between 1980 and 1990, 15.4 million

ha of tropical forest was destroyed every year. In Thailand,

the forest cover has decreased from 53% of the land area in

1961 to 27% in 1991. Singapore was almost fully covered by

tropical rain forest 100 years ago, but now only 0.3% of the

land is under natural forest.

Each chapter is succinct, well edited and ends with a

summary. For every statement or data, either reference! s) is

given or information is based on the authors’ original research.

Within a chapter, the subjects are divided by sub-headings.

The flow of the book is very good, despite the fact that it is

full of scientific facts, tables, illustrations and diagrams. The

best part is that relevant and latest references are given which

will help researchers for further reading. The only drawback

is that some of the illustrations are not good (e.g. Figs 2. 1 and

3. 14). How did these illustrations pass through the editor in

this otherwise excellently produced book?

Although the book does not concern our region

(i.e. South Asia), I think the problems are the same, perhaps

exaggerated in South Asia due to dense human population.

Some of the problems and solutions are inter-linked. For

example, since India banned commercial timber harvest from

natural forests about 20 years ago, we started importing timber

from Indonesia and Malaysia. If we consider the Earth as

one large village, we have not solved the problem of

deforestation, but shifted it elsewhere. The solution lies in

reducing our consumption and better management of our

forests. This book also covers the issue of corruption and

mismanagement, rampant in the countries of this region (same

as in South Asia). Agriculture subsidy, the most abhorrent

form which we see in the USA and Europe, also afflicts South-

196

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

REVIEWS

east Asia. Not many conservationists realize that there is

sometime for direct relationship between agriculture subsidy

and biodiversity loss. The inexpensive coffee which you

drink sitting in a tiny restaurant in Europe could have resulted

in deforestation on the other side of the world. I quote from

this book “...during the 1990s, Asian governments with the

support of the International Development Bank, promoted

intensive coffee ( Cojfea robusta) cultivation in countries

such as Indonesia and Vietnam, elevating Indonesia to the

world’s fourth largest coffee exporter and the second largest

producer of C. robusta after Vietnam. This move resulted in

massive forest conversion, but eventually proved to be

economically unsustainable due to overproduction and

subsequent price collapse.” Sadly, despite this, there are

plans to further expand coffee production by the Indonesian

government.

I strongly recommend you to read this book. It may not

have the philosophical wisdom but the data provided in the

book would stir you to sit up and think: Are we doing enough

for the protection of biodiversity of the world? Perhaps the

time has come for more action, based on science. This is the

underlying message of this little book.

■ ASADR. RAHMANI

4. BIRDS OF PREY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, by Rishad Naoroji, illustrations

by N. John Schmitt. Published by OM Books International, New Delhi. 2007. 692 pp.

Size: 24 cm x 17 cm. Hardback. Price: Rs. 1800/-, £40/-.

This is a book which would make Indian ornithologists

proud. It shows that Indian ornithology has advanced from

producing basic field guides to the next higher level of

specialized taxa-related books. Rishad Naoroji has set a trend

by writing a highly commendable book on a difficult subject:

birds of prey (raptors); I hope many such specialized books

will be published in the near future, particularly on other

difficult, but distinct groups such as waders, ducks and geese,

warblers, larks and pipits, forest passerines of the Indian

subcontinent.

I know Rishad since 1981 when we met first time at

Bharatpur. His enthusiasm about raptors is infectious, his

energy is boundless. He once spent nine hours in a tiny

machan , studying and photographing the Pallas’s Fish-Eagle,

which used to breed in the famous jheels of the Keoladeo

National Park in the early 1980s. Sadly this majestic bird has

stopped breeding there and {he jheels of this popular Park are

now suffering from the water-politics of Rajasthan.

This book has been a pleasure to read and review as

Rishad has described in detail all the 69 species of raptors

found in the Indian subcontinent. Each species’ description

is based on extensive literature survey, Rishad’s personal

field notes, and discussion with experts. In pursuit of his

love, Rishad has travelled all over the country, photographing

and making meticulous notes on any raptor that lie saw. He

has also used the help of professional trappers to trap the

birds for detailed study of the plumage, colour of bare parts,

weight, age and sex. He has also taken thousands of pictures,

mainly from hides to study the raptors on nest at close range.

For each species, Rishad has mentioned the most

appropriate English name, scientific name, including the name

of the author who first described it and the year when the

species was named, race(s) if any, local names and their

dialectical/regional variations, and etymology (how the

scientific name originated). Next come the measurements

(length, wingspan and tail), wing, tarsus and weight, followed

by detailed identification, description, and then field

characters which give tips for field identification. Many field

character tips are based on Rishad’s own vast field experience,

and also on the opinion of other raptor experts.

The next section deals with Status, Distribution and

Habitat. In conjunction with the distribution maps given for

each species, this section gives up-to-date status and

distribution of each species. Rishad has referred to the latest

published papers and articles, and consulted experienced

ornithologists for writing this section (and all other sections).

The distribution maps are a great improvement from the recent

field guides (e.g. Grimmett etal. 1998, Pamela and Anderton

2005), or the handbook (Ali and Ripley 1969-1974), which has

now become dated as far as species distribution is concerned.

Rishad’s 30-years of raptor- watching experience reflects

in the next few sections: Behaviour, Food, Voice and Breeding.

Vast amount of unpublished information is presented in these

sections, sometimes contradicting or correcting the earlier

observations. He also gives tit-bits, such as the male of the

Pallas’s Fish-Eagle has a high-pitched, flutey and mellow call

compared to the female’s harsher, more guttural and shriller

tone. Such minute observations can only come from a person

who has spent 800 hrs observing these majestic raptors from

a hide!

Besides the wonderful and scientifically accurate text,

other highlights of this book are the illustrations, maps and

photographs. John Schmitt needs to be complimented for

high-quality plates, showing birds in flight, their different

postures and plumages (sex or age-related variation in

plumage). In 15 plates he has depicted 44 species, some very

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

197

REVIEWS

confusing such as buzzards, Aquila eagles and large falcons.

As the book is difficult to carry in the field, I suggest that

Rishad and Schmitt bring out a small raptor identification

field guide, with plates, good pictures if required, and

distribution maps. This would greatly help in popularizing

raptor watching in the Indian subcontinent.

I also liked the chapter 'Raptors in Indian History and

Mythology’. Rishad felicitously weaves the descriptions of

raptors, their behaviour as known to earlier civilizations, origin

of falconry and the mythological significance of Garuda in

the great Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.

According to the Mahabharata , all birds of prey are

descendents of the primeval Garuda , a semi-divine being,

and a vehicle of Lord Vishnu. According to Rishad, the original

physical basis for Garuda , the snake-eater, was most likely

the White-bellied Sea-eagle which picks up sea-snakes and

eels from the sea. It is interesting to read in this book that our

ancient ancestors had divided the raptors according to

behaviour, flying abilities, and eating habits. While the Bearded

Vulture is glorified in Mahaviracharita, the Egyptian Vulture

is referred to as a lowly, weak and impotent vulture. The

Egyptian Vulture’s Sanskrit names Bliasak or Goshtkukut

refer to the bird’s habit of frequenting the vicinity of villages

and towns, timidly feeding on discarded wastes and carcasses.

In the chapter 'Biogeographical Distribution’, Rishad

mentions the species of raptors that are expected to be

encountered in the ten biogeographical zones of India (based

on the classification of Rodgers and Panwar 1988). This

chapter also contains some superb habitat pictures, mostly

taken by Rishad. Sequential checklist of the species of each

zone is given, making it easy for readers to know what to

expect in a particular zone.

The chapter 'Locating, Observing and Photographing

Raptors’ give useful hints, based on Rishad’s 30-year old

passion and love. Although nest photography is generally

discouraged to avoid disturbance to birds, it is sometimes

necessary for detailed study of raptor ecology and behaviour.

Rishad has studied many raptors on nest from the hide but he

always saw that disturbance is kept to minimum. For example,

while studying Red-headed Falcons in Jamnagar, he built the

hide during evening hours only when heat was less so the

birds were less stressed. He further suggests that not more

than 45 minutes a day should be spent on the actual

construction of a hide, which enables the birds to get

accustomed to the raising structure over a period of time. As

a true conservationist, he advises “even after taking all

precautions, the birds appear stressed; the whole operation

should immediately be suspended or abandoned. The safety

and well-being of the birds should be the primary

consideration rather than data collections or photography.”

The Bibliography, which consists of 50 pages, starts

with General References and then Species References. Almost

all scientific papers, books and reports relevant to South Asian

raptors are mentioned, sometime as latest as 2006 (the book

was published in the last quarter of 2006).

One of the most interesting and relevant chapters is

'Conservation and Management’. Raptors being at the apex

of the food chain are a good indicator of the health of the

environment. The way raptors have declined in India and

elsewhere, indicates that all is not well in our environment.

Besides the dramatic decline of Gyps species of vultures,

due to the killer-drug Diclofenac, which has caught the

attention of the public and the government, other species

are also declining due to the slow poison by pesticides,

herbicides, weedicides and rodenticides. Unlike in the

so-called developed countries, we do not have direct

persecution of raptors, but many of them, particularly large

falcons, are now smuggled to the Middle East for falconry

purpose. Forest dwelling raptors (e.g. Bazas, hawk-eagles,

falconets) have suffered due to habitat destruction, while

the grassland-dwelling raptors (harriers, kestrels,

Black-shouldered Kite) find it difficult to find foraging and

roosting areas as >95% of the grasslands are gone. Despite

the fact that pesticide is playing havoc with our raptor

populations, large-scale all-India study on the negative

impact of pesticides on these species has not been done in

our country. Rishad found that even in the closely-guarded

Corbett National Park very high levels of pesticide was found

in Grey-headed Fish-eagle, so one can imagine the pesticide

impact on the raptors (and other birds) of the countryside

where use of these chemicals is widespread.

In the end, I can only say that birds of prey of the

Indian subcontinent is a high-quality book, not only in text,

photographs, illustrations and maps, but also in production

and slick editing. I recommend it highly. It is a book that will

always remain as something special in my personal library.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

198

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104 (2), IMay-Aug 2007

199-253

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. THE EASTERN LIMIT OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR

SEMNOPITHECUS ENTEEEUS DUFRESNE1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted July 14, 2005

"The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Hanuman or Common Langur Semnopithecus

entellus Dufresne is among the commonest primates of the

Indian subcontinent and is the most abundant of the colobines,

i.e. langurs. Its general distribution covers almost the entire

India, excluding the deserts and the snow-capped higher

Himalaya. It is a very well documented species; however,

towards the eastern part of its range, its distribution was

imperfectly known. In Bangladesh, the only population is in

western Bangladesh, in Kushtia and Jessore districts (Khan

1985), which suggested that the Padma and Meghna rivers

formed its eastern limit in that country. In Bhutan, it occurs only

towards south-west (Choudhury 1990, 1997; Wangchuk 1995).

So far no specimen has been recorded from anywhere

in north-east India except northern West Bengal and Sikkim.

A large number of reports were received from different parts

of north-east India, e.g. Arunachal Pradesh (Chatterjee 1989;

Kaul 1999), Assam (Choudhury 1989) and Mizoram (Khali

1995). However, all these were misidentification of the Capped

Langur Trachypithecus ( = Presbytis ) pileatus , which is

common in the region. Tikader ( 1983), however, tried to limit

its eastern boundary, which was nearer to the actual. He

mentioned River Teesta in northern West Bengal as its

easternmost limit. Roonwal and Mohnot (1977) mentioned

of a subspecies in northern Myanmar (P.e. shanicus ) creating

further confusion regarding the species’ eastern limit because

it suggested occurrence in north-east India also! However, it

is clear that no such race occurs in northern Myanmar and

shanicus is no longer considered a form of entellus (Brandon-

Jones etal. 2002; Corbet and Hill 1992; Groves 1993,2001).

There were also reports from south-eastern areas of Tibet,

China (Qiu and Bleisch 1996).

All such reports of Hanuman Langurs from different

parts of north-east India and adjacent areas of south-eastern

Tibet appeared to be misidentification of the Capped Langur,

whicli has seasonal change in pelage colour and some races

look entirely grey. There were more erroneous records. Anon.

( 1997) reported of its occurrence in Tibet, east of the Tsangpo

river, while Das etal. ( 1995 ) included East Garo Hills, Meghalaya

as part of its range. But none could refer to any specimens.

Corbet and Hill ( 1992) erroneously included the entire

north-east India in the range map for Hanuman Langur

(p. 175), while Prater (1948) did not mention anything

specifically on north-east India or Assam. Qiu and Bleisch’s

(1996) report that it occurs in Yarlung Zangbu region of Tibet

had again raised confusion as they had mentioned of

specimens also. But on being asked to clarify (Choudhury

1997), they could not defend their report and said that the

specimens were not seen or examined but ‘reported’ (Bleisch

1997 ; Qiu 1 997 ). George Schaller during his visit to Guwahati

in February 2000 had a discussion with me regarding the

langur species found in south-eastern Tibet near India’s

border and the adjacent areas in Arunachal Pradesh.

Subsequently, he confirmed that the langurs found near the

Tsangpo belt were Capped and not Hanuman as stated in

Choudhury (1997).

During field studies for primates in north-east India

since 1984, I could not confirm the presence of Hanuman

Langur and all the reports were found out to be of Capped

Langurs, some of which, especially in parts of higher

Himalaya and Naga Hills look entirely grey. In northern West

Bengal, I found it to occur east of the Teesta river, thus

contradicting Tikader ( 1983). It is, however, very rare and

occurs mainly in Chunabhati and Buxa fort area of Buxa Tiger

Reserve, west of the Rydak river. In Bhutan, Wangchuk ( 1995)

reported that the Hanuman Langur occurs as far east as the

Puna Tsang Chu or Sankosh river. Thus, it is now established

that the eastern limit of Hanuman Langur’s distribution is the

Rydak river in northern West Bengal, India; Sankosh or Puna

Tsang Chu in Bhutan, and Padma and Meghna rivers in

Bangladesh (historically Jamuna also).

REFERENCES

Anon. (1997): Distribution of Mammalian Species in China. China

Forestry Publishing House, Beijing.

Bleisch, W.V. (1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa, Tibet. Oryx 31(2):

91-92.

Brandon-Jones, D., A. A. Eudey. T. Geissmann, D.J. Melnick,

J.C. Morales, M. Shekelle & C.B. Stewart (2002): A taxonomy

of the Asian Primates. A working document from the workshop

“Primate taxonomy for the new millennium”.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Chatterjee, A.K. (1989): Survey of Snow Leopard and associated

animals in Mouling National park, east Siang district, Arunachal

Pradesh. Arunachal forest news 7(1 & 2): 10-15.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution, habitat

and status. Ph.D. thesis. Gauhati University. 300 pp. + maps.

Choudhury, A.U. (1990): Primates in Bhutan. Oryx 24: 125.

Choudhury, A.U. (1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa, Tibet. Oryx

31(2): 91.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-malayan

Region: A Systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

488 pp.

Das, P, R. Ghose, T. Chakraborty, T. Bhattacharyya & M. Ghosh

(1995): Mammalia. In: Fauna of Meghalaya. State Fauna Series 4

(Part 1: vertebrates; Mammalia, pp. 23-128). Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta.

Groves, C.P (1993): Order Primates. Pp. 243-278. In: (Eds: Wilson,

D.E. & D.M. Reeder) Mammal Species of the World: ATaxonomic

& Geographic Reference. 2nd edn. Smithsonian Institution Press,

Washington, D.C. & London.

Groves, C.P. (2001 ): Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institution Press,

Washington DC. 350 pp.

Kaul, R. ( 1999): Arunachal: in quest of nature’s bounty. WWF-India,

New Delhi. 76 pp.

Khan, M.A.R. (1985): Mammals of Bangladesh. N. Reza, Dhaka. 92 pp.

Khati, D. (1995): Dampa. Sanctuary Asia 15(2): 30-35.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Qiu. M.J. ( 1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa, Tibet. Oryx 31(2): 92.

Qiu, M.J. & W.V. Bleisch (1996): Preliminary assessment of large

mammals in the Namcha Barwa region of SE Tibet. Oryx 30:

31-36.

Roonwal, M.L. & S.M. Mohnot (1977): Primates of South Asia:

Ecology, Sociobiology & Behaviour. Harvard University Press,

Cambridge (Mass.). 421 pp.

Tikader. B.K. ( 1983): Threatened Animals of India. Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta. 307 pp.

Wangchuk, T. (1995): A census and the biogeography of the golden

langur. Tigerpaper 22(3): 1-6.

2. MACAQUES ‘KIDNAP’ INFANT PALM CIVETS1

SuSu2

‘Accepted September 09, 2005

2Zoology Department, Yangon University, Yangon, Myanmar. Email: [email protected]

During a study of Civet ecology in Hlawga Wildlife

Park (2000-2003), I observed two instances of ‘adoption' or

‘kidnapping’ of baby Palm Civets. Hlawga Wildlife Park in

Myanmar is a 6.24 sq. km protected area, dominated by

secondary mixed deciduous forest, located 35 km north of

Yangon. The Park has a mixed fauna of large mammals, such

as Sambar (Cervus unicolor ), Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), Red

Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak ), Eld's Deer ( Cervus eldi ), Wild

Boar (Sits scrofa) and Gaur (Bos frontalis), some introduced

from other areas in Myanmar (Su Su 2003). It has a current

population of c. 280 Rhesus Macaques (Macaco mulatto).

The Park is frequently visited by local tourists who feed

Sambar, Hog Deer, Eld’s Deer and Macaques with food bought

from local vendors.

On April 22, 2001, my assistant and I were approached

by a group of macaques seeking food. One adult male carried

a small black animal that was crying like a kitten. We soon

identified it as an infant Palm Civet (Paradoxurus

hermaphroditus). The Palm Civet is the most common small

carnivore in the Park. We used food to coax the monkey to

surrender the baby Civet, but the macaque held on to it firmly.

When we tried chasing, it ran away and climbed on a tree, still

holding the baby. The Park’s forestry staff reported that they

had seen the macaque with the baby Civet for three days. We

observed the macaque with the live baby Civet daily for the

next three days, the baby’s voice becoming weaker each day.

Two days later, the Civet was dead but was still being carried

by the macaque.

A week after this event, we saw another male macaque,

a smaller male, carrying another baby Palm Civet. This

infant Civet was alive but was not vocalizing. Unfortunately,

we were unable to observe this macaque on subsequent

days. It seems probable that these macaques appropriate

baby Palm Civets that they encounter in civet nestling sites,

in trees. Macaques are known to show paternal behaviour

towards infants of their own species (Schino etal. 1995), but

we have not heard of allo-mothering behaviour in this

species.

REFERENCES

Schino, G.. F.R. D'Amato & A. Trois (1995): Mother-infant relationships in Japanese macaques: sources of inter-individual variation.

Anim. Behav. 49: 151-158.

Su, Su (2003): The ecology of the small carnivore community in Hlawga Wildlife Park, Myanmar. Thesis submitted to Yangon University,

Myanmar for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Wildlife Science and Conservation. 169 pp.

200

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. LIVESTOCK-DHOLE CONFLICT IN WESTERN BHUTAN1

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH2 , DEKI YoNTEN3 AND SaNGAY WaNGCHUCK34

'Accepted March 07, 2006

2WWF-India. 3076/5, 4th Cross. Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, India. Entail: [email protected]

-’Nature Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan, Thimphu.

4Email: [email protected]

Dhole (Cuon alpinus ), a pack-hunting canid, is a

coursing predator of the Asian jungles. It preys on wild

ungulates such as Sambar ( Cervus unicolor), Chital

(Axis axis). Barking Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak) and Wild Pig

(Sus scrofa) and also on livestock when available. Bhutan

has 72% forest cover (Tshering and Wangchuk 2003), and

wild ungulates such as Sambar, Wild Pig and Barking Deer,

which provide a suitable habitat for Dholes. The Indian

subcontinent has four subspecies of Dholes (Johnsingh 1985)

and of these, possibly two occur in Bhutan - C.a. primaevus

in the lower and middle Himalayan regions, and C.a. laniger

in the higher regions. The propensity of Dholes to attack

livestock, however, had resulted in the people of Bhutan

nearly eradicating Dholes in the 1970s by poisoning their

kills. Subsequently, for nearly 30 years. Dholes as a problem

species were forgotten. Absence of dholes led to another

problem, wild pigs, which caused enormous damage to

agricultural crops (Wangchuk 2004). Dholes reappeared in

many parts of Bhutan in the late 1990s, and started causing

considerable damage to livestock, as the villagers in many

parts of Bhutan leave their livestock to graze in the forest,

sometimes even for weeks at a time.

In order to assess Dhole depredation on livestock, a

three-week study was carried out in April-May 2004 in Toeb

Geog (block), Thimphu Dzongkhag (district) in western

Bhutan, as part of a training program to 1 5 wildlife personnel

from different parts of Bhutan. A questionnaire to gather

information on Dhole depredation was developed. The

participants were divided into five teams and were guided to

collect data on Dhole depredation from six villages on the left

bank of Toeb Rong Chhu (a stream in a deep gorge) and four

on the right bank. The right bank villages were much more

developed due to the Thimphu-Wangdue Highway. In each

village, three persons representing different households/

families (n=30) were interviewed based on the questionnaire

(Johnsingh etal. 2004).

The key findings are as follows. Average family size on

the right bank, which possibly has more employment

opportunities due to the highway, was 8.42, while on the left

bank it was 5.78. Average number of livestock held by a family

on the right bank was 6.67 and left bank 6.44. Twenty-two

respondents, who had lost their livestock to Dholes, said

that all attacks and kills were made while the cattle were left in

the jungle. Interestingly, Emou village, which is on the left

bank, which in 2004 had 16 cattle and 4 pigs, had not suffered

a single livestock loss so far, as the animals were taken to

jungle for feeding during the day and stall-fed at night. All

the 30 respondents said that livestock penned near homes

were never attacked by Dholes. As seen in other parts of

Dhole range, there were no attacks on people, and the number

of Dholes in the packs averaged around eight.

Livestock numbers on the left bank in 2004 were

80 cows, 12 oxen, 9 calves and 17 pigs. Livestock killed from

1 999 to 2003 was 6 cows, 1 0 oxen, and 3 calves. On the right

bank, the livestock numbers in 2004 were 48 cows, 24 oxen

and 9 calves. Livestock killed during 1 999-2003 was 15 cows,

24 oxen, and 8 calves. More oxen and fewer cows are killed in

proportion to availability, and this indicates that the cows are

protected well while oxen do not get the needed protection.

Annual loss per family due to Dhole depredation on the left

bank was US $ 23.4 (Nu. 1,055) and the right bank US $ 85

(Nu. 3,833). This loss is substantial, considering that the annual

income of villagers in Bhutan is between US $ 400 and 600

(Nu. 18,000 to 27,000).

Based on the answers of 30 respondents, it was concluded

that next to Dhole, Leopard (Panthera pardus) was the major

predator on livestock ( 1 1 reported cases of attacks) followed by

Tiger ( P. tigris, 4 cases) and Black Bear ( Ursus thibetanus,

1 case). One interesting observation during the survey was that

most villagers prefer Dholes to Wild Pigs, as Dholes prey on

Wild Pigs. Protecting fields from Wild Pigs is much more difficult

than protecting livestock from Dholes. We suggest that with

suitable conservation awareness programmes the Emou model

should be followed for other villages. Compensation for Dhole

livestock kills, if given, could become very expensive for the

Government of Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The senior author would like to thank Nature

Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal

Government of Bhutan for the invitation to run the training

programme and Dr. Nima Manjrekar for reading through the

manuscript.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

201

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Johnsingh, A J.T. (1985): Distribution and status of dhole Cuon alpinus

Pallas, 1811 in South Asia. Mammalia 49: 203-208.

Johnsingh, A.J.T., S. Wangchuk & D. Yonten (2004): Evaluation of

livestock depredation by dhole ( Cuon alpinus) in the Kingdom of

Bhutan. Report submitted to Nature Conservation Division,

Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Govt, of Bhutan, Thimphu, 20 pp.

Tshering, K. & S. Wangchuk (2003): Vision and Strategy for

the Nature Conservation Division. Department of Forestry

Services. Ministry of Agriculture. Royal Govt, of Bhutan, 88 pp.

Wangchuk, Tashi (2004): Predator-Prey Dynamics - The Role of

Predators in the Control of Problem Species. Journal of Bhutan

Studies 10: 68-89.

4. FIVE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRREL (FUNNAMBULUS PENNANTIf)

IN RISHI VALLEY, CHITTOOR DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH'

V. Santharam2

'Accepted May 13, 2006

institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre. Rishi Valley 517 352, Chittoor district,

Andhra Pradesh. India. Email: [email protected]

According to some recent publications on Indian

mammals, the Five-striped Palm Squirrel ( Funnambulus

pennantii) is a species of northern India, found south of c.

16° N, i.e. around Dharwar in the west (Nameer 2000; Menon

2003), and on the east and in central India the limit is indicated

as around 20° N (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is replaced in

southern India by the closely related and similar looking

Three-striped Palm Squirrel ( Funnambulus palmarum ). Earlier

writers like Stemdale (1884) treated both species as one till

around the beginning of the twentieth century (Sathasivam

1 999). Prater (1980) on the other hand says: "The Five-striped

Squirrel is common in northern India, particularly in the drier

and more arid portions, and extends into the dry plains of the

south. The Three-striped species predominates in the south,

and in the moister parts of western and eastern India. Both

species may, however, be found living in the same area.”

I have been observing the Five-striped Palm squirrel in

the Rishi Valley area (near Madanapalle, Chittoor district of

Andhra Pradesh), which is 13° N, for the past several years

and have, in the last few months, made close observations on

them. These squirrels are not shy and if one remains quiet

they are seen at a close range.

These squirrels are found in arid, scrub and boulder

covered parts of the valley, away from cultivation and

habitations, though they could be seen close to agricultural

lands occasionally. I have been seeing at least four animals

on the roadside hedges (agave) near Rishi Valley, and suspect

there may be more animals. I have also often seen them at

another location in similar dry habitat about two kilometres

away from the location. It appears unlikely that the population

in Rishi Valley is introduced as the squirrels are also noticed

in appropriate habitats, even 20-25 km away from Rishi Valley

(Suresh Jones pers. comm.).

It is unfortunate that all books distinguish these two

species only on the basis of the number of stripes. Some

features that I have noticed of these animals that are distinct.

apart from the habitat segregation are: their calls that appear

sharper than the Three-striped species, which are abundant

in the cultivated areas and habitations inside the school

campus. The presence of a dark stripe (eye-band) that

contrasts with the white cheeks; an indistinct supercilium is

also seen above this dark stripe. The Five-striped appears

slimmer and the dark stripes on the back appear to contrast

more with the body coloration. The additional pale stripes on

the flanks are clearly noticeable in some individuals, even

without binoculars. The tail appears less bushy.

I am not sure if these features are uniformly present in

all individuals across the country or are peculiar to the

population in Rishi Valley. Even here they appear indistinct in

some individuals. Only some of the photographs on the

internet and publications confirm this. According to Kumaran

Sathasivam (in litt.), "I have found these stripes to be not

conspicuous in the field in Delhi. I had to look carefully to

discern the five stripes. The books too say the outer stripes

are obscure in skins.”

Enquiries with local villagers revealed that they do know

the existence of two species that co-exist in their environs,

and they are aware of the habitat preference of the two species.

They distinguish them based on their habitat preferences,

coloration and tail. They do not seem to have a distinct name

though (Suresh Jones pers. comm, in 2005).

In view of the above observations, I feel we need to

re-examine the skins of all Palm squirrels in Indian museums

from various localities, and also conduct field research to

rework the field marks, exact distribution, and taxonomy of

these common mammals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 thank Kumaran Sathasivam for comments on an earlier

draft of this note and Suresh Jones for sharing his

observations.

202

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Corbet, G. & J. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

496 pp.

Menon, V. (2003): AField Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling Kindersley

(India) - Penguin Books India, New Delhi, 201 pp.

Nameer, P.O. (2000): Checklist of Indian Mammals. Kerala Forest

Department (Wildlife Wing) Thrissur, 90+ xxv pp.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Mammals. Bombay Natural

History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay,

324 pp.

Sathasivam, K. ( 1999): The striped squirrels of south India. Blackbuck

15(1): 7-12.

Sterndale, R.A. (1884): Mammalia of India [1982 reprint] Himalayan

Books, New Delhi, 540 pp.

5. THE GAUR BOS FRONTALIS LAMBERT IN MANIPUR1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted May 16, 2006

2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021. Assam. India.

Email: badrul @ sify.com

The Gaur Bos frontalis Lambert is distributed in

north-eastern India in discrete populations (Choudhury 2002).

The Gaur population in Manipur is poorly known and is

believed to be very small (Choudhury 1 992). Field trips were

made in April 1988, January 1996, January and October 2001,

and February 2002 to assess the current status of the Gaur in

Manipur. The state of Manipur (23° 49'-25° 42’ N, 93° 00'-94°

45' E; 22,327 sq. km in area), (Fig. 1 ) has two physiographic

units - Manipur or Imphal Valley and Manipur Hills. The

highest ranges are towards north with Mt. Tenipu or Iso

(2,900 m above msl ) as the highest peak. The lowest elevation

is in the riverbeds near the Assam-Manipur border (less than

50 m above msl).

Till about 1950s, the Gaur was widespread all over the

hills in the state, especially in the districts of Ukhrul, Senapati,

Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Chandel and Jiribarn

subdivision of Imphal district. Stray animals were reported

from the hilly areas of Thoubal and Bishnupur (Bishenpur)

districts. By then, however, the Gaur has vanished from the

Valley. In fact, even at the turn of the 20th century, the species

was scarce near the Valley. The Gaur was never common in

recent memory as its meat was considered a major delicacy

by all the tribes (Zeliangrong. Mao and Tangkhul Nagas,

Kukis, Hmars, Biates, Paites and Mizos), and hunting was a

regular feature. In the 1960s, when the insurgency started,

modern firearms became handy resulting in phenomenal

increase in poaching. With the gradual increase in human

population, the destruction of forest through felling and jhum

cultivation has also increased. By 1970s, the main Gaur

strongholds remained only in the western and eastern hills

with small populations elsewhere. By 1980s, they vanished

from the northern hills except for stray individuals from the

Dzuko valley and adjacent hilltops. In the 1990s, the Gaur

survived only in a few areas, namely ( 1) Anko / Ango Ching

range and Shiroi; (2) Bunning area; (3) Jiri-Makru forests;

(4) Chandel district; (5) Tolbung forests and stray individuals

elsewhere. In the meantime, the human population of Manipur

grew from 1.07 million in 1971 to 2.29 millions in 2001 (Gol

2001), i.e. more than double in two decades indicating

phenomenal increase in jhum cultivation.

The main Gaur populations are now confined to the

five areas where they were in the 1990s, but in a reduced

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

203

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

number. The approximate area and numbers are as follows:

Anko / Ango Ching range and Shiroi (300 sq. km) of Ukhrul

district in the north-east. This population has contiguity with

forests in Myanmar and about 40-80 Gaurs could still be found.

Bunning Wildlife Sanctuary (115 sq. km) and Jiri-Makru

forests (198 sq. km) of Tamenglong district in the north-west

have a small population of less than 30 animals. In Chandel

district, a few are seen in the Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife

Sanctuary ( 1 84.80 sq. km), but less than 30 animals are found

in the forests (>50 sq. km) towards south, which also move to

the Myanmar forests. In Tolbung Reserved Forest (>100 sq.

km) and Kailam Wildlife Sanctuary (187 sq. km) of

Churachandpur district, only stray animals or groups survive.

From the above account, it seems that the total number

of Gaur in Manipur is only 1 20- 1 60. The long-term survival of

Gaurs in Manipur is bleak as the existing numbers are not

only very small, but are also severely fragmented with no

possibility of contiguity. The protected areas, where a few

gaurs still survive, are inadequately protected.

Habitat destruction and poaching continue to be

major threats. The main cause of decline is unreported

poaching. Protection measures in the sanctuaries should

be strengthened. Anko/ Ango Ching range and Shiroi

should be declared wildlife sanctuaries. Conservation

education among villagers living along the fringe

areas of PAs with the help of NGOs is also strongly

recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following for their assistance

during the study. R.K. Ranjan Singh, Sameer Khan, K. Muivah,

Ibohandi Singh; Lungkiang Pamei and Ramkung Pamei.

Mrs. Anne Wright, Ratul Talukdar and Hakim of The Rhino

Foundation for Nature in NE India. Special thanks to my father

the late Alauddin Choudhury who introduced me to Manipur

in 1 988, and was also of constant help during my subsequent

field trips.

REFERENCES

Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Wildlife in Manipur - a preliminary survey. Tigerpciper 19(1): 20-28.

Choudhury, A.U. (2002): Distribution and Conservation of the Gaur Bos gaums in the Indian subcontinent. Mammal Review 32(3): 199-226.

Gol (2001 ): The Census of India 2001 . Government of India, New Delhi.

6. SIGNIFICANT NEW LOW ELEVATION RECORD

FOR GORAL NEMORHAEDUS GORAL (HARDWICKE)1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted May 10, 2005

:The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Goral (genus Nemorhaedus ) is represented in the

Indian subcontinent by three forms, which are treated as

different subspecies as well as species - goral, bailey i and

caudatus (Choudhury 2003; Corbet and Hill 1992; Ellerman

and Morrison-Scott 1951; Wilson and Reeder 1993), however,

there was no proper description of upgrading these as distinct

species except popular descriptions, such as Groves and

Grubb ( 1 985 ). There is also significant colour difference within

a species or even subspecies. In Himalayan goral N. goral ,

which is grey-brown, although the tendency is not to

recognize hodgsoni as a subspecies, latter form is rufous-

brown and distinct in the field. The Chinese goral N. caudatus

in the Himalaya and Mishmi Hills is dark grey, while form

evansi in Mizoram is brown.

The goral occurs in the hills and mountains, preferring

cliffs and rocky hill sides from elevations ranging from 900 to

4,250 m (Prater 1980), from 820 m up in Pakistan (Corbet and

Hill 1 992). It is only at higher latitudes such as Ussuri area of

eastern Russia that it occurs at the sea level (Schaller 1977).

In the lower latitude, including the Indian subcontinent,

the known lower altitudinal limit was 820 m. The altitudinal

movement in the Himalaya is mainly noticed in winter due

to heavy snowfall in the higher elevations. I here report

an interesting observation where goral was recorded at a

very low elevation at latitudes it was never recorded

earlier.

On November 28, 2004, three boatmen while pulling a

boat upstream had noticed two ‘wild goats’ - goral or serow

- on a cliff on the right bank of the Manas river in Royal

Manas National Park, Bhutan (26° 49' N, 90° 56' E) (Fig. 1 ).

The boat was pulled to Panbang, a sub-divisional headquarter

in Bhutan for me where I was camping. The next day, while

boating downstream, the boatmen showed me the spot, but

the ‘wild goats’ were not there. Suddenly one of the boatmen

204

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Map of Bhutan

shouted, and I could see one goral a few metres from the

previous day’s site. It was on the cliff that was covered by

sparse vegetation. It then slowly moved behind scrub.

The elevation where the Goral was seen was 110 m above

the mean sea level. Sighting record of Goral at such an

elevation was never reported and I even did not expect.

I had observed Serow at 100 m in the Himalayan foothills

only in winter, and in south of the Brahmaputra, sporadically

round the year, but the sighting of Goral was interesting.

From the range, it seems to be a Himalayan Goral N. goral,

but it was rufous-brown indicating that it was of form

hodgsoni Pocock.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Karma Drukpa (SDO, Panbang, Bhutan), Pema

Rinchen (Park Ranger, Royal Manas National Park), and their

party, Satya Moosahary and other boatmen for their help in

the field.

REFERENCES

Choudhury, A.U. (2003): The Mammals of Arunachal Pradesh. Regency

Publications. New Delhi. 140 pp.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indomalayan

Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

488 pp.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1951): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1758 to 1946 (2nd edn, 1966).

British Museum (Natural History), London. 810 pp.

Groves, C.P & P. Grubb (1985): Reclassification of the serows and

gorals. Pp. 45-50. In: (Ed: Lovari, S.) The Biology and

Management of Mountain Ungulates. Croom Helm, Beckenham.

Prater, S.H. ( 1980): The Book of Indian Animals. 4th edn. Bombay

Natural History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay.

324 pp.

Schaller, G.B. (1977): Mountain Monarchs. Wild Sheep and Goats of

the Himalaya. Chicago University Press, Chicago. 425 pp.

Wilson, D.E. & D.M. Reeder (eds.) (1993): Mammal Species of the

World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 2nd edn.

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. & London.

1207 pp.

7. DISCOVERY OF LEAF DEER MUNTIACUS PUTAOENSIS RABINOWITZ ET AL.

IN NAGALAND WITH A NEW NORTHERLY RECORD

FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted July 14, 2005

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

Muntjacs Muntiacus sp. are common and widely

spread across India as well as elsewhere in Asia; however, it

seems to be an interesting group, with a number of recent

discoveries of new species from southeast Asia (Schaller

andVrba 1996; Rabinowitz <?/ a/. 1999). One such new species

was described from northern Myanmar in 1999 and was

named Muntiacus putaoensis (Rabinowitz etal. 1999). This

is a small deer and has been named as ‘Leaf Deer’ because

local hunters called it so in their dialect. Their area of

occurrence was in extreme northern Myanmar, around Putao.

This discovery indicated the Leaf Deer’s possible presence

in India, especially in eastern Arunachal Pradesh. In north-

east India, the Indian Muntjac M. muntjak is the most

abundant of all deer species occupying a wide variety of

habitats and altitudinal ranges.

In 1993-1994, while surveying eastern areas of

Arunachal Pradesh, in Lohit and Changlang districts, I came

across reports of a small deer resembling a muntjac from the

Lohit and Changlang districts, both from areas bordering

Myanmar. At that time Muntiacus putaoensis was not

described, and since there was no good collection of muntjac

species in Indian museums, comparison was difficult. Though

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

205

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Inferred distribution of Leaf Deer

• Place 1

Fig. 1 : Map showing inferred area of distribution of the Leaf Deer

I did not follow up by further surveys, I was intrigued by the

stories of the small deer.

In 1 997, Rabinowitz and Khaing ( 1998) found small sized

muntjacs in adjacent areas of northern Myanmar and later

described it as Muntiacus putaoensis (Rabinowitz el al. 1999).

In August 2001, I visited the collections at the Wildlife

Conservation Society and American Museum of Natural

History to examine the skulls of the Leaf Deer obtained from

northern Myanmar by Rabinowitz and confirmed that the

specimens from Lohit and Changlang were that of the Leaf

Deer (undescribed at that time) (Choudhury 2003). Later, Datta

et al. (2003) found evidence from elsewhere in Changlang

district.

Tuensang and Kiphire districts of Nagaland (25° 35'-

26° 24' N, 94° 35'-95° 12' E) are hilly and mountainous. The

main range runs along the India-Myanmar boundary and is

the highest in mainland Asia south of Himalaya-Mishmi Hills.

The highest point is Mt. Saramati, 3,842 m above msl, which

is also the highest peak in mainland Asia - south of the

Himalaya. Elevation ranges from 1 ,000 m. The main vegetation

type ranges from subtropical broadleaf and temperate

broadleaf forests to subalpine scrub atop Saramati. Small areas

of subtropical and temperate conifers are also found. Dibang

Valley and Upper Dibang Valley districts of Arunachal Pradesh

(28° 0’-29° 27' N, 95° 15'-96° 36' E) are also hilly and mountainous

being part of Mishmi Hills.

Discovery in Nagaland

Although I had a plan to survey the eastern mountains

of Nagaland bordering Myanmar for possible Leaf

(M. putaoensis ) and Black muntjacs (M. crinifrons ), my visit

in February 2004 was on an awareness campaign as part of

OBC-WildWings Conservation Award. During discussion with

local hunters and villagers in the Noklak area (26° 12' N,

95° 00' E) of Tuensang district, at least four hunters reported

of a small deer that resembled the commoner Indian muntjac.

According to them it lived in higher areas of the mountains

that separate India from Myanmar. During winter they even

hunted it amidst frost or snow, which indicate that the species

prefers higher elevation. I looked around in the Noklak town

206

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Skull measurements (cm) of the lone specimen (Male)

examined

SKULL

GSL

CTL

ZB

BW

NW

IOB

PW

MTL

CL (left)

ANTLER

LPL 6.1

RPL 5.8

PC 2.9

PG (base) 4.2

PG (tip) 3.4

PG (gt) 4.5

Skull GSL = greatest skull length; CTL = length of cheek teeth;

ZB = zygomatic breadth; BW = greatest width of braincase;

NW = greatest width across nasals; IOB = inter-orbital breadth;

PW = palatal width between third molars; MTL = length of maxillary

toothrow; CL (left) = canine length

Antler: LPL = left pedicle length; RPL = right pedicle length;

PC = pedicle circumference; PG (base) = gap between pedicles at

their base; PG (tip) = gap between pedicles at their tip;

PG (gt) = greatest gap between pedicles.

as well as village and then a number of other villages such as

Pangsha, New Pangsha, Dan, etc. Everywhere, at least the

regular hunters were convinced that there is indeed a small

muntjac in the higher areas east, north-east and south-east of

Noklak. After repeated search in these villages at last I could

locate a skull of a male at Pangsha village (26° 14' N, 95° 06' E).

The elevation of the village ranges from 1 ,200 to 1 .300 m and

the Leaf Deer were reportedly encountered or shot at 1 ,700 m

to above 3,000 m. The measurements of the skull are given in

Table 1 . The skull was almost complete except for some minor

damages that did not allow measurements of condylobasal

length, basal length and nasal length. The greatest skull length

was also not complete, but up to the canine only. In the skull,

the inward bend of pedicles was conspicuous.

Further records from Arunachal Pradesh

In March 2004, 1 confirmed its occurrence farther north

in Dibang Valley (Choudhury 2004; details are being

analysed). Two specimens (head with antler) were examined,

which were shot from the subtropical forests towards north-

east of Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary (outside the sanctuary area).

This record has extended the range of the deer farther north

(so far northern-most).

These discoveries significantly extended the distribution

of the leaf muntjac further south ( 26° 1 4' N; from 26° 33' N in

Rabinowitz etol. 1 999) and west (95° 06' E; from c. 96° 30' E in

Datta et al. 2003) in Nagaland, and also towards north

(28° 20' N; from c. 27° 35' N in Rabinowitz et al. 1999) in

Arunachal Pradesh. In Nagaland, it certainly occurs farther

south covering Saramati and at least up to the gorge of Tizu

river that flows into Myanmar. This also indicates that the

Leaf Deer has wider distribution across the western

mountainous tracts of Myanmar as well as the intervening

mountains between Noklak in Nagaland and Pangsu in

Arunachal Pradesh (Fig. 1).

Because of habitat contiguity and similarity in terrain,

vegetation and climatic conditions, it is likely to occur farther

west in Dibang valley in Arunachal Pradesh, as well as a

possible area in southeast Tibet (China), where the Lohit

river has entered India (Fig. I). Except Fakim Wildlife

Sanctuary (6.4 sq. km), the entire potential range in Nagaland

is outside any protected area. A large protected area has

already been recommended as ‘Saramati-Fakim’ covering an

area of 500 sq. km that also includes the confirmed habitat of

the Leaf Deer near Noklak (Choudhury 2001 ). Besides early

declaration of this protected area, further surveys in Saramati

and other mountain ranges on India-Myanmar border

falling in Mon, Tuensang, Kiphire and Phek districts in

Nagaland and Ukhrul district in Manipur are strongly

recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Oriental Bird Club for awarding me the

OBC-WildWings Conservation Award that enabled me to

visit Noklak. H. Shou who was my guide in the area. Chingla

of Noklak; M. Thangpong and Hiampai, the Dubashis',

Khmou, Hendo, and Sujong. Others who deserve mention

are, the Additional Deputy Commissioner of Noklak, the

chowkidar of Noklak Circuit House, the sister and brother-in

law of H. Shou at Noklak for providing me food; Tsangchingla

Imlong of Mokochung; Neisatuo Keditsu, Thomas Kent

(Rengma), K. Sohe, T. Torechu (now an MLA) and Hakim,

among others. Surveys in Dibang valley was part of a

project under Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government

of India (under biosphere programme) and I thank

them.

At Wildlife Conservation Society and American

Museum of Natural History, both in New York, I thank Kathleen

Conforti, Program Manager and Bob Randall, Manager of

loans and visitor services, for their help during my visit in

August 200 1 . 1 also thank Alain Rabinowitz for kindly allowing

me (through Kathleen) to examine the specimens in his

chamber during his absence in August 2001.

15.4 up to canine

5.4

7.2

5.5

1.8

3.8

3.2

8.7

1.3

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

207

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Choudhury, A.U. (2001): Some bird records from Nagaland, north-

east India. Forktail 17: 91-103.

Choudhury, A.LL (2003): The Mammals of Arunachal Pradesh. Regency

Publications, New Delhi. 140 pp.

Choudhury, A.U. (2004): Survey of birds and mammals in Dihang-

Dibang Biosphere Reserve. 2nd interim report to the Ministry of

Environment & Forests, Government of India. The Rhino

Foundation for Nature in NE India, Guwahati. 6 pp.

Datta, A., J. Pansa, M.D. Madhusudan & C. Mishra (2003): Discovery

of the Leaf Deer Muntiacus putaoensis in Arunachal Pradesh: an

addition to the large mammals of India. Current Science 84:

454-458.

Rabinowitz, A.R. & S.T. Khaing (1998): Notes on selected mammal

species in northern Myanmar. Oryx 32(3): 201-208.

Rabinowitz, A.R., T. Myint, S.T. Khaing & S. Rabinowitz (1999):

Description of the Leaf Deer (Muntiacus putaoensis ), a new species

of muntjac from northern Myanmar. J. Zool. 249: 427-435.

Schaller, G.B. & E.S. Vrba (1996): Description of the Giant Muntjac

(Megamuntiacus vuquangensis) in Laos. J. Mammalogy 77(3):

675-683.

8. STATUS OF HOG DEER AXIS PORCINUS ZIMMERMANN IN LAKHIMPUR

AND DHEMAJI DISTRICTS OF ASSAM'

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted May 10, 2005

2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Hog Deer Axis pore inns Zimmermann was widely

distributed in the plains of north-eastern India, especially in

valleys of the Brahmaputra and Barak rivers, and Manipur.

Over the years, the grasslands in the plains gave way to

settlements and paddy cultivation, and the species was

confined mainly to some of the protected areas only. However,

in two districts of eastern Assam, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji,

the Hog Deer is still found in scattered pockets outside the

protected areas due to relatively low pressure of human

population (Choudhury 1997). I report their relative status in

1989-1991 (I was posted at Dhakuakhana as SDO-civil),

1994-95 (I was posted at Lakhimpur as Project Director of

rural development) and 2002 (short field trip) in these two

districts.

In 1989-91, in Lakhimpur district (Fig. 1 ), the species

was present in the Pabho Reserve Forest (RF), Borchapori,

Kadam RF, chapories of the Subansiri river near

Chowldhowaghat and many localities in Dhakuakhana

subdivision (Choudhury 1991) (Matmota, Tekeliphuta,

Lutachur, Basudeo, Andharu, Bordoibam-Bilmukh and Gohain

chapori, Sampora near Ghilamora, Borkolia and stray animals

elsewhere). Stray animals were also observed in Dulung, Kakoi

and Ranga RFs, especially along the rivers. However, in all

these pockets the number of the Deer was low, never exceeding

40-50. In Dhemaji district, however, large populations existed

in Kobo chapori (> 200), Bordoloni (>100), Poba RF, Jamjing

RF (>50), Sengajan RF, Jiadhal RF, Subansiri RF, chapories

near Sonarighat, Semen chapori, other chapories on the

Brahmaputra river, and stray animals elsewhere. The total

estimated population in Lakhimpur and Dhemaji was 250-300

and 550-650 respectively.

In 1994-95, in both Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts,

the species was present in all the sites of 1989-91, but in

slightly lesser numbers.

In 2002, significant changes were noticed in Lakhimpur

district, the species was virtually absent from Pabho RF, with

stray animals reported. In Borchapori and Kadam RF, the

changed course of the Subansiri river had eroded the habitat

to almost half. It was a case of ‘river capture’ where the small

Ghagar river about 50 m wide was captured by the big Subansiri

river about 500 m wide. The chapories of the Subansiri river

near Chowldhowaghat and many localities in Dhakuakhana

subdivision (Matmota, Tekeliphuta, Lutachur, Basudeo,

Andharu, Borkolia and stray animals elsewhere), however,

continued to hold small numbers of the Deer. The number in

Fig. 1 : Map showing some of the places mentioned in the text.

1 . Pabho RF; 2. Borchapori; 3. Kadam RF; 4. Dulung RF;

5. Kakoi RF; 6. Ranga RF; 7. Subansiri RF;

8. Bordoibam-Bilmukh and Gohain chapori; 9. Basudeo;

1 0. Tekeliphuta; 1 1 . Matmota; 1 2. Bordoloni;

13. Jamjing and Sengajan RFs; 14. PobaRF; 15. Kobo chapori

208

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sampora near Ghilamora was reduced to a few individuals,

while those in Bordoibam-Bilmukh were almost extirpated.

Stray animals were still observed in Dulling, Kakoi and Ranga

RFs, especially along the rivers. Bordoibam-Bilmukh is a bird

sanctuary and is partly in Lakhimpur and partly in Dhemaji

districts; the main deer habitat was in Lakhimpur district. The

entire grassland and reed bed along the western fringe of the

Sanctuary was destroyed by a section of the villagers who

were opposed to the declaration of a sanctuary. While a few

deer could escape, the rest were killed for the pot. The

survivors (about 20) are still seen in Gohain chapori towards

west of Bordoibam-Bilmukh. In Dhemaji district, however, the

populations continued to exist in the earlier sites, but in

depleted numbers. Kobo chapori had suffered heavily in the

flash flood in 2000 and there were fresh encroachments. The

estimated numbers were <200. In Bordoloni also, the reed and

grass cover had been reduced and the numbers may be

<80, Poba RF, Jamjing RF (<40), Sengajan RF, Jiadhal RF,

Subansiri RF, chapories near Sonarighat, Semen chapori, other

chapories on the Brahmaputra river and stray animals

elsewhere. The total estimated population in Lakhimpur and

Dhemaji was 1 50-200 and 450-550 respectively.

The population in Kobo chapori is contiguous with

those in D'Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal

Pradesh. Both these areas had a few hundred Flog Deer until

1980s.

The first major threat to the Hog Deer came at the end

of 19th century when large number of people from Majuli area

of Jorhat district and also from other parts of Jorhat and

Sivasagar districts settled down by clearing grassland in the

floodplains of Lakhimpur and Dhemaji. Then in early 20lh

century, a part of Lakhimpur was occupied by people from

East Bengal; part of Pabho RF is also encroached. In the later

part of the 20th century, some Bodo tribals from Assam-

Nagaland border had moved into some parts of Dhemaji district

after disturbance in the former area. They have occupied prime

Hog Deer habitat such as Jamjing RF and Semen chapori.

Habitat destruction and poaching, with guns and

snares, continue to be major threats. Each year, a chunk of

the grassland is added to the mustard cultivation and unless

conservation measures are taken, the future of the animal is

bleak.

REFERENCES

Choudhury, A.U. (1991): New Dhakuakhana Sub-Division. Annual Report. Revenue, Relief & Rehabilitation, and Registration Departments,

Govt, of Assam, 1990-91: 111-117. Guwahati.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1997): Checklist of the Mammals of Assam. Gibbon Books and ASTEC, Guwahati. 103 pp.

9. FIRST SIGHTING OF WHITE-TAILED EAGLE HALIAEETUS ALBICIELA

IN BUMDELING WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, BHUTAN1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted May 16, 2006

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021. Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla is listed

by BirdLife International (2004) as ‘near threatened’. In the

north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, including

Bhutan, it is an occasional winter visitor moving upstream of

larger rivers (Choudhury 2000; Inskipp etal. 2004). In Bhutan,

it was recorded from the western part of the country in Punakha

and Thimphu dzongkhags (dzongkhag - district) (Inskipp

etal. 2004). I here report of a sighting in far eastern Bhutan in

Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 1 ).

On January 18, 2006, I left Trashi Yangtze town (in

Bhutan) before dawn and drove towards Bumdeling Wildlife

Sanctuary to catch up with the roosting Black-necked Cranes

Grits nigricollis that take off early in the morning. While

returning, we noticed a large bird perched on a tree by the

Fig. 1 : Map of Bhutan showing the locality of sighting

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

209

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Khulong chu (c/u<=river). Khulong chu is an important

tributary of the Manas river. Initially we thought it to be a

large fish-owl, but on observing it through a powerful

spotting scope, we identified it as an eagle; the bird flew

away before we could get a closer look. After some time it

perched again on a tree. This time we identified the bird, to

our utter surprise, as the magnificent adult White-tailed Eagle.

We observed it for about 20 minutes and also took some still

and video photographs, through the spotting scope. The

photos, though taken from a distance of at least 250 m, were

of good quality. The location was at 27° 38' 20" N and 91° 28'

40" E, and the elevation was 1,900 m above msl.

This is the first record of the White-tailed Eagle from

REFE

BirdLife International (2004): Threatened Birds of the World.

CD-ROM. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

Choudhury, A.U. (2000): The Birds of Assam. Guwahati, India: Gibbon

Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, and from eastern Bhutan.

Interestingly, this bird is known to move up larger rivers, such

as the Brahmaputra and Lohit, but Khulong chu is a relatively

small river compared to other rivers where the species was

recorded earlier. Moreover, it has moved up far north.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank dasho Tshering Wangda, Joint Secretary, Home,

Royal Government of Bhutan, Sherub and Sharap Wangchuk

of Nature Conservation Division, Mohabbat Shah Ali and

Imran Mazumdar (Babu) for their help and support during the

visit to Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary.

NCES

Books and WWF-lndia. 240 pp.

Inskipp. C„ T. Inskjpp & R. Grimmett (2004): Birds of Bhutan. Timeless

Books. New Delhi. 192 pp.

10. SIGHTING OF LARGE NUMBER OF SHORT-TOED EAGLE CIRCAETUS GALLICUS AND

GREATER ADJUTANT LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS IN KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

'Accepted May 17, 2006

:The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North-east India, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus was recorded

for the first time in Assam in Dhakuakhana area in 1991

(Choudhury 1991). Prior to that there was no report from north-

east India (Ali and Ripley 1987). Subsequently, it was sighted

in some more areas like the Nameri National Park (NP),

Chakrashila Sanctuary, Kaziranga NP, near Abhoyapuri. Most

of the sightings were of single birds. On November 20, 2005,

while driving along the patrol roads in Arimora area of

Kaziranga NP, accompanied by Dharanidhar Boro, Ranger,

I saw a Short-toed Eagle perched on a medium-sized Silk Cotton

Bombax ceiba tree. Before I could attempt to take a

photograph, one more was seen soaring overhead, followed

by another three, all singly. We moved towards the road to

Borbeel where two were seen perched on a single Silk Cotton

tree. We were surprised to see a few more, soaring or flying

off from one Silk Cotton to another. The total tally, in the same

area, was 1 1 birds. Most of the birds had typical plumage

with grey head and breast, barred underbody and broad

sub-terminal tail-band.

On the same day. near the junction of the road to

Methonmari on Arimora-Hulalpat road, 50 Greater Adjutants

Leptoptilos dubius were seen flying from east to west. They

were seen flying from west of Arimora and when above the

Arimora-Methonmari road, they soared for a while before

flying off towards the east and south-east. Up to the point

where they took to soar they came like a group, but afterwards

split into smaller groups and individuals, and flew downwards

(could be observed till tree line blocked view). For

Dharanidhar Boro also sighting of such large number of

Greater Adjutants in Kaziranga was a first time. The maximum

number of Greater Adjutants seen together was 87 resting

during the daytime on the banks of the Brahmaputra river off

Guwahati city on March 1 4, 1 994 (Choudhury 2000). However,

just after the breeding season, more than 80 birds roost at

Islampur kabrstan (26°10' N, 9 1°45' E) in the heart of Guwahati

city. The Greater Adjutant is listed as endangered because of

its very small, declining population (BirdLife International

2004).

REFERENCES

An, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Bombay, India: Oxford University Press. 737 pp, plates.

BirdLife International (2004): Threatened Birds of the World.

CD-ROM. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

Choudhury, A.U. (1991): Two new eagles in Assam. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 31 (11 & 12): 910.

Choudhury, A.U. (2000): The Birds of Assam. Guwahati. India: Gibbon

Books and WWF-lndia. 240 pp.

210

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS:

ARE THEY DISAPPEARING IN KARNATAKA?1

H.N. Kumara2 and V. Vijay Mohan Raj3

‘Accepted May 16, 2006

’Biopsychology Laboratory, University of Mysore, Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected].

Present address: National Institute of Advanced Studies, I ISc Campus, Bengaluru 560 012, India.

’Deputy Conservator of Forests, Sirsi, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

The Great Indian Bustard is a highly endangered bird,

and accorded Schedule I protection in the Indian Wildlife

(Protection) Act 1972. The bird, common and widespread

once in the plains of the Indian peninsula, has become very

rare in most of the region due to habitat loss and hunting

(Ah and Rahmani 1 983). Besides many other states, Karnataka

is also known to hold a small population of the Bustard. The

Bustard was reported to be widely distributed in the state;

however, no evidence of any sightings of the birds was

available between 1940 and 1970. Neginhal ( 1980) reported

sightings of a few birds during 1974 at Ranibennur Blackbuck

Sanctuary. The birds had been sighted in and around the

Sanctuary up to 1982 (Neginhal 1980; Ali and Rahmani 1983;

Karanth and Singh 1990). Rahmani and Manakadan ( 1990)

reported the occurrence of Bustard as unconfirmed reports

based on personal communication with many researchers in

Bijapur, Raichur, Dharwad, Bellary, Chitradurga, Tumkur,

Hassan and Mysore, and further they stated that the Bustard

is definitely known to exist in Dharwad. They also estimated

the Bustard number as 30 to 40 for the state. Neginhal ( 1 997 )

also reported the Bustard nest and egg from the Ranibennur

in 1997. Ghorpade (1996) reported the bird from Hagedal in

Gadag district. Bhat et at. (2005) based on secondary

sources compiled the Bustard status from 1981 to 2005 in

Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary, which showed regular

sighting of five birds from 1981 to 1997, and highest of

14 birds in 1990; since 1998 the number of birds have

drastically gone down in the Sanctuary, however, one bird

was reported in 2003.

HNK surveyed the entire state for mammals from 200 1

to 2004. During this period, HNK travelled c. 30,000 km across

different talukas of all districts of the state, and 9,853 km of

forest area either on jeep or motorcycle. The authors

interviewed 1,401 people, including Forest Department

officials, shepherds, villagers and others interested in wildlife.

The survey carried out in all regions of Karnataka, including

those areas where the Great Indian Bustard does not occur.

During the survey HNK also collected information on a few

other birds. VM also surveyed the Gadag, Haveri, Koppal,

Bellary and Raichur districts during 1999 to 2004 for the

Bustards. This note gives an account of the earlier records

and recent observations on Bustard sightings by the authors.

During the survey no Bustards were sighted in the

drier plains of the entire state. However, the photos of an

egg taken in 2002 (Panchalingegowda, ACF, Tumkur) at Sira,

Tumkur district, resembles the egg of a Bustard. This is the

only possible evidence of occurrence of the Bustard in the

southern districts of the state. However, no evidence could

be sought for the direct sighting in the southern districts.

Even the direct sightings in northern districts are only

transitory records (Samad 2006). The forest personnel in

Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary have sighted no bustards

since 2000, in and around the Sanctuary. However, sighting

of a solitary bustard in a patch of Acacia catechu adjoining

the bustard plots in Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary by the

staff was reported to VM on June 06, 2004. Apart from the

above sight record, the interview with the local people in the

district and around the Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary also

revealed no sightings of the Bustard.

VM sighted a solitary bird between Koppal and Gadag,

and just 2 km before Bannikoppa station on December 08,

2001, while travelling in a train. Since the train was slow the

bird could be easily identified as the Great Indian Bustard.

The bird was not shy and tolerated the train, in fact it moved

a couple of steps with its typical cocky posture and bent

down to feed. The bird was nearly 50 to 60 m from the tracks,

in a groundnut field. The bird was sighted at a distance of

<1 km where earlier a herd of more than eight blackbuck

(Antilope cervicapra) were seen.

The above sight records reflect that bustard sightings

in the State are infrequent. The situation appears alarming

and needs immediate attention. It is crucial to provide and

improve the habitat of the bird, especially at Ranibennur

Blackbuck Sanctuary, which is known to have good numbers

of the bustard.

The recent disappearance of the bird has been

attributed to habitat manipulation, i.e. changing the open

undulating grassland with little scrub forest into Eucalyptus

plantations (Neginhal 1997, 2005). Neginhal (2005) also

reported the details of the habitat change in Ranibennur

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

211

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Blackbuck Sanctuary over a period of one century, and also

its impact on different wild animals. Regular monitoring of

the bird in a large spatial area is required, and also the

monitoring of the habitat, to know more about the population

trend.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Chief Wildlife Warden and the officials of

the Karnataka Forest Department for permission to carry out

this study and for assistance in the field.

REFERENCES

Au, S. & A.R. Rahmani ( 1983): Study of ecology of certain endangered

species of wildlife and their habitats: The Great Indian Bustard.

Annual report 1981-1982, Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai.

Bhat, H.. G.K. Karthik, R. Hasbhavi & A.K. Varma (2005): Status of

Great Indian Bustard ( Ardeotis nigriceps) at Ranibennur

Blackbuck Sanctuary. Pp. 12-14. In: (Eds: Verghese, A.,

S. Sridhar, A.K. Chakravarthy, H. Bhat and P. Karanth)

New Initiatives for Bird Conservation. Navbharath Press,

Bangalore.

Ghorpade, D.B. ( 1996): Bustards in Hagedal . Newsletter for Birdwatchers

36(5): 96.

Karanth, K.U. & M. Singh (1990): Dry-zone afforestation and its

impact on blackbuck population. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87:

565-570.

Neginhal, S.G. (1980): Status and distribution of the Great Indian

Bustard in Karnataka. Pp. 76-80. In: (Eds: Goriup. P.D. and

H. Vardhan) Bustards in decline. Tourism and Wildlife Society

of India, Jaipur.

Neginhal, S.G. (1997): A Bustards nest at Ranibennur. Newsletters for

Birdwatchers 37: 2.

Neginhal, S.G. (2005): Rehabilitating the Great Indian Bustard at the

Ranibennur Sanctuary. Pp. 12-14. In: (Eds: Verghese, A.,

S. Sridhar, A.K. Chakravarthy. H. Bhat and P. Karanth) New

initiatives for bird conservation. Navbharath Press, Bangalore.

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1990): The past and present

distribution of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps

(Vigors) in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 175-194.

Samad, A. (2006): Great Indian Bustard rediscovered in Bellary district.

Mistnet 17(3): 15-16.

12. RECENT RECORDS OF YELLOW-EYED PIGEON COLUMBA EVERSMANNI

IN RAJASTHAN1

Harkirat Singh Sangha2 and Shantanu Kumar3

'Accepted July 21, 2005

-B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

'Firdaus Farm, Kalwar Road, Bye-pass Zone-C, Jaipur 302 012, Rajasthan, India.

The Yellow-eyed Pigeon Columba eversmanni is a rare

winter/passage migrant in the Indian subcontinent. It breeds

in Central Asia from the southern Aral sea south to north-

east Iran and Tien Shan Mountains and northern Afghanistan

east to Lake Balkhash and far western China, and winters in

southern parts of its breeding range south to Pakistan and

north-west India (Gibbs etcil. 2001 ).

The species is classified as vulnerable because it has

declined rapidly in the past as a result of changing

agricultural practices and hunting in its wintering grounds,

and possibly habitat loss in its breeding grounds (BirdLife

International 2000).

HSS was fascinated by the species after reading an

article in the Hornbill (Singh 1980). However, it was only

after his visit to Harike in Punjab with Per Undeland (PU)

that he really started looking for the species in Rajasthan.

Incidentally, PU highlighted the presence of large flocks at

Harike by writing about the species (Undeland 1997) and

reporting to the Oriental Bird Club (Crosby 1995; Robson

1996, 1997).

On February 17, 2001 while censusing vultures, HSS

and Rishad Naoroji flushed c.70 birds at Camel Breeding

Farm, Jor-Bir, Bikaner (28° 04' N, 73° 23' E) in the cold morning

from two-three Salvadora persica trees. The birds were quite

concealed in the canopy of the trees that they almost missed

seeing them. The pigeons burst out of the trees when they

unknowingly drove their jeep too close to them. Although

the pigeons rapidly flew away there was no mistaking their

diagnostic white rumps. After Hying about for one or two

minutes they settled on about four Salvadora persica trees.

Again at Jor-Bir c. 100 birds were observed foraging

on the ground on December 1 8, 2001 . The flock was extremely

wary and after flying away settled on three or four Salvadora

persica trees. Once settled they were lost in the canopy of

the trees; only those birds which perched on the tree tops

were visible.

Incidentally, R.G. Sonia, a senior officer of the Forest

Department of Rajasthan, presented a set of photographs of

the species to HSS. While posted at Bikaner, he photographed

a mixed flock of about ten Rock Pigeons Columba livia , and

fifteen Yellow-eyed Pigeons C. eversmanni at Jor-Bir on

November 1 1, 1995 when they came to drink water at a pool.

As an aside, this open area with scattered Salvadora

persica , Prosopis cineraria and Zizyphus mauritiana has

212

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

been attracting vultures in large numbers since 1998. The area

is used by the municipality of Bikaner city for dumping

carcasses (mostly cattle).

SK met with the species near Rupawas, Pali in the first

week of February, 1998. About 60 birds were foraging on the

ground and when disturbed they flew up on the trees “not like

our pigeons (Col umbo livia) but like buntings.” After the

disturbance was over they came down again to the ground to

feed.

On April 23, 1998 between 1 100-1500 hours, at the

border outpost of Kheruwala, Ganganagar, SK counted c. 100

birds on the “border lighting posts of the fence” spread over

an area of several kilometres in groups of four or five.

There are two more recent records from Rajasthan. A

local shikari saw “c. 60 salara ” (Colombo eversmanni) in

January 2003 on the Gang Canal near Sri Ganganagar (Gurdip

Singh pers. comm.). Three birds were seen in the Kadam Kunj

area of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur first on January 4,

1999 and then during the first week of March. Most of the

time they were seen on a Kadamba Anthocephalus cadamba

(Vibhu Prakash in litt. 2000). Incidentally, there is only one

old record of the species from Bharatpur. Abdulali ( 1 970) during

a three day visit to Bharatpur in October 195 1 saw the species

“in pairs and parties of 15/20 in open”

While posted at Tonk, HSS was informed by Aziz-ul-

Haq of the erstwhile Tonk family that up to 1970s the birds

were sporadically shot during winter months in Tonk district.

The species was so well recognized that it also had a local

name. The local shikaris used to call it pitkula.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In response to request from HSS the following were

helpful. S. Subramanya supplied the published references.

R.G. Soni, Vibhu Prakash, Gurdip Singh and Aziz-ul-Haq

supplied their unpublished data.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. (1970): Notes on Indian birds 12. Extension

of the southern limits of the eastern stock dove ( Columba

eversmanni Bonaparte). ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 67(2):

331.

BirdLife International (2000): Threatened Birds of the World.

Barcelona and Cambridge, U.K.: Lynx Editions and BirdLife

International. Pp. 205.

Crosby, M. (1995): From the field: India. Oriental Bird Club Bull.

21: 70.

Robson, C. (1996): From the field: India. Oriental Bird Club Bull.

23: 50, 24: 60.

Robson, C. (1997): From the field: India. Oriental Bird Club Bull. 25:

63-64.

Gibbs, D., E. Barnes & J. Cox (2001 ): Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to

the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Mountfield,

U.K. pp. 184-185.

Singh, M. (1980): The mystery of the Salara pigeon. Hornbill (3):

14-18.

Undeland, P. (1997): Yellow-eyed stock Doves at Harike, India.

Birding World 10: 260.

13. ON THE SIGHTING OF THE LESSER COUCAL CENTRO PUS BENGALENSIS

IN THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS'

Manish Chandi-

'Accepted April 26, 2005

:Centre for Herpetology, Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Post Bag 4, Mamallapuram 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]. [email protected]

During a recent bird watching program in the Andaman

Islands a Coucal that fitted the description of the Lesser Coucal

Centropus bengalensis , a previously unrecorded species in

the Islands, was observed on April 5, 2004 close to No. 6 at

Havelock Island. The bird was subsequently re-sighted the

next day very briefly early in the morning. The bird that we

sighted was smaller than the common Andaman Coucal

Centropus andamanensis, and the Greater Coucal Centropus

sinensis found commonly across India. It was black except for

deep rusty brown/chestnut wings, with a burst of flight, typical

of coucals observed as it crossed the road. It allowed us to

stop and confirm our sighting, however, a photograph was

not possible within the short span of observation and also

due to the heavy brush of the roadside where it had perched.

The only species of Centropus that have been recorded

from the Andaman & Nicobar Islands include the endemic

Andaman Coucal Centropus andamanensis (Grimmett etal.

1999), and sightings of a coucal species on Great Nicobar

Island (Sivakumar 2000), which was possibly the Lesser Coucal

(R. Sankaran pers. comm.). On a subsequent field visit in May

2004 to Little Andaman Island, a bird the size of the Andaman

Coucal, but of the coloration of the mainland coucal, was

spotted in the beach forest of South Bay (Totibue), Little

Andaman Island.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

213

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Coucals, possibly other than the Andaman Coucal, have

now been sighted at three widely separate locations in the

islands. More sightings and other information are required to

clarify whether the species is a vagrant or has colonized these

islands. The Lesser Coucal is recorded, so far, from the

Himalayan, north-eastern region and south-western regions of

India, Bangladesh and south-eastern Asia, but not from the

Islands in the Bay of Bengal. If this species is confirmed to be

a resident of the archipelago it will add to the avifaunal diversity

of the Islands and the geographic distribution of the species

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the

Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Reprinted 2000, Oxford

University Press, Singapore.

itself. The other possibility includes colour variation within

the species of Andaman Coucal ranging from its more

frequently encountered colour of beige body with chestnut

brown wings to the darker versions as described in this note.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Klaus Wolfgang, Konrad Woethe whom I

accompanied, and Dr. R. Sankaran for useful discussions on

this subject.

REFERENCES

Sivakumar, K. (2000): A study on the breeding biology of the Nicobar

Megapode Megapodius nicobariensis. Ph.D. dissertation,

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.

14. SIGHTING OF STOLICZKA'S BUSHCHAT SAXICOLA MACRORHYNCHUS

IN PUNE DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, WESTERN INDIA1

Rahul Rao2

'Accepted April 05, 2005

2Flat No. 8, Bldg No. 2, Janhavi Co-op Housing Society, Paud Road, Opp. Vanaz Engg. Pune 411 038, Maharashtra, India.

Stoliczka’s Bushchat Saxicola macrorhynchus (Family:

Muscicapidae, Subfamily: Turdinae) is resident and rare locally,

but not uncommon in some areas. It is confined to desert parts

of Rajasthan and Kutch region of Gujarat. It occurs in sandy

desert plains and scattered bushes. In this note I report sighting

of this species from Pune district, Maharashtra, western

India.

On December 22, 2004, a team of bird-watchers

consisting of Advait Godbole, Parag Deshpande, Aditya

Joshi, Hrishikesh loshi and I, visited Varvand. This is a

wetland surrounded by open, sparse scrub and stony

wasteland, situated on the Pune-Solapur highway c. 60 km

from Pune city. At 1500 hrs, we spotted a bird perched on a

bush. The following distinguishing characters helped to

identify the bird as Stoliczka's Bushchat: a distinct buffy-white

supercilium, black bill, buffy underparts with white upper

breast and throat, white patch on the inner greater coverts,

pale rump and white outer tail feathers. In some of the

photographs we took, there is an indication of a small white

patch on the inner greater coverts, suggesting that this was

a first winter male.

This constitutes the first record of the species from

Pune district, c. 600 km south of its usual range. The closest

records, by Krys Kazmierczak, of the species are from

Velavadar National Park, Gujarat. Humayun Abdulali’s

CHECKLIST OF BIRDS OF MAHARASHTRA (1973, BNHS) does llOt

list this species. This observation, therefore, is significant,

but the reason for this southern dispersal of the species is

still unknown.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Krys Kazmierczak,

Bill Harvey and Asad R. Rahmani for their guidance and

comments.

15. STATUS OF MUGGER CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS IN SIMILIPAL TIGER RESERVE, ORISSA, INDIA1

Debabrata Swain2 and Hemanta K. Sahu3

'Accepted December 07, 2004

2Similipal Tiger Reserve, Baripada 757 003, Orissa, India. Email: [email protected]

3P.G. Department of Zoology, North Orissa University, Takatpur, Baripada 757 003, Orissa, India.

Email: [email protected]

Of the 2 1 species of crocodilians that are found in the namely Gharial Gavialis gangeticus , the Saltwater or Estuarine

warm subtropical and tropical regions of the world, three Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and the Mugger Crocodylus

214

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

palustris , occur in the Indian subcontinent (Singh 1999). All

the three occur in the state of Orissa; the Gharial is found in

the Mahanadi, the Saltwater Crocodile is found in Bhitarkanika

Sanctuary and the Mugger is found in the river systems of

the Similipal Tiger Reserve.

Results of a survey for the Mugger conducted in

November-December 1979 indicate that the Mugger had

virtually become extinct in the area of the Similipal Tiger

Reserve (Anon. 1999). Although the reasons for extinction of

the Mugger from the Similipal Tiger Reserve were not clear,

Anon. (1999) cites adverse factors like (i) fishing using

explosives and nylon nets, (ii) use of DDT and other

insecticides with an intention to control malaria, (iii) fire on

the river banks that serve as nesting sites, and (iv) natural

effects of activities such as predation, and/or exhumation of

nests by wild boars and monitor lizards.

In 1979, the Mugger Management Project was started

in Similipal at Ramatirtha, near Jashipur, with the aim of

maintaining a viable population of the Mugger in Similipal,

conducting management-oriented research, and providing

muggers for re-stocking elsewhere, under financial support

from UNDP. FAO, Government of India and Government of

Orissa. Of the initial stock of 150 young muggers brought

from Tamil Nadu, six were retained for captive breeding at

Ramatirtha. Over the years, 788 crocodiles have been released

into the river systems of Similipal (Table 1). The present study

reveals the status of the Mugger in the various river systems

of Similipal Tiger Reserve.

Study area

Similipal is a densely forested hill-range in the heart of

the district of Mayurbhanj in Orissa, lying close to the

easternmost end of the Eastern Ghats. Located in the

Mahanadian Biogeographical Region and within the biotic

province of the Chhotanagpur Plateau, it spreads over an

area of 2,750 sq. km. The whole of the Similipal hill-range falls

under the Similipal Tiger Reserve (20° 17' - 22° 10' N and 85°

57' - 86° 47' E; Fig. 1 ). Because of the uniqueness of its flora.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

215

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Release figure of the Mugger into the river systems of

the Similipal Tiger Reserve

fauna, forests, landscape and tribes, Similipal was declared a

Biosphere Reserve in 1994. Its highest mountain is the peak

of Khairiburu, 1,168 m above msl. Similipal is the richest

watershed in Orissa, giving rise to many perennial rivers like

the Budhabalanga, Khadkei, Khairi, Bhandan, West Deo,

Salandi, East Deo, Sanjo and Palpala.

Methodology

A survey of the Mugger in Similipal was conducted

during January 24 - February 18. 1999. March 7 -19, 2000,

February 11 -17, 2003 and March 9-16, 2004 to ascertain the

status of the Mugger inside the Similipal Tiger Reserve (TR).

For this purpose, the entire survey team was divided into two

groups, namely Team A and Team B, and different river systems

were allotted to these teams. They surveyed the river bank

on foot. During the survey, direct sighting as well as indirect

evidence such as tunnels, basking places, scute marks on the

ground were taken into account. The different routes surveyed

during the period are shown in Table 2. Body length was

measured by ocular estimation during direct sighting. From

indirect evidence, body length was measured from the tracks

of the hind paw mark and also from the tail mark - body length

is equal to approximately 14 times paw length and approximately

65 times the maximum distance between the two lines created

because of the movement of the tail (Singh 2000).

The numbers counted in the rivers of West Deo,

Khadkei, Budhabalanga, Khairi and East Deo are given in

Table 3. The size/length-wise distribution of the Mugger as

per the 2004 census is given in Table 4.

Table 2: Routes surveyed in the river systems of Similipal TR

Table 3: Number of Muggers sighted in the river systems

of Similipal Tiger Reserve from 1 999-2004

Table 4: Size/Length-wise Distribution of Muggers in the river

systems of Similipal Tiger Reserve as per 2004 census

The Mugger is the most adaptable of the three

crocodilians and has been encountered up to 400 m in clear

hill streams, sewage treatment ponds and cold deep rivers in

the Himalayan foot hills (Whitaker and Andrews 2003). In the

Similipal Tiger Reserve, they have been seen at an elevation

of 850 m.

From the above results, it was found that Mugger

sighting was higher in the West Deo compared to other river

systems (Fig. 2), as it is confined to the core area of the Similipal

Tiger Reserve where there is reduced anthropogenic

216

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

YEARS

m WESTDEO BEASTDEO SKHAIRI 3 BUDHABALANGA □ KHADKEI

Fig. 2: Distribution of Muggers in the river systems

of Similipal Tiger Reserve

disturbance, biotic interference, the presence of darahs (deep

water area), and adequate basking sites. Though East Deo is

also situated in the core area, there are fewer darahs and

basking places. In Budhabalanga, the riverbank is steep and

rocky, the availability of basking places lower, and biotic

interference greater. In Khairi, the population of the Mugger

is higher from Jenabil to Jadi darah in the Jenabil to Ransa

route. Here, their number is lower in comparison to the West

Deo as the river bed is rocky, providing a smaller area for the

basking. But a detailed systematic study has to be made

seasonally in order to study the seasonal behaviour and the

ecology of the Mugger in the Similipal Tiger Reserve because

the crocodile plays the vital ecological role of a master predator

in the aquatic habitat where it lives (Whitaker and Andrews

2003).

Moreover, sightings were more in 2000 and 2004 as the

census was carried out in March. During this time, the river

bank area was more exposed and the temperature was 20° -

30° C, which was suitable for Mugger sighting. The release

figure (Table 1 ) reveals that the population inside Similipal is

not related to the release of the Mugger in the wild.

From Table 4 it is seen that during the 2004 census,

33 Muggers within a body length of 1 .5 to 2.0 m, and 8 Muggers

of more than 2 m body length indicate that 47% are adult. In

Tamil Nadu, the wild mugger population is 465 with an adult

population of 52% (Andrews 1999), and in Gujarat, the

population is 492, with an adult population of 88%

(Vijayakumar et al. 1990). In Similipal, the recent survey shows

that the population is 83 with an adult population of 47%.

However, the census shows that the mugger population is

stable inside the Similipal Tiger Reserve.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We specially thank L.A.K. Singh, Senior Research

Officer, Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa,

Bhubaneswar for providing information and guidance in the

field. We also thank the field staff of the Orissa Forest

Department for their help during the survey. We are grateful

to all the students of the Post Graduate Department of Wildlife

and Conservation Biology, North Orissa University, Baripada

for assistance in field data collection.

REFERENCES

Andrews, H.V. (1999): Status and distribution of mugger crocodile in

Tamil Nadu. ENVIS (Wildlife & Protected Areas) 2(1): 44-57.

Anon. (1999): Crocodile-Research: Conservation. Based on the

compilation by S.S. Srivastava and L.A.K. Singh. Similipal Tiger

Reserve. Baripada, Orissa 21 pp.

Singh, L.A.K. (1999): A profile of Indian Crocodiles. ENVIS (Wildlife

& Protected Areas) 2(1): 1-4.

Singh, L.A.K. (2000): Interpreting visual signs of the Indian Crocodile.

Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. January 2000 - March

2000 19(1): 7-9.

Vijayakumar, V., R. Vyas & B.C. Choudhury (1999): Status of Mugger

and its conservation problems in Gujarat. ENVIS (Wildlife &

Protected Areas) 2(1): 69-76.

Whitaker, R. & H.V. Andrews (2003): Crocodile conservation. Western

Asia region: an update. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100 (2&S):

432-445.

16. OBSERVATIONS ON BURROWS DUG BY MUGGER CROCODILES

( CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS ) IN BUNDALA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA1

Rom Whitaker2, Brady Barr3, Anslem de Silva4 and Pradeep Ratnasiri5

'Accepted December 19, 2005

:P.O. Box 21, Chengalpattu 603 001, Tamil Nadu. Email: [email protected]

3 4 Fetter Lane, Severna Park, Maryland, USA.

41 5/ 1 Dolosbage Road, Gampola, Sri Lanka.

"Department of Wildlife Conservation, Uda Walawe National Park, Uda Walawe, Sri Lanka.

During a brief visit to Bundala National Park (Fig. 1),

May 7-10, 2002, the authors caught, measured and sexed two

mugger crocodiles in burrows. These burrows were measured

and mapped, and temperatures recorded, both inside and

outside the burrows, for 48 hrs. A total of 38 burrows were

seen, which ranged from 3.05 m to over 6.0 m in length.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

217

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Entrances were 45.72 cm to 1 37. 16 cm in width and 27.94 cm to

60.96 cm in height. Temperatures outside the burrows

fluctuated from 28° C to 46° C while burrow interiors remained

virtually static at 29° C.

It is likely that most of the world’s crocodilians dig

burrows or tunnels to hide in and to tide over extreme weather

conditions (Guggisberg 1972; Steel 1989; Chen etal. 1990).

Crocodilian species found in the tropics presumably rely on

burrows to survive the effects of drought and extreme heat;

however, the two species of alligator (A. misissipiensis and

A. sinensis) that range above 30° N where temperatures fall

below freezing, dig and utilize burrows as refuges from cold

winter temperatures. The mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus

palustris) found throughout the Indian subcontinent, as well

as Sri Lanka, is a noted burrow digger. This species presumably

utilizes the burrows as an effective refuge from the hot

daytime ambient temperatures found in Bundala, Sri Lanka,

the southernmost range of C. palustris. Crocodilians have an

optimum body temperature of 30-35° C, and if subjected to

temperatures below 5° or above 38° C for extended periods,

they are in danger of dying (Lang 1987). Burrows may play a

critical role in the survival of crocodiles living in harsh

environments, such as southern Sri Lanka.

There are numerous references to mugger burrows in

the literature, a few of which follow; Deraniyagala (1936)

describes the U-shaped mugger burrow found in riverbanks

in Sri Lanka often under the roots of the typical riparian tree

giant, Terminalia arjuna. McCann (1940) mentions mugger

burrows at the Sind salt lakes (now Pakistan). Whitaker ( 1977)

describes finding sixteen mugger burrows in the Hiran Lake,

Gir Lion Sanctuary in Gujarat with “flattened, oval entrance”

averaging 80 cm width and 4 to 5 m deep. There was a croc in

nearly every tunnel at the end of May 1975 and outside

temperatures were reaching 46° C in the shade. Whitaker and

Whitaker (1984) referred to mugger burrows in Sri Lanka,

Gujarat, South India and noted that yearling, subadult and

adult mugger all dig burrows. They briefly describe the

tunnelling, the crocodile using its front feet to dig and push

earth back to the hind feet which scrape the dirt back to where

the tail propels it away into the water. Gupta and Srihari ( 1 990)

studied mugger burrows at Bhorsaindan Sanctuary, Haryana

and found that burrow utilization was greater in winter months

when temperatures dropped to 1 1° C. Shekar (1993) reported

two to six muggers in the same burrow in winter months at

this Sanctuary. Vijaykumar (1997) enumerated 114 mugger

burrows in different parts of Gujarat. Most burrows were from

0.6 m to 2.6 m in depth, though two in Gir Sanctuary were over

6 m. He mentions that the temperature inside a 3 m burrow

remained constant at 19.2 to 19.8° C while the outside

temperature fluctuated from 12 to 43° C. He gives no date but

218

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

judging from the temperature and the fact that most burrows

were empty it was probably in February, before the serious

dry season sets in.

Methods

With the permission of the Department of Wildlife

Conservation, Sri Lanka and help from the Bundala National

Park Warden and staff we visited three main burrow sites by

a 4-wheel drive vehicle and on foot (Fig. 2). Several burrows

were measured from the burrow mouth, and two of the larger

ones were entered and mapped. These two large tunnels

contained crocodiles which were caught, measured, sexed,

marked and released on site. Two other free swimming crocodiles

were caught with swivel-lock wire nooses to demonstrate safe

capture, sexing, marking and release techniques to the NP

staff. Data loggers (Stowaway Tidbit loggers. Onset Computer

Corporation) recorded temperature simultaneously at 30-

minute intervals for 48 hours and were placed inside and

outside burrows and in the water close to the tunnel mouths.

Sexing was done by digital probing of the cloaca.

Results

Site 1: Local name: Sudugala

Description: raised 50 m long embankment of sand and

black soil about a metre above present water level (it had

rained a few days earlier), facing southwest. Water channel in

front of embankment 12 m wide and 25-50 cm deep, fresh.

Vegetation: Prosopis jitliflora (mesquite), Salvadora persica ,

reeds (dry now) and small bushes.

Mapping of sample burrow (No. 1 at North end)

Burrows: Five burrows, three were occupied and two

crocodiles about 2 m length were observed in the adjacent

water. Burrow entrances ranged from 25-40 cm in height and

35-70 cm in width. Two of the burrows were at water level,

three were dry.

Crocodile pulled out of this burrow was a 2.70 m female

missing about 1 5 cm of its tail end and clipped by us on the 6th

dorsal caudal whorl on the left.

Crocodile caught in adjacent water was also a female,

2.40 m in length and clipped on the 8th dorsal caudal whorl on

left.

Site 2: Local Name: Campsite

Description: Raised 75 m long embankment of sand

and black soil 2 m above present water level facing north-

Fig. 2: Detail of study site, Bundala National Park

west. Water and channel 20 m wide and 1 to 1 .5 m deep, fresh.

Vegetation: same as Site 1 with Phoenix sp. (dwarf date palms).

Burrows: 10 burrows, 1 occupied plus 4 crocodiles 1.5

to 2.5 m in the adjacent water. Burrow entrances were mostly

above present water line and ranged from 20-40 cm in height

and 28-135 cm in width. Depth of one was more than 6 m.

Crocodile pulled out of this burrow was a 2.35 m female

with a mangled 4th single caudal whorl (for I.D. ). Temperature

loggers were placed in the water and on the substrate

(unshaded) outside the burrow and at three depths inside the

burrow. Results are given in Figs 4 and 5.

Site 3: Local Name: Campsite Tuduna (point)

Mapping of sample burrow

(No. 2 from North end under Phoenix palm - Fig. 3)

Description: Raised 160 m embankment of sand and

dark soil 1.5 to 2 m above present water level facing west -

south-west. Water channel about 25 m wide and 1 m deep,

slightly brackish. Vegetation: mainly Prosopis and small

bushes.

Burrows: 23 burrows, 3 occupied, 2 crocodiles c. 2 m in

water. All entrances were above the present water level.

Entrance height ranged from 23 cm to 60 cm, widths from

28 cm to 77 cm. Burrow depths 3-5 m.

Other animal life observed in the burrows: Gecko,

centipedes, mosquitoes, cockroaches, and ants.

Discussion

Mugger dig burrows of sometimes more than 6.0 m in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

219

Temperature ?C

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ISGcjn

BURROW ENTRANCE

Fig. 3: Burrow 2 (site 2) interior map (not to scale)

ai-i

30.5

30-

♦ 1 8 meters inside

— 5 meters inside

x 0.6 meters inside

27

05407/02 1 2:38:00

00:00:00

12:00:00

Date and Time

05/09/02 10:35:00

Fig. 4: Burrow 2 (site 2) temperature readings inside burrow

220

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 5: Burrow 2 (site 2) bihourly temperature readings

length to escape the heat and desiccation of sometimes very

long and harsh dry seasons in South Asia. The burrows

observed in this study were clean with no smell and with

varying degrees of dampness. Few of them were occupied

which is likely to be because of the recent rains and lower

temperatures. Most burrows showed signs of recent

occupation and some of recent digging. Invariably the deeper

burrows sloped downward at the end, with a larger chamber

up to double the width of the tunnel for the crocodile to turn

around and comfortably lie in. Very often deeper burrows

turned so that the end was not visible. One characteristic of

most tunnel entrances is the raised central mound of earth or

sand. This is formed as the crocodile enters the tunnel and

digs with front and hind limbs, as it goes in. Digging seems to

be a continuous process and it is likely that some burrows

took several years to dig and may be in use for decades or

more. It is surmised that tunnels are used as occasional refuges

at this time of year with the more permanent residents moving

in at the July-October period of peak hot weather. Several

observers (Shekar 1993; Vijaykumar 1997; Whitaker/'/? lift.)

noted that female mugger will lay their eggs at the mouth of

their tunnel, a strategy that can optimize nest and hatchling

survival.

The graphs showing the data from the loggers (Figs 4

and 5) are self-explanatory. The two things that stand out are

(a) the amazing consistency of temperatures deep within the

burrows (not coincidentally, optimum for a crocodilian) and

(b) a sudden small rise in temperature near midnight in one

burrow, which could have been the entry of a crocodile.

A behavioural observation of considerable interest is

that when we approached adult muggers in shallow water

they would first attempt to swim away, but failing to find

deep water they would leave the water to enter a nearby

tunnel or if no tunnel was present they would simply walk up

into the forest for shelter, more like a big lizard than a crocodile !

In one case a large female got herself entangled in some

bushes and we were able to ascertain her sex without catching

or restraining her.

Some burrows were observed to have unstable roofs

in danger of collapse. Numerous collapsed burrows were

seen (mostly old) probably due to heavy rains. One of the

authors (Pradeep) has counted over 90 mugger burrows in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

221

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bundala NP and another (Whitaker) enumerated burrows in

the Menik Ganga (Yala NP) and Lunugumvehera NP. These

observations and the results of this small study point to a

fascinating and important behaviour by mugger which

deserves systematic study. A comprehensive investigation

focussing on the role of burrows in relation to the thermal

ecology of crocodilians is sorely lacking and Sri Lanka offers

a unique opportunity. The mugger cannot survive extended

dry seasons without being able to regulate its temperature

within safe limits. In a hot, dry area like Bundala their burrows

REFT

Chen, Bihui, Wang Chaolin & Lian Baodong (1990): Observation

on the Burrow of Chinese Alligator. In: Crocodiles, Proceedings

of the 10th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group,

IUCN - World Conservation Union, 1: 47-53. IUCN. Gland,

Switzerland.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. ( 1 936): A new crocodile from Ceylon. The Ceylon

J. ofSci .; Section B 19(3): 279-286.

Guggisberg, C.A.W. ( 1972): Crocodiles their Natural History, Folklore

and Conservation. Pp. 105-108. David and Charles Limited.

Gupta, R.C. & P. Srihari (1990): On the burrow utilization by the

Indian marsh crocodile ( Crocodvlus palustris) at Borsaindan

Crocodile Sanctuary, Haryana. J. Environ. Biol. 11(2): 169-178.

Lang, J. (1987): Crocodilian thermal selection. In: Wildlife

Management: Crocodiles and Alligators, Ed. By Grahame Webb,

S.C. Manolis, and P.J. Whitehead, Surrey Beatty and Sons Pty

are a vital refuge. Protection of the embankments in the

Park is important for the long-term conservation of the

species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the Director, Department of Wildlife

Conservation, Sri Lanka, the Park Warden and staff at Bundala

National Park for their help in making this study possible.

Thanks are also due to Harry V. Andrews for his inputs.

NCES

Limited, 1987, pp. 301-317.

McCann, C. (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 41: 742

Shekar, Chander (1993): Ecological studies on Indian mugger

( Crocodylus palustris) at Bhorsaindan Crocodile Sanctuary. Unpubl.

Ph.D. Thesis, Kurukshetra University, India.

Steel, Rodney (1989): Crocodiles. Pp. 14. Christopher Helm.

V ijaykumar, V. (1997): Evaluation of restocked mugger crocodiles and

its implications in long term conservation and management of

the species in Gujarat, India. Report No. 95/5/4 of Gujarat Institute

of Desert Ecology, Bhuj, Gujarat. India.

Whitaker, R. (1977): Note on the status of Gir crocodiles. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 75(1): 224-227.

Whitaker, R. & Z. Whitaker (1984): Reproductive Biology of Mugger.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2): pp. 1 19-127.

17. A REPORT OF GECKOELLA NEBULOSA (BEDDOME, 1870)

FROM SEONI DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH1

ISHAN AGARWAL2

1 Accepted June 13, 2005

25/44, Hira, K.C. Road, Mumbai 400 050, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

On October 30, 2003 a freshly killed Geckoella nebulosa

(Das 2003) was seen near a pile of rocks, close to a road near

Seoni (22.06° N, 79.35° E), just outside Pench National Park.

The specimen was collected and deposited in the

collections of the Bombay Natural History Society (Regn.

No.: BNHS 1598). The forest type in Seoni district is Tropical

Dry Deciduous and Tropical Moist Deciduous, largely

dominated by Tectona grandis (Champion and Seth 1968).

The area in which the gecko was found was a shady, forested

patch, with little undergrowth, dominated by Tectona grandis.

The lizard measured 37.3 mm snout-vent length, and

27.2 mm tail length. The specimen agrees with Smith’s (1935)

description - 10 supralabials on both sides, 38 midventrals,

back with small granular scales interspersed with numerous

larger rounded tubercles. A notable discrepancy is that the

specimen has 8 infralabials on each side, as against 10 in

Smith (1935). The coloration is also the same as Smith ( 1935),

except the tail tip was bright orange.

Other reptiles seen in the same area were Sitana

ponticeriana , Psammophilus blanfordanus , Hemidactylus

brookii, Calotes versicolour, Mabuya carinata (visual

identification) and a shed skin ofPtyas mucosus.

This gecko was originally described as Gymnodactylus

nebulosa from Golconda Hills (Andhra Pradesh) by Beddome

in 1 870. Further distributional records are as follows: Nelambo,

South India (= Andhra Pradesh): Annandale ( 1913), Smith

(1935), Tikader and Sharma ( 1992); Gorge Hills, Godavery and

Russelconda in Andhra Pradesh: Smith ( 1935), Tikader and

Sharma (1992); Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh (adjacent

to Seoni district): Sharma (1976), Tikader and Sharma (1992);

Kerala (Nilambur, Malappuram district) and Tamil Nadu

(Saidapet district): Tikader and Sharma ( 1 992 ); Koraput district,

Orissa: Sanyal (1993); Puri district, Orissa: Dutta(1997). Das

(2002) gives the distribution of this species from Puri and

Koraput district in Orissa, to Gorge, Golconda and other

isolated hills in Andhra Pradesh. The University of Michigan

222

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Museum of Zoology has a skeletal preparation, UMMZ

127632, from Kharagpur, West Bengal (Gregory Schneider

pers. comm.).

The report of this gecko from the Seoni district of

southern Madhya Pradesh is the second report of this species

from the state, and the first from Seoni district. The known

distribution of this poorly studied gecko is interesting - being

found in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and

Tamil Nadu; up to West Bengal; as well as in the foothills of

Annandale, N. (1913): The Indian geckos of the genus Gymnodactylus.

Records of the Indian Museum 9: 309-326.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1968): A revised survey of the forests

types of India. New Delhi: Govt, of India. 404 pp

Das, I. (2002): A Photographic Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of

India. New Holland Publishers ( LJK) Ltd. 144 pp

Das, I. (2003): Growth of knowledge on the reptiles of India, with an

introduction to systematics, taxonomy and nomenclature.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100 (2&3): 446-501.

Dutta, S.K. (1997): A record of Geckoella nebulosusi Beddome, 1870)

the Satpuras in Madhya Pradesh. The distribution of

Geckoella nebulosa appears to be in the central and eastern

parts of India, thus the report from Kerala (Tikader and Sharma

1992) needs confirmation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank V. Girt for encouraging me to publish

this note, and V. Giri and A. Captain for help with the draft.

from Orissa. Hamadryad 22(7): 49-50.

Sanyal, D.P. ( 1993): Reptilia. In: Fauna of Orissa. State Fauna Series 1:

1-55. A.K. Ghosh (Ed.) Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Sharma, R.C. (1976): Three new records of reptiles from Madhya

Pradesh, India. Newsletter Zoo!. Sun \ India 2(3): 101-102.

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma, Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II-Sauria. Taylor and Francis,

London, xiii + 440 pp., lpl

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Handbook Indian Lizards.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, xv + 250 pp., 42 pis.

18. REDISCOVERY OF THE MISSING SYNTYPES

OF MABUYA NAGARJUNI SHARMA 1969 (REPTILIA: SCINCIDAE)

IN THE COLLECTION OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA1

C. Srinivasulu2 and Indraneil Das3

'Accepted January 13, 2005

2Wildlife Biology Section, Department of Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

'Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,

Malaysia. Email: [email protected]

Sharma ( 1969) described Mabuya nagarjuni based on

specimens collected from Vijaypuri South, Andhra Pradesh,

near the right-bank of the River Krishna, 1 6°35’ N, 79°28' E,

ca. 1 52 m above msl. The original description did not formally

designate a holotype, for which reason, all four specimens

from the original type series need to be considered syntypes.

The type series, which was collected on August 23, 1962 by

B. Nath and I.N. Maligi, was deposited in the collection of

the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata. This nominal

species, along with other Asian members of the Scincidae

once assigned to the genus Mabuya , was transferred to the

genus Eutropis, in support of long-separated evolutionary

lineages, representing distinct monophyletic radiations of

the South American, Asian, Afro-Madagasy and Cape

Verdian groups (Mausfeld et al. 2002), and the new name

combination should be Eutropis nagarjuni (Sharma 1969).

Das et al. (1998) and Das and Gayen (2004) listed the

reptile types in the ZSI. In the former publication, two

syntypes (ZSI 21 170 and ZSI 21 171 ) were mentioned as being

extant, the remaining two syntypes reported as ‘untraceable’

in the collection. The type register also acknowledges the

loss. The purpose of this communication is to announce the

rediscovery of the two lost syntypes of Mabuya nagarjuni

Sharma 1969, in the collection of the ZSI.

On July 29, 2003, while examining the types

and additional material of Mabuya nagarjuni in the ZSI, in order

to compare with new collection made in the vicinity of the type

locality (Srinivasulu et al. 2005), the first author found two

juveniles of the species stored along with other species of

Eutropis. General coloration and pholidosis matched the pattern

reported for this species, and that described by Sharma (1969,

1971). The accompanying label, bearing the number ZSI 21172,

carries the same information as that on the labels of the known

syntypes (ZSI 21 170 and ZSI 21 171), except, unlike the two

adult female specimens, both the rediscovered specimens were

marked 'unscxecf.

Both syntypes being reported here had damaged tails —

the smaller individual lack a tail (detached tail not traced), while

the larger one had a broken tail (tail incompletely detached from

body and broken medially). The recovered syntypes were stored

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

223

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in a new bottle and shifted to the type collection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank J.R.B. Alfred, former Director, ZSI, for

Das, I„ B. Dattagupta & N.C. Gayen ( 1998): History and catalogue of

reptile types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India.

J. South Asian nat. Hist. 3(2): 121-172.

Das, I. & N.C. Gayen (2004): Addenda and corrigenda to the catalogue

of reptile types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of

India. Hamadryad 28(1 & 2): 95-97.

Mausfeld, P., A. Schmitz, W. Bohme, B. Misof, D. Vrcibradic &

C.F.D. Rocha (2002): Phylogenetic affinities of Mabuya

atlantica Schmidt, 1945, endemic to the Atlantic Ocean

Archipelago of Fernando de Noronha (Brazil): necessity of

partitioning the genus Mabuya Fitzinger, 1826 (Scincidae:

permission and facilities to work in the collection, and

S.K. Chanda, former Officer-in-Charge and N.C. Gayen, former

Senior Zoological Assistant, Reptilia Section, ZSI, for curatorial

support. The first author acknowledges Council for Scientific

and Industrial Research, New Delhi for a research grant.

Lygosominae). Zool. Anz . 241: 281-293.

Sharma, R.C. (1969): Two new lizards of the genera Mabuya Fitzinger

and Riopa Gray (Scincidae) from India. Bull. Syst. Zool., Calcutta

1(2): 71-75.

Sharma, R.C. (1971): The reptile fauna of the Nagarjunasagar Dam

area (Andhra Pradesh, India). Rec. zool. Sur\>. India 63(1-4):

77-93.

Srinivasulu, C., B. Srinivasulu & C.A. Nageswara Rao (2005): Present

status of Eutropis nagarjuni Sharma, 1969 (Reptilia: Scincidae),

an endemic skink of Andhra Pradesh, India. Zoos' Print J. 20(5):

1865-1866.

19. RANGE EXTENSION OF CHIRIXALUS SIM US ANN AND ALE 1915

(ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE)1

Rakesh Soud2, R. Das3 and K. Deuti4

'Accepted September 10, 2004

Near Arts College, Dolaigaon, P.O. Bongaigaon 783 380, Assam. India. Email: [email protected]

'Nature's Foster, P.B. No. 41, Sastri Road. Bongaigaon 783 380, Assam, India. Email: [email protected]

'Zoological Survey of India, Nizam Palace, 234/4 A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata 700 020, West Bengal, India.

Email: [email protected]

Chirixalus simus was described by Nelson Annandale

(1915) from a single specimen collected by S . W. Kemp in 1 9 1 1

from Mangaldai in the Darrang district of Assam. The species

remained elusive for the next 85 years till it was rediscovered

simultaneously from the Orang National Park in the Darrang

district of Assam, and from Rajpur (6 km south of Kolkata) in

the South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal (Deuti et al.

2000).

During a field study organized by Nature’s Foster, a

Wildlife NGO, on August 3, 2003, the first author collected a

male specimen of the species at 1030 hrs, from a small

waterhole adjacent to an agricultural field at Kakoijana Reserve

Forest, 15 km east of Bongaigaon town in the Bongaigaon

district of western Assam. It was sitting on the stalk of an

aroid Colocasia esculenta (L). Schott c. 22 cm above the

ground. No other species were found at the site. During this

comprehensive herpetological survey, a degraded foam-nest

of the species was observed at the same site, on a grass stalk

(Cyperus spp.) 8 cm above the stagnant water in the crop

field. Some other amphibians found at the Kakoijana Reserve

Forest were Bufo melanostictus (Bufonidae), Fejervarya

limnocharis (Ranidae), Microhyla omata, Kaloula taprobanica

(Microhylidae) and Polypedates inoculates (Rhacophoridae).

The morphometric measurements of the collected

specimen are: snout-vent length: 21.65 mm, head length:

6.85 mm, head width: 6.90 mm, snout length: 3.85 mm, eye

diameter: 3.65 mm, inter-orbital length: 3.25 mm, tympanum

diameter: 1.60 mm, humerus length: 3.60 mm, total fore

limb length: 13.35 mm, femur length: 1 1.15 mm, tibia length:

1 1 .80 mm, total hind limb length: 36.75 mm.

The specimen was deposited at the National Zoological

Collections of the Amphibia section of the Zoological Survey

of India, Kolkata (Regn. No. ZSI A9852). This collection

extends the known distribution of the species by 140 km to

the west in Assam. Kakoijana Reserve Forest is already known

to harbour a small population of about 100 Golden Langurs

( Trachypithecus geei ), besides a wide range of birds, reptiles,

fishes and invertebrates. The discovery of this little-known

tree frog from this RF strengthens the need for its protection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Amit Sahay (DFO, Aie Valley Division,

Bongaigaon) for permission to conduct field studies in

Kakoijana Reserve Forest, Hilloljyoti Singha, Lecturer,

Zoology Department, Birjhora Mahavidyalaya, Bongaigaon,

224

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and the Honarary Wildlife Warden for encouragement; support, and M.S. Ravichandran of Zoological Survey of India,

S.N. Sen, J. Chakraborty, G. Ghosh of Nature’s Foster for their Kolkata for registering the specimen.

REFERENCES

Annandale, N. (1915): Herpetological notes and descriptions. Rec.

Ind. Mus. 11: 341-346.

Deuti, K., S. Biswas., M.F. Ahmed & S.K. Dutta (2000): Rediscovery

of Chirixalus simus Annandale, 1915 (Anura: Rhacophoridae)

from Assam and West Bengal, eastern India. Hamadryad 25(2):

215-217.

20. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THE CYPRINID FISH PUNTIUS CONCHONIUS

(HAMILTON-BUCHANAN)1

Anoop K. Dobriyal2-3, Pankaj Bahuguna24, Shiv Prasad Uniyal2 and Hemant K. Joshi2

'Accepted July 07, 2004

"Department of Zoology, HNB Garhwal University Campus, Pauri Garhwal 246 001, Uttarakhand, India.

’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Puntius conchonius (Ham.-Buch.) is one of the most

beautiful and favourite ornamental fish among the Puntid

species. It has been reported from most parts of India (Day

1878;Talwarand Jhingran 1991 ), including Garhwal Himalaya

(Singh et al. 1987). The body is deep and compressed. Its

head length is 4.4 to 5.1, body depth is 2.9 to 3.3, predorsal

length is 2.3 to 2.5 and prepelvic length is 2.4 to 2.7 in ratio of

total length. Scales are medium about 22-26 in the lateral line,

however, the lateral line ceases after about 5 to 9 scales.

There is a dark black blotch on 15-19 scales just above the

anal fin on both the sides. During the present biological

investigations on the fish collected from Mandal - a rain-fed

stream, from Garhwal Himalaya (29° 26' -3 1°28’ N and 77° 49'-

80° 6' E), some striking sexual dimorphic differences were

observed.

Sexual dimotphism in fish has already been reported in

different species by Swarup and Swarup (1975), Tilak ( 1975),

Fig. 1 : Sexual dimorphism in P. conchonius

A . Female, B. Male

V

Fig. 2: Dorsal surface of head/snout of female and male

P. conchonius

Table 1 : Some important taxonomic characters in both sexes of

Puntius conchonius (Ham.-Buch.)

TL = Total length, HL = head length, CL = caudal length,

MBD = maximum body depth, PDL = predorsal length,

PPL = prepelvic length, ED = Eye diameter

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

225

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Pathni (1978), Ritakumari and Nair ( 1979) and Badola et al.

(1982). Our observations on sexual dimorphism in Puntius

conchonius (Ham.-Buch.) is based on the study of fifty male

and female specimens each, collected between November 2003

and January 2004. The fishes were segregated on the

mentioned sexual dimorphic characters, and dissected for

confirmation. We got hundred percent confirmation and then

decided to report it for an addition to the scientific knowledge

based on the study of morphometric characters.

Badola, S.P., H.R. Singh & A.K. Dobriyal (1982): Note on sexual

dimorphism in Barilius bendelisis (Ham.). Indian J. Anim. Sci.

52(12): 1284-1286.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India: Being a Natural History of the

Fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma

and Ceylon. William Dawson and Sons Ltd. Pp. 778.

Pathni, S.S. ( 1978): A note on secondary sexual characters in Kumaun

Mahseer Tor tor (Hamilton) and Tor putitora (Ham.) in Uttar

Pradesh. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48 (10): 773-775.

Ritakumari, S.D. & B.K. Nair (1979): Sexual dimorphism in the

Loaches Noemacheilus triangularis (Day) and Lepidocephahts

thermalis (Cuv. & Val.). J. Anim. Morph. Physiol. 26(1-2):

The detailed morphometric and meristic characters of

both male as well as female fish were studied (Table 1), but no

striking difference was seen. The differences are (i) male with

dark black shade on the dorsal, ventral and anal fins, absent in

female (Fig. 1 ), (ii) Upper portion of the body shining olive green

and lower portion silvery in both sexes; but there is pinkish

colour in males between these two portions, which is not visible

in the female specimens, and (iii) the snout is broader on upper

side in the female compared to the male (Fig. 2).

198-210.

Singh, H.R., S.P. Badola & A.K. Dobriyal (1987): Geographical

distributional list of ichthyofauna of the Garhwal Himalaya

with some new records. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. (84):

126-132.

Swarup, K. & A. Swarup (1975): Sexual dimorphism in Pseudeutropius

atherenoides (Bloch). Curr. Sci. 44 (16): 588.

Talwar, PK. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Pp. 250-295.

Tilak, R. ( 1975): Further studies on the dimorphism in Lepidocephahts

guntea (Hamilton). Newsl. Zool. Sttrv. India 1(4): 74-76.

21. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN FLATHEAD GREY MULLET MUGIL CEPHALUS (LINNAEUS)1

Jency Paul2-4, Honey Sebastian3, N.D. Inasu2-5 and C.O. Joshi2-6

'Accepted May 2006

-Fisheries Research Laboratory, Post Graduate and Research Department of Zoology, Christ College, Irinjalakuda, 680 125,

Kerala, India.

Tost Graduate and Research Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi, 682 013, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

'’Email: inasundl45 [email protected]

‘’Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Sexual dimorphism is widespread in nature and can be

influenced by sex specific natural selection resulting from

ecological differences between the sexes (Reimchen and Nosil

2004). Differences in the selective pressures experienced by

the sexes can ultimately result in the evolution of sexual

dimorphism of morphological traits (Andersson 1 994). Many

fish species show sexual dimorphism, a condition where males

and females are different in colour and/or form, thus sexes

can be detected externally.

Comparison of morphological features in males and

females of similar length group facilitate to work out the sexual

dimorphism. Species that show difference in coloration

between sexes are said to display sexual dichromism (Martin

Moe 2002).

The study on sexual dimorphism is of great significance

in taxonomy, bionomics, reproductive biology, monosex

culture of fishes, hybridization experiments, hormonal sex

control, identification of maturity stage, identification of

hybrids, breeding season, induced breeding, seedling

production technology and also in the observation of

courtship and mating, mate selection, and preference.

The study on sexual dimorphism has been carried out

in a very few species of fishes like Tetraodon travancoricus

(Inasu 1993), Puntius filamentosus (Thobias 1974), Priacanthus

hamrur (Tessy and Inasu 1998), and Ompok bimaculatus and

Horabagrus brachysoma ( Kurian and Inasu 1997).

The present work deals with the sexual dimorphism of

the Flathead Grey Mullet M. cephalus belonging to Order

Mugiliformes and Family Mugilidae. It is commonly called

‘Kanambu’, ‘Alameen’ or ‘Thirutha’ in Malayalam ,‘Madavai’

in Tamil, and ‘Kathiparega’ in Telugu (Talwar and Jhingran

1991). Grey Mullets are mostly marine, distributed in temperate

and tropical seas, estuaries and some rivers, but spawn in the

226

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Average body weight in each length group of

male and female Mugilcephalus (Linn.)

sea. This non-predatory fish feeds on zooplankton,

phytoplankton and detritus in the bottom mud.

M. cephalus is one of the common species of mullets in

the Indian region which is abundant in catches from the Chilka

lake (Orissa), Mahanadi and Godavari estuaries, Pulicat lake

(Tamil Nadu) and in the backwater lakes of Astamudi and

Vembanadu (Kerala). They withstand wide fluctuations in

salinity and suitable for brackish water polyculture along with

shrimps, Chanos and predatory fish like Lates (Thampy 2002).

Sea ranching of M. cephalus has been done successfully in

Hawaii (Grimes 1 998) and along the Gujarat coast (Anon. 2000).

M. cephalus is reported as a potential fish for induced

maturation and breeding technologies with great success (Rao

2000). So the study on sexual dimorphism is of great

significance in this fish as it is a preliminary step to distinguish

males and females.

Method

About 320 specimens (males 139 and females 181 ) of

adult M. cephalus were collected in fresh condition from

February to July 2005 from the estuarine region of

Kanakankadavu (Emakulum district, Kerala). They were sorted

into various length groups. The fine morphological differences

between males and females of the same length group were

studied and compared, and total weight of each fish was

recorded separately.

Discussion

In M. cephalus, mature male acquires a pinkish red

hue on the body particularly on the basal portion of 1st and

2nd dorsal fins, ventral fins and anal fin during the approach

of the breeding season, but in females such coloration is not

noticed. The fine colour difference between the two sex

groups tend to fade once the breeding period is over. This

pattern of temporary sexual dichromism is also observed in

Tetraodon travancoricus (Joshi 2004), Horabagrus

brachysoma (Inasu 2004), Anabas testudineus (Roychan

2005), and Bendelisis chedra (Pathani and Gaur 1989). It has

a passive or active role in reproductive behaviour as the

bright body colour attracts the opposite sex and helps in

completing the spawning act (Martin Moe 2002 and Roychan

2005). Variation in colour can also be due to environmental,

nutritional and ecological factors, such as competition, and

predation. The endocrine glands also play an important role

in breeding coloration.

Females are heavier than the males of the same length

group. For facilitating a better comparison the average body

weight in each length group of male and female is given in

Table 1 . The large body size of female fish can be explained

as the fecundity of the fish. Andersson (1994) reported that

females tend to have larger gonads than males with large

energy rich eggs, whereas males have much smaller gonads

that produce numerous relatively inexpensive sperm.

This study has focused on the ultimate explanations

of the observed sexual dimorphism in M. cephalus (Linn.),

yet it would be interesting to further examine the proximate

causes of these differences.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. Jose Chunkan (CMI),

Principal, Christ College, Irinjalakuda, for providing all facilities

for the study. The co-author is also grateful to University

Grants Commission for providing Junior Research Fellowship

during the tenure of which the present work was carried

out.

REFERENCES

Andersson, M. ( 1994): Sexual selection. Pub. by Princeton University

Press. Braabury, J. and Andersson, M (eds) 599 pp.

Anon. (2000): Biodiversity Conservation in West Bengal. Fishing

chimes 21(1): 75-79

Grimes, C.B. (1998): Marine Stock enhancement: Sound management

or techno-arrogance? Fisheries ( Bethesda ) 23(9): 18-23

Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a fresh water puffer fish

Tetraodon travancoricus Hora and Nair, collected from Trichur

district, central Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90:

523-524.

Inasu, N.D. (2004): Sexual dimorphism in Horabagrus brachysoma

(Gunther). Pp. 25-29. In: Sexual dimorphism of some indigenous

ornamental fishes, Vol. I. Marine Products Export Development

Authority of India.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian region.

Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 395 pp.

Joshi, C.O. (2004): Systematics and Bionomics of tetraodontids along

south west coast of India and inland' waters of Kerala. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Calicut, Kerala.

Kurian, Molly & N.D. Inasu (1997): Sexual dimorphism of two inland

edible cat fishes Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) and Horabagrus

brachysoma (Gunther). J. Inland fish. So.c. India 29(2): 34-39.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

227

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Martin Moe, C. (2002): The Breeder’s Net. Advanced aquarist’s online

magazine. Pp. 216.

Pathani, S.S. & S.K. Gaur (1989): Secondary sexual dimorphism in

Berilius bendelisis (Ham.) and Berilius vagra (Ham.). Indian J.

Anim. Sci. 59(12): 1580-1581.

Rao, G.R.M. (2000): Advances in Inland fisheries research In: (Eds:

Gopakumar, K., B.N. Singh & V.R. Chitrasni) Fifty years of

fisheries research in India. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi, 124 pp.

Reimchen, T.E. & P. Nosil (2004): Variable predation regimes predict

the evolution of sexual dimorphism in a population of three

spine stickleback. Evolution 58(6): 1274-1281.

Roychan, K.J. (2005): Secondary sexual characters in freshwater fishes.

Fishing chimes 24(12): 49-53.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent countries, Oxford & IBH Publishing Company, New

Delhi. 878 pp.

Tessy Mandy, J. & N.D. Inasu (1998): Sexual dimorphism of marine

perch, Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val.). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 95(1): 132-134.

Thampy, D.M. (2002): Role of professionals in the development of

inland fisheries in India. Pp. 35 1 -358. In: Riverine and Reservoir

fishes of India. Society of Fisheries Technologists (India).

Thoblas, MR (1974): Observations on the morphological variations

in Puntius filamentosus (Val.) Family Cyprinidae: with a

redescription of the species. J. Inland fish. Soc. India 6: 45-50.

22. NEW RECORDS OF TWO EEL FISHES FROM GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND,

BAY OF BENGAL1

R. Raj aram2-4, M. Srinivasan2, S. Ajmal Khan2, L. Kannan2-5, D.V. Rao3andKamala Devi3

'Accepted September 10, 2004

-Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai 608 502, Tamil Nadu, India.

’Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Station, Port Blair, India.

4Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Highly diversified fishes occurring in the coastal waters

and coral reef areas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

have been a source of continuous biodiversity research by

various ichthyologists (Rao et al. 2000). During the present

study, detailed investigations on the fish samples collected

from the coral reef areas around the Great Nicobar Island

were made. A total of 176 species of fin fishes belonging to

106 genera, 7 1 families and 1 5 orders were recorded. Among

these, two species are new distributional records to Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, Bay of Bengal. The descriptions of these

two fishes belonging to families Muraenidae and

Moringuidae, classified under the order Anguilliformes, are

given here.

Systematic Account

Order: Anguilliformes

Family: Muraenidae

1 . Ribbon Eel Rhinomuraena quaesita Garman 1888

Rhinomuraena quaesita Gannan 1888. Bull. Essex. Inst.

Pp. 114.

Rhinomuraena quaesita : 1990. Randall et al. Fishes of

the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea. Pp. 4 1 .

Material examined: One specimen, 204.2003, Lashman

beach, east coast of Great Nicobar Island, Reg. No. 5 167(A).

Description (mm): Total length 755, eye diameter 4,

distance from snout to dorsal 30, body depth 15, caudal fin

length 4, length of dorsal fin 725, ventral 510. Body slender

and elongated; cleft of mouth reaching far behind eye; triserial

villiform teeth in both the jaws; tip of jaws with barbel-like

filamentous appendages; tube of anterior nostril with

foliaceous appendages; dorsal and anal fins well developed,

origin of dorsal fin well before gill openings; pectoral fins

absent; dorsal, anal and caudal fins confluent. Body bluish

black with yellow dorsal fin, anal fin black; both dorsal and

anal fins with white margin.

Habitat: Found in sandy beach areas.

Distribution: Central and western Pacific to Islands of

Indian Ocean.

Family: Moringuidae

2. Black-tailed Thrush Eel Moringua bicolor Kaup 1856

Moringua bicolor Kaup 1 856, Cat. Apod. Fish. Pp. 1 07.

Rataboura bicolor: Munro 1982. The Marine and

Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon. Pp. 63.

Material examined: One specimen, 16.ii.2003, Kichad

Nullah, west coast of Great Nicobar Island, Reg. No. 5168(B).

Description (mm): Total length 685; eye diameter 3;

distance from snout to dorsal 630; depth of the body 14;

length of pectoral fin 6; caudal 5; dorsal 55; ventral 50;

5 conical and short teeth arranged in single rows in jaws.

Body elongate, worm-like and cylindrical; posterior nostril

opens in a pore in front of eye; eyes small and covered with

skin; lower jaw projecting a little in front of snout; lateral line

present; dorsal and anal fins small, confined to tail region;

caudal region forming a point with which dorsal and anal fins

are confluent with caudal fin. Upper half of body brownish

and lower half pale yellow, caudal fin blackish with a white

edge, other fins light yellow.

228

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Habitat: Found around sea grass beds and reef areas

Distribution: India (Great Nicobar Island), Sri Lanka

and North Pacific, Japan, Laccadive Sea, Indonesia and

Philippines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India for providing financial

support; to Shri. D.R.K. Sastri, Officer-in-Charge, Andaman

and Nicobar Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India,

Port Blair for permitting us to make use of the library and

laboratory facilities; to Shri. N. Yesu Rathnam, Divisional

Forest Officer and Shri. B. Chatterjee, Wildlife Warden,

Campbell Bay for encouragement and facilities, and to the

Indian Coast Guard for logistic support.

REFERENCES

Rao, D.V., Kamala Devi & RT. Rajan (2000): An account of Ichthyofauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bay of Bengal. Rec. zool. Surv. India,

Occ. Paper. 178: 1-434.

23. BALITORA BRUCEI (GRAY) AND GLYPTOTHORAX TELCHITTA (HAMILTON),

TWO NEW REPORTS FOR ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

Lakpa Tamang2-4, Shivaii Chaudhry2-5 and Dhrupad Choudhury3

‘Accepted November 08, 2005

;G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development. North East Unit, Vivek Vihar, Itanagar 791 113,

Arunachal Pradesh, India.

’International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. G.P.O. Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Weekly samplings of fish fauna were initiated from three

stations near the Police Colony (27° 04.697' N and 93° 35.809' E)

Itanagar, Papum Pare district, Arunachal Pradesh, since

September 2004. A total of 45 species of fishes and two

crustaceans were captured, using a cast net of 2.01 m diameter

and mesh size of 7 sq. mm. Among the fishes caught till

February 27, 2005, individuals of Balitora brucei appeared

regularly in the catches from September, 2004 to end February,

2005. Although B. brucei specimens were captured regularly

during this period their numbers were always found to be

very low, with one or two individuals appearing in each catch

except for February 27, 2005 when the number increased to

four individuals. However, no specimens of B. brucei have

appeared in the catch since. Samples of B. brucei , preserved

in 10% formalin, are deposited in G.B. Pant Institute of

Himalayan Environment and Development (GBPIHED), N.E.

Unit (Collection No. GBP-NE/FF/18, dated 14/09/04).

During the sampling on December 7, 2004, a single

individual of Glyptothorax telchitta was caught with

specimens of Garra gotyla gotyla, Garra anncindalei ,

Psilorhyncus balitora , and Barilius bendelisis. This

specimen has been preserved and deposited in the Unit’s

collection (Collection No. GBP-NE/FF/37, dated 07/12/04).

B. brucei were found mostly attached to the boulders

in fast moving waters, especially on stones covered with fine

algae. G. telchitta was found predominantly in the medium

current water with slippery stones in river bed and big boulders

surrounded.

Balitora brucei have been reported from different parts

of India (Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Menon 1 999), as well as

Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991 ; Kottelat 1998), Bhutan

(Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Kottelat 1998) and Nepal (Shrestha

1990; Shrestha 1999). The species have been reported from

the Indian states of Assam, Meghalaya and northern West

Bengal (Kottelat 1988; Menon 1999; Kapoor etal. 2002).

In India, Glyptothorax telchitta has been reported from

Manipur (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), Mizoram (Kar<?/ al. 2000).

The species is also reported from the north-eastern states of

Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura (Sen 2000) It is also known

from the Vindhya range of mountains, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh, Bihar, where it is common (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).

There appears to be no report of either species from Arunachal

Pradesh and hence, this is the first report for both Balitora

brucei and Glyptothorax telchitta from the state.

1 . Balitora brucei (Gray) (Fig. 1 )

I ex.. Weight 4.80 gm. Total length 78.77 mm.

Standard length 68.52 mm. Head length 1 4.46 mm. Head width

13.09 mm. Head depth 4.48 mm, Body depth 9.47 mm, eye

diameter 1.33 mm. Interorbital distance 6.21 mm, Nasal distance

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

229

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Dorsal view of Balitora brucei

4.95 mm. Caudal peduncle 3.92 mm.

Diagnostic characters: D i 7-8, Pi 20-21, V i 10, A 5-6,

C 17-18. Dorsal fin originates opposite of ventral, head

depressed, mouth ventral, eye small, colour brownish, brown

blotches dorsally (8-10) and laterally, dirty yellowish ventrally,

lateral line complete, pectoral and ventral fin placed

horizontally with brown tinge, pectoral broader than ventral,

lower lobe of caudal fin longer than upper with black tinge.

Skin rough to touch with minute tubercles.

Behaviour: The fish can tolerate high current waters with

algae covered boulders, pebbles. Pectoral and ventral fin. and

rays help the fish to anchor to the substratum. It feeds on fine

algae on substratum and minute sand particles entangled.

2. Glyptothorax telchitta (Hamilton) (Fig. 2)

1 ex.. Weight 3.60 gm. Total length 78.08 mm. Standard

length 66.25 mm. Head length 1 5.22 mm. Head width 9.29 mm.

Head depth 7.39 mm. Body depth 10.16 mm. Eye diameter

1.25 mm. Interorbital distance 3.52 mm. Nasal distance

2.42 mm. Caudal peduncle 3.89 mm.

Diagnostic characters: D i. 5, P 1 .8, V i. 5, A ii. 8, C 17.

Height of dorsal almost equals height of pectoral, outer

Kapoor, D„ D.R. Dayal & A.G. Ponniah (2002): Fish Biodiversity of

India. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow,

India. 775 pp.

Kar, D., S.C. Dey, Manabendra Mandal, Boni Amin Laskar & Lal

Searnleana (2000): Preliminary Survey of the Fish Genetic

Resources of the rivers in Barak Drainage, Mizoram and Tripura.

(Accessed: ces. Use. emet. InlenergylwaterlproceedJ section!/

paper2/ section2paper2.html)

Kottelat, M. ( 1998): Indian and Indo-Chinese species of Balitora

(Osteichthyes: Cypriniformes) with descriptions of two new

species and comments on the family-group names Balitoridae

and Flomalopteridae. Rev. Suisse Zool. 95(2): 487-504.

Menon. A.G.K. (1999): Checklist - fresh water fishes of India. Rec.

Fig. 2: Lateral view of Glyptothorax telchitta

mandibular barbel reaches the gill opening. Maxillary barbel

reaches up to orbit (versus posterior end of orbit Day, 1878),

base of adipose equal to the base of rayed dorsal. Jaws

unequal, upper the longer. Eye small, caudal fin deeply forked.

Colour blackish with yellowish tinge and two yellowish

blotches at the shoulder on both sides of the origin of dorsal

fin. Lateral line complete. Occipital process not reaching basal

bone of dorsal fin. Adhesive apparatus on thorax longer than

broad without any central pit. All barbels shorter than head.

Skin tuberculated.

Behaviour: The species is a nocturnal predator and

benthopelagic in habitat. It attaches itself to the river bed and

remains under the gaps and holes of rocks and boulders. The

nasal and mandibular barbels seem to play an important role

to identify prey. The species is carnivorous having minute

teeth, serrated internally.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Director, G.B. Pant Institute of

Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora for

encouragement. Thanks are also due for Dr. P. Nath,

Department of Fisheries, Government of Arunachal Pradesh,

Itanagar for taxonomic inputs.

zool. Sun'. India, Misc. Publ. Occs. Pap No 175: 366.

Sen, N. (2000): Occurrence, distribution and status of diversified fish

fauna of north-east India. Pp. 31-48. In: Ponniah A.G. and

U.K. Sarkar (eds.): Fish Biodiversity of North-East India.

NBFGR.NATP Publ. 2, 228 pp.

Shrestha, J. (1999): Cold water fish and fisheries in Nepal. FAO Fish.

Tech. Pap. No. 385. FAO. Rome. 20 pp.

Shrestha, T.K. (1990): Resource ecology of the Himalayan waters.

Curriculum Development Centre, Tribhuvan University,

Kathmandu, Nepal. 645 pp.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India

and adjacent countries. Volume 1. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam,

541 pp.

230

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. TYPE SPECIMEN OF INSECT ACANTHACORYDALIS HORRENDA NAVAS

(MEGALOPTERA) IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY1

Naresh Chaturvedi2

'Accepted December 19, 2005

-Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Order Neuroptera is classified by Imms (1977) into two

suborders, i.e. Megaloptera and Plannipennia. Suborder

Megaloptera is a small group of rare and primitive insects

commonly known as Alderflies and Snake flies and very little

information is available on them (Varshney 2002). Ghosh

(1998) mentioned that 125 genera and 335 species of

Neuroptera are found in India, out of which 8 genera and

25 species belong to the suborder Megaloptera, which is

represented by two families, i.e. Corydalidae and Inocellidae.

According to Liu et al. (2005), eight species of

Acanthacorydalis are found in Asia of which seven species

are restricted only to the Oriental region and one also exists

in Palaearctic Region. They have also identified six areas of

endemism of this genus of which one is north-east India.

Ghosh (2000) has extensively worked on this group of insects

found in India and has described three species of the genus

Acanthacorydalis from northeast India: Acanthacorydalis

asiatica Wood Mason (described by Wood Mason as

Corydalis asiatica), A. orientalis McLachlan and

A. horrenda Navas. While working out an identification key

for these species, Ghosh has remarked that, “due to paucity

of the material for examination and non-availability of the

literature author reserves comments on the species

A. horrenda Navas. Varshney (2005) studied the collection

of suborder Megaloptera present in Zoological Survey of

India (ZSI) and has not mentioned the presence of

Acanthacorydalis horrenda species in the ZSI collection.

The entomological collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society has a specimen of Acanthacorydalis horrenda

Navas labelled as ‘type specimen’ (Fig. 1).

Locality : Naga Hills, c. 1 ,3 1 1 m (4300 ft).

Date of Collection: April, 1930. Sex: Male.

Collected by: Capt. J.E. Mibreg.

Determined by P.J. Navas (1931).

Diganostic Characters: Head square-shaped with three

prominent ocelli. The black and brownish markings present

on head and thorax are symmetrical. Antenna broken (not

Fig. 1 : Acanthacorydalis horrenda Navas

present). Male mandible dark black, two times as long as head,

witli three minute teeth. Pronotum and mesonotum light brown

in middle and black on either side, metanotum brown and

little black on sides. Wings smoky and not dark at anterior

margin. Forewings with brown spots. Legs black. Male tenth

tergite short, stout, and curved ventral. The description of

female is not available.

Measurement: Wing Span - Fore wing: 76.50 mm;

Hind Wing: 68.55 mm; Body length: 55.48 mm; Prothorax:

15.00 mm; Mesothorax: 5.0 mm. Metathorax: 6.0 mm;

Abdomen: 16.35 mm.

The male genitalia are also visible in the specimen.

The body markings and wing venation are illustrated in

the attached photograph.

Remarks: Many attempts to obtain the original

description of the species published by Navas are

unsuccessful. It is observed that A. horrenda (Navas) is

distinct from other two Indian species in different markings

on the head and thorax, long mandibles in male. Anterior edge

of wings not dark. The status of this species would be clarified

on receipt of its original description and this paper will be

useful in this regard.

REFERENCES

Ghosh, S.K. (1998): Faunal Diversity in India: Neuroptera. Ghosh, S.K. (2000): Neuroptera fauna of northeast India Rec. zool.

Pp. 251-257, Edited by Alfred et al. ENVIS Centre, Zoological Surv. India, Occ. Paper No. 184 : 179.

Survey of India, Calcutta. 495 pp. Imms, A.D. (1977): A General Textbook of Entomology. Revised by

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

231

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

O.W. Richards & R.G. Davies, Vol. II. Pp. 421-1354. Published

by Chapman and Hall, London.

Navas, L. (1931): Acanthcicorydalis horrenda. Rev. Acad. Cienc.

Madrid. 26: 73.

Varshney, R.K. (2002): Insectia. Bionotes 4(1): 20-22.

Varshney, R.K. (2005): On two rare insect Orders ( Auct) Megaloptera

(alderflies) and Raphidiodae (snake flies) in India. Bionotes

7(1): 30-32.

Liu, Xing Yue, Ding Yang, Si Qin, Ge & Xing Ke, Yang (2005):

Phylogenetic review of the Chinese species of Acanthacorydalis

(Megaloptera, Corydalidae). Zoologica Scripta Vol. 34(4):

373.

25. ADDITIONS TO THE COCCINELLID FAUNA OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

AND THE BIOLOGY OF THE ENDEMIC CH1LOCORUS COELOSIMILIS KAPUR 1966

(COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLID AE)1

K. Veenakumari2-3 and Prashanth Mohanraj2-4

'Accepted June 23, 2004

"Central Agricultural Research Institute, P.B. No. 181, Port Blair. 744 101, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

’Present Address: Project Directorate of Biological Control, P.B No. 2491, H.A. Farm, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560 024,

Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

In spite of their economic importance both as

phytophages and as efficient predators of crop pests, the

Coccinellidae of the Andaman Islands remain poorly known

to this day. The first Coccinellid, Epilachna nevilli from these

Islands was described as an endemic species by Dohrn in

1 880 - 22 years after the British occupied these Islands, with

the purpose of establishing a penal colony. In the next

5 1 years, only two more species were added, of which Rodolia

andamanica Wise was also endemic. No more additions were

made till Kapur (1966) based largely on specimens collected

sporadically between 1959 and 1964 by members of the

Zoological Survey of India, recorded 26 more species, with

four endemics from these Islands in 1966. With this the total

number of species known from these islands rose to 29, of

which 6 are endemics (Kapur 1966). No additions have since

been made to the Coccinellid fauna of the Andaman Islands.

It was in this context that the current study was undertaken,

to enable the further documentation of the Coccinellid

diversity of these islands.

The Andaman archipelago is a chain of a little over

320 islands, situated in the Bay of Bengal between the 10° N

and 14° N. Oceanic in origin (Prashanth Mohanraj and

Veenakumari 1996), these Islands were inhabited solely by

hunter-gatherer tribes for centuries, till the British established

themselves here in 1858 following an earlier abortive attempt

to do so in the last decade of the eighteenth century. It was

only after the arrival of the British in the mid-nineteenth

century, that these Islands began to be scrutinized for their

natural historical productions.

No special techniques were employed to collect these

beetles. Adults were collected from the foliage from both

forests and crop fields and processed using routine

entomological procedures. The immature stages were also

collected whenever noticed, brought to the laboratory and

reared.

All the specimens collected/reared were sent to the

Natural History Museum, London, to ascertain their identities.

Additions to the native Coccinellid fauna

Twenty seven species of Coccinellids were collected

during the course of this study. Twelve of these are being

recorded for the first time from these Islands (Table 1). Only

four Coccinellids have been identified to the species level,

Table 1: Coccinellidae (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea) recorded for the

first time from the Andaman islands, India

*Taxa being recorded for the first time from the Andaman islands

232

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Duration (days) of the immature stages of Chilocorus coelosimilis in the Andaman islands

while two have been found to be akin to, but distinct from,

already known species. The remaining, though not identified

to the species level, find a mention here because they are

different from all the other species, so far, known from here.

Six of the genera have never before been reported from these

islands and are being recorded from here for the first time.

Life cycle

C. coelosimilis takes from 20 to 22 days to complete its

life cycle (Table 2). It passes through 4 larval instars and a

distinct prepupal period that lasts from 2 to 4 days. Of all the

stages, the pupal period is the longest, lasting 5 to 10 days.

The dimensions of the egg and all larval instars are given in

Table 3.

Description of immature stages

Egg: The eggs are laid singly on the lower surfaces of

the leaflets of the coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera: Arecaceae)

among scale insects (Aspidiotus destructor Signoret). They

are orange-yellow in colour with a smooth, glossy surface

and are cigar shaped (widest in the middle, tapering towards

either end and terminally truncated). They are attached to

leaf surfaces along their longitudinal axes. The larvae emerge

from the eggs, by making long, lateral slits which cover about

75 per cent of the length of each egg. The chorion is double-

walled with an inner translucent, papery, white layer and an

outer, off-white and finely granulated layer.

Larva

I instar: The head is black or deep brown in colour,

with a glossy surface. It is covered sparsely with pale cream

Table 3: Dimensions (mm) ot the immature stages of Chilocorus

coelosimilis reared in the laboratory in the Andaman islands

setae, which become increasingly dense on the frons. The

thorax is pale cream in colour and broader than the abdomen.

The dorsal shield of the prothorax is suffused with black and

it has two rows of tubercles. This instar moves swiftly when

active. The legs are translucent black with a distinct black

annular marking between the trochanter and femur.

The abdomen is uniformly cream with dorsal, subdorsal

and lateral rows of tubercles (6 tubercles per segment). These

tubercles are relatively long and cream like the rest of the

body for most of their lengths, but dark terminally. Each

tubercle has a pale yellow or cream seta at its apex.

The cast skin is ruptured dorsally along the mid-dorsal

line. It is papery and pale white in colour, with dark brown

tubercular remnants. They feed on coconut scales (Aspidiotus

destructor Signoret) by making a hole at the periphery.

II Instar: Head and prothorax dirty white or very pale

brown with long scimitar shaped spines, which are off-white

basally and then blackish along the rest of their lengths. They

have long silvery setae for part of their lengths.

The meso and meta thoraxes are deep brown to black

with tubercles. Dorsally there is a brownish-black band. The

first three and last two abdominal segments are pale brown or

off-white in colour. The fourth, fifth and sixth segments have

a deep brown-black band each.

III Instar: The larva is white with black tubercles and

black legs. The tubercles are clothed with setae, which are

black basally and whitish or silvery on top. The prothorax

has 5 tubercles (2 dorsal, 2 subdorsal and 1 lateral). The

spiracles are located between the dorsal and subdorsal rows

of tubercles in pale black insular patches. A deep longitudinal

constriction passes all along the length of the body between

the subdorsal and lateral rows of tubercles. The tubercles are

markedly reduced in size on the last abdominal segment.

IY Instar: The fourth instar is not described here

because we failed to collect sufficient data.

Pupa

It forms within the last larval skin, which splits along

the mid-dorsal line. The exuvia of the final instar larva splits

from behind the head to the sixth abdominal segment. The

old larval integument is white, with remnants of the prominent

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

233

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

black tubercles projecting from it; even the remnants of the

legs are retained with almost no distortion. The yellow pupa

appears to have thrust itself out along the mid-dorsal region.

The dorsal surface of most of the thorax, a portion of the wing

pads and a greater part of the dorsal surface of the abdomen

are visible. This whole exposed surface is covered with very

small white setae. Along the mid-dorsal abdominal segment

are present depressions with a shade of black that spreads

out from the depression towards the posterior margin of each

segment. There is a terminally truncated tubercle at the

junction of the meta thorax and the first abdominal segment,

while there is another very small tubercle along the lateral

margin on this abdominal segment. The entire dorsal surface

is clothed with brown setae.

Natural enemies

Multiple parasitism by the wasp Homalotylus sp.

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was observed in C. coelosimilis.

Four of these parasitoids emerged from one pre-pupa. This

particular specimen was collected from the field as a second

instar and reared individually in a glass tube. As parasitization

could not have occurred in the laboratory under these rearing

conditions it can be said, with a fair degree of certainty that

these are larval-prepupal parasitoids, which parasitize early

instars of the Coccinellid.

Kapur’s (1966) is the most recent and the most

comprehensive treatment of the Coccinellidae of these islands.

In addition to nine species of plant feeding Epilachninae, he

detailed 20 species of predaceous Coccinellinae sensu lato

fix hese islands. The current survey reveals a much richer

predaceous Coccinellid fauna on these Islands, including six

genera hitherto not recorded from here. Of these only in two

cases it was possible to identify the species. Booth ( 1993) is

of the opinion that the Harmonia sp. collected from South

Andaman is an undescribed species that is probably endemic

to these Islands. Similarly, one of the Scymnus sp. collected

on Rutaceae, he says, is not typical of the genus. Other genera

like Pseudo scymnus, Cryptogonus , and Chi loco rus, which

are already known to be present on these Islands (vide Kapur

1966), are represented by additional species indicating that

the Coccinellidae remain under-explored on these islands. This

calls for further and more rigorous surveys and studies on

this important group of predatory beetles on these Islands.

Aspidiotus destructor Signoret and Neofurcaspis

andamanensis Green are the two diaspidine (Homoptera)

scales that occur on coconut in these islands (Bhumannavar

et al. 1991 ). The former in particular is known to be a serious

pest of coconut in some parts of the world. The population of

this scale builds up on these islands during summer (January

to March). This population build up is, however, not high

enough to cause significant damage to the crop. Apparently

a conglomerate of scale insects prevents the build up of the

pest to damaging levels. Ten species of predatory Coccinellids

(namely J. pallidula , Scymnus sp., two unidentified species

of Pseudoscymnus; Cryptogonus sp. nr. bilineatus,

Chilocorus nigrita , C. coelosimilis , P seudaspidimerus

lambai , Telisimia sp., and Serangium sp.) have so far been

found to occur on coconut on these Islands. Nine of these

are predators of scales. Serangium sp. is the only one from

among these that does not feed on scales, but feeds on

whiteflies instead.

In addition to these, a species of Cybocephalus

(Coleoptera: Nitidulidae), which is a predator of scales in both

its adult and larval stages, also occurs on coconut in these

islands. All these predators in concert appear to be efficient

in keeping the scales of coconut in check.

Other interesting taxa collected during the course of

the present study are mentioned below. B. pupillata was

collected on the leaves of Ficus from the Mount Harriet

National Park in South Andaman. This probable aphid

predator is known from southeast China and Java. It has

so far not been recorded from the Indian subcontinent.

R. fulvescens, a predator of scales, was collected from the

small island of Havelock. First described in 1 980 from Vietnam,

this species is poorly known (Booth 1994). Similarly an

unidentified species of Scymnus, which differs markedly from

typical members of the genus, was collected on Rutaceae in

S. Andaman. All these taxa require further collection and study.

Focused studies are necessary on the Coccinellidae of the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Fike all oceanic islands, these

Islands have a significant proportion of endemic species,

which need to be collected and studied. Percentage endemism

among the Coccinellids in Kapur’s (1966) study was found to

be 2 1 %. The current study reveals the presence of six hitherto

unrecorded genera, and an equal number of probably new

species that require further study. Some or all of these six

species, which remain unidentified, could turn out to be new

indicating the rudimentary state of the knowledge of the

Coccinellidae of these Islands. This situation has to be

remedied with more rigorous and sustained studies on this

important Coleopteran family on these islands.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. S.P.S. Ahlawat, Director, Central

Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, for all facilities. We

are grateful to Dr. R.G. Booth and Dr. J. La Salle of the

International Institute of Entomology, London for the

identification of the Coccinellidae and the Hymenoptera,

respectively. We also thank the Department of Biotechnology,

234

J. Bombay Nat. EHist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

New Delhi for financial assistance (vide Sanction No.BT/ resources of these islands under which project a part of this

PR1280/AGR/05/078/98) for studying the natural enemy work was executed.

REFERENCES

Bhumannavar, B.S., PrAshanth Mohanraj, H.R. Ranganath,

T.K. Jacob & A.K. Bandyopadhyay(1991): Insects of agricultural

importance in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Central Agricultural

Research Institute, Port Blair.

Booth, R.G. (1993): Identification Services Report. List

No. 11773 Asia. International Institute of Entomology,

London.

Booth, R.G. (1994): Identification Services Report, List No. 11858

Asia. International Institute of Entomology, London.

Kapur, A.P ( 1966): The Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) of the Andamans.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 32 B (3 & 4): 148-189.

Prashanth Mohanraj & K. Veenakumari (1996): Perspectives on the

zoogeography of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

Malayan Nat. J. 50(2): 99-106.

26. ADDITIONS TO LARVAL HOST PLANTS OF BUTTERFLIES OF THE WESTERN

GHATS, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA (RHOPALOCERA, LEPIDOPTERA): PART l1

S. Kalesh2and Satya Krishna Prakash3

'Accepted April 26, 2005

2BN 439, Greeshmam, Bapuji Nagar, Medical College P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 Oil, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

?kp 9/665, Philip’s Hill, Pothujanam Lane, Kumarapuram, Medical College P.0 , Thiruvananthapuram 695 Oil, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Three pioneer naturalists, E. H. Aitken, J. Davidson and

T. R. Bell stalled the work on larval host plants of butterflies of

the Western Ghats, southern India. Since their early work there

has been no extensive study on the host plants of the butterflies

in this region (Kunte 2000, 2006). In his report Kunte (2006)

reported 26 new host plants of Western Ghats butterllies. bringing

the total number of host plants of early stages of Western Ghats

butterflies close to 450. In the present note, we add another

dozen plants to this growing list of host plants of butterflies of

the Western Ghats. This also includes new families of host

plants for a few butterflies, e.g. Zingiberaceae for Gangara

thyrsis. Our records have been checked against the records of

Bell (1910-1927), Wynter-Blyth (1957), Kunte (2000, 2006) and

ihe most recent exhaustive compilation of larval host plants of

Oriental Lepidopteraby Robinson etal. (2001 ). The list of floras

from which plant identities and current scientific names have

been confirmed is given below in references.

Our observations are from southern Western Ghats, in

the districts of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam, from the state

of Kerala (approx. 8° 1 8-9° 55' N and 76° 18'-77° 25' E). Some

supporting observations are from neighbouring districts of

Pathanamthitta, Kottyam and Alapuzha. Specific localities from

where the caterpillars were collected were: 1 ) Thiruvanantha-

puram city suburbs, especially around Aakulam lake, 2)

Government Medical College campus, Thiruvananthapuram, 3)

Ponmudi-Kallar valley region (8° 45' N; 77° 6' E),

Thiruvananthapuram district, 4) Chengannur in Alappuzha

district, and 5) Thenmala region (8° 50' N; 77° 15' E), Kollam

district. All observations were made between 2000 and 2005.

Methods

Caterpillars collected were reared in plastic containers

suitable for their size, e.g. for a 3 cm long caterpillar we used

a 9 cm x 6 cm x 6 cm sized cage. Holes of size 1 mm x 1 mm per

sq. cm were provided for sufficient aeration and maintenance

of appropriate humidity. Food plants were changed, the cage

was cleaned and fresh leaves were put every day. We

included records only when butterflies were successfully

reared from larvae, thus it excludes oviposition mistakes by

these species.

Family Nyniphalklae

1 . Melon ids leda Linnaeus Common Evening Brown

Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour) W. Clayton,

Poaceae, a tall gregarious herb in open spaces and roadsides,

suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, July and December 2004.

Brachiaria mutica Stapf, Poaceae, a gregarious tall

grass at edges of water and in marshes, at Aakulam,

Thiruvananthapuram city suburbs, January-March 2005.

2. Ypthima huebneri Kirby Common Fourring

Axonopus compressus (Swartz) Beauv., Poaceae, a small

to medium sized herb at Aakulam, Thiruvananthapuram city

suburbs, January-February 2005.

3. Orsotrioena medus Fabricius The Nigger

Brachiaria mutica Stapf, Poaceae, a gregarious tall grass

at edges of water and in marshes at Aakulam,

Thiruvananthapuram city suburbs, January-February 2005.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

235

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Family Lycaenidae

1 . Rathinda amor Fabricius Monkey Puzzle

Mangifera indica Linn., Anacardiaceae, large tree in

homesteads and Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) J. Sincl.,

Annonaceae, small tree, both in suburbs of

Thiruvananthapuram city, 2000 and 2002 respectively.

2. Zesius chrysomallus Hiibner Redspot

Terminalia catapa Linn., Combretaceae. A large tree;

Smilax zeylanica Linn., Smilacaceae, a climber in coastal

forests both plants at Aakulam. Lake side,

Thiruvananthapuram. Red ants Oecophylla spp. were

attending to the larvae while they fed on the leaves of these

plants, and pupated inside ant shelters. Observed during

September 2000 and November 2004 respectively.

Family Hesperiidae

1 . Tagiades litigiosa Moschler Water Snow Flat

Dioscorea alata Linn., Dioscoraceae, climber cultivated

in homesteads observed at Chengannur in Alappuzha June-

July 2003; Thenmala, Kollam February 2004.

2. Tagiades gana Mabille Suffused Flat

Dioscorea alata Linn., Dioscoraceae, climber cultivated

in homesteads, Chengannur in Alappuzha June-July of 2003;

Thiruvananthapuram city outskirts from 2000 to 2004, Kallar

September 2003 and 2004.

3. Spialia galba Fabricius Indian Skipper

Melochia corchorifolia Linn., Sterculiaceae, a herb

seen around habitations and disturbed places in suburbs of

Thiruvananthapuram, July 2003.

4. Halpe porus Mabille Moore’s Ace

Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl., Poaceae, large tree in

gardens. Government Medical College campus

Thiruvananthapuram, August-September 2004.

Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst.) Fisch., Poaceae tall

reeds growing in clumps seen along waterways and canals at

Chengannur in Alappuzha, October 2002.

Both sexes were reared and detailed notes on their natural

history will be published later.

5. Soviet hyrtacus de Niceville Bicolor Ace

Ochlandra travancorica Benth., Poaceae, gregarious

reeds seen near water, and deciduous and mixed forests Kallar,

Thiruvananthapuram, December 2001 and December 2003.

Two larvae obtained both in reeds in a riparian region.

6. Iambrix salsala Moore Chestnut Bob

Setaria barbata (Linn.) Kunth, Poaceae, small to

medium sized herbs, suburbs Thiruvananthapuram, June-July

of 2002 to, Aakulam lake at Thiruvananthapuram,

October-December of 2000 to 2004; Axonopus compressus

(Swartz.) Beauv., Poaceae, small to medium sized herbs,

suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, July 2004. Brachiaria mutica

Stapf Poaceae, a gregarious tall growing grass at edges of

water and in marshes, at Aakulam, Thiruvananthapuram city

suburbs, January 2005.

7. Psolosfuligo Mabille Coon

Marantha arundinacea Linn., Maranthaceae, stemless

gregarious herb widely cultivated, suburbs of

Thiruvananthapuram, June-July and September-November of

2001 to 2004. Two distinct breeding seasons are noted

corresponding to the rains and sometimes throughout the

time the food plants are plenty; Schumannianthus virgatus

Rolfe., Maranthaceae, a tall erect perennial herb in marshy

and moist hilly regions at Thenmala in Kollam district and

Kallar at Thiruvananthapuram January 2003 and 2004.

8. Udaspes folus Cramer Grass Demon

Zingiber zerumbet Sm., Zingiberaceae, tall herb in moist

soil often found gregarious in hilly regions in suburbs of

Thiruvananthapuram, November-December of 2001 to 2004.

9. Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder Restricted Demon

Zingiber zerumbet Sm., Zingiberaceae, tall herb often

found growing gregarious in moist soil in hilly regions in

suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, December 2004. Has been

previously reported by Veenakumari et al. (1998) from

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, new record for southern

India.

10. Gangara thyrsis Fabricius Giant Redeye

Zingiber officinale Rose., Zingiberaceae, medium sized

perennial herb cultivated widely in suburbs of

Thiruvananthapuram. November 2004. Palms ( Arecaceae) are

usual host plants; this is a new host plant family for this

species.

1 1 . Matapa aria Moore Common Red Eye

Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl., Poaceae, large tree in

gardens in suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, May-June of

2001 to 2004.

Ochlandra travancorica Benth., Poaceae; gregarious

reeds seen near water, and deciduous and mixed forests at

Aakulam. Thiruvananthapuram May-June and November-

January 200 1 -2004.

236

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst.) Fisch., Poaceae, tall

reeds growing in clumps seen along waterways and canals at

Chengannur in Alappuzha, October 2003.

12. Aeromachus pygmaeus Fabricius Pygmy Scrub Hopper

Ischaemum indicam (Houtt.) Merrill, Poaceae, a small

herbaceous grass in open place, edges of roads and in lawns

of gardens at Aakulam, Thiruvananthapuram during October

2004-February 2005.

13. Oriens goloides (Moore) Indian Dartlet

Axonopus compressus (Swartz) Beauv., Poaceae, a small

to medium sized herb at Thiruvananthapuram city suburbs,

July 2003 and July 2004.

Oplismenus compositus Beauv, Poaceae, small perennial

grass in shady places in suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram

city 2003 and at Thenmala, Kollam district, November 2004;

Setaria barbata (Linn.) Kunth Poaceae, a small to medium

sized herb, Thiruvananthapuram, June-July of 2003 to

2001.

14. Cupitha purreea Moore Wax Dart

Quisqualis indica Linn., Combretaceae, large climbers

cultivated in gardens and seen near settlements at Kallar,

Thiruvananthapuram, December 2004-January 2005.

15. Potanthus pseudomaesa Moore Pseudomaesa Dart

Axonopus compressus (Swartz) Beauv., Poaceae, a small

to medium sized herb at Aakulam, Thiruvananthapuram city

suburbs January 2005.

16. Telicota colon Fabricius Pale Palm Dart

Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl., Poaceae, large tree in

gardens, Ochlandra travancorica Benth., Poaceae,

gregarious reeds seen near water, and deciduous and mixed

forests. All observations at Thiruvananthapuram city suburbs

June-July of 2002 to 2004.

17. Telicota ancilla Herrich-Schaffer Dark Palm Dart

Ochlandra travancorica (Benth.), Poaceae, medium

sized trees seen near water, and deciduous and mixed

forests.

Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl., Poaceae, large tree in

gardens of residential areas in Thiruvananthapuram June-July

of 2002 to 2004.

Bambusa wamin Camus, Poaceae, a medium sized tree

in gardens of residential areas in Thiruvananthapuram

December 2004.

1 8. Boons farii Moore Paintbrush Swift

Ochlandra travancorica Benth., Poaceae medium

sized trees seen near a water canal in the suburbs of

Thiruvananthapuram, June-July 2001 .

Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst) Fisch., Poaceae, small

trees growing in clumps seen along waterways and canals at

Chengannur in Alappuzha, December 2004.

Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl., Poaceae, large tree in

gardens, Aakulam, suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, June-July

of 2000 to 2004.

Bambusa wamin Camus, Poaceae, medium sized tree in

gardens of residential areas in Thiruvananthapuram, December

2004.

19. Pelopidas conjucta Herrich-Schaffer Conjoined Swift

Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. Clayton,

Poaceae, a tall gregarious herb in open spaces and roadsides,

suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, January 2005.

20. Borbo cinnnara Wallace Rice Swift

Setaria barbata (Linn.) Kunth, Poaceae, medium sized

herbs observed at Thiruvananthapuram, June-July of 2002 to

2004.

Axonopus compressus (Swartz) Beauv., Poaceae, a small

to medium sized herb Thiruvananthapuram, July 2004.

Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. Clayton,

Poaceae, a tall gregarious herb in open spaces and roadsides,

suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram, July and December 2004.

Brachiaria mutica Stapf, Poaceae, a gregarious tall

grass at edges of water and in marshes, at Aakulam,

Thiruvananthapuram city suburbs, January 2003 to January

2005.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Krushnamegh Kunte who patiently

went through the manuscript and helped us with the scientific

names of butterflies, their authors, also checked out the

hostplant list with the latest available data in this field. We

would like to thank Prof. Ravi M., Retd. Professor of Botany,

S.N. College, Kollam and Prof. Joemy Augustine, Dept, of

Botany, St. Thomas College, Palai, for their help in identifying

the plants. Special thanks to Prof. E. Kunhikrishnan, Dept, of

Zoology, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, for his

comments on an earlier draft and his helping hand all through

the work. We are grateful to Suraj P. Haridas, Jyothy Vijayan,

Greeshma S., Kannan V. and our parents for their

encouragements and help during larval rearing.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

237

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Bell, T.R. (1910-1927): The common butterflies of the plains of

India (including those met within the hill stations of the Bombay

presidency). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 19(1): 31(4).

Gamble, J.S. (1967): The Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Botanical

Survey of India. Vol. I pp. 110 .

Gay, T., I. Kehimkar & J.C. Punetha ( 1992): Common Butterflies of

India. World Wide Fund for Nature - India. Oxford University

Press. 67 pp.

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press

(Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore).

254 pp.

Kunte, K. (2006). Additions to known larval host plants of Indian

butterflies. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 119-122.

Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000): CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names.

Vol I A-C.CRC Press.

Ramarao, M. (1914): Flowering plants of Travancore. International

Book Distributors. 495 pp.

Ravi, N. & N. Mohanan (2002): Common Tropical & Subtropical

Sedges and Grasses - An Illustrated Account. U.S.A : Science

Publishers, Inc. 220 pp.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni &

L.M. Hernandez (2001): Hostplants of the Moth and Butterfly

Caterpillars of the Oriental Region. The Natural History Museum,

London. 744 pp.

Seethalakshmi, K.K. & M.S. Muktesh Kumar (1998): Bamboos of

India a Compendium. Kerala Forest Research Institute and Network

for Bamboo and Rattans. 342 pp.

Sivarajan, V.V. & P. Mathew (1997): Flora of Nilambur (Western

Ghats, Kerala). Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. 900 pp.

Subramanian, K.N. (1995): Flora of Thenmala (& its Environs).

International Book Distributors. 516 pp.

Veenakumari, K., P. Mohanraj & P.V. Sreekumar (1998): Host plant

utilization by butterfly larvae in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

(Indian Ocean). J. Insect Conserv.l: 235-246.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. ( 1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. 523 pp.

27. NEW RECORDS OF TWO SPECIES OF SIMPLE ASCIDIANS -

MICROCOSMUS PUPA (SAVIGNY, 1816) AND MICROCOSMUS SQUAMIGER HARTMEYER &

MICHAELSEN, 1928 - FROM INDIAN SEAS1

V.K. Meenakshi2-3 and S. Senthamarai2

'Accepted February 13, 2006

'Department of Zoology, A. PC. Mahalaxmi College for Women, Tuticorin 628 002, Tamil Nadu, India.

'Email: [email protected]

The occurrence of two simple ascidians of the genus

Microcosmus - Microcosmus pupa (Savigny, 1816) and

Microcosimts squamiger Hartmeyer & Michaelsen 1928 is

reported for the first time from Tuticorin coast of India.

A review of literature on ascidian systematics reveals that three

species of the genus Microcosmus , namely M. curvus Tokioka,

1954; M. exasperatus Heller, 1878 and M. helleri Herdman,

1882 have been reported from the east coast of India (Oka

1915; Das 1945; Renganathan 1983, 1986; Krishnan etal. 1989).

An analysis of the ascidian biofoulants at the pearl oyster

farm of CMFRI (T) (8° 48' N; 78° 1 l’E) adds two more species.

The specimens studied have been deposited in the ascidian

collections of the museum of the Department of Zoology,

V.O. Chidambaram College, Tuticorin, Regn. No. Microcosmus

pupa ( VOCM AS72); Microcosmus squamiger (VOCM AS 1 6,

AS 1 63, AS 1 85, AS 1 90, AS 194, AS207, AS223, AS 1467).

Taxonomy: Class: Ascidiacea; Order: Pleurogona;

Suborder: Stolidobranchia; Family: Pyuridae; Genus:

Microcosmus

Microcosmus pupa (Savigny, 1816)

Distribution: New record: Tuticorin. This species has

been previously reported from Red Sea (Savigny 1816;

Michaelsen 1919), Australia (Kott 1985).

Description

External appearance: Individuals upright, 6 cm long

and 3 cm wide. Branchial siphon short, terminal. Atrial siphon

lines halfway down the dorsal side directed laterally. They

are fixed by their rounded posterior end. Test hard, thin, but

tough, with wrinkles, especially in the anterior region. Live

specimens dark pinkish orange to reddish brown. On

preservation the colour fades to light orange. Siphonal spines

0.05 mm long and pointed. Base of the spine half the length

of the spine. Tip of spine narrow, sharp and only slightly

curved.

Internal structure: (Fig. 1 ) Body wall adheres closely

to the test. There are 15 medium sized branchial tentacles

alternating with rudimentary ones. The tentacles are not

bushy. The primary branches are small and the secondary

branches minute. The dorsal tubercle is a cushion with a

U-shaped opening with both horns coiled IV2 times.

Peritubercular area is U-shaped, filled by the dorsal tubercle.

Dorsal lamina is long and smooth. There are nine broad

overlapping branchial folds on the right, and eight on the left.

Four stigmata in a mesh. The internal longitudinal vessels are

arranged according to the formula.

E 1 ( 1 2) 2(18) 3(17) 4(24) 4(26) 4(30) 4(28) 3(26)

3(24)DL2(24) 4(28) 4(30) 4(26) 3(24) 3(20) 2(18) 2(12)0E

238

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Microcosmus pupa, gut and gonad

Internal longitudinal vessels are crowded (12-30) on

the fold and only (1-4) in the interspace. The gut loop is

narrow, deeply curved to form a J-shape. The rectum is curved

anteriorly. Liver is compact with parallel folds arranged in

groups on the gut wall. Anal border with faint bilobed margin.

Gonad is massive, subdivided into 3 lobes. The proximal end

of the left gonad is enclosed in the gut loop, the remaining

part crosses over the descending limb of the gut loop. Testis

follicles present in the centre of mesial surface of the ovary

and spread over the gut loop.

Remarks: The presence of the siphonal spines with

their almost completely closed bases, narrow flanges, the

very numerous male follicles that form an extensive sheet

over the body wall and gut loop are distinctive characters

described by Michaelsen (1919) for specimens from the Red

Sea. All these characters were observed in the present

specimen also. However, the present specimen differs from

the description of Microcosmus pupa Kott ( 1985) in having

shorter siphonal spines, opening of the neural gland coiled

more than once. Nine branchial folds on the right and eight

on the left, and greater number of internal longitudinal vessels

on the folds.

Microcosmus squamiger Hartmeyer &

Michaelsen, 1928

Distribution: New record -Tuticorin. This species has

been previously reported from Australia (Michaelsen 1908;

Hartmeyer and Michaelsen 1928; Kott 1972, 1976, 1985), Red

Sea (Michaelsen 1918).

Description

External appearance: Individuals vary in their size and

shape. Generally rounded or egg-shaped, 3 cm long and 3 cm

Fig. 2: Microcosmus squamiger, gut and gonad

wide. They occur in large aggregations and are upright,

attached to the substratum by their posterior end. The surface

of the test has faint wrinkles and creases, and is reddish brown.

The colour fades slightly in preservation. The test is leathery

and tough, but not brittle. The inner surface of the test is light

purple, and fades on preservation. The apertures are at the

anterior end situated at opposite ends directed away from

one another. In well narcotized specimens the siphons are

conspicuous. The terminal part of the siphon lining has

small overlapping curved scales with rounded borders 0.01

to 0.02 mm long.

Internal structure: (Fig. 2) In living individuals the

body wall is reddish purple, but on preservation the colour

is lost. There are both circular and longitudinal muscles. The

siphon lining has red stripes in live specimens. The base of

the branchial siphon has 4 pockets, which form a cuspid

valve. Branchial tentacles are strong. Dorsal tubercle is a

large cushion, which completely fills the peritubercular area

with a double spiral cone as aperture. Dorsal ganglion is

long and lies behind the dorsal tubercle. Dorsal lamina is

long. Branchial sac has 8-9 broad overlapping branchial folds,

with 17-25 internal longitudinal branchial vessels crowded

on the folds and only 2-3 in the interspace. There are 7-10

stigmata in a mesh. The gut forms a narrow curved loop with

an open pole, enclosing the proximal part of the gonad. Liver

is compact with parallel lamella, orange in living specimens,

but dull green on preservation. Gonads are divided into

3 blocks joined by a median common duct. The left gonad

crosses over the descending limb of the gut loop, from

the pole of the gut loop, to extend towards the atrial

aperture.

Remarks: This species may appear to resemble

Microcosmus exasperatus in the external features, such as

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

239

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

its tough, leathery, purple-red pigmented test, but differs in

the nature of the siphonal armature and the more numerous

stigmata in each mesh. It has all characters described by

Hartmeyer and Michaelsen (1928), and Kott (1985).

Key to the species of Microcosmus recorded from India

1 . Siphonal armature absent M. helleri

— Siphonal armature present 2

2. Siphonal armature rounded scales M. squamiger

— Siphonal armature spines 3

3. Branchial folds 5 on each side, with only 10 internal longitudinal

vessels on folds M. curvus

— Branchial folds more than 5, with more than 20 internal

longitudinal vessels on folds 4

4. Siphonal armature Battened spines M. exasperatus

— Siphonal armature needle-like spines M. pupa

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the scientists of Central Marine

Fisheries Research Institute, Tuticorin for providing the

material, and to Dr. T.K. Renganathan, V.O. Chidambaram

College, Tuticorin for suggestions. One of the authors ( VKM)

is grateful to the UGC for financial assistance.

REFERENCES

Das, S.M. (1945): On a collection of monascidians from Madras.

J. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Science 11(1)'. 6-17.

Hartmeyer, R. & W. Michaelsen (1928): Ascidiae Diktyobranchiae

Und Ptychobranchiae. Fauna Sudwest - Aust. 5: 251-460.

Heller, C. ( 1878): Beitrage zur nahern Kenntnis dr Tunicaten. Sber.

Akad. fa. Wien. 77(1): 2-92.

Herdman, W.A. (1882): Report on the tunicate collected during the

voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger” during the years 1873-76. Pt. I,

Ascidiae simplices. Zool. Chall. Exp. 6(17): 1-296.

Kott. P. (1972): The ascidians of South Australia. I. Spencer Gulf,

St. Vincent Gulf and Encounter Bay. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 96(1):

1-52.

Kott, P. (1976): Ascidian fauna of Western Port Bay, Victoria and a

comparison with that of Port Phillip Bay. Mem. natn. Must.

Viet. 37: 1-52.

Kott, P. (1985): The Australian Ascidiacea. Part I, Phlebobranchia

and Stolidobranchia. Mem. Qd. Mus. 23: 1-440.

Krishnan, R., M.R. Chandran & T.K. Renganathan (1989): On the

occurrence of four species of ascidians new to Indian waters.

Geobios new Reports 8: 70-74.

Michaelsen, W. (1908): Die Pyuriden (Halocynthiiden) des

Naturhistorishchen Museum zu Hamburg. Mitt. Zool. Mus.

Hamburg 25(2): 227-287.

Michaelsen, W. (1918): Die ptychobranchen und Dictyobranchen

Ascidien des westlichen Indischen Ozeans. Jb. hamb. wiss. Anst.

35(2): 1-71.

Michaelsen, W. (1919): Expedition S.M. Schiff. "Pola’ in das Roten

Meer nordliche und sudliche halfte 1895/96/ - /1 897/98

zoologissche Ergebnisse. xxii Ascidia Ptychobranchia Und

Dictyobranchia des Roten Meeres. Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien.

95: 1-120.

Ora, A. (1915): Report upon the Tunicata in the collection of the

Indian Museum. Mem. Indian. Mus. 6: 1-33.

Renganathan, T.K. (1983): First record of a simple ascidian

Microcosmus curvus Tokioka, 1954 from Indian waters. Cun:

Sci. 52(19): 929-930.

Renganathan, T.K. ( 1986): Studies on the ascidians of South India.

Ph D. thesis. Madurai Kamaraj LIniversity, Madurai.

Savigny, J.C. (1816): Memoires sur les animaux sans vertebres

Pt. 2, pp. 1-239. (Paris).

Tokioka, T. (1954): Contributions to Japanese ascidian fauna.

VII. Invertebrate fauna of the intertidal zone of the Tokara

Islands. VII. Ascidians. Publ. Seto mar. biol. Lab. 3(3):

239-264.

28. NEW RECORD OF WOLF SPIDERS (ARANEAE: LYCOSIDAE)

OF THE GENUS HIPPASA SIMON FROM BANGLADESH1

V. Biswas24 and D. Raychaudhuri3'5

'Accepted December 7, 2004

"Department of Zoology, Government PC. College, Bagerhat 9301, Bangladesh.

"Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India.

4Email: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]. in, [email protected]

Introduction

Wolf spiders (Family Lycosidae) are one of the common

ground dwelling predators of crop-fields and other habitats.

In Bangladesh, works on these spiders are scarce except a

few ones are (Chowdhury and Nagari 1981 ; Chowdhury and

Pal 1984; Biswas etal. 1993;Okuma etal. 1993; Begum and

Biswas 1997) found. But in the neighbouring countries like-

India(Pocock 1900; Gravely 1924;Tikader 1970, 1977a, 1977b;

Tikader and Biswas 1981; Tikader and Malhotra 1976, 1980;

Tikader and Mukerjee 1971), Burma (now Myanmar) (Thorell

1895), Pakistan (Dyal 1935), China (Chen and Zhang 1991;

Zhao 1993; Song etal. 1999), Japan (Tanaka 1985; Yaginuma

1986) where several contributions are made on this

group.

240

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 1-7: Hippasa greenaliae (Blackwall)

1 . H. greenaliae (dorsal view), 2. Chelicerae, 3. Maxillae and Labium, 4. Sternum, 5. Epigynum, 6. Internal genitalia, 7. Male palp

The present paper deals with four newly recorded

species of the genus Hippasa Simon from Bangladesh. All

these species are variable in some external morphological

characters and measurements with the earlier described

species. Therefore, only a brief description of some variable

characters and measurements of body segments are presented

with necessary drawings for each of the species. The

specimens are identified from the Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata and the measurements are taken in millimetres.

The materials are at present in the collection of the

Department of Zoology, Government P.C. College, Bagerhat

and will be deposited to the Museum of the Department of

Zoology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh, in due course of

time.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

241

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13

Figs 8-14: Hippasa holmarae Thorell

8. H. holmarae (dorsal view), 9. Chelicerae, 10. Maxillae and Labium, 11. Sternum, 12. Epigynum, 13. Internal genitalia, 14. Male palp

Systematics

Genus: Hippasa Simon 1885

1885 .Hippasa Simon, Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., 10: 31.

Diagnosis: Cephalothorax longer than wide, medially

usually wide, centrally with a deep brown fovea. Eyes in

3 rows - anterior, middle and posterior; anterior row

nearly straight or slightly recurved; eyes of 2nd and

3rd row basally with black patches; anterior row of eyes longer

than the 2nd; space enclosed between the posterior eyes

wider behind. Sternum with a black mid-longitudinal

band.

Abdomen long, nearly cylindrical; posterior spinnerets

considerably longer than the anterior spinnerets.

Type-species: Hippasa agelenoides (Simon)

Distribution: Africa; Asia; Europe

242

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

r

0'5 m m

20

Figs 1 5-20: Hippasa partita (Cambridge)

1 5. H. partita (dorsal view), 1 6. Chelicerae, 1 7. Maxillae and Labium, 1 8. Sternum, 1 9. Epigynum, 20. Internal genitalia

Key to the species

1 . Cephalothorax elongate, anteriorly narrowed (Fig. 21); 3rd row

of eyes much larger and widely placed; abdominal dorsum with

3 pairs of small spots, otherwise not decorated; labium basally

broad (Fig. 23) pisaurina

— Cephalothorax never elongate; 3rd row of eyes similar to the 2nd

row; abdominal dorsum never with such spots but always

decorated; labium basally narrow 2

2. Sternum typically heart-shaped, devoid of any longitudinal

band (Fig. 4); abdominal dorsum with 2 longitudinal posteriorly

narrowing furrows interconnected by 3 transverse ones (Fig. 1 );

cheliceral outer margin with 2 teeth (Fig. 2) greenaliae

— Sternum never as above, but always with a longitudinal band;

abdominal dorsum never with any furrow; outer margin of

chelicerae with 3 teeth 3

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

243

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 21-27: Hippasa pisaurina Pocock

21 . H. pisaurina (dorsal view), 22. Chelicerae, 23. Maxillae and Labium, 24. Sternum, 25. Epigynum, 26. Internal genitalia, 27. Male palp

3. Epigyne tongue-like (Fig. 19); cephalic region constricted

(Fig. 15); anterior row of eyes straight; maxillae basally flat

and distally broad (Fig. 17); sternum broad anteriorly (Fig. 18)

partita

— Epigyne never as above (Fig. 12); cephalic region never constricted

(Fig. 8); anterior row of eyes recurved; maxillae basally pointed,

medially broad and anteriorly narrowing (Fig. 10); sternum broad

below the middle (Fig. 11) holmarae

Hippasa greenaliae (Blackwall)

(Figs 1-7)

1 867. Lycosa greenaliae Blackwall, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

3(19): 387.

Description: Colour: Cephalothorax dark brown; legs

yellow brown and abdomen brown with white patches.

244

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Measurements (Female): Total body length 7.00 mm. Carapace

length 3.50 mm; carapace width 2.50 mm; abdominal length

3.50 mm; abdominal width 2. 10 mm. (Male): Total body length

6.00 mm. Carapace length 2.40 mm; carapace width 2.00 mm;

abdominal length 3.60 mm; abdominal width 1 .80 mm.

Material examined: 1 9, Bagerhat, 1 2.vii. 1 99 1 , Coll.

V. Biswas; 2 9, 1 d , Faridpur, 1 8.v. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas; 1 9,

BARI, Jessore, 14.ix. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas; 1 9 , Pabna, 9.iv. 1992,

Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9.1c?, Pirojpur, 12.vii. 1992,

Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9 , Digha, Rajshahi, 3.iii. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Bagerhat, Faridpur, Jessore,

Jhenidah, Pabna, Pirojpur, and Rajshahi; India; Sri Lanka

(Tikader and Malhotra 1980).

Hippasa Iwlmarae Thoreli

(Figs 8-14)

1 895. Hippasa holmarae Thoreli, Spiders of Burma: 218.

Description: Colour: Cephalothorax golden yellow;

legs yellow and abdomen gray. Measurements (Female): Total

body length 7.00 mm. Carapace length 3.60 mm; carapace

width 2.50 mm; abdominal length 3.40 mm; abdominal width

2.00 mm. (Male): Total body length 6.00 mm. Carapace length

2.50 mm; carapace width 2.00 mm; abdominal length 3.50 mm;

abdominal width 1 .80 mm.

Material examined: 3 9,Barisal, 1 8.ii. 1991, Coll. V. Biswas;

2 9 , Chandpur, Comilla, 12.V.1991, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9,Potia,

Chittagong, 12.iii. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas; 3 9, S. Park, Dhaka,

4. v. 1991, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9,1?, Modhukhali, Faridpur,

12.v. 1990, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9 , Nawapara, Jessore, 1 2.viii. 1989,

Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9, 1 d\Chalna, Khulna, 18.ix. 1990, Coll.

V. Biswas; 2 9, 1 d1, Digha, Rajshahi, 4.iii. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas;

2 9 , BTRI, Srimongal, Sylhet, 1 8.x. 1 992, Coll. V. Biswas.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Barisal, Chittagong,

Comilla, Dhaka, Faridpur, Jessore, Khulna, Pabna, Rajshahi,

Sylhet; Burma; China; India; Singapore (Tikader and

Malhotra 1980).

Hippasa partita (Cambridge)

(Figs 15-20)

1876. Trochosa partita Cambridge, Proc. Zool. Soc.:

541.

Description: Colour: Cephalothorax yellow-brown, legs

yellow and abdomen blackish with few transverse whitish

hairy bands. Measurements (Female): Total body length

8.00 mm. Carapace length 3.50 mm; carapace width 2.60 mm;

abdominal length 4.50 mm; abdominal width 2.00 mm.

Material examined: 2 9 , BRRI, Joydevpur, Gazipur,

1 5.ix. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9 , Shikarpur, Jhenidah, 19.xi. 199 1 ,

Coll. V. Biswas; 1 9, Arpara, Magura, 1 8.viii. 1 992, Coll.

V. Biswas; 2 9, Teroshri, Manikganj, 11. ix. 1992,

Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9, RU Campus, Rajshahi, 3. i i i . 1 992,

Coll. V. Biswas; 3 9, Digha, Rajshahi, 4 . i i i . 1 992,

Coll. V. Biswas.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Gazipur, Jhenidah,

Magura, Manikganj, Rajshahi; Alexandria; Arabia; Central

Asia; Egypt; India; Pakistan (Tikader and Malhotra

1980).

Hippasa pisaurina Pocock

(Figs 21-27)

1900. Hippasa pisaurina Pocock, Fauna Brit. India,

Arach.: 250.

Description: Colour: Cephalothorax yellow; legs

yellow-brown and abdomen blackish. Measurements (Female):

Total body length 10.30 mm. Carapace length 4.00 mm;

carapace width 3.00 mm; abdominal length 6.30 mm; abdominal

width 3.20 mm. (Male): Total body length 7.00 mm. Carapace

length 2.50 mm; carapace width 1 .90 mm; abdominal length

4.50 mm; abdominal width 2.00 mm.

Material examined: 2 9, Barisal, 1 1 .iii . 1 992, Coll.

V. Biswas; 2 9, S. Park, Dhaka, 1 8.x. 1991, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9,

Shikarpur, Jhenidah, 8.ix.l989, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9,1 d\

Daulatpur, Khulna, 1 2. v. 1991, Coll. V. Biswas; 1 9, Teroshri,

Manikganj, 28. v. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9, BAU,

Mymenshingh, 18. v. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas; 2 9, Pabna,

19.V.1991, Coll. V. Biswas; 3 9, Rajshahi, 4.iii.l992, Coll.

V. Biswas; 1 9,Nagarpur,Tangail, 5. viii. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas;

1 d , Kurigram, Rangpur, 1 1 .iii. 1 992, Coll. V. Biswas.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Barisal, Dhaka, Faridpur,

Jessore, Jhenidah, Khulna, Manikganj, Mymenshingh, Pabna,

Rajshahi, Rangpur, Tangail; India; Pakistan (Tikader and

Malhotra 1980).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. S.C. Majumder, Scientist-

SD, Sunderban Field Research Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Canning, West Bengal for confirming the identity of

the species, and to the Head, Department of Zoology,

University of Kolkata, for providing laboratory facilities duiing

the study.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

245

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Begum, A. & V. Biswas ( 1997): A list of the spider fauna of Barisal

division, Bangladesh (Araneae: Arachnida). Bangladesh J. Zool.

25(2): 207-210.

Biswas, V., H.R. Khan, N.Q. Kamal & A. Begum ( 1993): A preliminary

study of the rice-field spiders in Jhenidah, Bangladesh. Bangladesh

J. Zool. 21: 85-92.

Chen, Z.F. & Z.H. Zhang ( 1991 ): Fauna of Zhejiang, Araneida. Zhejiang

Sci. & Tech. Pub. House. 356 pp.

Chowdhury, S.H. & S. Nagari (1981): Rice-field spiders from

Chittagong. Proc. Zool. Sci. Bangladesh: 53-72.

Chowdhury, S.H. & S.K. Pal (1984): Further report on rice-field

spiders from Bangladesh. Chittagong Univ. Studies II. 8: 25-39.

Dyal, S. (1935): Fauna of Lahore-4: Spiders of Lahore. Bull. Dept.

Zool. Panjab Univ. I: 119-252.

Gravely, F.H. (1924): Some Indian spiders of the family Lycosidae.

Rec. Indian Mas. Calcutta 26: 587-613.

Okuma, C., N.Q. Kamal, Y. Hirashima, Z. Alam & T. Ogata (1993):

Illustrated Monograph on the rice-field spiders of Bangladesh.

IPSA-JAICA, Salna, Gazipui : 1-93.

Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India, Arachnida. Taylor

and Francis, London. 1-279 pp.

Song, D.X., M.S. Zhu & J. Chen (1999): The spiders of China. Hebei

Sci. and Tech. Pub. House. 640 pp.

Tanaka, H. (1985): Description of the new species of the Lycosidae

(Araneae) from Japan. Acta arachnol. 33(2): 51-87.

Thorell, T. (1895): Descriptive catalogue of the spiders of Burma.

British Museum of Natural History, London: 1-406.

Tikader, B.K. ( 1970): Spider fauna of Sikkim. Rec. zool. Surv. India

64(1-4): 1-84.

Tikader, B.K. (1977a): Studies on spider fauna of Andaman and

Nicobar Island, Indian Ocean. Rec. zool. Surv. India 72(1-4):

153-212.

Tikader, B.K. (1977b): Description of two new species of jumping

spiders of the genus Phidippus (Family: Salticidae) from India.

Entomon. 2(1): 97-99.

Tikader, B.K. & B. Biswas (1981): Spider fauna of Calcutta and

Vicinity. Rec. zool. Sun’. India, Occ. Pap. No. 30: 1-149.

Tikader. B.K. & M.S. Malhotra (1976): Studies on some spiders of

the genus Pardosa Koch from India (Family: Lycosidae). Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci. 83(3): 123-131.

Tikader, B.K. & M.S. Malhotra (1980): Fauna of India. Spiders:

Araneae (Lycosidae) 1(2): 248-446.

Tikader, B.K. & S. Mukerjee (1971): A new species of spider of the

genus Lycosa (Family: Lycosidae) from India. Sci. & Cult. 37(11): 5.

Yaginuma, T. (1986): Spiders of Japan in colour, (new ed.). Hoikusha

Pub. Co. Ltd., Osaka. 305 pp.

Zhao, J.Z. ( 1993): Spiders in the cotton fields in China. Wuhan Press,

China. 552 pp.

29. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASS GENERA OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN1

H.K. Takhar2 and S.S. Katewa3

'Accepted January 03, 2006

2Gram Post Badusar, via Roru-Bari, Dist. Sikar. Rajasthan 332 317, India. Email: [email protected]

■’Laboratory of Ethnobotany and Agrostology, Department of Botany, College of Science, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

Intensive and extensive survey over the last seven years

on the grass flora. Family Poaceae, of north-western Rajasthan

(comprising ten districts of north-west Rajasthan, namely

Banner, Chum, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur,

Nagaur, Sikar and Jhunjhunu) have yielded four unrecorded

the grass genera from this region. Full description with

distribution is provided for each genus in this paper. Voucher

specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of

Laboratory of Ethnobotany and Agrostology, Department of

Botany. College of Science, Udaipur. Rajasthan.

1 . Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin. ) Hochst. in Flora 39: 1 88,

1856; Fischer in FI. Mad. 3: 1729, 1934; Blatter and McCann

Bomb. Grass. 77, 1935. Borin FI. Assam 5:378, 1940. Rhind,

Grass, Burma 69, 1945; Raizada in Ind. For. Rec. 4:101, 1954;

Andropogon lancifolius Trin. in. Mem. Acad. Petersb. 6 ser

2:271, 1 832; Arthraxon microphyllus Hochst. in Flora 39:188,

1856; Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 147, 1996; Haines, Bot. Bih. and

Ori.2:1026, 1924.

An annual. Culms 10-40 cm tall. Leaves lanceolate.

Inflorescence: common axis very slender. Sessile spikelets:

2.5-3. 5 mm long, straight, linear-lanceolate, almost compressed

laterally. Lower glume 3 mm long.

Ecology: A grass of damp habitats, growing in colonies,

between rocks on walls of houses.

FI. & Fr.: August-October

Locality: Jhunjhunu

1C number: 255256 (given by NBPGR, New Delhi)

Specimen examined: Takhar, 221

2 . Arundo donax Linn. sp. PI. loc. cit. FBI 7:302, 1896;

Cook in FPB 3: 574, 1958; Borin GBCIP413,f. 44, 1960.

A perennial grass. Culms creeping below, finally

erect, 1 -6 m tall, hollow many-noded, green, simple or sparingly

branched, terete, smooth and glabrous. Inflorescence a large,

terminal, decompound, pulmose panicle. Grains 2.5 mm long.

FI. & Fr.: August-October

Ecology: This stout reed grows in dry habitats when

established, but it prefers plenty of moisture. As a fodder

grass it is not of much account, but cattle will browse upon

the young leaves.

Locality: Ranoli, Sikar and Jodhpur

IC number: 255341 (given by NBPGR, New Delhi)

246

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Specimen examined: Takhar, 314

3. Avena saliva Linn. sp. PI. ed. 1 :79, 1 753; Cook in FPB

3:574; 1958; BorinGBCIP;434; 1960.

An annual. Culms simple. Spikelets 22-30 mm long or

longer usually with a 1-awned floret at the base and one or

two awnless floret above or with all the florets awnless. Grain

tightly enclosed by the lemma and palea free silky all over.

FI. & Fr.: December- February

Ecology: Commonly found in cultivated field of wheat.

Locality: Throughout the study area.

Specimen examined: Takhar, 312

4. Bothriochloa intermedia (R. Br.) A Camus in Ann.

Soc. Linn. Lyon, 1930, n.s. 76,164, 1931;BorinGBCIP 108, 1960.

Perennials, culms tufted. Inflorescence 10-20 cm long.

Glumes equal, the lower hairs pitted or not.

FI. & Fr.: August-October

Ecology: Found growing occasionally in the grasslands

on hillocks

Locality: Harshnath, Sikar

Specimen examined: Takhar, 223.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research (ICAR), New Delhi for financial assistance. Forest

Research Institute, Dehradun and Botanical Survey of India,

Jodhpur for herbarium identification.

30. PONERORCHIS NANA (KING & PANTL.) SOO (ORCHIDACEAE):

A NEW RECORD FOR UTTARAKHAND1

Jeewan S. Jalal2,4, Gopal S. Rawat2'5 and Y.P.S. Pangtey3

'Accepted October 10, 2005

:Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand. India.

’Department of Botany, Kumaun University, Nainital 263 002. Uttarakhand, India.

’Entail: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Deva and Naithani (1986) provided the taxonomic

account of all known species of orchids from north-west

Himalaya and described nearly 239 species, based on the

study of herbarium specimens and published records. They

reported Ponerorchis nana ( King & Pantl. ) Soo from Himachal

Pradesh based on the collections made by B.S. Aswal from

Rohtang in Lahul, growing between 3,000-4,000 m altitude.

This species was earlier described in India from Sikkim

Himalaya by King and Pantling ( 1 898) as Orchis chusua var.

nana King & Pantl. There has been no collection of this species

from any part of Uttarakhand till date. During a recent orchid

exploration in Uttarakhand, P. nana was collected from an

alpine zone of Uttarkashi district, Garhwal Himalaya for the

first time. The collection of this species from Garhwal forms

an interesting addition to the orchid flora of Uttarakhand.

In this note, a brief description along with a note on the

flowering period, ecology and distribution of the species is

given. Field number along with the collector’s name is given

in parenthesis. The voucher specimens are deposited in the

herbarium. Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun.

Ponerorchis nana (King & Pantl.) Soo, Acta Bot. Acad.

Sci. Hung. 12: 353 (1906); Deva & Naithani, Orchid FI. North

West Him. 199. t. 1 06 ( 1986). Orchis chusua var. nana King &

Pantl., Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. 8: 303. t. 402A(1898). O. nana

( King & Pantl.) Schltr. in Feddes Repert. 9: 434 (1911). Chusua

roborowskyi var. nana (King & Pantl.) P.F. Hunt, Kew Bull.

26: 1 876 ( 1 97 1 ). C. nana ( King & Pantl. ) Pradhan, Indian Orchid

2:678(1978).

Terrestrial, up to 10 cm long with oblong, bilobed tuber;

stem with one or two blunt tubular sheaths at the base; leaf

one, linear-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, grooved;

inflorescence single-flowered; flowers white or purple; bracts

lanceolate, acuminate, equalling the ovary; sepals spreading;

petals ovoid; lip shallowly 3-lobed with broad truncate apex

and crenate margin; spur cylindrical as long as the ovary,

somewhat compressed.

FI.: July-August.

Ecology: Rare ground orchid that prefers to grow in

grassy slopes and meadows at c. 3,600 m.

Specimens examined: india: Gar hwal: Uttarkashi in Chuli

Bugyal (GS. Rawat 14781 WII).

Distribution: india (Uttarakhand-Garhwal; Himachal

Pradesh, Sikkim); Nepal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Director of Wildlife Institute of India (WII),

Dehradun for facilities and encouragement.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

247

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Deva, Som & H.B. Naithani (1986): The Orchid Flora of North-West King, G & R. Pantling (1898): The Orchids of the Sikkim-Himalaya,

Himalaya, New Delhi. 459 pp. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. (Calcutta) 8(1-4): 1-342, 1. 1-448.

31. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LISTERA TENUIS LINDL. (ORCHIDACEAE)

IN KUMAON HIMALAYA1

Jeewan S. Jalal2-4, Gopal S. Rawat2'5 and Y.RS. Pangtey3

'Accepted October 10, 2005

-Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Dehrudun 248 001 Uttarakhand. India.

’Department of Botany. Kumaun University, Nainital 263 002, Uttarakhand. India.

Email: [email protected]

Deva and Naithani (1986), while describing the orchid

flora of the north-west Himalaya, reported Listera tenuis Lindl.

from Uttarakhand. While this species has been collected from

subalpine and alpine areas of Chamoli district in Garhwal

Himalaya, their report of this species from Kumaon Himalaya

is based on a specimen reported to have been collected from

Thai in district Pithoragarh, at an altitude of about 1,000 m.

Other than this there are no other collections of this species

from Kumaon Himalaya in the Indian Herbaria. As all the

species of this genus grow at higher elevations, i.e., between

2, 100 and 4,000 m, in north-west Himalaya, Deva and Naithani

(1986) doubted the occurrence of this species at lower

altitudes, and suggested further collections of this species

to confirm its occurrence in Kumaon Himalaya. The same

comment was repeated by Pangtey et al. (1991) due to

non-availability of any collection of this species from Kumaon

Himalaya.

During the course of an orchid exploration in

Uttarakhand, a few specimens of this orchid were collected

from upper Gori valley in Kumaon Himalaya. In this note we

confirm the occurrence of this species at higher altitudes of

Kumaon Himalaya along with a brief note on its habitat.

It can be stated that the earlier collection of this species

from Thai may be erroneous. Voucher specimens are

deposited in the herbarium. Wildlife Institute of India (WII),

Dehradun.

Ecology: A rare ground orchid usually in the subalpine

and alpine areas among shrubs. Only 4-5 individuals were

seen under Rhododendron campanulatum near Tola village

(3,500 m) in the upper Gori valley.

Specimen examined: Kumaon: Pithoragarh district in

upper Gori valley J.S. Jalal 13945, WII.

Distribution: india (Garhwal, Kumaon, Sikkim,

Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal, Tibet.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Director of Wildlife Institute of India (WII),

Dehradun for facilities provided.

REFERENCES

Deva, Som & H.B. Naithani (1986): The Orchid Flora of North-West Pangtey, Y.RS., S.S. Samant& G.S. Rawat (1991 ): Orchids of Kumaun

Himalaya, New Delhi. 459 pp. Himalaya. Dehradun. 193 pp.

32. SYNOTIS ALATUS (WALL. EX DC.) JEFFERY (ASTERACEAE) -

A NEW RECORD FOR ARUNACHAL PRADESH1

S.P. Jain2

'Accepted September 17, 2004

"Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, P.O.

Email: [email protected]

The genus Synotis has about five species, which are

found mostly in the eastern and western Himalaya (Hooker

1981). This information is based on a survey and collection

of plant material by the author and through consultation

1AP, Lucknow 226 015, Uttar Pradesh, India.

with the herbarium. Botanical Survey of India northern circle,

Dehradun. During 2001, while conducting a survey and

collection of medicinal plants growing in the Bomdila and

Twang districts of Arunachal Pradesh, I came across a plant

248

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig 1: Synotis alatus (Wall, ex DC.) Jeffrey

at Twang near the forest road. Upon consulting literature, I

found that the species Synotis cilatus had neither been

reported nor collected from this region to date ( Kanjilal et al.

1934-1940; Hajra etal. 1995). Hence, this is a new record for

the state of Arunachal Pradesh.

The description along with a line diagram (Fig. 1 ) of its,

habit, habitat, flowering and fruiting time, and distribution of

the taxon in India have been elaborated.

Synotis alatus: (Wall, ex DC.) Jeffery & Chen, Y.L. in

Kew Bull. 39 (2): 308. 1984. (Asteraceae); Hajra et al. FI. of

India 13: 287, 1995. Senerio alatus Wall, ex DC.; Hook, f.,

FI. Brit. India 3: 353, 1881.

A perennial grey tomentose rhizomatous herb, up to

80 cm long, stout, rhizome woody. Leaves subrosulate, ovate-

oblong, sessile, acute-acuminate, base sub-auriculate,

12-19x7-9cm, hairy beneath, uppermost leaves smaller in size

at base, sessile. Head yellow, inconspicuously radiate,

c. 5-7 cm long, involucre cylindrical, densely hairy; bracts

5-7, linear-lanceolate, 7x1 mm. Ray florets 2-3, 2-3 mm long,

unequal, shorter than styles; disc florets c. 4 mm long.

Achenes greyish, c. 1 mm long, pubescent; pappus of pale,

scarbids hairs, c. 4.5 mm long.

Specimens examined: Twang forest Arunachal Pradesh.

Field no. CIMAP, 10825.

FI. & Fr.: October-December.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. S.P.S. Khanuja, Director, Central Institute

of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow for providing

all facilities during the survey. I feel obliged to Dr. D.K. Singh

and Mrs. A. Mathur, Botanical Survey of India, Northern

Circle, Dehradun for confirming the identity of the

plant.

REFERENCES

Hajra, P.K., R.R. Rao, D.K. Singh & B.P. Uniyal (1995): Flora of

India Vol. 13: pp. 287. Botanical Survey of India. Publisher,

Barboune Road, Kolkatta.

Kanjilal, U.N., P.C. Kanjilal, A. Das & R.N. De (1934-1940): Flora

of Assam Vol. 3. Pp. 99-127. (Rep. ed. 1982.) A Von Book

Comp, Publisher, Delhi.

Hooker, J.D. (1882): Flora of British India. Vol. 3: pp. 353. Reeve &

Co. Ltd.. London.

33. HERN1ARIA CINEREA DC. (CARYOPHYLLACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA1

Prashant K. Pusalkar2 and D.K. Singh3

'Accepted February 6, 2004

’Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, 192, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun 248 195, Uttarakhand, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Botanical Survey of India, CGO Complex, 3rd MSO Building. Block F, 5,h-6"' Floor, DF block. Sector I, Salt Lake City,

Kolkata 700 064, West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]

Genus Hemiaria L., with 48 species (Mabberley 1997),

is distributed mainly in Europe, Africa and Central Asia. Its

eastward distribution is up to India, whereas westward it

extends up to South America. In India, the genus is represented

by three species, namely H. hirsuta L., H. incana Lam. and

H. cachemiriana Gay, distributed mainly in northern India

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

249

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Herniaria cinerea DC. (A-E): A. Habit; B. Flower;

C. Dissected flower showing stamens and gynoecium; D. Fruit;

E. Seed

(Majumdar 1993). Critical studies on the material of the genus

housed in the herbarium of Botanical Survey of India,

Dehradun (BSI) and perusal of relevant literature (Hooker

1885;Ghafoor 1973; Majumdar 1993) revealed the occurrence

of a fourth representative of the genus, H. cinerea DC., hitherto

unknown in India, thus extending its range of distribution

further eastward. The species is described and illustrated as a

new record for India, to facilitate its easy identification..

Herniaria cinerea DC., FI. Fr. Suppl. 6: 375. 1815

(Caryophyllaceae) (Fig. 1)

Prostrate, hirsute herbs, 8-10 cm long, with spreading

branches. Leaves alternate to more or less opposite, sessile;

lamina narrowly elliptic to elliptic - oblanceolate, 3-6 mm long,

0.8- 1 .5 mm wide, apex acute, margins entire, surfaces hirsute;

stipules minute, membranous, margins ciliate. Flowers 5-12,

in densely clustered pseudoaxillary cymes, bracteate;

bracts minute. Flowers sessile pentamerous, yellowish green.

Sepals 5, free, unequal; outer 2 comparatively longer, oblong,

1 .5-2. 1 mm long, obtuse, with non-membranous margins; inner

three lanceolate, 1 .5- 1 .9 mm long; outer surface in upper part

covered with short or long, stiff, straight hairs mixed with uncinate

hairs, perigynous zone externally densely covered with uncinate

hairs. Petals 5, rudimentary, free, setaceous, alternating with

sepals. Stamens 2, opposite to longer sepals, free; filaments

minute; anthers oblong. Styles minute, bi-lobed; lobes shortly

divergent. Fruits ovate, 1.4-2. 1 mm long, with membranous

pericarp, almost equal to or enclosed by calyx. Seeds

subglobose, 0.6-0.75 mm in diameter, brown to brownish black.

FI. & Fr.: February-March.

Specimen examined: india: Haryana, Fatehabad,

16.ii. 1963. N.C. Nair 26009 (BSI). Rare.

Distribution: india: Haryana; Europe, Africa, Central

Asia, Pakistan.

H. cinerea DC. can be easily distinguished from other

Indian species of the genus in the presence of 5 unequal

sepals (2 outer long, 3 inner short), with non-membranous

margins and perigynous zone externally densely covered with

uncinate hairs; stamens 2, situated opposite outer sepals.

While Hooker (1885) and Ghafoor ( 1973) have treated

the genus under Family Illecebraceae, Majumdar (1993),

following the family delimitation proposed by Cronquist

(1981), has included the Family Illecebraceae under Family

Caryophyllaceae. The same has been followed by Mabberley

(1997).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India,

Kolkata for facilities and encouragement. One of us (PKP) is

also grateful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, New

Delhi for financial assistance under the Project ‘Assessment of

Floristic Diversity in Protected Area Network of India, Phase-I:

The Biosphere Reserves & National Parks’.

REFERENCES

Cronquist, A. (1981): An Integrated System of Classification of

Flowering Plants. Columbia University Press, New York.

Pp. 275.

Ghafoor, A. (1973): Illecebraceae. In: Nasir, E. & S.I. Ali (eds.): Flora

of West Pakistan, 47: 6. National Herbarium, PARC, Islamabad.

Hooker, J.D. (1885): Flora of British India 4: 712. L. Reeve & Co.

London.

Mabberley, D.J. (1997): The Plant Book, II. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge. Pp. 337.

Majumdar, N.C. (1993): Caryophyllaceae. In: Sharma, B.D. &

N.P. Balakrishnan (eds.): Flora of India 2: 537-539. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

250

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

34. A NOTE ON DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD OF SPERGULARIA DIANDRA (GUSS.)

HELDR. & SART FROM PIN VALLEY NATIONAL PARK IN INDIA1

K. Chandra Sekar2-3 and S.K. Srivastava2-4

'Accepted April 07, 2005

2Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, 192 Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun 248 195, Uttarakhand, India.

’Email: kcsekarl 3 1 2 @rediffmail.com

4Email: [email protected]

Pin Valley National Park (PVNP) is situated between

3 1 ° 6 1 ' 40" to 32° 2 1 ' 20" N and 77° 4’ 2 1 " to 78° 6' 19" E. The

Park is located in the cold desert area of Spiti sub-division in

Lahaul-Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh. During a recent

survey, July 15, 2002, and exploration of plant resources of

this Park, few interesting specimens of Spergularia (Pers.)

J. & C. Presl growing along with Caragana versicolor Benth.,

on rocky slopes, at an altitude of c. 4,100 m have been

collected. Detailed study of literature and critical examination

of the specimens reveals that they belong to Spergularia

diandra (Guss.) Heldr. & Sart, hitherto known from

Farrukhabad district in Uttar Pradesh, and other parts of Asia

and Europe. It is now being reported from PVNP, Himachal

Pradesh, for the first time. An expert opinion has also been

sought regarding its identity from Dr. Shahina Ghazanfar, who

has worked on Caryophyllaceae in Pakistan.

The genus Spergularia (Pers.) J. & C. Presl comprises

of 25 species, which are cosmopolitan in distribution

(Mabberley 1998). Majumdar ( 1 993 ) reported only one species

Spergularia rubra (L.) J. & C. Presl growing as a weed in

plains and hilly regions of Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir and

Uttarakhand. Naithani and Dayal (1981) reported Spergularia

diandra (Guss.) Heldr. & Sart from Farrukhabad district of

Uttar Pradesh in the Gangetic plain in 1968. The same species

was not included in ‘Flora of India’ (Caryophyllaceae) by

Majumdar (1993).

Hence, the report of Spergularia diandra (Guss.) Heldr.

& Sart from Pin Valley National Park, Fahaul-Spiti in Himachal

Pradesh shows an extended distribution of the taxon from the

Gangetic plains to alpine Himalaya, and constitutes an addition

to the flora of Himachal Pradesh. Besides, the species has also

been collected after a lapse of more than three decades.

The taxonomic citation, brief description, phenology,

ecology, distribution, specimens examined and illustration

have been provided to facilitate an easy identification of the

species in the field.

Spergularia diandra (Guss.) Heldr. & Sart in Herb.

Grace. Norm. 492: 1 124, 1855; Naithani & Dayal in Indian

J. Forestry 4(3): 242, 1981; Ghazanfar & Nasir inNasir & Ali,

FI. W. Pakistan 175: 5 1 , 1986. A renaria diandra Guss., Prod.

Soc. 1:515, 1827. Fig. I.

Fig. 1 : Spergularia diandra (Guss.) Heldr. & Sart: a. Habit,

b. Node, c. Flower, d. Capsule enclosed in calyx, e. seeds

Perennial herbs, woody at base. Stems decumbent, often

ascending, up to 70 cm high, glabrous. Feaves opposite,

2. 1 -3 x 0.9- 1 .3 cm, fascicled, mostly on one side of node; leaflets

sessile, linear-narrowly lanceolate, 1 . 1 - 1 .3 x 0. 1 -0.2 cm, acute,

glabrous fleshy. Stipules prominent, linear-narrowly

lanceolate, 1 .4-2.6 x 0.2-0.35 cm, base united around the node,

acute, glabrous. Flowers in cymes 15-21 cm long; bracts linear,

0.8- 1.1 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, acute. Sepals 5, free, ovate-lanceolate,

3-4 mm long, glabrous. Petals 5, ovate, equal or slightly shorter

than sepals, entire, white. Stamens 5-8. Styles 3. Capsules

ovoid, as long as sepals, 3-valved. Seeds 2-4, 2.5-3 x 2-2.5 mm,

tuberculate, unwinged, brown.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Distribution: india: Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul-Spiti),

Uttar Pradesh; China; Kazakhstan; Pakistan; USSR; Europe;

Iran and Iraq.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

251

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ecology: Rare. Growing along with Caragana versicolor

Benth. at an altitude of c. 4, 100 m.

Specimens examined: Uttar Pradesh, Farrukhabad,

Mahmoodpur Sinauda (Tilia Garho), March 04, 1968, Ram

Dayal 1968 T (DD); Himachal Pradesh, Lahaul-Spiti, Pin Valley

National Park, Gechang-Thango, c. 4,100 m, July 15, 2002,

K. Chandra Sekar 100450 (BSD, K).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Joint Director, Botanical Survey

REFERENCES

Mabberley, D.J. (1998): The Plant Book (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 674 pp.

Majumdar, N.C. (1993): Caryophyllaceae In\ Sharma, B.D. & N.P Balakrishnan (Eds.): Flora of India, Vol. 2. Botanical Survey of India,

New Delhi. 580 pp.

Naithani, H.B. & R. Dayal (1981): Occurrence of Spergularia diandra in India. Indian J. For. 4(3): 242.

of India (BSI), Dehradun and to the Director, BSI, Kolkata for

facilities and encouragement. Thanks are also due to

Dr. Shahina Ghazanfar and Dr. Lakshminarasimhan, Indian

Botanical Liaison Officer, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

for confirming the identity; to the Director, Pin Valley National

Park for logistic support; Head, Systematic Botany Branch,

Forest Research Institute for providing herbarium

facilities. K. Chandra Sekar is also thankful to the Ministry

of Environment and Forests, New Delhi for financial

assistance.

35. A NOTE ON THE IDENTITY AND RANGE EXTENSION

OF RICCIA GROLLEI UDAR1

Adarsh Kumar2-3 and Shazia Kazmi2-4

'Accepted January 28, 2004

Environment Research Centre, Feroze Gandhi College, Raebareli 229 001, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

During the survey of bryophytes in and around the

National Thermal Power Corporation, Unchahar in the

Raebareli district of Uttar Pradesh, we collected and identified

a species Riccia grollei Udar, which was the only liverwort

growing in the pollution stressed environment of Unchahar.

The species has extended its distribution from southern India,

central India and Rajasthan to the Gangetic Plains of northern

India (Parihar etal. 1994). It was first reported by Pande and

Udar (1958) from southern India, and was named Riccia

tuberculata Pande et Udar, but was later found to

be a homonym of Riccia tuberculata Lamarck et Poiret. Hence,

Udar (1965) adopted a new name, i.e. Riccia grollei Udar.

The diagnostic feature of the species is the presence of

tuberculate thickening on a few cells of photosynthetic

filaments. The tendency to synthesize food is thought to be

great in this species, as the chloroplasts are not confined to

the photosynthetic zone, but can also be seen in the cells of

the storage zone. In the specimens collected from the vicinity

of the NTPC, Unchahar, Raebareli, the spores do not possess

the tri-radiate mark and wing, which were present on the

specimens reported by Udar from southern India. A brief note

on the identity and occurrence of this species is given below:

Riccia grollei Udar Curr. Sci. 34: 126 (1965)

Plants 0.2-0. 5 cm long, 0.2-0.3 cm wide, green, mono or

bifurcate overlapping, apex rounded, fingerprint-like

impression on the dorsal surface of thallus; rhizoids brown,

both type simple and tuberculate in ratio 9-12: 6-10 in each

transverse section of thallus; scales feebly developed, light

brown; photosynthetic filament 220 pm long, 5-8 cells in one

filament, hyaline cell 39-40 pm, filaments very compact with

characteristic tuberculate thickening very prominent on cells

of some filaments; air pore simple 10-12 pm; chloroplasts

numerous in green cells of photosynthetic filaments and in

storage zone; neck of archegonia 130 pm, venter 80 pm; young

spores yellowish brown, mature dark brown, 81-90 pm along

diameter; isopolar, reticulate, 4-6 angled, tri-radiate mark

absent, 07-08 reticulations along diameter, size of one

reticulation 10-14 pm, wings absent.

Specimen examined: ERC 3/2002 Coll & Det.: Adarsh

Kumar and Shazia Kazmi.

Location: Village Kaithaul, ca 5 km south of the National

Thermal Power Corporation, Unchahar, Raebareli district, Uttar

Pradesh; 16.viii.2002.

Distribution: jndia: Runnymede, Madras State,

southern India; central India; Rajasthan.

Remarks: Very rare, found sporadically on cemented

walls.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Prof. S.C. Srivastava, Head, Department of

252

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 104 (2), May-Aug 2007

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-10: Riccia grollei Udar: 1:Thallus, dorsal; 2-5: T.S. of thallusat the apex, behind the apex, in the middle and at the base

respectively; 6-7: Photosynthetic filament showing characteristic tubercular thickenings; 8. Enlarged portion of thickening;

9. Hyaline cells (he) showing airpore (ap); 1 0. Spores, showing reticulations

Botany, University of Lucknow, for confirming the the Head, Department of Botany, and the Principal, Feroze

identification of the plant specimen. We are also grateful to Gandhi College, Raebareli for laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

Pande, S.K. & R. Udar (1958): Riccia tuberculata Pande et Udar.

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. (India) 24B: 79-88.

Parihar, N.S., B. Lal & N. Katiyar (1994): Hepatics and Anthocerotes

of India - A new annotated checklist. Central Book Depot,

Allahabad: 36, 46.

Udar, R. (1965): Riccia grollei Udar nom. nov. A correction for

Riccia tuberculata Pande et Udar q'from India. Curr. Sci.

34: 126.

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CONTENTS

I

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

3 9088 01539 7136

EDITORIAL /.

RECENT CHANGES IN POPULATIONS OF RESIDENT GYPS VULTURES IN INDIA

V. Prakash, R.E. Green, D.J. Pain, S.P. Ranade, S. Saravanan, N. Prakash,

R. Venkitachalam, R. Cuthbert, A.R. Rahmaniand A.A. Cunningham

SURVEY OF THREATENED CHEER PHEASANT CATREUS WALLICHII IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA

M.S. Bisht, S. Phurailatpam, B.S. Kathait, A.K. Dobriyal, Asha Chandola-Saklani and

Rahul Kaul

POPULATION STATUS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI OVIS AMMON WITH REFERENCE TO

SUSTAINABLE USE MANAGEMENT

Michael R. Frisina, Yondon Onon and R. Margaret Frisina

POPULATION ESTIMATION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF THE RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK ELEPHANTS,

NORTH-WEST INDIA

Amirtharaj C. Williams, Asir J.T. Johnsingh and Paul Krausman

SMALL CARNIVORES OF KARNATAKA: DISTRIBUTION AND SIGHT RECORDS

H.N. Kumara and Mewa Singh

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP AND RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF JUVENILE GOLDEN

MAHSEER TOR PUTITORA (HAMILTON 1822), IN THE TRIBUTARIES OF RAMGANGA

RIVER, UTTARAKHAND

Vidhyadhar M. Atkore, K. Sivakumar and A.J.T. Johnsingh

BIONOMICS OF A CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC CATFISH, HORABAGRUS

NIGRICOLLARIS FROM ITS TYPE LOCALITY IN KERALA

P.H. Anvar Ali and G. Prasad

125

127

134

140

145

153

161

165

ICTHYOFAUNAL CONTRIBUTION TO THE STATE AND COMPARISON OF HABITAT CONTIGUITY

ON TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY IN SENKHI STREAM, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

Lakpa Tamang, Shivaji Chaudhry and Dhrupad Choudhury 170

FOOD HABITS OF LEOPARD (PANTHERA PARDUS FUSCA), DHOLE ( CUON ALPINUS) AND

STRIPED HYENA (HYAENA HYAENA) IN ATROPICAL DRY THORN FOREST OF SOUTHERN

INDIA

C. Arivazhagan, R. Arumugam and K. Thiyagesan 178

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF VACCINIUML. (ERICACEAE) FROM INDIA

S. Panda and M. Sanjappa 188

ANEW BUTTERFLY SPECIES OF THE GENUS YPTH/MA HUBNER (NYMPHALIDAE: SATYRINAE)

FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA

Arun P. Singh 191

REVIEWS 195

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 1 03 and published by J.C. Daniel

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001 .

Website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]