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■ JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2008 VOL 105 (2)

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T'Kipvl'^l CONSERVING

11 IJLJlOt NATURE SINCE 1883

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R.Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 105(2): AUGUST 2008

CONTENTS

METHODS OF CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN TRAGOPAN MELANOCEPHALUS

J. E. GRAY 1829 IN THE GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

K. Ramesh, S. Sathyakumar and Gopal S. Rawat

STUDIES ON HAEMATOZOA OF FAMILY CORVIDAE OF KERALA

M.J. Elizabeth

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE: A RAPID SURVEY FROM

A REMOTE AND LITTLE EXPLORED TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST OF NORTH-EAST INDIA

Ambika Aiyadurai and Surendra Varma

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 “BAN”

K.R. Senacha, M.A. Taggart, Asad R. Rahmani, Y.V. Jhala, R. Cuthbert, D.J. Pain and R.E. Green

THE WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU, INDIA, INCLUDING THOSE OF THE

ADJOINING WETLANDS AND HERONRIES

V. Kannan, Ranjit Manakadan, Prakash Rao, K.K. Mohapatra, S. Sivakumar and V. Santharam

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri, Asad R. Rahmani and B. Senthilmurugan

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM (NORTH-EAST

INDIA) - A RAMSAR SITE

B.K. Sharma and Sumita Sharma

NEW DESCRIPTION

A REVIEW OF THE GENUS PARAHORMIUS NIXON WITH DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA

Anjum Z. Ahmad and Z. Ahmed

REVIEWS

1 . ENVIRONMENT AND SELF-ENDANGERED MAN

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

2. BIRDS OF PAKISTAN

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

3. THE BIRDS OF BORNEO

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

4. THREATENED MAMMALS OF INDIA: ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

127

133

139

148

162

181

196

202

206

207

217

218

219

220

221

12. ‘New Bird Descriptions without proper voucher

specimens’: further to Kannan

N.J. Collar 222

INSECTS

13. Hemipteran fauna (Insecta) infesting Sandal Santatum

album Linn, in southern India

R. Sundararaj, L.R. Karibasavaraja, Gaurav Sharma

and Raja Muthukrishnan 223

1 4. New record of Hawkmoth Sataspes tagalica f. hauxwellii

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) from Sanjay Gandhi National

Park, Mumbai, India

V. Shubhalaxmi 226

BOTANY

15. Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Hall.f.) Koeler var.

tartarica (Hook.f) Bor (Poaceae) - a new record for

Rajasthan

Suman C. Sharma, Jeetendra Kantiya and

Chandan Singh Purohit 227

16. A note on the occurrence of Melanocenchris

jacquemontii (Poaceae) in Uttarakhand

Prakriti Dobhal, Smriti Sawan, Suman Lata Bist,

Manish K. Kandwal and S.P. Joshi 228

17. Arisaema tuberculatum C. Fischer (Araceae) from

Mukurthi National Park, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,

Tamil Nadu, India - a note

V.S. Ramachandran and S. Paulraj 228

18. New records of orchids from Andhra Pradesh, India - 1

S.P. Panda, D. Sahu and S. Misra 229

19. Barleria lupulina Lindl. (Acanthaceae) - an addition to

the flora of Orissa, India

A.K. Biswal, A. Mohapatra and C. Sudhakar Reddy ... 231

20. Record of introduction of a tropical American weed

Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. (Convolvulaceae) in

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

L. Rasingam and G.S. Lakra 232

21 . Tamarix passerinoides Delile ex Desv. var. macrocarpa

Ehrenb. (Tamaricaceae) - a new record for Rajasthan

Ramesh Kumar Aggarwal and Suman C. Sharma 232

22. Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl. (Mimosaceae) - a new

record for Rajasthan

Jeetendra Kantiya and Suman C. Sharma 233

23. Enumeration of species of the genus Cornopteris Nakai

(Athyriaceae: Pteridophyta) in India

Y.P.S. Pangtey 234

24. Plagiochila junghuhniana Sande Lac. - a new record

to Indian mainland (Nilgiri Hills, Western Ghats)

Praveen Kumar Verma and S.C. Srivastava 236

25. Latin diagnosis of Spirulina (=Arthrospira) mahajani

Mahajan

S.K. Mahajan 238

26. Fig trees (Ficus), captive elephants, and conservation

of hornbills and other frugivores in an Indian wildlife

sanctuary

Ragupathy Kannan and Douglas A. James 238

27. Three new additions to the non-indigenous flora of

Andaman Islands, India

P.G. Diwakar and L. Rasingam 242

Cover Photograph: Western Tragopan

Tragopan melanocephalus

By John Corder

it

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We ARE GRATEFUL TO THE MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

127-132

METHODS OF CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING

OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN TRAGOPAN MELANOCEPHALUS J.E. GRAY 1829

IN THE GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK, INDIA1

K. Ramesh23, S. Sathyakumar2-4 and Gopal S. Rawat2 5

'Accepted September 26, 2008

’Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

’Email: [email protected]

Attempts were made to capture and radio track the Western Tragopan ( Tragopan melanocephalus J.E. Gray 1829) in

the Great Himalayan National Park, Himachal Pradesh, India. Leg-hold snares and automated fall nets were used to

trap the birds. During the intensive efforts of 6,694 trap hours, one female Western Tragopan and 12 other bird species

were captured. The trapped Western Tragopan was radio-tagged with necklace collar and was tracked for six months.

Using 72 radio locations and Minimum Convex Polygon Method, the estimated home range was 31.6 ha, and it was

20.5 ha for summer and 4.7 ha for autumn. The bird showed preference for high tree cover, thick undergrowth of

montane bamboo, high litter cover and perennial water sources. In addition, much of the findings on its ecology

broadly corroborated with the earlier observations, suggesting that in spite of a very low sample size, credible information

could be gathered through radio tracking and data collection at a finer scale. This study still remains the only investigation

involving trapping and radio tagging of the Western Tragopan anywhere in the world. We recommend that the approach

and methods adopted in this study be taken forward for not only the Western Tragopan, but also for other ground

dwelling birds with similar habits, for generating decisive ecological information and subsequent conservation planning

for these species.

Key words: Habitat use, Himalayas, home range, live trapping, pheasants, telemetry

INTRODUCTION

The Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus

J.E. Gray 1829) is among the rarest pheasant species,

confined to the temperate region of the north-west Himalaya

in a narrow belt between Swat catchments in the North West

Frontier Province, Pakistan and western Uttarakhand in India

(Fuller and Garson 2000; BirdFife International 2001 ). With

only 2,000-3,000 sq. km area of potential habitat available,

its world population size is precariously low, with arguably

much fewer than 5,000 individuals distributed in five

fragmented populations (Gaston et al. 1983a; Johnsgard

1 986; BirdFife International 200 1 ). This population estimate

obtained 25 years ago was based on limited records and is

still to be validated. Even a review on the current status using

empirical evidences, which is an urgent need, is unlikely to

project a better population status, as habitat degradation,

poaching and rampant use of habitat for minor forest produce

collection continue to affect the species (Fuller and Garson

2000). On the other hand, attempts to evolve conservation

strategies have been greatly constrained by inadequate

scientific data on its habitat requirements and other life

history traits. Prior to this study, the six months study by

Islam (1985) in Pakistan was the only intensive effort to study

the ecology of the species. Rest of the attempts were of

short-term surveys primarily aiming at spatial distribution

and population status of the species (Mirza et al. 1978; Islam

1982; Gaston et al. 1983b; Duke 1990; Pandey 1994;

Jandrotia et al. 1995; Jandrotia et al. 2000; Whale 1996;

Nawaz 1999). Ecological inferences from these efforts

were constrained by low sighting records, attributed to

low population density compounded with elusive behaviour

of the bird. Therefore, even with these hard efforts,

our understanding of the species biology remained

obscure.

Systematic monitoring of adequate number of radio-

tagged birds was an option to study and draw definite

inference on the species biology. Moreover, the information

on home range and movement pattern for such a threatened

species are critical to estimate potential habitat and

population size at a regional scale. Therefore, attempts were

made to capture and radio-tag at least six individuals of the

Western Tragopan in the Great Himalayan National Park

(GHNP), which is one of the few strongholds for this species

in India. The number was originally kept to a minimum of

six considering the cost involved and threatened status of

the bird, and that the number was to be increased once these

six tags were successfully deployed. In this paper, we present

the methods adopted to live trap the Western Tragopan, trap

efficiency, ecological observations on the radio-tracked bird

and suggestions for possible improvement of such studies in

the future.

CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN IN GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study site: The study was carried out from April to

November 1999 in GHNP, which is situated about 40 km

east of Kullu town in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India

(31° 33'-31° 56' N; 77° 17'-77° 52' E). It covers an area of

754.4 sq. km constituted by four major watersheds -Tirthan,

Sainj, Jiwa and Parvati, all of these form a part of Beas

catchments. The altitude ranges from 1,344 to 6,248 m,

representing diverse vegetation types from subtropical forests

to alpine meadows. Tirthan valley of this Park became a

natural choice for this study, since this effort was merely an

extension of an already ongoing intensive research on habitat

ecology of three sympatric pheasants, including the Western

Tragopan, which began in April 1997. The logistics and

infrastructure had already been established in this area by the

intensive research project, besides the field experiences in

the last few years enabled us to plan the study appropriately

(Ramesh 2003).

Traps and trapping: Trapping was attempted using

fall nets (N = 6) and leg-hold noose (N = 9), between April

and June 1999. The fall net was a combination of ‘automatic

fall net’ and ‘walk-in trap’ described by Bub (1991 ). The nets

were considerably large, 15 to 18 m long, 6 m wide with a

mesh size of 40 x 40 mm. All the nets were coloured black

and dark green, to provide a camouflage effect. The nets were

placed in such a way that 3 m of the net was set lying on the

ground and the remaining 3 m standing at 50° angle supported

by triggers which, in this case, were bamboo sticks (Fig. 1).

The net would fall down upon the release of the trigger when

disturbed by the bird while walking into the trap. Leg-hold

noose is an indigenous trap method used by local people to

trap large birds in some parts of north India.

The leg-hold noose has a series of 40-50 independent

nooses fixed at 15 cm interval on a thin but strong rope

(Fig. 2). The noose was made up of nylon and measured

30 cm in diameter, and was fixed with a bamboo at the base

of the noose. The stick, which in this case was 10 cm long

and of 2 cm girth, was pressed into the soft soil, leaving only

Bamboo stick

Fig. 1 : Diagrammatic representation of fall net

the noose part on the ground sticking out at 90° angle. One

end of the trap was tied to a nearby pole or a shrub that could

hold back the trap when the trapped bird tries to pull away,

where as the other end is left loose. This set up prevents the

bird from breaking away from the trap, while enabling the

bird to move around without inflicting any sort of damage to

its leg.

Traps were set in 12 locations representing different

forest types (n = 6), thatches (forest clearing used as livestock

camps) (n = 2) and nullahs (small streams of both perennial

and seasonal) (n = 4). A total of 6,694 trap hours, constituted

by 3,927 net hours and 2,767 noose hours, were spent during

the entire trapping sessions. These efforts were distributed

disproportionately in the above three locations, with relative

preference for locations regarded to yield better trap success.

Correspondingly, the entire trap efforts represent 1,783 trap

hours (953 net hours and 830 noose hours) in forest, 815 trap

hours (501 net hours and 314 noose hours) in thatches and

4,096 trap hours (2,473 net hours and 1,623 noose hours) in

nullahs. The traps were placed on the ground at previously

identified sites such as water holes, roost sites and daily

movement area, which were monitored periodically. Besides

this, on locating or hearing the bird, the fall net was set up at

200 m away from the bird on the uphill and 3-4 persons,

forming a semicircle, would slowly drive the bird towards

the net. A total of 256 man-days (4 persons x 64 days in

three months) were spent in the altitudinal range of 2,600-

3,000 m, where relatively high concentration of the Western

Tragopan was sighted during the three years of fieldwork.

Tagging and telemetry: The trapped bird was fitted

with a necklace type (Biotrack) radio transmitter weighing

about 50 gm, which had a potential life span of over

12 months. Triangulation method (Kenward 2001) was

preferred over home-in method after testing the method for

three consecutive sampling days. It was found that during

the home-in method, the movement of the bird was found to

be influenced by the observer while zeroing-in. Radio

locations were recorded once in three sampling time sessions

128

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN IN GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK

A

0 300 Mt

• Trap Locations

^ Tragopan Trapped

A Radio Locations

^Home range

Stream

j Mixed Conifer

Mixed Conifer & Broadieaf

Broadleaf

| j Open Forest

Grassy Blank

Fig. 3: Trapping location and home range of the radio-tagged female Western Tragopan

(6-11 hrs, 10-15 hrs and 15-18 hrs) every third day. The bird

was radio-tracked until November 1999 covering both

summer (May-September) and autumn (October-November)

seasons, after which there were no signals received from the

bird, and the reasons could not be ascertained. Locations were

physically plotted on 1:50,000 scale topographic map and

the home ranges were estimated based on the Minimum

Convex Polygon (MCP) method using GIS software Arc/info

and Arc View Animal Movement Extension. Spatial data

developed for GHNP by the Wildlife Institute of India on

Table 1 : Frequency and number of bird species caught in different traps

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

129

CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN IN GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK

Aspect

Fig. 4: Radiolocations recorded in different aspect categories

vegetation (using IRS-LISS III satellite data), digital elevation

model, aspect and slope were used to study the different

habitat parameters used by the bird. Random plots (n = 9) of

10 m radius for tree layer, 5 m radius for shrub layers and 1 x

1 m quadrate for ground parameters, were sampled to describe

microhabitat features within the home range area. The data

collection on the microhabitat features was restricted to only

summer season due to time constraints.

RESULTS

Trap success and home range: One female Western

Tragopan was caught on May 14, 1999, in a leg-hold noose

placed in a nullah within a Mixed Conifer and Broadleaf

Forest above Grahani thatch in the Tirthan valley (Fig. 3).

The bird weighed 1 .25 kg, and the body length, wing length,

wingspan and tail length were 40 cm, 20 cm, 70 cm and

28 cm respectively. During the course of trapping, 12 other

bird species including Koklass Pucrasia macrolopha, Hill

Partridge Arborophila torqueola and Eurasian Woodcock

Scolopax rusticola were also caught, mostly in nets

(Table 1 ). A total of 72 radiolocations representing summer

(51 locations) and autumn (21 locations) seasons were

obtained. The home range estimated from these locations was

31.6 ha, and it was 20.5 ha for summer and 4.7 ha for autumn

months. Since MCP calculated the home range based on outer

extreme points, the overall home range estimate also includes

the area outside of the summer and autumn home ranges,

therefore providing larger estimate than a simple addition of

summer and autumn estimates (Fig. 3). The elevation of the

home range area ranged between 2,440 m and 2,800 m,

however, the bird was mostly restricted to 2,500-2,700 m in

summer and between 2,440 and 2,530 m in autumn. The bird

moved to a lower elevation between Rolla and Dulunga thatch

in October and remained there till the signal reception got

discontinued in late November. The bird frequented the east,

south-east and south facing aspects during summer, while it

totally avoided east facing aspect in autumn (Fig. 4), possibly

as a response to high cold condition and snow cover in this

0-10 10=20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Slope

Fig. 5: Radiolocations recorded in different slope classes

particular east facing aspect. Use of slope category in summer

was unimodal with bell-shape curve as typical of normal

distribution, suggesting preference for moderate slopes, but

used steeper slopes in autumn (Fig. 5), again perhaps to use

areas devoid of snow cover.

Habitat use: The radio-tagged bird used five vegetation

types, namely Mixed Conifer Forest, Mixed Conifer and

Broadleaf Forest, Broadleaf Forest, Open Forest, and Grassy

Blanks (Fig. 4), and did not venture into the remaining two

types, alpine scrub and meadows that were represented in the

study area. Of the 72 locations, 42 locations (58%) were in

Broadleaf Forest followed by 21 locations (29%) in Mixed

Conifer and Broadleaf Forest. Mixed Conifer and Broadleaf,

and Broadleaf Forests were used relatively in higher

proportion in summer, while in autumn, the bird used only

the Broadleaf Forest and Grassy Blanks (Table 2). The

proportion of different vegetation types within the home range

and the corresponding number of radio locations suggests

that habitat use by the bird was generally in proportion to

availability, but had higher usage in Grassy Blanks, and

avoided the Open Forest (Table 2). The Conifer Forests used

by the bird were dominated by Abies pindrow and Taxus

baccata. The Broadleaf Forests in higher altitude were

dominated by Acer caesium and Quercus semecarpifolia and

the lower altitude forests by Juglans regia, Ulmus wallichiana

Table 2: Area (in ha) of different vegetation types within the

home range area during summer and autumn

(radiolocations are given in parentheses)

130

1. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN IN GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK

and Corylus columa. The tagged bird used areas with high

tree density (8.4 ±1.2 SE/plot) and shrub density

(8.7 ±1.5 SE/plot), and interestingly, the shrub species in all

the nine plots was dominated by montane bamboo

Thamnocalamus spathiflorus. The home range had moderate

tree canopy (30% ±1.9 SE) and perennial water sources. The

litter cover and litter depth in the plots were 77.8%

(± 3.2 SE) and 1 .5 cm (± 0.08 SE) respectively.

DISCUSSION

Despite our intensive attempts, trap success for target

species was limited to one, but capturing of a significant

number of other birds, including the Koklass and Hill

Partridge, in these traps suggests that the low trap success for

Western Tragopan may not be related to trap efficiency. With

such a low sample size, subsequent analysis and interpretation

was restricted to descriptive data and any test statistics

(e.g. chi-square) was considered unlikely to reflect the

biological significance of the species-habitat relationship

(Johnson 1999; Krebs 2000). Similarly, due to low sample

size, the analysis related to home range estimation was

confined to 100% Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) method,

rather than using more robust methods.

Interestingly, the empirical data collected on the habitat

use by Western Tragopan in Pakistan (Islam and Crawford

1987) and the recent study in India (Ramesh 2003) have had

similar observations on the way different habitat features such

as vegetation types, altitude, canopy and shrub cover used by

this species. Specifically, the radio-tagged bird proved

important to substantiate the general claim of dense

undergrowth such as high altitude montane bamboo being

the important cover species for Western Tragopan, which in

other parts of its range including Pakistan is the Viburnum sp.

Further, the intensity of use of bamboo patches was largely

overlooked by the conventional studies using trails monitoring

calling behaviour (Ramesh 2003). This is the only known

home range estimate for this species, and is also comparable

with the estimates obtained for Cabot’s Tragopan Tragopan

caboti in China during the winter of 1987 (Young etal. 1991)

and spring 1992 (Changqing and Guang-mei 1993), which

were also based on a single female bird. The comparison of

the results with other studies might not be directly comparable

given the difference in species natural history and conditions,

nonetheless, provide an insight on the pattern exhibited by

congeneric species.

Though trapping of Western Tragopan was highly

challenging, the experiences during the trapping operation

suggested that with modifications to suit local conditions and

appropriate placement of the traps, it would greatly increase

the trapping success. The traps used in the study were found

to be safe and effective, which was evident from the trapping

of several other ground birds. It was also realized that instead

of concentrating our efforts in one area, more trapping parties

should have been used to trap the bird from different areas.

Another possibility of increasing trap success would be to

try trapping just after monsoon, when the population size is

generally high after the breeding or try baiting in peak winter

when the birds descend to a narrow belt in the lower altitude

areas due to resource crunch (both food and habitat) caused

by winter snow at higher altitudes ( Johnsgard 1986; del Hoyo

et al. 1 994; Ramesh 2003 ). The selection of spring for trapping

appears to have two major disadvantages; 1 ) the birds had

dispersed in wider areas and 2) trapping could cause stress in

breeding individuals, thereby reducing breeding success.

Since the birds are known to have a very small clutch size

(< 3 eggs) and have very limited time for breeding (April-

June), even the slightest negative impact has high potential

to reduce breeding success. In the present case, the female

bird had a brood patch indicating the ability to breed, but

was not seen sitting on a nest or with chicks after attaching

the radio-collar. The only advantage in this season was the

breeding/territorial calls produced by males, which enabled

us to locate and follow the movement of the male to some

extent. Playing back the records of male calls has also the

potential to attract the birds to traps in this season.

The Western Tragopan seemed to show site fidelity and

intensive monitoring of one particular pair enabled us to trap

the female bird. Therefore, it is important for future workers

to locate areas frequented by the birds before beginning

trapping. Combination of both fall-net and leg-hold noose

(placing the noose between fall-nets), would be more effective

than independent efforts. The traps in particular were highly

effective for trapping ground dwelling birds and studies

requiring to trap species such as Koklass, Hill Partridge and

Eurasian Woodcock may consider these traps. Another

important observation to note is that triangulation was

preferred over homing-in method. This was primarily because,

the bird skulks under a bush/bamboo patch and the proximity

of the observer invariably caused the bird to flush downhill,

thus introducing bias to actual movement/home range

estimate. Since this particular bird was operating in a small

area and on smooth slopes, bouncing of radio signal was not

a major issue. However, this need not be a general pattern,

since Western Tragopan also occupies rugged terrain where

the problems related to bouncing of radio signal is greater. In

this study, the error polygon ranged from 5 m to 60 m, and

was largely within 25 m radius, but this could vary if more

birds using diverse topography and different ranging pattern

were tracked. Therefore, in mountain terrain, a hybrid

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

131

CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN IN GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK

approach involving both triangulation and homing method is

likely to be effective. In this hybrid strategy, after locating

the bird by triangulation, the accuracy of the locations could

be improved by tracking down the bird up to a minimum

permissible distance (flushing distance), from where the bird

could be located with certainty based on strength of the radio

signal, without flushing the bird. In short, we strongly feel

that based on our study, future research with adequate number

of radio-tagged birds would provide significant contribution

to several interesting facets of its ecology and social

behaviour, which would translate into long-term conservation

plan for this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

World Pheasant Association, Rahul Kaul, and

Peter Garson provided material and logistics support. Philip

J. McGowan, R.B. Sage and an anonymous reviewer

gave critical comments on the earlier version of the

manuscript. Raj at Bhargav, Director and staff of GHNP,

Himat Ram, Pritam Singh and Sher Singh helped during

trapping and radio tracking. The Ministry of Environment

and Forests granted permission, and all procedures

were approved by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the

State.

REFERENCES

BirdLife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data book. Cambridge, U.K.

Bub, H. (1991): Bird trapping and bird banding. Cornell University

Press, New York.

Changqing, D. & Z. Guang-Mei ( 1993): A radio-tracking study of habitat

selection and movement by Cabot’s tragopan in the 1991

breeding season. Pp. 15-19. In: Jenkins, D. (Ed.): Pheasants in

Asia 1992. World Pheasant Association, Reading, U.K.

del Hoyo, J„ A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (1994): Handbook of the Birds

of the World. Vol. 2, New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx

Edicions, Barcelona.

Duke, G. (1990): Using call counts to compare Western Tragopan

populations in Pakistan’s Himalaya. Pp. 116-122. In: Hill, D.A.,

P.J. Garson & D. Jenkins (Eds): Pheasants in Asia 1989. World

Pheasant Association, Readings, U.K.

Fuller, R.A. & P.J. Garson (2000): Pheasants: status survey and

conservation action plan 2000-2004. WPA/Birdlife/SSC Pheasant

Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and the World

Pheasant Association, Reading, U.K.

Gaston, A.J., K. Islam & J.A. Crawford (1983a): The current status of

Western Tragopan. J. WPA 8: 68-73.

Gaston, A.J., P.J. Garson & M.L. Hunter Jr. (1983b): The status and

conservation of forest wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, Western

Himalayas. Bio. Con. 27: 291-314.

Islam, K. (1982): Status and distribution of the Western Tragopan in

north-eastern Pakistan. Pp. 44-50. In: Savage, S.D.W. &

M.W. Ridley (Eds.): Pheasants in Asia 1982. World Pheasant

Association, Reading, U.K.

Islam, K. (1985): Habitat use by Western Tragopan in north-eastern

Pakistan. MS thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis,

Oregon.

Islam, K. & J.A. Crawford (1987): Habitat use by Western Tragopan

Tragopan melanocephalus (Gray) in north-eastern Pakistan. Bio.

Con. 40: 101-115.

Jandrotia, J.S., V. Sharma & S.S. Katoch (1995): A pheasant survey in

the Ravi Catchment of Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh,

India. Ann. Rev. of WPA 1994/95: 67-74.

Jandrotia, J.S., S.S. Katoch, R. Kaul & K. Seth (2000): Surveys of

pheasants in Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh, India.

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A. Musavi & Z. Zheng-wang (Eds): Galliformes 2000 -

Proceedings of the 2nd International Galliformes Symposium.

World Pheasant Association, Reading, U.K.

Johnsgard, PA. (1986): The Pheasants of the World. Oxford University

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Johnson, D.H. (1999): The insignificance of statistical significance

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Nawaz, R. (1999): Pheasant surveys in Pakistan and filming the Western

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Pandey, S. (1994): A preliminary estimate of number of Western

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Himalayan National Park, Western Himalaya. Ph.D. thesis. Forest

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132

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

133-138

STUDIES ON HAEMATOZOA OF FAMILY CORVIDAE OF KERALA1

M.J. Elizabeth2

'Accepted December 2006

-Department of Zoology, Catholicate College, Pathanamthitta 689 643, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

From Family Corvidae, 121 Flouse Crows (Corvus splendens Madarasz) and 33 Jungle Crows (Corvus macrorhynchos

Sykes) from four districts of Kerala state were screened for blood parasites. 78% (94/121) C. splendens and 39%

(13/33) C. macrorhynchos were positive for Haemoproteus species. In total. 69.4% (107/154) of the corvids showed

haematozoan prevalence. No other species of blood parasite was observed. The parasitic intensity in C. splendens was

greater (5.2%) than that of C. macrorhynchos (3.2%). The haematozoan prevalence observed in the present study has

been compared and contrasted with that of the corvids from India, Eastern and Southern Asia, Neotropics, and North

America.

Key words: Corvus splendens , Corvus macrorhynchos , Haemoproteus , prevalence

INTRODUCTION

Numerous surveys throughout the world have

demonstrated the presence of haematozoa in a wide variety

of avian hosts from varying geographical and environmental

regions. Avian haematozoa have been implicated in mass

mortalities of birds (Herman 1968; Laird and Bennett 1970;

Atkinson et al. 1986; Bennett et al. 1988, 1993; Earle et at.

1993; Reppas et al. 1995; Simpson et al. 1996; Merino et al.

2000). To date, about 450 species of haemoparasites have

been described from over 4,500 species of birds (Herman et

al. 1976; Me Clure et al. 1978; Bennett et al. 1981, 1982;

Threlfall and Bennett 1989; Bishop and Bennett 1992; Evans

and Otter 1998; Munoz et al. 1999; Mushi et al. 1999, 2000;

Deviche et al. 2001a. b; Adriano and Cordeiro 2001 ). The

better known genera of blood parasites are Haemoproteus

(140 species from 1,700 bird species of 1 10 families),

Plasmodium (54 species from 1,000 species of birds of

97 families), Leucocytozoon (96 species from 1,000 species

of birds of 98 families) and Trypanosoma (90 species from

800 species of birds of 93 families; Threlfall and Bennett

1989).

In India, Nandi (1978) has reported the presence of

96 species of haematozoa of 8 genera, including 5 I species

of Haemoproteus , 1 1 species of Plasmodium and 12 species

of Trypanosoma. However, Nandi and Bennett ( 1997) have

reported the presence of a total of 111 valid species of

haematozoa composed of 64 species of Haemoproteus ,

28 Leucocytozoon , 8 Plasmodium , 5 Trypanosoma and

6 species of other parasites from the Indian subcontinent.

Other works on avian haematozoa in India include those of

Acton and Knowles (1914), Bhatia ( 1938), Chakravarthy and

Kar (1945a, b), Ray and Bhatnagar ( 1953), David and Nair

(1955), Narang and Bhatnagar (1969), Sarkar and Ray (1969),

Greiner et al. (1977), McClure et al. (1978), Reddi et al.

(1980), Pal and Dasgupta (1982), Nandi and Choudhry

(1983), Nandi and Mandal (1984, 1985), Nandi et al. (1984),

Nandi (1985) and Mandal et al. (1989). Studies on

haematozoans of the birds of Kerala have been scant (Pillai

et al. 1990; Varghese and Elizabeth 1992).

Of the two species of birds examined from Family

Corvidae Common Crow Corvus splendens Madarasz is

slightly larger than a pigeon, overall black with a dusky grey

neck. Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos Sykes is larger

than House Crow and smaller than a kite in size. This is a

glossy, jet-black crow with a heavy bill. These birds are

gregarious, omnivorous and are considered to be a commensal

of man and an useful scavenger (Ali 1984).

METHODOLOGY

1 2 1 Coitus splendens were collected from Wayanad,

Kozhikode, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta districts and

33 Coitus macrorhynchos from Wayanad and Pathanamthitta

districts of Kerala, India. A minimum of five blood smears

each was prepared from the blood drawn from the brachial

vein of the birds. Soon after collection, the smears were air-

dried, fixed in 100% methanol, and subsequently stained with

Wright’s Reagent. Each slide was scanned under 45x and lOOx

objectives of a calibrated Labo Triumph Research microscope

equipped with an ocular micrometer and Yashica F-2

photomicrographic attachment. Positive slides were mounted

using DPX. The morphology of the different developmental

stages (50 each) of the blood parasites were observed

STUDIES ON HAEMATOZOA OF FAMILY CORVIDAE OF KERALA

(e.g. Macro and microgametocytes), and infected and

uninfected erythrocytes were studied and measured in

micrometers. The parasites were identified according to the

descriptions of Greinef and Bennett (1975), Greiner et al.

(1975), and Bennett and Peirce (1988, 1990). Definitions of

prevalence and intensity (per 10,000 erythrocytes) followed

are those of Margolis et al. (1982).

RESULTS

Of the total of 154 birds examined, 107 (69.5%) were

positive for Haemoproteus species. This included the 78%

(94/121) prevalence in C. splendens and 39% (13/33)

prevalence in C. macrorhynchos (Table 1). No other blood

parasites were seen.

In C. splendens, in increasing order, prevalence of

parasite was 75% (51/68) in Pathanamthitta, 80% (20/25) in

Kozhikode, 82% (18/22) in Wayanad, and 83% (5/6) in

Kottayam. The intensity of the parasite was 5.2% in

Pathanamthitta district. The prevalence was 67% ( 12/18) in

Pathanamthitta proper, 71% (20/28) in Thiruvalla and

86% (19/22) in Kozhencherry.

The macrogametocytes were circumnuclear

(14.5 x 3.0 pm) occupying more than 75% of the host

erythrocyte. Deep blue, granular and slightly vacuolated

cytoplasm showed dark brown granules averaging 17.6 in

number. A slight lateral displacement of erythrocyte nucleus

was seen. Normal erythrocyte of Corvus splendens was

13. 1 x 6.3 pm in size and erythrocyte nucleus was 5.1 x 2.5 pm.

Infected erythrocyte with macrogametocyte was 13.4 x 5.7 pm

and infected erythrocyte nucleus was 5.6 x 2.0 pm. Slight

hypertrophy of the erythrocyte and atrophy of its nucleus were

noted (Table 2).

The microgametocytes of C. splendens were also

circumnuclear ( 1 1 .7 x 3.6 pm) occupying 3/4 of the host cell.

Cytoplasm stained light blue with coarse granules. Darkly

stained pigment granules were seen clustered at the poles,

with an average of 25.4 (in number), which is more than that

of the macrogametocyte. The uninfected erythrocyte was

13.1 x 6.3 pm and the erythrocyte nucleus 5.1 x 2.5 pm. The

infected erythrocyte was 13.2 x 6.3 pm and the erythrocyte

nucleus 5.5 x 1 .8 pm (Table 2). A degree of atrophy was noted

in the size of the host cell nucleus.

Of the 33 C. macrorhynchos examined, 1 3 (39%) were

positive for Haemoproteus (Table 1). District-wise the

prevalence was 33% (2/6) in Wayanad and 41% (11/27) in

Pathanamthitta. Within the district of Pathanamthitta, the

increasing order of prevalence was: 0% (0/2) in Adoor,

25% ( 1/4) in Kozhencherry, 40% (2/5) in Pathanamthitta town

and 50% (4/8) each in Thatta and Thiruvalla. The overall

parasitic intensity was 3.2%.

The circumnuclear macrogametocyte (16.7 x 2.0 pm)

occupied almost 75% of the host cell. Lateral displacement

of the host cell nucleus was seen. Cytoplasm stained deep

blue with Giemsa stain; it was coarsely granular. Pigment

granules were dark brown, with an average of 22.8, scattered

Table 1: Prevalence of haematozoa in corvids

TE = Total number of birds examined; TP = Total number positive for haematozoa; PR% = Percentage of prevalence of

haemoparasites

134

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2),. May-Aug 2008

STUDIES ON HAEMATOZOA OF FAMILY CORVIDAE OF KERALA

throughout the cytoplasm. In the parasites, pigment granules

were seen clumped in two or more regions. Normal RBC of

the bird was 12.3 x 6.0 pm, RBC nucleus 5.4 x 2.6 pm.

Erythrocyte infected with the macrogametocyte of the parasite

was 13.2 x 6.9 pm and nucleus was 5.4 x 2.0 pm (Table 2).

Hypertrophy in length and width of the erythrocyte and

atrophy in width of the erythrocyte nucleus were seen.

Microgametocytes found in the blood smears were

circumnuclear, with coarsely granular cytoplasm staining light

blue with Giemsa and measured 16.7 x 3.0 pm. Pigment

granules averaged 27 and were clustered at the poles.

Erythrocyte infected with microgametocyte was 12.8 x 6.8 pm

and infected nucleus 5.0 x 1.5 pm (Table 2). Slight

hypertrophy of the host cell and atrophy of the nucleus was

seen.

DISCUSSION

In Corvus splendens, only one type of Haemoproteus

- a circumnuclear parasite which occupied more than 75%

of the host erythrocyte - was observed. Table 2 compares the

general characteristics of the Haemoproteus sp. seen in the

present study with those of H. danilewski and indicates

that the former differs from the latter in being smaller,

(macro _14.5 x 3.0 pm as opposed to 19.4 x 3.2 pm; micro

11.7 x 3.6 pm as against 17.4 x 3.4 pm), also the macro

possesses fewer number of pigment granules 17.6 as against

23.4 (Bishop and Bennett 1990). Whether or not the difference

in size and number of pigment granules seen in the

Haemoproteus species and H. danilewski in the present study

indicate the existence of a new species of the parasite in

Corvus splendens of Kerala could not be ascertained until

detailed studies are completed.

In Corvus macrorhynchos too a single type of

Haemoproteus sp., which resembled H. danilewski , was

observed. The size of the macrogametocyte infected RBC in

the present study (13.2 x 6.9 pm) was very close to that of

H. danilewski infected RBC ( 1 3.0 x 7.3 pm). Hypertrophy of

the host cell was seen in the present study as in H. danilewski

infection. The size of the microgametocyte infected

erythrocyte (12.8 x 6.8 pm) was similar to that of

H. danilewski infection (12.9 x 7.5 pm; Table 2). The

Table 2: Morphometric parameters of Haemoproteus spp. of Corvus spp.

(All measurements are in microns)

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

135

STUDIES ON HAEMATOZOA OF FAMILY CORVIDAE OF KERALA

Table 3: Prevalence of haematozoa in the avian Family Corvidae

TE = Total number of birds examined; TP = Percentage of total number of birds positive for haematozoa; FI = Haemoproteus',

P = Plasmodium ; L = Leucocytozoorr, T = Trypanosoma; M = Microfilaria

(1) = Includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka

measurements and number of pigment granules of macro-

and micro-gametocytes were in accord with those of

H. danilewski. Table 2 confirms that of the two species of

birds the Haemoproteus sp. of Corvus macrorhynchos

resembled H. danilewski more than Corvus splendens.

The other species identified is Haemoproteus picae,

which has a halteridial shape with lower number of pigment

granules, and the form found in the present study is not in

accord with this.

Surprisingly, the overall prevalence of Haemoproteus spp.

in the C. macrorhynchos was only 39% (13/33), which was

exactly 50% less than that in C. splendens of the two districts

from where C. macrorhynchos were examined, Wayanad

showed a lower prevalence of 33% (2/6) while Pathanamthitta

showed slightly higher percentage (40%; 1 1/27).

The 69.5% (107/154) prevalence of haematozoa

recorded from corvids was substantially higher than the 1 2.5%

in corvids ofWest Bengal (Nandi etal. 1984), 21 .1% in New

Jersey and Maryland (Williams and Bennett 1978), 22.2% in

Bharatpur, Rajasthan (Me Clure etal. 1978), 26.3%- in Eastern

and Southern Asia Me Clure et al. 1978), 33% in Andhra

Pradesh (Nandi and Mandal 1984), 40% in Goa (Nandi and

Mandal 1985), 43.3% in the Neotropics (White et al. 1978)

and 49.9% in North America (Greiner et al. 1975; Table 3).

The prevalence in the present study is closer to the 64.2% in

Indian subcontinent (Nandi and Bennett 1997)

In the corvids of North America, Neotropics, and New

Jersey and Maryland, the workers reported the presence of

Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, Trypanosoma and Microfilaria

in addition to Haemoproteus (Greiner et al. 1975; White et

al. 1978; Williams and Bennett 1978). The results of the

present study differ from those of the above workers in not

finding Plasmodium , Leucocytozoon, and Trypanosoma, and

are in accord in finding Haemoproteus. Studies in the corvids

of Indian subcontinent (Nandi and Bennet 1997) showed the

presence of Plasmodium (31 .3%), Leucocytozoon (0.9%), and

Trypanosoma (0.5%), which is at variance with the present

study.

Nandi’s “Index catalogue of haematozoa from

India”(Nandi 1984) has recorded the presence of

Haemoproteus (de Mello etal. (1917), Me Clure etal. (1978)

and Microfilaria (Sen etal. 1965) in Corvus macrorhynchos,

Haemoproteus (Donovan 1904; Bhatia 1978; Me Clure etal.

1978), Plasmodium (Donovan 1904; Nandi et al. 1984),

Trypanosoma (Donovan 1904) and Microfilaria (Me Clure

et al. 1978) in Coitus splendens.

The finding of only Haemoproteus in Coitus splendens

is not in accord with that of Me Clure et al. (1978) from

Bharatpur, India, where Microfilaria was also found, and also

differs from that of all other workers listed above who have

also found other parasites (Table 3). The results obtained in the

present study from Corvus macrorhynchos differ from that of

Sen et al. (1965) in not finding Microfilaria. Nevertheless,

confirmation that the corvids of Kerala are hosts exclusively of

Haemoproteus and no other species of haematozoa must await

results of further more extensive survey.

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138

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

139-147

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE

OF WILDLIFE: A RAPID SURVEY FROM A REMOTE AND LITTLE EXPLORED TROPICAL

EVERGREEN FOREST OF NORTH-EAST INDIA1

Ambika Aiyadurai2 and Surendra Varma3

'Accepted February 14, 2008

2Wildlife Trust of India, A-220, New Friends Colony, New Delhi 1 10 065. India, Email: [email protected]

3Asian Elephant Research and Conservation Centre (A division of Asian Nature Conservation Foundation), c/o Centre for Ecological

Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]. in

This survey was aimed at evaluating methods that could be used to assess the status of forests and the relative abundance

of mammals in a remote and little explored tropical evergreen forest of north-east India. The survey was carried out by

walking along forest trails for assessing the status of forests and mammals, and through the village surveys to assess

the status of wildlife. About 58% of the forests surveyed were under open forest and 27% under partially open cover,

indicating the region has more open forest while the closed forest was only 15% The species encounter rate/km was

high in an open forest (1.6 (SE=0.22)/km, 0.8 (SE=0.7)/km for a partially open forest and for a closed forest it was

0/km), and the results for the open and partially open forests were not statistically significantly different (Hc=0.39,

p=0.73) Out of the 23 mammal species reported for the region, only 26% of the 23 species were encountered during

the trail surveys, and only after spending 95% of the total time (56 hours) with the villagers, information on all the

species was obtained. The number of species obtained for the survey region complies with the results of other regions

that have comparable attributes. When areas with similar affinities are compared, the variance around the mean was

only 7%, but in areas that are dissimilar, the variance around the mean was 13%. As compared with the other regions,

only 0.37% of the total man-hours were spent to obtain the number of species for the current survey. The village

survey appears to be a robust method for a basic or advanced species list, but it may not be an appropriate method to

evaluate the forest status.

Key words: trail and village surveys, evaluation, forest canopy and wildlife abundance

INTRODUCTION

Arunachal Pradesh, in the north-east of India, is known

for its rich biological and cultural diversity, and has been

recognised as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world

(Myers et al. 2000). It is also a home to around 26 ethnic

human communities with distinctive cultures and rich

traditions (Shukla 1965). Unlike the other regions, forests in

some areas of Arunachal Pradesh at present do not suffer much

from major developmental activities, such as the

hydroelectric, irrigation projects and road networks. But the

heavy dependency on forests by local communities through

shifting cultivation and other livelihood practices is the major

conservation concern (Ramakrishnan 1992; Raman et al.

1998). The communities are also known for their active

involvement in hunting of wildlife for ornamental, medicinal,

edible and commercial uses (Aiyadurai and Varma 2003).

There are only a few studies that have been carried out

in this region due to the remoteness, ruggedness and

incidences of cerebral malaria in the region. High rainfall,

frequent landslides, lack of infrastructure facilities and an

assumed unfriendly nature of the local communities have also

contributed to this. These areas are important for many species

of conservation interest and the proposed survey region was

particularly reported to have seven species of major large

carnivores (Aiyadurai and Varma 2003), three of which (Tiger,

Clouded Leopard and Asiatic Black Bear) are categorised in

the Vulnerable to Endangered category of the IUCN Red List

of threatened species (IUCN 2007), and the remaining four

are listed under the Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection)

Act of India 1972 (Menon 2003). The area is also one of the

contiguous habitats for the Asian Elephant Elephas maximus ;

conserving these flagship species (Sukumar 1989) or

charismatic flagship species (Karanth 1995) or their habitat

may eventually protect a considerable amount of biodiversity.

However, the Elephant and some carnivore species have

become a cause for human-animal conflict, resulting in

negative conservation interests. Such problem animals,

particularly some carnivore species are being hunted either

as a conflict mitigation measure or as a source of food. Under

these circumstances the understanding of the status of these

species and developing mitigation measures will not only

provide knowledge about the species but also receive support

from the local communities for their conservation. Secondly,

when there is a constraint of time and other resources or

manpower, there is a need to identify a robust way of

collecting information and this is possible only through

adopting all existing methods or through developing new

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

Fig. 1 : Map showing Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary and survey villages in Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India

approaches to data collections (Varman and Sukumar 1995;

Varma 2000).

Our initial interest was to evaluate methods that could

be followed and eventually be used to assess the status of

forests and the relative abundance of wildlife, particularly

mammals. Our interest was restricted by the constraints imposed

by the landscape features, availability of time and other

resources, and non-availability of specific methodologies.

However, these limitations did motivate us to identify methods

for documentation, compare and review methodologies adopted,

and numbers reported from similar landscapes elsewhere.

A review and comparison of methodologies adopted provided

us with insights into the merits and demerits of each

methodology, and comparison of the results with other regions

helped us in identifying the accuracy of the knowledge that

was gained through this short-term survey.

STUDY AREA

Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 1), covering an area

of 140.30 sq. km, is a part of a contiguous forest cover and

one among the notable biodiversity areas of north-east India.

The region is mostly hilly (precipitous hillsides are a common

feature of this area), and the average altitude of the terrain is

1 ,000 m above msl. The terrain slopes gently towards south

and is highly rugged with mountainous ranges.

The monsoon begins around March-April, and

continues till September-October (Anon. 2006). The annual

average rainfall is approximately 2,500 mm with June and

July as the wettest months. A large number of rivers drain

into the area, most of which run from north to south. The

landscape is difficult to traverse due to the rugged terrain and

dense vegetation. Geologically, the forest area is prone to

landslides during summer and is quite unstable.

The forest can be classified mainly as the North Bank

Tropical Evergreen (Nahor-Jutuli), Tropical Semi-Evergreen

and Secondary forests (Champion and Seth 1968; Kaul and

Haridasan 1987). At places, the evergreen and semi-evergreen

forests merge with one another and cannot be described

separately. The North Bank Tropical Evergreen (Nahor-Jutuli)

forests occur at an elevation of 900 m above mean sea level.

The tropical semi-evergreen forests occur up to an elevation

of 600 m above msl. This type of forest can be further

classified into low hills, and plain semi-evergreen and riverine

140

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EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

semi-evergreen forests. Secondary forests occur due to both

man-made (mainly shifting cultivation) and natural (mainly

landslide or fire) reasons. This type could be further classified

into a degraded forest, bamboo forest and grasslands (Kaul

and Haridasan 1987)

No survey has been carried out on the status of species

not even to generate a species list; however, the region is

expected to have a number of mammalian species. Notable

among the expected species are Sambar Cervus unicolor ,

Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak, Wild Pig Sus scrofa, Indian

Elephant Elephas maximus , Tiger Panthera tigris, Leopard

Panthera pardus , Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa , Jackal

Cams aureus , Dhole Cuon alpinus and small cats. Among

the primates, Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis , Rhesus

Macaque Macaca mulatto , Capped Langur Trachypithecus

pileatus and Stump-tailed Macaque Macaca arctoides.

METHODOLOGY

General

This rapid survey was carried out in March 2003. As

an initial approach, a pilot survey was carried out to

understand the landscape and socio-economic status, and the

information was associated with the status of the forest and

wildlife found here. Lorest officials were interviewed for

specific information on the condition of forests, status of

wildlife and information related to the cultural and economic

status of the villagers. The survey adopted two approaches in

the field.

a) ‘Lorest trail’ survey for assessing the status of the

forest and some species of wildlife

b) Village survey for assessing status of some species

of wildlife.

Status of Forests

There are well-established forest trails, which are

normally used by villagers. Some of these trails were

considered for sampling and a total distance of 21 km was

surveyed by foot. These trails are located close to villages

such as the Rillo, Khoimir and Moin, and were referred as

the Rillo, Khoimir and Moin trails. The walks were restricted

to the trails as the undergrowth around them was thick and

could not be explored. The forests within a 2 km radius from

the villages were heavily cultivated (jhum cultivation); the

forest type within these regions was secondary. After every

20 minutes four nearest trees, type and status of the forest,

and observed anthropogenic disturbances were recorded.

Names of the tree species were noted down to associate

with the forest types surveyed. The forests were classified

into three categories; open, partially open and closed based

on the canopy cover. When there was no canopy overhead, it

was termed as open; when the canopy of adjacent trees

overlapped, with the sky still showing through it was

considered as partially open; and when the sky was not visible

overhead, it was considered as closed forest (Raman et al.

1998; Varma pers. obs.).

Forest Trail Survey

Experienced individuals of the Nishi tribe were

employed as trackers, and the forest trails were surveyed for

animal presence through direct and indirect signs. Before

starting the trail survey, information on species that could be

encountered was collected from the trackers. This information

was later compared with the species encountered during the

survey. Trails were walked for direct sightings or indirect

evidence such as pellets/scats/hoof marks, feeding and other

signs. On sighting an animal sign or on any direct sighting,

information on the time of sighting, number of signs (or

individuals) and other related information were recorded.

There were a number of constraints as it was not easy

to spot and identify footprints and tracks of animals because

of the heavy litter on the ground. Care was taken in the

identification of scats, as there were chances of encountering

domestic dog Canis familiaris scats, especially at the

periphery the Sanctuary.

Survey through village visit

Information on wildlife and its presence or absence was

collected from the villagers. The villagers were able to provide

reasonable information that was based on their visits to the

forest, time spent, reasons for visiting and other related

aspects. It was established that men spend more time in the

forest than women, and it was planned to interview two

individuals each from three age classes (old and experienced

persons, middle aged persons and individuals from the age

class in which they start going to forest) from each village.

Selecting specific age classes of people was not possible as

most of the men were in the forest during the day. People

were interviewed randomly as and when they were available.

All these approaches were helpful in establishing the socio-

economic and cultural profile of the local communities, and

its association with the villagers' dependency on the forest

and its resources. The knowledge on wildlife species obtained

from the villagers helped in developing the questionnaires

based on which the interviews were carried out. The time

spent on collecting information from each villager and the

morphological and behavioural description of each animal

by the villagers was noted down. Pictorial guides (Prater 1971;

Menon 2003) were very useful for identification, both in the

field and while processing data.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

141

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

Most of the villagers could understand Hindi, and some

could also speak English. The young villagers were especially

well-versed with Hindi though there were some problems

interacting with the older Nishis.

Data processing

The data on the occurrence of forest categories was

converted into percentages, and the overall, as well as trail-

wise, percentage of signs of each category was calculated.

The number of signs, relative percentage, mean number of

signs, and an overall and mean encounter rate of signs/km

were calculated.

Statistica 5.5 (StatSoft Inc. 2001) and PAST (Hammer

et al. 2001) software packages were used to carry out

statistical tests. Non-parametric statistical tests were carried

out for the current data set because of the low sample size. To

test the relationship between the forest categories and the

overall encounter rate for each trail, the expected and observed

frequencies of the signs were calculated and this was tested

using Chi square test. Shapiro Wilk’s W test was used to test

the normality of the data, and a Spearman rank correlation

test was used for testing the correlation between the encounter

rate and canopy cover. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to

test the statistical significance of the number of sightings of

each category.

The number of species and their relative frequencies

were calculated for the village surveys. The total number of

man-hours spent during both trail and village surveys was

calculated to develop species-time area curves for both the

methods. For comparison of the results with Bago Yoma,

Rakhine Yoma, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park of

Myanmar, Mudumalai and Singara Reserved Forests of

southern India, the mean number of species, the total number

of man-hours spent and the percentage of identifiable species

Ratio of total man-hours spent

Fig. 2: The species-time curve for the trails close to villages

Y-axis: proportion of total number of species whose signs were

encountered; X-axis: proportion of total man-hours spent

common to the current survey area for each region were

arrived at.

RESULTS

Status of forests

The Nishi villages are located in the valley and the

adjoining forests were observed to be degraded. The forests

were much less disturbed on the other side of the valley. The

habitat along the forest trail varied drastically. This variation

was found within and across the trails. The microhabitats

encountered during the survey were open scrubland, areas

under shifting cultivation, bamboo or reed or fern dominated

woodlands and riverine habitats. About 58% of the forests

surveyed were under open forest and 27% under partially

open forest indicating the region has more open forest and

only 15% area under closed forest. The status of forests

between the covered trails was compared. Rillo trail had no

closed forests; Khoimir trail had the highest percentage of

open forest (72%), followed by Moin trail (45%).

Encounter rates of wildlife signs

The results show that the encounter rate of wildlife

signs/km was highest for Rillo trail (3.50/km) followed by

Khoimir ( 1.26/km) and Moin (1.13/km) trails (Table 1).

Encounter rates of signs in relation to status of forest

The encounter rate/km was high along the trail with

less closed forest. The Rillo had only open and partially open

forests and more signs were observed in this trail. The Moin,

with the least encounter rate/km (1.13) had a high percentage

of closed forests. The species encounter rate in relation to the

total number of man-hours spent for each trail showed that

for the trail close to the Rillo, all the species were encountered

in 60% of the time spent. In the Khoimir and Moin trails,

83% of the species were encountered during the survey, and

this was achieved through 43% of the man-hours spent in

Khoimir trail and after only 85% of the man-hours spent in

the Moin trail (Fig. 2).

The mean encounter rate of animal signs for open

canopy forest was 1 .6 (SE=0.22), for partially open forests it

Table 1 : Name of the trails, time spent, distance covered and

encounter rate of animal signs/km

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EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

was 0.8 (SE=0.7) and for closed canopy it was 0, and the

difference between the numbers of sightings for open and

partially open forests was not statistically significant

(Hc=0.39, p=0. 73002). Both open and partially open

categories were brought under one category of open forest,

and the results were tested for the relationship between the

openness of the forest cover and encounter rate of animal

signs. More animal signs were encountered in open forests,

and the difference was statistically significant (%:= 12.25,

df = 2, p<0.002 1 ). Since Shapiro- Wilk’s W test for normality

suggested that the distribution of encounter rate and canopy

cover was not normal (p<0.001), a non-parametric correlation

was carried out and it was found that there was no significant

correlation between encounter rate and canopy cover

(r =0.2309, p=0.256. Fig. 3).

Species number reported across the survey methods

The percentage of time spent in collecting information

through different approaches showed that 63% of the total

time (56 hrs) was spent on village interviews and 37%

(33.8 hrs) on trail surveys. With these methods together a

total of 23 mammalian species that are key species or easily

noticeable were encountered for the region. Out of the

23 species, only 26% (6 species including three unknown

species) were encountered in the trail survey. Species detected

by the trail survey were. Elephant, Sambar, Barking Deer,

1 .-4-i

1.2*

£ 0.8-1

I 0.6-

o

u

u3 0

°-2i

oi-

0

20

40 60

% canopy cover

80

100

Fig. 3: Canopy cover versus encounter rate

Y-axis: encounter rate/km; X-axis: proportion of canopy cover

Bear (species not known). Canid (Dhole or Jackal) small

carnivore (species unknown). The species-time curve for the

trail method shows that within 16% of the time spent, all the

species (26% of total species) were encountered through this

method (Fig. 4) and there were no new species or an increase

in the species encounter rate after this time.

Based on the time spent with each villager, a species-

time curve was developed for the village interview method,

and it was found that there was a gradual increase in the

number of species as more and more people were interviewed.

Only after spending 95% (54 hrs) of the total time with the

villagers, information was obtained on all the species.

Table 2: Number of mammal species reported across different landscapes in Myanmar and India

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

143

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

It appears that more than 50 man-hours are needed with

villagers to get information on all the species encountered

and to reach the asymptote in the species-time curve (Fig. 4).

Species number reported across different landscapes

The survey was short-term (a total of 3 weeks, spread

across 89.8 hours in March) in nature due to several constrains

in data collection; a comparison of the number of mammalian

species reported across similar habitats elsewhere was

attempted. This was done to estimate an expected number of

species that could be a key species or easy to locate or species

of conservation interest for the survey area. A comparison of

species recorded in some regions of Myanmar was made.

Some regions in Myanmar have similar landscape features

(altitude and terrain) and some similar wildlife species, along

with a low density of human groups. They are also reported

to have similar cultural or traditional affinities, food and other

resource gathering approaches involving shifting cultivation,

hunting of wildlife and a dependency on forest products

(Table 2). The regions selected for this comparison were Bogo

Yoma (central Myanmar), Rakhine Yoma (western Myanmar)

and Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (AKNP - north

Myanmar). The number of mammalian species reported for

these regions were 25, 22 and 20 respectively (Varma pers.

obs.; Aiyadurai and Varma 2003) translating to an average of

22.3 species (95% CI=1 8.8 to 25.8) If the current survey results

of 23 species was included and the mean number of species

was calculated for all these regions, a mean of

22.5 species (95% CI=20. 1 to 24.8) would be the result for all

these regions. Based on this, an expected number of 24 to

25 species (this assumption is based on the 95% Cl of the average

number of the species of all these regions) could be computed

for the survey area, and the current survey estimated a number

of 23 species. If the species number reported for large mammals

in mixed deciduous habitat in southern India is also included

(Sivaganesan and Desai pers. obs.; Varma pers. obs.), an average

of 25.2 mammals (95% 0=19.0 to 31.4) can be estimated.

A comparison across evergreen (south-east Asia) and

mixed deciduous (southern India) forests showed that the

expected number of species of mammals for the survey area

could be 19 to 3 1 . However, when areas with similar affinities

are compared, the variance around the mean is narrow (only

7%), but in areas that are dissimilar, and are known to share

some percentage of similar species, the variance around the

mean is relatively high ( 1 3%). The other interesting finding

of this comparison is that the relative proportion of the man-

hour spent for arriving at these numbers for all these regions

varied (mean 24%, SE=1 1.3, CV=47%) and only 0.37% of

man-hours were spent to encounter all the species for the

current survey region.

Ratio of total man hours spent

Fig. 4: The species-time curve for the survey methods

The proportion of the total number of species encountered is

plotted against the proportion of total man-hours spent

Status of species encountered through trail and village

survey

No mammalian species was sighted along the trails.

However, several signs of animal presence were recorded.

These signs could be attributed to seven species or classified

into five broad categories such as canids (Dhole and Jackal),

cervids (Barking Deer and Sambar), small carnivores (Jungle

and other cats). Bear (Himalayan Black Bear) and Elephant.

Among them, mean signs of canids dominated followed by

elephants, cervids, small carnivores and bear. However, the

differences between numbers of signs of all these categories

were not statistically significant (Hc=7.44, p=0. 1 40).

Number of species recorded by village survey

Based on the reasons for Nishis to visit the forest, time

spent, forest products used by the community and the animals

that visited human habitations, the presence of 23 species of

mammals could be reported for the region, out of which 65%

of them were readily identifiable (Table 3). The very important

aspect of the results is that the region has seven species of

predators (Table 2), of which three (43%) are included in the

Vulnerable (facing high risk of extinction) category and one

(14%) is within the Endangered (facing very high risk of

extinction) category of the IUCN Red List of threatened

species. Five out of the seven species are under the Wildlife

(Protection) Act of India’s Schedule I category, which affords

a high level of protection. Including the Asian Elephant, the

region has six species of large herbivore mammals.

Out of the 23 species reported by the villagers, they

were able to provide information on the frequency of sightings

for 20 species (87%), and this indicated that the Barking Deer,

Elephant, Jackal, Wild Boar, Capped Langur, Himalayan

Black Bear and Dhole were the more commonly found

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EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

Table 3: List of mammals reported for the region

by the villagers

* - Nishi names and the animals described by the local people

and their English names could not be identified

species. Rarely seen species included the Sambar, Gaur, Wild

Goat, Jungle Cat and Tiger. The elders from the villages also

felt that species such as the Sambar, Gaur and Wild Boar

used to be sighted more frequently and found in larger numbers,

but their frequency of sighting and numbers have been

considerably reduced. Another interesting result of the village

survey is that, due to Barking Deer’s localized distribution,

same animals have been encountered frequently giving the

impression that there are more Barking Deer in the region.

DISCUSSION

The current survey area in the Itanagar Wildlife

Sanctuary and adjoining regions of Arunachal Pradesh was

dominated by an open forest indicating large-scale destruction

to the forest cover in this region. Studies in north-east India

and Laos show that excessive agricultural activity through

shifting cultivation not only decreased the forest cover, but

also changed the forest into an open secondary woodland

shrub (Timminus and Evens 1996; Raman et al. 1998).

Surveys carried out on large mammals in eastern Cambodia

and north-east India identified the practice of shifting

cultivation as one of the threats to wildlife habitats (Desai

1996; Hillaludin et al. 2005; Mishra et al. 2006; Datta et al.

2008). On the other hand, in the recent survey, the patterns of

high encounter rates of species in less closed trails and the

species-time curves for all the trails could support the

assumption that open forests attract more large mammals.

It could be argued that a greater number of sightings of animal

signs in open canopy areas may not have any ecological

significance, but could be due to a relatively high visibility

of the open canopy sites. However, a closer examination may

suggest that the results of encounter rates of animal signs/km

may not be related to the percentage of openness of each trail

but may be due to the openness (or secondary forests with

poor canopy cover) permitting more undergrowth and

providing greater forage or forage space availability for

herbivores. The region primarily had closed canopy evergreen

forests (Kaul and Haridasan 1987), but shifting cultivation

practices followed by the local communities had created more

secondary forests and may become ideal sites for many species

of mammals.

The number of species encountered through the trail

survey was very low, and this could reflect the low density of

wildlife species. The species (26% (N=6) of the total number)

encountered during the trail survey were within 16% of the

total and this pattern suggests that more attempts are needed

to encounter the remaining 74% of the species. There were a

number of constraints in using trail survey methods, as

footprints and tracks of animals were not easy to spot or

identify because of the heavy litter on the ground. Including

livestock, only six categories of animal signs were

encountered during the trail survey, of which only the Asian

Elephant was possibly identifiable from the signs. Examples

of low density or encounter rate of animal signs has been

observed in other regions of Southeast Asia and a number of

reasons could be speculated on this. Duckworth (1996)

attributed these to the shy nature of the species, hunting

pressure and fires set by the villagers. However, the relative

frequencies of signs and encounter rates do have the advantage

of predicting the status of prey and predators in a situation

where prey numbers are falling due to heavy hunting and

predators are known to prey on domestic animals. Apart from

this, trail surveys could be useful for collecting systematic

data on the status of forests. In the village interview method,

60% of the time was spent in obtaining the information. As

experienced by Duckworth ( 1996), in Vietnam, villagers gave

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

145

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE

convincing reports of several key species of mammals through

village surveys, providing vital information of expected

species in the survey area. The information on wildlife species

was based on the vast and accumulated experience and

knowledge of villagers. This survey also illustrated that not

only the number of people but also the time spent with each

person is a very important factor for obtaining a reasonable

level of information about a species. If enough time is not

spent, it is likely that different people could refer to a single

species as two different ones or two different species could

be considered as one. Yet, it is important to know the optimal

period one has to spend with a given person for the

investigation. Overall, the village survey appears to be a robust

method for a basic or advance species list, but it may not be

an appropriate method to evaluate the forest status.

Comparison of results from other regions indicates that

the survey results match with the expected number of species

for regions that have similar settings. Conversely, when

observations were compared with the regions with less or

no similar affinities, there was a variance in the results.

However, these surveys (areas that were compared) resulted

in knowing only key species or species that were easy to

spot and gave no guarantee for others that are lesser known.

It is important to note that there is a difference between the

numbers of mammalian species found in a given region and

the expected number of species that could be encountered

through surveys or the experience of exploring forests.

Although the survey was aimed at assessing the status of

wildlife, in particular mammals, there was no scope for

understanding the status of rodents, bats, elusive lesser-

known species and other mammalian species that are not

known to Science. Francis et al. (1996) reports that bats and

small mammals represent a high proportion of the

mammalian diversity; however, even to develop a basic

checklist of these groups, a great deal of involvement and

expertise are needed. Given these constraints we assume that

understanding the status of flagship species and conservation

of their habitat will eventually help in understanding the

status of lesser known, but highly diverse mammalian

species. In Nam Phu National biodiversity area of Lao PDR,

after 300 man-days of survey, 46 species of non-volant

terrestrial mammals were reported (Venkatraman pers.

Aiyadurai, A. & S. Varma (2003): Dog and Bull - An investigation

into carnivore-human conflict in and around Itanagar Wildlife

Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, Wildlife Trust of India,

New Delhi. 65 pp.

Anonymous (2006): Arunachal Pradesh: Human Development Report

2005. Government of Arunachal Pradesh, Itanagar. 310 pp.

Champion, M.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1968): A Revised Survey of the Forest

comm.), and Duckworth (1996) reported 30 species for the

training and model forest of the Vientiane Forestry College

in Laos. Desai (1996) reported 44 species of mammals for

Monddulkiri and Rattanakiri provinces of eastern Cambodia,

and there was no assurance that all the mammalian species

of these regions were found through the surveys. The other

important factors are the total area and number of mammalian

species reported for a region. Sivaganesan and Desai (pers.

obs.) reported 33 species for a 120 sq. km forest and only

31 species for 321 sq. km in southern India. This could

indicate that there may be a relationship between the number

of species and the quality of the area or microhabitat found

in a given area, and the species number may not be related

to the size of the area. Apart from these uncertainties, surveys

need a lot of time, resources and expertise for all the species

present to be encountered in a region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Forest Department of Arunachal Pradesh

for providing permission to carry out this survey. Thanks are

due to C. Loma, Deputy Chief Wildlife Warden, Tana Tapi,

Assistant Chief Conservator of Forests, and H. Taji, Range

Forest Officer, for their support and hospitality. Thanks to

Sunil Subba, our Field Officer in Arunachal Pradesh for his

inputs and the arrangement of all logistics. The knowledge

and field skills of our Nishi trackers Nabum Tagam, Tok

Pradhan, Tabum Jirgo and Tam Gos helped us a lot in the

field sometimes even to escape from live traps that we came

across in the forests. Language was a huge barrier for us, and

translations by our trackers were of great help and offered

relief during the village surveys. Riya and Shambhu in the

Inspection Bungalow cooked some of the Nishi food made

out of some ferns and mushrooms. The Nishi families

welcomed us with lal chaai and offered valuable information

during household visits. We thank Vivek Menon and P.S. Easa

for all the encouragement and support provided to carry out

this survey. T.R. Shankar Raman (Nature Conservation

Foundation), Renee M. Borges (Centre for Ecological

Sciences - CES), Subramaniam (CES) and Sujata Srinivas

Iyengar read through the manuscript and provided valuable

inputs.

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east India. Biological Conservation 141: 1429-1435.

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Nature. IUCN-World Conservation Union, Cambodia. 12 pp.

Duckworth, J.W. (1996): Bird and mammal records from the Sangthong

district, Vietiane Municipality, Laos in 1996. Nat. Hist. Bull.

Siam. Soc. 44: 217-242.

Francis, C.M., K. Khounboline & N. Aspey (1996): Report on 1999

survey of bats and small mammals in the Nakai Nam theun

NBC A and nearby area of Bolikhamxay and Khammouane

Proviences, CPAWM/WCS co-operative program wildlife

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(PAST). Palaentologia Electronic 4(1): 9. http://palaeo-

electronica.org/200 1 _ 1 /past/issue 1 _0 1 html

Hillaludin, R., R. Kaul& D. Ghose(2005): Conservation implications

of wild animal biomass extractions in Northeast India. Animal

Biodiversity and Conserx’ation 28: 169-179.

IUCN (2007): IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, IUCN, Gland,

Switzerland, UK http://www.iucnredlist.org.

Karanth, U. ( 1995): Estimating Tiger Panthera tigris populations from

Camera - Trap data using capture - recapture models. Biological

consen’ation 71: 333-338.

Kaul, R.N. & K. FIaridasan (1987): Forest Types of Arunachal Pradesh

- A preliminary study. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 9 (2): 379-389.

Menon, V. (2003): A Field guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling Kindersely

(India) Pvt. Limited. 200 pp.

Mishra, C., M.D. Madhusudan & A. Datta (2006): Mammals of the

high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya:

an assessment of threats and conservation needs. Oryx 40:

29-35.

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Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Mammals. 3rd Edn. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. 324 pp.

Ramakrishnan, P.S. (1992): Shifting Agriculture and Sustainable

Development: an interdisciplinary study from north-eastern

India. MAB Series, 10, UNESCO, Paris.

Raman, T.R.S., G.S. Rawat & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1998): Recovery of

tropical avifauna in relation to vegetation succession following

shifting cultivation in Mizoram, north-east India. J. Appl. Ecol.

35: 214-231.

Shukla, K.B. (1965): The Daflas of Subansiri region. In: The People of

NEFA. Northeast Frontier Agency. Shillong.

STATSOFT, Inc. (2001): STATISTICA for Windows (data analysis

software system). StatSoft, Inc. Tulsa.

Sukumar, R. (1989): The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management.

Cambridge University Press. 255 pp.

Timminus, R.J. & T.D. Evens (1996): A wildlife and habitat survey of

the Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area,

Khammouane and Bolikhamsai Provinces, Laos, Vientiane: The

Wildlife Conservation Society, New York. 45 pp.

Varma, S. (2000): Bird diversity in the campus of the Indian Institute

of Science - An evaluation of two methods of estimation.

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estimating densities of large mammals in a tropical deciduous

forest: An evaluation of models and field experiments.

J. of. Biosci. 20(2): 273-287.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

147

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

148-161

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA

BEFORE THE 2006 “BAN”1

K.R. Senacha2-8, M.A. Taggart3, A.R. Rahmani29, Y.V. Jhala4, R. Cuthbert5, D.J. Pain6 and R.E. Green7

'Accepted June 16, 2008

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

'Institute de Investigation en Recursos Cinegeticos (IREC), Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real, Spain. Email: [email protected]

'Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani. RO. Box 18, Dehradun. Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

'Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom. Email: [email protected]

''Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT). Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, GL2 7BT, United Kingdom. Email: [email protected]

'Conservation Science Group. Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom.

Email: [email protected]

8Email: [email protected]

'Entail: [email protected]. in

Three species of Gyps vulture, once common across the Indian subcontinent, have declined by more than 97% in India

since 1992, and are now on the verge of global extinction. The decline is due to contamination of their food with

diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used as a painkiller for livestock in India. On

May 11, 2006, the Drug Controller General (India) ordered the withdrawal of all licences granted for the manufacture

of diclofenac for veterinary use in India within three months. To monitor the effectiveness of this ban in protecting

Gyps vultures it is vital to verify levels of diclofenac in livestock carcasses in India both before and after the ban, to

determine whether diclofenac use is being reduced. In this study, we collected liver tissue samples from 1 ,848 livestock

carcasses at 63 carcass dumps and four slaughterhouses across 12 Indian states during the period May 2004 to June

2005. The diclofenac levels were quantified using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry,

with a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 10 pg/kg and limit of detection (LOD) of 4 pg/kg. Across the 12 states,

diclofenac residues were found in 10.1% of livestock carcasses sampled: a prevalence of contamination more than

sufficient to cause widespread mortality of vultures. There were significant differences in the prevalence of diclofenac

between states and sites, and between the species and age-classes of animals, with cattle having a higher prevalence of

diclofenac than any other species, and with higher levels of contamination in female animals. In addition, our sampling

revealed differences in the daily intake rate of carcasses between sites, with an overall average of 7.47 ±0.58 animals

per day across the 63 carcass dumps, and a maximum of >50 animals per day at Ludhiana (Punjab). Despite the large

number of carcasses available. Gyps vultures were only sighted for three days out of the total 169 days of survey time

spent at carcass dumps. The large number of carcasses and low numbers of vultures demonstrate that food availability

is not an important factor affecting vulture populations in India. Repeated surveys, following the methods detailed in

this study, are now vital to monitor and assess the impact of diclofenac levels in livestock carcasses available to

vultures.

Key words: Diclofenac, livestock carcasses, conservation. Gyps vultures, India

INTRODUCTION

Veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory

drug (NSAID) diclofenac is the main cause of the

catastrophic decline in populations of three Gyps species of

vulture. Gyps bengalensis (Oriental White-backed vulture).

Gyps indicus (Long-billed vulture) and Gyps tenuirostris

(Slender-billed vulture) endemic to South Asia (Green etal.

2004, 2006; Oaks et al. 2004; Shultz et al. 2004). Their

populations in India have declined by more than 97% since

1992 (Prakash et al. 2003; Green etal. 2004), with numbers

of Oriental White-backed vultures decreasing by more than

99.9% from 1992 to 2007 (Prakash et al. 2007). These

population declines have left all three species of vulture at a

high risk of global extinction and led to them being listed as

Critically Endangered by the IUCN (World Conservation

Union) (IUCN 2007). Population declines continue at rates

of 16% to 44% per year (Green et al. 2004; Prakash et al.

2007).

Diclofenac is a widely available NSAID across the

Indian subcontinent, where it is used as an antipyretic, anti-

inflammatory and/or analgesic for livestock treatment.

Vultures are exposed to the drug when they consume

carcasses of livestock that were treated with diclofenac

shortly before death. Gyps given therapeutic doses of

diclofenac, or fed diclofenac-contaminated tissue, die within

days from kidney failure with clinical signs of extensive

visceral gout (the formation of uric acid crystals on/within

tissue) (Oaks et al. 2004; Swan et al. 2006).

Modelling has shown that the observed rate of

population decline could be caused by contamination of a

very small proportion (0.13% to 0.75%) of ungulate carcasses

available to vultures with a lethal level of diclofenac (Green

etal. 2004). Until recently there have been no data available

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN'

on the residue levels and prevalence of diclofenac in ungulate

carcasses available to vultures across India. Following the

publication of a very small data set (Taggart et al. 2007a),

Taggart et al. (2007b) further reported on the analysis of

1,848 liver samples collected from livestock carcasses from

12 states in India. This analysis revealed that the overall

prevalence of detectable diclofenac (>10 pg/kg) across all

states was 10.1% and varied significantly between states,

with up to 22.3% prevalence determined in the state of

Bihar.

On May 1 1 , 2006, the Drug Controller General (India)

ordered the withdrawal of all licences granted for the

manufacture of diclofenac for veterinary use in India within

3 months of this date (Kumar 2006). Though this was a very

positive and significant step in terms of acting to halt the

rapid decline of Gyps vultures in India, it may in reality take

considerable time and effort to effectively remove all existing

stocks of veterinary formulations of the drug and to prevent

the use of the drug derived from other sources (Taggart et

al. 2007b). Before the ban, diclofenac was probably one of

the most (if not the most) commonly administered and

cheapest NSAIDs used in veterinary medicine in India.

Industry sources estimate that some 10 million domesticated

animals are treated annually with diclofenac (MoEF 2006).

Therefore, substantial stocks probably still exist, and demand

is likely to continue at a high level.

If Gyps vultures are to survive in India, the Indian

veterinary market should be strictly monitored to ensure the

complete removal of diclofenac. The collection of liver tissue

samples from livestock carcasses, available countrywide, and

their analysis for the detection of diclofenac residues is a

reliable technique to test whether or not this drug is being

used for veterinary treatment in India. Therefore, relevant

pre-ban data is required to assess the effectiveness of the

ban in the future. Taggart et al. (2007b) published data on

overall and state-wide residual concentration levels and the

prevalence of diclofenac; however, site-specific details were

beyond the scope of that report and remain unspecified. Such

data is of critical importance for assessing the effectiveness

of the ban at local and regional scales. Here, we present site-

specific data using the 1 ,848 liver samples utilised by Taggart

et al. (2007b) and examine variations in the data by sites

within states. We also note differences between livestock

species, sex, type of death, category of collection site and

age.

METHODS

Field Sampling of Livers from Domestic Ungulate

Carcasses

Liver samples from cattle (n = 893), buffalo (n = 861),

sheep (n = 48), goat (n = 39), horse (n = 6) and camel

(n = 1) were collected from 67 sites in 12 states of India

v t 7

(Fig. 1) between May 2004 and July 2005. The states

from which samples were collected were Andhra Pradesh

(AP, n = 161), Bihar (BH, n = 121), Gujarat (GJ, n = 65),

Jammu and Kashmir (JK, nt = 77), Jharkhand (JH, nt = 54),

Madhya Pradesh (MP, n = 195), Maharashtra (MH, n = 194),

Orissa (OR, n = 52), Punjab (PB, n( = 76), Rajasthan

(RJ, n = 310), Uttar Pradesh (UP, n = 449) and West Bengal

(WB, n = 94). Three more states, Assam (AS), Meghalaya

(MG) and Uttarakhand (UA), were also visited (for 20 days

in all), but samples could not be collected because sites in

these states were either not receiving any livestock carcasses

at the time that we visited, or, we could not obtain permission

to take samples from the carcasses, or, carcasses were not

being skinned and left for scavengers because local

authorities had switched to carcass burial as a disposal

method.

Samples were collected from carcasses at Municipal

Corporation Carcass Dumps (MCCD, nt = 1,068),

Co-operative Carcass Dumps (CCD, n = 28), Animal Charity

Carcass Dumps (ACCD, n = 32), Private Carcass Dumps

(PCD, n =448) and Slaughterhouses (SH, n = 272). MCCDs

are managed by the municipalities of certain cities to dump/

process carcasses, whereas CCDs are owned by co-operative

societies involved in the business of carcass processing (for

leather and bone). PCDs are owned by independent skinners

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

149

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

or small contractors, while ACCDs are owned by animal

charities. Slaughterhouses were included in the survey

because a substantial amount of waste (the offal) is disposed

of on-site and is available to vultures. The sites visited were

simply those encountered during fieldwork visits for which

it was possible to obtain access and permission to gather

samples. Consequently, they were not necessarily a

representative sample of all locations at which livestock

carcasses were available to vultures across India, however;

we did not consciously select sites based on any criteria that

were likely to lead to an atypical prevalence of diclofenac-

treated animals.

For every dead animal that arrived at the site, the liver

was initially removed from the carcass by local skinners

working at these sites; we then removed three tissue

subsamples of 3-4 gm each from three different regions of

the whole liver using a surgical scalpel. These three

subsamples were then bulked together into one watertight

25 ml polypropylene sample container, and further sealed

with a tape and individually labelled. The scalpel, gloves

and a marble cutting stone (upon which subsamples were

excised from the bulk liver) were thoroughly cleaned after

sampling each liver to reduce the risk of cross-contamination.

Batches of ten samples were then placed into labelled ziplock

bags and stored on ice in a portable refrigerator.

Subsequently, all samples were transferred to a freezer and

stored at -20 °C until extraction.

At all sites, except Ludhiana in the state of Punjab,

every carcass that arrived during our visit was sampled,

regardless of species, age or condition. There is therefore no

bias with respect to the species, age or condition of the dead

animals sampled at 66 of the 67 sites visited. At Ludhiana,

>50 carcasses arrived at the site each day and it was not

possible to sample every carcass. Samples at this site

(n = 61) were taken predominantly from young prime adults

and mature adults. We stayed at sampling sites during the

day time to record the total number of carcasses arriving

there and spent an average of 3.4 days (range 1-21 days) at

each of the 63 carcass dumps and 3.3 days (range 1-4 days)

at each of the slaughterhouses.

Diclofenac Extraction and Measurement

Full details of the extraction and measurement

techniques used can be found in Taggart et al. (2007b).

However, briefly, diclofenac was extracted from 0.5 gm of

liver tissue using 2 ml of HPLC grade acetonitrile, and an

Ultra Turrax IKA T8 hand held homogeniser. Mixtures were

centrifuged at 1,000 g for 5 minutes, the supernatant filtered

and then stored in crimp-top LC vials at -20 °C until analysis.

Diclofenac levels were determined by liquid

chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry

(LC-ESI/MS) using an Agilent 1100 series instrument

(1946D). The instrument was calibrated using standards

ranging from 5 to 1,000 pg/kg in diclofenac concentration,

generated using diclofenac sodium salt (Sigma-Aldrich,

D6899). The limit of quantification (LOQ) for this technique

(back calculated to wet tissue concentration) was found to

be 10 pg/kg, and the limit of detection (LOD) was

4 pg/kg.

Statistics

We used chi-square tests to compare the diclofenac

prevalence levels between sites within each state, and

restricted this analysis to sites where >6 livestock carcasses

were sampled. Chi-square tests between two groups utilised

the Yates correction for continuity. Tests of variation among

sites in daily carcass intake rates were made using one-way

ANOVA analysis. All statistical tests were two-tailed with

significance set at p < 0.05. Because of the large number of

comparisons (for each state; between sites, site type, age,

gender and species) we did not perform post-hoc tests after

the initial chi-squared test or ANOVA, but we report if there

were differences between groups and present either the mean

value (if there is no difference) or the highest intake rates or

prevalence rate if there were significant differences. The

individual prevalence and intake rates are presented for

each site and state in Tables 1 and 2. A detailed statistical

analysis of the influence of gender, species, dump-type and

age for the nationwide results is presented in Taggart et al.

(2007b).

RESULTS

A total of 1,848 samples were collected from 67 sites

across India, of which 63 sites were carcass dumps processing

animals that died naturally, and four were slaughterhouses.

Overall, the percentage of livestock carcasses found positive

for diclofenac was 10.1% (n = 1,848). There was no

significant difference in diclofenac prevalence for animals

collected in urban areas as opposed to rural areas (urban

diclofenac prevalence (dp) = 10.3% (nt = 1,718); rural

dp = 6.9% (n = 130); = 1.06, p - 0.30). Excluding

slaughterhouses, carcass arrival rate varied significantly

between sites (one-way ANOVA F62 14g= 1 2.864, p< 0.001),

ranging from 40.8 ±6.3 to 0.3 ±0.3 carcasses per day, with

an overall average of 7.5 ±0.6 (nd = 211). Arrival rates also

varied significantly between site type ( F66 157 = 9.978,

p < 0.001), with average rates varying in the order SH

(20.9 ±4.5) > MCCD (14.6 ±1.2) > ACCD (5.3 ±2.5) > PCD

(3.6 ±0.3) > CCD (3.5 ±0.8).

150

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN'

Tables 1 and 2 show the breakdown of carcass

intake by site within each state, as well as name of the site,

type and geographical coordinates to enable repeated

surveys to be undertaken in the future. As none of the samples

collected in Orissa were positive for diclofenac (all

samples were taken at a slaughterhouse), this state is not

considered further in comparative analysis of prevalence

by species, gender, death type, dump type and age

group.

In Andhra Pradesh, two of four sites sampled were

positive for diclofenac, and dp varied significantly between

these two sites (%2 = 6.00, p < 0.05; 2.6% at Hyderabad and

28.6% in Gudiwada). There was no significant difference

in the arrival rate of dead animals between these sites

(F} 14 = 2.9 1 7, p - 0.07 1 ) with an overall average of 8.9 ± 1 .4

animals per day for the state. By species, diclofenac was

detected in buffalo, cattle and horse carcasses, and the d

p

varied significantly between them (Table 2). The d was not

significantly different between the genders, age groups or

the site types.

In Bihar, Patna was the only site sampled, which

received an average of 5.8 ±0.5 carcasses per day, the d was

22.3%, and differed significantly by gender and age, but not

by species.

In Gujarat, of 12 sites sampled, five were positive for

diclofenac, but the dp was not significantly different amongst

them (%24 = 3.94 ,/? = 0.41). There were significant differences

among sites in the arrival rate of carcasses (F = 14.911,

p = 0.002), with the highest numbers arriving at the Dabala

Panjarapole site, and an overall mean of 3.6 ±1 carcasses

per day for the state (Table 1 ). Diclofenac was recorded in

cattle and buffalo, with no significant differences noted in

dp by species, gender or site type, but, there were differences

with age.

In Jammu and Kashmir, of eight sites sampled only

two were positive for diclofenac, and the dp was not

significantly different between them (%2 = 0.20, p = 0.66).

There was no significant difference among sites in the

arrival rate of carcasses (F1 = 1.193, p = 0.361), with an

overall average of 3.4 ±0.6 for the state. The R.S. Pura

site received the maximum number of carcasses per day,

but was not significantly different in this respect to

the other sites. By species, diclofenac was found

in cattle and buffalo, but the dp was not significantly

different between these, and it did not differ by gender or

age.

In Jharkhand, two sites were sampled, one of which,

the Kantatoli slaughterhouse site, was positive for diclofenac.

Samples collected at the Harmu Road site were all from

animals that died naturally but none were positive for

diclofenac. However, this site only received an average of

1.5 ±0.5 carcasses per day, so only three animals were

sampled. Diclofenac was found in cattle and buffalo, and

there were no significant differences in dp by species, gender,

site type or age.

In Madhya Pradesh, of the eight sites sampled five

were positive for diclofenac, but the dp did not differ

significantly between them (%24 = 4.48, p = 0.35). There was

a significant difference in daily arrival rate among

sites (F? 19 = 7.682, p < 0.001), with the highest number

arriving at Bhopal (15 ±2.7). The dp differed significantly

by gender and age, but not by species or site.

In Maharashtra, of eight sites sampled only two were

positive for diclofenac, and the di did not vary significantly

between them (%2 = 2.81,/? = 0.09). There was a significant

difference among sites in daily arrival rate (F7 = 13.696,

p < 0.001 ), which was highest at the Mumbai site (40.8 ±6.3).

The d varied significantly by age but not by gender, species

or site type.

In Punjab, of the seven sites sampled three were

positive for diclofenac, but the dp did not vary significantly

between them (%2, = 0.30, p - 0.86). There was a significant

difference among sites in daily carcass arrival rate

(F x = 6.349, p = 0.010), with the highest rate occurring at

Ludhiana (15.3 ±3.1 animals sampled per day, with >50

arriving each day). The d did not differ significantly by

species, gender, site type or age.

In Rajasthan, of the three sites sampled two were

positive for diclofenac, but the dp did not vary significantly

between them (%2j = 2.93, p = 0.09). The arrival rate was

highest in Jodhpur (22.7 ±2.4) and was significantly different

to the other two sites visited (F, |S = 1 8.52, p < 0.001 ). The

d varied significantly by age, but not by gender, species or

site type.

In Uttar Pradesh, eight out of nine sites sampled were

positive for diclofenac, and the dp varied significantly among

them (%2? = 26.01, p < 0.001). There was a significant

difference in the daily arrival rate at sites taking animals

that died naturally (F6 ,4 = 23.89,/? < 0.001 ), with the highest

rates at Ghaziabad (19.7 ±1.7 carcasses per day). The dp

varied significantly by species, gender and site type, and

among age groups.

In West Bengal, two of the four sites sampled

were positive for diclofenac, but the dp did not vary

significantly between them = 0.45, p = 0.50). There

was no significant difference among sites in daily

arrival rates (F = 2.939, p = 0.065), with an overall

average of 4.7 ±0.7 for the state. The d varied significantly

by age but not by gender, species or site type

(Table 2).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 105 (2), May-Aug 2003

151

State

(sampling date) Site name Geographic location Rural (R) / Dump type Sampling Daily Samples Prevalence (dp) Geometric Range of

(GPS reading) Urban (U) days (nd) carcass collected (%) mean Concentration

(decimal degrees) Arrival (nt) Concentration pg/kg

rate pg/kg

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3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

Jharkhand

(07.06.05 to 10.06.05) Harmu Road (Ranchi) (N 23.3632 & E 85.3491) U PCD 2 1.5 3 0 n/a n/a

Kantatoli (Ranchi) (N 23.3632 & E 85.3491) U SH 4 12.8 51 3.9 107 105-109

State

(sampling date) Site name Geographic location Rural (R) / Dump type Sampling Daily Samples Prevalence (dp) Geometric Range of

(GPS reading) Urban (U) days (nd) carcass collected (%) mean Concentration

(decimal degrees) Arrival (nt) Concentration pg/kg

rate pg/kg

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN'

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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

153

Rajasthan

(28.06.04 to 18.07.04) Bikaner N 27.9676 & E 73.3755 U MCCD 8 18.8 150 12.7 507.5 15- 13,723

Jodhpur N 26.3131 & E 72.9065 U MCCD 7 22.7 159 21.4 614.1 13-4,102

Sanchore N 24.7400 & E 71 .6500 R PCD 3 0.3 1 0 n/a n/a

State

(sampling date) Site name Geographic location Rural (R) / Dump type Sampling Daily Samples Prevalence (dp) Geometric Range of

(GPS reading) Urban (U) days (nd) carcass collected (%) mean Concentration

(decimal degrees) Arrival (nt) Concentration pg/kg

rate pg/kg

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN"

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154

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

Table 2: Prevalence dp (%) and concentration of diclofenac in liver samples of domestic ungulate carcasses in 12 states of India,

by species, gender, type of death, type of site and age

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

6>)/6r1

suojiejjueouoo

jo e6uey

6>|/6rf

uoijejjueouoQ

ueeui oujeiuoeo

(%)

(dp) eoueiBAejci

('u) sediues

|o jegiunisj

6>|/6r1

suojjejjueouoo

jo e6uey

6>j/6r1

uojjejjueouoo

uBeuj oujeiuoeo

(%)

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(*u) sediuES

jo jeqainN

6>t/6rl

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B>)/6rf

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(%)

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(’u) sediuBS

jo jeqainN

6>|/6r1

SUOIJBJJUeOUOQ

jo ebuey

6>j/6rl

UOjJBJJUeOUOQ

UBeiu oujeiuoeo

(%)

(dp) eoueiBAajd

(‘u) sediues

jo jeqiunN

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

155

Table 2: Prevalence dp (%) and concentration of diclofenac in liver samples of domestic ungulate carcasses in 12 states in India,

by species, gender, type of death, type of site and age (contd.)

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

6>j/6rl

suoiiejtueouoo

jo a6uey

6>)/6rl

uojtejtueouoQ

ueeuj opieujoeo

(%)

(dp) eoue|BA8Jd

('u) sediues

jo jeqiunN

6>j/6rl

suoijejjusouoo

jo e6uey

6>|/6rl

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(%)

(dp) 80U8|BA8Jd

(*u) sedoies

p jaqujnN

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jo s6uBy

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156

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

IM 3 0 n/a n/a 25 8 674.5 211-2,156 8 12.5 4,135 4,135

VPA 15 0 n/a n/a 77 16.9 299.2 14-2,020 36 16.7 423.8 18-2,353

OA 36 5.6 107 105-109 15 33.3 54.8 17-194 18 16.7 66.6 15-702

Table 2: Prevalence dp (%) and concentration of diclofenac in liver samples of domestic ungulate carcasses in 12 states of India,

by species, gender, type of death, type of site and age (contd.)

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

6>|/6rl

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to eBuey

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(%)

(dp) eoueiBAejy

('u) sediuBS

to jeqiunN

6>|/6rl

suojtejtueouoo

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uoitejtueouoo

ueeiu outeiuoeo

(%)

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to e6uBy

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(%)

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to eBuey

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(%)

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J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

157

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

DISCUSSION

The results reported in this paper present information

on the prevalence of diclofenac (dp) at the site and state level,

and are therefore more detailed than those given at the national

level in the paper by Taggart et al. (2007b). This allows

detailed comparisons to be made of the contamination of

livestock carcasses that are available to vultures. The overall

dp in livestock carcasses across the country was 10.1%, with

levels of contamination varying greatly between sites and

ranging from 0% to 28.6% for sites where the number of

samples collected was >6 (and between 0% and 100% where

n was <6) and from 3.7% to 22.3% in the 1 1 (of 12) states

where samples tested positive for diclofenac (Taggart et al.

2007b). These d^ levels reveal that a substantial proportion

of livestock carcasses available to vultures are now

contaminated with diclofenac, and at diclofenac

concentrations (averaged across the whole carcass) that will

cause appreciable mortality to feeding vultures (Green et al.

2006). Detailed modelling that incorporates the observed

levels of diclofenac contamination found in this study with

the estimated mortality rate of vulture populations reveals

that the modelled rate of decline matches the rates of

population decline observed across India, and that diclofenac

is the only factor needed to explain the observed declines

(Green et at. 2004, 2007). As a consequence, this survey and

these studies highlight the urgent need to effectively prevent

the veterinary use of this drug.

The observed variation in dp detected across India may

be related to whether the drug is actively promoted/used by

veterinary practitioners in any particular area, which may in

turn depend on the predominant livestock species treated and

the livestock owners’ ability to afford treatment for their

animals. However, no significant difference was found

between the d detected in rural and urban areas, as might

have been expected if access to veterinary care (and perhaps

wealth) were more limited in rural areas.

The dp in female animals was found to be significantly

higher than in males in three states (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,

Uttar Pradesh), and across the country carcasses of female

animals showed higher levels of diclofenac contamination

than did males (Taggart etal. 2007b). Such a bias in treatment

may be because farmers are more acutely conscious of the

health of active milking animals since they provide an ongoing

income resource. Further, Taggart et al. (2007b) suggested

that such a trend may be evident because lactating females

are commonly given NSAIDs in combination with antibiotics

to treat mastitis. By age group, adults [young prime adults

(YPA) and old adults (OA)J had a higher dp than subadults

[immatures (IM) and infants (IN)] in eight states, which may

again reflect the fact that Indian livestock holders (especially

farmers) are more ‘concerned’ about the health of actively

milking animals (i.e. mature animals), and therefore the

veterinary care of subadults may be comparatively neglected.

Moreover, livestock are probably simply more likely to need

veterinary treatment with advancing age, injuries and

diseases.

This study and that of Taggart et al. (2007b) found that

dp varied significantly between livestock species, with overall

levels across the country highest in cattle (14.7%) in

comparison with buffalo (6.0%), goats (2.3%) and sheep (0%).

The dp was higher in cattle than in other species in the

following states: Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and

West Bengal. Only Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Jharkhand

reported higher dt levels in buffalo. Whether the state level

differences are a consequence of differing farming practices

is unknown, however, the overall higher dp in cattle is not

surprising given the cultural and economic importance of

cattle within India.

The dp also varied in relation to the type of site sampled,

with (nationally) lower levels of diclofenac found at

slaughterhouses in comparison with carcass dumps. Although

we sampled only five charity dumps (ACCDs) in Gujarat,

two (Rajkot Panjarapole and Paragpur Panjarapole) of these

contained animals that were positive for diclofenac. These

ACCDs are particularly interesting as animals that arrive at

such sites are probably generally well cared for prior to death,

by charity-employed veterinarians. As these charities work

for the well-being of all animals, and not just livestock, they

may be receptive to information regarding the dangers of

diclofenac to vultures. Consequently, it may be beneficial to

target such charity-run sites in order to try to protect any

residual local vulture populations.

This study gave us an opportunity to visit a large variety

of carcass dumping sites across much of India (more than

80 sites in 15 states), and to interact with those involved in

the mechanism of livestock carcass processing. Our

interaction with skinners suggests that the decline in vulture

numbers across India has also had an adverse impact on the

profitability of such sites, and on the health and safety of the

people processing livestock carcasses. Skinners believed that

the decline in vulture numbers meant that the flesh on the

carcasses was being less rapidly consumed, and hence sites

were producing more unpleasant odours, and acting as an

increased hazard to public health for longer, as the carcasses

rotted. This had in turn raised public awareness of these sites

and therefore municipalities in many cities were under

increasing pressure to change the traditional way of disposing

of livestock carcasses. In certain areas, i.e., at Siliguri,

158

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN"

Guwahati, Shillong, Bogaigoan, Nagoan,Tezpur andTinsukia

in north-eastern India the practice was already being replaced

by burial. Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Jabalpur were also

set to follow suit, and in Jodhpur a carcass incineration plant

had already been established. We also found that at many of

the sites where burial was being used, the carcasses were no

longer being skinned, and that this was then having a direct

impact on the leather and skinning industry in those areas.

Skinners encountered during this work suggested that when

vulture numbers were high, they cleaned the bones of the

skinned carcasses thoroughly and in a matter of minutes,

providing high quality clean bones for market. Without

vultures, extra labour was required to remove meat from the

bones, and the quality of the final cleaned bone was never as

good as when cleaned by vultures. Traces of meat left on

bones decayed over time and turned the bones yellow,

generating a low-grade product in the bone market. Skinners

reported that the price of bone had reduced drastically over

recent years.

In total we spent 169 days at 67 different carcass sites,

however, in this time we only recorded endangered Gyps

vultures on three days, and only a very small number of birds

were observed at the three sites where they were recorded

(i.e. G. bengcilensis at Dabala Panjarapole ACCD (seven

individuals) and Bhachau MCCD (22 individuals) in Gujarat,

and two G. indicus at Bikaner MCCD in Rajasthan). Older

skinners often stated that only a couple of decades earlier,

there used to be hundreds of Gyps vultures flying around

carcass dumps. Unfortunately, if the emerging trend towards

livestock burial continues, as it probably will, even

eradicating diclofenac will not, on its own, permit wild

vulture’s numbers to recover to the high levels historically

observed in India. Although not currently a significant

problem in most areas, a lack of food availability may become

an issue in future decades as India continues to rapidly

develop its waste management and public health structure

and capacity.

In agreement with Prakash et al. (2003), our study

clearly shows that food scarcity is not a driving force behind

the rapid vulture declines being observed in India today.

Among the 63 carcass dumps of the 67 sites sampled in this

study, the overall mean average carcass intake rate was 7.47

±0.58 animals per day, with a maximum average intake rate

of 41 carcasses per day recorded at Mumbai and more than

50 per day at Ludhiana, Punjab. Despite these high numbers

of carcasses, sightings of Gyps vultures were extremely

infrequent. If the overall mean carcass intake rate (for all

67 sites) of 6.2 animals per day is continued throughout a

year, then a typical site would take around 2,270 animals per

year, whereas a large site such as at Mumbai may take in

nearly 15,000 carcasses (if the daily intake rate of 41 carcasses/

day is accurate). Cattle and buffalo formed 95% of the

1,848 carcasses we observed. Since the edible tissue of these

species constitutes 75.5% of the total mass (Green etal. 2006),

and the average mass of the Indian Cattle Bos indicus is around

202 kg, a typical carcass dump could provide nearly

3,29,000 kg of edible tissue (edible mass = [2270 x 0.95) x

[202 x 0.755]). An individual Gyps bengalensis typically

requires around 0.341 kg of food per day (Swan et al. 2006),

which represents 125 kg per year. If all the edible matter at a

dump was available to vultures, an average carcass dump

could potentially support a vulture population of 2,600 birds,

and the Mumbai dump could support over 1 7,000 birds. These

calculations are not entirely realistic, as even in past decades

vultures would not have had access to all the edible tissues

available, given the presence of other scavengers and decay.

However, given the fact that we only visited a small subset of

the total number of carcass dumps across India, the availability

of carcasses could still easily support a very large national

population of vultures, and these calculations demonstrate

that lack of food is certainly not, currently, a significant factor

for vultures.

Our fieldwork also revealed that Black Kite ( Milus

migrans) and Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis ) are now the most

common avian scavengers seen on carcass dumps, with up to

80 Black Kites observed at Bikaner and 300 cattle egrets at

Ludhiana MCCDs. Given the toxicity of NSAIDs to a range

of scavenging birds (Cuthbert etal. 2006a), these observations

raise serious concerns about the potential impact of diclofenac

contamination on other bird species scavenging at carcass

dumps. This is especially so for Egyptian Vultures (Neophron

percnopterus) and Red-headed Vultures (Sarcogyps calvus ),

which are rapidly decreasing in numbers (Cuthbert et al.

2006b). However, there are considerable inter-specific

differences in the toxicity of NSAIDs among birds (including

diclofenac; Rattner etal. 2008); hence not all species present

at carcass dumps may be negatively affected. We also noted

an abundance of feral dogs (Canis familiaris) at the majority

of sites visited, and skinners have reported that there has been

an increase in the numbers of feral dogs over the last 5 years.

Feral dogs were seen at all 67 sites visited for sampling, with

a maximum of 88 counted at Rajkot MCCD in Gujarat.

Increased numbers of feral dogs may obviously increase the

risk of rabies transmission to humans in India, already a very

important issue in the country (Sudarshan et al. 2007). With

very high numbers of feral dogs present at carcass dumps

(>1,200 at one site; Prakash et al. 2003). competition for

feeding resources (either direct and/or interference

competition) may also hinder the return of vultures to such

feeding areas. Supporting this, observations at the ACCD at

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

159

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

Poladiya Panjarapole in Kutch suggested that vultures either

fed upon carcasses in the early morning (between 0500 and

0700 hours), or waited, sitting at a distance from the dump

until dusk, when the dumps were free of feral dogs (of which

there were around 25 at this site).

In conclusion, this study provides a detailed analysis

of the site-specific prevalence of diclofenac in India and of

the factors that influence prevalence at a local scale. The data

will be of interest in the future, as longer-term assessments

are made of the prevalence of diclofenac available to vultures

in the environment, and the effectiveness of the diclofenac

ban. Assessing the effectiveness of the diclofenac ban should

incorporate measurement of diclofenac prevalence across the

country (as undertaken in this study) as well as modelling

the impact of the measured concentrations upon vulture

populations as undertaken by Green etal. (2007). This study

suggests that diclofenac is particularly heavily used in certain

parts of India and an understanding of why this is the case

may aid efforts to ensure that an effective ban is implemented.

Effective long-term monitoring, utilising this baseline data

set, is now imperative in order to assess the effectiveness of

Cuthbert, R.J., J. Parry-Jones, R.E. Green & D.J. Pain (2006a):

NSAIDs and scavenging birds: potential impacts beyond Asia’s

critically endangered vultures. Biology Letters 3: 90-93.

Cuthbert, R., R.E. Green, S. Ranade, S. Saravanan, D.J. Pain,

V. Prakash & A. A. Cunningham (2006b): Rapid population

declines of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus and Red-

headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus in India. Animal Conser\>ation

9: 349-354.

Green, R.E., I. Newton. S. Shultz, A. A. Cunningham, M. Gilbert,

D.J. Pain & V. Prakash (2004): Diclofenac poisoning as a cause

of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent.

Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 793-800.

Green, R.E., M.A. Taggart, D. Das, D.J. Pain, C. Sashikumar,

A. A. Cunningham & R. Cuthbert (2006). Collapse of Asian

vulture populations: risk of mortality from residues of the

veterinary drug diclofenac in carcasses of treated cattle. Journal

of Applied Ecology 43: 949-956.

Green, R.E., M.A. Taggart, K.R. Senacha, B. Raghavan, D.J. Pain,

Y. Jhala & R. Cuthbert (2007): Rate of decline of the Oriental

White-backed Vulture population in India estimated from a

survey of diclofenac residues in carcasses of ungulates. PLoS

ONE 2 (8): e686.

IUCN (2007): 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

<www.iucnredlist.org>, accessed on 10 April 2008.

Kumar, A. (2006): Subject: Diclofenac for veterinary use - regarding.

Letter to 'All State Drug Controllers’ from the ‘Drug Controller

General (India)’, dated 1 1th May 2006, F.No. 18-03/2006/DC.

MoEF (2006): Proceedings of the International Conference on Vulture

Conservation. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government

of India, New Delhi, pp. 44.

Oaks, J.L., M. Gilbert, M.Z. Virani, R.T. Watson, C.U. Meteyer,

B. A. Rideout, H.L. Shivaprasad, S. Ahmed, M.J.I. Chaudry,

M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, A. Ali & A. A. Khan (2004): Diclofenac

residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan.

the ban, using a re-sampling schedule based on the methods

detailed in this study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge funding from the UK

Government’s Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species,

the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (UK), and

support received from the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).

We thank the University of Aberdeen (UK) for laboratory

facilities and the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)

for field facilities and logistics. We extend our sincere thanks

to Dr. Bindu Raghavan for support in the field, and Mr. Anant

Khot and Mr. Kamal Kumar Kashyap from BNHS for their

assistance in the collection of tissues. We also gratefully

acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Rakesh Sundriyal (WII)

with sample extraction. Thanks are also given to all the

skinners who co-operated and contributed immensely in terms

of providing tissue samples from the livestock carcasses and

relevant information regarding vulture sightings/declines and

carcass dump management.

Nature 427: 630-633.

Prakash, V., D.J. Pain, A. A. Cunningham, P.F. Donald, N. Prakash,

A. Verma, R. Gargi, S. Sivakumar & A.R. Rahmani (2003):

Catastrophic collapse of Indian White-backed Gyps bengalensis

and Long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations. Biological

Conservation 109: 381-390.

Prakash, V., R.E. Green, D.J. Pain, S.P Ranade, S. Saravanan,

N. Prakash, R. Venkitachalam, R. Cuthbert, A.R. Rahmani &

A. A. Cunningham (2007): Recent changes in populations of

resident Gyps vultures in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 104( 2):

127-133.

Rattner, B.A., M.A. Whitehead, G. Gasper, C.U. Meteyer, W.A. Link,

M.A. Taggart, A. A. Meharg, O.H. Pattee & D.J. Pain (2008):

Apparent tolerance of Turkey Vultures ( Cathartes aura ) to the

non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac. Environmental

Toxicology and Chemistry 27: 2341-2345.

Shultz, S., H.S. Baral, S. Charman, A. A. Cunningham, D. Das,

G.R. Ghalsasi, M.S. Goudar, R.E. Green, A. Jones, P. Nighot,

D.J. Pain & V. Prakash (2004): Diclofenac poisoning is

widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian

subcontinent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B

(Supplement) 271: S458-S460.

Sudarshan, M.K., S.N. Madhusudana, B.J. Mahendra, N.S.N. Rao,

D.H.A. Narayana, S.A. Rahman, F.X. Meslin, D. Lobo,

K. Ravikumar & Gangaboraiah (2007): Assessing the burden

of human rabies in India: results of a national multi-center

epidemiological survey. International Journal of Infectious

Diseases 11: 29-35.

Swan, GE„ R. Cuthbert, M. Quevedo, R.E. Green, D.J. Pain, P. Bartels,

A. A. Cunningham, N. Duncan, A. A. Meharg, J.L. Oaks, J. Parry-

Jones, S. Shultz, M.A. Taggart, G. Verdoorn & K. Wolter

(2006): Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures. RSC Biology

Letters 2: 279-282.

Taggart, M.A., R. Cuthbert, D. Das, C. Sashikumar, D. Pain, R. Green,

160

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 "BAN

Y. Feltrer, S. Shultz, A. A. Cunningham, A. A. Meharg (2007a):

Disposition of diclofenac in cattle and goat with reference to

Gyps vulture population declines. Environmental Pollution 147:

60-65.

Taggart, M.A., K.R. Senacha, R.E. Green, Y.V. Jhala, B. Raghvan,

A. Rahmani, R. Cuthbert, D.J. Pain & A. A. Meharg (2007b):

Diclofenac residues in carcasses of domestic ungulates available

to vultures in India. Environment International 33: 759-765.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

161

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

162-180

THE WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU, INDIA, INCLUDING

THOSE OF THE ADJOINING WETLANDS AND HERONRIES

V. Kannan1-5, Ranjit Manakadan1-6, Prakash Rao2, K.K. Mohapatra3, S. Sivakumar1’7 and V. Santharam4

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

2WWF - India, 172-B, Lodi Estate. New Delhi 110 003, India. Email: [email protected]

TPS Associates Private Limited, R-16 Hauz Khas Enclave, New Delhi 110 016, India.

Email: [email protected]

institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Rishi Valley 517 352, Chittoor district,

Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

•’Email: [email protected]

7Email : si vaprema3sep @yahoo.com

This paper provides an account of the waterbirds of Pulicat lake based primarily on findings of a 3-year study (December

2004 to November 2007) that covered the entire expanse of the Pulicat lake and supplemented by records of earlier

workers. It also describes the waterbirds occurring in the adjoining heronries and freshwater wetlands, thus providing

a comprehensive account of the avifauna of the Pulicat lake area. The status, distribution and abundance of

1 13 waterbird species (both resident and migratory) from the Pulicat lake area are discussed.

Key words: waterbirds, Pulicat lake, Nelapattu, Sriharikota, Kudiri tank, heronries

INTRODUCTION

Pulicat is the second largest brackish water lagoon after

Chilika (Orissa) in India and one of the most important refuges

for waterbirds in southern India (Scott 1989; Perennou and

Santharam 1990; Santharam 1993, 1998; Samant and Rao

1996; Rao 1998; Balachandran 1998; Anon 1993; Manakadan

and Kannan 2003). There are also a number of heronries and

wetlands in the Pulicat area (Nagulu 1983; Krishnan 1990;

Perennou and Santharam 1990; Ramakrishna 1990, 1996;

Santharam 1993, 1998; Philip 1995; Philip et al. 1998;

Subramanya 1996a, 1996b; Samant and Rao 1996; Sharma,

and Raghavaiah 2000, 2002; Manakadan and Kannan 2003;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a; Kannan and Manakadan

2005; Sivakumar and Manakadan 2005). Because of its

importance to waterbirds, Pulicat is identified as an Important

Bird Area (IB A) site of India by the BirdLife International

and the Bombay Natural History Society (Islam and Rahmani

2004). For these and other reasons, Pulicat has also been

proposed for inclusion as a Ramsar Site by the Wetlands

International.

Almost all the previous available information on the

waterbirds of Pulicat is based on the studies and surveys from

its central region (i.e., along the Sullurpet-Sriharikota road

stretch and Tada area). The only study that covered the entire

expanse of Pulicat lake pertains to a single species, the Spot-

billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis (Manakadan and

Kannan 2003; Kannan and Manakadan 2005). Hence, there

were lacunae in the information on the distribution, species

composition, abundance and conservation issues related to

the waterbirds in the other parts, and this was the genesis of

the study taken up by the first two authors (Manakadan and

Kannan 2007). In order to obtain a more complete profile of

the waterbirds of the Pulicat area, we also collected data on

the heronries and more important wetlands in the area. All

the data collected were supplemented with published and

unpublished information of earlier workers: Prakash Rao and

K.K. Mohapatra had worked in the Pulicat area from 1990 to

1994 (Samant and Rao 1996; Rao 1998; Balachandran 1998).

S. Sivakumar had worked in the Pulicat area from 2001 to

2003 (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). V. Santharam

birded in the Pulicat area during 3 1 visits spread over a period

of about 27 years and was a part of the BNHS Bird Migration

Project in the Pulicat area from January 1990 to April 1990.

STUDY AREA

Pulicat lake (13° 24'-13° 47’ N; 80° 03'- 80° 18' E) is

situated in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in

Nellore and Tiruvallur districts respectively. It encompasses

an area of 720 sq. km (Scott 1989), of which 84% falls in

Andhra Pradesh and the remaining 16% in Tamil Nadu

(Fig. 1 ). The lagoon is about 60 km in length and its breadth

varies from 0.2 to 17.5 km. The lake is comparatively shallow

with an average depth of a little over a metre, with a north to

south and west to east slope. The maximum depth of the lake

is at the southern part, c. 7 m. During the dry season, water is

generally present only in the southern lagoon part of Pulicat

and near the two openings into the Bay of Bengal in the

northern areas. The other areas may receive inflows from the

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Fig. 1: Pulicat lake and its adjoining areas

Bay of Bengal during spring tides, especially when aided by

strong winds.

Pulicat has three major openings into the Bay of Bengal,

the largest being at the southern end of the Sriharikota Island,

another at the northern tip of the Sriharikota Island and the

third at the extreme northern part near Durgarajupatnam. The

Buckingham Canal traverses in a north to south direction

along the eastern edge of Pulicat and along Sriharikota island.

The rivers Swamamukhi and Kalangi in the northern part

and the Arani and Moolthangal in the southern part drain

into the lake during the monsoon season, causing an increase

in water levels and a lowering of salinity. Pulicat has

20 islands, the largest being Sriharikota Island (c. 181 sq.

km) at its eastern edge, which serves as the base for India’s

spaceport, the Satish Dhawan Space Centre-SHAR (SDSC-

SHAR). The other large islands are Pemadu, Irrakam and

Venadu. These islands have deposits of sub-fossilised lime

shell. The islands are of recent origin in the geological time-

scale, and are nothing more than low ridges of sand with the

marine and aeolian deposits rising only a few metres above

the sea level. Some of these islands are now connected to one

another and/or to the mainland by roads cutting into the lake.

The rainfall in the region is largely from the North-east

Monsoon (October-December). Very little rainfall is received

during the South-west Monsoon (June-September). Pulicat

is often exposed to extreme weather events like depressions

and cyclones, usually in the early part of May and October,

during the onset of the two monsoons. The annual rainfall is

c. 1,200 mm. December to February is the winter season,

with temperatures as low as 10 °C. March to September is

the summer season, with temperatures soaring over 40 °C.

A cool breeze blowing from the sea and from Pulicat gives

some relief during the summer months. The wind throughout

the major part of the year is from the south-west. The relative

humidity is lowest during May (18%), while the maximum

(99%) is recorded during October (source: Meteorological

Department, SDSC-SHAR).

Paleobotanical studies show that a luxuriant mangrove

forest flourished in Pulicat between 1450 and 1800 A. D., the

peak being between 1450 and 1590. The remnants of

mangrove vegetation are still seen in small patches in some

areas of Pulicat, which is otherwise now bereft of mangrove

vegetation. Sriharikota Island, well protected as it is a

restricted area under the control of the Indian Space Research

Organisation (ISRO), has remnants of the tropical dry

evergreen forest of considerable botanical interest. On the

other islands in the lake, where protection is negligible, the

exotic Prosopis chilensis has invaded many areas. In the

elevated mudflats, succulent halophytes, such as

Anthrocnemum indicus , Sesuvium portulacastrum , Salicornia

brachiata, Suaeda maritima , Suaeda monoica and Suaedo

nudiflora occur. Submergent macrophytes of Enteromorpha ,

Hypneae , Ulva, Halophila and Enhalus occur in the southern

lagoon part of Pulicat lake (Anon 1908; Hornell 1908; Chacko

etal. 1953; Blasco and Legris 1973; Joel 1973; Kaliyamurthy

1972, 1973, 1974; Paul Raj 1976; Srinivasan and Pillay 1972;

Raman etal. 1977;Thangavelu 1983;Oswin 1987; Scott 1989;

Suryanarayanacfa/. 1989, 1998; Krishnan 1990; Kasappa 1991;

Anon 1993; Ramesh 1994; Panini 1996; Sanjeeva Raj

1995-96, 1996; Vaz and Baneijee 1997; Manakadan and Kannan

2003, 2007; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

There are a number of water bodies and heronries along

the western edges of Pulicat and the islands in Pulicat lake,

some of which are important for migratory and resident

waterbirds and where bird censuses were carried out during

this study or earlier studies as follows.

Kudiri Tank: Kudiri Tank (20 ha) is located along the

Sullurpet-Sriharikota road c. 4 km from Sullurpet. It is a

shallow freshwater tank and turns brackish as it dries. The

tank belongs to the Irrigation Department of Sullurpet Mandal.

The major vegetation is of reed beds. The tank is surrounded

by agricultural fields and is used for irrigation.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 105 (2). May-Aug 2008

163

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Koridi: Koridi tank (3.3 ha) is situated in Pernadu

Island of Pulicat lake near Koridi village. Koridi is a shallow

wetland, which becomes brackish as it dries due to its

proximity to Pulicat lake. The tank has water till winter and

has reed beds. The tank is surrounded by agricultural fields,

which draw water from the tank.

Mallam Tank: Mallam tank (93 ha) is located in the

northern part of Pulicat lake area near Mallam, a small town.

The depth of the tank is about 2 m. It is a typical freshwater

tank under the administration of the Irrigation Department.

The major vegetation of the tank is the exotic Ipomoea ccimea.

Along the bunds, there are large trees of Acacia nilotica ,

Azadirachta indica and Borassus flabellifer.

Urugayya Lake: Urugayya lake, also known as

Choladoruvu, is situated in the north-eastern part of Sriharikota

Island. It has an expanse of about one square kilometer and is

more or less perennial, having dried on only two occasions

during the last five decades. The water is clear and brackish,

and devoid of aquatic vegetation and has a maximum depth of

4 m. The salinity increases considerably during the summer

months averaging that of sea water. Almost freshwater

conditions prevail during the peak monsoon season. The

excess water of Urugayya flows into the Bay of Bengal during

the monsoon season via the Sateneru-Sidimuthu Kayya.

Pedda Wagu and Chinna Wagu: Pedda Wagu is the

largest stream in Sriharikota Island, originating from the

north-central part of the Island, it Bows north to south and

then turns eastwards to flow into the Bay of Bengal, traversing

a distance of 15 km. The Chinna Wagu flows in a north to

south direction parallel to the Pedda Wagu for about 9 km

and has no outlet. Both the wagus have dense submergent

and emergent aquatic vegetation (e.g., Hydrilla. Char a, Typha

angustifolia and Nymphaea spp.), with many stretches

bordered by canebrakes. Trees that withstand waterlogging

such as Barringtonia acutangula, Terminalia arjuna and

Pongamia pinnata occur along its banks or at silted sites.

The Pedda Wagu generally dries up during the dry season,

except for the small stretch at the end of its course and in a

few deeper portions. The Chinna Wagu generally dries up

completely during summer.

Nelapattu: Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary is situated about

10 km from the north-western border of Pulicat lake.

The Sanctuary encompasses an area of 458.92 ha, of which

82.56 ha constitute the tank area. The tank and its bund have

Barringtonia acutangula and a few other tree species as nest

trees. The Nelapattu Pelicanry is very old, and the birds were

reported to be nesting in Nelapattu village initially before

shifting to the Nelapattu tanks (Nagulu 1983).

Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu : Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu

Heronry, also referred to as either Vedurupattu or Edhirpattu,

is situated 12 km from the Nelapattu Pelicanry. Vedurupattu

and Edhirpattu are two adjoining villages along the Kalangi

river, where the birds nest on Azadirachta indica , Ficus sp..

Acacia nilotica and Borassus flabellifer. This heronry is

protected by the villagers and Forest Department

(Ramakrishna 1990, 1996).

Tada (Bolengalupadu) Heronry: Tada Heronry is

situated at the outskirts of Tada (a small town 4 km south of

Sullurpet on NH-5), which is witnessing rapid growth since

the beginning of this century after declaration of the region

as a Special Economic Zone by the Andhra Pradesh

Government. The heronry now consists of only one of the

original three Ficus trees.

Sriharikota heronries: There are three heronries in

Sriharikota, the Madugu, Beripeta and Karimanal heronries.

The Madugu Heronry is a mixed species heronry situated in

the northern part of the Island and has a riparian forest-thicket

vegetation with dense canebrakes. Beripeta is in the central

region and consists of riparian forest with tall trees

predominantly used by the Painted Storks Mycteria

leucocephala. The Karimanal Heronry, at the southern end

of the Island, a mixed species colony, was earlier situated in

a lowland area on casuarina saplings, but the birds have shifted

to nearby Ficus tree after the casuarina dried up (Manakadan

and Sivakumar 2004a; Sivakumar and Manakadan 2005).

METHODS

This paper is primarily based on records kept by the

first two authors on the waterbirds of the Pulicat lake and

some of the adjoining wetlands and heronries. Their

observations were made during regular field visits and

systematic census conducted over three years (December 2004

to November 2007). Records obtained during two earlier

projects in which the first two authors were involved

(Manakadan and Kannan 2003; Manakadan and Sivakumar

2004a) and published or unpublished literature or data of other

workers were also accessed for the species accounts.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 77 species of waterbirds were recorded in

the Pulicat lake area (inclusive of those in the adjoining

wetlands and heronries) during the study. Additionally,

another seven species, with all except one recorded in the

wetlands of Sriharikota Island, were recorded during the

earlier two projects in which the first two authors were

involved. Of the overall total of 84 species recorded,

23 species were primarily freshwater species and were not

recorded in Pulicat lake but in the adjoining wetlands and

164

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

heronries, as were some of the other species recorded by

earlier workers. Twenty-nine species recorded by earlier

workers were not recorded during the study period, many of

these being rare one time records or species captured only

during bird banding exercises. With one new species, the

Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda , recorded during this

study and taking into consideration the records of other

workers, the checklist of waterbirds of the Pulicat lake area

comprises 113 species. Given below are the accounts of

113 species of waterbirds reported from Pulicat lake and in

the adjoining wetlands and heronries.

Abbreviations used: R = Resident, with or without

breeding records. WM = Winter Migrant, species that breeds

in the Palaearctic region/Himalaya during spring and that

winters in the Indian subcontinent. SM = Seasonal Migrant,

an ‘Indian species' that occurs seasonally in the Pulicat area.

V = Vagrant, a species recorded outside its normal

distributional range. VC = Very Common, sightings possible

on almost all days in a year/season in suitable habitats.

C = Common, sightings of about once a week in a year/season

in suitable habitats. O = Occasional, about one sighting

fortnight/month in a year/season in suitable habitats.

Ra = Rare, fewer than five sightings per year or three sightings

a season. VRa = Very Rare, record based on only one or two

sighting during this or earlier projects. ? = Status Uncertain.

Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis R C

The Little Grebe is common in the freshwater wetlands

of the Pulicat lake area. It was largely seen during September

to January in the Kudiri and Mallanr tanks. Around

20-30 birds were regularly seen in the Kudiri and Nelapattu

tanks, with breeding activity recorded. Breeding had also been

reported in Nelapattu by Philip et al. ( 1998) and Santharam

(unpublished data). In Sriharikota, the species occurs and

breeds in the Pedda and Chinna Wagus (Samant and Rao 1996;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis R VC

The Spot-billed Pelican is a common species in Pulicat

lake and breeds in the Nelapattu Heronry. The breeding

population was 200+ pairs during 2001-2003 (Manakadan

and Kannan 2003) and was around 500+ pairs during this

study. A stray record of breeding (two nests) had been reported

from the Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu Heronry (Ramakrishna

1990). Large congregations are mainly seen in Pulicat lake

during the onset of breeding in October; otherwise pelicans occur

in smaller flocks or singly. The birds also frequent the larger

water bodies around Pulicat lake, but avoid those with dense

aquatic vegetation. See Manakadan and Kannan (2003) for

more details of the Spot-billed Pelican in Pulicat-Nelapattu.

Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger R VC

The Little Cormorant is a breeding resident and was

seen throughout the year in Pulicat and in all the adjoining

freshwater water bodies. It breeds in heronries in Nelapattu,

Sriharikota (and bred till the 2001-2002 breeding season in

Tada). Santharam (unpublished data) recorded 92 nests at

Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu in January 1988. An extremely large

count of 3,445 birds (including 247 chicks) was recorded in

Nelapattu in March 1997 by Philip et al. (1998). The number

of breeding pairs recorded during our study at Nelapattu

ranged from 225 in 2005-2006 to 113 in 2006-2007.

Sivakumar and Manakadan (2005) reported c. 300 nests in

the Karimanal Heronry in Sriharikota Island.

Indian Shag Phalacrocorax fuscicollis R Ra

The Indian Shag is an uncommon species in the

Pulicat lake with only a record of 10 individuals obtained

near Togaramudi in the northern part of Pulicat lake in

February 2006. A few sightings were reported from Kudiri

Tank by the Forest Department. Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) had one record of three birds in Urugayya Lake

(Sriharikota Island) from 2001 to 2004. Though rarely seen

in Pulicat Lake and the other wetlands, up to 151 pairs were

recorded to nest in Nelapattu during the study period. Earlier

records include c. 1,200 birds during the 1987-88 breeding

season (Perennou 1990; Perennou and Santharam 1990) and

1,384 birds in January 1991 (Santharam, unpublished

data).

Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo V VRa

The only record of the Great Cormorant in the Pulicat

lake area is by Perennou and Santharam ( 1 990) reporting two

non-breeding birds in Nelapattu in January 1989. The species

appears to be a vagrant to the area.

Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster SM? Ra

There are no reports on the occurrence of the Oriental

Darter in Pulicat lake, and it has been recorded only in the

adjoining wetlands. Two to three birds were regularly seen

in Nelapattu during the 2000-2001 breeding season, but the

only sighting in Nelapattu after that was of a single bird in

January 2007. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded

three darters in April 2002 in the Madugu Wagu and solitary

birds during December 2002 and May 2004 in the Malliplate

(Mavalam) Wagu of Sriharikota Island. A solitary bird

was sighted in the Malliplate Wagu during August 2007

( B. Senthil Murugan pers. comm.). Santharam’s (unpublished

data) records for Nelapattu were two birds each in January

1991 and 1996, and four birds including a juvenile in January

2003.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

165

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Lesser Frigatebird Fregata arid V VRa

The only record of the Lesser Frigatebird, a pelagic

species, was of a female in Sriharikota Island in July 1991

(Rao and Mohapatra 1993a, 1993b; Samant and Rao 1996).

The Lesser Frigatebird has also been reported from

Chennai, about 40 km to the south of the Pulicat lake

(Santharam 1982).

Little Egret Egretta garzetta R VC

The Little Egret is a very common species occurring

throughout the year in Pulicat, and the other wetlands and

breeding in the heronries in the Pulicat area. Past records

include 20+ nests in January 1988 (Perennou and Santharam

1990) and 34 nests in January 1991 (Santharam, unpublished

data) in the Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu Heronry, 219 adults and

1 18 chicks in Nelapattu (Philip et al. 1998) and c. 150 nests

in the Sriharikota heronries during the 2001-2002 breeding

season (Sivakumar and Manakadan 2005). Samant and Rao

(1996) described it as ‘one of the commonest egret species

encountered in all water bodies’. The birds were mostly seen

in small flocks near drying pools and temporary wetlands,

sometimes occurring in large congregations of 1000+ birds

where fish get trapped in shallows.

Western Reef-Heron Egretta gularis SM? VRa

Only one individual was sighted in the northern part of

Pulicat near Pambali during November 2006. Rao (1998)

described it as ‘uncommon in most areas’ and reports of a

sighting from the northern areas of Sriharikota Island and

‘up to 5 individuals recorded at a time in Pulicat lagoon’.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record the species.

Santharam (unpublished data) recorded it in small numbers

on a few occasions in Pulicat lake.

Grey Heron Ardea cinerea R VC

The Grey Heron is relatively common throughout the

year in Pulicat, feeding especially in association with the

Painted Stork, Large Egret and Spot-billed Pelican. The

highest count of a congregation during this study was

of 103 birds in 2007. It has been reported breeding in the

Tada and Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu heronries with up to

30+ nests in Tada and 18 nests in Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu

(Perennou and Santharam 1990; Ramakrishna 1990;

Santharam, unpublished data), but does not usually breed in

Nelapattu. Anew breeding site is in Sriharikota Island, where

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) reported a total of

1 4 breeding pairs in the three heronries.

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea R O

The Purple Heron is a solitary and uncommon species,

seen only in thickly vegetated freshwater wetlands around

Pulicat lake. It was occasionally sighted from the wagus of

Sriharikota Island (Samant and Rao 1996; Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). The only breeding record

in the areas is of a nest at Nelapattu in August 1996

(Santharam, unpublished data).

Great Egret Egretta alba R VC

The Great Egret is a common species in Pulicat with

high counts of around 300 occasionally, and once of

7 1 7 birds. The only known breeding record of the species is

of six nests from the Karimanal Heronry in Sriharikota

(Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a; Sivakumar and

Manakadan 2005).

Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia R O

The Intermediate Egret was not recorded in Pulicat lake

during this study, but a few were occasionally recorded in

freshwater tanks. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) also

recorded the species only in freshwater habitats in Sriharikota

but not in Pulicat lake. Samant and Rao (1996) and Rao (1998)

describe its occurrence in Sriharikota Island as a ‘rather

uncommon in most water bodies but often seen in good

numbers towards February-March when individuals shift to

the island from Pulicat’. The only breeding records of the

species are of a nest in the Karimanal Heronry in Sriharikota

(Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a; Sivakumar and

Manakadan 2005) and of c. 10 nests in Nelapattu in January

2003 (Santharam, unpublished data).

Eastern Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis R O

The Eastern Cattle Egret is a common species largely

recorded in November and December. It is mostly seen in

ploughed fields following livestock. It becomes uncommon

during summer. The population visiting the Pulicat area

each year is probably in the range of 200 to 400 birds.

A few birds (10 pairs during the 2005-2006 breeding

season and 12 pairs during the 2006-2007 season) were

recorded to breed at Nelapattu during this study. Philip et al.

( 1998) had recorded 116 adults and 36 chicks during March

1997.

Indian Pond-Heron Ardeola grayii R VC

The Indian Pond-Heron is a common species in Pulicat

and the other wetlands, foraging mostly at the edges of water

bodies. They shift to wet agricultural fields when Pulicat

and the other water bodies dry up. A large congregation of

104 birds was recorded during March 2006 and another of

161 birds during January 2007. There are no records of the

species nesting in the Pulicat area.

166

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WATERBIRDS OF PUL.ICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Striated Heron Butorides striata R VRa

Only one bird was sighted during May 2005 and one in

December 2007 near Srinivasapuram in the northern part of

Pulicat. Rao (1998) obtained two sightings from Sriharikota

Island during his 3-year study, and B. Senthil Murugan (pers.

comm, in 2007) recorded one in the Beripeta Heronry

(Sriharikota) during February 2007. Santharam (unpublished

data) had a sighting of a bird in January 1998 in Sriharikota.

Black-crowned Night-Heron Nycticorax nycticorax R O

The Black-crowned Night-Heron was not recorded

from Pulicat lake, but c. 200 pairs breed in Nelapattu. It

also occurs in Sriharikota Island (Rao 1998) and probably

breeds there (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a; Sivakumar

and Manakadan 2005). Santharam (1982) recorded an adult

Night Heron killed by a Booted Eagle ( Hieraeetus pennatus).

Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis R VRa

The Yellow Bittern was not recorded during the study.

Rao (1998) and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) had one

sighting each from the Pedda Wagu area in Sriharikota Island.

Santharam (unpublished data) had three sightings of the species:

two birds in February 1990 in Sriharikota, and four birds in

Nelapattu and two birds at Kudiri Tank in August 1996.

Chestnut Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus R Ra

The Chestnut Bittern was recorded by Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a), recording solitary birds around the

Beripeta Heronry and Urugayya lake in Sriharikota in June

and October 2002, respectively. B. Senthil Murugan (pers.

comm, in 2007) obtained a number of sightings in dense

vegetation near the Malliplate (Mavalam) Wagu culvert in

Sriharikota. It probably breeds on the island. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded three birds at Nelapattu

(including a juvenile) during August 1996.

Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis R O

The Black Bittern was not recorded during the study.

(Rao 1998) obtained a few records in Sriharikota Island.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) obtained two records each

along the Buckingham Canal and Urugayya lake in

Sriharikota Island. B. Senthil Murugan (pers. comm, in 2007)

obtained a sighting in dense vegetation near the Malliplate

(Mavalam) Wagu culvert in Sriharikota Island. Santharam

(unpublished data) obtained two sightings of single birds from

Sriharikota Island (during March 1990 in Beripeta and April

1990 in Pedda Wagu).

Eurasian Bittern Botaurus stellaris WM VRa

The only record of the Eurasian Bittern is by Rao ( 1 998),

who sighted a bird from the marshy area of Pedda Wagu near

Ravanappa Chatram in Sriharikota during March 1991 .

Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala R VC

The Painted Stork is a very common resident species

in Pulicat and in the other larger wetlands. The highest count

obtained during this study was 645 birds off Beripeta during

August 2006. The species bred in some years in the

Vedurupattu-Edirpattu Heronry (c. 15 pairs) during this study,

but this heronry had earlier supported a larger number of nests;

200 nests (Ramakrishna 1996), 273 nests (Philip et al. 1998)

and 135 nests (Santharam 1998). It appears that the birds

have almost totally shifted to the heronries in Sriharikota since

the beginning of this century, with regular breeding in the

Beripeta heronry supporting more than 200 pairs.

Asian Openbill Anastomus oscitans R C

The Asian Openbill is a breeding migrant arriving in

September and departing by April. Being a freshwater species,

it is rarely seen in Pulicat lake, and the few records from

Pulicat lake were after rains. Rao ( 1 998) and Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) occasionally encountered the species in

the freshwater bodies of Sriharikota Island. It breeds in

Nelapattu, numbering 300 to 350 pairs.

I

Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus V VRa

The only record of the Woolly-necked Stork during this

study was a bird sighted in February 2001 at the outskirts of

Venadu village, an island in Pulicat. Santharam (unpublished

data) recorded a bird flying over Nelapattu during December

1987.

White Stork Ciconia ciconia WM VRa

Rao and Mohapatra ( 1993a) list the White Stork, but

without providing details. We recorded a pair in a freshwater

wetland north of Tada town amidst a flock of foraging Asian

Open-bill Stork in January 2005.

Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus SM Ra

About 200-250 Glossy Ibis were recorded annually

during November and December in crop fields adjacent to

Pulicat and in the Kudiri Tank. A flock of 19 birds was seen

in the Penubakkam Badava in Sriharikota Island in February

2002 (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). Santharam

(unpublished data) did not record the species in Pulicat before

1988, but recorded it subsequently on four occasions in

numbers ranging from 10 to 144 birds.

Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus R O

The Black-headed Ibis breeds in Nelapattu and was

X Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc„ 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

167

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

occasionally recorded in the Pulicat area, freshwater wetlands

and also inundated crop fields. Rao (1998) and Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) reported a few sightings from

Sriharikota Island. The maximum number of breeding pairs

observed at Nelapattu during this study was 198 in 2006.

Santharam (unpublished data) feels that the species is getting

to be commoner in Nelapattu in recent years: less than

100 birds used to be seen in the early 1980s, and since 1997,

there are sightings of over 200 individuals, plus a record of

250 birds in the Kudiri tanks in February 1990.

Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa V VRa

The occurrence of the Indian Black Ibis in Pulicat lake

is cited by Rao and Mohapatra (1993a) without providing

details. B. Senthil Murugan and J. Patrick David (pers. comm,

in 2007) sighted a flock of 40 birds in a paddy field near

Sullurpet in February 2007.

Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia R/SM? Ra

The Eurasian Spoonbill was occasionally recorded in

Pulicat and other freshwater wetlands in small numbers, with

the largest flocks of 170 to 200 birds recorded during April

and May 2006. Rao (1998) described the species as rare on

Sriharikota Island, and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

recorded the species once from Urugayya and Pulicat lakes.

The species was also seen in Nelapattu in small numbers of

10 to 15 birds during the breeding season. There are no recent

records of the species breeding in the Pulicat area, but it had

been recorded nesting in small numbers at Nelapattu in the

early 1980s (Santharam, unpublished data) and Ramakrishna

(1990) had reported three or four nests in Vedurupattu-

Edhirpattu.

Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber SM VC

The Greater Flamingo is a seasonal migrant seen largely

in winter, but some birds can be found almost throughout the

year. The numbers counted during this study were c. 8,000 in

2005, 15,000 in 2006 and 13,000 in 2007. Krishnan (1990)

reports 3,000+ flamingos in Pulicat lake in 1983, and Rao

and Mohapatra (1993a) cite figures ranging from 2,000+ to

5,000+ from 1988 to 1992 for both the flamingo species

together. Santharam’s (unpublished data) counts include

4,000 birds (including juveniles) in July 1996, 9,000 birds in

January 1998, and 8,000 birds in December 2000.

Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor SM Ra

The Lesser Flamingo was infrequently recorded in

Pulicat. The highest count was of c. 3,000 birds in May 2007.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) sighted it occasionally

during fortnightly censuses in the southern part of the lagoon,

with a maximum of c. 1 ,000 birds recorded during 2003-2004.

Birds were not recorded during the 2002-2003 season, a low

rainfall year. Rao ( 1998) found the species to be rare in Pulicat

lake. Santharam (unpublished data) recorded 5,300 birds in

January 1988, 300 birds in August 1996 and 100 birds in

December 1997.

Lesser Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna javanica R VRa

The Lesser Whistling-Duck was not recorded during

this study, but the species breeds in Sriharikota Island, where

flocks of 1 0 to 30 birds were recorded on a few occasions

(Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). They sighted two pairs,

one with 14 ducklings and the other with a duckling in the

Chinna Wagu in April 2002. The species was not recorded by

Rao ( 1998) in Sriharikota though it was reported by the earlier

BNHS survey (BNHS 1977). Senthil Murugan (pers. comm.)

sighted 23 birds in Kudiri Tank in 2007. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded 20 birds at Nelapattu in October

1981.

Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus WM Ra

The Bar-headed Goose is a rare winter migrant to the

Pulicat lake area. During this study, the species was recorded

only in December 2006 and January 2007, with flocks of up

to 150 birds mostly sighted in abandoned crop fields near

Moolah village, adjacent to Pulicat lake. Rao (1998) and

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) had only one sighting

each of about a dozen birds flying over Sriharikota.

Santharam's (unpublished data) counts include 200 birds from

the Pulincherry area in January 1998 and 150 birds in Venadu

Island in December 2000.

Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea WM VRa

Krishnan (1990) cites the occurrence of the Ruddy

Shelduck in the Pulicat area without providing details. The

only records of the Ruddy Shelduck after that are of six birds

sighted by us in the Kudiri tank in January 2001 and a record

of three birds in Nelapattu during the 200 1 Asian Waterfowl

Count (AWC). Santharam (unpublished data) recorded it

thrice (2-5 birds) along the Sriharikota-Sullurpet road from

1981 to 2000.

Comb Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos Locally Extinct?

The Comb Duck was recorded only during the first

BNHS survey (BNHS 1977), but details of the sightings were

not provided. Perennou (1990) had expressed alarm at the

low counts obtained during the AWC in India, commenting

that it is almost absent in southern India and extinct in

Sri Lanka. It appears to have become extinct in the Pulicat

area.

168

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Cotton Teal Nettapus coromandeliaiius R VRa

The Cotton Teal was not recorded during this

study. The first BNHS survey recorded ‘small flocks’ in the

Pedda and Chinna Wagus of Sriharikota (BNHS 1977).

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) sighted two birds in

August 2002 at the Mudugu Gunta. Rao (1998) had three

sightings during his 3-year study. Santharam (unpublished

data) recorded 100+ birds at a freshwater body near Tada in

October 1981.

Gadwall Anas strepera WM Ra

The Gadwall was reported in small numbers in

freshwater bodies of Sriharikota Island (Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). The species is listed by

Krishnan (1990), but details of the sightings are not provided.

Santharam (unpublished data) sighted 20+ birds in Sriharikota

Island in January 1990.

Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope WM Ra

The Eurasian Wigeon is a relatively uncommon

wintering duck frequenting only the freshwater wetlands.

About 50-60 birds were occasionally recorded in Kudiri Tank,

with high counts of 322 birds recorded during March 2006.

Rao (1998) and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

occasionally recorded the species in small numbers in the

freshwater streams in Sriharikota. Santharam (unpublished

data) found the species to be relatively common in the Pulicat

lake area, reporting counts of more than 2,000 birds in

December 1997 and January 1988. Additionally, he feels that

extremely large flocks of unidentified ducks seen on three

occasions from a considerable distance numbering around

37,000 (January 1998), 28,500 (January 1991) and 46,540

(January 1998), primarily consisted of this species and the

Northern Pintail considering the size.

Indian Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha R VC

The Indian Spot-billed Duck was largely recorded in

freshwater wetlands around Pulicat lake and to a much lesser

extent, in areas of the Pulicat lake that had submerged

vegetation. About 500 birds were seen in the Kudiri Tank

during April 2007. The species is common in Sriharikota

Island, with flocks of around 250 birds recorded each summer

in Urugayya lake (Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar

2004a). Breeding records were obtained from Sriharikota

Island and the Attakanitippa and Kudiri tanks.

Northern Shoveller Anas clypeata WM C

The Northern Shoveller was recorded in Kudiri Tank

and to a lesser extent Pulicat lake. The largest count recorded

was c. 1 ,700 birds near the Venadu mudflats in January 2007.

Rao (1998) described the species as ‘a very common

migratory duck recorded at all water bodies in the island’.

Northern Pintail Anas acuta WM VC

The Northern Pintail is the most common and abundant

migratory duck in Pulicat lake and the adjoining wetlands.

The largest count during this study was c. 3,300 birds. Samant

and Rao ( 1996) had recorded a flock of nearly 4,000 birds.

Around 500 birds were recorded by Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a), and the 1991 AWC recorded c. 12,500

birds (Rao and Mohapatra 1993a). Santharam’s (unpublished

data) counts ranged from 2,000+ (December 1997) to

4,300 birds (January 1998), but see also Eurasian Wigeon.

Garganey Anas qiierquediila WM C

The Garganey was recorded in freshwater tanks during

winter but was rarely seen in Pulicat lake. The highest counts

during the AWC were 436 and 320 birds in 2003 for Pulicat

and Nelapattu respectively. Rao (1998) had recorded up to

175 birds in water bodies of Sriharikota Island. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded 2,000+ birds in Pulicat lake along

the Sullurpet-Sriharikota road in December 1997.

Common Teal Anas crecca WM C

The Common Teal was largely recorded in the

freshwater wetlands, with a high count of c. 4,000 birds during

the study. Rao ( 1998) had a count of more than 750 birds in

Sriharikota in January 1991.

Common Pochard Aythya ferina WM VRa

The occurrence of the Common Pochard in Pulicat lake

area is cited by Krishnan (1990) and Rao and Mohapatra

( 1993a) without providing details. Philip etal. ( 1998) obtained

a count of 44 birds in Nelapattu. Santharam (unpublished

data) recorded two birds at Nelapattu in March 1 998 and found

the species to be common in freshwater bodies in Nellore

district. We had no sightings of the species since December

2000 while working under different projects.

Red-crested Pochard Rliodonessa rufina WM VRa

The Red-crested Pochard was recorded in small parties

(<100 birds) only during January and February of 2006, and

2007 in the Kudiri Tank. The species had not been reported

by earlier workers except Santharam (unpublished data), who

recorded 80 birds in January 1988 and 500+ birds in January

2005 in Kudiri Tank.

Tufted Pochard Aythya fuligula WM VRa

Philip et al. ( 1998) obtained a count of 1 12 birds in

Nelapattu. Santharam (unpublished data) recorded 140 birds

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

169

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

in the Tada area of Pulicat Lake in January 1998. The 2003

AWC reports a count of 230 birds. We have had no sightings

of the species from December 2000 while working under

various projects but found it to be common in the wetlands

of Gudur, c. 50 km north of Pulicat.

11 rah mi in Kite Haliastur indus R C

Rao (1998) and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

frequently recorded the Brahminy Kite in almost all the areas

of the Sriharikota Island and occasionally in Pulicat. During

this study, the species was recorded only in the southern part

of the Pulicat near fishing hamlets. Santharam (unpublished

data) used to record the species nesting regularly at Nelapattu

and feels it is on the decline in the Pulicat area.

White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster R C

The White-bellied Sea-Eagle is fairly common in

Sriharikota Island, with half a dozen nests reported (Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). The species was

frequently seen in and around Pulicat and Kudiri Tank during

this study.

Western Marsh-Harrier Circus aeruginosus WM O

Rao ( 1998) reported the Western Marsh-Harrier to be

common in most of the wetland areas in Sriharikota. The

species was not recorded by Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) in Sriharikota, but they had a sighting of two birds in

the northern part of Kudiri Tank. We recorded the species

regularly in the freshwater wetlands of Kudiri, Mallam and

Nelapattu.

Osprey Pandion haliaetus WM Ra

Rao (1998) recorded the Osprey occasionally in some

of the large waterbodies in Sriharikota and stated it to be

fairly common in Pulicat lagoon during winter. Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded only a pair in Pulicat Lagoon

off the Beripeta area of Sriharikota Island. Only a single bird

was sometimes recorded from the Annamalaicherry area of

Pulicat during this study. Santharam (unpublished data) had

seen one or two birds along the Sriharikota road in 1990, but

did not record the species subsequently.

SSaty-breasted Rail Rallus striatus R? VRa

The only earlier records of the Slaty-breasted Rail

in the Pulicat area were made during the first BNHS

survey in Sriharikota Island (BNHS 1977) and by Rao ( 1 998)

from ‘marshes near Sullurpet’, probably referring to the

Kudiri Tank. Recently, B. Senthil Murugan and J. Patrick

David (pers. comm, in 2007) obtained a road kill in

Sriharikota.

Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca R/SM? VRa

The only record of the Ruddy Crake is by Santharam

(unpublished data), who sighted a bird in January 1990 on

the Sriharikota Island.

European Water Rail Rallus aquaticus V VRa

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a, 2004b) sighted a

bird towards the end of May 2003 along the Pedda Wagu in

Sriharikota Island. This sighting is the southernmost record

of the species in India, which till then had not been reported

south of Mumbai (Punjabi 1997).

White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus R VC

The White-breasted Waterhen is a common resident

species and was frequently recorded in and around freshwater

habitats. Rao ( 1998) described it as common and seen in most

well watered areas of Sriharikota Island.

Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio R/SM? Ra

The Purple Swamphen was recorded in freshwater tanks

and largely in Kudiri Tank with about 10-15 birds recorded

yearly from January to March. Rao and Mohapatra (1993a)

list the species without providing details. The species was

ringed in Kudiri lake in February 1989 (Balachandran 1998).

Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus R VC

The Common Moorhen was recorded in Kudiri and the

other freshwater tanks. The highest count of 10 birds was

from the Kudiri Tank in January 2006. The species is common

and breeds in Sriharikota (Rao 1998; Manakadan and

Sivakumar 2004a), Nelapattu (Philip et al. 1998) and

Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu (Santharam 1998).

Eurasian Coot Fulica atra R/SM? Ra

The Eurasian Coot was recorded only in freshwater

tanks, and the highest count was of c. 250 birds in Kudiri

Tank in February 2006. Rao (1998) recorded it occasionally

from some of the freshwater bodies in Srihar ikota Island and

recorded c. 400 birds in May 1990 in Kudiri Tank. Philip

et al. (1998) recorded 42 adults and 36 chicks in Nelapattu,

and Santharam (1998) recorded breeding in the Vedurupattu-

Edhirpattu area.

Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus SM? O

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana was recorded in vegetated

freshwater tanks just after the monsoon and till March. The

highest count was 15 birds in Kudiri during March 2006.

Rao and Mohaptara (1993a) sighted the species mostly in

shallow freshwater bodies in Sriharikota Island with a count

of 11 birds in February 1992. Manakadan and Sivakumar

170

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

(2004a) described the species as an occasional seasonal migrant

in small numbers to Sriharikota. Santharam (unpublished data)

sighted four birds in non-breeding plumage at Nelapattu in

March 1998.

Greater Painted-Snipe Rostratula benghalensis WM O

The Greater Painted-Snipe was not recorded during the

study, but B. Senthil Murugan and J. Patrick David (pers.

comm, in 2007) obtained a sighting of a solitary bird in Kudiri

Tank during the winter of 2007. The species was sighted on a

few occasions around water bodies in Sriharikota in winter

(Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a; Santharam,

unpublished data).

Pacific Golden-Plover Pluvialis fulva WM C

The Pacific Golden-Plover is a regular winter migrant

to Pulicat. The high counts include 239 birds in April 2005 in

the Venadu mudflats and 341 birds in December 2006 at the

grassy edges of Kudiri Tank. Rao (1998) cites it as very

common in the coastal sand dunes in the north-eastern part

of Sriharikota, mentioning flocks of 10 to 15 birds. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded 1,500 birds in January 1998.

Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola WM O

The Grey Plover was rarely recorded in Pulicat lake

with a few sightings of solitary birds or a party of a few birds

from September till March. Rao (1998) described it as a

widespread and common winter visitor to Sriharikota Island

preferring coastal mudflats, reporting 12 birds in partial

breeding plumage in May 1991 . Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) recorded the species occasionally in the brackish

Urugayya lake (Sriharikota Island) and Pulicat.

Common Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula WM VRa

The Common Ringed Plover was not recorded during

the study and by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a). Rao

and Mohapatra (1993a) obtained several sightings from

Pulicat lake during the 1990-1991 season, stating the species

was rare but adding that these was a likelihood of it being

mistaken for the Little Ringed Plover. The species has been

reported from the Adyar Estuary in Chennai, c. 40 km from

Pulicat (Santharam 1989).

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius R/SM VC

The Little Ringed Plover is a breeding resident, occurring in

Pulicat lake and other open wetlands in the area. It was recorded

almost throughout the year during this study. Tribals say that

the species breeds in the dry bed of Katankayya lake (Sriharikota

Island) during summer (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). The

highest count of a congregation was of c. 800 birds in 2007.

Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus R/SM O

The Kentish Plover was recorded in small numbers or

in pairs almost throughout the year in Pulicat lake and in

other suitable freshwater and brackish water habitats. The

highest count was c. 400 birds in Pulicat. It was suspected to

breed in Pulicat lake (Samant and Rao 1996; Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a), and confirmed breeding

records were obtained during this study. Breeding records of

this predominantly winter migrant have been reported from

the Great Vedaranyam Swamp, Tamil Nadu (Sugathan 1982;

Manakadan 1992; Natarajan 1992).

Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus WM O/Ra

Most of the sightings of the Lesser Sand Plover were

from the southern areas of Pulicat in the Annamalaichery tidal

flats, with counts of up to 1,000 birds. It was not common in

the central and northern parts of Pulicat. Rao ( 1998) found it

to be not as common as the Kentish Plover, recording only

small flocks of 20-30 birds. Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) had only one sighting of nine birds in Urugayya lake

(Sriharikota) in October 2002.

Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii WM VRa

The Greater Sand Plover was not sighted during the

study. Mohapatra and Rao (1994) reported of a record from

Pulicat lake. Rao (1998) reported a possible sighting in March

1991 from the Chandrasikuppam area of Sriharikota Island,

and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded 1 4 birds in

August 2002 from the same area.

Black-fronted Plover Charadrius melanops V VRa

The only record of the species in Pulicat Lake (and in

the Indian subcontinent) is provided by T.C. Jerdon from June

1839/1840 (Ali and Ripley 1987), but the identity of the

species requires further substantiation (Rasmussen and

Anderton 2005).

Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus R C

The Red-wattled Lapwing is a common species in

freshwater habitats, mostly occurring in pairs and breeding

during April and May.

Pintail Snipe Galliuago stenura WM O

The only records of the Pintail Snipe are by Rao ( 1 998),

consisting of a few sight records and banding of a bird in

Sriharikota.

Common Snipe Galliuago galliuago WM O

We recorded the Common Snipe occasionally in grassy

areas under Prosopis bushes along the Pernadu road and in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

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WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

agricultural fields adjacent to freshwater wetlands. Sightings

were more during November and December just after the

monsoon. The species is listed by Rao and Mohapatra ( 1993a)

without providing details.

Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus WM VRa

The occurrence of the Jack Snipe in the Pulicat lake

area is reported by Rao and Mohapatra (1993a) without

providing details.

Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa WM C

The Black-tailed Godwit was a regular winter migrant to

Pulicat lake and Kudiri Tank. Large flocks of c. 1.000-2,000

birds were seen during October and January each year near the

Venadu mudflats, Kudiri Tank and adjoining paddy fields. Rao

( 1998) described it as ‘a regular but uncommon winter visitor’.

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus WM Ra

The Whimbrel was occasionally seen singly or in twos

or threes near Tada and in grasslands bordering the southern

part of Pulicat lake. Rao (1998) and Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) recorded it occasionally in Sriharikota

Island.

Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata WM O

The Eurasian Curlew was occasionally sighted in

Pulicat lake and in the Kudiri Tank usually occurring in small

parties of twos and threes. An extremely high count of

1 54 birds was sighted in the Annamalaicherry mudflats during

January 2007. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded

it occasionally during winter in suitable habitats in Sriharikota

Island. High counts by Santharam (unpublished data) are

50+ birds in Kudiri Tank in February 1990 and 70+ birds in

Pulicat lake in January 2005.

Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus WM Ra

The Spotted Redshank was only recorded during the

second BNHS project (Rao 1998) consisting of ringing and

sight records of single birds in December 1989 and April 1990.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record it during

the winter of 2001-2002, but recorded up to 200 birds

regularly during the 2002-2003 season in Pulicat lake. Only

a few birds were recorded during the following winter. During

April and May 2005, we recorded c. 60 birds in the Kudiri

Tank and the Moolah Cheruvu area of Pulicat. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded the species on two occasions:

one bird in April 1990 and 12 birds in January 2005.

Common Redshank Tringa totanus WM VC

The Common Redshank is one of the commonest

sandpipers in Pulicat lake, usually occurring in small flocks.

However, large congregations of almost 1,000 birds were

recorded sometimes in the Annamalicherry mudflats. The

species was also recorded in the Kudiri and Nelapattu tanks.

It was also regularly recorded by earlier workers (BNHS 1977;

Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis WM C

The Marsh Sandpiper was recorded occasionally

(usually after showers) in compact flocks of a few hundred

birds, and the highest count was c. 1 ,600 birds recorded during

January 2007 in Pulicat. The species was also recorded in

Kudiri and Nelapattu. It was also regularly recorded by earlier

workers (BNHS 1977; Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar

2004a).

Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia WM VC

The Common Greenshank is a common winter migrant

to Pulicat, usually occurring in ones or twos. Some birds over-

summer in Pulicat. Earlier studies too found the species to be

a common but not an abundant wintering migrant (BNHS

1977; Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). The

maximum count obtained during this study was 68 birds in

April 2006.

Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus WM Ra/VRa

The Green Sandpiper is a rare winter migrant. The only

record during the study was outside the study area - in a

drying freshwater tank near Gumudipoondi in June 2006.

Earlier studies too found the species to be uncommon (BNHS

1977; Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Santharam (unpublished data) recorded two birds in October

1981 in Nelapattu.

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola WM C

The Wood Sandpiper was rare in Pulicat but was a

common species in freshwater wetlands, occurring in small

parties. It was also seen in ploughed water-logged sites

adjacent to Pulicat lake. Earlier studies too found the species

to be uncommon in Pulicat (BNHS 1977; Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus WM VRa

The Terek Sandpiper was sighted only once by us in

April 2000 along the Sullurpet-Sriharikota road during an

earlier project. The only other record of the species in Pulicat

lake was a banding record in April 1991 (Rao 1998).

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos WM VC

The Common Sandpiper was common in Pulicat lake

172

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

and the adjacent water bodies, occurring at the edges solitarily.

It was also regularly recorded in winter by earlier workers

(BNHS 1977; Rao 1 998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres WM VRa

The Ruddy Turnstone is a rare winter migrant. Two

birds were recorded during May 2005 in the Annamalacherry

mudflats. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) sighted a bird

in Urugayya lake (Sriharikota) in October 2002. It could be

more common along the coast as it is primarily a dweller of

sandy or rocky shores (Ali and Ripley 1987).

Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris WM VRa

The record of the Great Knot is based on the banding

of six birds from 1990 to 1992 in Sriharikota Island

(Mohapatra and Rao 1992; Rao and Mohapatra 1994; Rao

1998).

Red Knot Calidris camitus WM VRa

The record of the Red Knot is based only on banding

records from 1990 to 1992 in Sriharikota Island (Mohapatra

and Rao 1993; Rao and Mohapatra 1994; Rao 1998).

Little Stint Calidris minuta WM VC

The Little Stint is the most abundant wader in Pulicat

lake; numbering around 20,000+ birds each year. Large flocks

were usually recorded in January or February as the northern

areas of Pulicat lake dry up and the birds get concentrated

along the Sullurpet-Sriharikota stretch of Pulicat, moving

southwards towards the lagoon edges as this stretch also

gradually dries up. Santharam (unpublished data) recorded

huge flocks of 30,000 birds in February 1990 and 16,000

birds in January 1991 probably of this species.

Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta WM VRa

The only record of the Long-toed Stint is from

Santharam (unpublished data), who sighted a bird in Kudiri

Tank in December 1997.

Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii WM O

Temminck’s Stint was uncommon in Pulicat lake during

this study, with relatively more sightings from Kudiri Tank and

the Sunnambukulam area of Pulicat. Sightings were more

common during 2000-2003 during an earlier BNHS project,

when a few hundred birds were sometimes recorded in Kudiri

Tank.

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea WM Ra

The Curlew Sandpiper was rarely recorded during the

study. The largest congregation recorded was about 200 birds

in the Annamalaicherry tidal flats in May 2007. The species

was not recorded during the first BNHS project (BNHS

1977), and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) obtained

only two sightings of solitary birds in Pulicat during August

and September 2002. However, Rao (1998) reported it to

be fairly common in Pulicat between September and mid

March and recorded a bird with a Polish ring that was

banded in the Arctic Circle region (Rao and Mohapatra

1993a).

Dunlin Calidris alpina WM VRa

Rao and Mohapatra (1993a) list the Dunlin without

providing details.

Ruff Philomachus pugnax WM C

The Ruff is one of the most common waders of Pulicat.

It was also regularly sighted in Kudiri Tank. Rao (1998)

reported it to be uncommon in Sriharikota, but we recorded

flocks frequently in Pulicat lake, with the highest count

c. 1,900 birds in January 2007.

Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus WM C

The Black-winged Stilt was a common and regular

winter migrant occurring in flocks of a few hundred birds in

Pulicat and other wetlands. Around 500 birds were sighted in

November 2007 in Kudiri Tank. Santharam (unpublished data)

counted 800 birds in January 1998.

Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta WM VRa

The Pied Avocet was rarely recorded during the study.

In June 2006, a flock of c. 1 5,000 birds was recorded in Pulicat

lake. Rao ( 1998) recorded a flock of c. 500 birds during the

1 989- 1 990 winter season. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

had only one sighting of a small flock in Pulicat lake during

their 3-year study. Santharam (unpublished data) recorded

the species on five occasions in Pulicat lake, with flocks

ranging from 200 to 845 birds.

Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus WM VRa

The Red-necked Phalarope was recorded only twice

during the study in the Sullurpet-Sriharikota mudflats in

September 2005 and 2006. The other reports of the species

were of a bird in Urugayya lake of Sriharikota in October

2002 Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) and banding of six

birds in September 1990 (Rao and Mohapatra 1994).

Small Pratincole Glareola lactea SM? Ra

The only record of the Small Pratincole from the Pulicat

area is of three birds sighted at Vedurupattu-Ethirpattu in

January 1991 by Santharam (unpublished data).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

173

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldiivarum SM? Ra

Past records of the Oriental Pratincole include banding

records by Rao and Mohapatra (1992) from Kudiri Tank, and

sightings (Santharam, unpublished data) of birds in Nelapattu:

two birds in August 1996 and one bird in August 1997. We

recorded the species on a few occasions at the margins of

Kudiri Tank: the records include 128 birds in August 2005

and 28 birds in June 2007.

Heuglin’s Gull Larus heuglini WM VRa

The Heuglin’s Gull (earlier treated as the Lesser

Blackbacked Gull Larus.fuscus) was only recorded during

the first BNHS survey of Sriharikota Island (BNHS 1977).

Great Black-headed Gull Larus ichthyaetus WM VRa

The Great Black-headed Gull was recorded yearly from

January to March in Pulicat lake, but mostly from the northern

and southern parts. The maximum count was 114 birds,

recorded during March 2006. Rao (1998) and Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the species in small numbers

in the Kudiri Tank. Santharam (unpublished data) sighted

the species twice, with counts of 20+ (January 2005) and

30+ birds (January 2003)

Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus WM C

The Brown-headed Gull is the most common gull

wintering in Pulicat lake. The highest count was of 669 birds

during the study. Rao (1998) reported flocks of more than

150 birds and Santharam (unpublished data) includes a count

of 550 birds.

Common Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus WM?

The Common Black-headed Gull was described as very

common during winter in Pulicat (BNHS 1977; Rao 1998).

However, it was not recorded from 2002 to 2004 by

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a), during this study, or by

Santharam during his visits spread over 27 years. We suspect

that these records were actually of juvenile Brown-headed

Gulls (see Discussion).

Gull-billed Tern Gelocbelidon nilotica WM VC

The Gull-billed Tern is a common winter migrant to

Pulicat, foraging mostly solitarily or in twos or threes.

A resting flock of c. 250 birds was seen near the Venadu

mudflats in January 2007.

Caspian Tern Sterna caspia WM C

The Caspian Tern is a common tern in the lagoon areas

of Pulicat and was recorded almost throughout the year.

It was not recorded in freshwater wetlands, except for resting

birds in Koridi Tank. About 300 resting birds were seen near

the Venadu mudflats in December 2006.

Common Tern Sterna hirundo WM VRa

The Common Tern, largely a coastal species (Ali and

Ripley 1987), was reported to be less common than other

terns during the 1989-1990 season in Pulicat and there are

records of the banding of seven birds (Rao and Mohapatra

1993a, 1994; Mohapatra and Rao 1994). The species was not

recorded during this study and by Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a).

Little Tern Sterna albifrons R/SM? Ra

The Little Tern was recorded only in freshwater tanks

during winter, mostly in Kudiri Tank. The maximum number

counted was 100-150 resting birds in January 2005. Samant

and Rao (1996), Rao (1998), and Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) recorded small flocks of 15-20 birds occasionally in

Pulicat lake.

Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda V VRa

We obtained only two records of the Black-bellied

Tern in the Pulicat lake area with records of single

birds near Annamalaicherry in December 2006 and July

2007. The species has not been reported by earlier

workers.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus WM VC

The Whiskered Tern is the most common tern in Pulicat

lake and in the freshwater wetlands. A flock of c. 300 resting

birds was recorded in December 2006 in the northern part of

the Pulicat. Rao (1998) and Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) found it to be common and widespread, recording

birds also during the non-migratory season. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded a flock of 1 ,490 birds flying down

the river at Vedurupattu-Ethirpattu (going to roost?) in

February 1998.

White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus WM VRa

The only record of the White-winged Tern is by

Santharam (unpublished data), who sighted a bird in Pulicat

lake in August 1996.

Black Tern Chlidonias niger WM VRa

The only earlier record of the Black Tern in Pulicat

was based on a bird banded in Sriharikota in October 1990,

the record being the first for the species in Andhra Pradesh

(Rao and Mohapatra 1993c, 1994). A possible sighting of a

single bird was obtained during this study in Kudiri Tank in

January 2001.

174

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Brown Fish-Owl Ketupa zeylonensis R Ra

The only records of the Brown Fish-Owl in Pulicat area

are by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a), who sighted birds

at two sites in Sriharikota.

Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis R O

Sightings of the Common Kingfisher were rare at

Pulicat lake. It was more frequently sighted around freshwater

wetlands. The species is common in Sriharikota (Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis R C

The White-throated Kingfisher is a common species in

the area and was recorded in a variety of habitats even away

from water sources.

Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata R/SM? Ra

The Black-capped Kingfisher was not recorded in

Pulicat lake during the study. Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) recorded the species along the Buckingham Canal

on two occasions and a bird at the brackish water Urugayya

lake on Sriharikota in January 2002. Rao (1998) termed it as

‘a winter migrant to the island affecting mangrove habitat’.

Lesser-Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis R O

The Lesser-Pied Kingfisher was occasionally recorded,

throughout the year in Pulicat lake and most of the other

wetlands, especially around jetties and canals. A nest was seen

near Tada. The species was also recorded by earlier workers

(BNHS 1977; Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Other than the above discussed species, three species

of wetland dependent wagtails Yellow Wagtail Motacilla

flava , Grey Wagtail Motacilla citreola and White-browed

Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis were recorded in the

Pulicat lake area, mostly occurring at the margins of

freshwater waterbodies, but details of these sightings were

not maintained as for other waterbird species. Of these, the

Yellow Wagtail and the Grey Wagtail are winter migrants;

and the White-browed Wagtail is a resident species. The

Yellow-wattled Lapwing Vanellus malabaricus and the Indian

Stone-Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus also occur in the area,

but we have not included these species - though generally

listed in waterfowl count exercises - as these rarely occur

around wetlands (Ali and Ripley 1987; Rasmussen and

Anderton 2005).

DISCUSSION

Waterbirds of Pulicat Lake

Pulicat primarily serves as the foraging ground for

brackish water-preferring bird species comprising residents,

seasonal migrants and winter migrants from the Palaearctic

region. Within Pulicat, an important foraging ground for

waterbirds is the shallow region in the central part of the Lake

between Sriharikota and Kudiri, which is the area mostly

visited by birders due to easy accessibility (Fig. 1 ). This area

is primarily important during November to January/early

February after which it gets flooded during the North-east

monsoon rains, and especially during the drying stages when

it attracts large numbers of piscivorous birds (especially

around the many culverts along the Sullurpet-Sriharikota

road) and wader species, including flamingos. Another

important site is the Moolah Kuppam area on the western

edge of Pemadu Island, especially after the Kudiri-Sriharikota

stretch dries up. This is a site where the Greater Flamingo

may be seen almost throughout the year as borne out by this

and the earlier study by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a).

Yet another important area is Annamalaicherry at the southern

end. Though part of the lagoon habitat, which is generally

‘bird poor’, Annamalaicherry supports high species richness

and abundance of waterbirds due to a mix of micro-habitats

created by various factors, and this is another site in Pulicat

where the Greater Flamingo can be seen almost throughout

the year. All these three areas need to be given special focus

during the AWC to obtain better estimates of the bird

population of Pulicat lake.

The northern areas of Pulicat are poor in bird diversity

and only support populations in low densities during the

North-east monsoon season, as they are shallow and remain

dry for most of the summer. The southern lagoon part is deep

and unattractive to most bird species, except for the margins

and especially where uneven margins create micro-habitats

attractive to birds as in the Annamalaicherry area. However,

birds have to necessarily move to the lagoon areas as the

northern and central areas of Pulicat lake dry up. The lagoon

areas are also more attractive to duck species due to the

abundance of aquatic vegetation, which the central and

northern areas lack due to frequent drying and higher salinity.

As for the populations of waterbird species of Pulicat,

it is difficult to arrive at estimates due to the vastness of the

area, the difficult logistics involved in reaching most areas

and the movements of birds primarily influenced by changing

water regimes. AWC counts of the Pulicat lake area have

ranged from a high of 83,806 in 1988 to lows of c. 10,000 in

1991 and 1992, but from our experience, we feel that most of

these differences are more due to chance and the effort and

areas covered rather than annual variations in populations.

Most of the AWC exercises were along the Sriharikota-

Sullurpet stretch of Pulicat lake due to the easy accessibility

and bird concentrations during that period. Even here, counts

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

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WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

of waterbirds can vary considerably within a 2-week period

depending on water levels, with the maximum number of birds

expected when the drying stage creates a mosaic of shallow

water, exposed flats and drying pools, with high

concentrations of prey trapped in the shallows and the

mudflats. Future waterfowl counts need to cover the Moolah

Kuppam and Annamalaicherry areas to obtain better estimates

of the bird populations of Pulicat.

Six species of Vulnerable or Near-Threatened species

(classification of BirdLife International (2001) occur in the

Pulicat area. Of these, the Oriental Darter and the Black-

bellied Tern are rare in the Pulicat area. The Lesser Flamingo

is rare compared to the Great Flamingo in Pulicat Lake, but a

high count of 3,000 birds was recorded in May 2007. which

is more than 1% of the biogeographic population of this

species ( 1 ,500 birds; Islam and Rahmani 2004), which makes

Pulicat an important wintering site for this species. The

populations of the Spot-billed Pelican (Vulnerable), Black-

headed Ibis (Near-Threatened) and the Painted Stork (Near-

Threatened). all of which breed in the heronries in the area,

also significantly surpass their estimated 1% biogeographic

population of 40, 100 and 100 birds, respectively. For these

reasons alone, the Pulicat lake area easily qualifies for the

status of a Ramsar Site.

There appear to have been some changes over the years

in the population of some waterbird species in the Pulicat

area, judging from the findings obtained by earlier workers

and our study. However, definite conclusions cannot be

arrived at, taking into account the areas covered and the time

frame of these studies. Some of the very obvious changes are

with regard to the Indian Reef-Heron and Osprey. Samant

and Rao ( 1996) mentioned that ‘up to five individuals’ of the

Indian Reef-Egret were recorded at a time in Pulicat lake.

There was only a sighting of a bird during this project in the

northern part of Pulicat; the species was not recorded by

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) during their 3-year study.

However, Samant and Rao (1996) reported it to be fairly

common in Pulicat lake from September to mid-March. The

Osprey was reported to be common by Samant and Rao (1996),

but only a pair was occasionally sighted from one site of Pulicat

lake by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) and only one bird

was recorded on rare occasions during this study.

As for suspected and probable wrong cases of

identification, there appears to be a confusion in separating

the Indian Shag from the Little Cormorant. Perusing a list of

birds handed over to the Nelapattu Forest Department by a

birdwatchers group during the 2001-2002 breeding season,

we found that all the nesting cormorants had been identified

as the Little Cormorant, while except for half a dozen nests

of this species that year, all the other 200-odd nests were

those of the Indian Shag. Perennou ( 1 990) had also expressed

doubts about confusion in identification between the Indian

Shag and the Little Cormorant in India resulting in

undercounts for the former in the AWC while considering

his count of c. 1,200 Indian Shag in Nelapattu during the

1987-1988 breeding season. However, there also appear to

be fluctuations in the nesting numbers of these two species

as Philip etal. (1998) had counts of <3,000 Little Cormorant

and only four Indian Shag in 1998, and during this study, the

number of breeding Indian Shags was just a little less than

that of Little Cormorant, in contrast to the earlier discussed

2001-2002 observation.

We are of the opinion that juveniles of the Brown-

headed Gull (which do not have wing minors unlike adults)

have got wrongly identified as the Common Black-headed

Gull in Pulicat (and also in the Great Vedaranyam Swamp,

Tamil Nadu) by earlier workers. The Common Black-headed

Gull was described as very common during winters in Pulicat

lake (BNHS 1977; Samant and Rao 1996) but was not

recorded by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a), and also

during this project. Ali and Ripley (1987) report the species

to be more common on the western seaboard of peninsular

India and also mention that published sight records are not

free from ambiguity with the similar looking Brown-headed

Gull. The second author, who worked in the Great

Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS) for about 4 years during the

1980s, recorded the smaller Common Black-headed Gull only

once as a large flock during the return migration period

(Manakadan 1991), though it is reported to be a common

species in some publications (Ali and Hussain 1981, 1982;

Sugathan 1982). The species was also not reported by

Natarajan ( 1992).

The Intermediate Egret was not recorded in Pulicat during

this study, but a few birds were occasionally recorded in

freshwater tanks. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) too

recorded the species only in freshwater habitats in Sriharikota

but not in Pulicat. Samant and Rao ( 1996) state its distribution

in Sriharikota Island to be ‘rather uncommon in most

waterbodies but often seen in good numbers towards February-

March when individuals shift to the island from Pulicat'. It

appears that in areas where there is an abundance of freshwater

habitats, the Intermediate Egret will stick exclusively to such

sites. The second author, who worked in the GVS for about

four years during the 1980s, did not record the species there

(Manakadan 1991), while earlier publications cite its

occurrence (Ah and Hussain 1981, 1982; Sugathan 1982).

All the birds recorded during the breeding season in the GVS

were found to have plumes only on the back as in Great Egret

(vs. back and breast in case of Intermediate Egret - see Ali

and Ripley 1987).

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WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

Another likely case of wrong identification is the

reported sighting of Pallas’s Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus

leucoryphus during the 2004 AWC. We suspect this to be a

misidentification of an immature White-bellied Sea-Eagle,

which has a plumage similar to that of an adult Pallas’s Sea-

Eagle as we had also made the same assumption once. The

confirmed southernmost record for the species is Chilika Lake,

Orissa (Ali and Ripley 1987).

Waterbirds of Adjoining Wetlands

Species partial to freshwater habits are distributed over

a number of freshwater habitats on the mainland and in the

islands in Pulicat including Sriharikota. Among these, Kudiri

Tank at the outskirts of Sullurpet is a very important wetland

for waterbirds. The tank becomes especially attractive for

waterbirds when Pulicat lake starts to dry up over large tracts

towards the end of early February. The lake gets more or

less filled by an assortment of birds till the migrants leave

for their breeding grounds towards the end of March and the

tank dries up in May/June. The wetlands in Sriharikota have

become an important habitat, especially for freshwater bird

species and also serve as a breeding site for waterfowl species

after the island was taken over by ISRO as it is now almost

free of human disturbance.

Realising the importance of the southern Kudiri Tank

for the Spot-billed Pelican and other waterbird species during

an earlier project, Manakadan and Kannan (2003) had

recommended that the tank be taken over by the Forest

Department and a part of it be developed as a breeding site

for heronry species on the lines of Nelapattu. It is almost

certain that birds will start breeding at this site once it is

developed, judging from the new heronries that have got

established in Sriharikota Island. We again recommend that

the tank be taken over by the Forest Department (or the

SDSC-SHAR). Kudiri Tank could also turn out to be a very

important tourist attraction in the Pulicat area due to its easy

accessibility as it is at the outskirts of Sullurpet and on the

road to Sriharikota. Suggested conservation and development

measures are:

1 . Fencing of the tank to demarcate the boundary of the

lake and protect it from encroachments.

2. Creating mounds in the tank planted with suitable

nesting trees species (e.g.. Acacia nilotica and

Barringtonia acutangula). A few mounds should not

be planted with trees so that they serve as resting and

roosting sites for ducks, terns, pelicans, etc.

3. Deepening of the eastern and southern part of

the tank, and adoption of a strategy for releasing water

up to the tank’s current capacity, and not the extra water

obtained due to deepening, so as not to create conflicts

with locals for irrigation needs. The soil excavated for

deepening the tank could be used for creating the

mounds suggested under (2). As this tank is currently

not of importance to fisheries unlike the deeper

northern Kudiri Tank, conflicts with fishermen will

not be a major issue. The western and northern part of

the tank should not be deepened, and they may provide

a habitat for shallow water-preferring bird species.

Heronries

The Pulicat lake area was known to have only three

heronries till the end of the last century, all on the mainland,

of which Nelapattu is the largest and most well known. Three

more heronries were discovered during the beginning of this

century in Sriharikota by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a).

The six heronries in the Pulicat area support/supported

1 3 species of colonial waterbirds, namely, Little Cormorant,

Indian Shag, Spot-billed Pelican, Little Egret, Grey Heron,

Great Egret, Intermediate Egret, Eastern Cattle Egret, Black-

crowned Night-Heron, Painted Stork, Asian Openbill, Black-

headed Ibis and Eurasian Spoonbill. Given below is an

account of the heronries in the Pulicat area.

Nelapattu

Eight heronry species were recorded breeding in

Nelapattu during the study period: Little Cormorant, Indian

Shag, Spot-billed Pelican, Little Egret, Eastern Cattle Egret,

Black-crowned Night-Heron, Asian Openbill and Black-

headed Ibis. The Eurasian Spoonbill was not recorded to

breed at Nelapattu during this study and during our earlier

studies (since 2000) though a few birds arrived each year

during the breeding season. As for past breeding records of

the species, Santharam (unpublished data) recorded it nesting

in small numbers at Nelapattu in the early 1980s, and

Ramakrishna (1990) had reported three or four nests in

Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu. More than 500 pairs of Spot-billed

Pelican were recorded breeding during the 2005-2006 and

2006-07 breeding seasons, these numbers being much higher

than those recorded during 2004-2005 and during an earlier

3-year project (Manakadan and Kannan 2003), when around

250 pairs nested annually.

The Nelapattu Heronry is well protected, and the

Forest Department has been taking up activities for the

development and conservation of the heronry. The main

problem now facing Nelapattu is from tourist activity -

though the birds are apparently unaffected, judging from the

nesting success. The influx of tourists is extremely high

(in the thousands) during the annual Flamingo Festival

organised by the Tourism Department in collaboration with

other governmental departments. A lot of noise and litter is

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

177

WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU

generated during the festival. Probably, the barrier of water

and the densely vegetated walkway considerably reduce

the disturbance by tourists. Another conservation issue

that will be especially relevant in the future will be the need

to have more nesting trees to accommodate the increase in

nesting birds taking into account the breeding success

each year. An alternative would be to develop an

additional heronry, like the Kudiri Heronry suggested

earlier.

Tada (Bolegalupadu)

Breeding did not take place in the Tada (Bolegalupadu)

Heronry during the 2004-05 breeding season, but took place

during the 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 seasons, with five pairs

of Grey Heron breeding each year. Around the same number of

herons along with about 25 pairs of Little Cormorant were

recorded breeding in the heronry during 2002 by us. The future

of the heronry is bleak, with only one of the three nesting trees

remaining and even this tree facing pressures from the houses

that have come up, right under it. The new heronries in

Sriharikota are probably constituted by birds (hat have

abandoned the Tada and Vedurupattu-Edirpattu heronries - see

below.

Vedurupattu-Edirpattu Heronry

Breeding did not take place in the Vedurupattu-Edirpattu

Heronry during the 2004-05 and 2006-07 breeding seasons,

but 20 nests of Painted Stork and 1 5 nests of Little Egret were

recorded during the 2005-2006 breeding season. No direct

threats face the Vedurupattu-Edirpattu Heromy, except that it

appears that most of the birds have shifted to the new heronries

in Sriharikota Island, probably due to better nesting and foraging

conditions available in the Sriharikota area. The Vedurupattu-

Edirpattu Heromy had earlier supported around 200 breeding

pairs of Painted Stork (see species account). As for earlier

breeding records of other species, Perennou and Santharam

(1990) had recorded 92 nests of the Little Cormorant, 13 nests

of the Grey Heron and 20 nests of the Little Egret. A few cases

of nesting of the Spot-billed Pelican were also reported

Au, S. & S.A. Hussain (1981 ): Studies on the movement and population

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Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 141.

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Anon (1908): The Imperial Gazetteer of India Vols. IX: 32-33,

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(Ramakrishna 1990; Santharam 1998). Considering these above

mentioned factors and since the future of village based heronries

is more prone to risks compared to those in protected areas

(Manakadan and Kannan 2003), we do not offer

recommendations for the conservation of this heronry.

Sriharikota Heronries

Information on the discovery of the three heronries in

Sriharikota Island (Madugu, Beripeta and Karimanal) and

their breeding birds and site conditions have already been

published elsewhere (Sivakumar and Manakadan 2005).

Together, these heronries were recorded to have around

300 nests of the Little Cormorant, 150 nests of the Little

Egret, 6 nests of the Great Egret, 1 nest of the Intermediate

Egret, 18 nests of the Grey Heron, and 200+ nests of the

Painted Stork. The Beripeta Heronry is now the major

heronry for the Painted Stork, which in all likelihood

comprises of birds that used to breed in the Vedurupattu-

Edirpattu Heronry. The three heronries in Sriharikota are

relatively well protected and face little human related

pressures, especially for the past few years, as Sriharikota is

a high-security zone and the authorities of the SDSC-SHAR

being keen to conserve and develop the heronries. SDSC-

SHAR is developing the Beripeta Heronry on the lines of

Nelapattu (on our recommendations) and such positive

developments could also be expected to take place for the

other two heronries in future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Ministry of Environment & Forests,

Government of India for funding the study and the Andhra

Pradesh Forest Department for giving permission to work in

the area and for generous cooperation and help. We thank a

number of members of the Madras Naturalists’ Society for

providing help in various ways. We also thank the ISRO

authorities at the SDSC-SHAR Centre, Sriharikota for

providing us the necessary permission and other facilities for

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

181-195

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1

Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri2'3 Asad R. Rahmani2-4 and B. Senthilmurugan2-5

'Accepted July 18. 2007

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S B, Singh Road. Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

'Present address: Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, Rajouri 185 131. Jammu & Kashmir, India. Email: [email protected]

'Email: bnhs@[email protected]

'Email : sentrogon @ redi ffmai 1 .com

Although excellent bird collections have been amassed front the Nilgiris in southern India and several bird surveys

have been conducted since the late 19th century, they were either focused on the lower elevations, species specific or

not intensive. Bird surveys and community investigations in the higher elevations of the Nilgiris are few, with results

generally unpublished, or described only in travelogues. In the course of this first systematic effort to study the bird

community structure and ecology of this region, several rare and significant birds were recorded and their status

evaluated. We present here an annotated checklist of 192 bird species, of which 145 were recorded by us between

December 2000 and April 2004, and 47 are records of other workers from the Upper Nilgiris Plateau ( 1,700 m above

msl). The species list also includes ten Threatened birds: five recorded during this study and five recorded by other

workers in the past. The checklist also includes seven Near Threatened species, including four recorded during this

study and three by other workers. A review of the literature indicates a drastic decline in the populations of wintering

snipes, Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola and some raptors, and the disappearance of four vulture species.

Threatened species and Western Ghats endemics, such as the Black-chinned Laughingthrush Trochalopteron cachinnans

and the White-bellied Blue Robin Myiomela albiventris , and the winter visitor Kashmir Flycatcher Ficedula subrubra

were identified to be at risk on account of habitat loss and anthropogenic pressures. We discuss the conservation

problems for the avifauna of the Upper Nilgiris Plateau.

Key words: Upper Nilgiris, Western Ghats, Endemic bird species. Threatened birds, Shola, Mukurthi National Park

INTRODUCTION

Since the 19th century many bird collections have been

carried out on the birds of the Nilgiri Hills of the Western

Ghats in India. Most of these bird surveys were either focused

on the lower elevations or were not intensive with their

records generally remaining unpublished or being described

in travelogues on exploratory visits. Bird community

investigations in the higher elevations of the Nilgiris are

scarce. Davison ( 1 883) gave perhaps the earliest and the most

comprehensive account of the birds of the Nilgiris, based on

his personal observations and bird collections. Cardew ( 1 885)

provided accounts of some species unrecorded or considered

doubtful by Davison (1883). Baker and Inglis (1930)

included natural history records on several Nilgiri birds from

early 20th century, while Betts (1931) recorded observations

on the behaviour and status of bulbuls, and other birds of the

Nilgiris. The ecological problems of the Nilgiris were

discussed by Navarro ( 1 966), and Ali ( 1 977 ) highlighted the

affinities of the Nilgiri and Himalayan fauna, including the

laughingthrushes.

Ornithological explorations in the Upper Nilgiris

during recent decades have focused on either a single species

or a group. For example, Khan (1979) studied the ecology

of the Black-and-Orange Flycatcher Ficedula nigrorufa.

Islam ( 1985) studied the ecology and behaviour of the Black-

chinned Laughingthrush Trochalopteron cachinnans.

Thirumurthi and Balaji ( 1999) surveyed raptors in Nilgiris,

while Vijayan et al. (2000) conducted a preliminary status

survey of the Black-chinned Laughingthrush. Autecology

works have been carried out on a few species including the

Black-chinned Laughingthrush by Zarri (2005).

The present study was the first intensive investigation

of the composition and status of the birds of the Upper

Nilgiris Plateau. This paper describes a total of 1 92 species

for the Upper Nilgiris, including the species reported by

earlier authors. During the course of this study nine Western

Ghats endemics and several threatened species were

recorded. A review of literature suggests a decline in the

populations of several birds and the disappearance of some

species.

STUDY AREA

Upper Nilgiris Plateau

The area covered in this paper is part of the Nilgiri

Hills from 1 ,700 m above msl to the summit of Dodabetta

(2,634 m above msl) and is commonly known as the Upper

Nilgiris Plateau and lies between 11° 10' to 10° 30' N and

76° 25’ to 77° 00' E (Fig. 1). Kerala bounds the Nilgiri Hills

on the west, Karnataka on the north and Coimbatore district

on the south-east. Eight Important Bird Areas (IB As) have

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Fig. 1: Location of the Nilgiri hills, Western Ghats, India

been identified recently from the Nilgiris (Islam and Rahmani

2004).

The Nilgiris is a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

and occupies the highest and westernmost part of Tamil Nadu

State. The Nilgiris is located in the Western Ghats (Zone-5)

as per the biogeographic classification of India (Rodgers and

Panwar 1988). The Upper Nilgiris Plateau rises sharply from

the surrounding country and is divided by a range of peaks

running in a general north-south direction, the highest point

being Dodabetta (2,634 m above msl), which is also the

second highest peak in the Western Ghats after Anaimudi

(2,695 m above msl). The western end of the Plateau is sheer

rock, while the interior of the Plateau consists mainly of

undulating grassy hills divided by narrow valleys, each

one containing a stream or swamp surrounded by shola

thickets. The Upper Nilgiris Plateau forms the main

watershed for two important tributaries (Bhavani and Moyar)

of the Cauvery river. There are numerous streams, draining

either into the Moyar, which flows eastward through

a deep gully along the northern border of the district or

into the Bhavani that flows on the southern border. The

area receives both the Southwest and Northeast

monsoons, during which the western Upper Nilgiris

Plateau towards Mukurti National Park (MNP) and its

surroundings receives up to 5,600 mm rainfall per year

(Lengerue 1977).

Mukurti National Park

The Mukurti National Park (MNP) is the only protected

area falling under our intensive study area and lies within

11° 10 -11° 22' N and 76° 26'-76° 34' E. It forms a key

protected area for conservation of high altitude grassland flora

and fauna. MNP encompasses an area of 78.46 sq. km, and

the entire terrain is undulating grassland with patches of

montane evergreen forest (shola) confined to the folds of hills

and depressions. The average altitude is around 2,400 m above

msl. There are several peaks, the highest being Kolari Betta

2,630 m above msl. Mukurti was declared a wildlife sanctuary

in 1980 under the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 and a

national park in 1990, mainly for the protection of the

endangered Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus hylocrius.

Vegetation types in the Upper Nilgiris

The vegetation of the Upper Nilgiris can be broadly

classified into Southern Montane Wet Forest (shola),

grasslands and exotic plantations. Most of the forested area

in the Nilgiris is under plantation, with very few natural shola

patches. The Southern Montane Wet Forest type is classified

as 1 1 A (Type C 1 /SD2) by Champion and Seth ( 1 968 ) and is

found above 1,700 m elevation and comprises short to medium

size evergreen trees of both tropical and temperate origin

(Shetty and Vivekananthan 1971). Such forest patches occur,

as a Rile at the heads of streams and in the folds of converging

182

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Fig. 2: The Nilgiris with localities described in the text

(1) Avalanche; (2) Bangitappal; (3) Bembatti; (4) Bikkatti; (5) Bison Swamp; (6) Cairn Hill; (7) Devar Betta; (8) Dodabetta; (9) Emerald;

(10) Governor Shola; (11) Kolari Betta; (12) Ittalar; (13) Kotagiri; (14) Kodanadu; (15) Kundha; (16) Lawrence; (17) Mukurti Peak;

(18) Naduvattam; (19) Nadukani; (20) Parson’s Valley; (21) Sispara; (22) Snowdon; (23) Taishola Tea Estate; (24) Upper Bhavani;

(25) Western Catchment II; (26) Western Catchment III; (27) Solur

species. In general, montane grasslands are located in high

altitude areas of the Western Ghats. Once found on the entire

Upper Nilgiris Plateau, such grasslands are presently confined

to MNP with only a few good patches seen in Upper Bhavani,

Lakkedi, Bison Swamp and other places. After clear felling

of natural forest and burning of grasslands plantations of

several exotic species were raised to feed the timber and pulp

wood industry. Plantations consists of mainly Wattle Acacia

spp.. Blue Gum Eucalyptus spp.. Pine Pinus spp.. Cypress

Cupressus macrocarpa , Cinchona Cinchona cinchona , and

Tea Thea sinensis.

METHODS

This paper is based on the notes from our field diaries

maintained during fieldwork for bird community

investigations as well as observations made during extensive

surveys by AAZ and BS in the study area above 1,700 m

elevation between December 2000 and April 2004. MNP,

Avalanche, Lakkedi, Devar Betta, Upper Bhavani and

Taishola of Nilgiris South Division formed the intensive study

area. Other areas surveyed during this study include

Governor’s Shola, Cairn Hill Forest, Snowdon, Porthimund,

Dodabetta, Taishola, Kora Kundha, Coonoor, Bikkatti,

Bembatti, Longwood Shola at Kotagiri, Kodanadu and

Emerald Valley (Fig. 2 and Appendix 1 )

Elevations in feet for the localities described in the

historical records were converted to metres for uniformity in

presentation. The nomenclature for the localities follows the

Survey of India 1 :50,000 toposheets and coordinates were

recorded using a GARMIN 12XL GPS. Sites surveyed and

described in this paper and their geographical locations

mentioned in the paper are listed in Appendix 1.

Species recorded more than 10 times are described as

common in this paper, while those seen between 3 and

10 times are described as uncommon and those seen only

once or twice are termed rare for the Upper Nilgiris Plateau.

The sequence followed Inskipp et al. (1996) while the

nomenclature was followed according to Rasmussen and

Anderton (2005). The conservation status of the threatened

birds follows BirdLife International (2001). The status of

species as recorded during this study is recorded as ‘present

status’, while species recorded by other authors are given in

a separate column. We discuss briefly the key conservation

issues that are threatening the avifauna and biodiversity of

the Upper Nilgiris. Our checklist includes breeding residents,

winter visitors, local summer migrants, vagrants and passage

migrants (Appendix 2).

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

is:

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

The observations published in the form of an annotated

checklist by Zarri et al. (2005) in Buceros 10(1) included

observations by the authors and did not include synthesis of

available literature as summarized in the current paper. The

current format of the paper would also be easy to understand

and user friendly.

RESULTS

A total of 192 species was recorded from the Upper

Nilgiris Plateau (till April 2004), including 47 records of

earlier authors (Appendix 2). In general, the bird composition

of the Upper Nilgiris appear depauperate compared to the

lower elevations. For instance. Gokula (1998) recorded

265 species in the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in the lower

elevations of the Nilgiri hills.

Of the 16 Western Ghats endemic species, 9 were

recorded during this study, namely the Nilgiri Wood Pigeon

Columba elphinstonii, Nilgiri Pipit Antlms nilghiriensis , Grey-

headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus , Black-and-Orange

Flycatcher Ficedula nigrorufa , Small Sunbird Leptocoma

minima , Nilgiri Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus, Black-

chinned Laughingthrush Trochalopteron cachinnans. White-

bellied Blue Flycatcher Cyornis pallipes and White-bellied

Blue Robin Myiomela albiventris. Of the remaining seven

species, Indian Rufous Babbler Turdoides subrufus and Indian

Broad-tailed Grass-Warbler Schoenicola platyurus might be

expected towards the northern or eastern slopes of the Nilgiris,

although we found no evidence of their presence during our

visits.

Threatened species (BirdLife International 2001)

recorded from the study area during this study include the

Black-chinned Laughingthrush (Endangered) and Kashmir

Flycatcher, Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni , White-bellied

Shortwing and Nilgiri Wood Pigeon (Vulnerable). Near

Threatened species recorded during this study include the

Nilgiri Pipit, Black-and-Orange Flycatcher and Nilgiri

Flycatcher. Threatened species recorded from the Upper

Nilgiris Plateau by other authors and not seen during this

study include White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis and

Indian Vulture Gyps indicus (both the species are Critically

Endangered); Lesser Florican Sypheotides indicus

(Endangered) and Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca and

Wood Snipe Gallinago nemoricola (Vulnerable). Near

Threatened species recorded by other authors include the Red-

headed Vulture Aegypius calvus, Pallid Harrier Circus

macrourus , Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

and Ferruginous Duck Ay thy a nyroca.

Compared to the records of Davison ( 1 883), it appears

that some species such as the Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus ,

House Crow Corvus splendens , Besra Sparrowhawk Accipiter

virgatus , Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela , Emerald

Dove Chalcophaps indica, Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba

and White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis are more

common presently than during the 19th century. However,

species that have recorded a noticeable decline in the Upper

Nilgiris include the Pallid Harrier, White-rumped Vulture,

Long-billed Vulture, Red-headed Vulture, Egyptian Vulture,

Eurasian Woodcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail Snipe Gallinago

stenura , Jacobin Cuckoo, Large Hawk-cuckoo, Common

Hawk-cuckoo.

Selected species accounts

Nilgiri Wood Pigeon Columba elphinstonii

Vulnerable. This species is a common resident and is

restricted to the shola habitat; it is found in all eight IB As of

the Upper Nilgiris (Islam and Rahmani 2004).

Lesser Florican Sypheotides indicus

Endangered. No recent record of this species is known

from the Nilgiris. Davison (1883) quoted Hume “a specimen

was killed on the slopes to the Nilgiris some years ago between

Naduvattam and Pykara, going down to the Wynaad”. The

bird presumably might have been a vagrant, but the record

should be considered of historical importance.

Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola

Uncommon winter visitor. Once a common winter

visitor and a favourite game bird, its population has apparently

declined on the Nilgiris. A single bird was observed on

December 28, 2002 in a small moist and shaded grass patch

beside a wattle stand in Avalanche (an IB A). Subsequently,

we sighted (probably) the same bird at the earlier site on

December 30, 2002, December 31, 2002, January 05, 2003,

and January 22, 2003. Another bird was sighted near Kolari

Betta close to a waterhole along the road on January 23, 2003.

Two more birds were sighted in January 2003 at Avalanche,

another in December 2003 at Avalanche and one more in

January 2004 at Lakkedi.

Davison (1883) reported the Eurasian Woodcock to be

common from about October to the end of February in the

Nilgiris. Home and Logan ( 1923) mention that a Woodcock

was shot in April 28 near Mukurti Peak. This is an

exceptionally late date for the Woodcock at the Nilgiris. Baker

reported shooting up to 6 birds in a day and 35 during the

season. He shot 35 in 1920-1921, and 29 in 1921-1922 (Inglis

1923). Whistler and Kinnear ( 1936) summarized the records

of hunting by various authors by suggesting it was a common

bird on the Upper Nilgiris.

184

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

The Eurasian Woodcock is believed to be a non-stop

long distance flier in India, flying from the Himalaya to the

Nilgiri Hills (a distance of 2,500 km) (Sengupta 1990a).

Sengupta ( 1 990b) suggested a migratory route of the species

from Himalaya to Nilgiris via Bangladesh, West Bengal

[where several specimens were netted in Salt Lake, Calcutta

(now Kolkata) between 1963 and 1 969 ] and Eastern Ghats,

with or without a stopover. However, Rasmussen and

Anderton (2005) have shown two routes in their book (plate

58, volume 1): one via Punjab-Haryana-Rajasthan and

northern Western Ghats, and another via Bangladesh and

Eastern Ghats, both merging in the southern Western

Ghats.

Wood Snipe Gallinago nemoricola

Vulnerable. This winter visitor was not recorded during

this study. Davison (1883) considered that it “was never

common and seems to be getting still rarer, year by year".

The fact that 13 birds were shot in the Nilgiris between 1922

and 1935, however, suggested that no decline had taken place

and that a small wintering population survived ( Whistler and

Kinnear 1936). Also, from his game records between 1923

and 1948, Phythian- Adams (1948) listed only 8 birds of this

species shot in the Nilgiris unlike the Pintail and Fantail snipes

that figured in the thousands. Hence, we assume that this is

the rarest of all snipes wintering in the Upper Nilgiris.

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus

We did not see even a single individual between

December 2000 and April 2004. Davison (1883) reported

them as abundant at the Nilgiris, especially at Ootacamund

and in the vicinity of villages of Badciga community and on

slopes, and breeding on numerous cliffs and slopes. Primrose

(1904) also noted them as very common around the Badaga

villages of the Nilgiris, and reported a large breeding colony

at Kota community village near Kotagiri. Thirumurthi and

Balaji (1999) reported the species at Coonoor (1,800 m

above msl).

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis

Critically Endangered. Not a single bird was seen by

us during this study. More than 1 20 years ago, Davison ( 1 883)

had recorded them as abundant in the Nilgiris. Primrose

(1904) described it as the most common vulture but nowhere

plentiful, at the higher elevations. In recent years, this species

has been reported to have declined greatly in many other parts

of India (Prakash 1999). It disappeared from the Upper

Nilgiris much before the vulture decline was noticed

elsewhere, the reasons being far from known. Oaks et al.

(2004) reported the residues of the non-steroidal anti-

inflammatory drug Diclofenac to be the cause of the decline

of this bird and of G. indicus in Pakistan. Schultz et al. (2004)

implicated the same drug for the crash in their populations in

India and Nepal.

Indian Vulture Gyps indicus

Critically Endangered. We did not see a single bird.

Davison (1883) recorded it as occurring uncommonly in the

Nilgiris and its slopes, while Primrose (1904) was not certain

about its presence, as he could not observe it. It declined from

the Upper Nilgiris much before the vulture crisis was observed

in most other places. Refer the previous account for the details

of the causes of the decline of the Gyps vultures.

Red-headed Vulture Aegypius calvus

Critically Endangered. We did not find any during this

study, but it was once a common vulture on the Nilgiris.

Davison (1883) reported it to be not abundant and found

mostly singly and sometimes in flocks of 6-50 vultures.

Primrose (1904) reported it to be common and observed a

nest near Craigmore Toll Gate, Ootacamund. In view of the

earlier observations it appears that they have severely declined

during the 20th century. Thirumurthi and Balaji ( 1999) claim

to have recorded the species at Ootacamund and Kotagiri.

Local birdwatchers (S. Sounderrajan and Ramneek Singh

pers. comm., 2003) deny seeing this species in the last two to

three decades.

Lesser Kestrel Faleo naumanni

Vulnerable. Vagrant or rare passage migrant. On

November 16, 2001, a single female was seen perched on a

wattle tree along the road near Upper Bhavani. The bird stayed

on the perch sufficiently for us to observe its whitish claws

and less distinct moustachial stripes.

White-bellied Blue Robin Myiomela albiventris

Vulnerable. Common resident. Up to eight birds

(usually single) could be seen foraging on the road passing

through a shola in a vehicular drive of 200-300 m,

immediately after sunset at Avalanche. It is recorded in all

the eight IBAs of the Upper Nilgiris (Islam and Rahmani

2004).

Kashmir Flycatcher Ficedula subrubra

Vulnerable. Uncommon winter visitor sparsely

distributed in the Upper Nilgiris. Three birds sighted between

March 09 and 27, 2001 at Avalanche. 16 birds were recorded

during an intensive survey between October 08, 2001 and

April 04, 2002 in different localities, namely Avalanche,

Bembatti, Ramaya Road and Emerald Valley (see Zarri and

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.; 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

185

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Rahmani 2004 for details). Among the eight IB As, it has been

recorded only in Avalanche (Islam and Rahmani 2004).

Apparently it shows site fidelity, as three pairs were

recorded coming exactly to the same small plantation patches

(winter territory) in the winters of 2001 to 2003 (Zarri and

Rahmani 2004). A male was ringed on January 24 and a female

on January 30, 2003 at Avalanche. However, we could not

locate these birds at Avalanche during the winters of 2003

and 2004. We need more ringing data to determine the extent

of site fidelity in this species.

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher Ficedula nigrorufa

Near Threatened. Common resident, all over Nilgiris

associated with the shola habitat. Ten nests with an average

clutch of two eggs were recorded between February and May

2002 and 2003 in shola habitat at Avalanche, Longwood shola,

Taishola, Mullimunth and Snowdon (all located 2,000 m

above msl). The nest is globular and untidy with an entrance

more or less at top. All the nests located during this study

were lined with the blades of a sedge Carex baccans. Nests

are generally placed on a dead stump about 1 m from the

ground with a little cover. Pittie (1989) sighted a fledgling in

mid-June at Sim’s Park near Coonoor.

Nilgiri Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus

Near Threatened. Common resident, it affects both shola

and plantations. Sixteen cup-shaped nests, generally placed

in earthen banks and holes in trees, with a clutch of two or

three pinkish-white eggs, were recorded during this study at

Bangitappal, Avalanche, Western Catchment-III, Longwood

shola, Mullimunth, Taishola, Bikkatti, Bembatti, Dodabetta

and Parson’s Valley. We observed them feeding on fruits on

several occasions. Dewar (1904) also recorded them feeding

on fruits. Nilgiri Flycatcher is found in all the eight IBAs of

the Upper Nilgiris (Islam and Rahmani 2004).

Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus

Vagrant or rare resident in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau,

only one bird sighted at Taishola on April 25, 2002. Davison

(1883) found one specimen near Coonoor (1,800 m above

msl). Jameson (1976) also recorded it at Coonoor. Apparently,

it is more common at lower elevations and on the slopes of

the Nilgiris. Therefore, the sighting of this species in the Upper

Nilgiris (above 2,100 m above msl) is of interest.

Yellow-browed Bulbul lole indica

Vagrant or rare resident, perhaps subject to vertical

movements. One bird was seen in Taishola (2,100 m) on

April 25, 2002. It is reported from places such as Kodanadu,

Kotagiri and Naduvattam at lower elevations. This bird does

not occur on the Plateau of the Nilgiris and is common below

about 2,000 m (Davison 1883). Jameson (1976) records the

species at Coonoor. It was thought to be restricted to the

evergreen forests, but in recent times it has spread to deciduous

forests perhaps due to the loss of its evergreen forest habitat

throughout the Western Ghats.

Black-chinned Laughingthrush Trochalopteron

cachinnans

Endangered. Common resident, it is the only bird

primarily endemic to the Nilgiri hills, usually seen above

1 ,600 m. It is found in all the eight IBAs of the Upper Nilgiris

(Islam and Rahmani 2004). It was locally common (Ali and

Ripley 1987), but has now declined (BirdLife International

2001). Zarri (2005) recorded 58 nests during his 4-year study

on the ecology of this bird. Most of the nests were found in

shola habitat mostly along the edges, on stunted trees or shrubs

between one and four metre height. All nests were located

between 1,900 to 2,500 m above msl.

Nilgiri Pipit Anthus nilghiriensis

Near Threatened. Common resident, restricted to the

undisturbed grasslands at higher elevations areas such as

Bangitappal, Western Catchment and Lakkedi. It is found in

good numbers at Avalanche and MNP and sparingly on other

sites. Uma Maheswari (pers. comm., 2003) observed a nesting

preference for larger tussock forming grasses in the valleys.

However, during this study three nests were recorded in

short tussocks with little cover, on ridges in MNP at 2,000 to

2,100 m.

Bird conservation issues

Habitat loss has been implicated as one of the major

causes for the decline of many bird species (BirdLife

International 2001). In the Nilgiris, habitat conversion and

loss occurred rampantly during the 19th and 20th centuries.

However, the process has been slowed down since the

enactment of the Forest Conservation Act in 1980. Except

for the MNP, the entire study area is unprotected, and thus

faces problems of habitat degradation, plant invasions and

burgeoning anthropogenic pressures due to infrastructure

development. Key conservation issues are as follows.

Species decline or disappearance : A comparison of our

bird records with the published literature from the last two

centuries reveals a catastrophic decline or disappearance of

some vultures, many raptors and snipes. Among these, the

Gyps vulture disappearance from the study area has been the

most striking one. However, the decline of the vultures from

the Nilgiris started long before the catastrophic decline of

the Gyps species in north and north-west India in the mid

186

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

1990s (Prakash 1999) due to the non-steroidal anti-

inflammatory drug Diclofenac, which has been implicated as

the reason for the steep decline of the Gyps vultures in South

Asia (Oaks et al. 2004; Shultz et al. 2004).

The Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola and

various species of snipes (Wood Snipe Gallinago nemoricola ,

Pintail Snipe G. stenura , Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago

and Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus), the popular game

birds, abundant during the early 20th century (Davison 1 883;

Phythian-Adams 1927) have declined in the Upper Nilgiris.

Apparently, hunting pressure and habitat loss during the post-

independence period may have resulted in such grave

declines.

Habitat loss and conversions: The native biodiversity

of the Nilgiris has borne the brunt of years of unscientific

forestry operations. Serious losses to the Nilgiris biodiversity

occurred as the montane evergreen forests (shola) and

high altitude grasslands were converted into monoculture

plantations. The opening up of the hills for settling immigrant

labourers of the tea, timber and pulp wood industries and

other development projects led to clear felling of sholas and

grasslands. Landowners started raising trees on a commercial

scale to the extent that at one time wood was cheaper

than the cost of cutting it (Davidar 1986). Several fast

growing species, such as Australian Blackwood Acacia

melanoxylon. Wattle A. mearnsii. Blue Gum Eucalyptus

globulus. Pine Pinus spp., Cypress Cupressus macrocarpa

and Tea Thea sinensis were introduced. Wattle regenerates

through seeds and thus slowly spreads into the native

grasslands.

Infrastructure development and human settlements :

Davidar (1986) described the Nilgiris as an encroacher’s

paradise and its ecology as “grievously fractured”. High

precipitation in the Nilgiris invited other major threats from

hydroelectric projects such as Pykara in 1 932 and the giant

Kundha project set up with Canadian aid in the 1960s. These

projects and many others still continue despite opposition

from the local NGOs. After the completion of hydroelectric

projects, all the labourers settled in these hills. Several new

roads were built under these projects that further opened up

remote and inaccessible forests and made them more

vulnerable to exploitation. The ecology of this hill complex

was further damaged, particularly near Coonor and Kotagiri,

with the settling of the repatriates from Sri Lanka under the

Sastri-Srimavu Pact.

Agricultural intensification: Huge areas of natural

habitat in the Nilgiris have been converted to agriculture,

notably for vegetables. Excessive reliance on inorganic

pesticides and fertilisers in the current agricultural practices

in the Nilgiris lead to effects that are usually neglected. We

suspect that the excessive use of inorganic fertilizers and

pesticides all over the Nilgiris affects many bird species,

including common birds. Inorganic pesticides have been

implicated for breeding failures in many species; and we

suspect that many species might be getting affected by their

excessive use in the Nilgiris also.

Plant invasions and habitat loss: Avifauna specific to

the grassland habitat in the study area faced major threats

due to conversion of grasslands to plantations and introduction

of alien invasive species. Most of these were introduced in

the Nilgiris during the British period. Lor instance, one senior

official, a Scot, is in fact reputed to have gone to the extent of

filling his pockets with the seeds of the Gorse Ulex europaeus

and scattering them about freely during his walks (Davidar

1986). Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius and Gorse have

invaded native habitats in many countries, and in the Nilgiris

there has been considerable loss of grassland habitat, affecting

birds such as the Nilgiri Pipit and other biodiversity (Zarri

et al. 2007).

Intentional grassland fires : Lrequent and intentional

burning of the grassland habitat poses another major threat

to the endemic flora and fauna of the region. Live major fires

were recorded between January-June 2003 in MNP, burning

around 20-25% of the grassland area. Grassland is burnt every

year by people from Kerala to lure Sambar Cerxnis unicolor

with fresh grass for poaching. The burning corresponds with

the breeding seasons of grassland dependent birds, such as

the Nilgiri Pipit. Much to the delight of poachers, this is also

the time when fires spread very fast due to the bulk

accumulation of litter in the grasslands.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study formed a part of our “Ecology of Shola and

Alpine Grasslands Project”. We thank the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service (USFWS) for funding the project. Mr. David

Ferguson, USFWS and Prof. Mark J. Behan, Technical

Advisor of our project were extremely helpful. We thank the

Tamil Nadu Forest Department for fieldwork permission and

the Wildlife Warden, Mukurti National Park and District

Forest Officers of the North and South Forest Divisions for

help during the fieldwork. Messrs. Sounderrajan, Mohanraj,

Gannapathy, Vasu, Francis and other members of the Nilgiri

Wildlife and Environment Association (NWLEA) helped this

project in several ways. The paper benefited from the

comments of our friend Mr. Thejaswi. The paper benefited

from insightful and constructive comments of the anonymous

reviewers. The help and service of our field assistant

Mr. Velumani and drivers Mr. Noor Mohamed and

Mr. Veluswami are greatly acknowledged.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

187

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

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188

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 1

Checklist of birds recorded in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau, Western Ghats between December 2000 and April 2004

(Includes historical records)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

189

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 1 (contd.)

Checklist of birds recorded in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau, Western Ghats between December 2000 and April 2004

(Includes historical records)

190

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 1 (contd.)

Checklist of birds recorded in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau, Western Ghats between December 2000 and April 2004

(Includes historical records)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

191

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 1 (contd.)

Checklist of birds recorded in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau, Western Ghats between December 2000 and April 2004

(Includes historical records)

Name Present Historical Threat Notes

Status records Category

Eastern Cattle Egret Bubulcus coramandus R, C

Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii R, C

Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax R, R

Malayan Night-heron Gorsachius melanolophus V

White Stork Ciconia ciconia V

Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus V

Indian Pitta Pitta brachyuran W, UC

Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus W, C

Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach R, C

House Crow Corvus splendens R, C

Large-billed Crow Corvus R, C

(macrorhynchos) culminatus

Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus R, R

Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus W, UC

Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus

Black-headed Cuckooshrike Coracina melonoptera

Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus speciosus V

Pied Flycatcher-Shrike Hemipus picatus R, C

White-throated Fantail Rhipidura albicollis R, C

White-browed Fantail Rhipidura aureola R, C

Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus W, C

Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus

Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus V

Asian Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi M, C

Common lora Aegithina tiphia R, UC

Blue-headed Rock Thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus W, UC

Malabar Whistling-Thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii R, R

Pied Ground Thrush Zoothera wardii

Orange-headed Thrush Zoothera citrina R, UC

Small-billed Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma R, C

Common Blackbird Turdus merula R, C

White-bellied Shortwing Myiomela albiventris R, C

Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica W, R

Rusty-tailed Flycatcher Muscicapa ruficauda

Seen year-round in contrast to the

observations of Davison (1883).

One seen at Bangitappal on March 08, 2002

One sub-adult sighted near Parson's Valley

on May 21, 2003

Eighteen birds seen at Sandy nullah

(between Ootacamund and Pykara)

(Davison 1883)

NT A.C. Sounderrajan (pers. comm.) sighted

one bird at Cairn Hill in 1990 and

Photographed

Does not ascend hills of the Nilgiris

(Davison 1883)

One seen near Kotagiri on January 13, 2002

Shot on several occasion close to

Ootacamund (Davison 1883)

Shot at Botanical Garden, Ootacamund

(Davison 1883); reported from Coonoor

(Jameson 1971)

Only one male observed on March 29,

2003 at Avalanche

Seen as well as shot by Davison (1883)

Only one specimen shot by Davison

(1883), on the Ootacamund-Kotagiri road

(Davison 1883)

Never recorded at Ootacamund

(Davison 1883); never seen or heard at

Coonoor (Jameson 1969); one recorded

near Governor’s Shola (Nair 1995)

Recorded mainly at lower elevations close

to Coonoor (Khan 1980)

VU See text

Occurs sparingly on the Nilgiris Plateau

(Davison 1883)

Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui W, R

192

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 1 (contd.)

Checklist of birds recorded in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau, Western Ghats between December 2000 and April 2004

(Includes historical records)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

193

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 1 ( contd .)

Checklist of birds recorded in the Upper Nilgiris Plateau, Western Ghats between December 2000 and April 2004

(Includes historical records)

Sequence follows Inskipp etai 1996; Nomenclature follows Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Pamela C. Rasmussen & John

C. Anderton (2005)

Key: Present Status: W = wintering; R = resident; M = migrant (summer or monsoon migrant); PM = passage migrant; V = vagrant;

C = common (more than ten sightings); UC = uncommon (seen between three to nine times); R = rare (one or two sightings);

RR = rare resident; RM = rare migrant

* = species recorded by earlier authors but not seen by us between December 2000 and April 2004 (check for source in the Notes

column).

Threat category: CE = critically endangered; EN = endangered; VU = vulnerable; NT = near threatened (follows BirdLife

International (2001).

MNP = Mukurti National Park

194

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS

Appendix 2

Gazetteer of localities mentioned in the text

Localities nomenclature follows Survey of India toposheets except

for Ootacamund (replacing Udhagamandalam and Ooty).

* = IBA or part of an IBA

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,, 105 (2),. May-Aug 2008

195

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

196-201

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA)

OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM (NORTH-EAST INDIA) - A RAMSAR SITE

B.K. Sharma1 and Sumita Sharma2

'Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Permanent Campus, Umshing, Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India.

Email: [email protected]. in, [email protected]

-Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Risa Colony, Shillong 793 003, Meghalaya, India. Email: [email protected]

Plankton samples collected from the Deepor heel, a Ramsar site, revealed 45 species of Cladocera belonging to

30 genera and 7 families, representing the highest biodiversity of these micro-crustaceans known till date from any

individual aquatic ecosystem of the Indian subcontinent. The cladoceran taxocoenosis is characterized by the

predominance of Chydoridae > Daphniidae, Cosmopolitan > Cosmotropical elements, general tropical character and

occurrence of several interesting species. The richness (17-41, 29 ±6; 20-41, 32 ±6 species) exhibits multimodal and

trimodal monthly patterns with peaks during winter and minima during early summer, and records 53.3-93.3 and 58.6-

97.5% community similarities ( vide Sorenson’s index) at two sampling stations (I and II) respectively. Our results

indicate lack of seasonal periodicity of occurrence of different species or families, show dominance of facultative

planktonic littoral-periphytic elements and occurrence of fewer limnetic species. The cluster analysis exhibits higher

similarities in composition of Cladocera during winter and autumn, while spring and summer communities show more

qualitative differences. ANOVA registers significant differences in species richness between sampling stations as well

as between months. The richness registers significant inverse relationship with water temperature and rainfall, and

direct correlation with transparency, dissolved oxygen and hardness; while multiple regression indicates significantly

higher cumulative influence of ten abiotic factors.

Key words: Ramsar site, Deepor beel, Cladocera, faunal diversity, distribution, temporal variations

INTRODUCTION

Taxonomic studies on Indian freshwater Cladocera were

initiated by Baird (1860), subsequent publications deal with

their a-taxonomy based on collections from scattered

localities of India (Sharma and Michael 1987; Michael and

Sharma 1988; Sharma 1991 ). The information on ecosystem

diversity of these entomostracous crustaceans in various

aquatic ecosystems, in general, and in the floodplain lakes

and wetlands of India, in particular, is still scanty. This

generalization especially holds true for the cladoceran fauna

of north-eastern India wherein the only contribution on

ecosystem diversity is restricted to the rice-field environs of

Meghalaya (Sharma, in press). The observations are made

presently on nature and composition of the cladoceran

taxocoenosis of Deepor beel, temporal variations in species

richness, community similarities, occurrence and distribution

of interesting elements, and on influence of abiotic factors

on their richness.

STUDY AREA

The present study was undertaken from November,

2004 to October, 2005 at Deepor beel ( 26° 03' 26" N ; 90° 36’

39" E; area: 40 sq. km; altitude: 42 m above msl) located in

Kamrup district of lower Assam (NE India). This perennial

floodplain wetland and a Ramsar site is covered with a

luxuriant growth of diverse aquatic macrophytes, namely

Hydrilla verticellata , Najas indica , Euryale ferox, Vallisneria

spiralis , Utricularia flexuosa, Trapa bispinosa , Eichhornia

crassipes , Monochoria hastaefolia , Xanthium straumarium,

Ipomeafistulosa , Croton borplandianum , Hygroryza aristata.

Polygonum hydropiper and Limnophila sp.

METHODOLOGY

Water samples collected monthly from two sampling

stations (I and II) were analyzed for various abiotic factors.

Water temperature, specific conductivity and pH were

recorded using field probes, and transparency was noted with

a Secchi disc. Dissolved oxygen was estimated using modified

Winkler’s method and other chemical parameters were

analyzed following APHA ( 1992).

Qualitative plankton samples were obtained from the

two sampling stations by towing a nylobolt plankton net

(No. 25), and were preserved in 5% formalin. Various species

and their disarticulated appendages were mounted in

Polyvinyl alcohol-lectophenol mixture. The head pores and

their arrangements were studied following Megard (1965).

The cladoceran species were identified from Smirnov (1971,

1976, 1992, 1996), Smirnov and Timms (1983), Michael and

Sharma (1988), Korovchinsky (1992), Sharma and Sharma

(1999), Orlova-Bienkowskaja (2001) and Korinek (2002).

Percentage similarities between monthly cladoceran

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM

communities were calculated vide Sorensen index and were

analyzed by the hierarchical cluster analysis. Ecological

relationships were computed vide simple correlation

coefficients (r( and r2) and multiple regression (R^ and R22)

at stations I and II individually and significance of temporal

variations was ascertained vide ANOVA.

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE EXAMINED TAXA

Super-class: Crustacea

Class: Branchiopoda

Super-order: Cladocera s. str.

Order: Ctenopoda

Family: Sididae

1 Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, 1885

2. D. sarsi Richard, 1895

3. Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884

4. Sida crystal lina (O.F. Muller, 1776)

Order: Anomopoda

Family: Daphniidae

5. Ceriodaplmia cornuta Sars, 1885

6. C. reticulata (Jurine, 1820)

7. Scapholeberis kingi Sars, 1903

8. Simocephalus acutirostratus { King, 1853)

9. S. serrulatus (Koch, 1841 )

10. S. vetulus (O.F. Muller, 1776)

Family: Bosminidae

1 1 . Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Muller, 1776)

12. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895

Family: Moinidae

13. Moina micrura Kurz, 1874

14. Moinodaphnia macleayi ( King, 1853)

Family: Macrothricidae

15. Macrothrix laticornis { Fischer, 1857)

1 6. M. triserialis ( Brady, 1 886)

17. Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892

Family: Ilyocryptidae

1 8. Ilyoayptus spinifer Herrick, 1 882

Family: Chydoridae

Subfamily: Chydorinae

19. Alonella excisa (Fischer, 1854)

20. Chydorus faviformis Birge, 1893

21. C. pubescens Sars, 1901

22. C. sphaericus (O.F. Muller, 1776)

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. See., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

23. C. reticulatus Daday, 1898

24. Dadaya macrops (Daday, 1898)

25. Disperalona caudata Smirnov, 1996

26. Dunhevedia serrata Daday, 1898

27. Ephemeroporus barroisi Richard, 1894

28. Picripleuroxus similis (Vavra, 1900)

Subfamily: Aloninae

29. Acroperus harpae (Baird, 1894)

30. Aloiia affinis (Leydig, 1860)

31. A. intermedia Sars, 1862

32. Alona costata Sars, 1862

33. A. globulosa (Daday, 1898)

34. A. guttata Sars, 1862

35. A. quadrangularis (O.F. Muller, 1776)

36. A. rectangula Sars, 1862

37. Euryalona orientalis (Daday, 1898)

38. Camptocercus rectirostris Schoedler, 1862

39. C. uncinatus Smirnov 1971

40. Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer, 1854)

41. Karualona karua ( King, 1853)

42. Kurzia longirostris (Daday, 1898)

43. Leydigia acanthocercoides ( Fischer, 1854)

44. Leydigiopsis curvirostris Sars, 1901

45. Oxyurella singalensis (Daday, 1898)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Water samples collected from Deepor beel show low

specific conductivity and are thus characterized (Table 1) by

low ionic concentrations; this feature warrants the inclusion

of this Ramsar site under ‘Class I’ category vide Tailing and

Tailing (1965). Mean water temperature affirms tropical range

concurrent with its geographical location. The circum-neutral

and marginally hard waters of this wetland show moderate

dissolved oxygen, low free CO, and low concentration of

micro-nutrients. Chloride and BOD5 values reflect some

possible impact of human activity. In general, the ranges of

abiotic factors broadly concur at the two sampling stations (I

and II) and also agree with earlier results of Sharma and

Hussain (1999) and Sharma (2005).

Plankton samples examined from the Deepor beel reveal

45 species of Cladocera belonging to 30 genera and 7 families;

the richest biodiversity known till date from any individual

floodplain lake or aquatic ecosystem of the Indian

subcontinent. The cladoceran fauna is rich and diverse both

in species, and genera and families. The former aspect assumes

special importance in view of a conservative estimate of

occurrence of up to 60-65 Cladocera species in tropical and

subtropical environs of India (Sharma and Michael 1987;

197

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM

Table 1 : Abiotic factors of Deepor beel

Sharma 1991). The present results in general reflect

environmental heterogeneity and micro-habitat diversity of

this important wetland of north-east India; this generalization

re-affirms our earlier remarks (Sharma and Sharma 2005)

based on the biodiversity of Rotifera of Deepor beel.

The Cladocera richness noticed in our observations

presents a distinct contrast to the reports of only 1 1 species

from two floodplain lakes (Khan 1987) of Kashmir; 9 species

from 65 wetlands of 24-Parganas district (Nandi et al. 1993)

of West Bengal; one species (Baruah et al. 1993), 4 species

(Sinha etal. 1994) and 12 species (Sanjer and Sharma 1995)

from the floodplains of Bihar; 14 species from 37 floodplain

lakes (Sarma 2000) of Assam, 3 species from Mori beel

(Goswami and Goswami 2001) from Assam; and 36 species

from 20 wetlands from the floodplains of south-eastern West

Bengal (Khan 2003). The notably lower richness in various

mentioned works may be attributed to incomplete species

inventories, due to lack of taxonomic expertise of several

earlier workers, coupled with lack of extensive sampling of

the cladoceran communities. The faunal diversity of these

micro-crustaceans in Ramsar sites of India, distinctly exceeds

12 species, including certain doubtful species, recorded from

Loktak (Shy amananda Singh 1991), an important floodplain

lake of Manipur. The present report is also higher than

the 30 species examined from 30 wetlands of Keoladeo

National Park (Venkataraman 1992).

Leydigiopsis curvirostris and Disperalona caudata are

two globally interesting species documented from Deepor

beel. The former is known only from Brazil and is now

reported as a new record from the Oriental region (Sharma

and Sharma 2007). Further, we initially believed it to be rare

and restricted to Deepor beel, but it was observed recently in

our samples collected from certain beels of upper Assam and

Cachar district. D. caudata is a new addition to the Indian

subcontinent and is so far recorded only from Thailand and

Australia; this chydorid is, hence, designated as an

Australasian element (Sharma and Sharma loc cit.), and shows

an interesting affinity between the Cladoceran fauna of north-

eastern India, Southeast Asia and Australia. Our report of the

occurrence of the two species in India may represent an

example of their introduction by man and thus deserves further

attention. This generalization re-affirms remarks of Dumont

( 1997) regarding emphasis on human introductions of several

cladoceran species in different parts of the globe.

Camptocercus uncinatus is a biogeographically

interesting recent addition to the Indian Cladocera (Sharma

2008); the present study represents its second record from

this country. Our observations indicate possible wider

distribution of this chydorid and call for the need of

re-examination of all earlier reports of an allied species,

C. australis from India and elsewhere. Grimaldina brazzai is

yet another interesting addition to the cladoceran fauna of

north-eastern India; this circumtropical member of the

Macrothricidae is known so far from Rajasthan and West

Bengal. In addition, twenty-four species are new records from

Assam. Species such as Ceriodaphnia reticulata , Chydorus

faviformis , C. pubescens, C. reticulatus , Dadaya mac tops,

Graptoleberis testudinaria and Kurzia longirostris comprise

examples of a regional distributional interest.

The cladoceran fauna of Deepor beel depicts a general

tropical character with a greater qualitative richness of

Cosmopolitan > Cosmotropical species and presence of

several Circumtropical and Pantropical species. These salient

features are endorsed by the occurrence of a typical

Circumtropical genera namely Dadaya and Grimaldina , the

Pantropical Ephemeroporus and the Tropicopolitan

Moinodaphnia; though a number of the documented genera

are known for their cosmopolitan or worldwide distribution

(Dumont and Negrea 2002).

The examined collections are characterized by

qualitative predominance of the littoral-periphytonic species

which, in turn, is attributed to shallow nature of this wetland

together with the growth of several aquatic macrophytes. The

notable among these are the members of the Chydoridae,

Macrothricidae, Sidiidae and Ilyocryptidae. On the other

hand, the cladoceran communities include fewer limnetic taxa

belonging to the Daphniidae, Bosminidae and Moinidae. The

sporadic occurrence of limnetic Daplmia lumholtzi at the two

sampling stations of Deepor beel during winter season merits

special interest for further investigations. Further, it may be

198

I Bombay Nat. Hist. See, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM

NDJFMAMJJASO

MONTHS

Fig. 1 : Cladocera richness

noted that D. lumholtzi shows very restricted occurrence and

distribution in aquatic environs of north-eastern India.

In general, the Cladocera contribute significantly to

richness of zooplankton (r = 0.921, r, = 0.952) and micro-

crustacean (r = 0.992, r, = 0.995) communities of the Deepor

beel. The broadly comparable total number of species

observed at station I (45 species) and II (43 species) may be

attributed to broadly identical macrophyte associations at the

sampled sites. The monthly cladoceran richness varies

between 17-41 (29 ±6) and 20-41 (32 ±6) species, and exhibits

(Fig. 1) multimodal and trimodal patterns of temporal

variations at two sampling stations respectively. The peak

richness is noticed during winter and dips are observed during

summer; the present results, however, exhibit lack of seasonal

periodicity of different species or families. ANOVA registers

significant temporal variations in the species richness between

sampling stations (F = 9.992, p < 0.005) and between

months (Fn n = 11.240, p < 0.005).

The Cladocera richness exhibits significant inverse

correlation with water temperature (r( = -0.776, r, = -0.803)

and rainfall (r = -0.768, r, = -0.720) and direct relationship

with transparency (r = 0.591, r, = 0.609), dissolved oxygen

(i^ = 0.782, r, = 0.683) and hardness (r( = 0.552, r, = 0.523).

Besides, it records direct correlation with specific conductivity

only at station II (r, = 0.622). Multiple regression indicates

notably higher cumulative influence of ten abiotic factors.

Table 2: Percentage similarities (Sorenson’s index) between Cladoceran communities (Station I)

October

Table 3: Percentage similarities (Sorenson’s index) between Cladoceran communities (Station II)

October

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., i05 (2), May-Aug 2008

199

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM

namely water, temperature, rainfall, pH, transparency, specific

conductivity, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, hardness,

phosphate and nitrate on their monthly richness at the two

sampling stations (R^ = 0.9803, R,2 = 0.9922). The step-wise

regression, however, records significance of hardness,

conductivity, pH and transparency at station I and of only

hardness and pH at station II.

Chydoridae, the most diverse family of Cladocera,

forms a distinctly dominant qualitative component at

the Deepor beel with occurrence of 27 species belonging to

17 genera and contributes significantly to the richness of these

micro-crustaceans at the two sampling stations (r = 0.726,

r, = 0.779). The Chydorid richness varies between 9-24

(17 ±4) and 12-22 (19±3) species at the two stations

respectively and registers significant temporal variations

between stations (F( M = 7.693, p < 0.01) as well as months

(Fn u = 8.705, p < 0.005). Further, this family follows

multimodal and trimodal patterns (Fig. 2) of monthly richness

identical to that of the Cladocera and shows lack of any

seasonal periodicity. The Chydoridae indicate significant

inverse correlation with water temperature (r = -0.637,

r, = -0.759) and rainfall (r, = -0.638, r, = -0.661), and direct

relationship with transparency (r = 0.605, r, = 0.673),

dissolved oxygen (rt = 0.652, r, = 0.777) and hardness

(Tj = 0.548, r, = 0.609). In addition, the Chydorids record

significant direct correlation with specific conductivity

(r, = 0.615) and alkalinity (r, = 0.646) only at station II.

The cladoceran communities indicate (Tables 2, 3)

similarities (vide Sorenson’s index) ranging between

53.3-93.3% (station I) and 58.6-97.5% (station II). Our results

show values between >70-90% in majority of instances

(65.1% and 75.8 %) included in the two similarity matrices

respectively and, therefore, exhibit lesser monthly variations

in their species composition. Further, the samples collected

during winter (December vs. February at station I, January

vs. February at station II) record peak similarities while

MONTHS

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

CASES

MONTHS

0 5 10 15 20 25

Num + + + + + +

DEC

FEB

JAN

NOV

JULY

OCT

MAY

AUGUST

SEPT

MARCH

APRIL

JUNE

Fig. 3: Dendrogram showing hierarchical Cluster Analysis

between Cladoceran communities (Station I)

CASES

MONTHS

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

0 5 10 IS 20 25

Num + + «- + + +

DEC

FEB

JAN

NOV

SEPT

OCT

JULY

AUGUST

JUNE

MARCH

APRIL

Fig. 4: Dendrogram showing Hierarchical Cluster Analysis

between Cladoceran communities (Station II)

minima are recorded during spring and early summer (March

vs. May at Station I, March vs. April at station II). The cluster

analysis exhibits higher closeness in composition of Cladocera

of the Deepor beel during winter and autumn at the two

sampling sites (Figs 3, 4), while spring and summer

communities show more qualitative differences. These

features may be attributed to a higher richness and common

occurrence of several species particularly during November-

February as compared with notably lower number of species,

as well as differences in their composition during March-

May / June.

To conclude, the Cladocera communities of Deepor beel

are characterized by rich and diverse nature, qualitative

predominance of the facultative planktonic and the littoral-

periphytonic species, and exhibit lack of seasonal periodicity

of different species or families. The present results indicate

influence of only certain individual abiotic factors on the

richness while ten abiotic factors register higher commutative

influence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fig. 2: Chydoridae richness

This study is undertaken under the ‘Potential for

Excellence Program (Focused Area: Biosciences) of North-

200

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM

Eastern Hill University, Shillong’. The senior author is

thankful to the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan

Environmental Development, Almora, for a research grant

during which plankton samples for this study were collected.

Thanks are due to the Head, Department of Zoology,

North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong for laboratory

facilities. One of the authors (SS) is also thankful to the

Director, Zoological Survey of India and the Officer-in-

charge, Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey oflndia,

Shillong.

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exoskeletons of Chydorid Cladocera. Crustaceana 9: 208-210.

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faunal resources of West Bengal. I. North and South 24-Parganas

district. Rec. zool. Sitrv. India: Occ. Paper No. 150: 1-50.

Orlova-Bienkowskaia, M.Y. (2001): Cladocera: Anomopoda.

Daphniidae: genus S imocephalus. In: Guides to the identification

of the microinvertebrates of the continental waters of the world.

Vol. 17. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. 130 pp.

Sarma, P.K. (2000): Systematics, distribution and ecology of

zooplankton of some floodplain wetlands of Assam, India. Ph.D.

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Sanjer, L.R. & U.P. Sharma ( 1995): Community structure of plankton

in Kawar lake wetland, Begusarai, Bihar: II Zooplankton.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

201

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

202-205

NEW DESCRIPTION

A REVIEW OF THE GENUS PARAHORMIUS NIXON WITH DESCRIPTION

OF TWO NEW SPECIES (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Anjum, Z. Ahmad2'3 and Z. Ahmed2

'Accepted June 17, 2008

"Section of Entomology. Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

"Email: [email protected]

The Indian species of Parahonnius Nixon are reviewed. Two species namely, P. leucopterae sp. nov. and P. punensis

sp. nov. are described and illustrated from India. Brief diagnosis of the genus and key to the Indian species of the

genus Parahonnius is provided.

Key words: review, Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Hormiinae, new species, India

INTRODUCTION

Wharton ( 1993) discussed Genus Parahonnius Nixon

in detail and defined its limits within Subfamily Hormiinae.

Parahonnius is characterized by loss of epicnemial carina,

reduction or loss of the pleural flange and carina, relatively

narrow prescutellar pits, rather narrow pronotum and occipital

carina disappearing ventrally before reaching hypostomal

carina.

Most of the species of Parahonnius are of economic

interest as they are gregarious or solitary ectoparasitoids of

lepidopteran larvae of the families Coleophoridae,

Cosmopterygidae, Gelechiidae and Lyonetiidae

(Belokobylskij 1988; Whitfield and Wagnerl991; Wharton

1993).

The genus is almost worldwide in distribution but is

yet to be recorded from the Australian region. Narendran et

al. (2002) described four species of Parahonnius from

southern India. In the present work, the Indian species of

Parahonnius are revised. Material pertaining to five out of

six species known from India was studied. Also, two new

species are described. The genus is rediagnosed, and a key to

the Indian species of Parahonnius is also given. The new

species, namely P. punensis sp. nov. is based on a single

specimen since all avenues of examining additional specimens

by borrowing or collecting did not yield any result.

The following abbreviations are used in the text:

OOL - ocello-ocular line (distance from the outer edge of a

lateral ocellus to the compound eye); POL - post-ocellar

line (distance between the inner edges of the two lateral

ocelli); AOL - anterior-ocellar line (distance between the

inner edges of anterior and lateral ocellus); OD - diameter

of an ocellus; ZDAMLT - Zoology Department, Aligarh

Muslim University.

Genus Parahormius Nixon

Parahonnius Nixon, 1940: 473. Type species:

Parahonnius jason Nixon, by original designation.

Parahormius Nixon; Hedqvist, 1963: 49

Parahormius Nixon; Shenefelt, 1975: 1151

Parahormius Nixon; Belokobylskij and Tobias, 1986:

64

Parahormius Nixon; Belokobylskij, 1990b: 59-64,

1994b: 15

Parahormius Nixon; Papp, 1990:186

Parahormius Nixon; Whitfield & Wagner, 1991: 740

Parahormius Nixon; Wharton, 1993: 150

Diagnosis: Head smooth or nearly so and sparsely setose

dorsally; antennae slender; mesoscutum with a narrow and

usually smooth median depression between notauli; notauli

narrow and shallow posteriorly, impressed anteriorly; scutellum

gently rounded laterally; scutellar sulcus shallow and

comparatively narrow; precoxal sulcus and mesopleuron

smooth; propodeum areolate; vein 2m-cu of hind wing present;

vein M+CU of hind wing about as long as vein 1M; vein 1M of

fore wing largely unsclerotized; vein 2m-cu of fore wing

postfurcal; vein cu-a of hind wing present, short; first tergite

completely sclerotized medially with lateral areas of tergite

comparatively narrow; ovipositor sheaths somewhat widened.

Key to Indian species of the genus Parahormius Nixon

1. Fore wing with 3-SR shorter than or equal to r; fore wing

shorter than body 2

— Fore wing with 3-SR longer than r; length of fore wing

distinctly longer than body 5

2. Antennae with 19 segments P. jason Nixon

— Antennae with more than 19 segments 3

NEW DESCRIPTION

3. Malar space 0.1 6x as long as eye length

P. zonus Narendran

— Malar space more than 0.2x as long as eye length 4

4. T1 of gaster whitish; stemaulus weakly crenulate: mesonotal

disc smooth, without longitudinal furrow

P. diephobus Nixon

— T1 yellowish; stemaulus crenulate; mesonotal disc smooth

with longitudinal furrow P. leucopterae sp. nov.

5. Antennae 17 segmented, shorter than body; scutellar sulcus

narrow and smooth P. punensis sp. nov.

— Antennae with 19 or more segments, longer than body;

scutellar sulcus narrow and crenulate 6

6. Ovipositor a little shorter than hind metatarsus; mesosoma

shorter than metasoma P. stom Narendran

— Ovipositor longer than hind metatarsus; mesosoma equal to

or longer than metasoma 7

7. OOL; POL = 7: 4; notauli indicated by a pair of longitudinal

carinae P. rameshi Narendran

— OOL: POL= 8: 3; notauli not distinct P. absonus Narendran

1. Parahormius absonus Narendran

Parahormius absonus Narendran, 2002:56

Material Examined: 1 ?. Paratype: india: Kerala,

Walayar, 9,ix,1989, Coll. T.C. Narendran and party (ZSIC).

Host: Unknown.

Distribution: india: Kerala.

2. Parahormius leucopterae sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3)

Female: Length of body, 1.9 mm; fore wing, 1.6 mm.

Head: 1 ,5x as wide as long in dorsal view, 0.9x as high

as long in ventral view; eyes 3x as long as temple; eyes large,

1.5x as long as wide, inner margin of eyes parallel; temple

punctate, sparsely hairy; ocelli small, elliptical, forming an

equilateral triangle; AOL: POL: OD: OOL = l: 1: 1:3; malar

space 0.3x as long as length of eye, 2x base of mandible; face

sparsely hairy, slightly convex, punctate, l.lx as wide as long;

clypeus punctate, distinctly separated from face, slightly

convex, 2.2x as wide as long; frons smooth and shiny; vertex

punctate, sparsely hairy; antennae 22 segmented, 0.8x as long

as body, scape 1 ,3x as long as wide, F; Flx 1 ,7x and F)9 2.6x

as long as wide respectively.

Mesosoma: 1.8x as long as wide in dorsal view, 1.7x

as long as high in lateral view; pronotum short; mesonotum

polished; notauli broad, smooth, distinct only basally; median

lobe of mesoscutum with a median longitudinal furrow

posteriorly; scutellar sulcus narrow, straight and smooth;

scutellum smooth and polished; propodeum with pentagonal

areola and reticulation of carinae; propleuron with transverse

striations; mesopleuron dorsally with transverse striations

otherwise smooth and polished; stemaulus smooth.

Wings: Fore wings 3x as long as wide; 0.8x as long as

body length; pterostigma 3.4x as long as wide, 0.9x R 1 a, r arising

from its middle; r 0.8x as long as pterostigma; 3-RSa 0.7x as

long as r, 0.5x 2RS, 0.1 5x 3RSb; r-m 1.3x 3RSa; 2CUb arising

from a little above middle of first discal cell; marginal cell

slightly naiTOwer towards apex; 1 RS straight; 2m-cu postfurcal;

lcu-a postfurcal; hind wing 5x as long as wide.

Legs: Hind femur 3.7x as long as wide; hind tarsus

0.9x as long as hind tibia; hind basitarsus 0.7x as long as

tarsal segment 2-4 combined.

Metasoma: 1.2x as long as mesosoma; T1 sclerotized,

with longitudinal striations apically, basally smooth,

Figs 1-3: Parahormius leucopterae, sp. nov. female:

1. Head, dorsal view; 2. Mesosoma, dorsal view; 3. Fore wing

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

203

NEW DESCRIPTION

widening markedly above and below the spiracles, spiracles

present one- third basally, 1.2x as long as its apical and basal

width respectively; rest of the tergites sub-sclerotized, tergites

(2+3)-6 with lateral much darkened, sclerotized patches;

patches of T6 joined to form a broad sclerotized band right

across the tergite, tergite 7 fully sclerotized; ovipositor

sheaths blunt and sparsely hairy, 2.3x as long as basitarsus,

4.6x as long as Tl, 0.3x as long as fore wing.

Colour: Face, mesonotum, scutellum yellowish brown;

frons, vertex, antennae, legs, metasoma, propodeum

yellowish; mandible except its tip; stemmaticum, tip of

mandible, ovipositor sheaths brown; ocelli transparent; eyes

black; wing hyaline, pterostigma pale yellow, veins brown.

Male: same as female.

Holotvpe 9: India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, 1 4. viii.2005,

ex. Leucoptera sphenogrpta on Dalbergia sisso , Coll. Anjum

(ZD AMU). Paratypes: 4 9,2c?, same collection of data as

holotype.

Host: Leucoptera sphenograpta on Dalbergia sisso.

Type Locality: India: Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology: The species name is based on the name of

its host.

Remarks: Parahormius leucopterae sp. nov. is closely

related to Parahormius diephobus Nixon. However, it differs

from P. diephobus in having ( 1) Antennae 22 segmented, 0.8x

as long as body (antennae 23 segmented in P. diephobus ),

(2) Malar space 0.3x as long as length of eye (malar space 0. 2x

as long as length of eye in P. diephobus ), (3) Vertex punctuate

(vertex somewhat smooth in P. diebhobus).

3. Parahormius deiphobus Nixon

Parahormius deiphobus Nixon, 1940: 479.

Parahormius deiphobus Nixon; Hedqvist, 1963: 49

Material Examined: 2 9 9,1c?; India: Uttar Pradesh,

Aligarh 26. v. 2005, ex. Leucoptera sphenograpta on

Dalbergia sisso. Coll. Anjum.

Host: Leucoptera sphenograpta.

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh.

4. Parahormius jason Nixon

Parahormius jason Nixon, 1940: 478;

Parahormius jason Nixon; Hedqvist, 1963:49.

Parahormius jason Nixon; Chatterjee & Misra, 1974:

89.

Parahormius jason Nixon; Narenderan Rajmohana,

Karmaly and Jobiraj, 2002:57.

Materia! Examined: 3 9 9: india: Punjab. Changa

Manga Pltn. 1 3. iv. 1938. Collector not stated (F.I.R.); india:

Uttar Pradesh Aligarh, 5 9 9, 26.V.2005, 2 9 9, 8.V.2005,

Coll. Anjum (ZD AMU).

Host: Leucoptera sphenograpta Meyrick on Dalbergia

sisso.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh.

5. Parahormius punensis sp. nov.

(Figs 4-6)

Female: Body: 1.6 mm long; fore wing: 1.7 mm long

Head: 1 ,6x as wide as long in dorsal view, 1 .lx as high

as long in ventral view; eyes large, 4.5x as long as temple; 1 ,5x

as long as wide, inner margin of eyes parallel; ocelli small,

elliptical, forming an equilateral triangle; AOL: POL: OD:

OOL = 2: 2: 1:4; malar space 0.3x as long as length of eye,

Figs 4-6: Parahormius punensis sp. nov.

female: 4. Head in dorsal view; 5. Mesosoma, dorsal view;

6. Forewing

204

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

NEW DESCRIPTION

1 .5x base of mandible; face sparsely hairy, smooth and polished,

1.4x as wide as long; clypeus convex, polished, distinctly

separated from face; vertex, temple and frons smooth and

sparsely hairy; antennae 17 segmented, 0.9x as long as body,

scape 2x as long as wide, F 2.5x, F 2x as long a wide, rest of

the segments 4x as long as wide, apical segment tapering.

Mesosoma: 1.9x as long as wide in dorsal view, 2.4x

as long as high in lateral view; pronotum smooth, sparsely

hairy; mesonotum smooth and polished with a median

longitudinal furrow in posterior half; scutellar sulcus rather

long and smooth; scutellum slightly convex, smooth and

polished, side of scutellum concave and smooth; metanotum

with longitudinal striations; propodeum areolate, with a

pentagonal areola, having a short median carina present

anteriorly, inside of areola transversely rugose, side of

propodeum reticulate rugose; popleuron smooth and

polished; mesopleuron anteriorly with transverse striations,

otherwise smooth and polished.

Wings: Fore wings 2.6x as long as wide, 1 ,06x as long

as body length; pterostigma 3.7x as long as wide, 0.8x Rla,

r arising from its middle; r 0.2x as long as pterostigma; 3RSa

1 ,2x as long as r and 0.2x 3RSb; r-m as long as 3-SR; 2CUb

arising from distal end of brachial cell; marginal cell slightly

narrower towards apex; 3RSb straight; 2m-cu postfurcal;

lcu-a postfurcal; hind wing 5x as long as wide; M+CU 0.5x

1M.

Legs: Hind femur 4.3x as long as wide; hind tarsus

0.9x as long as hind tibia; hind basitarsus 0.8x as long as

tarsal segments 2-4 combined.

Metasoma: 0.9x as long as mesosoma; T1 smooth and

polished, 1.2x as long as wide apically and basally

respectively, distinctly widened at the spiracular tubercles,

spiracles present a little above middle of Tl, spiracles 1.2x

as wide as long, 1 ,5x as wide as apical and basal width of

Tl; rest of the tergites subsclerotized and smooth; ovipositor

sheaths blunt and sparsely hairy, 1 ,3x as long as basitarsus,

2.8x as long as Tl, 0.2x as long as fore wing.

Colour: Vertex, face, clypeus, scape yellow with brown

markings. Pedicel, mandible except its tip, legs, mesoscutum,

scutellum, metasoma yellowish brown; eyes, stemmaticum

black; ocelli transparent; pronotum creamish; antennae, tip

of mandible, ovipositor sheaths brown; wings hyaline, stigma

pale yellow, veins brown.

Male: Unknown.

Holotype 9: india: Maharashtra, Pune, 7. i. 2005,

Coll. Anjum (ZD AMU).

Host: Unknown.

Type locality: india: Maharashtra.

Remarks: Parcihormius punensis sp. nov. is closely

related to P. absonus Narendran. However, it differs in having

(1) Antennae 17 segmented, 0.9x as long as body (antennae

19 segmented, longer than body in P. absonus ), (2) OOL:

POL= 4: 2 (OOL: POL= 8:3 in P. absonus), (3) Fore wing

1 ,2x as long as body with 3RSa 1 ,2x as long as r (fore wing

1.2x longer than body with 3RSa 2.2x as long as r

in P. absonus), (4) Scutellar sulcus narrow and smooth

(scutellar sulcus narrow, small with longitudinal carinae in

P. absonus).

6. Parahormius stom Narendran

Parahormius stom Narendran, Narendran Rajmohana,

Karmaly and Jobiraj, 2002:55

Material Examined: Paratype: 1 9, india: Kerala,

Peechi, 5. xi. 1 989, Coll. Narendran, T.C. and party (ZSIC).

Host: Unknown.

Distribution: india: Kerala.

7. Parahormius zonus Narendran

Parahormius zonus Narendran; Narendran Rajmohana,

Karmaly and Jobiraj, 2002: 53

Material Examined: Paratype: 1 9, india: Kerala,

Vellakkrithadam (Peechi), 5 ,xi. 1 989, Coll. Narendran, T.C.

and party (ZSIC).

Host: Unknown.

Distribution: india: Kerala.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. M. Hayat and Dr. Shujauddin for

reviewing the manuscript and offering useful suggestions.

Authors are also thankful to Chairman, Department of

Zoology for laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

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(Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Doryctinae) of Taiwan, Proc. Zool.

Inst. Leningrad. 175: 3-37.

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A study of Parahormius Nixon (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).

Ecobios. 1 : 53-58.

Wharton, R.A. (1993): Review of the Hormiini (Hymenoptera:

Braconidae) with a description of new taxa. J. Nat. Hist. 27:

107-171.

Whitfield, J.B. & D.L. Wagner ( 1991 ): Annotated key to the genera of

Braconidae (Hymenoptera) attacking leaf mining Lepidoptera

in the Holarctic region. J. Nat. Hist. 25: 733-754.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

205

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

206-208

REVIEWS

1. ENVIRONMENT AND SELF-ENDANGERED MAN by J.V. Amin. Published by Scientific

Publishers, Jodhpur. 2009. 248 pp. Size: 24.5 cm x 19 cm. Hardback. Price: Rs. 2,050/- (INR).

“Cooperation among nations rather than competitive

hostility appears to be necessary for preservation of

environment and for our survival...” (Preface xi). This sums

up the gist of this remarkable book by a professor with

knowledge and wisdom of 50 years of academic work.

Another remarkable aspect of this book is that most of the

reference material used in this book comes from websites.

We generally think that ‘fossilized’ old professors do not

depend on modem technology, such as website referencing,

but Prof. Amin is different. Nonetheless, he rightly accepts,

“The transient nature of some of these websites is a source of

some uneasiness to me. When a material is sourced from a

traditional library it is there for others to access for a long

time, but this may or may not be the case for material that has

been taken from Internet source”.

The book consists of eight chapters, and three

appendices. Each chapter ends with Sources and References,

which helps the reader to go to the original source. Most of

the internet material referred to is still accessible so the

professor need not worry about the ‘transient nature’ of

websites. The book is so modern and futuristic that I got it in

mid-2008, although the publication date is 2009!

The book has its blemishes, particularly in the editing

part. As I wrote in a review of another book published by the

same publisher; Scientific Publishers should get a good editor

to check spellings and grammar. For example, in this book,

wildlife, watershed, wetlands are always written as two words.

Some diagrams are below standard (e.g. page 27). Some of

the pictures too are not good, as they were downloaded from

the internet (where generally low resolution pictures are

uploaded). However, all pictures and tables are properly

acknowledged so if a reader wants to know more or go to

sources, he/she can easily do so.

In the table on “Wars and violent agitations in the period

after Second World War” (pp. 151-153), 45 major conflicts

are mentioned, but strangely the condemnable US aggression

in Iraq, and subsequent mass killing of civilians (>70,000

according to latest estimates and still continuing) is omitted.

I hope this is only an unintentional omission and not by any

design. Incidentally, Prof. Amin lives a peaceful retired life

in Arizona, USA.

The last chapter, enigmatically titled “Endangered

Humans” is worth reading by anyone interested in

environmental conservation. As has been rightly said by

Prof. Amin, environment is the first casualty of human

conflicts. He laments, “Until recently, environment was not

considered important and war damage to environment was

not recorded”. He gives examples of deliberate damage to

environment as a war strategy. Who can forget the despicable

use of Agent Orange by Americans during the Vietnam War

in the 1960s, and the massacre of American Buffalo by the

colonists to subdue and finally exterminate the native

Americans (20 millions killed). Destruction of infrastructure

and dislocation of population can also create significant

environmental degradation, because war refugees tend to live

off the land as an expediency measure and also because much

of peace time activity such as agriculture, industry and trade

cannot be practiced for a long time after the hostilities end.

We have also seen destruction of wildlife during conflicts.

For example, in 1980s and early 1990s, all the Rhinoceros

were killed in Laokhowa-Burachapori Wildlife Sanctuary and

Manas Tiger Reserve during ethnic conflicts in Assam. In recent

years, armed gangs of poachers have devastated the Rhinoceros

population in the Chitwan National Park in Nepal during

Communist insurgency (or was it ‘fight for democracy?’).

In Appendix C, Prof. Amin gives data of the death toll of

humans by humans, from Mathew White’s “Selected Death Tolls

of Wars, Massacres and Atrocities before the 20th Century”

(http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/Warstat0.htm). It makes sad

reading. Looking at the devastation of biodiversity all around,

the looming threats of climate change to the life support systems,

human population explosion and resultant food scarcity, and

increasing loot of natural resources by powerful nations, many

books and reports make sad reading. But, will man learn from

his mistakes and take corrective measures? This book is silent.

I also do not have an answer.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

2. BIRDS OF PAKISTAN by Richard Grimmett, Tom Roberts and Tim Inskipp. Published by

Christopher Helm, London and Yale University Press, New Haven. 2008. 256 pp. Size: 21.5 cmx 13.5 cm.

Paperback. Price not given.

THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Richard by POCKET GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT in

Grimmett, Carol Inskipp and Tim Inskipp in 1998, followed 1999 by the same authors created a stir in the ornithological

REVIEWS

world of South Asia mainly due to their excellent illustrations,

change in many common names and quirky taxonomy.

Although not comparable to the monumental tome handbook

of the birds of India and Pakistan by Ali and Ripley, the main

book ( 1998) had included recent researches and distribution

records of birds. The pocket guide (1999) became popular

and sold thousands of copies. Considering the vast number

of bird species found in the Indian subcontinent, Richard

Grimmett et al. brought out two more books, birds of

NORTHERN INDIA and BIRDS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. With the help of

BNHS, these books were translated into eight languages (one

language translation is still pending), which also sold

thousands of copies and many copies were freely distributed

to the frontline staff of the forest department.

Keeping their excellent record, Richard et al. have

brought out this new book birds of Pakistan, using the same

illustrations but updating some descriptions and distribution

records. A pleasant improvement is that distribution maps

are present on the same page, besides species description.

3. THE BIRDS OF BORNEO by Clive F. Mann.

British Ornithologists’ Club, UK. 2008. 440 pp.

given.

The British Ornithologists’ Union (BOU ) is well-known

for bringing out researched annotated checklists of different

regions/countries of the world. This is the 23rd book in the

BOU Checklist Series. BOU has already published annotated

bird checklists of Angola, St. Helena, St. Lucia, Sumatra,

Wallacea, Cayman Island, Morocco and other regions. Like

all other books of this series, this is also a valuable addition

to ornithological literature.

Borneo is the third-largest island in the world, with

more than 630 species of birds. For many genera and species,

particularly tropical forest birds, Borneo is the centre of

speciation. It has five endemic genera, one endemic monotypic

family, and 1 1% of the resident land birds as endemic. Like

all over South-east Asia, the forests of Borneo are under

tremendous pressure of deforestation, oil palm plantations,

invasive species and bird trapping for commercial trade.

The island of Borneo is important for evolutionists as

it is here that Alfred Russel Wallace thought about the theory

of evolution, which was around the same time that Charles

Darwin proposed his theory on the basis of his work in the

In 1992, Tom Roberts brought out the birds of Pakistan

in two volumes, which was a seminal work based on 28 years

of field research and extensive literature survey. Like the

handbook by Ali and Ripley, it was a reference book on which

all other bird books of Pakistan have to be based. I am very

happy that Tom Roberts is the second author of the present

book under review. His erudition is reflected all over the book.

From the inside cover, it appears that the Urdu edition

of this book has also been published with the English version.

I hope both these editions will popularize bird watching in

Pakistan like similar books have revolutionized bird watching

and bird conservation in India. It is sad to know that some

species such as the Comb Duck, which are widely distributed

in India, have been extirpated in Pakistan, and others such as

the Peafowl are found in very restricted areas. I hope this

book will make Pakistanis more benign towards wild animals

like their eastern neighbour.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

Published by British Ornithologist’s Union and

Size: 24.5 cm x 15.5 cm. Hardback. Price not

Galapagos island, on the other side of the world. Wallace

collected birds in the Sarawak region of Borneo (now a part

of Malaysia), and later in 1855 wrote about evolution.

This book is based on 10 years of work by Clive

F. Mann who spent most of his time in the Negara Brunei

Darussalam, a tiny oil rich country in northern Borneo, from

1981 to 1991, and later made short trips in 1993 and 1997.

Besides the author’s own observations, most of the book is based

on literature survey, museum records, personal communications,

and reports of field trips by visiting ornithologists. The Reference

section runs into 33 pages. The oldest reference is of Alfred

Wallace on genus Pitta in Ibis ( 1 864, 6: 100-1 14), and the latest

is a trip report of 2007 in the internet in html file.

The book is well produced and an excellent update

to the rather dated checklist by B.E. Smythies (1957):

An annotated checklist of the birds of Borneo published

in the difficult to get journal Sarawak Museum Journal

(7: 523-818).

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

4. THREATENED MAMMALS OF INDIA: ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT by Goutam Kumar

Saha and Subhendu Mazumdar. Published by Daya Publishing House, Delhi. 2008. 162 pp.

Size: 24 cm x 15.5 cm. Hardback. Price: Rs. 700/- (INR), US $35.

This is a slick volume by two university teachers, but mammals of India, at least to the conservation community. It

the book does not have anything new about the threatened will be useful for beginners and students as it has a good

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

207

REVIEWS

compilation of data on species such as Common Name,

Present Status, Distribution, Habitat, Distinctive Characters,

Behavioural Biology, Threats to Survival, and Conservation

Measures. Such compiled books are useful for writing exams

and term papers by students. Unfortunately, there are many

spelling mistakes (e.g. cattles). The illustrations are of poor

quality and the pictures are just fine. The reference sections

runs to only three pages, but relevant references are quoted,

including many websites from where the data are compiled.

Unfortunately some information is outdated. For example, in

the case of Pygmy Hog, there is no mention of successful

conservation breeding in Assam and reintroduction of small

numbers in the wild.

As both authors have a zoology background,

behavioural aspects of species are well written. I recommend

this book to college students.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

208

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(2), May-Aug 2008

209-243

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . MOVEMENT PATTERNS AND HABITAT USE OF GOLDEN JACKAL CAN IS AUREUS

IN BHAL REGION OF GUJARAT1

VlNAYAK K. PATIL2 AND YADAVENDRADEV V. JHALA3

'Accepted August 16, 2008

College of Forestry, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli. District Ratnagiri 415 712, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. No. 18, Chandrabani. Dehradun, 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

The Golden Jackal Canis aureus is the most widespread

of all jackal species (Sheldon 1992). In India, the Jackal is

found in high densities in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra,

Rajasthan and Haryana (Jhala and Moehlman 2004). They are

relatively abundant throughout their range. Their usefulness

in any ecosystem is as of scavengers and controllers of rodent

populations (Sankar 1988; Moehlman 1993).

A few long-term and several short-term studies have

been conducted on jackals (van Lawick Goodall and van

Lawick 1971; Moehlman 1993; Sharma 1998). The Golden

Jackal occupies a variety of habitats by adapting to the varied

conditions. Therefore, several aspects of jackal ecology and

behaviour are not fully understood. One of the generalized

views is that jackals are nocturnal. This study was conducted

to investigate the nature of movement patterns and allied

behaviour of Golden Jackals in a predominantly agrarian

ecosystem. This study, conducted during May-June 2002, was

based on continuous monitoring of one radio-collared Golden

Jackal.

Study Area and Animal

The study site is in the Bhal region of Gujarat, India. It

falls within the Bhavnagar district. Bhal is a semiarid region

(Dharmakumarsinhji 1978). Almost all the precipitation

occurs during the monsoon, which begins at the end of June

and continues till mid-September. October is a transition

period with sporadic showers (Jhala 1997). The temperature

ranges between 1 °C and 38 °C in winter, which is from

November to February. During summer, i.e., March to June,

the day temperature normally ranges between 37 °C and

48 °C.

The habitat in the study area comprises of four

intermingled ecosystems, namely agricultural, grassland,

shrubland and saline habitat. The Golden Jackal shares its

habitat with the Wolf Canis lupus pallipes , Nilgai Boselaphus

tragocamelus , Indian Wild Boar Sus scrofa , and Wild Fox

Vulpes bengalensis. Besides, the area supports a variety of

rodents ( Tatera indica , Millardia meltada , Mas booduga),

hare ( Lepus sp.), birds and insects.

The Golden Jackal individuals had been radio-collared

in the study area earlier for home range studies (Aiyadurai

and Jhala 2006) as a part of the Wildlife Institute of India’s

project ‘Conservation of the Indian Wolf’ . At the start of this

study, only one animal survived with an active radio-collar

and provided us with good data. This Jackal, an adult male

named Don, was radio-collared in December 2000.

Methods

For studying the movement pattern and habitat use, the

study animal was followed continuously for two sessions of

72 hours each. The sessions started in the morning and ended

at around the same time on the third day, thus covering both

diurnal and nocturnal activity. According to Kenward ( 1 987 ),

such data can be used for determining the movement pattern

and habitat use despite its limited utility for home range

estimation due to the data redundancy effect. But these data

give the exact minimum area, which may be a part of the

animal’s home range, used for that particular period of

monitoring.

In this study we used the Telonics telemetry receiver,

a 3-element hand held Yagi antenna and a Magellan GPS

unit.

For continuous monitoring the procedure remains the

same as that for obtaining single independent radio-fixes, the

only difference is that the animal is not disturbed and the

location is recorded only after the animal moves from that

place. Neither homing-in nor triangulation can be used for

obtaining exact locations. Homing-in is not used so as not to

disturb the animal when it is involved in its normal activities.

Triangulation takes time and is not useful when the animal is

moving. So, an approximation of the location of the animal

is to be made. The error introduced due to this has been

discussed by Aiyadurai (2001). Other information on

associated animals (whenever sighted), activity, habitat type,

nearest village, nearest water source, date and time were

recorded in data sheets.

For recording purposes, the habitat was divided into

four categories: dense Prosopis , medium Prosopis , sparse

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Prosopis and open fields. In field, visual estimation of the

density of Prosopis patches in terms of accessibility to

human beings was used to discriminate between the habitat

types.

Data Analysis

The distances between successive locations were

estimated by importing the location data in a GIS domain.

This was facilitated by the availability of a previously

generated GIS model of the study area in the ongoing project.

The time spent at each location was obtained from the

associated time data.

The movement data with respect to time was analysed

for obtaining the rate of travel and average distance travelled

per night and per 24 hours, i.e., the movement patterns. For

estimating the time of day preferred for performing a certain

activity, the time of day was divided into 8 periods of 3 hours

each, and the time spent in each activity was estimated for

each period separately.

Estimation of the habitat preference for performing a

certain activity was done by sorting the radio-locations first

by habitat and then by activity, and then summing the time

spent for each activity in each habitat. Habitat and activity

data were integrated to know which habitat was preferred for

a particular activity. Since the available habitat could not be

estimated, we were unable to test whether the habitats were

used in relation to their availability.

Results

Movement

On an average the Jackal left its patch for foraging at

1922 hrs (range = 1704 to 2045 hrs, n = 6), and it retired to

its resting patch at 0700 hrs (range = 0340 to 0905 hrs,

n = 6).

The Jackal moved on an average 8.58 km per night

(SE = 2.461, n = 6) and, it travelled this distance at a rate of

0.74 km per hour (SE = 0.203, n = 69 hours) (Table 1).

Besides these forays in the night, the Jackal also moved from

one patch to another during the daytime. Including this

movement, the Jackal travelled an average distance of

9.55 km per 24 hours (SE = 2.361, n = 6). In the first session

the distances travelled per 24 hours were 8.82 km, 2.83 km

and 4.73 km, whereas in the second session the distance

travelled was 9.28 km, 12.71 km, and 18.94 km per

24 hours.

Observations and plots of the movement tracks in the

GIS domain showed that the Jackal visited the outskirts of

villages regularly and systematically, i.e., from one village

to the other taking a circuitous route, which took it back to

its resting patch.

Table 1: Distance travelled/night by radio-collared Jackal

Activity and Habitat Use

The data on activity and habitat was pooled for two

sessions and the percent time spent in each habitat

and percent time spent performing each activity were

calculated using the time spent between two successive radio-

locations. It was estimated that the Jackal spent 71% of its

time resting, 24% moving and 5% feeding. Similarly, it spent

53% of its time in medium Prosopis thickets, 35% in dense

Prosopis thickets, 8% in open fields, and 4% in sparse

Prosopis.

Fig. 1 shows the percentage of time spent in different

activities during different times of the day. The major activity

during the daytime was resting while during night it was

movement. Feeding was performed for a very short duration

during the night hours, when it was actually moving in search

of food.

Fig. 2 shows the percentage of time spent in different

activities in different habitats. While most of the resting time

was spent in the dense and medium Prosopis thickets, most

of the moving time was spent in open fields and sparse

Prosopis patches.

Fig. 1 : Proportional time spent in different activities during different

times of day by a radio-collared jackal during two sessions of

72 hours of continuous monitoring

210

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Proportion of time spent in different activities at different

habitats

Discussion

Since the study was conducted for a short duration based

on one animal, the result cannot be generalized; but the

information generated from continuous monitoring of the

radio-collared animal re-confirms the popular belief of its

general behaviour.

It can be clearly seen that resting is the dominant activity

for the period between 0400 and 1600 hrs. Thus, this Jackal

rested for almost the whole day and started moving only at

dusk. Occasional movements were also recorded during the

daytime, but they were mainly stimulated by the need to attend

to the den or by some disturbance, which was almost always

human induced.

On an average the Jackal travelled about 8.6 km every

night and on an average spent 7-8 hours away from its resting

patch foraging only in the night. Moehlman ( 1986) says that

the Jackals go on forays extending up to 5 km. Aiyadurai

(2001) has also reported night forays of the Jackals in Bhal to

be around 6.2 km. The study animal was also observed to

travel in excess of 20 km during one night. In a simultaneous

study conducted in the nearby Velavadar National Park, it

was observed that carcasses of domestic livestock and fawns,

and adults of wild ungulates killed by wolves, featured in the

Golden Jackal’s diet. The area used by the radio-collared

Jackal has an extremely low ungulate density (pers. obs.),

and the Jackal was observed to visit the outskirts of villages

searching the dumping sites for offal and carcasses of cattle.

Although village dumps are abundant, carcasses are very rare.

One night the Jackal was observed to systematically visit the

outskirts of seven villages, but got a carcass only at one

village.

The jackal preferred dense and medium Prosopis patches

for resting, which was mainly done during daytime, as they

provided excellent cover. It was observed moving mostly in

open fields and sparse Prosopis as while foraging during

nights there was no apparent need for cover. This should be

the general behaviour of Jackal. The feeding habitat in the

study area is generally related to the condition of the dumping

sites. Thus, the habitat preference in this case seems to be

related to the activity pattern.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the USFWS and Earthwatch for financial

support; and the Gujarat Forest Department for cooperation

and facilities. The first author is also thankful to Joseph, Priya,

Kartikeya, Rajinder, Ramesh and Lallu for their support

during the fieldwork.

REFERENCES

Aiyadurai, A. (2001 ): Home Range, Ranging Patterns and Abundance

Estimation of Golden Jackals in the Bhal Region of Gujarat.

M.Sc. Dissertation. Saurashtra University, Rajkot. 56 pp.

Aiyadurai, A. & Y.V. Jhala (2006): Foraging and habitat use by

Golden Jackals (Canis aureus ) in the Bhal Region, Gujarat,

India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 5-12.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1978): Velavadar National Park, Gujarat,

India. Tigerpaper 5(1): 6.

Jhala, Y.V. (1997): Seasonal effects on the nutritional ecology of

Blackbuck Antelope cervicapra. J. Appl. Ecol. 34: 1348-1358.

Jhala, Y.V. & P. Moehlman (2004): Golden Jackal Canis aureus.

Pp. 156-161. In: Sillero-Zubiri, C., M. Hoffmann &

D. MacDonald (Eds): Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs

Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Canid

Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland.

Kenward, R. (1987): Wildlife Radio Tagging: Equipment, Field

Techniques and Data Analysis, Academic Press Limited,

London. 222 pp.

Moehlman, P.D. (1986): Ecology of Cooperation in Canids.

Pp. 64-86. In: Rubenstein, D. & R. Wrangham (Eds): Ecological

Aspects of Social Evolution. Princeton LIniversity Press.

Moehlman, P.D. ( 1993): Social Organization in Jackals In: Sherman,

P.W. & J. Alcock(Eds): Exploring Animal Behaviour (Readings

from American Scientist). Sinaeur Associates Inc., Sunderland.

Pp. 209-218.

Sankar, K. (1988): Some observations on food habits of Jackals

( Canis aureus ) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, as

shown by scat analysis. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1):

185-186.

Sharma, I.K. (1998): Habitat preferences, feeding behaviour,

adaptations and conservation of the Asiatic Jackal ( Canis

aureus) in the Indian Thar Desert. Tigerpaper 2 5(4): 11-12.

Sheldon, J.W. (1992): Wild Dogs: The Natural History of Non-

domestic Canidae. Academic Press Inc. San Diego. 248 pp.

van Lawick-Goodall, J. & H. van Lawick (1971): Innocent Killers.

Collins, St. James’ Place, London. 222 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

211

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. IDENTIFICATION OF SCAT OF INDIAN FOX, JUNGLE CAT

AND GOLDEN JACKAL BASED ON MORPHOMETRICS

Abi Tamim Vanak1 and Shomita Mukherjee2

'Department of Biological and Conservation Science, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Westville, Pvt Bag 54001, Durban 4000,

South Africa. Email: [email protected]

2Post-graduate Program in Wildlife Biology and Conservation, Centre for Wildlife Studies, National Centre for Biological

Sciences, G.K.V.K. Campus, Bengaluru 560 065, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

Carnivore faeces are a valuable source of information

for researchers who seek to answer questions of distribution,

diet, health, population status, genetic diversity, breeding

condition, stress levels and much more of their study animals

(Putnam 1984; Reed et al. 1997). With several similar sized

carnivores coexisting, accurate identification of scats to the

species level is imperative. Traditional scat-identification

criteria have been based primarily on morphology (Halfpenny

1986; Ciucci et al. 1996), which though subjective are rapid,

inexpensive and easy to carry out as compared to alternatives,

such as bile acid assay through thin-layer chromatography

(Major et al. 1980), and DNA analysis of scat (Reed et al.

1997; Foran et al. 1997). Identification of scats of Indian

carnivores is still in the domain of natural history (but see

Mukherjee et al. 2004). We present results of a morphometric

measurement based analysis of scat of three species of meso-

carnivores that occur sympatrically in many areas of their

distributional range. Based on this analysis, we conclude that

scats of the Indian Fox can be reliably differentiated from

that of the Golden Jackal and Jungle Cat, whereas the

scats of the latter two species are morphometrically

indistinguishable.

We collected scats of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus)

and Jungle Cat ( Felis chans) from the Sariska Tiger Reserve,

Rajasthan and of the Indian Fox ( Vulpes bengalensis) from

the Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh and

Ranebennur Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka. Scats of the

Indian Fox were collected from outside active dens, thus

ensuring correct identification. Scats of Golden Jackal and

Jungle Cat were identified from bile acid profiles through

thin-layer chromatography (Mukherjee et al. 2004). We took

care to collect scats that seemed to come from a single

defecation event. These scats were air-dried upon collection

and later oven dried at 60 °C. We took measurements of the

diameter at three different locations along the length of each

distinct segment of scat using a set of callipers (0.01 cm

accuracy). Of these, we chose the maximum width of each

scat for comparison.

The mean diameter of scats of Golden Jackal was

1 .92 cm (SD = 0.29, 95% Cl = 0.052, range = 1 .63, n = 124),

Jungle Cat was 1.87 cm (SD = 0.28, 95% Cl = 0.077,

range = 1.04, n = 54) and Indian fox was 1 .43 cm (SE = 0.31,

95% Cl = 0.063, range = 0.9, n = 55).

Based on the 95% confidence intervals, the results

indicated no difference in scat diameter between the Golden

Jackal and Jungle Cat, while the Indian Fox scats were smaller

in diameter. Therefore, it is possible to differentiate Indian

Fox scat from both the Golden Jackal and Jungle Cat scat

based on diameter.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first author was funded by a Wildlife Conservation

Society-India Program Small Grant and wishes to thank

Dr. K. Ullas Karanth, Mr. Samba Kumar, Mr. Aditya

Bhaskaran and Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bengaluru for

logistic and technical support. The second author wishes to

thank the Rajasthan Forest Department and the Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun, for logistic and technical

support.

REFERENCES

Ciucci, P., L. Boitani, E.R. Pelliccioni, M. Rocco & I. Guy (1996):

A comparison of scat analysis methods to assess the diet of the wolf

Canis lupus. Wildl. Biol. 2: 37-48.

Foran, D.R., K.R. Crooks & S.C. Minta ( 1997): Species identification

from scat: an unambiguous genetic method. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 25:

835-839.

Halfpenny, J. (1986): A Field Guide to Mammal Tracking in North

America. Johnson Printing Company, Boulder, Colorado, USA.

Pp. 175.

Major, M., M.K. Johnson, S.W. Davis & T.F. Kellog (1980):

Identifying scats by recovery of bile acids. ./. Wildl. Manage. 44:

290-293.

Mukherjee, S., S.P. Goyal, A.J.T. Johnsingh & M.R.P. Leite Pitman

(2004): The importance of rodents in the diet of jungle cat (Felis

chaus), caracal (Caracal caracal ) and golden jackal (Canis aureus)

in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, India. J. Zool., Lond. 262:

405-411.

Putnam, R.J. (1984): Facts from faeces. Mammal Rev. 14: 79-97 .

Reed, J.Z., D.J. Tollit, P.M. Thompson & W. Amos (1997): Molecular

scatology: the use of molecular genetic analysis to assign

species, sex and individual identity to seal faeces. Mol. Ecol 6:

225-234.

212

J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), Mav-A.ug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. AN UNREPORTED POPULATION OF THE GRIZZLED GIANT SQUIRREL RATUFA MACROURA'

Kumaran Sathasivam2, V. Santharam3, K.V. Sudhakar4and T. Badri Narayanan5

‘Accepted April 25, 2008

229 Jadamuni Koil Street, Madurai 625 00), Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

'Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Rishi Valley RO. 517 352, Chittoor district,

Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

J10 South Leith Castle Street, Santhome, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

5262, 2nd Main Road, Gomathipuram, Madurai 600 020, Tamil Nadu. India. Email: [email protected]

The Sirumalai Hills are a compact range of hills in Tamil

Nadu, southern India. They are located in Dindigul district,

with the centre at roughly 1 0° 1 3' N, 78° 1 5' E. The Sirumalais

extend over an area approximately 20 km long and 13 km

wide. They are outliers of the Western Ghats, close to the

Palni Hills. The highest peaks in the Sirumalais are nearly

1,400 m high. A plateau of 1,000 m height is a significant

feature of this hill range. The slopes of the hills are fairly

steep. The plateau is cultivated and has scanty and degraded

natural forest, whereas the slopes are well forested.

While surveying the Sirumalais for birds in 2006 and

2007, we found the Grizzled Giant Squirrel Ratufa macroura

at various locations (Table 1).

At every instance we saw the squirrels, except at

Velampanne, where we only heard their calls. Kolinjipatti is at

the foothills, and all the other locations are on the plateau. From

our discussions with the staff of Kandighe Estate, we learnt

that the animals are regularly seen in their estate and that even

three to four animals have been seen together at times.

The Grizzled Giant Squirrel is an endangered species

and has been reported from only a few locations in India:

the Srivilliputtur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary (Joshua

and Johnsingh 1994), Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

(Ramachandran 1989), Kudirayar in the Palni Hills (Davidar

1989), Muttatti in Karnataka (Karthikeyan et al. 1992) and

Sathanur Dam (M. Krishnan pers. comm, to K.V. Sudhakar).

Its total population in India has been estimated at

just a few hundred individuals (Joshua and Johnsingh

1994).

The Sirumalai Hills must now be included in the select

list of locations where the Grizzled Giant Squirrel is found.

Our records of five or six individuals from well-separated

parts of these hills suggest that a significant population of

this endangered mammal exists here.

Our bird survey was supported by a grant from the

Oriental Bird Club. We are grateful to Mr. V. Narayan Swami

and the staff of Khandighe Estate for the hospitality and

facilities offered.

Table 1 : Details of records of the Grizzled Giant Squirrel Ratufa macroura in the Sirumalais

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

213

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURLEW NUMENIUS ARQUATA

WINTERING ON THE GULF OF KUTCH COAST1

V.C.SONI2'3 AND V.J. BHUVA2

'Accepted March 17, 2008

^Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India.

-’Email: [email protected]

The Curlew Numenius arquata winters on the coast in

the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. It breeds in Central Asia; moves

to south and south-east Asia during the non-breeding period.

The Gulf of Kachchh coast is located at the north of the

Saurashtra peninsula in the Jamnagar district of Gujarat, India.

The Gulf is exceptionally rich in marine life, and a number of

migratory bird species spend the winter here. The long

coastline, with broad intertidal mudflats, coral reefs, sandy

and rocky beaches offer great diversity of habitats for birds

to utilize, and the area is very rich in the diversity and number

of both migratory and resident birds. The birdlife of the area

has been documented by Abdulali ( 1 962, 1 963), Himmatsinhji

( 1968), Parasharya (1984), Palmes and Briggs ( 1986), Naik et

al. (1991), Mundkur ( 1991 ), Bhuva and Soni ( 1998), Soni and

Bhuva (2007). The Curlew regularly visits the Gulf of Kachchh

during the winter period and uses the coast for feeding and

roosting only.

The Gulf of Kachchh, during the last two decades, has

been a centre of attraction for several industrial giants, and a

number of industries have been established there. Due to

these developments, the area is bound to see increase in

anthropogenic pressures and related changes.

The Gulf of Kachchh is spread in an area of

approximately 7,350 sq. km and has a maximum depth of

about 60 m (Hashmi etal. 1978); 457.92 sq. km area along the

coast of Jamnagar has been notified as a Marine National

Park and Sanctuary, and includes 42 islands. Coastal swamps,

estuaries, coastal sands, coral reefs and mangrove forest all

along the southern part of the Gulf provide foraging grounds

to a variety of birds. The Gulf of Kachchh is elongated in

east-west direction. At the entrance (63° 05' E) it is about

40 km wide, reduces to a width of 23 km at 69° 44' E, and

thereafter slightly widens out before ending at 70° 20' E. The

southern coastline of the Gulf of Kachchh is muddy with a

few sandy and rocky patches. The vegetation is arid type,

dominated by Euphorbia, Acacia, Salvadora, Capparis and

Prosopis. The diversity of marine vegetation is quite poor,

the mangrove area is stunted and dominated by Avicennia

marina, though there is a rich diversity of marine algae (Naik

etal. 1991).

The study was carried out at Narara Island and

Rozybundar. Narara Island is located north of Vadinar town.

It is a very small island (22° 25.8' - 22° 28.3' N; 60° 42.1' -

69° 44.7' E), 60 km west from Jamnagar. Length of the island is

0.5 km and width 40 to 50 m during high tide. During low tide,

the intertidal area gets exposed up to 2 km. The intertidal area

presents mangrove forest, sandy beach, rocky and sandy

habitats, and coral reef. Intertidal area of Narara Island is very

rich in marine flora and fauna.

Rozybundar (22° 35.6' - 22° 3 1 .7' N; 70°01 .4' - 70° 04.0’ E)

is situated 10 km north-west to Jamnagar. Kamdar Salt and

Chemical Works are situated above the high tide mark. West

of the salt-pans is the new port of Jamnagar, to the east of the

salt-pans is a privately owned scrub forest, and further east

along the coast, are salt-pans of three companies separated

from each other on the seaward side by mangrove fringed

tidal channels.

The period between November to February shows most

of the wintering Curlews on the Gulf coast (Bhuva 1999). The

census was carried out from November, 1991 to February,

1992 and from November, 1993 to February, 1994). Data on

foraging of the Curlew was collected from January 5, 1993 to

February 25, 1993 and December 21, 1993 to February 28, 1994

both at the Narara Island and Rozybunder. Observations were

made on adults during day using a telescope and a pair of

binoculars from a reasonable distance for a period of 5 min,

and effort was made to cover different foraging individuals,

through focal sampling, in various parts of the intertidal zone.

For rest of the method Soni and Bhuva (2007) was followed.

Roosting

At the time of high tide, all the curlews roosted together

either along the coast or islands, or on mudflat of the intertidal

zone; they roosted on the eastern and northern side of the

Narara Island and the northern coast of the Rozybunder. The

average population of Curlews on Narara island was about

ten times higher than that of Rozybundar. The highest number

of Curlews recorded at Narara Island in January was 209, but

only 16 at Rozybundar in December-January. Whimbrel

Numenius phaeopus, the Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia,

the Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica, the Herring Gull

Larus argentatus, the Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus

and the Crab-plover Dromas ardeola were the other species

observed roosting at the Narara island.

214

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A selection of the high tide roost was affected by factors

such as timings and level of tidal cycle, proximity and

availability of a suitable roost and the level of anthropogenic

disturbance. The comfortable roosts of neap tides often

remained submerged during the high spring tides, and birds

roosted on the coast of islands. The activities of fishermen

and other people along the coast made it difficult for the

Curlew and other waders to use many alternate suitable sites

for roosting.

Foraging dispersion

Most of the birds, about 98%, were seen feeding on

the mud flat area of the eastern side of Narara Island and

northern side of Rozybunder; and some birds in the reef

area. Just within 20-50 minutes after the tide started receding,

the Curlew got scattered on mud flat and reef for feeding,

and foraged actively throughout the period of low tide.

At the time the tide started receding, the available foraging

area was smaller, the birds usually started feeding much closer

(about 2- 1 0 m apart) along the waters’ edge. A few individuals

spread out over the available mudflat of the upper intertidal

zone and fed solitarily. No sooner the available area of the

intertidal zone increased with the receding tide then the

distance between the birds increased (about 40-70 m). After

constant feeding for about 4-5 hours, they slowly clumped,

bathed, preened and rested for an 0.5-1 hour before moving

to roost.

Foraging and food

The Curlew foraged by both the non-visual and visual

tactile foraging methods applying shallow and deep probing.

The Curlew preyed upon exposed as well as hiding prey

inside its hole. When the Curlew picked up a crab while

foraging at mud flats, it washed the mud-covered prey

before eating it.

The Curlew used both the feeding modes: walking

slowly when searching for hidden prey, and walking quickly

when the bird saw some movement on the mud surface.

The number of feeding attempts recorded on foraging

was 1,938 which were differentiated into successful and

unsuccessful feeding attempts (Table 1). The prey species

obtained and identified in the laboratory from 25 mud samples

from the foraging sites were Fiddler Crabs ( Gelasimus

annulipes) and Rag-worms. It was difficult to collect

regurgitated and faecal pellets as the location of the roost

site of the Curlew was in 20-80 mm deep water. Out of

178 successful feeding attempts (Table 1), Rag-worms were

identified in 14 attempts and Fiddler Crabs in 164 attempts.

Unsuccessful feeding attempts were almost 10 times more

than successful feeding attempts.

The Curlew affects harbours, backwaters, sandy

seashores, tidal mudflats, creeks, estuaries, and mangrove

swamps. The Curlew is a visual as well as tactile forager

(Burton 1974) and feeds on a variety of macrobenthic species

of prey from the intertidal mudflat. Its prey species include

molluscs, seeds, Crustacea (largely Fiddler and Sand Crabs),

mudskippers, insects and occasionally berries and plant matter

(Gooders 1979; Ali and Ripley 1983). Feeding mode in the

Curlew varies with the prey availability such as ‘Walking

slowly’ when searching for burrows entrances of benthic

animals, and 'walking more quickly’ when searching for surface

feeding animals. The feeding behaviour and intake rate of the

Curlew changed (Zwarts 1997). As per Zwarts and Wanink

(1984), the Curlew ignores prey which is unprofitable, i.e.,

those of which the handling efficiency is below the intake

rate during feeding. Caldow et al. (2003) mentioned that the

Curlew increased in abundance at Mussel ( Mytilus edidis)

cultivation site on the intertidal flats. During the present study

the main prey noticed was Fiddler Crabs.

An average number of successful feeding attempts of

the Curlew were higher than those of Crab Plovers (Soni and

Bhuva 2007). Possibly Curlew used ‘Walk slowly’ method

which leads to a more successful feeding behaviour (Mundkur

1991) than walk-stop-look method used by Crab Plover.

On the other hand a non-visual tactile foraging bird probes

abruptly into the substrate which may result into either a

successful or unsuccessful feeding attempt. However, the

Curlew fed both by visual as well as tactile foraging.

Proportion of unsuccessful and successful feeding

attempts of the Curlew was about 10:1 (Table 1). Among

unsuccessful feeding attempts, a ratio of ‘Deep’ and ‘Shallow

Probing’ was about 1 :3 (Table 1 ).

Zwarts (1997) suggests that birds take different prey

under different conditions and perhaps move away to better

sites when the intake cannot meet with the output.

Table 1 : Foraging activities of Curlew (Numenius arquata )

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2); May-Aug 2008

215

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

From direct observations on the prey of the Curlew

when compared with the Crab Plover, the diversity of prey

species of the Curlew was found to be less than that of the

Crab Plover (Soni and Bhuva 2007); major (94%) being the

Fiddler Crab. Thus, in the Gulf of Kachchh habitat Fiddler

Crabs constitute important prey base for the Curlew.

The high tide roost sites are very crucial for the

conservation of the Curlews and other waders. Since the

Rozybunder faces heavy anthropogenic pressures, number

of the Curle ws on Rozybunder were extremely low. Thus, for

the conservation of the Curlews and other waders it is very

important to manage such sites to control the anthropogenic

pressure. Otherwise, due to industrialization the pressure is

going to increase day by day and the waders may face a

variety of problems in the Gulf of Kachchh area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the authorities of the Marine National

Park for permission to carryout the work.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. (1962): An ornithological trip to the Gulf of Kutch.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 655-658.

Abdulali, H. ( 1963): Ornithological notes of a second trip to the Gulf

of Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 703-708.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (2001): Handbook of Birds of India and Pakistan.

Compact 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Pp. 245-246.

Bhuva, V.J. (1999): Feeding ecology of some wading birds in the Gulf

of Kachchh. Ph.D. thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

210 pp.

Bhuva, V.J. & V.C. Soni (1998): Wintering population of four migratory

species of waders in the Gulf of Kachchh and human pressures.

Wader Study Group Bull. 86: 48-5 1 .

Burton, P.J.K. (1974): Feeding and feeding apparatus in Waders:

A study of anatomy and adaptation in the Charadrii. British

Museum Natural History, London. Publ.No.719. Pp. 1-120.

Caldow, R.W.G, H.A. Beadman, S. Mcgrorty, M J. Kaiser, J.D. Goss-

Custard, K. Mould & A. Wilson (2003): Effects of intertidal

mussel cultivation on bird assemblages. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 259:

173-183.

Dharmkumarsinhji, K.S. (1955): The Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India

Press, Bombay.

Gooders, J. (1979): The Orbis Encyclopedia of Birds of Britain and

Europe. Vol. III. Birds of Marsh and Shore. Orbis Publishing,

London.

Hashmi, N.H., R.R. Nair & R.M. Kjdwai ( 1978): Sediments of Gulf of

Kutch - a high energy tide dominated environment. Indian

J. Mar. Sci. 7:1-7.

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1968): Some interesting migrants in Kutch.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 225.

Mundkur, T. (1991): Nesting and feeding ecology of aquatic birds in

Saurashtra and Gulf of Kachchh. Ph.D. thesis, Saurashtra

University, Rajkot.

Naik, R.M., M.S. Murthy, A.P. Mansuri, Y.N. Rao, R. Pravez,

T. Mundkar, S. Krishnan, P.J. Faldu & T.S.V.R. Krishna (1991):

Studies on coastal marine ecosystems and anthropogenic pressure

in the Gulf of Kachchh. Final report, submitted to World Wide

Fund for Nature-India. 287 pp.

Palmes, P. & C. Briggs (1986): Crab Plovers Dromas ardeola in the

Gulf of Kutch. Forktail 1: 21-28.

Parasharya, B.M. (1984): Studies on the coastal birds and their marine

habitat, with special emphasis on the biology of the Indian Reef

Heron Egretta gularis. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Soni, V.C. & V.J. Bhuva (2007): Feeding ecology of Crab Plover Dromas

ardeola in the Gulf of Kachchh, India. Wader Study Group Bull.

133: 32-36.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1962): An essay on the Geography of Saurashtra.

Rajkumar College Publications, Rajkot.

Zwarts, L. ( 1997): Waders and theirfood supply. Ph.D. Thesis. Summary

in Wader Study Group Bull. 83: 11-14.

Zwarts, L. & J. Wannik (1984): How Oystercatchers and Curlew

successively deplete clams. Pp. 69-83. In: Evans, P.R., J.D. Goss-

Custard & W.G, Hale (Eds.): Coastal waders and wildfowl in winter.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge London.

5. OCCURRENCE OF ORIENTAL SCOPS OWL OTUS SUNIA SUNIA

IN MELGHAT TIGER RESERVE, MAHARASHTRA1

Girish A. Jathar2

'Accepted June 06, 2008

"Centre for Environment Education, Nehru Foundation for Development. Thaltej, Tekra 380 054, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.

Email: [email protected]

I visited Raipur village, north-central part of Melghat

Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra, in June 2004 for a status survey

of the Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti). This area comes

under Forest Division No. 1 of the Melghat Tiger Reserve.

The terrain is undulating and hilly. The forest is dominated

by Teak Tectona grandis in some patches, and mixed forest

exists along the streams.

On June 05, 2004, while walking towards a waterhole in

the Reserve I was informed by a tribal about a possible case

of waterhole poisoning. Tribals in and around Melghat are

known to poison waterholes for hunting wild animals. The

waterhole was located in forest compartment No. 223,

at 21° 34' N and 77° 17' E at an altitude of 550 m. At about

0900 hrs, I reached the waterhole and saw a bizarre sight;

216

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

there were two frogs and one rufous bird floating on the

water. The frogs and the bird, an owl, were entangled with

each other. I do not know the reason behind this. While I was

trying to identify the owl, one of our team members found an

owl of another species.

Both the specimens were partially damaged, but the

key identification characters like wings, legs and plumage

were intact. The smaller specimen was 1 8 cm long and rufous

in colour. It had very pale or almost invisible black streaks on

its back, the breast had black vertical streaks and the belly

feathers were blotched white. I identified it as the Oriental

Scops Owl Otus sunia. The larger specimen was 25 cm long

and brown grey. It had vermiculated lines and streaks on its

back. The belly and breast were pale brown and had vertical

streaks. I identified it as the Indian Scops Owl Otus

bakkamoena.

Sawarkar (1987) mentions the presence of Peninsular

Scops Owl Otus scops rufipennis in the Melghat Tiger Reserve,

but my observation is different. There is a very little difference

between the Oriental Scops Owl Otus sunia sunia and the

Peninsular Scops Owl Otus sunia rufipennis (Ticehurst 1923;

Baker 1927; Ali and Ripley 1987). They differ only in the wing

formulae (Ali and Ripley 1987, see museum diagnosis).

I identified the specimen up to subspecific level by its wing

formulae. In the nominate subspecies sunia , first primary is

equal to the 7th or 8th, whereas in rufipennis the first primary

is equal to the 5th or is longer than the 5th. In our case, the

first primary was equal to the 8th; hence the specimen was

confirmed to be Otus sunia sunia.

Sawarkar (1987) mentions “A reference at the

sub-species level is included in parenthesis on the basis of

reported range of the sub-species. This is not identification

at subspecies level”. Ali and Ripley ( 1987) mention presence

of a nominate species in north India and some parts of Central

India, but there is no clear demarcation on the extent and

occurrence of the species. Abdulali (1981) mentions the

presence of both the subspecies in Maharashtra. Baker ( 1927)

mentions its presence in Khandesh, which is also a part of

Satpuda mountains. Rasmussen (pers. comm.) mentions

sympatric occurrence of both sunia and rufipennis in

Toranmal Reserve Forest, which is in Satpuda mountains and

only 450 km from Melghat Tiger Reserve. It is possible that

like Toranmal both sunia and rufipennis are sympatric in

Melghat Tiger Reserve. However, this needs more meticulous

taxonomic work to prove the sympatric occurrence of the two

subspecies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. Ramanuj Chaudhary, Director, Melghat Tiger

Reserve, Mr. Dhamage, DCF, Division-I, Melghat Tiger

Reserve, for their kind co-operation. I thank Mr. Sukhalal

Kazdekar and Mr. Sayasing Vasave, field assistants for guiding

us and accompanying us on this survey. I also thank

Mr. Vithoba Hegde for his cooperation in identifying the

specimens in the BNHS Collection.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. ( 1 98 1 ): Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra with notes

on their status around Bombay. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay. Pp.16.

All S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1987): Compact Handbook of Birds of India and

Pakistan (Second Edition). Oxford University Press, Mumbai.

Pp. 245.

Baker, S. (1927): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Birds - Vol. IV. (Second edition). Taylor and Francis.

London. Pp. 434-435.

Sawarkar, V.B. (1987): Bird Survey of the Melghat Tiger Reserve.

Cheetal 29(1): 4-27.

Ticehurst, C.B. ( 1923): Birds of Sind. Ibis 5: 242.

6. A SIGHT RECORD OF BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER MEROPS PERSICUS IN GOA1

Paul I. Holt2

'Accepted April 25, 2008

■Bracken Dean. Pendleton. Clitheroe, Lancashire, BB7 1PT, U K.

During the late afternoon of November 13, 2007, while

leading a Sunbird Bird Watching tour to Goa, a group of us

visited an area of open grassland near Carambolim

(15° 29' N; 73° 57' E). At about 1600 hrs we encountered a

flock of about 100 Blue-tailed Bee-eaters Merops philippinus

perched on some distant wires (Blue-tailed Bee-eater is a

common sight throughout much of the coastal plain of Goa).

While scanning through them, as I had done with dozens of

mail: [email protected]

flocks of this species during my fourteen previous visits to

Goa, I noticed a single Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus.

I along with nine other observers watched the bird for a total

of about 50 minutes, at ranges initially of about 600 m, but

later down to about 30 m. We used a variety of optical equipment

between us; I used 8 x 42 binoculars and a telescope on

magnifications of up to almost 60x. I was already familiar with

the species, mostly from experience in central Asia, and the

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

217

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

bird presented no identification problems. Nevertheless,

I recognised its local rarity (I suspected that it had not

previously been documented as occuring in Goa), and took

some hurried field notes. During my subsequent closer

approach I also managed to obtain some identifiable digi-

scoped images.

We were able to compare the bird directly with the

neighbouring Blue-cheeked Bee-eaters and there were also

small numbers of Green Bee-eaters M. orientalis in the area

for further comparison.

Description

The first thing that caught my attention was the Blue-

cheeked Bee-eater’s bright green upperparts.

Other features that separated it from the neighbouring

Blue-tailed Bee-eaters included - prominent bluish-whitish

supercilia above a narrow black ear-covert ‘face mask'. The

supercilia were short (extending behind the eye by a distance

not much more than the diameter of the eye itself), and blunt

ended at the rear. They appeared to join narrowly on the

forehead.

The Blue-cheeked also lacked any suggestion of a blue

hue to its rump and tail with both of these areas being greenish

and essentially concolorous with its upperparts. The bird

possessed whitish sides to its chin and a similarly coloured

naiTow horizontal stripe below its black eye mask.

The chin and throat were coppery-orange-paler and less

intensely coloured or less ‘saturated’ than the same feather

tracts on the Blue-tailed. The remainder of its underparts were

uniformly greenish, being slightly paler than its upperparts.

An orange-copper hue to its underwing coverts, while

only seen fleetingly when the bird flew, appeared not very

much different to that of the Blue-tailed Bee-eaters, but

possibly contrasted more with the darker trailing edge to the

secondaries (and possibly inner primaries?).

Structurally the Blue-cheeked Bee-eater appeared very

similar to the Blue-tailed Bee-eaters, but was possibly slightly

slimmer and ‘rangier’. In particular is seemed to be narrower

across the body this being especially noticeable in its slimmer

rump. The bird's bill also appeared very subtly finer and its

crown slightly flatter. The Blue-cheeked Bee-eater's legs were

possibly slightly shorter than those of its congeners and,

perhaps as a result of this, it more often adopted a horizontal

posture when perched on the power lines.

7. MALABAR PIED HORNBILL ANTHRACOCEROS CORONATES PREYING ON SPOTTED DOVE

IN BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK1

Satyaranjan Behera2

'Accepted March 10. 2007

2Project-Monitoring Tiger, Copredators, Prey and their Habitats, Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, P.O. Box 18,

Dehradun 248 001. Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

On March 24, 2006 at 1 600 hrs while travelling inside

the Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, India,

for fieldwork related to tiger population estimation, I observed

a Malabar Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus perched

about 45 m away on a Cassia fistula tree holding a prey in its

beak. After observing through a pair of binoculars (7 x 35)

I confirmed that the prey was a Spotted Dove Streptopelia

chinensis. The Dove was still alive and the Hornbill was

trying to kill it by dashing it against the branch on which it

was perched. I observed the Hornbill for about 10 minutes,

after which the Hornbill flew away with the dead Dove in its

beak.

Malabar Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus is

mainly frugivorous, but can also subsist on small reptiles,

mice and juvenile birds as has been reported by Ali and Ripley

( 1987). According to BirdLife International (2004), this species

is omnivorous, taking fruit, fish and small mammals. However,

there are no reports of it feeding on adult Spotted Doves.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and

Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 737 + 104 plates.

BirdLife International (2004): Anthracoceros coronatus. 2006 IUCN Red list of Threatened species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 1st Decmber

2008.

218

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. OCCURRENCE OF CHRYSOCOLAPTES FESTIVUS IN GOA1

Parag Rangnekar2 and Pankaj Lad3

'Accepted January 04, 2007

2R-1, S-3 Technopark, Near Landscape City, Chogm Road, Alto-Porvorim 403 521, Goa, India. Email: [email protected]

■’M-ll, Housing Board Colony, Vidyanagar, Gogal, Margao, Goa 403 601, India. Email: [email protected]

Goa is known to be a bird watcher’s paradise with varied

eco-zones spread over a rather small area with good

accessibility. The number of European bird watchers visiting

Goa is increasing rapidly day by day. The birdlife of Goa was

not well documented till recently with the exception of Grubh

and Ali ( 1976), Rane (1981, 1982), Saha and Dasgupta ( 1992)

and recently Heinz Lainer ( 1999a, 1999b). Lainer (2004) is a

well-researched work of over 1 5 years and covers 420 species

of birds from the coast to the dense forests.

With so much varied avifauna it is not a surprise that a

few species could be missed, especially if the species is

“widely but sparsely distributed” (Ali and Ripley 1987).

“C. festivus is widely but sparsely distributed

everywhere: practically all peninsular India with the exception

of Sind, West Rajasthan, Kutch and most of Saurashtra in the

West, and Assam and E. Pakistan in the East...” (Ali and

Ripley 1987). It is described as “widespread” in India by

Grimmett el al. (1999).

P. Boddaert’s ‘table des planches enlumineez

d’histoire naturelle de m.d’ aubenton’ describes Goa as the

type locality of the Black-shouldered Woodpecker, Picus

festivus (=Chrysocolaptes festivus). Later, J.F. Gmelin in his

systema naturae ( 1 788-1789) described the Black-shouldered

Woodpecker as Picus goensis (=Chrysocolaptes festivus)

(Lainer 2004). Since then, the Black-shouldered Woodpecker

does not find mention in any of the publications on the birdlife

of Goa except for Lainer (2004), which describes the bird in

the Appendix, and contains unconfirmed records of birds that

are difficult to identify in the field or are frequently

misidentified, or are contentious for various other reasons.

He describes it as being “possibly” a rare resident.

This report is an attempt to emphasize and confirm the

occurrence of C. festivus in Goa. C. festivus was first recorded

by us on April 23, 2000 at Keri village in the Sattari taluka of

North Goa at the foothills of the Sahyadris, when a pair was

recorded perching on a topmost dry branch of a Atrocarpus

heterophyllus tree. Subsequently, it was again recorded in

REFE

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford University Press, New

Delhi. 737 pp.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to

the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press.

Table 1 : Incidence of sightings and activity of the

Chrysocoiaptes festivus in Goa

the same village a few kilometres away from the original

sighting (Table 1 ).

The species can be easily identified from the

characteristic and prominent black “V” mark on the back,

the nape and upper back being white. Another characteristic

feature of the species is the yellow crest of the female. The

call is also distinct from that of the Golden-backed

Woodpeckers.

All the sightings are from only one locality, including

one mentioned by Lainer (2004), and records spanning from

January to July indicate to it being a breeding resident with a

very restricted range.

Incidentally, the area falls on the outskirts of the newly

declared Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary. A year long survey of

the Sanctuary by the first author between 2002 and 2003 did

not reveal the species. This absence suggests to it being

scarce in numbers.

This report would add to the growing list of bird from Goa

and at the same time open avenues for more detailed studies of

individual species and the avifauna of the State as a whole.

NCES

384 pp.

Grubh, R.B. & S. Ali ( 1976): Birds of Goa. ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

73(1): 42-53.

Lainer, H. (1999a): The Birds of Goa (Part I). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 96(2): 203-220.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

219

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Lainer, H. ( 1999b): The Birds of Goa (Part II). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 96(3): 405-423.

Lainer, H. (2004): Birds of Goa - A Reference Book. The Goa

Foundation. 244 pp.

Rane. U. (1982): Goa. Hombill 1982(2): 29-32.

Rane, U. (1983): Additions to ‘Birds of Goa’ by Robert B. Grubh

and Salim Ali. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 73(1 ) & 80(3):

638-640.

Saha, B.C. & J.M. Dasgupta (1992): Birds of Goa. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India, Occ. Paper 143: 1-56.

9. THE LONGEVITY RECORD OF GREATER FLAMEBACK CHRYSOCOLAPTES LUCIDUS 1

S. Balachandran2 and Raj an Sehgal

'Accepted July 22, 2005

^Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

The longevity of many migratory waders has been

reasonably well-documented as these birds have been ringed

in large numbers (Ali and Hussain 1981; Balachandran 1998).

Twelve wader species were recaptured after more than

10 years at Point Calimere. One Garganey Anas querquedula

ringed at Point Calimere, and one individual each of Northern

Pintail Anas acuta and Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope ringed

at Bharatpur were shot in Russia, 10 years after ringing. One

Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus was recaptured after

22 years at Point Calimere (Balachandran and Hussain 1994).

Longevity records for Indian birds are rare due to insufficient

long-term bird ringing studies in India, in a particular area.

However, bird ringing studies of the Bombay Natural History

Society at Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, after a gap of

1 6 years in 1 999 under the Bird Banders Training have helped

to document an interesting longevity record for the resident

Greater Llameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus. During a nine

day bird banding programme, organized in November 1999

at Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, 101 individuals of

32 species were caught and ringed. Among these, the only

Greater Flameback caught had a ring (B-45025) on its left

leg. The earlier banding data on the ring indicated that it was

ringed in May 1983 from the same locality. The time lapse

between capture and recapture was 16 years, 5 months and

24 days. In India, this is the longest longevity record for any

passerine bird based on the capture-recapture method.

It is worth mentioning here that 530 birds of 72 species

were ringed during 1983 at Parambikulam in 45 days. Of the

530 birds, three Greater Llameback were caught. This recapture

shows the territoriality and site-fidelity of this species as it was

recaptured from the same locality which has undergone

tremendous changes due to increased developmental activities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study was carried out as part of the Bombay

Natural History Society’s (BNHS) Bird Banders Training

Programme, supported by the U.S. Pish & Wildlife Service

under a grant from PL-480 funds No. INT/PWS-14 released

through Department of Environment, Wildlife and Porests,

Government of India. We thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, Honorary

Secretary, BNHS and the Principal Investigator of

this project, for his guidance. We are grateful to the participants

of the bird banding programme Mr. Satish Kumar, Dr. Smitha

Krishnan, Ms. Coralie D’lima and Dr. Nandita Mangalore.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.A. Hussain (1981): Population structure and Movement of Indian Avifauna. Annual Report 1. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Balachandran, S. & S.A. Hussain ( 1994): Highest longevity record for the Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

91: 140-141.

Balachandran, S. (compiled) (1998): Bird Migration Studies in India (1980-1992) Final Report, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

10. OCCURRENCE OF LANIUS CRISTATUS LUCIONENSIS IN THE WESTERN GHATS, KERALA1

S. Balachandran 2 and Rajan Sehgal

'Accepted July 22, 2005

^Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road. Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

The status of Lanins cristatus lucionensis in India regular winter visitor to south-east India based on the records

was given by Ali and Ripley (1983) as ‘winter visitor to at Sriharikota Island (Mohapatra and Santharam 1992), and

Andaman and Nicobar Islands’. Later it was found to be a ringing data of ten individuals at Point Calimere during

220

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

October 1991 by Balachandran and Alagar Rajan (1994).

Based on their earlier bird ringing experiences Balachandran

and Alagar Rajan ( 1994) also suggested that some individuals

of this species had been mistaken for the Lanins cristatus

cristatus on the assumption that the plumage difference

(greyish white head for lucionensis and brown for cristatus)

was due to age. On January 22, 1999, two individuals of

L.c. lucionensis were caught and ringed at Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary in the Western Ghats of Kerala. Though

this species was recorded in 1 876 by Hume ( 1876) in Kerala,

it is not listed in the birds of kerala by Ali (1969). Hence,

this record is not only the second authentic record for Kerala,

but from the Western Ghats too. Hume ( 1 876) stated that the

plumage characters of the only specimen collected from

Kerala did not agree with the specimens obtained from China

and the Andamans. The Philippine Shrikes caught at

Parambikulam matched with the birds ringed at Point Calimere.

However, the Philippine Shrikes caught and observed at

Andamans in February 2000, varied in plumage characters

from the mainland (Point Calimere and Parambikulam)

specimens. The fore-crown of the individual caught at

Andamans was paler than the individuals caught at

Parambikulam and Point Calimere. The paler fore-crown of

the bird handled at Andamans suggests that the wintering

population of the Andamans may be from a different

geographical population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study was carried out as part of the Bombay Natural

History Society’s (BNHS) Bird Banders Training Programme,

supported by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, under a grant

from PL-480 funds No.INT/FWS-14 released through

Department of Environment, Wildlife and Forests,

Government of India. We wish to express our sincere thanks

to Mr. J.C. Daniel, the Honorary Secretary, BNHS, and the

Principal Investigator of this project, for his guidance and

for going through this manuscript.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford Llniversity Press, New Delhi.

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of (he Birds of India and

Pakistan (Compact edition). Oxford University Press, New

Delhi. Vol. 5: pp. 100.

Balachandran, S. & S. Alagar Rajan ( 1994): Philippine Shrike Lanins

cristatus lucionensis a regular winter visitor to south India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1)'. 142-143.

Hume, A.O. (1876): A first list of the birds of Travancore Hills. Stray

Feathers 4: 393.

Mohapatra, K.K. & V. Santharam ( 1992): Occurrence of Philippine

Shrike Lanins cristatus lucionensis Linn, in coastal Andhra

Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 255.

1 1 . SIGHTING OF BLACK-THROATED THRUSH TURDUS RUFICOLLIS ATROGULARIS

IN THE DESERT NATIONAL PARK, JAISALMER, RAJASTHAN1

Harkirat Singh Sangha2

'Accepted July 07, 2008

:B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

At about 1 1 50 hrs on December 03, 2006, while returning

from the Sudasri, Desert National Park to Jaisalmer, after

birdwatching in the morning, John Penhallurick and

I saw a Black-throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis atrogularis

foraging close to the road near Sam village. We observed and

photographed the bird for about five-six minutes. Fortunately,

the bird was not shy and allowed close approach to be well

observed. The bird was identified as a first winter male Black-

throated Thrush.

Black -throated Thrush occurs in winter across Pakistan

from the North Western Frontier Province (NWFP) through

Baluchistan to the Makran Coast, Sind; the Himalayas and

adjacent plains from the Indus Valley and Gilgit eastward

through Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh,

Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Bangladesh. Its extension

into the plains is governed by winter conditions. The species

has occurred fairly often south to Jhang, Ludhiana, Bharatpur

and Gorakhpur and has been recorded as far south as

Anantpur. Andhra Pradesh and once in Jakhau, Kutch (Ali

and Ripley 1998).

Individual birds are occasionally found at great

distances from their range. The appearance is invariably

correlated with weather, as some individuals wander,

especially during hard winter weather (Elkins 1998). The

sighting near Sam in Desert National Park represents the

first record from the Thar Desert of Rajasthan. Though the

sighting of the species near Sam is far to the south of its

normal winter range, it is not surprising. The species is known

for straggling (Grimmett et at. 1998), and has occurred as

vagrant to many parts of the Western Palearctic and Middle

East in the autumn and early winter (Clement and Hathaway

2000).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

221

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1998): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 9. Second edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 130-132.

Clement, P. & R. Hathaway (2000): Thrushes. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 377-381.

Elkins, N. (1998): Weather and Bird Behaviour. Second Edition. T & AD Poyser, London. Pp. 155-162.

Grimmett, R„ C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm. Pp. 628-629.

12. 'NEW BIRD DESCRIPTIONS WITHOUT PROPER VOUCHER SPECIMENS’:

FURTHER TO KANNAN'

N.J. Collar2

'Accepted June 17, 2008

:BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge CB3 0NA, U.K. Email: [email protected]

Kannan's (2007) review of the issues surrounding the

description of the Bugun Liocichla Liocichla bugunorum

(Athreya 2006) is wide-ranging, fair-minded and good-

natured, but in missing a few points and dwelling perhaps

too long on others, it requires a little further perspective.

1 have deliberately put the main title of my commentary

here in inverted commas in order to indicate that it is

Kannan’s, not mine. This is because I do not share the view

that the Bugun Liocichla was described without a proper

voucher specimen. This is the first crucial point, which

Kannan at first admits, but then spends much time

questioning. If it is the case that ‘an animal or a part of an

animal' is required to serve as the type of a new species under

the rules of the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature (ICZN), then the feathers, including diagnostic

ones from the tail, provided by Athreya must be allowed to

constitute a ‘proper voucher specimen’. Further debate on

the issue is irrelevant: Athreya broke no rules, and Kannan’s

view that feathers are of limited value, and his comment that

‘Without a proper voucher specimen, the taxonomic status of

the newly reported Liocichla will always be open to doubt',

are both, I think, off the mark. The same can be said of all the

criticisms and complaints that followed in the wake of the

description of Laniarius literatus , for which feathers and

blood vouchsafed the existence of the animal from which

they came (and which, incidentally, have now been

successfully used to demonstrate that liberatus is a colour

morph: Nguembock et al. 2008). A recent exchange (Dubois

and Nemesio 2007; Donegan 2008) covers these issues in far

greater detail, but reaches the same conclusion.

Kannan points out that photographs can be insufficient

to reflect all true characters, yielding a fraction of what is

gleanable from a specimen, and can even be doctored or

deteriorate. It is, however, worth remembering that

photographs can sometimes tell us taxonomically useful

things that museum skins cannot, unless the collector has

noticed and documented them (eye and bare-part colour in

particular, but also jizz). In any case the point about

photographs is their great value as supporting evidence, while

the point about science is its repeatability — within weeks

of the announcement of the new species, birdwatchers and

biologists were making their way to Eaglenest to see it for

themselves. Athreya’s use of photographs was essentially

supplementary (although of course they supplied the most

convincing testimony of all), and it is worth noting that many

modern descriptions of new bird species carry photographs

in this support role.

However, there is a crucial issue here, untreated by

Kannan or indeed by Athreya (although I mentioned it to the

latter in our correspondence), which is that recently a new

species of animal was described, in no less a journal than

Science , using only photographs as the type material (Jones

et al. 2005). It would be interesting to know how Kannan’s

museum ornithologists have reacted to this development,

rendered all the more surprising by its support by

representatives of ICZN (Polaszek et al. 2005). To me, this

seems a far more problematic circumstance: digital

photographs can easily be altered, and I cannot see how this

does not expose taxonomy to fraud. Nevertheless, the facts

are that ( 1 ) since 2005 the notion that photographs alone can

form the basis of new species descriptions appears to have

received strong (albeit not yet formal) endorsement from

ICZN, and (2) photographs of Athreya’s undescribed liocichla

were circulating on the internet in that year and early 2006.

This meant that anyone could have downloaded those

photographs and published what in some quarters would

have been considered a valid description prior to Athreya,

the discoverer and therefore rightful describer of the species.

Apart from his concern over the impact that collecting a

specimen might have had, Athreya himself

gave three reasons for proceeding with his description in

the way he did, all relating to conservation; to them may

be added this point, that someone else could easily have

trumped him, particularly as the time needed for

222

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

permission to take a specimen was likely to have been very

protracted.

Kannan cites three papers of mine and inclines to agree

with the general tenor of them, which is to support collecting

in strong terms and to seek greater rapprochement between

the museum and conservation communities, but he misses

the fact that I make specific provisos over possibly very rare

new taxa and those liable to local extinction. This is a crucial

area of concern which Kannan does not fully consider. It is

not a question of museum scientists being ‘bloodthirsty’

(I worry that such vocabulary, even when used light-

heartedly, risks polarising sensibilities on these issues).

It is instead a matter of the appropriate use of the

precautionary principle. I accept that the liocichla is likely to

be commoner than we currently know, based on Athreya’s

experience, but we cannot be 100% certain of this. He was

therefore in my view entirely correct, ethically and

procedurally, to document and name the species without

killing a specimen. As he stated, only when it is proved that

the species is commoner will it be appropriate to collect a

series.

In his introductory paragraphs Kannan says that this

case (1) ‘may have added fuel to the already widespread

feeling that museum collections are no longer necessary for

describing new species’ and, (2) ‘worse, ... may actually

make getting scientific collecting permits tougher’. He does

not elaborate these points, but in any case I hope both

are misapprehensions. First, Athreya took material and

donated it to a museum, so (unlike the use of photographs

as types in the Science paper) it can hardly be said that the

case diminishes the need for museum collections. Second,

there is no reason why such actions should exert any

disruptive influence over the processes of permit issuance:

collecting is licensed by bureaucrats according to

laws and rules, not according to case history or

precedent, so, unless a new law or rule is passed down by

policy-makers, the status quo on permit issuance is unlikely

to change.

REFERENCES

Athreya, R. (2006): A new species of Liocichla (Aves: Timaliidae)

from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India.

Indian Birds 2: 82-94.

Donegan, T.M. (2008): New species and subspecies descriptions do

not and should not always require a dead type specimen. Zootaxa

1761: 37-48.

Dubois, A. & A. Nemesio (2007): Does nomenclatural availability of

nomina of new species or subspecies require the deposition of

vouchers in collections? Zootaxa 1409: 1-22.

Kannan, R. (2007): New bird descriptions without proper voucher

specimens: reflections after the Bugun Liocichla case. J . Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 104(1): 12-18.

Jones, T., C.L. Ehardt, T.M. Butynski, T.R.B. Davenport,

N.E. Mpunga, S.J. Machaga & D.W. de Luca (2005): The

Highland Mangabey Lophocebus kipunji: a new species of African

monkey. Science 308: 1161-1164.

Nguembock, B., J. Fjeldsa, A. Couloux&E. Pasquet(2008): Phylogeny

of Laniarius: molecular data reveal L. liberatus synonymous

with L. erlangeri and "plumage coloration’ as unreliable

morphological characters for defining species and species groups.

Molecular Phylogenetics <£ Evolution 48: 396-407.

Polaszek, A., P. Grubb, C. Groves, C.L. Ehardt & T.M. Butynski

(2005): What constitutes a proper description? Response. Science

309: 2164-2166.

13. HEMIPTERAN FAUNA (INSECTA) INFESTING SANDAL SANTALUM ALBUM LINN.

IN SOUTHERN INDIA1

R. Sundararaj2-4, L.R. Karibasavaraja2-5, Gaurav Sharma3 and Raja Muthukrishnan2-6

'Accepted October 16, 2007

’Wood Biodegradation Division, Institute of Wood Science & Technology, 18"' Cross Malleswaram, Bengaluru 560 003, Karnataka, India.

’Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Post Jhalamand, Pali Road, Jodhpur 342 005, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected], [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

6Email: [email protected]

Order Hemiptera comprises of a large and diverse group

of insects, varying considerably in body form, wings,

antennae, life histories, and food habits. The mouthparts of

Hemiptera are modified for piercing and sucking plant sap,

but in some of the true bugs they are used for sucking blood.

Many species are serious pests of cultivated crop plants

and forest trees, some species inject toxic materials into the

plant while feeding, while some transmit disease causing

organisms, and a few Heteropterans are vectors of diseases

of warm-blooded vertebrates (Triplehom and Johnson 2005)

These pests damage plants by inserting their mouthparts

into plant tissue and sucking juices. Heavily infested plants

become yellow, wilted, deformed or stunted, and may

eventually die. In the present study, surveys were conducted

to document the Hemipteran fauna infesting Sandal plants

in nurseries, plantations and natural forests from 2004 to

2006 in southern India; the findings are reported in this

paper.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

223

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Hemipteran fauna infesting Sandal in southern India

224

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Hemipteran fauna infesting Sandal in southern India (contd.)

*New record on Sandal

The study revealed the presence of 72 species of

Hemipterans from 16 families infesting Sandal in India

(Table 1), which include 21 species of Cicadellidae followed

by 7 species of Pentatomidae, 6 species each of Coccidae,

Margarodidae and Membracidae, 5 species of

Pseudococcidae, 4 species of Aleyrodidae, 2 species each of

Alydidae, Coreidae, Delphacidae, Diaspididae, Kerridae,

Pyrrhocoridae and Scutelleridae and one species each of

Cercopidae and Eurybrachidae. Of these 6 species, namely

Aleurolobus burlierensis Jesudasan and David (Aleyrodidae),

Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) and Sogotella furcifera (Horvath)

(Delphacidae) and Leptocentrus longispinus Dist., Oxyrachis

ruferens and Parayasa elegantula Dist. (Membracidae) are

new records. Earlier Mathur and Singh (1961) reported

17 species of Hemipterans and Varshney (1992, 2002)

reported two species of scales and mealy bugs infesting

Sandal. Remadevi et al. (2005) reported eight species of

sucking pests, namely Saissetia nigra (Nietner), Saissetia

coffeae (Walker), Pulvinaria psidii Masked, Pulvinaria

maxima Green, Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, Inglisia

bivalvata (Green), Tachardina lacca Mahdihassan and

Aspidiotus sp. infesting Sandal in nurseries. Sundararaj etal.

(2006b) reported the occurrence of 23 species of scales and

mealy bugs on Sandal, which include seven new records. In

the present study though Pulinaria psidii was found infesting

Teak its infestation on Sandal was not observed, and hence

the earlier report from Sandal needs confirmation. Sundararaj

et al. (2006a) in their review indicated the presence of

411 species of Hemipterans under 43 families in Sandal

ecosystem, which included phytophagous insects, predators

and casual visitors. The study revealed that less than

100 species of Hemipterans infest Sandal. Among the insect

pests known to occur on Sandal the infestation by Hemiptera

is deleterious as they affect the normal growth and

reproduction of Sandal plants. With the emphasis on growing

Sandal as an important plantation crop, along with relaxation

of restrictions by the government for growing Sandal for

commerce, there is rapid increase in the Sandal acreage in

India. Therefore, holistic approach for better management of

economically important sucking pests is very much required

to increase the production of Sandalwood.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. K.S. Shashidhar,

Director, Sri. S.C. Gairola, Coordinator (Research) and

Dr. O.K. Remadevi, Head, Wood Biodegradation Division,

Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bengaluru for

the facilities provided. Thanks are due to Douglass R. Miller,

Research Entomologist, Systematic Entomology Laboratory,

USDA, Beltsville, USA and Dr. C.A. Virakthmath. Scientist

Emeritus, Department of Agricultural Entomology,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka

for their kind help in identifying the Coccid and Hemipteran

specimens, respectively. Financial assistance provided

by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India for conducting this research work, is also

acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Mathur, R.N. & B. Singh ( 1961 ): A list of insect pests of forest plants

in India and the adjacent countries. List of insect pests of plant

genera 'S’ ( Sabia to Syzygium). Indian Forest Bulletin (New Series)

Entomology. No. 171 (8), Part-9: 1-86. Forest Research Institute,

Dehradun.

Remadevi, O.K., H.C. Nagaveni & R. Muthukrishnan (2005): Pests

and diseases of sandalwood plants in nurseries and their management.

Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute 11: 69-74.

Sundararaj, R., Gaurav Sharma & L.R. Karibasavaraja (2006a):

Insects associated with Sandal ( Santalum album Linn.) - a Checklist.

Annals of Forestry 14(1): 121-168.

Sundararaj, R., L.R. Karibasavaraja, Gaurav Sharma &

R. Muthukrishnan (2006b): Scales and Mealybugs (Coccoidea:

Hemiptera) infesting Sandal ( Santalum album Linn.). Entomon.

31(3): 239-241

Triplehorn, C.A. & N.F. Johnson (2005): Borrer and De Long’s

Introduction to the Study of Insects. Thomson, Books Cole

Publishers Canada. 864 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

225

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Varshney, R.K. ( 1992): A checklist of the scale insects and mealybugs Varshney, R.K. (2002): A checklist of the scale insects and mealybugs

of south Asia. Records of Zoological Survey of India, Occ. Paper of south Asia (Part- 2). Records of Zoological Survey of India, Occ.

No. 139 : 152. Paper No. 191: 1-147.

14. NEW RECORD OF HAWKMOTH SATASPES TAGALICA F. HA UXWELLII

(LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE) FROM SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI, INDIA1

V. Shubhalaxmi2

'Accepted November 22, 2006

:Bombay Natural History Society. Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

Introduction

According to Bell and Scott ( 1937) and D’ Abrera ( 1986),

there are 1,354 species and subspecies of Hawkmoths in the

world, of which 204 have been recorded from India. Rose et

al. (2004) recorded 29 species from north-west India, and Sathe

and Pandharbale (1999) recorded 13 species from western

Maharashtra, including the Western Ghats. Shubhalaxmi and

Chaturvedi (2004) has documented 32 species of Hawkmoths

during her doctoral studies in the Sanjay Gandhi National

Park (SGNP), Mumbai, Maharashtra, which is situated in the

northern Western Ghats .

As a part of ongoing ecological study on Hawkmoths

of SGNP, I reared a caterpillar of Sataspes tagalica f. hawcwellii

on Dalbergia latifolia. This is the first record of Sataspes

tagalica f. hauxwellii from India since the earlier record

shows its distribution range to be from Myanmar to Sundaland

and Philippines (D’ Abrera 1986).

Study area

Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) is situated in both

Greater Bombay and Thane districts, with a total area of

approximately 103 sq. km( 19° 88'-19°21' N; 72°53'-72°58'E).The

Park lies to the west of the Western Ghats and Hanks India’s

western seacoast. It has four types of habitats ranging from

mangroves to the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. The

dominant vegetation type of this forest is mixed-deciduous,

namely southern India moist-mixed deciduous forest. The Park

is divided into two unequal parts; the southern block is more

extensive while the northern Nagla block extends over just

16 sq. km. The southern block has a mixed forest, while the

Nagla block is characterized by moist-evergreen forest.

Species description

The adult has been identified based on the

morphological characters mentioned and illustrated by Bell

and Scott ( 1937), de Niceville (1900) and D’ Abrera (1986).

The caterpillar was obtained from Nagala block on July 1 1,

2005 and the adult was released, after photographing it,

in the southern block near Goregaon on September 07, 2005.

According to Bell and Scott (1937) genus Sataspes

(Subfamily Sphingini) has three species; Sataspes infernalis

(Westw.), S. tagalica Boisd. and S. scotti Jord. S. tagalica

has four forms: tagalica Boisd., thoracica Roths. & Jord.,

collaris Roths. & Jord. and hauxwellii de Niceville, of which

only the former two are recorded from India. The species was

first described by de Niceville (1900) from Taungoo, Upper

Tenasserim, Myanmar. Tenasserim is a part of the

southernmost division of lower Myanmar (9° 58'- 19° 29' N; 95°

48'-99°40'E)(Anon. 1908).

Sataspes tagalica f. hauxwellii Boisduval, 1875

Sataspes hauxwellii de Nicev., 1900

Sataspes tagalica f. hauxwelli Roths. & Jord., 1903

Sataspes tagalica hauxwelli Seitz, 1929

Adult: The adult is a day flier and a beautiful mimic of

the Carpenter Bee Xylocopa auripennis. Interestingly, the

female moth mimics the male Carpenter Bee and vice versa.

The description of the adult is given by de Niceville (1900).

The adult S. tagalica f. hauxwellii differed from the other

three forms by the absence of yellow scales on the thorax and

abdomen. The iridescence on wings of adults is seen only in

live specimens (Ian Kitching pers. comm.).

Early stages: The early stages of this species have not

been recorded, but the early stages of the closely allied

S. infernalis have been mentioned by Bell and Scott (1937).

The caterpillar and pupa are similar to S. infernalis.

The caterpillar was reared in captivity within the study

area. Pupation occurred inside mud on July 29, 2005, and the

adult emerged on September 06, 2005. The pupal period was

40 days, the maximum recorded for Hawkmoths in the

monsoon season, so far.

Larval food plant: Dalbergia latifolia (Family Fabaceae)

Distribution: india: Mumbai, Maharashtra; Myanmar

to Sundaland, Philippines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Dr. Ian Kitching, Natural

History Museum, U.K. for confirming the status of the species

from their collection; Dr. H.S. Rose, Punjabi University, Patiala

for suggesting future studies and Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi,

Curator, BNHS for his valuable comments.

226

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Anon (1908): The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford Clarendon

Press, 23: 278.

Bell.T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma, Moths. 5. Sphingidae, Taylor and Francis

Ltd., London. Pp. 251-257.

D' Abrera, Bernard (1986): Sphingidi Mundi-Hawkmoths of the world,

Hill House Publishers, Australia. Pp. 118.

de Niceville, Lionel (1900): On new and little-known Lepidoptera

from the Oriental region. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. IS:

173-174.

Rose, H.R., PC. Pathania & Rachita Sood (2004): A preliminary list

of hawkmoths (Sphingidae: Lepidoptera) from three states of

North-west India. Nature Environment and Pollution

Technology, Technoscience Publications 3(2): 197-200.

Sathe, T.V. & A.R. Pandharbale ( 1999): Hawkmoth diversity in western

Maharashtra including Ghats, geobios New reports, Stuttgart,

Fritz Lehmann Verlag. 18(2): 77-82.

Shubhalaxmt, V. & N. Chaturvedi (2004): New Larval foodplants for

hawkmoths and wild silkmoths of Sanjay Gandhi National Park.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(1): 114-126.

15. CALAMAGROSTIS PSEUDOPHRAGMITES (HALL.F.) KOELER VAR. TARTARIC A (HOOK.F.) BOR

(POACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1

Suman C. Sharma2, Jeetendra Kantiya3 and Chandan Singh Purohit3

'Accepted February 18, 2008

26-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

’Herbarium. P.G. Department of Botany, Govt. Dungar College. Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India.

During a plant collection visit near the Lunkaransar

canal, district Bikaner, Rajasthan we collected Calamagrostis

pseudophragmites (Hall.f.) Koeler var. tartarica (Hook.f. ) Bor.

A perusal of literature shows that this species has not been

reported from Rajasthan (Shetty and Singh 1987-93).

This paper records for the first time the occurrence of

Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Hall.f.) Koeler var.

tartarica (Hook.f.) Bor from Rajasthan. It is known, so far,

from Jammu-Kashmir, Uttar-Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal

in India (Moulik 1997). The specimens have been deposited

in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Govt. Dungar College,

Bikaner (Rajasthan). The identification of the species is based

on Bor (1960).

Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Hall.f.) Koeler,

Descr. Gram. 106.1802. var. tartarica (Hook.f.) Bor, Grasses

Burma Ceyl. Ind. Pak. 396. 1960; Moulik, Grasses and

Bambusa of Ind. Vol II, 395. 1997. Calamagrostis littorea

P. Beauv. var. tartarica Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 261. 1897

(type K). (Fig. 1).

Perennial, up to 1.6 m tall; Leaf blade broad; Panicle up

to 50 cm long, very dense, purple spikelets; Spikelets 3.5 mm

long; Glume 3.5 mm long; Lemma 3.5 mm long; Anthers

1 .3 mm long.

Specimen Examined: Near canal Lunkaransar, Bikaner,

Rajasthan. Kantiya & Sharma 1489, Purohit & Sharma, 3109.

Fig. 1: Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Hall.f.)

Koeler var. tartarica (Hook.f.) Bor:

A. Inflorescence, B. Spikelet, C. Upper glume, D. Lower glume

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. S.S. Katewa, Professor in Science

college, MLS University, Udaipur for encouragement.

REFERENCES

Bor, N.L. ( 1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.

Vol. I. London.

Moulik, S. ( 1997): The Grasses and Bamboos of India. Vol. I-II. Scientific

Publishers, Jodhpur.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987-93): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol. I-III.

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

227

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MELANOCENCHRIS JACQUEMONTII (POACEAE)

IN UTTARAKHAND1

Prakriti Dobhal2, Smriti Sawan2, Suman Lata Bist2, Manish K. Kandwal2-3 and S.P. Joshi24

'Accepted May 21, 2008

department of Botany, D.A.V. (P.G.) College, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

The present communication pertains to the occurrence

of the species Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach.

The voucher specimens and photographic plate with habit

and floral dissections are deposited in the Departmental

Herbarium BSD and DAV (P.G) College .

Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach. Ill PI. Or.

4:36, t325. 1 851; Bor, Grass. Burma Ceyl. India & Pak., 473, 1960;

Cope, FI. Pak., 125, 1 982; Raizada et al.. Grass. Upper Gang. Plain

- Ill Pooid. 33, 1983; Nair and Nayar in Bull. Bot. Sur. India.

16(1-4): 142, 1974; Karthikeyan et al, FI. Ind. Enum. - Monocot.

235, 1998. Melanocenchris royleana Nees ex Steud., Syn. PI.

Glum. 1:218, 1 854; Duthie, Fodder Grasses 54, 1888. Gracilea

royleana (Nees ex Steud.) Hook, f., FI. Brit. India. 7: 284;

Blatter & McCann, Bombay Grasses 248, 1935.

Specimens Examined: Uttarakhand, Dehradun district,

Raipur, 21. ix. 2006, Prakriti Dobhal, ETRL 756 (BSD);

Gullarghati, 1 5. ix. 2007, Smriti, ETRL 899 (DAV); Suman Lata,

ETRL 900 (DAV).

FI.: August-September.

Habitat: Found growing in sandy and stony dry river

bed.

Distribution: India (drier regions and hillsides),

Pakistan, Arabia and Iraq.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Principal, DAV (P.G.)

College, Dehradun and Joint Director, Botanical Survey of

India (NC), Dehradun, for providing facilities and

encouragement during this investigation. Thanks are also

due to the Director, ICFRE, for providing facility to consult

the Herbarium.

17. ARISAEMA TUBERCULATUM C. FISCHER (ARACEAE) FROM MUKURTHI NATIONAL

PARK, NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, INDIA - A NOTE1

V.S. Ramachandran2 and S. Paulraj3

'Accepted January 31, 2007

’Department of Botany, Kongunadu Arts & Science College, Coimbatore 641 029, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

’District Forest Officer, Hosur Forest Division, Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Hosur 635 109, Tamil Nadu, India.

Biodiversity studies and conservation measures depend

on good and up-to-date taxonomic data (Valdecasas and

Camacto 2003). Reliable data on the vulnerability of species

to extinction and their extinction threats also require sound

biological monitoring of tropical ecosystems, which is not

limited to a few flagship or umbrella species (Basset et al.

2004). Being a core area of Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, a rapid

assessment survey was conducted during 2000-2001 in

Mukurthi National Park ( 1 1° 10'-1 1° 22' N; 76° 26'- 76° 34’ E), to

study the herbaceous and orchid flora. This survey is a

collaborative project with Tamil Nadu Forest Department, with

a view of making an inventory, especially of ephemeral

herbaceous forms. Out of 225 species collected and

enumerated, 35 species were endemic to the Nilgiri Biosphere

Reserve (Vivekananthan et al. 1997). Out of these, Arisaema

tuberculatum C. Fischer is described in detail. The genus

Arisaema belongs to Family Araceae having about 150 species

distributed in East Africa and Arabia, Tropical and East Asia,

and West-North America. It was noticed that some species are

utilized for medicine and are edible, and commonly referred to

as Cobra lily. Dragon-arum and Snail-flower.

Arisaema tuberculatum C. Fischer in Bull. Misc. Inform.

1925: 167. 1925 & in Gamble, FL, Madras: 1891. Addenda 1936;

B. Sharmacfo/., in Biol. Mem. 2: 151: 1977; Nayar, Hotspots

Endem. PI. India 217. 1996. A convolution C. Fischer in Bull.

Misc. Inform 1934: 165. 1934, non Nakai, 1934.

Dioecious, cormous herb; corm c. 6 cm across subglobose.

Cataphylls 2 or 3 c. 20 cm long, obtuse. Leaf solitary (petioled,

c. 65 cm long; leaflets 7-12 (-15), 12-38x2-9 cm, digitate, sessile,

narrowly oblanceolate, finely caudate-acuminate, lateral nerves

228

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

c. 20 pairs, anastomising in an intramarginal nerve. Peduncle

c. 40 cm long. Spathe 7.5-16 cm long, narrowly infundibular,

tube 4-6 cm; limb 3.5-10.0 x 3-6 cm, ovate, arching above,

acuminate, terminating in a pendant filiform tail of 4- 17 cm long.

Spadix 5-7 cm long, sessile, erect, cylindric. Pistillate flowers

compact. Ovary subglobose, ovules 4; style short; stigma

muricate. Staminal flowers scattered; anthers stalked,

subglobose dehiscing by pores. Neuters present in pistillate

spadix; absent in staminate spadix. Appendix cylindric, swollen

in the middle, terminating in a clavate, convoluted tubercle.

FI. & Fr.: April-June.

Type: Nilgiri Hills, Pennant Shola, Farsons Valley

E. Bames 677 (MH).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu. Nilgiri district,

Bangitappal.

Ecology: Growing at an elevation of 2,250 m on margins

of Shola forests.

Specimens Examined: india: Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri district.

Pennant shola. Parsons Valley, 20.V.1933, E. Bames 677(MH);

Bangitappal, 27.iv.2001, V.S. Ramachandran and C.P Anil

Varghese 2899(KNASCH).

Earlier botanists (Gamble 1936; Sharma et al. 1977;

Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986; Bhargavan 1989) have included

this taxon as one of the endemic species highly restricted to

upper Nilgiris, Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and Peninsular

India; however, authors Sharma et al. 1977, Ahmedullah and

Nayar 1986. Bhargavan 1989 differ from one another, while

assigning the threat status to the plant as rare (Bhargavan

1989), rare and threatened (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986);

inspite of rarity, and restricted occurrence, this species does

not find a place in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants (Nayar

and Sastry 1987, 1988, 1990). Due to its niche specificity,

occurrence in isolated patches and its ephemeral nature might

have led to the non location of this elegant species by earlier

botanists (Sharma et al. 1977; Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986;

Bhargavan 1989).

It differs from its allies in having: spadix cream-coloured,

cylindrical with subglobose convoluted, spathe with

distinguishing characters - dark purple with 5-7 white bands.

It is suggested that this species is a potentially threatened

plant, and should be considered for inclusion in the Red Data

Book of Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry 1987, 1988, 1990).

REFERENCES

Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar ( 1986) Endemic Plants of the Indian

Region, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, Vol. 1. pp. 207.

Basset, Y., V. Novotny, S.E. Millet, G.D. Weiblen, O. Missa &

A.J.A. Stewart (2004): Conservation and biological monitoring

of tropical forests: the role of parataxonomists. Journal of

Applied Ecology 41 : 163- 1 7 4. .

Bhargavan. P. (1989): Araceae In: Henry, A.N., V. Chithra &

N.P. Balakrishnan (Eds): Flora of Tamil Nadu Analysis.

Vol. III. Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, pp. 56.

Gamble, J.S. (1936): Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Adlard and Son

Ltd., London. 1891 pp.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1987): Red Data Book of Indian Plants,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, Vol. I. 267 pp.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry ( 1988): Red Data Book of Indian Plants.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, Vol. 1 1. 273 pp.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry ( 1990): Red Data Book of Indian Plants,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, Vol. III. 271 pp.

Sharma, B.D., B.V. Shetty, E. Vajravelu, G.R. Kumari,

K. Vivekananthan, M. Chandrabose, M.S. Swaminathan,

R. Chandrasekaran, G.V. Subbarao, J.E. Ellis,

N.C. Radhakrishnan, S. Karthikeyan, V. Chandrasekaran &

S. R. Srinivasan (1977): Studies on the Flora of Nilgiris,Tamil

Nadu. Biological Memoirs 2(I&2): 1-186.

Valdecasas, A.G. & AT. Camacto (2003): Conservation to the rescue

of taxonomy. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 1113-1117.

Vivekananthan, K., P. Daniel & P.K. Premanath (1997): Plant

diversity Hotspots in India: An overview. (Eds: Hajra, P.K. &

V. Mudgal), Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 179 pp.

18. NEW RECORDS OF ORCHIDS FROM ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA-I1

S.P. Panda2, D. Sahu3 and S. Misra4

'Accepted October 03. 2006

2Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

Present address: Post-Graduate Department of Botany, Barasat Govt. College. Barasat 700 124, North 24-Parganas,

West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]

3Ecology & Floristic Laboratory, P.G. Department of Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur 760 007. Orissa. India.

Email: dbsahu2007 @rediffmail.com

4AICOPTAX- Orchids, Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar 751 015, Orissa, India. Email: [email protected]. in

Floristic survey for orchids was taken up in the east

Godavari and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh

during November 1994 and October 2005 under an All India

Coordinated Research Project on Taxonomy Capacity Building

of Orchids, sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India. During this survey, 35 orchid

species were collected and identified. Voucher specimens were

deposited with the herbarium of Regional Plant Resource

Centre (REPRECENT), Orissa. The live plants are being

maintained in the orchidarium of the Regional Plant Resource

Centre. Roxburgh (1795), Elliot (1859), Beddome (1874),

J.D. Hooker( 1888- 1890) and Fischer ( 1928) in their works did

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

229

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

not report these species from Andhra Pradesh. Ramakrishnan

(1997) has not reported these species in his compilation.

During a study of literature and herbaria of the Central

National Herbarium (CAL) and Andhra University ( AU), six

taxa were noted to be new records for Andhra Pradesh. The

correct nomenclature, short diagnostic characters, phenology

of flowering, ecology, locality, frequency, distribution of these

are highlighted.

Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham. ex J.E. Sm.) Hunt., Kew

Bull. 24: 98. 1970; Misra, Orch. Orissa: 587. 2004. Aerides rigida

Buch.-Ham ex J.E. Smith in Rees, Cyclopaedia 39(78). 1819.

Saccolabium longifolium (Lindl.) J.D. Hook., F.B.1. 6: 62. 1890.

Erect, very robust epiphyte. Inflorescence leaf-opposed

erect, rigid, racemose, with one or two short branches. Flowers

not wide-opening; perianth fleshy, pale yellow. Lip white,

three-lobed, with a large purple blotch within. Column short

with two terminal, anterior, back-turned horns.

FI.: August-September.

Specimen Examined: Bodhuluru (East Godavari);

TOB0125.

Habitat: Moist deciduous or semi -evergreen, thick forests.

Frequency: Rare.

Distribution: India, Bhutan, Myanmar, China, Thailand,

Cambodia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Kenya, S. Africa,

Madagascar and Comoro Islands.

Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham.) Sw., Schrader

Neu. J. Bot. 1: 94. 1806; Misra, Orch. Orissa: 427. 2004.

Epidendrum moschatum Buch.- Ham. in Syme, Emb. Kingd.

Ava, ed. 1 : 478; with fig. 1 800. Dendrobium calceolaria Carey

ex Hook., Exot. FI. 3: 1. 184. 1827; Hook.f., F.B.1. 5: 744. 1888.

Stems tufted, much elongated. Inflorescence one or two,

from a node nearing the apex, usually drooping. Flowers

spreading, peach-coloured, musk-scented. Lip clawed, shorter

than the petals, pyriform, forming an open-mouthed pouch,

with broadly incurved edges, margin undulate; two large

maroon blotches below the middle within.

FI.: May-June.

Specimens Examined: Darakonda (Vishakhapanam);

SM 1970; Bodhuluru (East Godavari); TOB 0093.

Habitat: Moist deciduous forests, 600-800 m.

Frequency: Scarce.

Distribution: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand,

Bangladesh, Myanmar, China and Laos.

Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston in Trimen, FI.

Ceylon 6: 276. 193 1 ; Misra, Orch. Orissa: 554, 2004. Limodorum

recun’um Roxb., Corom. PI.: 33. 1795 el El. Indica 3: 469. 1 832.

Geodorun dilatatum R. Br. in W.T. Aiton, Hort. Kew. ed. 2, 5:

207. 1813; J.D. Hook., F.B. 1. 6: 17(inpart). 1890.

Plants with ovoid, compressed, greenish-brown corms.

Inflorescence lateral, from base of the newly developed

shoots; raceme sub-corymbose* with 6-12 closely set flowers.

Flowers white. Lip sessile on the base of the column, white

with pink, yellow and brown blotches.

FI.: May-June

Specimens Examined: Opposite Medicinal Plant

Conservation Area (East Godavari); TOB 0108; Kotapalli

(Visakhapatnam); TOB 0108A.

Habitat: Moist deciduous open forests, as

undergrowth, in moderate shade; with well drained loamy or

clayey-loamy soil.

Frequency: Occasional.

Distribution: India; apparently endemic.

Habenaria diphylla Dalz., Hook. J. Bot. 2: 262. 1850;

J.D. Hook., F.B. 1. 6: 151. 1890; Misra, Orch. Orissa: 205. 2004.

Terrestrial tuberoid herbs. Inflorescence terminal,

20-30 cm. long, laxly many-flowered. Flower greenish- white, shortly

stalked. Lip three-partite, segments filiform; lateral segments

much longer than the middle, apices deflexed; spur inflated.

FI.: October.

Specimen Examined: Anantagiri (Visakhapatnam);

V. Seshavataram; sine no. (AU).

Habitat: Moist deciduous forest, 900 m, on hill slope;

medium shade, well drained, sandy or loamy soil.

Frequency: Rare.

Distribution: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh,

Myanmar, China, Thailand, and Philippines.

Nervilia infundibulifolia Blatt. & McC., J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 35: 735. t.3. 1932; Misra, Orch. Orissa: 238. 2004.

Tiny single-leaved plants with globose corms; stolons

short, one or two. Leaf prostrate, sub-orbicular, 7-veined.

Inflorescence one-flowered. Flower horizontal, mildly sweet-

scented. Sepals and petals spreading, linear-lanceolate,

sub-similar. Lip three-lobed about the middle; lateral lobes

oblong-ovate; apical lobe obovate; disc with three unequal,

wavy ridges.

FI.: June.

Specimen Examined: Wongasava coffee plantation

(Visakhapatnam); TOB 0111.

Habitat: Moist deciduous forest, 800 m, on slopy

ground, rocky soil with shade.

Frequency: Scarce.

Distribution: India and Thailand.

Vanilla walkeriae Wight, Ic. PI. Ind. Or. 3(2):

12. t.932. 1844-45; . Hook.f., F.B.1. 6: 1 890; Fischer in Gamble,

FI. Pres. Madras: 1451. 1928.

230

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., lQ5 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Vanilla wightiana Lindl. sensu R.S. Rao & S. Sudhakar,

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 26(3-4): 197-200. 1984; sensu,

Ramakrishnan 1997.960.

Climbing terrestrial plants, with tendrillar roots.

Inflorescence axillary, 8-16 flowers, in dense, simple raceme.

Flowers light green, white with pinkish tinge at the base of

lip. Lip indistinctly, three-lobed, infundibular.

FI.: March- April.

Specimen Examined: Surampalem, Rajavomangi reserve

forest (East Godavari); R.S. Rao 10193 (AU).

Habitat: Dry scrublands; climbing over small, thorny

bushes.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India for financial assistance; the Chief

Executive, Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar for

providing necessary facilities. Thanks are also due to

Dr. M. Bhanja, Chief Conservator of Forests; G. Niranjan,

Silviculturist, Rajahmundry; K.E. Chand, Divisional Forest

Officer, Narasipatnam, Andhra Pradesh for help in the field

study.

REFERENCES

Beddome. R.H. (1874): The Flora Sylvation for Southern India. Madras. Vol. 1-3: 800

Elliot, W. (1859): Flora Andhrica. Madras, pp. 194.

Fischer, C.E.C. (1928): Orchidaceae. In: J.S. Gamble: Flora of the Presidency of Madras 8: 1399-1478. London.

Hooker, J.D. (1888-1890): Orchidaceae. In: The Flora of British India 5: 667-858 & 6: 1-198. Ashford, Kent.

Ramakrishnan, K.N. (1997): Orchidaceae. In: T. Pullaiah’s Flora of Andhra Pradesh 3: pp. 929-961. Scientific Publishers. Jodhpur.

Roxburgh, W. (1795): Plants of the Coast of Coromandel. London. Vol. 1-3: 300.

19. BARLERIA LUPULINA LINDL. (ACANTHACEAE) - AN ADDITION

TO THE FLORA OF ORISSA, INDIA1

A.K. Biswal2, A. Mohapatra3 and C. Sudhakar Reddy4

'Accepted September 27, 2007

2P.G. Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Baripada 757 003, Orissa, India.

’P.G. Department of Biotechnology, North Orissa University, Baripada 757 003, Orissa, India.

4Forestry & Ecology Division, National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad 500 037, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

As a part of the project on “Biodiversity

characterization at landscape level using Remote sensing

and Geographical Information System” in Orissa, the forests

of Similipal Biosphere Reserve were surveyed during the

period from December 2004 to March 2006. During the course

of the survey, the authors came across interesting specimens

of a species. After critical examination (Mudgal et al. 1997)

and consultation with the specimens deposited at the Central

National Herbarium (CAL), Kolkata, they were identified as

Barleria lupulina Lindl.

It finds no mention in the flora of Orissa (Saxena and

Brahmam 1989; Saxena and Brahmam 1996; Mishrae/n/. 1999;

Reddy and Pattanaik 2006), and is being recorded for the

first time.

Barleria lupulina Lindl. in Edwards., Bot. Reg. 18:

1. 1483. 1 832- 1833; Clarke in Hook.f., FI. Brit. India 4: 482. 1884;

Mudgal, Khanna & Hajra in FI. Madhya Pradesh 2: 292. 1997.

Family: Acanthaceae

Undershrubs up to 1 m; young branches tetragonous.

Leaves linear-lanceolate, oblanceolate or narrowly elliptic,

5-10 x 0.5- 1.5 cm, rigidly coriaceous, glabrous, dark green

with red midrib, pale beneath, shortly petiolate; axillary

spines in pairs. Spikes erect or nodding 5-8 cm long; bracts

broadly obovate, erect, imbricate, green with a purple

upper half, thinly pubescent, glands cupular, on the back

of the lower half. Calyx lobes 1.0-1. 5 x 0.5-0. 7 cm,

ovate, pubescent; shortly aristate. Corolla lobes 3. 5-4. 5 cm,

subequal, yellow. Stigma bifid. Capsule c. 1.5 cm long,

ovoid, compressed, beak rigid. Seeds appressed

hairy.

Habitat: Rare, in fringes of Sal dominated moist

deciduous forests, in the marshy canal bank.

FI. & Fr.: December- February.

Specimen Examined: Orissa, Mayurbhanj district,

Rangamatia, 14.i.2005, Biswal & Mohapatra 266 (North Orissa

Univ. Herbarium).

Illustration: Mudgal et al. 1997 ( l.c .).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

231

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are thankful to Dr. U.B. Mohapatra,

Head, Department of Botany, North Orissa University,

Baripada and Dr. P.S. Roy, Deputy Director (RS &

GIS, Application area). National Remote Sensing

Agency, Hyderabad for their valuable suggestions and

encouragement.

REFERENCES

Mishra, M.K., S.S. Dash & P.K. Das (1999): Additions to the Flora

of Orissa. Rheedea 9(2): 163-172.

Mudgal, V., K.K. Khanna & P.K. Hajra (1997): Flora of Madhya

Pradesh. II, B.S.I., Calcutta.

Reddy, C.S. & C. Pattanaik (2006): Additions to the Flora of Orissa

from Gandhamardan hills J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 30(3): 609-610. 2006.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1989): The Flora of Similipahar,

Orissa. Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1996): The Flora of Orissa, Vol. I-IV,

Orissa Forest Development Corporation. Bhubaneswar.

20. RECORD OF INTRODUCTION OF A TROPICAL AMERICAN WEED

EVOLVULUS NUMMULARIUS (L.) L. (CONVOLVULACEAE)

IN ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS'

L. Rasingam2 and G.S. Lakra3

'Accepted September 27, 2007

’Keystone Foundation, Groves Hill Road, Kotagiri 643 217, Tamil Nadu. India. Email: [email protected]

'Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Haddo, P.B. 692, Port Blair 744 102, India.

During plant exploration in Little Andaman Island, we

collected an interesting creeping herb of Family

Convolvulaceae from the grasslands of Hut Bay. After critical

study it was identified as Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. and

found to be a new introduced weed in the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands. A detailed description of this species is

provided by Santapau ( 1947) in the paper titled ‘Notes on the

Convolvulaceae of Bombay' published in the J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 47: 337-355.

Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L., Sp. PI. ed. 2. 391 . 1762;

H. Santapau, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 47 : 341. 1947; Van

Ooststroom, FI. MalesianaS: 558. 1958; D.A. Powell, Journ.

Arnold Arb. 60: 229. 1979. Convolvulus nummularius L. Sp.

PI. 157. 1753. Volvulopsis nummularium (L.) Roberty,

Candollea 14: 28. 1952.

FI. & Fr.: May-August.

Specimens Examined: Little Andaman Island, Hut Bay,

Sea level, L. Rasingam 17586 (PBL).

Distribution: Native of tropical America, naturalising

in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra and West Bengal states

of India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Kolkata for facilities and the officials of

ANIFPDCL for field support. The first author is

thankful to Dr. D. Kannan, Centre for Environmental

Studies, Amrita Vishwa Vidya Peetham, Coimbatore for

encouragement.

21. TAMARIX PASSERINOIDES DELILE EX DESV. VAR. MACROCARPA EHRENB.

(TAMARICACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1

Ramesh Kumar Aggarwal2 and Suman C. Sharma2-3

'Accepted September 27, 2007

’6-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India.

’Email: [email protected]

During one of the plant collection visits to tehsil Nava,

Nagaur district (Rajasthan) we collected Tamarix

passerinoides Delile ex Desv. var. macrocarpa Ehrenb. near

Sambhar lake. A perusal of literature shows that this

species has not been reported from Rajasthan (Shetty and

Singh 1987-93).

This paper records for the first time the occurrence of

Tamarix passerinoides Delile ex Desv. var. macrocarpa

232

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ehrenb. from Rajasthan. It is known so far from the Khara bet

of Gujarat (Pandey 2002). The specimens have been deposited

in the Herbarium. Department of Botany, Govt. Dungar

College, Bikaner (Raj.). The identification of the species is

based on Pandey (2002).

Tamarix passerinoides Delile ex Desv. var. macrocarpa

Ehrenb. in Linnaea 2:276. 1 827 ; Qaiser in Nasir & Ali, FI. W.

Pakistan 141 : 40. 1982. Tamarix macrocarpa (Ehrenb.) Bunge,

Tent. 79. 1852.

Shrubs 0.75-2.0 m high; younger parts densely papillose.

Leaves amplexicaul to semiamplexicaul, broadly ovate, ovate-

lanceolate, acute to acuminate at apex, deflexed, glandular-

punctate. Racemes mostly aestival, simple or rarely compound;

rachis papillose; bracts leafy, entire to subentire. Flowers

pink to purplish-pink. Sepals 5, each 1.5-2.25 x 1.0-1. 5 mm,

ovate to trullate-ovate, denticulate, subequal, outer two smaller

and more acute than three inner ones. Petals 5, each 3. 0-4. 5 x

1 .5-2.0 mm, obovate to obovate-elliptic. Stamens usually 10,

rarely 7-9; filaments alternately long and short, longer

filaments 2. 5-7.0 mm long, shorter ones 2. 0-2. 5 mm long.

Capsules 10.0-12.0 x 3-5 mm, pinkish-purple. Seeds 0.5-0.7 mm

long.

Fairly common in saline habitats.

Specimen Examined: Near Lake Sambhar, Nava, Nagaur.

Sharma & Aggarwal, DCH 1 57.

FI. & Fr.: October-March.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. G.N. Sharma, Head, Department

of Botany, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner, for encouragement.

First author thankful to UGC for financial assistance.

REFERENCES

Pandey, R.P. (2002): Additions to the Flora of Gujarat-III. ./. Econ. Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987-93): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. I-III.

Taxon. Bot. 26 (2): 505. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

22. ACACIA SALIGNA (LABILL.) WENDL. (MIMOSACEAE)

A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1

Jeetendra Kantiya2 and Suman C. Sharma2-3

'Accepted September 27, 2007

26-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India

’Email: [email protected]

During a local plant collection visit to Bikaner

district, Rajasthan, we collected Acacia saligna (Labill.)

Wendl. from near Jaipur road, Bikaner. A perusal of

literature shows that this species has not been reported from

Rajasthan.

This paper records for the first time the occurrence of

Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl. from Rajasthan. The

specimens of Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl., collected from

near Jaipur road, Bikaner, have been housed in the Herbarium,

Department of Botany, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner,

Rajasthan.

The identification of the species is based on the Flora

of West Pakistan Vol. 36: 1-41, S. I. Ali ( 1973).

Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl., Comm. Acac. Aphyll.:

26.1820. (Fig. I). Mimosa saligna Labill., PI. Nov.

Holl.2:86.t.235.1806.

A tall shrub, phyllode with a prominent midrib,

straight or curved, 12-16 cm long, c. 7-12 mm broad, tip

blunt. Inflorescence pedunculate, heads, arranged

Fig. 1 : A. Flowering twig, B. Pod, C & D Flower

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

233

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in racemose fashion in the axil of phyllodes. Fruits,

c. 11-13 cm long, c. 5-6 mm wide, slightly constricted

between the seeds, grayish-brown in colour. Seeds

black.

FI. & Fr.: May- August.

Specimens Examined: Near Jaipur road, Bikaner.

Kantiya and Sharma. 1 234.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Principal & Head Department of

Botany, Dungar College, Bikaner. Thanks are also due to U.GC

for providing financial assistance.

23. ENUMERATION OF SPECIES OF THE GENUS CORNOPTERIS NAKAI

(ATHYRIACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA) IN INDIA1

Y.P.S. Pangtey2

'Accepted February 07, 2005

2Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University, Nainital 263 002, Uttarakhand, India.

Email: [email protected]

Comopteris Nakai ( Athyriaceae) is a small Asian genus

consisting of nine species (Kato 1 979), of which four species,

namely C. banajaoensis (C.Chr.) K. Iwats. & Price, C. birii

Ching ex Bir, C. opaca (D. Don) Tag. and C. quadripinnatifida

M. Kato were recorded from the east Himalaya (Darjeeling,

Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh) and north-east India (Assam,

Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura). But recently, Fraser-

Jenkins ( 1 997) discovered that the description of C. birii was

based on only one specimen, the type specimen collected by

Prof. S.S. Bir from Lachen (north Sikkim), and that it was an

immature specimen of C. decurrentialata (Hook.) Nakai, and

placed it as a synonym of C. decurrentialata. However,

recently published enumerations of ferns of India, record a

varying number of species (Dixit 1984; Chandra 2000), while

Vasudeva et al. (1990) make no reference of the genus

Comopteris in north-east India.

In this paper, an attempt has been made to enumerate

the species of Comopteris in India with complete references

of synonyms, and distribution in India and the world, along

with a note on doubtful records from India to avoid confusion.

They are as follows:

1. Fronds bipinnatifid to tripinnatifid:

— Rhizome creeping; pinnule segments entire or denticulate-

serrulate C. decurrentialata

— Rhizome ascending to erect; pinnule segments entire or

shallowly lobed C. opaca

2. Fronds tripinnatifid to quadripinnatifid:

Apex of pinnule segments almost entire or crenate

C. banajaoensis

Apex of pinnule segments sharply serrate

C. quadripinnatifida

1 . Comopteris banajaoensis (C.Chr.) K. Iwats. & Price,

Southeast Asian Studies 14: 564(1977); Kato, Acta Phytotax.

Geobot. 30: 1 12 ( 1979); Chandra, Ferns India: 142(2000).

Dryopteris banajaoensis C.Chr., Index Fil. Suppl. 1: 30

(1913).

Dryopteris tenerrima Copel., Philip. J. Sci. Bot. 4: 1 1 1

(1909) (non (Fee) Ros. (1906].

Phegopteris banajaoensis (C.Chr.) v.A.v.R., Mai. Ferns

& Fern Allies Suppl. 1: 310(1917).

Athyrium nudum Copel., Fern FI. Phil. 3: 391 (1960).

Dryopteris fluvialis Hayata, Ico. PI. Formos. 4: 152494

(1914).

Comopteris fluvialis (Hayata) Tag., Acta Phytotax.

Geobot. 1: 158 (1932).

Athyrium jluviale (Hayata) C.Chr., Index Fil. Suppl. 3:

44(1934).

Dryopteris athyriformis Ros., Hedwigia 56: 344 (1915).

Comopteris tashiori Tag., Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 1 :

159(1932).

Athyrium tagawai C.Chr., Index Fil. Suppl. 3: 44 (1934).

Comopteris badia Ching, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol.

Bot. 11:58(1941).

Distribution: india: Sikkim; E. Nepal; S.W. China;

Philippines; Taiwan; S. Japan; Papua; New Guinea.

2. Comopteris decurrentialata (Hook.) Nakai, Bot.

Mag Tokyo 44: 8( 1 930); Fraser-Jenkins, New Sp. Syndr. Indian

Pterid. & Ferns India: 93 (1997); Chandra, Ferns India: 143

(2000).

Gynmogramme decurrentialata Hook., Sp. Fil. 5: 142.

t. 294(1864).

Leptogramme decurrentialata (Hook.) J. Smith, Hist.

Fil. :232(1875).

Phegopteris decurrentialata (Hook.) Christ, Famkr.:

274. f. 865 (1897).

Neplirodium decurrentialatum (Hook.) Diels in Engler

234

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

& Prantl Nat. Pfl.-fam. 1(4): 171 (1899).

Dryopteris decurrentialcita (Hook.) C.Chr., Index Fil.:

261(1905).

Athyrium decurrenticilatum (Hook.) Copel., Philip.

J. Sci. 3:279(1908).

Diplazium decurrentialatum (Hook.) C.Chr., Bull.

Geogr. Bot. Mans 21: 69 (191 1).

Diplazium hookerianum Koidz., Bot. Mag. Tokyo 38:

105(1924).

Cornopteris musashiensis Nakai, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 44:

8(1930).

Athyrium musashiensis (Nakai) C.Chr., Index Fil. Suppl.

3:43(1934).

Cornopteris decurrentialata var. pilosella H.Ito, Bot.

Mag. Tokyo 52: 588 (1938).

Athyrium decurrentialatum var. pilosellum (H.Ito)

Ohwi, FI. Jap. Pterid.: 110(1957).

Cornopteris tsangii Ching, Lingnan Sci. J. 21 : 32 ( 1945).

Cornopteris bird Ching & Bir, Nova Hedw. 7:502 ( 1 964);

Mehra & Bir, Res. Bull. Punjab Univ. (n.s.) 15: 149 (1964); Dixit,

Census Indian Pterid.: 130 ( 1984).

Distribution: india: Sikkim; Nepal; C. & S. China;

Taiwan; S. Korea; Japan.

3. Cornopteris opaca (D.Don) Tag., Acta Phytotax.

Geobot. 8:92 (1939); Dixit, Census Indian Pterid.: 130 ( 1984);

Chandra, Ferns India: 143 (2000).

Hemionitis opaca D.Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal.: 1 3 (1825).

Gymnogramma opaca (D.Don) Spr., Syst. 4: 39 (1827).

Phegopteris opaca (D.Don) Mett., Pheg.-Asp.: 15.n.21

(1858).

Leptogramma opaca (D.Don) Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit.

India: 379(1883).

Dryopteris opaca (D.Don) C.Chr., Index Fil. :280 (1905).

Diplazium opacum (D.Don) Christ, Bull. Geogr. Bot.

Mans 1906:242(1906).

Athyrium opacum (D.Don) Copel., Philip. J. Sci. 3: 279

(1908).

Gymnogramma obtusata Bl., Enum. PI. Jav. 2: 113(1 828).

Leptogramma obtusata (Blume) J. Smith, Hist. Fil.: 232

(1875).

Phegopetris obtusata (Bl.) Christ, Famkr. :274 ( 1 897).

Nephrodium obtusatum (BL) Diels in Enler & Prantl

Nat. Pfl.-fam. 1(4): 171(1899).

Dryopteris bankinsinensis Hayata, Icon. PI. Formos. 8:

146, f. 1.73-74

Dryopteris succulentipes Hayata, Icon. PI. Formos. 8:

149. f. 77-78 (1919).

Athyrium gymnocarpum Copel., Philip. J. Sci. 40: 301 . t.

4(1929).

Cornopteris likiangensis Ching, Lingnan Sci. J. 21 : 32

(1945).

Cornopteris omeigensis Ching, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst.

Biol. Bot. 1:287(1949).

Cornopteris opaca f. glabrescens Kurata, J. Goebot.

12:41(1963).

Distribution: india: Darjeeling, Sikkim Meghalaya;

Myanmar; S. China; Taiwan; S. Japan; Indo-China;

N. Thailand; Philippines; Borneo; Java; Bali; Sulawesi.

4. Cornopteris quadripinnatifida M. Kato, Acta

Phytotax. Geobot. 30: 1 14.f.l 1 (1979).

Distribution: india: Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Sikkim;

Nepal.

Dixit (1984) reported four species of Cornopteris from

India, i.e., C. birii C. macdonellii (Bedd.)Tard., C. opaca and

C. tenuisecta (Bl.) Tard. Except C. opaca , the other three

species are now treated as synonyms of C. decurrentialata ,

Deparia macdonellii Kato and Acystopteris tenuisecta (BL)

Tag. Khullar (2000) described C. quadripinnatifida (a species

poorly known in India) as C. banajaoensis from Garhwal and

Kumaon in Uttaranchal (^Uttarakhand), followed by Chandra

(2000), Pande and Pande (2002), Dixit and Kumar (2002) from

the same localities. Fraser-Jenkins (pers. comm.) tentatively

identified the above specimens, with the remark that it required

further confirmation. He has now identified these specimens

as belonging to C. quadripinnatifida, while C. banajaoensis

was reported earlier from Uttaranchal in the west Himalaya

by Khullar (2000), and by Dixit and Kumar (2002) is

C. quadripinnatifida. Therefore, C. quadripinnatifida is being

recorded for the first time from the west Himalaya and thus

extends its distribution to Uttarakhand from Sikkim and E. Nepal.

Chandra (2000) enumerated five species of Cornopteris

from India, namely C. atroviridis (v.A.v.R.) M. Kato,

C. banajaoensis, C. crenulatoserrulata (Makino) Nakai,

C. decurrentialata and C. opaca, but he has not recorded

C. quadripinnatifida in his enumeration. Of them,

C. atroviridis is a Malayan, Sumatran and Javan species and

C. crenulatoserrulata is reported only from C. & S.E. China

and C. & N. Japan. Both these species have been erroneously

recorded from Kumaon Himalaya by Punetha and Kholia (1990)

in India. Fraser-Jenkins (pers. comm.) has identified Punetha

and Kholia’s specimens, collected from Didihat in Pithoragarh

district of Kumaon Himalaya in 1 996, as Deparia boryana

(Willd.) Kato [=Dryoathyrium boyanum (Willd.) Tard.-Blot],

It is interesting to note that these two species, namely

C. atroviridis and C. crenulatoserrutala have been

catalogued (Chandra 2000; Pande and Pande 2002; Dixit and

Kumar 2002) from the same locality without verifying and

studying these specimens. C. atroviridis and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

235

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

C. crenulatoserrulata do not occur in India and should

be excluded from the Indian fern literature to avoid confusion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. C.R. Fraser-Jenkins, British Museum,

London for identification, literature and encouragement.

Thanks are due to Prof. S.P. Khullar, Department of

Botany, Punjab University, Chandigarh for his ever

willing help, and to the Head, Department of Botany,

D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University, Nainital for

facilities.

REFERENCES

Chandra, S. (2000): The Ferns of India (Enumeration, Synonyms &

Distribution). International Book Distributors. Dehradun.

459 pp. Dehradun.

Dixit, R.D. (1984): A Census of the Indian Pteridophytes. Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah. 177 pp.

Dixit, R.D. & R. Kumar (2002): Pteridophytes of Uttaranchal

(A Checklist). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

159 pp.

Fraser-Jenkins, C.R. (1997): New Species Syndrome in Indian

Pteridology and the Ferns of Nepal. International Book.

Distributors, Dehradun. 403 pp.

Kato, M. (1979): Taxonomic study of the genus Cornopteris

(Athyriaceae). Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 30: 101-118.

Khullar, S.P. (2000): An Illustrated Fern Flora of the West

Himalaya. Vol. II. International Book Distributors, Dehradun.

538 pp.

Pande, PC. & H.C. Pande (2002): Pteridology in Western Himalaya

(Kumaon). Bishen Singh Mahensra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

215 pp.

Punetha, N. & B.S. Kholla ( 1990): On the occurrence of Cornopteris

atroviridis and C. crenulatoserrulata in Indo-Himalaya. Front.

Bot. Res. Nat. Symp., Department of Botany, Panjab University,

Chandigarh, pp. 75.

Vasudeva, S.M., S.S. Bir & P. Kachroo (1990): Pteridophytic flora of

north-eastern India - III (Families: Aspleniaceae-Oleandraceae).

Indian Fern J. 7: 66-85.

24. PLAGIOCHILA JUNGHUHNIANA SANDE LAC. - A NEW RECORD TO INDIAN MAINLAND

(NILGIRI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS)1

Praveen Kumar Verma2 and S.C. Srivastava2,3

'Accepted September 28, 2007

’Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, India.

’Email: [email protected].

Introduction

Plagiochila junghuhniana belongs to the Family

Plagiochilaceae of Hepaticae. The species was introduced from

Indonesia (Java) by Sande Lacoste in 1855. Earlier this species

was reported from the Nicobar Islands as

P. berkeleyana Gott. ex Steph. by Stephani (1918). Since then

this species has never been collected from India. In a recent

publication, P. berkeleyana has been treated as a synonym of

P. junghuhniana Sande Lac (So 2001 ). During a plant collection

trip to the Western Ghats and neighbouring areas this species

was collected from the Nilgiri hills, thus showing an extended

range of distribution to the Indian mainland. It belongs to

Plagiochila sect. Contiguae in having characteristic oblong-

ovate to broadly ovate leaves, moderately decurrent dorsal base

of leaves and shortly decurrent ventral base with spinose teeth

and medium to large trigones in leaf cells. The most important

characteristic of the section is asexual reproduction by leaf

propagules developing from ventral surface of leaves (So and

Grolle 1999; So 2000). In India, the section is represented by

11 species ( Plagiochila khasiana Mitt., P. salacensis Gott.,

P. dissecta Steph., P. beddomei Steph., P. indica Mitt, ex Steph.,

P. nepalensis Lindenb., P. acuta Steph., and P. junghuhniana

Sande Lac., P. liebmanniana Lehm. et Lindenb., P. wightii Steph.

and P. woronojii Steph. ex Pande et al.) out of which the last

eight are validly reported from the Western Ghats (Rawat and

Srivastava 2007).

Plants decumbent, in compact tufts, up to 45 mm long,

2. 8-3. 2 mm wide, branching terminal (pseudo-dichotomous),

“Frullania- type”. Stem 13-15 cells across the diameter,

differentiated, cortex in 3-4 layers, cells thick-walled,

19-22 x 15 - 19 pm, medullary cells thin- walled, 30-38 x 22-26 pm.

Rhizoids spreading along the basal surface of the stem. Leaves

contiguous to sub-imbricate, obliquely inserted, horizontally

spreading, oblong-ovate, 1 .3- 1 .6 mm long, 0.63-0.94 mm wide

with (4) 6-1 1 ( 12) teeth per leaf; dorsal margin straight, entire,

base decurrent, apex broad (truncate) with 3-6 teeth, 5-6 cells

long, and 3-4 cells wide, ventral margin arched, base ampliate

with 2-6 small spines, 4-5 cells long teeth, terminal cell acute,

10x21 pm. median cells 34-42 x 26-34 pm, basal cells 38-50 x

26-39 pm, trigones distinct. Underleaves vestigial generally

present in the upper sector of plant, may be ciliate or variously

toothed. Asexual reproduction by propagules.

Dioecious. Gynoecia always terminalon main shoots,

with two innovations; female bracts longer than wide,

236

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : 1 -1 5: Plagiochila junghuhniana Sande Lac.

1 . Plant, dorsal view; 2. Plant, ventral view; 3. T.S. of stem portion;

4-11. Leaves; 12. Apical cells of leaf; 13. Median cells of leaf;

1 4. Basal cells of leaf; 1 5. Underleaf (All figures drawn from LWU

13026/2000)

2. 0-2. 2 mm long, 1.1- 1.2 mm wide, variously toothed, teeth

up to 30 per bract; bracteole slightly larger than underleaves,

1 .2 mm long and 0.3 1 mm wide. Perianth cyathiform, immature,

apex highly dentate. Sporophyte absent.

Type locality; Indonesia- Java (Inoue 1984).

Range: China, India, Indonesia (Borneo, Java), New

Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Thailand

(Inoue 1984; So 2001).

Distribution: india: Andaman and Nicobar Islands (So

2001), Tamil Nadu - Nilgiri hills [Coonoor (near municipal bus

stand), Gudulur (Cherambadi), Ootacamund (Dodabetta,

Kendurai)].

Ecology: Plants growing as terrestrial and epiphytic

population on small shrubs.

Specimens Examined: Indo-Malaya: Celebes mend.

Fig. 2: 1 -1 0: Plagiochila junghuhniana Sande Lac.

I . Female plant, dorsal view; 2. Plant showing fragmenting leaves;

3-5. Leaves; 6. Female bract; 7. Apical cells of female bract;

8. Median cells of female bract; 9. Basal cells of female bract;

1 0. Female bracteole (All figures drawn from LWU 1 3026/2000)

Tjamba, corticola in siluis primigensis, sciophila; c. 1 ,000 m;

J. E. Teysmann; Det.: T.H. Herzog ( 1 2538); 1 859/60; Hepaticae

Selectae c/Critacae.

India: Western Ghats: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills

(Ootacamund-Dodabetta); c. 2,660 m, 8.X.2000; S.C. Srivastava

and party; 13026/2000 (LWU). Ootacamund (Dodabetta);

c. 2,660 m, 09.iv.2002; PK. Verma, A. Mam and N. Saliu; 1 5380/02

(LWU). Gudulur (Cherambadi); c. 1,300-1,400 m; 29.ix.2002;

PK. Verma and A. Alam; 16078/2002, 16079/2002, 16080/2002

(LWU). Ootacamund (Kendurai); c. 2,250 m.; 30. ix. 2003,

PK. Verma and A. Alam; 16781/2003, 16782/2003, 16785/2003,

16786/2003 (LWU). Coonoor (Near municipal bus stand);

c. 1 ,800 m; 1 6.xi.2006, PK. Verma and A. Alam; 20020/2006, 20038/

2006 (LWU).

Plagiochila junghuhniana is very easily separated from

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

237

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

other species of Plcigiochilci in the Western Ghats as

characterized by exclusively bipinnately branched (terminal)

plants with oblong-ovate leaves having truncate apex, and

margins are rather jagged with up to 11-12 teeth. However,

vestigial underleaves are also found, only at the apical shoots.

The leaves produce numerous propagules on the ventral

surface and one-celled to juvenile multi-celled plantlets may

Inoue, H. (1984): The genus Plagiochila (Dum.) Dum. in southeast

Asia. Academic Scientific Book Inc, Tokyo.

Rawat, K.K. & S.C. Srivastava (2007): Genus Plagiochila in eastern

Himalaya. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

So, M.L. (2000): Plagiochila sect. Contiguae (Hepatice) in Australasia

and the Pacific, with description of Plagiochila subjavanica

sp. nov. Austr. SySteph. Bot. 13(5): 803-815.

be seen on the same leaf.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Ministry of Environment

and forests. Govt, of India, New Delhi for financial assistance

through AICOPTAX.

NCES

So, M.L. (2001 ): Plagiochila (Hepaticae, Plagiochilaceae) in China.

SySteph. Bot. Monogr. 60: 1-214.

So, M.L. & R. Grolle (1999): Studies on Plagiochila in Asia:

Supplements to section Abietinae, Annotinae, Ciliatae,

Contiguae, Cucullatae, Poeltiae, Subtropicae and Zonatae.

Cryptogamie Bryologie 20(3): 167-179.

Stephani, F. (1918): Species Hepaticarum 6: 129-176.

25. LATIN DIAGNOSIS OF SPIRULINA ( =ARTHROSPIRA ) MAHAJAN1 MAHAJAN1

S.K. Mahajan2

‘Accepted May 23, 2007

’Botany Department, Government P.G. College, 31, Jain Mandir Path, Khargone 451 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

In an earlier paper Mahajan, S.K. (2004): Anew species-

of Spirulina ( -Arthrospira ) mahajani Mahajan from

Khargone, Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

101(2): 294-295. I had given the details of place, date of

collection and location of type material in English, but did not

include these details in the latin diagnosis, I wish to remedy

this omission by giving a latin rendering of these details here.

Spirulina mahajani Mahajan sp. nov.

Trichomata veneta, libre natanti, non constricta,

4. 9-5. 6 pm lata, extreme leviter angustiora, ordinate et laxe 3-5

spirata (3.4-5. 1 spirata), spirae latitudines fere aequalium.

33-44 pm lata et inter se 39-99 pm distantia; cellulae

subquadratae, 2. 1-3.6 pm longae; vacuolae gaseosae in

cytoplasma uniformiter distributae; cellulae extremorum

simplices et calyptra singulari plane conica.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is grateful to Dr. V.J. Nair, Co-ordinator,

AICOPTAX, Centre for Research on Grasses and Bamboos,

BSI, Southern Circle, Coimbatore for rendering the latin

diagnosis.

26. FIG TREES (FICUS), CAPTIVE ELEPHANTS, AND CONSERVATION OF HORNBILLS

AND OTHER FRUGIVORES IN AN INDIAN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY1

Ragupathy Kannan2 and Douglas A. James3

'Accepted November 05, 2007

department of Biology, University of Arkansas - Fort Smith, Fort Smith, Arkansas 72913, U.S.A.

Email: [email protected]

’Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, U.S.A.

Introduction and background

The endangered Great Pied Hombill Buceros bicornis

(GPH) is the largest (length: 120 cm; mass: 3 kg) of the nine

species of hombills (Bucerotidae) in India (Ali and Ripley

1987). Its diet is principally fruits, with a preponderance of

figs (Ficus) (Kannan 1994; Kannan and James 1997, 1999).

The species is affected by a variety of problems ranging from

destruction of its wet forest habitat to poaching of adults and

squabs from nests (Ali and Ripley 1987), and is listed in

Schedule I (most protected) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection)

238

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Act of 1972 (MoEF 2006). The bird is almost always seen

foraging or nesting in lofty trees of deep wet-evergreen or

moist-deciduous hill forests (Hume 1890; Ali 1936; Ali and

Ripley 1987; Kemp 1995), and is therefore apparently

dependent on mature old-growth vegetation. No systematic

study has been attempted to quantify the foraging habitat

preferences of this species. We hereby present quantitative

information on a critical component of the foraging

habitat-niche of the Great Pied Hombill (GPH). As explained

below, this information enabled us to lobby the Tamil Nadu

Forest Department (TNFD) into adopting a policy - a key

management strategy to help in conservation of the species.

There is a plethora of evidence in the literature on the

importance of Ficus as a fruit source for the maintenance of

several vertebrate populations (Janzen 1979; Gautier-Hion

1980;Fambert 1 989; Lambert and Marshall 1991; Borges 1993),

including hombills (Feighton and Feighton 1983; Kemp 1995;

Kinnaird etal. 1996; Kannan and James 1997, 1999; Datta and

Rawat 2003 ; James and Kannan 2007 ; Kannan and James 2007 ).

For the past century or so. Teak {Tectona grandis ) lumbering

operations in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (IGWFS)

in the Anaimalai Hills (Tamil Nadu) of southern India have

been assisted by domestic elephants stationed in the

protected forests. As a part of the official program to maintain

them, mahouts have been traditionally authorized to feed

elephants with their favoured forage, which consists of fig

leaves harvested from surrounding forests. This practice

helped conserve precious funds that would otherwise be

allocated for procuring elephant feed.

Between 1991 and 1993, we observed that numerous

fig trees inside IGWFS had been lopped repeatedly to feed

the approximately 30 elephants stationed in the Sanctuary.

Many fig trees in the Top Slip area (Ulandy range) showed

telltale signs of having been lopped in the recent past: stunted

appearance, truncated boles and branches, and absence of

fruiting (despite two years of constant monitoring). The TNFD

regarded lopping to be relatively harmless to the trees as it

was seldom lethal. The elephants aided in lopping and

transporting the bales of Ficus foliage from the forests to

various elephant camps in the Sanctuary. We also observed

that many local avian frugivores, especially GPH, relied heavily

on fig fruits for food. Over 90% of all GPH tree visits during

one year (September 1991 to August 1992) were to fig trees,

compared to 55.7% for four other avian frugivores during the

same period, and nearly a quarter of the resident avifauna ate

figs (Kannan and James 1999). Considering such heavy

dependence on figs by GPH and many other local wildlife

species, we collected quantitative data to demonstrate the

importance of large fig trees in the foraging habitat of the

hombill. Our goal was to provide the TNFD with data on size

of fig trees suitable for GPH, and thereby convince them of

the potential negative effects of the F/cns-lopping practice

on GPH and other vertebrate frugivores.

Study area and methods

The study was conducted in the Top Slip area of the

1,250 sq. km IGWFS. The Sanctuary is a vast mosaic of

moist-deciduous or evergreen forests, tea and teak plantations

and human settlements (refer Kannan and James 1997, 1999

for more information about the area).

We developed a profile of the foraging habitat by

measuring different vegetational characteristics around each

of 20 fig trees used by the GPH for foraging, following the

approach proposed by James and Shugart (1970) and adopted

by Mudappa and Kannan (1999) and James and Kannan (2009,

in press). Circular vegetational plots measuring 0.07 ha (radius

15 m) were established around the tree, and 15 vegetational

characteristics (Table 1) were measured within these plots.

Shrub density was measured by counting stems intersecting

a meter-wide stick held at waist height (1 m) along four

orthogonal transects established at the centre of each plot.

Heights were measured using a clinometer. Canopy and

ground cover were determined by making 40 overhead and

ground sightings for presence of green vegetation sighted at

the cross-wires of a sighting tube at random points along the

transects. Emergence of the centre tree is defined as the

projection of the centre tree above the rest of the canopy.

Data gathered from the foraging plots were compared with an

equal number (20) of control samples in which the centre fig

tree was chosen by pacing 75 m away from the foraging fig

tree in a randomly chosen direction. The nearest fig tree at the

end of this distance with a diameter (DBH) of 20 cm or above

was used as centre tree, and the vegetational factors measured

at the foraging site were measured in a plot centered on the

control tree. We observed that 75 m to the control plot was a

sufficient distance to evade the forest structure influence of

the foraging plot, but still within the same general forest type,

and our findings, which follow, showing significant difference

between foraging and control plots proved we were correct.

We chose 20 cm as the minimum DBH for the control fig trees

because that was the minimum size in which fig trees were

observed to bear fruit in the area (Kannan and James 1999).

All the control trees showed no signs of lopping, and GPH

were not observed to forage in those trees. Our aim was to

compare fig trees used by GPH, with fig trees available and

unused in the area (control fig trees), to test the hypothesis

that hombills choose exceptionally large trees for foraging.

Such a comparison between used and non-used trees is

important to delineate habitat factors that are crucial for

hornbill foraging habitat selection.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

239

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

CL)

0

E

1

CD

DO

ZD

QC

I

CO

1

o)

W)

CD

smaller TREE SIZE ► larger

Fig. 1 : Ordination, with 95% confidence ellipses, of fig tree foraging

plots used by the Great Pied Hornbill and control fig tree plots,

based on the scores of the first (tree size) and second (shrubbiness)

Principal Components.

(The number of circles, both shaded and open, number less than

the requisite 20 each because some plots were so similar that the

circles were superimposed.)

We analyzed data using univariate Analysis of Variance

( ANOVA) to determine which habitat characteristics used by

the hornbill for foraging was significantly different from those

of control samples. Principal Components (PC) Analysis

(Morrison 1967) was performed to determine the most

important factors delimiting the habitat niche of the species.

Multivariate Analysis of Variance with step-wise Discriminant

Function Analysis (Cooley and Lohnes 1971) was also

performed to identify the critical vegetation characteristics

involved in separating foraging sites from control ones. All

these tests were done using SAS Institute ( 1985) software.

Results

Results of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of

15 vegetational characteristics measured in foraging and

control plots (Table 1) showed that the following factors had

values that were significantly higher in foraging plots than in

control plots: shrub density, average canopy height, tallest

tree height, centre tree height, centre tree diameter, and

emergence of centre tree above forest canopy. Except shrub

density, all other significant parameters represent size of centre

tree, indicating that large trees are a critical part of the foraging

habitat of the hornbill. PC analysis too emphasized the

importance of foraging tree size in hornbill foraging habitat

selection. Accounting for 77% of the total variance in the

data, the first PC (PC I, Table 1 ) was highly correlated with the

vegetational characteristics named above that directly relate

to size and maturity of centre tree: tree height, centre tree

diameter, canopy height, height of tallest tree in plot, and

emergence of centre tree. PC I could thus be named “centre

tree size.” PC II, which accounted for an added 14 percent of

the total variance (Table 1) could be called ‘shrubbiness’,

since it was correlated heavily with shrub density. Together,

PC I and PC II explain more than 90 percent of total variance in

the vegetational data measured.

The foraging and control fig trees were clearly

separated (Fig. 1) along the environmental gradient (PC I)

representing tree size, with foraging plots positioned towards

larger centre tree size, and control plots scattered towards

the other end of the continuum. This portrayal reinforces the

importance of large trees in selection of foraging sites by

GPH. Although not obvious visually, the increased

shrubbiness of foraging plots is evident by drawing a

horizontal line across the figure so that half the combined

circles are above the line, half below. Note that about twice

'Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

'Other characteristics that were measured but did not differ significantly were: per cent canopy and ground cover and number of trees in

the plot in the diameter (DBH) classes (cm) 15-30, 30-45, 45-60, 60-75, 75-90, 90-105, and >105.

Underlined values in Principal Components (PC) analysis represent high correlations with their respective PCs.

240

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

as many foraging plots than control plots are above the line,

indicating increased overall shrubbiness in the foraging

plots. Twice as many control plots compared to foraging

plots are below the line indicating overall decreased

shrubbiness in the control plots.

Three vegetational characteristics were identified by

Stepwise Discriminant Function Analysis as most important

in providing separations between foraging and control plots.

These were: centre tree height, canopy cover, and shrub

density (P = 0.0001, 0.0129, and 0.0002 respectively), the first

two emphasizing the importance of tree size in hornbill

foraging.

Discussion

Lopping fig trees to feed captive elephants has

apparently been practiced in the IGWLS since the beginning

of lumbering operations in late 1 9th and early 20th century. The

findings of this study, and those of concurrently conducted

phenology and GPH feeding ecology studies (Kannan 1994;

Kannan and James 1997, 1999, 2007) highlighted the

importance of large fig trees for GPH foraging, and the

‘keystone’ (Lambert and Marshall 1991) nature of Ficus in

the conservation of hornbills and other vertebrate frugivores.

In our study area, fig fruits were available year-round, and

their availability when other fruits were scarce made them

especially important for frugivores ( Kannan and James 1999).

Moreover, the pattern of fig production significantly increased

during the dry and hot months between February and May,

coinciding with the breeding season of the GPH (Kannan and

James 1 999), when the majority of food items (72.9%) delivered

by parent hornbills to confined nest inmates were figs

(Kannan and James 1997). Non-fig fruits exhibited highly

seasonal fruiting patterns, being available only during the

dry and hot season. Our findings prompted the TNFD into

mandating a total ban on fig tree removal and lopping inside

IGWLS in May 1992. Upon prompting from us, the policy

was reinforced via a circular dated May 12, 1995 from

Mr. M. Krishnakumar, I.F.S., Wildlife Warden of IGWLS, to all

Range Officers in the sanctuary (M. Krishnakumar, pers.

comm.). As of 2001, that directive was still the policy in the

department (N. Loganathan, TNFD, pers. comm.). Although

violations of the ban still occur sporadically (R. Natarajan,

IGWLS, pers. comm., 2001 ), lopping is no longer systemic in

the IGWLS. In addition, the TNFD embarked on (in 1993) a

REFE

An, S. ( 1936): The ornithology of Travancore and Cochin. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 39: 3-35.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press.

Borges, R.M. ( 1993): Figs, Malabar Giant Squirrels, and fruit shortages

program of trail-side planting 2,000 Ficus saplings in the Top

Slip area of IGWLS, although none survived because of

grazing by wild mammalian herbivores (DJ and RK pers. obs.).

The high shrub density in GPH foraging sites probably

resulted from the deposition of seeds in the rain of faeces

produced by vertebrate frugivores. This ‘seed-rain’ and the

resulting seedling growth (Guevara et al. 2004) may have

accounted for the increased density of shrubs beneath GPH

foraging sites.

The Ficus taxa, with its multitude of coexisting species,

contributes significantly to the diversity of tropical forests

(Harrison 2005), and thus warrants conservation measures.

Frequent lopping of branches, although not often lethal to

the tree, results in stunted vegetative growth, and may

negatively affect production of fig fruits. This could

adversely limit food and nutritional availability (O'Brien

et al. 1998; Wendeln et al. 2000) for frugivores, and thus

affect the survival of GPH. Given the critical roles played by

hornbills as seed-dispersal agents (Kinnaird 1998; Kitamura

et al. 2004), it follows that systemic lopping of fig trees

could lead to serial local extinctions within forest ecosystems

by jeopardizing key plant-animal interactions. While it is

encouraging that this study helped in enacting a ban

on fig tree lopping in the Sanctuary, it is imperative that

this policy be enforced on a consistent basis. Also, forest

management training programs at state and national levels

must incorporate and stress the importance of conservation

of fig trees in maintenance of wildlife populations.

This case can be an example of positive conservation

work that can be accomplished when scientists and local

forest departments work cooperatively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Wildlife Conservation Society, Ornitholidays

(through the Oriental Bird Club, U.K.), R. Balachander, M.D.,

The Arkansas Audubon Society Trust, and the University of

Arkansas provided financial help. Divya Mudappa, Vidya

Athreya and Gary Neaville, M.D., assisted in the field. The

Tamil Nadu Forest Department permitted work in the forests

of the state and was receptive to our findings and

recommendations. Shekar Dattatri introduced us to some

useful tribal people. Lorie Livingston helped with plotting

the confidence ellipses.

NCES

within two tropical Indian forests. Biotropica 25:183-190.

Cooley, W. W. & P.R. Lohnes (1971): Multivariate data analysis. Wiley

& Sons, New York.

Datta, A. & G.S. Rawat (2003): Foraging patterns of sympatric hornbills

during the non-breeding season in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

241

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

India. Biotropica 35: 208-218.

Gautier-Hion, A. (1980): Seasonal variations of diet related to species

and sex in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys. Journal of

Animal Ecology 49: 237-269.

Guevara, S., J. Laborde & G. Sanchez-Rios (2004): Rainforest

regeneration beneath the canopy of fig trees isolated in pastures

of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Biotropica 36: 99-108.

Harrison, R.D. (2005): Figs and the diversity of tropical rainforests.

BioScience 55: 1053-1064.

Hume, A.O. (1890): Order Bucerotes. In: The Nests and Eggs of

Indian Birds. Vol. III. Oates, E.W. (Ed.): R.H. Porter, London.

1890.

James, D.A. & R. Kannan (2007): Wild Great Hornbills ( Buceros

bicornis) do not use mud to seal nest cavities. Wilson Journal of

Ornithology 119: 120-123.

James, D.A. & R. Kannan (2009): Nesting habitat of the Great Hombill

( Buceros bicornis) in the Anaimalai Hills of southern India.

Wilson Journal of Ornithology Vol. 121. in press.

James, F.C. & H.H. Shugart Jr. (1970): A quantitative method of

habitat description. Audubon Field Notes 24: 727-736.

Janzen, D. (1979): How to be a fig. Annual Review of Ecology and

Systematics 10: 13-51.

Kannan, R. (1994): Ecology and conservation of the Great Pied Hornbill

( Buceros bicornis) in the Western Ghats of southern India.

Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville,

Arkansas, U.S.A.

Kannan, R. & D.A. James (1997): Breeding biology of the Great Pied

Hornbill ( Buceros bicornis) in the Anaimalai hills of southern

India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 451-465.

Kannan, R. & D.A. James (1999): Fruiting phenology and

the conservation of the Great Pied Hombill (Buceros bicornis)

in the Western Ghats of southern India. Biotropica 31:

167-177.

Kannan, R. & D.A. James (2007): Phenological studies of hornbill

fruit plants in tropical rainforests: methodologies, problems,

and pitfalls. Pp. 155-166. In: Kemp, A.C. & M.I. Kemp (Eds):

The Active Management of Hornbills for Conservation,

CD-Rom Proceedings of the 4,h International Hornbill

Conference, Mabula Game Lodge, Bela-Bela, South Africa.

Naturalists & Nomads, Pretoria.

Kemp, A. (1995): The Hornbills. Oxford University Press, England.

Kinnaird, M.F. (1998): Evidence of effective seed-dispersal by the

Sulawesi red-knobbed hornbill Aceros cassidix. Biotropica 30:

50-55.

Kinnaird, M.F., T.G O’Brien & S. Suryadi (1996): Population tracking

in Sulawesi Red-knobbed Hornbills: tracking figs in space and

time. Auk 113: 431-440.

Kitamura, S., S. Suzuki, T. Yumoto, P. Poonswad, P. Chuailua,

K. Plongmai, N. Noma, T. Maruhashi & C. Suckasam (2004):

Dispersal of Aglaia spectabilis. a large-seeded tree species in a

moist evergreen forest in Thailand. Journal of Tropical Ecology

20: 421-427.

Lambert, F. (1989): Fig-eating by birds in a Malaysian lowland rainforest.

Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 401-412.

Lambert, F. & A. Marshall ( 1991): Keystone characteristics of bird

dispersed Ficus in a Malaysian lowland rainforest. Journal of

Ecology 79: 793-809.

Leighton, M. & D.R. Leighton (1983): Vertebrate responses to fruiting

seasonality within a Bornean rain forest. Pp. 181-196.

In: Sutton, S.L., T.C. Whitmore & A.C. Chadwick (Eds):

Tropical rainforests: ecology and management. Blackwell

Scientific Publications, Oxford, England.

MoEF (Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India) (2006):

The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended up to

1993. www.envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlifel html (accessed

May 2006).

Morrison, D.F. (1967): Multivariate statistical methods. McGraw-

Hill, New York.

Mudappa, D.C. & R. Kannan (1999): Nest-site characteristics and

nesting success of the Malabar Gray Hombill Ocyceros griseus

in the southern Western Ghats, India. Wilson Bulletin 109:

102-111.

O'Brien, T.G., M.F. Kinnaird, E.S. Dierenfeld, N.L. Conklin-Brittain,

R.W. Wrangham & S.C. Silver (1998): What’s so special about

figs? Nature 392: 668.

SAS Institute (1985): SAS user’s guide: Statistics, version 5. SAS

Institute, Inc., Cary, North Carolina.

Wendeln, M.C., J.R. Runkle & E.K.V. Kalko (2000): Nutritional

value of 14 fig species and bat feeding preferences in Panama.

Biotropica 32: 489-501.

27. THREE NEW ADDITIONS TO THE NON-INDIGENOUS FLORA

OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS, INDIA1

P.G. Diwakar- and L. Rasingam3

'Accepted August 08, 2006

2Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

’Keystone Foundation, Groves Hill Road, Kotagiri 643 217. Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

During a botanical exploration in the Little Andaman

Island, the authors collected three plant species, which have

been identified as Pentapetes phoenicea L. (Sterculiaceae),

Asclepias currasavica L. (Asclepiadaceae), and Acorus

calamus L. (Araceae). The literature on the floristics of

Andaman and Nicobar Islands shows that occurrence of these

taxa from the union territory has not been reported earlier

(Vasudeva Rao 1986; Mathew 1998). The present

communication gives a current nomenclature, brief

description, distribution and ecology.

Pentapetes phoenicea L., Sp. PI: 698. 1753; Mast, in

Hook.f., FI. Brit. India 1:371.1 874; Ridl., FI. Mai. Pen. 1 : 284.

1922; C. Phengklai, FI. Thai. 7(3): 595. 2001 . R angustifolia Bl„

Bijdr.: 87. 1825.

Annual herb, c. 80 cm high. Leaves simple, narrowly

lanceolate, 3.0-14.0 x 0.5- 1 .5 cm, apex acuminate, base obtuse,

margin serrate to serrulate. Flowers pink. Sepals 5, narrowly

triangular. Petals bowl-shaped. Stamens in 5 groups;

staminodes 5, inserted between the group of stamens, both

surrounding the ovary. Ovary ovoid, hairy, 5-locular.

242

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (2), May-Aug 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

FI. & Fr.: October-December.

Distribution: India, China and Malay Peninsula.

Ecology: Rare in wet areas.

Specimens Examined: Little Andaman Island, 40 m

above msl, R.K. Pur, L. Rasingam, 19848 (PBL).

Asclepias curassavica L., Sp. PI. 265. 1753; Hook.f., FI.

Brit.India4: 18. 1883; Jagtap& Singh, Fasc. FI. India24:6. 1999.

Herb, c. 1 m high. Leaves opposite, decussate, linear-

lanceolate to lanceolate, 5.0-15.0 x 0.7-3. 5 cm. Petioles terete,

3-10 mm long. Flowers in 8- 10 flowered umbellate cymes, bright

crimson; peduncles terete, 1-6 cm long.

FI. & Fr.: Throughout the year.

Distribution: A native of West Indies and naturalized

throughout India.

Ecology: Occasionally found along the roadsides.

Specimens Examined: Little Andaman Island, Krishna

Nallah, 50 m, L. Rasingam, 19856 (PBL).

Acorns calamus L., Sp. PI. 324. 1753; Roxb. FI. Ind. 2:

169. 1832; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 6: 555. 1893; C. Fischer, FI.

Madras3: 1577(1100). 1931; Mathew, FI. Tamil Nadu Carnatic

3: 1686. 1983.

Herb, c. 1 m high, rhizome aromatic, to 2 cm diameter.

Leaves about 80 x 2 cm. Peduncle 25-30 x 1 cm. Spathe

leaf-like, 35 x 40 cm long; spadix 5-8 cm long. Flowers densely

arranged Tepals glabrous, oblong. Ovary with stigma

sessile.

FI. & Fr.: November-February.

Distribution: Throughout India.

Ecology: Very rare in the swampy areas of littoral

forest.

Specimens Examined: Little Andaman Island, Hut Bay,

Sea level, L. Rasingam, 19897 (PBL).

We thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director, Botanical Survey

of India, Kolkata for facilities and the officials of ANIFPDCL

for field support.

REFERENCES

Mathew, Sam P. (1998): A supplementary report on the flora and

vegetation of the Bay Islands, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bat. 22(2):

249-272.

Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the angiosperms

of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 8(1):

107-184.

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CONTENTS

METHODS OF CAPTURE AND RADIO TRACKING OF WESTERN TRAGOPAN TRAGOPAN

MELANOCEPHALUS J.E. GRAY 1829 IN THE GREAT HIMALAYAN NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

K. Ramesh, S. Sathyakumar and Gopal S. Rawat

STUDIES ON HAEMATOZOA OF FAMILY CORVIDAE OF KERALA

M.J. Elizabeth

EVALUATING THE STATUS OF FORESTS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WILDLIFE: A RAPID SURVEY

FROM A REMOTE AND LITTLE EXPLORED TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST OF NORTH-EAST

INDIA

Ambika Aiyadurai and Surendra Varma

DICLOFENAC LEVELS IN LIVESTOCK CARCASSES IN INDIA BEFORE THE 2006 “BAN”

K.R. Senacha, M.A. Taggart, Asad R. Rahmani, Y.V. Jhala, R. Cuthbert, D.J. Pain and R.E. Green

THE WATERBIRDS OF PULICAT LAKE, ANDHRA PRADESH-TAMIL NADU, INDIA, INCLUDING THOSE OF

THE ADJOINING WETLANDS AND HERONRIES

V. Kannan, Ranjit Manakadan, Prakash Rao, K.K. Mohapatra, S. Sivakumar and V. Santharam

BIRDS OF THE UPPER NILGIRIS PLATEAU, WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri, Asad R. Rahmani and B. Senthilmurugan

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA: BRANCH IOPODA) OF DEEPOR BEEL, ASSAM

(NORTH-EAST INDIA) - A RAMSAR SITE

B.K. Sharma and Sumita Sharma

NEW DESCRIPTION

A REVIEW OF THE GENUS PARAHORMIUS NIXON WITH DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA

Anjum Z. Ahmad and Z. Ahmed

REVIEWS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A Vv.' \

I '

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel

for: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbiil House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001.

website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]. in

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