JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2009 VOL 106 (2)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

© Bombay Natural History Society 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

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concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 106(2): AUGUST 2009

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

ON THE DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY OF HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS WITH ADDITIONAL

REMARKS ON THE DISTRESS CALL AND CHURR CALL

Dieter Gramentz

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN PARANTIRRHOEA MARSHALL I WOOD-MASON

(SATYRINAE, NYMPHALIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA), AN ENDEMIC BUTTERFLY FROM THE SOUTHERN

WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

S. Kalesh and Satya Krishna Prakash

A NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE) FROM SOUTHERN

WESTERN GHATS, WITH NOTES ON ITS NATURAL HISTORY AND IMMATURE STAGES

S. Kalesh and Satya Krishna Prakash

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA: BRANCH IOPODA) OF LOKTAK LAKE (A RAMSAR SITE),

MANIPUR (N.E. INDIA)

B.K. Sharma and Sumita Sharma

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS, INDIA, WITH 52 NEW RECORDS TO LAKSHADWEEP

AND 40 NEW RECORDS TO INDIA: PART 1

Deepak Apte

BREEDING ECOLOGY AND NEST-SITE SELECTION OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL IOLE INDICA IN WESTERN

GHATS, INDIA

P. Balakrishnan

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS IN VILLAGE AREA OF SAURASHTRA REGION

Varsha Trivedi

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS AND THEIR

CONSERVATION IN THE FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR, INDIA

Arvind Mishra and Jai Nandan Mandal

NEW DESCRIPTION

A NEW SPECIES OF BRACHYMERIA WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDIDAE) ON RICE SKIPPER,

PARNARA GUTTATA (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE) FROM SOUTH KASHMIR

Md. Jamal Ahmad

REVIEW

CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY OF RAJASTHAN (WITH EMPHASIS ON WILD FAUNA AND FLORA)

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Interaction of the Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina

leonina with other primates in some forests of Assam

in North-east India

Anwaruddin Choudhury 202

2. Additional notes on the diet of Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus

in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve as shown by scat analysis

T. Ramesh, K. Sankar and Qamar Qureshi 204

BIRDS

3. Mysterious characters recorded in Black-headed Ibis

Threskiornis melanocephalus during breeding season

Rajesh C. Senma and Chirag A. Acharya 206

4. Sighting of Grey-headed Lapwing Vanettus cinereus

(Blyth) in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India

R. Sreekar and Rudra Ram 207

5. Occurrence and breeding record of the Forest Owlet

Heteroglaux blewitti from Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary,

Maharashtra, India

Rushikesh A. Chavan and Kishor D. Rithe

6. Ultramarine Flycatcher Ficedula superciliaris in Kachchh,

Gujarat

J.K. Tiwari

REPTILES

7. New record of Brachysaura n?/nor(Hardwicke and Gray),

an Agamid Lizard from Orissa, India

Rina Chakraborty and Gouri Das Gupta

8. Observations on unusual foraging behaviour of

Acanthodactytus cantoris Gunther, 1864, in Western

Kachchh, Gujarat, India

Manojkumar Pardeshi, V. Vijay Kumar and Sanjay K. Das

133

135

142

149

156

162

176

184

190

198

201

207

208

209

209

9. First record of Protobothrops jerdonii xanthomelas

(Gunther, 1889) from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, India

Amod Zambre, Chintan Sheth, Shashank Dalvi and

Nirmal Kulkarni 211

AMPHIBIANS

10. Report on mass mortality of Frogs at Son Chiriya Wildlife

Sanctuary, Gwalior, India

Karthikeyan Vasudevan and G. Prudhvi Raj 213

FISH

11. On a record of Badis badis (Hamilton) (Teleostei:

Perciformes: Badidae) from Tamil Nadu, India

J.D. Marcus Knight and K. Rema Devi 215

INSECTS

12. Taxonomic studies on some species of Oxya Serville

(Orthoptera: Acrididae) of Kashmir Himalaya

M. NayyarAzim and Shabir A. Reshi 216

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

13. A preliminary note on the Marine and Estuarine Molluscs

in and around Bahuda Estuary, Orissa, East Coast of India

S.K. Pati, D. Mahapatro and R.C. Panigrahy 222

BOTANY

14. Crotalaria angulata Miller and Taxillus bracteatus (Wall.)

Tieghem - new records to the Flora of Orissa

C. Sudhakar Reddy, Chiranjibi Pattanaik and

A.K. Biswal 224

1 5. Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Roscoe - an addition

to the Flora of Maharashtra State

Nilesh V. Malpure and S.R. Yadav 225

16. Some rare and endangered plant species of Gujarat,

India

P S. Nagar, Sachin Sata and T.D. Pawar 226

Cover Photograph: Chromodoris fidelis

By Deepak Apte

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

for enhanced financial support for the publication of the Journal.

ii

Editorial

Mother Earth or Mother Water

“Whiskey’s for drinking, water’s for fighting over ” — Mark Twain

Though water covers more than 70 per cent of our

blue planet, 97 per cent is salty and non-potable. Of the

remaining three per cent, two percent is locked up in

snow and ice, leaving only one per cent as liquid surface

and ground water for use. We use two-third of this one

per cent to grow our food.

Decades of misuse, overuse, and pollution of water

has left us with a deep water crises. If immediate steps

for water conservation are not taken, climate change

will further aggravate this crises. Our water demands,

and the millions of daily mutinies that we see in our

cities, towns and villages everyday over water, will

keep growing, as human population adds by 83 million

every year. As our country develops, water demands

will grow. Water use rises with wealth and changes in

life-style. For example, an American uses 100 gallons

of water daily, while in dry poor countries, it may be

as low as 5 gallons. Forty-six per cent of individuals

on our planet do get piped water up to their homes. In

some countries, women have to walk up to 8-10 km

every day to fetch water. In many towns and villages

of India, people have to survive on limited ‘tanker-

water’ as they have already polluted or depleted their

water sources.

Human civilization is closely linked to freshwater

ecosystems. Cities, towns, villages, industries, thermal

power plants, chemical plants, agriculture fields are

concentrated alongside water-bodies. Through decades

of neglect, the Ganga, Jamuna, Godavari, Sutlej,

Sabarmati are dying due to untreated sewage, non-

degradable litter, industrial effluents and chemical

pollution. For over thousand years, citizens of Delhi

received potable water from the Jamuna and wells, but

now drinking water for Delhi comes from the Ganga

and Beas rivers 400 km away. Similarly, Hyderabad

and Secundrabad get potable water from the Krishna

116 km away and Manjira river, 60 km away. The

Hussain Sagar built for the twin-cities is now heavily

polluted and its water is unfit for human consumption.

There are many such examples all over India.

A holistic river-basin approach, with conservation

and sustainable-use in mind, should be developed

for all our rivers and waterbodies. But looking at the

result of the Ganga Action Plan, now renamed the

National Ganga River Basin Authority, it appears that

we have a long way to go. During the last two decades,

Rs. 36,000 crores have been spent on cleaning the

Ganga, but the river is as dirty as ever. There is a lack

of coordination between the irrigation, hydropower,

rural development and environment ministries. Most

importantly, there is lack of appreciation of the

ecological and environmental role of our rivers and

natural water-bodies. Unless we change our thinking,

engineering solutions to ecological problems will not

save our water resources.

We have to decide whether we want engineering

solution to our water crises - megadams, long canals

or pipelines, new technology to extract depleting

underground fossil water - or, conservation approaches

which restore depleted reservoirs and aquifers, protect

aquatic ecosystems, stop pollution of rivers, covers

catchment areas in natural vegetative, starts sustainable

rainwater harvest, and result in equitable and fair

distribution of water for all communities, both human

and non-humans (plants and animals). We though require

new technologies in agriculture (e.g. micro-sprinklers

replacing Hood irrigation, developing dryland-tolerant

crops), pollution cleanup and quick treatment of

wastewater, we also have to maintain the minimum

ecological flow in all rivers which is required for the

basic ecological functions of a river. We have to

remember that we cannot achieve 8-10 per cent economic

growth in the coming years which the Government of

India is hoping, without cleaning our river systems.

Rivers, wetlands and swamps make up less than

0.3 per cent of fresh water and less than 0.01 per cent

of all the water on Earth. Yet these waters are home to

as many as 1,26,000 of the world’s animal species.

Almost 43 per cent of the 30,000 known species of

fish live in freshwater lakes and rivers. India has about

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

2,500 fish species, of which 930 species are freshwater

inhabitants. Many species have become extinct or

locally extinct due to pollution, destruction of their

habitat and introduction of invasive species. According

to IUCN, freshwater animals are disappearing at a rate

four to six times faster than animals on land or at sea,

and freshwater fishes are much more threatened with

extinction than the sea fishes.

The Himalayan glaciers, covering millions of square

kilometers, contain the largest volume of ice outside

the polar regions. One third of the human population,

nearly two billion people depend on these glaciers as

they feed on Asia’s famous rivers such as the Ganges,

Brahmaputra, Mekong and Yangtze. Climate change and

heating of our Planet is threatening these glaciers. The

Tibetan plateau as a whole is heating up twice as fast as

the global average of 1.3 F over the past century - and

in some places even faster. As our planet becomes hotter,

the melting of glaciers will increase incrementally as

hot air holds more water molecules than cold. Natural

melting of glaciers during summer and monsoon plays

an important role in maintaining the flow of these rivers

which feeds one-third of India’s population. On a short

term, we may have more water in our rivers, but slowly

when the glaciers disappear, little water will be left to

feed these mighty rivers.

Marq de Villiers in his book water wars has said

that there is enough water for everyone on this planet,

it is distribution and use that are the problem. Whether

we will clean up our watery mess and learn to use it

sustainably, or go to war for the precious remaining

clean water, only time will tell.

Asad R. Rahmani

134

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

135-141

ON THE DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY

OF HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS WITH ADDITIONAL REMARKS

ON THE DISTRESS CALL AND CHURR CALL

Dieter Gramentz1

'FolderichstraBe 7, D- 13595 Berlin, Germany. Email: [email protected]

Various aspects of the bioacoustic behaviour of Hemidactylus frenatus were studied in November 2007 in Aluthgama,

Western Province, Sri Lanka. Markedly increased production of advertisement calls was noted about 30 to 50 min

prior to sunset or about 70 to 90 min prior to complete darkness; and during most nights (n=8), peak calling activity

was observed during dusk from 1750-1830 hrs, between sunset and complete darkness. Advertisement call activity

was found to be much reduced during nights with prolonged rain in comparison to nights without rain, and the difference

was statistically significant (P<0.05). Minimum number of calls within 7 hours recording was 59 on a rainy night and

208 during a dry night. Average number of advertisement calls on rainy nights was 60.5 ( SD=2. 1 2; range: 59-62; n=2),

while average number of calls on dry nights was 144.9 (SD=35.7; range: 110-208; n=8). There was statistically

significant 0-0.63; P<0.05) correlation between the number of advertisement calls and average air temperature. The

distress call is a short, relatively high-pitched squeak and its average length was 0.041 sec (SD=0.03; range:

0.013-0.080 sec; n=5). Average maximum sound intensity was 89.7 dB (SD=10.69; range: 79.5-105.8 dB; n=5).

Maximum sound intensity was reached between 3,967 and 5,443 Hz (x=4,871 Hz; SD=592; n=5). Maximum recorded

frequency was 18,636 Hz, but maximum frequency can be as low as 12.455 Hz with an average of 14,835 Hz. Lowest

call frequencies ranged from 554 to 1,199 Hz (x=904 Hz; SD=287; n=5). The snare-like churr call was structured as a

number of 6 pulses. Pulse lengths varied between 0.006 and 0.007 sec (x=0.0063 sec; SD=0.005; n=6), and time gaps

between pulses were 0.021 to 0.026 sec (x=0.023 sec; SD=0.003; n=5). Churr call length was 0. 160 sec and maximum

sound intensity was 76.4 dB reached at 5,440 Hz. Minimum and maximum frequency was 369 and 15,869 Hz

respectively.

Key words: Hemidactylus frenatus, bioacoustics, advertisement call, distress call, churr call. Sri Lanka

INTRODUCTION

For many decades the presence of a voice in geckos

has been well-known. However, it was not until 1968 and

1969 when the first analysis of advertisement calls in barking

geckos Ptenopus garrulus and P. kochi , respectively, were

carried out by Haacke. Since then advertisement calls have

been the subject of research in a number of gecko genera,

e.g., Ptyodactylus (Frankenberg 1973; Werner et al. 1978),

Hemidactylus (Marcellini 1974, 1977b; Frenkel 2006),

Tarentola (Nettmann and Rykena 1985) and Thecadactylus

(Gramentz 2007b). Another gecko call on which bioacoustical

research is concentrated is the distress call. Distress call was

studied by Frankenberg (1975, 1978), Gramentz and Barts

(2004), Gramentz (2004, 2005b, 2005c) and Barts (2006).

Brown ( 1984/85) even noted an ultrasound component in the

distress call of many gecko species.

Hemidactylus frenatus is a familiar house gecko species

and known to be vocally very active. The advertisement call

of H. frenatus is well-known and they are even called

“ tinktock ” or “ tschicktschack ” (Manthey and Grossmann

1997). The advertisement call of H. garnotii , another well

known call, is called “tjik tjak ” in Malaysia (Steck 1908).

According to Daniel ( 1983), the species is perhaps the noisiest

of Indian geckos. Territorial advertisement calls are supposed

to be the means for spacing themselves out to claim areas for

feeding and breeding.

Despite the well-studied structures of the different calls

of H. frenatus (Marcellini 1974, 1977a) not much is known

on its diurnal rhythmicity. Hediger (1934) briefly mentioned

that H. frenatus not only calls during dusk, but occasionally

also during the day. The species was reported by McCann

(1940) from Sutgutti, India, to be very vociferous in June

and calling frequently at intervals all night. Another mention

of the voice of H. frenatus stems from Poulin et al. (1995),

which reported "growl calls” during aggressive interactions.

While describing the different calls of H. frenatus,

Marcellini (1974) did not name them according to the

behavioural context in which the calls were used, but instead

differentiated them by their sound effect and number of

syllables emitted (e.g. churr call, single chirp call, multiple

chirp call). Marcellini (1974) roughly reported that the distress

call is very short, < 0.05 sec, and that it begins and ends

abruptly. The dominant frequency is approximately 2,000 Hz,

with harmonics at 1,000 Hz interval above the dominant

frequency. He only published audiospectrograms and these

DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY OF HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS

were very much compressed on the time scale and did not

allow a proper call structure analysis. Until now the calls of

H. frenatus were studied only in subpopulations into which

the geckos were introduced by human activities, such as

Mexico (Marcellini 1974) and Costa Rica (Frenkel 2006).

The present study will show aspects of the species’ bioacoustic

behaviour in its native environment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

To evaluate overall advertisement calling activity from

one location, Aluthgama, western Sri Lanka (6°25'48.89 N;

79°59'54.35 E), all advertisement calls of H. frenatus which could

be heard were noted. Recording time was between 1 700 hrs and

2400 hrs. Time of dusk, sunset and total darkness was noted.

Additionally the air temperature was recorded at 30 min

intervals starting at 1700 hrs and ending at 2400 hrs resulting

in 15 measurements per night. The digital thermometer was

installed with a thermocouple at a height of 2 m. Furthermore,

weather and meteorological parameters as clear and overcast sky,

rain and thunderstorms were also noted. Recording dates were

eight consecutive nights from November 08 to November 1 5, 2007

and another two consecutive nights on November 23, and

November 24, 2007. Judged from the various different

directions of which the calls could be heard, they possibly came

from about 10-15 male H. frenatus.

Additionally five distress calls and a churr call were

recorded and analysed. The recording equipment is the same

described by Gramentz (2005a, c). The sound card used was

Creative Soundblaster Audigy 2 ZS Platinum Pro with a

sample rate of 44, 1 00 Hz, 1 6 bit. Various softwares were used

for sound analysis, such as Avisoft-SASLab, Creative

WaveStudio and Raven 1 .2. Air temperatures at which the calls

were recorded ranged from 27.6-30.6 °C (Table 1). Distance

from the geckos to the microphone while recording churr and

distress calls was 5-10 cm.

Terminology was used as in Gramentz (2003, 2008),

however, “churr call” was adopted from Marcellini (1974).

RESULTS

Advertisement Cali

As previously described by Marcellini (1974) a

repertoire of three different call types could be identified in

H. frenatus in Sri Lanka. The production of these calls was

clearly situation dependent. Directly during an aggressive

encounter between two males, a short trill-like call can be

produced. This “churr call” is emitted when one male chases

another in order to drive it away from its territory. Threat and

distress calls are emitted in the emotional state of fear.

Table 1 : Air temperatures at which advertisement calls

of Hemidactylus frenatus were recorded at Aluthgama,

Western Province, Sri Lanka

Besides night time, H. frenatus produces advertisement

calls during the day, but comparatively rarely. Calls of this

type were noted during daylight at morning (e.g., 0838 hrs),

midday (e.g., 1302 hrs), and afternoon (e.g., 1514 hrs) hours.

It showed that calling activity started about 30 to 50

min prior to sunset or about 70 to 90 min prior to complete

darkness. During most nights (n=8) peak calling activity was

noted precisely at 1750-1830 hrs (Fig. lb; f to j) between

sunset and complete darkness or just before sunset (Fig. le),

or at complete darkness (Fig. la). In just two cases, the calling

activity pattern showed a different distribution (Fig. lc, d).

On all days a sharp increase in calling activity could be

observed from about 1700 and 1730 hrs onwards. On two

consecutive nights of November 10 and 11,2007 (Fig. lc, d)

the pattern of calling was different from other nights, but

similar on these two nights. Here peak calling activity was at

about 21 15 hrs and 2130 hrs respectively, i.e., a shift of three

to three and a half hours in comparison to most other nights.

At times a kind of dynamics in the production of calls

can be heard. These may result in short peaks in calling

activity. Example, two males respond to the advertisement

call of one male, followed shortly by other males in hearing

distance. So, occasionally a fairly large number of calls

(e.g., 8 calls in 5 minutes) can be heard in a rather short time

from different directions. After some time when most males

in the vicinity have produced one or two response calls, call

frequency is reduced to a lower rate until this kind of

escalation pattern repeats. The result is a rather wavy

appearance of calling activity during the recording time.

Beside the reaction of replying to an advertisement call

there is another situation when such a call is emitted. A number

of times I observed that one advertisement call is produced

after a male gecko successfully chased away an intruder from

his territory. The victorious gecko immediately returned to

his territory, formed an arch with its body and emitted a call.

Each call is accompanied by a strong exhalation of air from

the lungs that can be easily observed from the side.

136

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

08 NOV 2007

a

9

d

535s;;;;;;jgggS»55S!jsSS!!SES

mmmminmmmm

KS$;s£sjsts;sts:gjs;gjs;gjs

Fig. 1 a-j: Frequency of advertisement calls of Hemidactylus frenatus from Sri Lanka during different nights

Left dotted line marks the time of sunset, right dotted line marks point of complete darkness

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

137

DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY OF HEM IDA CTYL US FRENA TUS

Fig. 2: Variation of the advertisement call activity of Hemidactylus

frenatus from Sri Lanka during rainy and dry nights

Fig. 4: Oscillogram of a distress call of a male Hemidactylus

frenatus from Sri Lanka. Length of the call is 0.083 sec

Advertisement call activity is very much reduced

during nights with prolonged rain in comparison to nights

without rain. Minimum calling activity was 59 calls on

November 08, during the seven hours recording, of which it

was raining for 1 hr 33 min. On November 12, it rained for

1 hr 8 min, and 62 calls were recorded. Maximum number

of calls (208) was recorded on November 11, a dry night.

Average number of advertisement calls during rainy nights

was 60.5 (SD=2.12; range: 59-62; n=2). Average number of

calls during dry nights was 144.9 (SD=35.7; range: 1 10-208;

n=8), and there is a statistically significant difference

(P<0.05; r=3. 1 97, t- test) between the means of advertisement

calls on rainy and dry nights. Overall average was 1 28 calls

between 1700-2400 hrs in 10 nights.

Call activity seems to be influenced by the weather,

since there was increase in calling activity on dry nights with

a sharp drop when these were interrupted by a rainy night

(Fig. 2). Furthermore, call activity was positively related to

air temperature. There was a modest but statistically

significant (/=0.63, P<0.05) correlation between the total

number of advertisement calls and average air temperature

during the night (Fig. 3).

Distress Call

The distress call is a very short high pitched sound

_U5 -|

"ra ' •

0 200 -

1 :

E

0

1 150 - . .

0 •

>

~o •

TO

14- •

° 100 - •

0

E

^ 50 -1 , , , , , , , , , r— > , ,

25.6 25.8 26.0 26.2 26 4 26.6 26.8 27.0 27.2 27,4 27.6 27.8 28.0 28.2 28.4

Air temperature (°C)

Fig. 3: Relationship between advertisement call frequency of

Hemidactylus frenatus and air temperature during 10 nights

Fig. 5: Audiospectrogram of a distress call of a male Hemidactylus

frenatus from Sri Lanka. Length of the call is 0.080 sec.

The harmonics are at the frequencies 3,414 Hz, 5,351 Hz,

7,012 Hz, 8,765 Hz, 1 0,425 Hz, 1 2,086 Hz, 1 3,898 Hz and 1 5,592 Hz

(Figs 4 and 5). The average length of the recorded calls was

0.041 sec (SD=0.03; range: 0.013-0.080 sec; n=5).

Maximum sound intensity varied between 79.5 and

105.8 dB. On an average maximum sound intensity in the

five recorded distress calls was 89.7 dB (SD= 10.69).

Maximum recorded frequency ranged from 12,455-

18,636 Hz, with an average of 14,835 Hz. Lowest call

frequencies varied between 554 and 1,199 Hz having an

average of 904 Hz (SD=287; n=5). The average of maximum

frequency in the five distress calls was 14,835 Hz. Despite

the wide frequency span of about 11-18 kHz in the recorded

distress calls the span at which the maximum sound intensity

is produced covers a rather small range of about 1.5 kHz.

Maximum sound intensity was found to be between 3,967

and 5,443 Hz (Figs 6 and 7). The average frequency at which

maximum sound intensity was noted was 4,87 1 Hz (SD=592;

n=5).

The distress call of H. frenatus shows rather

similar intervals between harmonics. The average interval

between harmonics of the distress call shown in Fig. 5

was 1,740 Hz (SD= 104.2; n=7). The interval between

harmonics ranged from 1,660 Hz to 1,937 Hz. Frequency

of the lowest and at the same time strongest harmonic

was 3,414 Hz. The highest harmonic had a frequency of

15,592 Hz.

138

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY OF HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS

Fig. 6: Three-dimensional logarithmic image of a distress call of

individual-a Hemidactylus frenatus (male)

Fig. 8: Oscillogram of a churr call of a male Hemidactylus frenatus

from Sri Lanka. Length of the call is 0.160 sec

Churr Call

The chuiT call consists of six stronger distinguishable

pulses, which can be identified in the oscillogram and

audiospectrogram (Figs 8 and 9). The length of a pulse varies

between 0.006 and 0.007 sec (x=0.0063 sec; SD=0.005; n=6).

The time gap between these pulses varied between 0.02 1 and

0.026 sec (x=0.023 sec; SD=0.003; n=5).

The single churr call had a length of 0.160 sec.

Maximum sound intensity was found to be 76.4 dB, which

was less than in the weakest distress call. Maximum sound

intensity was however reached at 5,440 Hz within the range

of the recorded distress calls. The lowest calling frequency

was measured in the churr call with just 369 Hz, but maximum

frequency of 15,869 Hz was comparable to the range of the

distress call.

DISCUSSION

Marcellini (1974) recorded advertisement calls

(multiple chirp calls in his terminology) of H. frenatus per

hour in Mexico during five consecutive nights and condensed

the results into one graph. He also noted an increase in calling

activity at his starting point at 1800 hrs. However, he observed

a steady increase in calling activity in the geckos from Mexico

with a peak at about 0330 hrs in the night. The early increase

in calling activity around sunset resembles the findings from

Sri Lanka, but contrary to the geckos from there, there was

Fig. 7: Three-dimensional logarithmic image of a distress call of

individual-b Hemidactylus frenatus (male)

Fig. 9: Audiospectrogram of the same churr call of a male

Hemidactylus frenatus

no marked peak early after this initial calling activity.

Obviously there is a geographical difference in peak calling

activity between the two locations. Also in Ptenopus garrulus

peak calling activity was noted at sunset when darkness

increases (Brain 1962). According to Loveridge (1947),

P. garrulus calls during the short period of twilight. The

phenomenon that H. frenatus may show different peak calling

activities requires further investigation from other

geographically different locations.

I have the impression, although this is not yet confirmed

by direct observation of a certain individual, that a male may

give his first advertisement call just about the same time when

it starts activity for the night. Also, Marcellini ( 1974) reported

that after emergence from their diurnal retreats, geckos

commonly called before moving to their feeding areas. It is

obviously of major importance for the geckos to announce

territoriality prior to the start of nocturnal activity. As in this

study, Manthey and Grossmann (1997) noted that calls of

H. frenatus can also be heard during the whole day, and

Marcellini ( 1974) wrote that few calls occur during daylight

hours. As in this study, also Frenkel (2006) found that call

activity of H. frenatus studied in Punta Morales, Costa Rica,

was positively correlated to air temperature at night.

Advertisement calls which are formed by a large number

of rather identical syllables are known from other Hemidactylus

species: H. angulatus (Gramentz 2005d), H. mabouia

(Gramentz 2003; Regalado 2003), //. platycephalus ( Gramentz

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

139

DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY OF HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS

2005a) and//, turcicus (Marcellini 1977a; Frankenberg 1982).

Furthermore, this rather stereotyped territorial call is known

from other genera as Phyllodactylus (Marcellini 1977b),

Ptenopus (Haacke 1968, 1 969; Gramentz 2008 ), Ptyodactylus

(Frankenberg 1973, 1974), Tarentola (Nettmann and Rykena

1985) and Thecadactylus (Gramentz 2007b). Multiple chirp

calls can, however, also have a submissive function as in

Cosymbotus platyunis (Gramentz 2007a).

From H. angulatus and H. platycephalus another call

consisting of a large number of syllables is known (Gramentz

2005a, d). This contact call has a rather weak sound intensity

and is displayed by the male in close male - female interaction.

It would be very interesting to know whether this type of call

is also a part of the repertoire of H. frenatus.

Marcellini (1974) wrote that the distress call (his single

chirp call) is less than 0.05 sec long. In the present study, it

showed that this type of call is indeed very short in duration.

In fact, the shortest calls were just 0.013 and 0.016 sec

long, however, two distress calls had lengths of 0.060 and

0.080 sec. He also noted that some calls can only be heard

from a few metres away while others are clearly audible from

10 m. This is reflected in the very different sound intensities

of 79.5 to 105.8 dB. Like him, I cannot explain the reason for

these variations in sound intensity in the distress call. Distress

calls are already known from other gecko species to vary in

length. In Stenodactylus stenurus , three different distress calls

were noted varying mainly in length, but also in sound

intensity (Gramentz 2004).

Possibly due to the equipment used by Marcellini

(1974) he got the impression of distress calls abruptly

beginning and ending. However, as shown in Fig. 3 the

intensity increases to a maximum after 0.22 sec. The call ends

in a kind of tail in which even single pulses can be identified.

In comparison, a distress call actually having an abrupt

beginning and ending is for example produced by

Haemodracon riebeckii (Gramentz 2005b). There are also

some differences in the overall frequencies and intervals in

the distress calls recorded at Sri Lanka and the data reported

by Marcellini (1974) from Mexico. He mentioned as the

dominant frequency 2,000 Hz with harmonics at 1 ,000 Hz

intervals. In Sri Lanka, this frequency was higher (3,414 Hz)

and the interval between harmonics averaged 1 ,740 Hz.

According to Marcellini (1974) the churr call is an

infrequently heard vocalization and he recorded twice of

which both were less than 0.2 sec long. I also recorded this

kind of short call duration, having a length of 0.16 sec. He

further observed that the churr call was audible from a distance

of 35 m. As this type of call was the weakest recorded at

Sri Lanka, it is likely that, similarly as in the distress call, a

high variation of sound intensity exists. The growl calls

reported by Poulin et al. (1995) are most probably identical

to the churr calls first described by Marcellini (1974).

Only males were found to emit churr and distress calls

at Sri Lanka. Marcellini (1974) reported that only males

emitted churr calls and this is consistent with the findings of

H. frenatus at Sri Lanka.

Marcellini’s (1974) sound analysis equipment seems

to be restricted in detecting frequencies above 8,500 Hz as

his graphs of audiospectrograms showed maximum values

of 6 or 8 kHz on the y-axis. Therefore, the impression appears

that the call frequencies reach their full capacity within this

range. This is, however, not the case. Both the churr and

distress call reach frequencies above 15 and 18 kHz

respectively (Figs 5, 6, 7 and 9).

REFERENCES

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Sauria 28(1): 54.

Brain, C.K. (1962): A review of the gecko genus Ptenopus with the

description of a new species. Cimbebasia 1: 1-18.

Brown, A.M. (1984/85): Ultrasound in gecko distress calls (Reptilia:

Gekkonidae). Israel J. Zool. 33: 95-101.

Daniel. J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural

History Society and Oxford University Press, Mumbai. Pp. 37.

Frankenberg, E. (1973): Vocalizations of the fan-toed gecko,

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Frankenberg, E. (1974): Vocalizations of males of three geographical

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Frankenberg, E. (1975): Distress calls of gekkonid lizards from Israel

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Frankenberg, E. (1978): Calls of male and female tree geckos,

Cyrtodactylus kotschyi. Israel J. Zool. 27: 53-56.

Frankenberg, E. (1982): Vocal behaviour of the Mediterranean house

gecko Hemidactylus turcicus. Copeia 1982: 770-775.

Frenkel, C. (2006): Hemidactylus frenatus (Squamata: Gekkonidae):

call frequency, movement and condition of tail in Costa Rica.

Revista de biologia tropical 54(4): 1 125-1 130.

Gramentz. D. (2003): Zur Stimme und Rufperiodik von Hemidactylus

mabouia (Moreau de Jonnes, 1818). Sauria 25(2): 23-28.

Gramentz, D. (2004): Der Schreckruf von Stenodactylus petrii

Anderson, 1896 . Sauria 26(4): 13-16.

Gramentz, D. (2005a): Zur intraspezifischen bioakustischen

Kommumkation von Hemidactylus platycephalus Peters, 1854

(Reptilia: Sauria: Gekkonidae). Gekkota 5: 155-154.

Gramentz, D. (2005b): Der Schreckruf von Haemodracon riebeckii

Peters, 1882 (Reptilia: Sauria: Gekkonidae). Gekkota 5:

170-178.

Gramentz, D. (2005c): Zum Defensivverhalten und Schrecklaut von

Geckonia chazaliae Mocquard, 1895. Sauria 27(3): 23-27 .

Gramentz, D. (2005d): Zur intraspezifischen bioakustischen

Kommunikation von Hemidactylus brookii angulatus Hallowed,

1852. Sauria 27(4): 41-46.

Gramentz, D. (2007a): Zur akustischen und visuellen Kommunikation von

Cosymbotus platyunis (Schneider, 1792). Sauria 29(2): 13-20.

Gramentz, D. (2007b): Zum bioakustischen Verhalten mannlicher

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Thecadactylus rapicauda Houttuyn, 1782. Sauria 29(3): 13-18.

Gramentz, D. (2008): Zum bioakustischen Verhalten von Ptenopus carpi

Brain, 1962. Sauria 30(1): 43-46.

Gramentz, D. & M. Barts (2004): Der Schrecklaut von Pachydactylus

rugosus A. Smith, 1849. Sauria 26(1): 23-26.

Haacke, W. ( 1 968 ) : A Taxonomic and Ecological Study of the Burrowing

Geckos of Southern Africa. Degree Master of Science, Llniversity

of Pretoria.

Haacke, W. (1969): The call of the barking geckos (Gekkonidae:

Reptilia). Sci. Pap. Namib Desert Res. Stn. 46: 83-93.

Hediger, H. (1934): Beitrag zur Herpetologie und Zoogeographie Neu

Britanniens. Zool. Jb. Syst. 65(5/6): 441-582.

Loveridge, A. (1947): Revision of the African lizards of the family

Gekkonidae. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 98: 1-469.

Manthey, U. & W. Grossmann (1997): Amphibien & Reptilien

Siidostasiens. Natur und Tier - Verlag. Munster. Pp. 235-237.

Marcellini, D. (1974): Acoustic behaviour of the gekkonid lizard,

Hemiclactylus frenatus. Herpetologica 30(1): 44-52.

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lizard Hemidactylus frenatus (Sauria: Gekkonidae). Anim. Behav.

25: 414-417.

Marcellini, D. (1977b): Acoustic and visual display behaviour in

gekkonid lizards. Amer. Zool. 17: 251-260.

McCann, C. (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany. Part I.

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Nettmann, H.K. & S. Rykena (1985): Verhaltens- und

fortpfianzungsbiologische Notizen iiber kanarische und

nordafrikanische Tarentola- Arten. Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 36(3/4 ):

287-305.

Poulin, B., G. Lefebvre & A.S. Rand (1995): Hemidactylus frenatus

(House Gecko). Foraging. Her. Rev. 26(4): 205.

Regalado, R. (2003): Roles of visual, acoustic, and chemical signals in

social interactions of the tropical house gecko (Hemidactylus

mabouia). Caribbean J. Sci. 39(3): 307-320.

Steck, L. (1908): Der Stimmapparat des Hemidactylus garnotti Dum.

et Bibr. Zool. Jahrb. 25: 611-636.

Werner, Y.L., E. Frankenberg & O. Adar (1978): Further observations

on the distinctive vocal repertoire of Ptyodactylus hasselquistii

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176-188.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

142-148

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN PARANTIRRHOEA MARSH ALU

WOOD-MASON (SATYRINAE, NYMPH ALIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA),

AN ENDEMIC BUTTERFLY FROM THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

S. Kalesh1 and Satya Krishna Prakash2

'BN 439, Greeshmam, Bapuji Nagar, Medical College P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 Oil, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

:3-A, Heera Haven, Ulloor Medical College P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 Oil, Kerala, India. Email: satyaketavarapu@ yahoo. co. in

Descriptions of hitherto unknown early stages of the Travancore Evening Brown Parantirrhoea marshalli Wood-

Mason, a rare and endemic butterfly from the southern Western Ghats are presented. Ochlandra travancorica Benth.,

Family Poaceae, a gregarious reed seen near water in deciduous and mixed forests, is reported as its larval host plant

for the first time. Even though the caterpillars of this species were found to be common in suitable habitats, the adults

were rarely sighted in its range.

Key words: early stages, endemic species, Travancore Evening Brown, Parantirrhoea marshalli , Satyrinae,

Nymphalidae, Lepidoptera, Western Ghats

INTRODUCTION

Travancore Evening Brown Parantirrhoea marshalli

was first described in 1 880 by J. Wood-Mason in The Journal

of Asiatic Society , Bengal. Marshall and de Niceville (1883)

stated, “R marshalli has yet only been found in Travancore,

where it was discovered by Mr. H.S. Ferguson on the

Ashamboo hills in May.” More than 100 years have passed

with only a handful of sightings of this elusive butterfly.

Parantirrhoea marshalli is endemic to the southern

Western Ghats of peninsular India and is known to occur from

Coorg to the Ashambu hills. This species could be described

as an entomologic curiosity because it’s nearest related genus

Antirrlioea is found flying only in the South American jungles.

Both these genera are remarkable for the peculiar arrangement

of hindermost veins of the anterior wings. Here, the first

median veinlet runs back to the inner angle and the submedian

vein ends a considerable distance short of that angle.

The species had not been reported since its last sighting

by Fraser in 1930 till Elamon (1993) rediscovered a

population of P marshalli in the environs of the Periyar Tiger

Reserve in Kerala. Recently, Kunhikrishnan (2002) reported

sightings of this butterfly in the southern region of the Western

Ghats. Although both sexes of this butterfly have been

photographed, not much information is available on the early

stages of this butterfly.

A number of authors have written about the perfect form

of this species; but the only mention of its suspected host

plants and early stages are in Fraser (1930), Yates (1931),

and Wynter-Blyth (1957), Gaonkar (1996). Fraser (1930)

mentioned that the larva of P. marshalli feeds on ‘cane’ . Yates

(1930) enquired, through the Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society , if what Fraser (1930) meant by ‘cane’ was

Ochlandra rheedii Benth. & Hook.f. ex Gamble, and asked

him to describe the larva if he had found it.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) quoted Yates in his work

butterflies of the Indian region and suspected that the food

plant was Ochlandra rheedii (Syn: Ochlandra scriptoria

Dennst.), as it was always in its clumps that Yates had found

it. Gaonkar (1996) stated that the bamboo Ochlandra

scriptoria Dennst. could be a probable larval host plant for

P. marshalli and the species was invariably found wherever

this plant was available.

METHODOLOGY

This study was conducted in the Kallar-Ponmudi valley

(8° 60'-8° 19' N; 11° 07'-77° 20' E); a northerly extension of

the Ashambu hills of southern Western Ghats in Trivandrum

district of Kerala state in southern India (Fig. 1 ).

The climate of the area is best described as tropical

monsoon type. The mean annual rainfall, from the South-

west Monsoon (May to July) and North-east Monsoon

(October to November), is around 3,000 mm. The dry months

of the year are from January to May. The maximum summer

temperature is 35 °C and minimum winter temperature is

16 °C.

The larvae collected from field were reared under

laboratory conditions from January to August 2006. 1 8 larvae

were reared to final instar larvae (Table 1). Caterpillars

collected were reared in suitably-sized plastic containers, for

example, a 3 cm long caterpillar was reared in a container

9 cm x 6 cm x 6 cm in size. Holes of 1 mm x 1 mm per sq. cm

were provided for sufficient aeration and maintaining

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN

TRIVAND1

KANYAKUMAR1

08:00 N —

OOE

0:00 N—

D9:00N —

76:00E

78:00 E

77:00 E

vEY

—

>12 00m ^

300-1200m

5 00 -8 00m

3Q0-500m

0-3 00m

sealevel

TAMIL

NADU

m

Fig. 1 : Map of the study location: Kallar-Ponmudi region in Southern Western Ghats of southern India

appropriate humidity. The container was cleaned and fresh

leaves were added every day. Biometric data was obtained

with Vernier callipers.

For description of larvae, we have followed Bell (1909).

We have described the stage before the first moult as newly

hatched larva. The area between the sub-dorsal and dorso-

lateral aspects of the larvae are described here as paradorsal

Table 1 : Details of the larvae found and reared of Parantirrhoea

marshalli Wood-Mason 1880 (January to July 2006, N=1 8)

region. The larvae were exacting in their needs and were

difficult to rear in laboratory conditions. The adults were

photographed and released into their natural habitats.

RESULTS

Parantirrhoea marshalli larvae were collected from a

homestead near a large reed-break in Kallar valley in January

2006, at an altitude of less than 300 m above msl. Ferguson

(1891) mentioned P. marshalli in his list of Travancore

butterflies, and wrote that he had taken the adults from Etah

jungle - Bheesha travancorica Bedd. (Syn: Ochlandra

travancorica Benth.) in July. We collected the caterpillars

from an Etah jungle-like habitat.

Egg: Structure unknown. Eggs were laid on the

underside of the leaves almost towards the midrib, in batches

of 2-4. The larvae were almost always found in small batches.

On four occasions the remnants of eggshells were observed

on the underside of the leaves.

Newly hatched larva: Head capsule is shiny black and

shaped like in Melanitis , but slightly higher and without horns

or other ornaments. Head capsule bears small, blackish hairs.

Body is spindle-shaped and ends in a bifid tail.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

143

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN

The body is fluorescent yellowish-green with a tinge

of yellow, especially on the dorsum. Lateral part of the body

is bright leaf green. The tail is black and held at an acute

angle with the substratum. The larvae on the same leaf lay

huddled parallel to the midrib of the leaf. They usually fed a

little away from where they lay. The general pattern of eating

was peculiar. The larva lays a silk track that it follows to feed

and returns to its original resting place near the midrib. The

leaves are cut straight from the margin to the midrib - the

primary cut, and then eaten from the side the cut was made.

This pattern of foraging continued to the last instar. It was

easy to locate the larvae because of their characteristic eating

pattern (Fig. 2a).

First instar larva: The first instar larva is similar in

structure and habits to the newly hatched larva, but differs

slightly in coloration. The head and hair on it are black, except

perhaps on the vertex, where there is a clear space roughly

rhomboidal in shape; this bare area is greyish. The body

appears more brightly coloured, and the last abdominal

segment is black. The tail processes are curved upwards and

always found diverging from each other (Fig. 2b). The eating

patterns are similar to the newly hatched larva, and they retain

the gregarious resting habits of the earlier instar.

Second instar larva: This instar is similar to the first

instar larva in colour and structure, except for the head, which

is greenish-yellow with vertical stripes like in the later instars.

The pair of fluorescent yellow paradorsal stripes seen in later

instars is a single fused dorsal stripe in this instar. The sides

of the body are pale grass green. The tail is dark brownish on

the dorsal and lateral aspects. For biometric data see Table 2.

Third instar larva: This instar is similar to the second

instar and differs only in coloration. The sides are pale violet

with a shade of ash unlike the second instar. A dark green

line borders the lateral limits of the single dorsal fluorescent

line. Tail is coloured like in the previous instar, but for its

black tip. Head capsule squarish, taller than broad (Fig. 2d).

The larva settles under the leaf near the midrib for moulting.

The duration of moulting is about 20-24 hours.

Fourth instar larva: This instar is similar in coloration

to the previous instars. The single dorsal line is fluorescent

yellow green (Fig. 2e). The paradorsal area is bright green

and extends to the lateral aspect of the body, which is

characterized by a thin pale greenish-white line bordered by

a thin dark green shadow. The rest of the lateral surface is

white with a pale violet tinge. The head is shaped like the

final instar caterpillar.

Final instar larva: The head is triangular and vertex

moderately grooved. The head is reticulo-rugose on

magnification with short, down curved, long translucent

green hair. The neck region and adjoining segments are

Table 2: Biometric data and duration of early stages of Parantirrhoea marshalli Wood-Mason 1880

from larvae reared in laboratory conditions (January to July 2006)

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN

Fig. 2 (a-f): Travancore Evening Brown Parantirrhoea marshalli:

a. Characteristic eating pattern of the larva on Ochlandra travancorica\ b. First instar larva; c. Second instar larva;

d. Third instar larva; e. Fourth instar larva; f. Head capsule of the final instar larva

slightly narrow. The body is widest in the middle thirds. On

cross-section the body was arched dorsally and the ventrum

flat. On lateral view the body was tallest at about the middle

then gradually tapered towards the tail. The spindle-shaped

body is transversely divided by small annuli. Each segment

had five annuli. In each segment proceeding from the head

to tail: first the largest annuli, the second an incomplete

annulus, and the rest complete annuli. Each annulus ends in

a small depression on the last lateral greenish yellow

longitudinal line. This is followed by another similar

depression in line with the one above. The body has extremely

small hairs that are visible only when held against light.

The body ends with a tail process. The base of the tail process

is wide but tapers rapidly towards its tip. The two tail

processes fuse into one in the final instar. However,

occasionally the tip of the tail process is bifid. Though finely

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

145

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN

Fig. 3 (a-f): Travancore Evening Brown Parantirrhoea marshalli:

a. Final instar larva; b. Pupa; c. Male underside; d. Female underside; e. Male upper side; f. Female upper side

curved, it is held almost parallel to the substratum, except

when it is lifted to push out the excrements. The tail process

has moderately long hairs on it. The longest hair are on the

head followed by tail and then the body. Spiracles are vertically

oval and more or less flush with the surface. The male larvae

were observed to be shorter and thinner than the female.

The ground colour of the larva is bright green. The

larvae have superficial resemblance to the genus Melonitis

and Elymnias. The head is waxy pale greenish yellow with a

brownish tinge. It has a bright yellow line that starts from the

apex of the clypeus and passes through the vertex into the

occiput. The eyes are almost black (Fig. 2f). The body has a

pair of fluorescent yellowish green dorsal stripes that start

just behind the occiput on the neck and run to the tail plate.

In some larvae these lines are almost fused to form a single

stripe from the head to tail process. Thus, the dorsal line

usually starts from just above the mouth process, runs through

the middle of the clypeus to reach its apex and then passes

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN

through the dorsal groove to reach the occipital aspect of head,

to continue over rest of the body. Most larvae had an orange

line running through the middle of the single dorsal florescent

line. There were twelve saffron red spots on this orangish

line - a single one at the end of each segment. The last two

spots were very pale and obscure (Fig. 3a). Some larvae lacked

these spots and the orange line, instead the paradorsal lines

were obviously separated by a dorsal-line of green.

There are three faint greenish yellow longitudinal

stripes on each side, aligned parallel to the dorsal ones,

running from a couple of segments just behind the neck

towards the tail. These almost converge and become obscure

on reaching the penultimate segment near the tail. A thick

lemon yellow to whitish raised line separated the ventrum

and lateral aspects. The ventrum was white laterally and

translucent in the middle, revealing the ashy or gray inner

contents. The tail process is orangish to brownish, except for

the proximal area which is greenish, but the tips were

invariably black like in previous instars. Tails of caterpillars

with a dorsal red line are pale pinkish in the latter half. The

larva is bright green and yellow. The sides of the body are

ground coloured and infra-spiracular lines are brownish green.

The larva rests on the underside of the reed leaf parallel to

the midrib, almost always in company of the other larvae.

The yellow dorsal line with green sides helps the larvae to

camouflage with the yellow of the midrib of the reed leaf.

Feeding usually takes place at night. The larvae were also

observed to move to distant host plants for feeding.

Pupation: The larva settled under the leaf in open to

pupate. Its colour changed to a translucent green then to a

dirty waxy yellowish brown and finally to bright translucent

pinkish red. The larva hung itself upside down under the leaf

with its anal pro-legs. This posture was continued for about

18-20 hours; and it moved only on extreme disturbance.

Pupation was completed in about 24 hours.

General shape resembled that of the Common Evening

Brown Melanitis leda pupa, but it was smaller, compact and

more angular (Fig. 3b). The ground colour of the pupa is pale

waxy brownish white to rosy brown with dark brown or ash

mottling, especially on the wing cases. Dorsally there is an

ochreous shade, especially on the rump region in some larvae.

Underside is more whitish and glazed. There is a dorsal dark

stripe composed of irregular and discontinuous spots or

patches, and irregular patterns. The paradorsal region also

bears a similar stripe, which is lighter in coloration and is a

bit more obscure in the rear thirds. The spiracular stripe is

composed of closely disposed vertically oval spiracles whose

circumferences were well marked by brown borders. In some

spiracles this brown border is deficient in the inferior aspect.

All these longitudinal stripes pass backwards, and become

obscure and disappear in the following sequence, first the

paradorsal, followed by the spiracular and dorsal stripe that

continu over to the dorsum of the tail process for some

distance. The wing cases are marked by irregular patterns

mostly ashy brown that appear running parallel to the

venation. There are some ill-defined spots on these lines from

which ramifications of brownish shade extend into the

surrounding area between the veins. The top of the head is

also marked, by irregular triangular design of a darker shade

of brown. Undersides, except the wing cases, are paler and

almost creamy white. There is a pair of dark spots midway

between the eye rudiments and the ends of wing cases. There

are three interrupted lines composed of dark brownish spots

on the ventrum, two lines in lateral disposition, and last in

the exact midline extending towards the tail. The male pupa

is sometimes less heavily marked than the female pupa.

Duration of pupal stage was about 10-14 days and the

adults (Fig. 3c-f) emerged in the late morning hours and

occasionally at noon.

Parasitism and predators: None of the larvae we came

across were infested with parasitoid wasps. Larval infections

were also not encountered in the field. There have been instances

where a recently eaten leaf with all evidences of the larval

presence was vacant and the only thing we saw on it was a snail.

CONCLUSION

Information on the early stages of many endemic

butterflies of the Western Ghats are still unknown. Some of

the recent discoveries are of the larval stages of Golden Flitter

Quedara basiflava (de Niceville 1888) by Kunte (2008) and

the Sitala Ace Thoressa sitala (de Niceville 1885) by Kalesh

and Prakash (under prep.). Observations made in this study

have thrown light on the hitherto unknown early stages of

the Travancore Evening Brown Parantirrhoea marshalli

Wood-Mason and have confirmed its larval host plant for the

first time. It may be recalled here that. Evans (1932) has

described the status of P. marshalli as rare. In this study it

was found that the caterpillars were common during January

to July, although the adult butterfly is rarely seen. They are

usually seen during cloudy evenings flying amid reed clumps.

It was during overcast evenings that adults were seen flying

inside reed clumps. At Kallar we could observe only one or

two adults after traversing about 5 km. Kunhikrishnan (pers.

comm.) reported observing more than 20 adults in a walk of

less than 4 km through a considerably large reed plot at

Edamalayar-Pooyenkutty valley, along the south-west flanks

of the Anamalais in July 2003. We observed that this species

is common wherever its larval host plants are available. Adults

have been reported to be rare due to their peculiar habits or it

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

147

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN

could even be due to considerable larval or pupal mortality

under natural conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Krushnamegh Kunte and

E. Kunhikrishnan for their comments on the drafts, and

Prof. Ravi M. (Retired Professor of Botany, S.N. College,

Kollam) for identifying the plant. We are grateful to Rohit

who was a constant companion in our search for larvae. We

express special thanks to Suresh Elamon, who provided us

with most of the older references on the species. We thank

Mrs. J. Jaya Ashok for editing our manuscript. We are also

thankful to Varun, Suraj P. Haridas, N.R.K. Anish, Jyothy

Vijayan, S. Greeshma, and our parents for their

encouragement.

REFERENCES

Bell, T.R. (1909): The common butterflies of the plains of India

(including those met with in the hill stations of the Bombay

Presidency). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 16-58.

Elamon, S. (1993): Butterflies of Periyar Tiger Reserve. Project Report

submitted to Kerala Forest Department. 50 pp.

Evans, W.H. (1932): Identifications of Indian Butterflies. 2"“ edition,

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, x + 454 pp., 32 pi.

Ferguson, H.S. ( 1891 ): A list of the Butterflies of Travancore. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 432-448.

Fraser, F.C. (1930): A note on some Malabar Lepidoptera. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 260-261.

Gaonkar, H. (1996): Butterflies of the Western Ghats, India including

Sri Lanka, A Biodiversity Assessment of a Threatened Mountain

System. Report to the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore. 51 pp.

Kalesh, S. & S.K. Prakash (2007): Additions to larval host plants of

butterflies of the Western Ghats, Kerala, southern India

(Rhopalocera, Lepidoptera): Part 1. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

104(2): 235-237.

Kunhikrishnan, E. (2002): Diversity of Butterflies in the Neyyar and

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala. A report submitted to Kerala

Forest Department. 37 pp.

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press

(Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore).

254 pp.

Kunte, K. (2006): Additions to known larval host plants of Indian

butterflies. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 119-122.

Kunte, K. (2008): Natural history and early stages of the Golden Flitter

Quedara basiflava (Hesperiidae, Lepidoptera) from the Western

Ghats, southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105(1):

104-108.

Marshall, G.F.L. & L. De Niceville (1883): The Butterflies of India,

Burmah and Ceylon. Vol 1: 261-262. The Calcutta Central Press

Co., Calcutta.

Seethalakshmi, K.K. & M.S. Muktesh Kumar (1998): Bamboos of

India, a compendium. Kerala Forest Research Institute and

Network for Bamboo and Rattans. 342 pp.

Wood-Mason, J. (1880): Description of Parantirrhoea marshalli, the

Type of new Genus and Species of Rhophalocerous: Lepidoptera

from South India. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 49(4): 248-250.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai, xx + 523 pp., 72 pi.

Yates, J. A. (1931): The Butterflies of Coorg. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

34: 1003-1014.

148

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

149-155

A NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER (FEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE)

FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, WITH NOTES ON ITS NATURAL HISTORY

AND IMMATURE STAGES

S. Kalesh1 and Satya Krishna Prakash2

'BN 439. Greeshmam. Bapuji Nagar, Medical College P.O.. Thiruvananthapuram 695 Oil. Kerala. India.

Email: [email protected]

23-A, Heera Haven, Ulloor Medical College P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 Oil, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

The Plain Palm Dart Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1874, which is presently known to occur in India from Bengal to

Sikkim, Assam and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, is now recorded for the first time from Thiruvananthapuram in

Kerala, peninsular India. This is a significant range extension for this species. A detailed description of the early

stages and a note on the natural history of the C. acalle is presented. Cocos nucifera L. Coconut tree is the host plant

for the species in the study area, which enables the species to establish substantial populations. Our observations

show that the species is not rare in this region and it was earlier either mistaken for Telicota ancilla bambusae Moore

or Telicota colon colon Fabricius which it resembles, or the species might have eluded early naturalists because of its

canopy dependent mode of life. Intensive field surveys in the southern Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats will help

to delineate its exact distributional range and status in peninsular India.

Key words: larval ecology, distributional ranges, range extension. Plain Palmdart, Cephrenes acalle, Hesperiidae,

Lepidoptera, Western Ghats, Kerala, India

INTRODUCTION

The genus Cephrenes is primarily concentrated in the

Southeast Asia-Papuan region and Australia with only one

species Cephrenes acalle Hopffer penetrating into the Indian

region. Bell (1910) and Evans (1932) referred to the Indian

taxon as Cephrenes palmarum, which is, according to Evans

(1949), a synonym of Cephrenes chrysozona oceanica

(Mabille 1904). However, its currently valid taxonomic

placement following Corbet etal. (1992) is Cephrenes acalle

Hopffer 1874, and the Indian subspecies is thus Cephrenes

acalle oceanica (Mabille 1904).

The known distributional range of Cephrenes acalle is

from West Bengal eastward to Myanmar and parts of Indo-

China, and in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Bell 1910;

Evans 1932). The present report from Thiruvananthapuram,

Kerala, India, is a range extension for this species by at least

2,500 km. With this addition the currently known Western

Ghats butterfly fauna of 333 species (Kunte 2007) now

includes 334 species.

Natural history and field notes on the species

We could not find any published descriptions of the

natural history of this species or its early stages. Swinhoe

(1913) states that larvae of Cephrenes had been reared in

Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1900, but Bell (1910) mentioned

that the pictures of the larvae Swinhoe mentioned were never

found. Thus, our report is probably the first detailed description

of the early stages of Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1 874.

Our first sighting of the Plain Palmdart was in

December 2006 in the suburbs of Thiruvananthapuram city;

a female butterfly was spotted resting on a coconut frond.

We photographed the species and confirmed its identity later.

Subsequently, four males and four females were seen in the

same yard again in December 2006, and in January 2007.

Besides collecting samples we observed eight males and four

females over a period of two weeks. The fact that all the

observed individuals had eclosed recently prompted us to

search for caterpillars of the species. Caterpillars were first

collected from Thiruvananthapuram in December 2006; some

parasitized caterpi liars were observed on a coconut tree at

Coyalmannam at Palakkad district a few hundred kilometres

north of Thiruvananthapuram. Intensive searches at

Thiruvananthapuram resulted in the discovery of four

caterpillars on a coconut tree 7 m high, from which two male

and two female butterflies emerged.

Males of Cephrenes look like males of Telicota , but

the former lacks the characteristic stigma (sex brand) present

on the forewings of the latter. Females have narrower, much

reduced markings on the upperside and the underside is a

dull pinkish-brown rather than orange. Larvae of Telicota feed

on bamboos and grasses, while Cephrenes feeds on palms,

including Coconut Palm (Robinson etal. 2001). The unusual

record by Maxwell-Leffroy and Howlett of Cephrenes acalle

oceanica feeding on tamarind Tamarindus indica (Robinson

et al. 2001) is probably an error.

Our observations indicate that both the sexes are fond

of basking in the sun during mornings, and both visit Coconut

Palm flowers exclusively, which were in bloom at the time.

As the day advanced, females retired to the undersides or

NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

shaded areas of the coconut fronds, whereas males stayed at

vantage points from which they chased other butterflies of

their size. Both the sexes were wary but returned back to

their former resting places even when disturbed. Flight was

extremely powerful and fast, and the species was always found

flying high in the canopy. Representative specimens of both

the sexes are available in our collection.

METHODOLOGY

The adult butterflies were observed from a fixed point

for four hours each in the morning and evening, from 0600

hrs to 1000 hrs, and 1400 hrs to 1800 hrs (Table I ). Adults

within a radius of 1 5 m from this point were included in the

analysis; this area included the canopy of eight coconut trees.

The larvae were collected from field and reared under

laboratory conditions from January to August 2006. A total

of four larvae were reared from first to final instar (Table 1 );

detailed notes on the larvae, pupae and adult butterflies which

emerged were recorded.

The preferred larval host plant was Cocos nucifera

Coconut palm. It is probable that they feed on other palms

too.

Caterpillars collected were reared in plastic containers

suitable for their size, for example, a 3 cm long caterpillar

was kept in a container 9 cm x 6 cm x 6 cm. Holes of 1mm x

1mm per sq. cm were provided for sufficient aeration and

maintaining appropriate humidity. The container was cleaned

and fresh leaves were added every day. Measurements were

made using Vernier callipers. Morphological descriptions of

the larvae follow Bell (1910).

The stage before the first moult has been called newly

hatched larva. The area between the sub-dorsal and dorso-

lateral aspects of the larvae is described here as the paradorsal

region. The adult butterflies reared were released into their

natural habitats after photographing them.

Egg

The structure of the egg is not known. It is laid on the

under side of the Coconut tree leaflets towards the middle or

at the tips as observed on many occasions from remnants of

egg shells near the larval cells.

Newly hatched larva

The head capsule is shaped similar to Telicota and is

shiny black. This stage is characterized by the presence of a

chitinous black neck collar on the dorsal half of the neck region.

The neck is narrow and the body is widest in the middle,

thereafter, it gradually tapers towards the anal end. The body

lacks hairs on viewing with naked eyes. The semi-transparent

anal plate has a series of long, up-curved and occasionally down

curved whitish hairs at its tip. The colour of the body is light

honey yellow with a waxy appearance (Fig. la).

As soon as the larva emerges from the egg it makes a

cell at the tip of the coconut leaflet by joining together the

leaf margins with silk strands. This cell is different from other

palm feeding Hesperiids like Suastus, but resembles that of

Caltoris. In cases when the egg is laid at the tip of the leaf the

larva makes a large cell by joining two overlapping leaflets

with silk. The unusually strong silk strands are placed almost

equidistant from each other. They feed a little away from the

cell, proximally to it on one side of the margin. The eating

pattern is characteristic; the larvae start at the leaf margin

working almost perpendicular to the long axis reaching the

central vein, thereafter, they eat the soft part between the

central vein and outer margin leaving the relatively thick

margin untouched (Fig. lb). The approximate duration of

moulting phase to the next instar was about 18 to 24 hours.

For larval measurements refer Table 2.

First Instar

The head is roughly triangular in shape with the vertex

moderately grooved. Body is long, tubular and hairless except

Table 1 : Adult butterfly sightings and breeding data of Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1874 (December 2006 to November 2007)

Month and year Adult sightings Larvae observed Remarks

N=29 (19 Males, 10 females) N=8 (2 males, 5 females,

one undetermined)

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Fig. 1 : Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1874 (a-d): a. Newly hatched larva; b. Newly hatched larva cell; c: First instar larva;

d. Second instar larva

Fig. 2: Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1874(a-c): a. Third instar larva; b. Fourth instar larva; c. Final instar; d. Larval head

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

151

NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

at the tip of the anal plate, which is conspicuous. Head capsule

dark brown, body dull sap green (Fig. lc), skin light honey

yellow. The segment just before the anal plate appears greyish

because of the internal contents, which are visible through the

translucent body. Hairs on the anal plate are translucent.

The cell construction and general behavioural patterns

are similar in all the instars. When disturbed they bang the

anterior thirds of the body and head on the walls of the cell

The floor of the cell is coated with thick silk. The eating is

usually confined to one margin of the distal aspect of the

leaflet progressing proximally towards the cell. They

sometimes make cells with two leaflets; in which case they

usually eat the upper leaflet sparing the lower one, i.e., feeding

on the leaflet that forms the floor of the larval cell.

Second Instar

This larva is similar to the first instar larva in colour

and structure (Fig. Id). The duration of larval stages and

measurements are given in Table 2.

Third Instar

Head capsule is almost round with a coarse texture on

magnification. Vertex is shallow. Neck is narrow. Body is long

and cylindrical. Tail plate is semi-circular with a series of long

whitish hair on it, especially at the tip. Ground colour of head

is pale pinkish-white with a reddish tint. Eyes black. A lateral

facial band starts appearing at this stage. It starts as a brownish

red band around the eye region and ascends separating the face

from the cheeks. Thereafter, the bands on either side meet at

the shallow vertex where they become somewhat paler and

descend through the vertical groove to reach the apex of the

false clypeus where it ends. A single vertical brownish red streak

marks the middle of the true clypeus. Mouth parts are brown.

The neck and body is pale sap green (Fig. 2a). The semi-

transparent skin is pale yellow. The sides of the body are more

yellowish and dorsal pulsating line is less delineated in this

stage. Tail plate is waxy yellow at the periphery with a grey

tinge at the middle. Each segment bears a pair of tiny dark

spots in the paradorsal region. Spiracles are vertically oval and

are less coloured compared to the later instars.

Fourth Instar

Head capsule is circular in shape. Vertex is shallow.

The head is finely reticulo-rugose on magnification. Neck is

narrow and thereafter body gradually widens into a cylinder.

The later half is dorso-ventrally flattened like in Baoris. Anal

plate is semicircular in shape and bears a series of long

translucent hair at its end.

The ground colour is pale green and skin is pale lemon

yellow. The head capsule is waxy brown. The lateral aspect

of the lobe face is separated from the cheeks by a dark brown

band whose borders are obscure and faded towards the centre

of the lobe face. This band passes towards the vertex and

then passes down parallel to the vertical groove and to the

sides of the false clypeus where it diverges. The main trunk

of this band passes onto the level of lower third of true clypeus.

The other part passes infero-laterally and gradually fades and

merges with the lateral bands. Eyes are black. The dorsal

pulsating line is green. Paradorsal band is opaque greenish.

The rest of the lateral surface is greenish yellow (Fig. 2b).

Final Instar

The caterpillar looks similar to Telicota and Baoris. It

resembles Telicota and Baoris in shape while it resembles

Table 2: Biometric data and duration of early stages of Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1874

from larvae reared in laboratory conditions (December 2006-November 2007)

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPPER FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Telicota in coloration. Head capsule is vertically oval. Vertex

is moderately grooved. On magnification, the head is reticulo-

rugose and bears short down-curved translucent hairs. Hair

is longest around the mouth parts. Neck region and adjoining

segments are the narrowest section of the body. Body is

widest in the middle. On cross-section the body is arched

dorsally and the ventrum is flat. Body is roughly spindle-

shaped and transversely divided by small annuli. On lateral

view, the body is highest at about the anterior thirds then

gradually tapers and flattens dorso-ventrally towards the anal

plate. Each segment has five annuli. In each segment,

proceeding in the head to tail direction, the first was the

largest annuli, the second annulus is incomplete and the rest

were complete annuli. The second annulus has a silver spot

in the paradorsal region. This spot is not very clearly

appreciated in some segments and is not as conspicuous as

in Baoris. The body has extremely small hairs, which are

visible only when held against light and on simple

magnification with a hand lens. The tip of anal plate has the

longest hair on it which is visible with the naked eye.

Spiracles are vertically oval and more or less flushed with

the surface. A dark spot is seen near the antero-superior aspect

of the spiracle. Another similar spot is observed postero-

inferiorly. The male larvae can be differentiated based on

the presence of the paired yellowish orange genital organs,

which are visible lying beside the dorsal pulsating line in

the later third of the body (Fig. 2c).

The ground colour of the larva is pale greenish. The skin

is pale lemon yellow, which is more evident at the skin folds

near neck and the paraspiracular regions. The head is waxy

pale rose brown. The facial lobes and cheeks are separated by

a dark black brown band that begins around the eyes; it then

passes through the sides of the lobe, face reaching the vertex.

From there the band on each side descends parallel to the

vertical groove and gradually widens till it reaches the apex of

the false clypeus. Thereafter, the bands taper gradually and do

not pass beyond the dorsal half of the true clypeus. Another

vertical line of similar colour is observed inside the true

clypeus. It starts at the apex of the true clypeus and extends till

two thirds of its height. Eyes are almost black (Fig. 2d). The

dorsal pulsating line is green. The paradorsal bands are

opaque, pale white green. The spiracles are lemon yellow in

colour.

The cell is made by joining together the two ends of

the leaflet making a flattened cell at the leaf tip. Then it eats

from the leaf tip advancing proximally leaving the central

woody vein. Feeding usually takes place in the dark

hours, but they will feed even during the daytime if not

disturbed.

Pupation

The larva settles inside the last residing cell for

pupation. Its colour changes to yellowish white. The whole

cell is smeared with whitish cereous excretion, which serves

as protection against moisture and rain. The amount of this

cereous secretion is more than that observed in Telicota pupae.

The larvae lie motionless and this posture is continued for

about 24 hours; the whole process of pupation is completed

within this time.

The general structure resembles that of the Telicota

and Thoressa-Halpe group. The pupa is larger in dimensions,

but paler in coloration in comparison with Telicota. There are

no body bands or any cremasteric adhesions (Fig. 3a).

On dorsal view the head is finely curved on front.

The snout is absent but the region is marked with a single

dark spot. There are some tufts of long hairs around the

snout and eyes. The stigma present postero-superior to the

eyes is reniform in shape. The body is widest at the origin

of wings. Thereafter, the width is constant till about the

last quarter, but tapers off rapidly to end in the highly

rudimentary tail process. On lateral view the highest point

is the hump of the thorax, which is convex; this is followed

by a moderate abdomino-thoracic constriction (Fig. 3b). The

rest of the body is of a smoother convex contour, which

rapidly tapers off from the rear thirds to end in the tail

process. On the ventral view, the proboscis is much longer

than the rest of Telicota and extends to surpass more than

half of the second segment distal to the wing cases. It

extends for 2 mm when measured from the tips of wing

cases (Fig. 3c). In contrast to Cephrenes , both species of

Telicota have short proboscis and it never extends beyond

the first intersegmental space distal to the wing cases. The

tail process is a short and straight extension from the

rear, these are irregular and much reduced in comparison

to Telicota (Fig. 3d). In Telicota the tail process is almost a

trapezoid one with a terminal series of uniformly long

down-curved hooklets. The whole body is clothed in

evenly distributed sparse, moderately long, reddish brown

hairs which are more numerous near the rear and front

segments.

The general colour of the pupa is pale yellowish white

while in contrast the pupae of Telicota are much more deeply

coloured in brownish yellow with an orangish tint. Head is

waxy brownish yellow. The stigma on either sides of the eye

rudiments are dark brown. Thorax is coloured pale waxy

honey yellow with a greenish tinge. Abdomen is whitish

yellow. The spiracles are translucent pale brownish. The tail

processes are reddish brown. Duration of pupal stage is about

10 days. The adult butterflies usually (Fig. 4) emerge in the

morning hours.

Parasitism and predators

One of the larvae was found to be infesting with

parasitoid wasps. Farval infections are rare. Jumping spiders

were observed as predators of larvae and adults in the field.

Adults also fall prey to Red ants Oecophylla smaragdina.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

153

NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Fig. 3: Cephrenes acalle Flopffer 1874(a-d): a. Pupa dorsum; b. Pupa lateral view; c. Pupa ventrum; d. Tail

Fig. 4: Cephrenes acalle Hopffer 1874(a-d): a. Male underside; b. Female underside; c. Male upperside; d. Female

154

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

CONCLUSION

We have presented here the first detailed descriptions

of the early stages of the Cephrenes acalle Hopffer, and

reported for the first time the presence of the species in

southern India. In this study, it was found that adults were

not uncommon in southern Kerala where its larval host plant

is available, but was described rare owing to its peculiar habit

of keeping to high canopies of coconut trees. Previous works

(Fergusson 1891; Kunhikrishnan 2002) on Lepidopteran

fauna focussed on this region of the peninsula might have

overlooked this species for the related Telicota genus. Only

larval rearing and detailed adult examination would have

revealed the differences between them, moreover these works

mainly concentrated on the higher elevations of the Western

Ghats and the forested interiors of the district where Coconut,

Bell, T.R. (1909): The common butterflies of the plains of India

(including those met within the hill stations of the Bombay

Presidency). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 16-58.

Corbet, A. S„ H.M. Pendlebury & J.N. Eliot (1992): The Butterflies of

the Malay Peninsula. 4th edition. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala

Lumpur, X + 595 pp., 69 pi.

Evans, W.H. (1932): Identifications of Indian Butterflies. 2nd Edition.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, x + 454 pp., 32 pi.

Evans, W.H. (1949): A Catalogue of the Hesperiidae from Europe, Asia

and Australia in the British Museum (Natural History). British

Museum (Natural History), London. 502 pp.

Ferguson, H.S. ( 1 89 1 ): A list of the Butterflies of Travancore J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 432-448.

Kunhikrishnan, E. (2002): Diversity of Butterflies in the Neyyar and

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala, A report submitted to Kerala

Forest Department.

the preferred host plant, is relatively uncommon. Intensive

surveys in the northern and central Western Ghats and in the

Eastern Ghats will help to delineate its current distributional

range and status in peninsular India. Taxonomical and genetic

analysis has to be undertaken to confirm the subspecies status

of this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Andrew Warren for taxonomic advice. We are

grateful to Krushnamegh Kunte for help in identifying the

species, and also for writing the manuscript. We would also

like to thank E. Kunhikrishnan and Suresh Elamon for

encouragement, and the unknown referees for valuable

comments. We sincerely thank Jyothy Vijayan and Greeshma

for support.

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press

(Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore).

254 pp.

Kunte, K. (2007): Checklist of the Butterflies of the Western

Ghats, south-western India. In: Subramanian, K.A. (Ed.):

Diversity and Conservation of Invertebrates in the Western

Ghats.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni &

L.M. Hernandez (2001): Hostplants of the moth and butterfly

caterpillars of the Oriental Region. The Natural History Museum,

London, pp. 744.

Swinhoe, C. ( 1913): Indian Museum Notes no. 3 pp. 126. PI. 9.

Swinhoe, C. & F. Moore (1890-1913): Lepidoptera indica. Vol. 1-10.

Published by L. Reeve and Co., London.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai, xx + 523 pp., 72 pi.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

155

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

156-161

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA)

OF LOKTAK LAKE (A RAMSAR SITE), MANIPUR (N.E. INDIA)

B.K. Sharma1 and Sumita Sharma2

'Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Permanent Campus, Umshing, Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India.

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

:North Eastern Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Risa Colony, Shillong 793 003, Meghalaya, India.

Email: [email protected]

Plankton samples collected from Loktak lake (a Ramsar site) during November 2002-October 2004 revealed 5 1 species

of Cladocera belonging to 28 genera and 7 families. Loktak lake holds the richest Cladocera biodiversity known from

any individual aquatic ecosystem of India, so far. The cladoceran fauna is characterized by predominance of Chydoridae

> Daphniidae, Cosmopolitan > Cosmotropical species, general tropical character, dominance of littoral-periphytic

taxa and lack of seasonal periodicity of occurrence of different families or species. Richness varies between 22-42

(29 ±5) and 20-41 (28 ±5) species and, records 51.7-82.33% and 53.6-90.0% community similarities (vide Sorenson’s

index) during two years respectively. It exhibits identical trimodal annual patterns with maxima during winter and

minima during monsoon. ANOVA registers significant temporal variations in richness of Cladocera between months

and insignificant between years. Richness is inversely correlated with water temperature, rainfall, pH, hardness, nitrate,

chloride and total dissolved solids, and is positively correlated with dissolved oxygen. Multiple regression analysis

indicates moderately higher cumulative influence of fifteen abiotic factors on richness.

Key words: Ramsar site, Loktak lake, Cladocera, biodiversity, distribution, temporal variations

INTRODUCTION

Cladocera, an important group of fish-food, and an

integral component of meta-zooplankton, have been reported

from scattered localities from different states of India since

1860s. There is, however, limited information on their

diversity in different aquatic ecosystems, particularly flood

plains, of India (Sharma and Sharma 2008a). Investigations

on Cladocera diversity of ‘Ramsar sites’ of India are so far

restricted to Deepor beel (Sharma and Sharma 2008b, 2009),

one of the largest floodplain wetlands of Assam (N.E. India),

and wetlands of Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan

(Venkataraman 1992).

Loktak Lake, a Ramsar site, and one of the largest

natural freshwater lakes of eastern India, is under severe

environmental stress because of serious habitat degradation,

influx of waste water, and encroachment of land for agriculture

and human settlements. Attempts are being undertaken to

manage this biologically, environmentally and socio-

economically important floodplain wetland of South Asia.

Little is known about the micro-faunal diversity of Loktak

lake in general, and that of Cladocera in particular; the

information on the later is limited to a preliminary unpublished

list of Shyamananda Singh (1991).

The present study, the first detailed systematic account

of Cladocera of Loktak lake, is therefore significant.

Observations were made to determine species composition,

temporal variations in richness, and community similarities

of these micro-crustaceans. The nature and composition of

the cladoceran taxocoenosis are discussed. Remarks are made

on occurrence and distribution of various interesting elements

and on influence of the abiotic factors on Cladocera richness.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The present study forms a part of a limnological survey

of Loktak lake, Bishnupur / Imphal districts, Manipur,

undertaken from November 2002-October 2004 (24° 25' -24°

42' N; 93°46'-93°55'E; area: 286 sq. km; max. depth: 4.58 m;

altitude: 768.5 m above msl). This floodplain wetland is

characterized by floating mats of vegetation called Phumdi,

which are inhabited by the endangered Brow-antlered Deer

(Cervus eldii eldii). The common aquatic plants of this lake

include Eichhornia crassipes, Hydrilla verticellata, Euryale

ferox, Vallisneria spiralis, Utricularia flexuosa, Trapa natans,

Lemna trisula, Pistia striates, Salvinia sp., Nymphaea spp.,

Nymphoides spp., Nelumbo macifera, Potamogeton spp. and

Azolla pinnata.

Plankton samples were collected seasonally from

different parts of Loktak basin (during November 2002-

October 2004) by towing a nylobolt plankton net (mesh size:

50 pm). In addition, water and plankton samples were

collected regularly every month, during the study period at

Sendra (24° 30' 56.75" N; 93° 47' 45.61 "E). All the plankton

samples were preserved in 5% formalin.

Water samples were analyzed for various abiotic factors

following standard methods (APHA 1992), while water

temperature, specific conductivity, pH, and dissolved oxygen

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF LOKTAK LAKE, MANIPUR

were recorded with field probes. Qualitative plankton samples

were screened; Cladocera species were isolated and were

identified following the works of Smirnov (1971, 1976, 1992,

1996), Michael and Sharma (1988), Korovchinsky (1992),

Sharma and Sharma (1999, 2008a) and Orlova-Bienkowskaja

(2001).

Percentage similarities between monthly cladoceran

communities were calculated vide Sorenson’s index and were

analyzed by hierarchical cluster analysis (SPSS version 10).

The significance of temporal variations of richness was

ascertained vide ANOVA. Ecological importance of individual

abiotic factors was studied vide simple correlation coefficients

(r). Multiple regression analysis was undertaken to analyze

cumulative influence of fifteen abiotic factors, namely water

temperature, rainfall, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, free

CO,, alkalinity, hardness, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, silicate,

chloride, dissolved organic matter and total dissolved solids.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Abiotic parameters

Mean water temperature affirms sub-tropical range of

Loktak lake. Specific conductivity indicates low ionic

concentrations (Table 1 ) and warrants inclusion of this Ramsar

site under ‘Class F category of ‘trophic classification’ of

Tailing and Tailing (1965). Slightly acidic and soft waters of

this floodplain wetland depict moderate dissolved oxygen,

low free CO,, low concentration of micronutrients and other

abiotic factors (Table 1).

Table 1 : Abiotic factors of Loktak lake

Cladocera composition and distribution

51 species of Cladocera belonging to 28 genera and

7 families, examined from Loktak lake (Table 2) reflect a rich

biodiversity of this group known from a lloodplain lake, or

aquatic ecosystem of the Indian subcontinent. The rich faunal

diversity indicates greater environmental heterogeneity of this

Ramsar site and re-affirms recent remarks (Sharma 2009) on the

biodiversity of Rotifera of this wetland. The recorded species

comprise about 40.9% of the Indian freshwater Cladocera. The

present report also assumes special importance in view of a

conservative estimate of occurrence of up to 60-65 Cladocera

species in tropical and subtropical environs of India (Sharma

and Michael 1 987; Sharma 1991). Our results, however, present

a distinct contrast to only 12 species listed earlier from Loktak

(Shyamananda Singh 1991).

The richness of Cladocera recorded at Loktak is higher

than that reported from Deepor beel (45 species) (Sharma

and Sharma 2008b). The generic diversity at Loktak is

marginally lower than that of Deepor (30 genera), while

species composition of these two Ramsar sites indicate 75%

similarity ( vide Sorenson index), indicating occurrence of

several common species. The richness at Loktak is higher

than the 30 species reported from 30 wetlands of Keoladeo

National Park ( Venkataraman 1992), 36 species from

20 wetlands of South-eastern West Bengal (Khan 2003),

1 1 species from 2 floodplain lakes (Khan 1987) of Kashmir,

9 species from 65 wetlands of 24-Parganas district (Nandi

et al. 1993) of West Bengal, 12 species (Sanjer and Sharma

1995) from floodplains of Bihar, and 14 species from

37 floodplain lakes (Sarma 2000) of Assam.

Of the biogeographically interesting species recorded

from Loktak was Disperalona caudate/ - an Australasian

species earlier known to occur only in Thailand and Australia;

it was recently reported from India from Deepor beel (Sharma

and Sharma 2007 ). Simocephalus acutiro stratus may also be

assigned as an Australasian species as it is known with

certainty only from Australia and South-East Asia (Orlova-

Bienkowskaja 2001 ). S. heilongjiangensis, another interesting

species, has been often confused with its geographical

vicariant S. latirostris\ this generalization is also true for all

earlier Indian reports, including those of Michael and Sharma

(1988). The erroneous identification of S. mixtus with its

geographical vicariant S. vetulus holds parallel with the earlier

example both in taxonomic status as well as its earlier Indian

reports. S. vetulus was previously assumed to be a

cosmopolitan species, but the monographic revision of genus

Simocephalus (Orlova-Bienkowskaja 2001) reveals its

European and North African distribution, while S. mixtus is

distributed in Asia, Eastern Europe, North Africa and North

America (Yoon and Kim 2000). Amongst other interesting

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

157

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF LOKTAK LAKE, MANIPUR

species, Diaphanosoma Senegal is a Palaeotropical species,

Sida crystallina and Picripleuroxus laevis are notable

Palaearctic elements, while Camptocercus uncinatus is an

interesting recent addition (Sharma 2008) to the Indian

Cladocera. In addition, Alonella clathratula, Alona davidi,

A. globulosa,A. guttata , Ceriodaphnia laticaudata , Chydorus

faviformis , C. ventricosus, Dadaya macrops, Guernella

raphaelis, Kurzia longirostris , Macrothrix odiosa and

Pseudochydorus globosus are examples of regional

distributional interest.

The cladoceran taxocoenosis of Loktak lake depicts

general tropical character with greater richness of

Cosmopolitan > Cosmotropical species, and presence of

several Circumtropical and Pantropical species. These salient

features are further endorsed by occurrence of the

Circumtropical genera Dadaya and Guernella and, the

Pantropical Ephemeroporus though a number of the remaining

genera are known for their cosmopolitan or worldwide

distribution (Dumont and Negrea 2002). The cladoceran

communities are characterized by dominance of littoral-

periphytonic species, particularly of the families Chydoridae,

Macrothricidae, Sididae and Ilyocryptidae. Our collections,

however, exhibit fewer limnetic taxa belonging to

Daphniidae, Bosminidae and Moinidae. The dubious listing

of three species of Daphnia by Shyamananda Singh (1991)

is misleading and warrants confirmation, as the euplanktonic

genus Daphnia is known for its restricted distribution, as well

as paucity of species in N.E. India (Sharma 1991).

Cladocera richness

Cladocera comprise the second most important group

of zooplankton of Loktak contributing significantly in

Table 2: Systematic list of Cladocera from Loktak lake

Phylum

Super-class

Class

Super-order

Arthropoda

Crustacea

Branchiopoda

Cladocera (s. str.)

Order: Ctenopoda

Family: Sididae

Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, 1885

D. sarsi Richard, 1895

D. Senegal Gauthier, 1951

Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1 884

Sida crystallina (O.F. Muller, 1776)

Order: Anomopoda

Family: Daphniidae

Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars, 1 885

C. laticaudata P.E. Muller, 1867

Scapholeberis kingi Sars, 1901

Simocephalus (Echinocaudus) acutirostratus (King, 1853)

S. ( Coronocephalus ) serrulatus( Koch, 1841)

S. (Simocephalus) mixtus Sars, 1903

S. ( Simocephalus ) vetuloides Sars, 1898

S. ( Aquipiculus ) heilongjiangensis Shi & Shi, 1994

Family: Bosminidae

Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Muller, 1776)

Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895

Family: Moinidae

Moina micrura Kurz, 1874

Family: Macrothricidae

Guernella raphaelis Richard, 1892

Macrothrix laticornis (Fischer, 1857)

M. odiosa ( Gurney, 1907)

M. spinosa King, 1853

M. triselialis (Brady, 1 886)

Family: Ilyocryptidae

llyocryptus spinifer Herrick, 1882

Family: Chydoridae

Subfamily: Chydorinae

Alonella clathratula Sars, 1 886

A. excisa (Fischer, 1854)

Chydorus faviformis Birge, 1 893

C. sphaericus (O.F. Muller, 1776)

C. ventricosus Daday, 1 898

Dadaya macrops (Daday, 1898)

Disperalona caudata Smirnov, 1996

Dunhevedia crassa King, 1853

Ephemeroporus barroisi (Richard, 1 894)

Picripleuroxus laevis Sars, 1 862

P. similis Vavra, 1900

Pseudochydorus globosus (Baird, 1 843)

Subfamily: Aloninae

Acroperus harpae (Baird, 1834)

Alona affinis (Leydig, 1860)

A. costata Sars, 1862

A. davidi Richard, 1895

A. globulosa (Daday, 1898)

A. guttata Sars, 1862

A. intermedia (Sars, 1862)

A. monacantha Sars, 1901

A. quadrangularis (O.F. Muller, 1776)

A. rectangula Sars, 1 862

A. verrucosa (Sars, 1901)

Euryalona orientalis (Daday, 1898)

Camptocercus uncinatus Smirnov, 1973

Karualona karua (King, 1 853)

Kurzia longirostris (Daday, 1898)

Leydigia acanthocercoides (Fischer, 1854)

Oxyurella singalensis (Daday, 1898)

158

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF LOKTAK LAKE, MANIPUR

MONTHS

Fig. 1 : Temporal variations in Species richness of Cladocera

richness (r = 0.877) and, hence, concur with their composition

in heels of the Brahmaputra river basin (Sharma and Sharma

2008a. b). All the 51 species recorded from Loktak were

observed in the samples collected during the first year, while

only 47 species were recorded in the following year. Monthly

richness (22-42, 29 ±5; 20-41 , 28 ±5 species) exhibits identical

annual ranges and mean values, and follows identical trimodal

annual patterns (Fig. 1 ) with maxima during winter and

minima during monsoon; the former aspect is affirmed by an

inverse correlation between richness and water temperature

(r = -0.512). Further, winter annual peaks of Loktak Cladocera

correspond with those of Deepor bee! (Sharma and Sharma

2008b) while monsoon minima differ from summer minima

of the Deepor beel. ANOVA registers significant temporal

variations in richness between months (F = 10.371,

p < 0.005), but records insignificant annual variations.

Richness records significant inverse correlations with rainfall

(r = -0.562), pH (r = -0.504), hardness (r = -0.658), nitrate

(r = -0.564), chloride (r = -0.627), and total dissolved solids

(r = -0.785), and is positively correlated with dissolved oxygen

(r = 0.443). Multiple regression registers moderately higher

cumulative influence of 15 abiotic factors (R’ = 0.703) on

Cladocera richness while step-wise regression re-affirms

importance of rainfall, pH, hardness, nitrate, chloride and total

dissolved solids.

The Chydoridae, the most diverse family of Cladocera,

contributes dominantly (29 species, 16 genera) to the faunal

diversity in Loktak and broadly concurs with the qualitative

role observed in Deepor beel (Sharma and Sharma 2008b).

The chydorid richness vanes between 13-21 and 12-23 species

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

159

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA OF LOKTAK LAKE, MANIPUR

CASE 0

MONTHS Number +'

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

5 10 15 20 25

4 + +

CASE u

MONTHS Number +-

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

5 10 15 20 25

+ 4 4

MARCH

AUGUST

JANUARY

FEBRUARY

NOVEMBER

OCTOBER

DECEMBER

APRIL

MAY

SEPT

JULY

JUNE

NOVEMBER

SEPT

APRIL

FEBRUARY

MARCH

AUGUST

MAY

DECEMBER

OCTOBER

JANUARY

JULY

JUNE

Fig. 2: Dendrogram showing Hierarchical cluster analysis of

Cladocera (2002-03)

Fig. 3: Dendrogram showing Hierarchical cluster analysis of

Cladocera (2003-04)

in two years respectively, follows trimodal annual patterns

of monthly richness and show lack of any seasonal periodicity.

The Chydorids register significant temporal variations

between months (F( : = 1 1 .944, p < 0.005) and insignificant

between years. They register significant inverse correlations

with rainfall (r = -0.423), hardness (r = -0.499), chloride

(r = -0.433), and total dissolved solids (r = -0.664) while

multiple regression registers moderate cumulative influence

of 15 abiotic factors (R: = 0.573) in their richness.

Cladocera community similarities

The cladoceran communities indicate (Tables 2 and 3)

similarities (vide Sorenson's index) ranging between 51.7-

82.3% during first year of the study period and a marginally

higher range (53.6-90.0%) in the following year. The ranges

broadly concur with the reports of Sharma and Sharma

(2008a,b) in the floodplain lakes of Brahmaputra river basin

of Assam state. A majority of instances (47.0%) in the matrix,

however, indicate similarities between 60-70% during

2002-03, while it ranges between 70-80% in majority of

instances (60.6%) during 2003-04. Higher similarity values

may be attributed to more perennial or nearly perennial

species, and fewer rare species occurring in limited monthly

samples during each year. The cluster analysis (Figs 2 and 3)

exhibits variations in faunal composition of Cladocera during

both the years. Our results show (Fig. 2) more closeness of

cladoceran communities between March and August, and

again between January and February while June and July

collections indicate greater differences in their composition

during the first year (November 2002-October 2003). In the

APHA (1992): Standard methods for the examination of water and

wastewater (18lh Ed.). American Public Health Association,

Washington D.C. 1 198 pp.

Dumont, H.J. & S.V. Negrea (2002): Introduction to the class

succeeding year (November 2003-October 2004), greater

closeness (Fig. 3) is noticed between November and

September (peak similarity), while the samples collected

during December and June indicate greater differences in their

species composition.

To sum up, the Cladocera of Loktak are characterized

by varied taxocoenosis, occurrence of various species of

global or regional distributional importance, significant

monthly variations of richness, qualitative dominance of

littoral-periphy tonic taxa, and paucity of euplanktonic species.

The results show lack of seasonal periodicity of occurrence

of a number of species belonging to different families as well

as of individual species. Various abiotic factors exert limited

influence individually on Cladocera richness. On the other

hand, higher cumulative influence is observed as a number

of these factors are also interdependent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study is undertaken partly under the “Potential

for Excellence Program (Focused Area: Biosciences) of

North-Eastern Hill University. Shillong. The senior author is

thankful to the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan

Environmental Development, Almora, for a research grant

during which plankton samples for this study were collected.

Thanks are due to the Head, Department of Zoology, North-

Eastern Hill University, Shillong, for laboratory facilities. One

of the authors (SS) is also thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, and the Officer-in-charge, North-Eastern

Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Shillong.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

162-175

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS, INDIA, WITH 52 NEW RECORDS

TO LAKSHADWEEP AND 40 NEW RECORDS TO INDIA: PART 1

Deepak Apte1

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

Opisthobranchs are the least studied fauna of India. The present study was earned out in Lakshadweep Archipelago

between 2005 and 2009. During the 4-year study a total of 60 species from 25 families were recorded. Of these

60 species, 52 are new records to Lakshadweep and 40 are new records to the Indian coast.

Key words: Opisthobranchs, Lakshadweep, Aeolid, Dorid

INTRODUCTION

Nudibranchs belong to Phylum Mollusca, Class

Gastropoda and Subclass Opisthobranchia. These are among

the least studied molluscs in India. The work done on

Opisthobranchs in India is little and patchy, and the earlier

works date back to 1880s by Alder and Hancock (1864),

Kelaart (1858, 1859, 1883) and Gardiner (1903). The earliest

work on Opisthobranchs in Lakshadweep was by Gardiner

(1903). Subsequently, Eliot ( 1903, 1906. 1909, 1910a, 1910b,

1916), Farran (1905), Homell (1909), O’Donoghue (1932),

Rao (1936, 1952, 1961), Winckworth (1946), Satyamurthi

(1952), Gideon et al. (1957), Rao and Alagarswami ( 1960),

Narayanan (1968, 1970), Burn (1970), Rao et al. (1974),

Valdes et al. (1999), and Valdes (2002) worked on the

Opisthobranchs from the Indian coast. Recent work on this

group is limited. Fontana et al. (2001) studied the bioactive

substances in Indian nudibranchs. Rudman(1970, 1971, 1980,

1984, 1986, 1990), Yonow (1984a,b, 1986, 1988, 1994, 1996),

Gosliner and Willan (1991), Gosliner (1992, 1994, 1995),

Gosliner and Behrens ( 1998), Gosliner and Johnson (1999),

Gosliner et al. ( 1996), and Brunckhorst ( 1993) reviewed the

status of various Opisthobranch groups in the Indo-Pacific

region.

STUDY AREA

The present study was carried out in the Lakshadweep

Archipelago. The smallest Union Territory of India,

Lakshadweep is an archipelago of twelve atolls, three reefs

and five submerged banks. Of the 36 islands spread across

32 sq. km, each ranging from 0. 1 to 4.9 sq. km, only 1 1 are

inhabited. The islands lie scattered in the Arabian Sea about

225-445 km from the Kerala coast. They have a distinct lagoon

on the west, whereas the eastern side lacks a lagoon. The

depth of the lagoon varies from island to island. The maximum

depth in smaller lagoons, such as Kavaratti, Chetlat, Kiltan,

Kalpeni, Amini, and Kadmat, is usually up to 4 m. However,

in larger lagoons, such as Suheli, Bitra, Bangaram and

Minicoy, it is up to 10 m. The study was conducted from

October to April from 2005-2009, each year, at Kavaratti,

Agatti, Minicoy, Suheli, Chetlat, Bangaram, Bitra, Kiltan,

Kalpeni and Kadmat islands.

METHODOLOGY

Direct search method was used to collect specimens:

Detailed notes on behavioural observations were made.

Preservation of specimen: Specimens were stored in

ethyl alcohol after studying the morphological characters.

Live specimens of each species were photographed for

recording true colours. Barring a few specimens, majority of

the specimens are available with the author and will be

deposited in the BNHS collections.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the 4-year study a total of 60 species were

recorded belonging to 25 families. Of these 60 species, 52 are

new records to Lakshadweep. Of these 52 species, 40 are new

records to the Indian coast (Table 1 ). This clearly indicates

that Opisthobranchs in India are least studied. Most

Opisthobranch species possess bioactive molecules and

tremendous potential in medical science; it is therefore essential

to undertake extensive taxonomic study of this group.

Description of species recorded in Lakshadweep

Family: Hydatinidae

Hydatina velum (Lightfoot, 1786) (Fig. la)

India: Widely distributed both on east and west coast

of India.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: This is a benthic species. The shell of the

species is light and semi-transparent. Centre of body whorl

bears one distinct pair of dark brown band. A single brown

band present near the spire and at the base of the body whorl.

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Table 1: Opisthobranch fauna of Lakshadweep

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

163

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Fig. 1 : a. Hydatina velum, b. Bulla ampulla-, c. Haminoea cymbalum ; d. Chelidonura electra ; e. Chelidonura punctata-,

f. Sagaminopteron psychedelicum-, g. Aplysia dactylomela-, h. Aplysla parvula-, i. Dolabrifera dolabrifera-, j. Dolabella auricularia-,

k. Stylocheilus striatus ; i. Pleurobranchus peronl ; m. Pleurobranchus albiguttatus-, n. Berthellina cf delicata-, o. Euselenops luniceps-,

p. Phanerophthalmus smaragdinus\ q. Polybranchia orientalis ; r. Volvatella vigourouxr, s. Elysia ornata ; t. Elysla tomentosa-,

u. Thuridilla carlsonf, v. Thuridilla gracilis-, w. Thuridilla livida-, x. Thuridilla vatae

164

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Live animal is uncommon in the lagoon reef.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Bullinidae

Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. lb)

India: Widely distributed both on east and west coast

of India.

Extralimital Distribution: Widely distributed in Indo-

Pacific region.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: The white shell with profuse dark to light

brown mottling is solid and with a large body whorl. Seasonal

congregation of this species is common. It mostly occurs on

sand flats.

Status: Abundant.

Family: Haminaeidae

Haminoea cymbalum (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835) (Fig. lc)

India: There are only two records of this species in

India; Gulf of Mannar (Fontana etal. 200 1 ) and Lakshadweep,

a new record from the present study.

Extralimital Distribution: Mozambique and

Madagascar to Indonesia and Hawaii. Western Pacific and

western Indian Ocean.

Size: 25 mm.

Description: Shell is fragile and transparent. Animal is

brilliantly coloured. The light green ground colour is profusely

spotted with crimson red spots and light orange mottling. Foot

is short with crimson red spots. Egg cases are white and glued

together with a gelatinous substance. Eggs are laid on dead

coral boulders. Individuals form long chains during breeding

congregations. Seasonal congregations are common and

usually between October to March.

Status: Seasonally abundant.

Family: Aglajidae

Chelidonura electro Rudman, 1970 (Fig. Id)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Indonesia Papau New

Guinea, Australia, Solomon Is., Madagascar, Tropical Indo-

West Pacific.

Size: 25 mm.

Description: A snow-white slug with a bright yellow

border. A distinct tail-like extension of the foot is a typical

character of the genus.

Status: Rare.

Chelidonura punctata Eliot, 1903 (Fig. le)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Tanzania, Madagascar,

Thailand, Myanmar, Mauritius, Maldives, Reunion Island.

Size: 25 mm.

Description: A deep blue-black slug with bright orange

spots, it forms small aggregations during the breeding period.

It occurs mostly on coral rabble covered with encrusting algae.

Status: Seasonally common.

Family: Gastropteridae

Sagaminopteron psychedelicum Carlson and Hoff, 1974

(Fig. If)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Japan, South Africa,

Philippines, Guam, Malaysia, Seychelles, Papua New Guinea,

Red Sea, Fiji, Taiwan.

Size: 4 mm.

Description: It grows up to 12 mm; is associated with

Dysidia sponges on which it feeds.

Status: Very rare.

Family: Aplysiidae

Aplysia dactylomela Rang, 1828 (Fig. lg)

India: Widely distributed in India.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea, Africa, Hawaii,

South Pacific, Australia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Caribbean.

Size: 600 mm.

Description: A large animal, it is usually seen in large

congregations, mostly in shallow waters, during winter

months. The shell is considerably reduced in this species and

is present inside the body. It shows remarkable colour

variations. In Lakshadweep, the dull brown ground colour is

dotted with black and white spots. Mantle is bordered in pink.

Specimens from Gulf of Kutch are usually dull green with

black spots. The pink lining of the mantle flap is also absent.

The animals release a purple dye if disturbed.

Status: Abundant.

Aplysia parvula Morch, 1863 (Fig. lh)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Circumtropical.

Size: 8 mm.

Description: A small Aplysia it grows up to 20 mm. Body

is light brown with white spots. It is also profusely dotted with

white. Mantle edge and tips of rhinophores are peacock blue.

Status: Rare.

Dolabrifera dolabrifera (Cuvier, 1817) (Fig. li)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Circumtropical.

Size: 150 mm.

Description: A large slug, it is mostly seen in shallow

waters of coral reefs. It is nocturnal and remains hidden under

algal mass during day time. The animal is light green to dark

brown in colour. Rear part of the body is squarish and

flattened. Mantle is fully covered with fleshy extensions.

Seasonally common, it forms large aggregations for breeding.

Status: Abundant.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

165

if HR

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Fig. 2: a. Plakobranchus ocellatus ; b. Aegires sp.; c. Gymnodoris sp.; d. Gymnodoris ceylonica: e. Gymnodoris alba:

f. Chromodoris cf setoensis: g. Chromodoris fidelis: h. Glossodoris cincta ; i. Hypselodoris maculosa: j. Hypselodoris infucata:

k. Hypselodoris maridadllus: I. Peltodorls murrea: m. Jorunna rubescens: n. Jorunna funebris: o. Platydorls cruenta:

p. Halgerda tessellata: q. Asteronotus cespitosus: r. Phyllidla coelestis: s. Phyllldia varlcosa: t. Phyllidia alyta:

u. Phyllldia marindica: v. Phyllidlella pustulosa: w. Phyllidiella rosans: x. Phyllldlella zeylanica

166

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Dolabella auricularia (Lightfoot, 1786) (Fig. lj)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Japan, Red Sea, Africa,

Hawai, Galapagos, Australia, Solomon Is., Madagascar.

Size: 300 mm.

Description: A large slug occurring on shallow reefs.

Body surface is highly warty. The animal is light green with

dark green tubercles or warts on dorsal surface. The rear part

of the body is squarish and flattened. Antennae are short.

Status: Common.

Stylocheilus striatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) (Fig. Ik)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Circumtropical, Japan,

South Africa, Mexico.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: A small slug seen on coral sand. Large

aggregations for short periods are common during winter.

Animals are light grey to green with longitudinal lines running

across the body up to the foot. Antennae are also lined in

black. A close examination will reveal brilliant blue spots

circled with a yellowish band.

Status: Seasonally abundant.

Family: Pleurobranchidae

Pleurobranchus peroni Cuvier, 1804 (Fig. 11)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: South Africa to Red Sea,

Australia, Indonesia, Japan, UAE, Norfolk Is. (South Pacific),

New Zealand.

Size: 50 mm.

Description: A large slug with an extremely soft body.

The light yellow ground colour is profusely spotted with dark

orange spots. Foot is light yellow. Rhinophores are orange

and ribbed.

Status: Uncommon.

Pleurobranchus albiguttatus (Bergh, 1905) (Fig. lm)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: South Africa, Japan,

Australia, New Caledonia, Red Sea, Reunion Island, Saudi

Arabia, Philippines, Red Sea.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: A small slug, it inhabits shallow reef areas,

and mostly remains under coral boulders during day time.

Mantle has polygonal markings with scattered white triangular

markings. Foot and rhinophores have yellowish brown spots.

Status: Common.

Berthellina cf delicata (Pease, 1861) (Fig. In)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Extralimital Distribution: Philippines, French

Polynesia.

Size: 35 mm.

Description: A small slug, it occurs on reef sand. Body

colour is deep orange with light orange foot. Rhinophores

are light orange.

Status: Common.

Euselenops luniceps (Cuvier, 1817) (Fig. lo)

India: Gulf of Mannar, Chennai.

Extralimital Distribution: Philippines to Australia,

Fiji, Hawaii, tropical Indo-West Pacific. Also known from

South Africa and Tanzania.

Size: 75 mm.

Description: It is a large sea slug which mostly remains

on sand flats. The white ground colour is profusely spotted

with deep brown spots. When disturbed it quickly disappears

under sand. It can swim short distances. Its perfect camouflage

makes it difficult to find.

Status: Very Rare.

Family: Smaragdinellidae

Phanerophthalmus smaragdinus (Ruppell & Leuckart,

1828) (Fig. Ip)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Indonesia, Reunion Island,

Philippines, Japan.

Size: 15 mm.

Description: This small slug has an internal shell. It

inhabits shallow reef areas and mostly remains under coral

boulders or coral sand. The animal is light green in

colour.

Status: Common.

Family: Polybranchiidae

Polybranchia orientalis (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. lq)

India: Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Japan, Sri Lanka, South

Africa, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Australia.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: A small nocturnal slug seen in reefs.

Animal is translucent green with dark green cerata. In some

individuals, cerata colour at the base is light brown to cream.

Body surface bears many leaf-like cerata. On slightest

physical touch, the animal automizes the cerata. It lays eggs

under dead coral rocks, and the egg mass is white in colour.

Egg cases are laid in circular rings.

Status: Common.

Family: Volvatellidae

Volvatella vigourouxi (Montrouzier in Souverbie, 1861 )

(Fig. lr)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Australia, New Caledonia.

Size: 20 mm.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

167

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Fig. 3: a. Phyllidiopsis phiphiensis ; b. Phyllidiopsis striata ; c. Phyllidiopsis gemmata\ d. Dendrodoris tuberculosa ;

e. Dendrodoris nigra\ f. Actinocyclus verrucosus', g. Marianina rosea', h. Flabellina bicolor, i. Phestilla lugubris',

j. Pteraeolidia ianthina', k. Herviella affinis', I. Hervieiia albida

Description: It is a shelled sacoglossan sea slug. Shell is

external, delicate and transparent. The animal is yellow with red

spots. It is active during day and seen in shallow lagoon reef. It

was found in the pool with thick growth of Caulerpa racemosa.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Elysiidae

Elysia ornata (Swainson, 1840) (Fig. Is)

Syn: Elysia grandifolia Kelaart, 1858

India: Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and

Nicobar.

Extralimital Distribution: South Africa to Maldives,

Australia to Hawaii, Red Sea to Polynesia, Norfolk Is. (South

Pacific), Indonesia, Taiwan, French Polynesia,

Circumtropical.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: These small sea slugs are herbivorous.

They feed by sucking sap from green algae Caulerpa

racemosa and Codium sp. The species shows remarkable

colour variation. It is usually a translucent green with a black

parapodial margin and a submarginal yellow or orange band.

Body is covered with numerous black and white dots. The

specimens from Gulf of Kutch are much lighter in colour and

usually light green with black dots. Tips of rhinophores are

deep purple in colour.

Status: Common.

Elysia tomentosa Jensen, 1997 (Fig. It)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Ratnagiri.

Extralimital Distribution: South Africa, Indo-West

Pacific.

Size: 40 mm.

Description: A large Elysia seen on coral sand, it is

deep green yellow in colour. The parapodia are lined by a

black and pink band. Rhinophores are reddish brown. They

usually occur among Caulerpa racemosa.

Status: Common.

Thuridilla carlsoni Gosliner, 1995 (Fig. lu)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: New Caledonia, Papua

New Guinea, Australia, Hawaiian Islands, Marshall Island,

Indonesia, Philippines.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: These small sacoglossan slugs are

herbivorous. Body bears green spots on a cream background.

The parapodial flaps have a cream coloured edge. The

rhinophores are cream with green base and light brown tips.

Status: Rare.

Thuridilla gracilis (Risbec, 1828) (Fig. lv)

Syn: Thuridilla ratna (Marcus, 1965); Thuridilla bayeri

(Marcus, 1965)

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Madagascar to Marshall Is.,

Papua New Guinea, Guam, Japan, Maldives, Philippines,

Coral Sea, Polynesia to Red Sea.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: It is a small slug mostly active during late

evenings. Animal is dark reddish brown in colour with bright

yellow longitudinal lines. Brilliant blue spots also lie scattered

on the surface. Parapodia are bright red, which can be seen

only when the flaps are open.

Status: Abundant.

Thuridilla livida (Baba, 1955) (Fig. Iw)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Western Australia, Papua

New Guinea, Guam, Marshall Island. Also known from South

Africa, Aldabra and the Seychelles.

Size: 10 mm.

Description: It is a very small slug. The body colour is

deep reddish brown. Parapodia are bright red, which can be

seen only when the flaps are open. The parapodia are lined

with a series of longitudinal lines of orange, black and blue.

Head is deep red brown, rhinophores are dark brown at the

base with white tips. It is a common species from reefs of

Lakshadweep.

Status: Uncommon.

Thuridilla vatae (Risbec, 1928) (Fig. lx)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Vanuatu, Australia,

Reunion Island, South Africa, Philippines, Aldabra, Japan,

Guam, and Marshall Islands.

Size: 10 mm.

Description: These small sacoglossan slugs are

herbivorous. The body is blue black and profusely

spotted with yellow. The rhinophores are white with red tips.

Status: Rare.

Plakobranchus ocellatus Hassett, 1824 (Fig. 2a)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea, Thailand, Japan,

Australia to Hawaii, Solomon Is., South Africa, Philippines,

Indonesia.

Size: 40 mm.

Description: It is a herbivorous slug. Body surface is

very slimy. The species shows wide colour variation. The

parapodia are light brown dotted with yellow spots. These

spots are encircled with white rings. The base of parapodia

bears large light blue spots encircled by black ring. These

small sea slugs are burrowing in nature. They prefer sand

flats with silty substrate.

Status: Abundant.

Family: Notodorididae

Aegires sp. (Fig. 2b)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Indonesia to Australia, Lord

Howe Is. (South Pacific), Norfolk Is., Japan.

Size: 60 mm.

Description: Species from genus Aegires are significantly

different being sluggish and having a tough leathery skin as

compared to soft bodies of other nudibranchs. They feed on

calcareous sponges. It is known that young individuals have

black rhinophores, whereas adults have yellow. In young

individuals, body surface is dotted with black spots, whereas

the adult is uniformly yellow. The specimen is collected at

20 m depth. It is an uncommon species from Lakshadweep.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Gymnodorididae

Gymnodoris sp. (Fig. 2c)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Not known.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: It is a small and uncommon sea slug. Body

colour is yellow, profusely spotted with red spots.

Rhinophores are yellow and ribbed. Gills are centrally placed

on the dorsal side.

Status: Uncommon.

Gymnodoris ceylonica Kelaart, 1885 (Fig. 2d)

India: Gulf of Mannar.

Extralimital Distribution: Australia to Japan and

across to Red Sea. Indo-West Pacific.

Size: 55 mm.

Description: Large congregations of this species can be

seen in shallow lagoon waters of Lakshadweep during October-

November. Mostly present on sandy substrate. The white-

coloured body is profusely spotted with red spots. The foot has

bright red margin. Gills are centrally placed. Body is transparent

to the extent that internal body organs, as well as yellow strands

of egg capsules, are clearly visible. It prefers dead, broken coral

pieces to lay eggs. Eggs are laid in yellow colour strands on

coral mbble. They feed on Stylocheilus striatus.

Status: Seasonally common.

Gymnodoris alba (Bergh, 1877) (Fig. 2e)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Japan, China, Indonesia,

Australia, Hawaii, Singapore, Philippines, Southern Africa.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: It is a small sea slug and mostly found on

sandy substrate. The light orange or cream coloured body is

profusely spotted with bright orange spots. Rhinophores are

white or pale orange. Gills are white.

Status: Uncommon.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

169

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Family: Chromodorididae

Chromodoris cf setoensis Baba, 1938 (Fig. 2f)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Northern Indian Ocean, West

Pacific, Sri Lanka, Arabian Sea, Lord Howe Is. (South Pacific).

Size: 16 mm.

Description: It is a tiny sea slug from reefs. Ground

colour is white with a highly decorated surface. Mantle margin

is deep orange. A row of deep purple spots along mantle

margin are distinctly visible. Three white lines run

longitudinally on the back of which one is centrally

positioned. All the three lines meet each other at both the

ends. Rhinophores and gills are white and ribbed. Foot is

short and white in colour. However, Rudman (1986) considers

it as a colour form of C. decora (Pease 1860).

Status: Uncommon.

Chromodoris fidelis (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 2g)

India: Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: New Caledonia, Hong Kong,

Japan, Red Sea, Australia, Seychelles, Indonesia, Malaysia,

Papua New Guinea.

Size: 35 mm.

Description: The base colour is white with brilliant

deep red colour undulating margin. The white and red colour

is separated by a continuous black band. Foot is white.

Rhinophores and gills are black and ribbed.

Status: Uncommon.

Glossodoris cincta (Bergh, 1888) (Fig. 2h)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea to Tanzania across

to Japan and Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Maldives,

Hong Kong.

Size: 60 mm.

Description: A medium-sized sea slug that remains

inside crevices during the day. The species has three colour

forms: Red Sea-East Africa; Maldives-N. Australia and

W. Pacific. The body colour is deep red brown. Mantle flaps

are frilled and brilliant blue and yellow. Foot is deep red brown

with a blue margin. Rhinophores are ribbed and blue with a

red base. Gills are white with blue edge.

Status: Uncommon.

Hypselodoris maculosa (Pease, 1871) (Fig. 2i)

Syn: Chromodoris decorata (Risbec, 1928)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Tanzania, Red Sea,

Philippines, Australia, China, Vietnam, Japan, Indonesia,

Papua New Guinea, Lord Howe Is. (South Pacific).

Size: 30 mm.

Description: The ground colour is white with a

brilliant deep red and undulating margin. Head and tail

portion is dotted with white spots. Foot is light purple with

white spots. Rhinophores are stalked, white and ribbed with

two distinct orange bands. Gills are white with two distinct

orange bands.

Status: Uncommon.

Hypselodoris infucata (Ruppell & Leuckart, 1828) (Fig. 2j)

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-West Pacific, India,

Red Sea, Indonesia, Vietnam, New Caledonia, Israel. South

Africa, Philippines.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: The ground colour is light purple grey

profusely spotted with black and yellow spots. Rhinophores

are red and finely ribbed. Gills are white with a red margin.

Status: Very rare.

Hypselodoris maridadilus Rudman, 1977 (Fig. 2k)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Maldives, Tanzania, South

Africa, Mauritius, Kenya, Red Sea, Hawaii.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: It is a small and brilliantly coloured sea

slug. Five purple-violet bands are present on the yellow orange

ground colour. The foot and mantle have a purple border.

Rhinophores and gills are deep orange red.

Status: Very Rare.

Family: Discodorididae

Peltodoris murrea (Abraham, 1877) (Fig. 21)

Syn: Peltodoris mauritiana Bergh, 1889

India: Gulf of Kutch.

Extralimital Distribution: Maldives, Mauritius,

Reunion to New Caledonia and Japan.

Size: 30 mm.

Description: A small Peltodoris usually seen in shallow

pools and under coral boulders. Body is white with a few

black spots. Rhinophores are yellow.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Kentrodorididae

Jorunna rubescens Bergh, 1876 (Fig. 2m)

Syn: Kentrodoris rubescens (Bergh, 1876)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Mauritius, Sri Lanka,

Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia,

Philippines, Solomon Is., Japan, Vietnam.

Size: 200 mm.

Description: This large slug is nocturnal and can be

encountered easily in shallow lagoons of Lakshadweep during

night dives. Body is soft. Brachial pocket is large which

encloses gills and is present in the centre of the body.

Rhinophores are ribbed and enclosed in a large pocket. Ground

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OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

colour is creamy pink with irregular longitudinal brown lines.

Egg capsules are pink and laid in circular rings.

Status: Abundant.

Jorunna funebris (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 2n)

India: Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar, Gulf of

Mannar, Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea, Oman, Maldives,

Australia to Japan, Papua New Guinea, Hong Kong, Singapore.

Size: 50 mm.

Description: The surface of this sea slug has a rough

texture, a typical character of the genus. Black rings present

on the white body are rough to touch. Rhinophores are black

and ribbed with a white base. Gills are black. Breeding pairs

are common in shallow lagoons of Lakshadweep during

winter.

Status: Abundant.

Family: Platydorididae

Platydoris cruenta (Quoy and Gaimard, 1832) (Fig. 2o)

Syn: Platydoris striata (Kelaart, 1 858)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea, Christmas Island,

Indo-West Pacific.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: It is a small, bright yellow orange slug

profusely marked with bright red to brown irregular lines.

Rhinophores are yellow and highly ribbed. Gills are yellow

with brown margin.

Status: Uncommon.

Family: Dorididae

Halgerda tessellata (Bergh, 1880) (Fig. 2p)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Madagascar, Kenya,

Thailand to Micronesia, Australia, Maldives, Mozambique,

South Africa and East Africa, Japan.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: This small sea slug is abundantly seen in

Lakshadweep reefs. It is mostly active in the late evening.

The body colour is deep orange yellow with serrated outcrops.

Surface bears dark brown squarish and large spots, which are

scattered with silvery white spots. Rhinophores are stalked,

ribbed and black in colour. A black line runs from the tip of

the rhinophores to the bottom of the rhinophores. Gills are

brown; foot is long and has a median brown line.

Status: Abundant.

Asteronotus cespitosus (Hasselt, 1824) (Fig. 2q)

Syn: Doris cespitosus Van Hasselt, 1 824, D. mauritiana

Quoy & Gaimard, 1832, D. foetida Pease, 1860.

India: Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: Australia, Red Sea, Hawaii,

Tanzania, UAE, Maldives, Japan, Sri Lanka, Chagos,

Seychelles, Mauritius, Indonesia.

Size: 200 mm.

Description: It is a large sea slug. Light yellow brown

in colour, surface is highly warty. Rhinophores are with short

stalk, brown in colour and highly ribbed. Gills are feathery

and brown in colour. Red semi-circular band on the foot is

diagnostic of this species. Egg case is brilliant red in colour.

Status: Common.

Family: Phyllidiidae

Phyllidia coelestis Bergh, 1905 (Fig. 2r)

India: Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: South Africa to South

China Sea, Australia to Fiji, Philippines, Japan, Papua New

Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Pacific Ocean, Indo-

West Pacific Ocean.

Size: 60 mm.

Description: Body surface is highly warty and lacks

dorsal gill. The base colour is blue to grey blue. The dorsal

surface has three black bands of which the central black band

has yellow tubercles and is broken. The rhinophores are

yellow. The foot sole is grey and has no black line or markings

as seen in P. varicosa and P. elegans.

Status: Abundant.

Phyllidia varicosa Lamarck, 1801 (Fig. 2s)

Syn: Phyllidia arabica Ehrenbergh, 1831; Phyllidia

trilineata Cuvier, 1804a; Phyllidia borbonica Cuvier, 1804b;

Phyllidia fasciolata Bergh, 1 869; Phyllidia honloni Risbec, 1956.

India: Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: Mauritius, Seychelles, Red

Sea, Sri Lanka to Hawaii, Japan, Africa, Papua New Guinea,

Thailand, Malaysia, Australia.

Size: 90 mm.

Description: It is a large slug, and as in all other

members of the family, the body surface is highly warty and

lacks dorsal gills. The species shows remarkable variation in

colour and body pattern. The rhinophores are yellow. The

foot sole has a broken black median line.

Status: Abundant.

Phyllidia alyta Yonow, 1996 (Fig. 2t)

India: Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: Maldives.

Size: 90 mm.

Description: It is a large slug. Dorsal surface bears

four longitudinal black lines. Of these, the central two begin

just behind the rhinophores till the anal papilla. A black band

is distinctly visible connecting both rhinophores. The

rhinophores are light to deep yellow or orange-yellow. The

foot sole has a broken black median line.

Status: Common.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

171

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Phyllidia marindica (Yonow and Hayward, 1991) (Fig. 2u)

Syn: Fryeria ruppellii Bergh, 1889; Fryeria pustulosa

Risbec, 1929.

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Thailand, Western

Australia, Eastern Africa, Maldives.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: The base colour varies from black, blue

to yellow. The dorsal surface bears several laterally running

black stripes. Dorsal surface also bears a single median

longitudinal ridge. Two black bands run on either side of this

ridge. The rhinophores are yellow to gold in colour. Foot

sole have no markings.

Status: Uncommon.

Phyllidiella pustulosa (Cuvier, 1804) (Fig. 2v)

Syn: Phyllidia verrucosa Hasselt, 1824; Phyllidia

albonigra Q & G, 1832; Phyllidiella nobilis Bergh, 1869;

Phyllidia spectabilis Collingwood, 1881; Fryeria varaibilis

Collingwood, 1881; Phyllidia rotunda Eliot, 1904; Fryeria

pustulosa (Cuv).

India: Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea to Hawaii, Japan,

Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Australia, Western Pacific,

Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, Fiji.

Size: 60 mm.

Description: It is a large sea slug. The base colour is

black with pink pustules or tubercles, which are usually

clustered in three. The pustules on the surface show variation

in pattern. The rhinophores are black. Foot sole is grey.

Status: Common.

Phyllidiella rosans (Bergh, 1873) (Fig. 2w)

Syn: Phyllidia nigra Pease, 1868; Phyllidia bourgini

Risbec, 1928; Phyllidia soria Er. Marcus & Ev. Marcus, 1970;

Phyllidiopsis cf. striata Edmunds, 1972; Phyllidia mediocris

Yonow & Hayward, 1991.

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: East Africa, Reunion,

Maldives to Hawaii, Tahiti, Seychelles, Japan.

Size: 35 mm.

Description: Among the Phyllidiella this is the most

common sea slug. It shows remarkable variations in colour

and pattern. Dorsum is black with longitudinal pink ridges.

The rhinophores are black with pale pink stalk. The foot sole

has numerous tiny spots.

Status: Abundant.

Phyllidiella zeylanica (Kelaart, 1859) (Fig. 2x)

Syn: Phyllidia ceylanica Bergh, 1869; Phyllidia nobilis

Eliot, 1904; Phyllidia varicosa Farr an, 1 905; Phyllidia catena

Pruvot-Fol, 1956; Phyllidia seriata Pruvot-Fol, 1957a;

Phyllidia empelia Yonow, 1984a: Phyllidia meandrina Yonow

& Hayward, 1991; Phyllidia honloni Wells et al., 1990.

India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep, Andaman.

Extralimital Distribution: Western Pacific,

Seychelles, Thailand. Reunion, Eastern Africa.

Size: 50 mm.

Description: A medium-sized Philidiella which

resembles P. rosans closely. The dorsal surface is black with

pink ridges. The rhinophores are black. The foot sole is white.

Status: Common.

Phyllidiopsis phiphiensis Brunckhorst, 1993 (Fig. 3a)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Known only from

Andaman Sea, Northern Indian Ocean and Thailand.

Madagascar.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: A small sea slug usually seen below 8 m

depth. White rhinophores are diagnostic along with three

black stripes on the dorsal surface. The marginal areas have

black spots. The species is named after the locality from where

it was first described ‘Phi Phi Island’.

Status: Rare.

Phyllidiopsis striata Bergh, 1888 (Fig. 3b)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea, Thailand to

Marshall Is., Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Micronesia.

Size: 15 mm.

Description: A small sea slug. The dorsal surface is

white with four black longitudinal lines. Three tuberculate

ridges originate from anus opening. The central ridge

terminates just before rhinophores and remaining two run

through rhinophoral openings. The rhinophores are lemon

yellow. Black marginal dots are also visible. The specimen

was seen feeding on dead giant clam flesh.

Status: Rare.

Phyllidiopsis gemmata (Pruvot-Fol, 1957) (Fig. 3c)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Thailand, Indonesia,

Reunion Island.

Size: 40 mm.

Description: This elegant species is commonly seen.

The background colour varies from ink to grey. The dorsal

surface bears four distinct black lines of which the outermost

extend to the mantle edge. Rhinophores are black with a pink

band at the base. Foot sole is grey.

Status: Common.

Family: Dendrodorididae

Dendrodoris tuberculosa (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832)

(Fig. 3d)

India: Lakshadweep, Andhra Pradesh.

172

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea to Australia,

Hawaii, Japan, South Pacific.

Size: 200 mm.

Description: A large sea slug usually seen in shallow

pools and under rocks. They prefer muddy reefs. These

slugs produce a powerful toxin that can affect skin and

eyes, and gives a severe burning sensation. Surface

is extremely warty, and dark brown with white patches.

The lower part of the body has white spots, which is

diagnostic for the species. Rhinophores are stalked.

The stalk is dark brown and the rhinophores light brown

in colour. Gills are light brown, leafy and highly

branched.

Status: Uncommon.

Dendrodoris nigra (Stimpson, 1855) (Fig. 3e)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea to Australia, Fiji,

South Africa, Thailand, New Zealand, Japan, China, Hong

Kong, Indonesia to Hawaii.

Size: 80 mm.

Description: A large and black coloured sea slug

usually seen in shallow pools and under rocks. These sea slugs

are nocturnal and can be seen during early mornings and late

evenings. Rhinophores bear white tips in adults. Juveniles

have red band on black mantle.

Status: Abundant.

Family: Actinocyclidae

Actinocyclus verrucosus Ehrenberg, 1831 (Fig. 3f)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Red Sea, Madagascar,

western Pacific to Hawaii.

Size: 60 mm.

Description: Not much is known about this species.

Compared to other sea slugs this species has a tough leathery

mantle. The dark brown mantle is also covered with rounded

tubercles. It is nocturnal and usually seen under coral

boulders.

Status: Rare.

Family: Tritoniidae

Marianina rosea (Pruvot-Fol, 1930) (Fig. 3g)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Australia, New Caledonia,

Marianas Is., South Africa, Indonesia.

Size: 10 mm.

Description: It is a very beautiful and tiny sea slug found

mostly under coral rocks. It feeds primarily on hydroids. Base

colour is deep pink with white cerata. Rhinophores are in pockets

and orange in colour. Oral tentacles are white with pink base.

Status: Seasonally common.

Family: Flabellinidae

Flabellina bicolor (Kelaart, 1858) (Plate 3h)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Widely distributed in Indo-

Pacific, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Hong Kong, Maldives,

South Africa to Hawaii.

Size: 20 mm.

Description: A tiny sea slug usually seen under rocks

or among dead coral branches. It has a long and narrow body

with numerous mantle outgrowths known as cerata on the

body. Cerata are in pairs and have a distinct orange band on

it. Besides cerata, the head also has a pair of oral tentacles.

Rhinophores are bulbous and brown in colour. These are

predators feeding on hydroids.

Status: Seasonally abundant.

Family: Tergipedidae

Phestilla lugubris (Bergh, 1870) (Fig. 3i)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Tanzania, Indonesia,

Australia, Hawaii, Japan, Vietnam, Hong Kong.

Size: 45 mm.

Description: These sea slugs are closely associated with

Porites lutea , they feed on the polyps of this species. Body

colour is light brown. Body surface bears numerous cerata.

Each ceras is bulbous in nature with distinct white bands and

ringed nodes.

Status: Uncommon.

Pteraeolidia ianthina (Angas, 1864) (Fig. 3j)

India: Lakshadweep, Gulf of Kutch.

Extralimital Distribution: Australia, Singapore,

China, Vanuatu, Fiji, Japan, Hawaii, Madagascar, Seychelles.

Size: 50 mm.

Description: It is a large aeolid occuring on coral sand.

Body is covered with numerous cerata. Tentacles have distinct

purple bands. Nothing is known about this species in India.

Status: Very rare.

Family: Facelinidae

Herviella affinis Baba, 1960 (Fig. 3k)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Japan.

Size: 10 mm.

Description: It is a small slug found on hydroids. Oral

tentacles and rhinophores are smooth. Rhinophores have black

speckling at the lower half and a black band. Upper half of

the rhinophores is translucent yellowish white. The cerata

are spindle shaped and bulbous just below the tip and arranged

in single rows. The cerata are transparent with distal half being

white with a central band of orange.

Status: Rare.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

173

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

Herviella albida Baba, 1966 (Fig. 31)

India: Lakshadweep.

Extralimital Distribution: Australia, Japan.

Size: 15 mm.

Description: It is a small sea slug usually seen under

coral boulders. It feeds on sea anemones. The oral tentacles

and cerata are long, slender, and transparent with white tips.

Cerata are long and bulbose at the centre with white bands at

the top and centre. The body is transparent with white diamond

shaped marks on the mantle.

Status: Rare.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The paper is the result of field work conducted during

Project Giant Clam of the BNHS. The author takes this

opportunity to thank Lead International, Darwin Initiative,

and Whitley Fund for Nature for financial support to the

Project. Mr. Idrees Babu, Mr. Younis, Mr. Hussain, Ms. Avani

Patel, Ms. Aditi Nair, Mr. Rushikesh Chavan, and Mr. Vishal

Bhave assisted during the field work.

I thank Mr. B.V. Selvaraj, Administrator, Lakshadweep,

for uninterrupted support. I also acknowledge the help

provided by Mr. G. Kumar, DCF, Lakshadweep, and

Dr. S.I. Koya, Director Science and Technology,

Lakshadweep, and for providing necessary permissions.

I thank the Lakshadweep Administration for all necessary

support.

I thank Dr. Bill Rudman for validation of some of the

species.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

176-183

BREEDING ECOLOGY AND NEST-SITE SELECTION OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

IOLE INDICA IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

P. Balakrishnan1-2

‘Division of Conservation Ecology, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty, Coimbatore 641 108, Kerala, India.

2 Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust, c/o Anupallavi, Chungathara, Nilambur 679 334, India.

Email: [email protected]

The breeding biology and nest-site selection of Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica , an endemic to the Western Ghats

and Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot, was studied in the Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, from 2002 to 2005. Breeding

occurred in the dry season from mid-November to the end of April with peak egg-laying in January and February.

Nests were open cups placed 0.5-6. 2 m from the ground in plants 0.6-8.0 m tall. Birds laid clutches of 2-3 eggs and

broods hatched synchronously. Overall nesting period lasted for about a month with 3-7 days for nest construction,

11-13 days for incubation and 12-13 days for nestling period. Mayfield nest success was 17.21%. Predation was the

main known cause of nest failure, and mortality was higher during the egg stage compared to nestling stage. Yellow-

browed Bulbuls used large number of plants (32 species) as nest substrates. Successful nests were characterised by

high nest concealment compared to that of the unsuccessful nests. However, information on the abundance and behaviour

of predators and experimental manipulations are required for a comprehensive understanding of nest-site selection

process.

Key words: breeding biology, Iole indica, life history traits, nesting success, Pycnonotidae, tropical rainforest. Yellow-

browed Bulbul

INTRODUCTION

Bulbuls (Family Pycnonotidae) are one of the large

groups of passerines of the Old World tropics, widespread in

southern Asia, Africa, Madagascar, islands of the Western

Indian Ocean (Sibley and Monroe 1990; Fishpool and Tobias

2005). They occupy a broad range of habitats from semi-arid

deserts to rainforests, with centre of diversity in the

Afrotropical and Sundaic regions. Of the 27 genera currently

treated within the Family Pycnonotidae, 1 1 are exclusively

Asian, 14 are restricted to Africa and islands of the Western

Indian Ocean while the remaining 2 occur in both continents.

The Family comprises nearly 140 species and 355 subspecies

(Fishpool and Tobias 2005; Woxvold et al. 2009) with several

complex taxonomic uncertainties (Pasquet et al. 2001;

Fishpool and Tobias 2005; Moyle and Marks 2006). Only a

few widespread and lowland Pycnonotids have been well-

studied, in their native and other introduced ranges.

Information on the ecology of mid and higher elevation

bulbuls are restricted mostly to natural history notes (Fishpool

and Tobias 2005). Moreover, information on the life history

traits, including developmental rates and nesting success, for

majority of the species is not known. Of the 22 species of

bulbuls recorded in India (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005),

8 are seen in southern or peninsular India. Most of these

species are common in their habitat and are open-cup nesters.

Detailed examination of the breeding ecology of these birds

is important to understand the evolution of life history

strategies of open-cup nesting birds in the tropics.

The Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica is an endemic

to the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka (Grimmett et al. 1999).

It is one of the most abundant, uniformly distributed species

in the tropical rainforests of Western Ghats at an optimum

zone of 1 ,000-1,500 m (Ali and Ripley 1987; Raman 2003),

yet relatively little is known of its biology, compared to that

of other bulbul species. They are sedentary residents in moist

forests with higher levels of frugivory and generalism in the

diet compared to other high altitude species (Ali and Ripley

1987; Fishpool and Tobias 2005; Balakrishnan 2007).

The aim of the present study was to provide a detailed

description of the breeding ecology of Yellow-browed Bulbul

in southern Western Ghats. The specific objectives were to

obtain information on the breeding season, nest dimensions,

clutch sizes, developmental periods, breeding success, causes

of nest failures and nest-site characteristics.

METHODS

Study area

The study was carried out between December 2002 and

May 2005 in the core area of Silent Valley National Park (11°

OO’-l 1° 15' N; 76° 15’-76° 35’ E; 90 sq. km; 600-2,383 m above

msl), and surrounding buffer zones in the Western Ghats,

India. Majority of the study area is covered by the ‘West coast

tropical evergreen forest’, with altitudes ranging from 600 to

1,500 m above msl along the Kunthi river and its tributaries,

where the breeding habitat of the species is mainly located.

The forest canopy is dominated by large evergreen trees, such

as Cullenia exarillata , Canarium strictum, Calophyllum

elatum, Eleocarpus serratus, Myristica dactyloides, Mesua

ferrea , Jumbosa munronii, Syzigium spp., Palaquium

ellipticum , Persea macrantha and Poeciloneuron sp. The sub-

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

canopy and understorey is dominated by species such as

Clerodendrum viscosum, Maesa indica, Chloranthus

brachystachys , Ochlandra travancorica and Strobilanthes

spp. The study site receives rains from the south-west

(May-September) and the north-east (October-December)

monsoons. During the study period, annual rainfall ranged

from 4,900 to 8,260 mm, with more than half of it occurring

during the south-west monsoon. Mean minimum and

maximum daily temperatures during the study were 19.83 °C

and 25.78 °C respectively.

Nest searching and monitoring

During the study, nests of Yellow-browed Bulbuls were

located by following individuals carrying nesting material or

food to the nests and by searching vegetation as described by

Martin and Geupel (1993). Once located, the nests were checked

everyday with the help of field assistants to determine the time

of egg laying, clutch size, start and duration of the development

period (incubation and nestling), and fate of the nest. Nests

accessible from the ground were monitored using binoculars,

while higher nests were checked using a pole and mirror. The

clutch initiation dates were determined by direct observation of

egg laying or by calculating known hatching dates and mean

developmental periods. For calculating the development period,

only nests where breeding stage transitions could be observed

directly were considered. Nest size parameters, such as inner

diameter, external diameter, and height and depth to the nearest

centimetre were measured in the field; cup thickness, cup volume

and material volume were calculated using these measurements

(Soler et al. 1998; Balakrishnan 2007). Orientation of the nest

around the substrate plant was recorded to the nearest degree

using a Suunto MCA-D compass.

Nest-site habitat sampling

During the study, habitats were sampled in 108 Yellow-

browed Bulbul nest-sites. Nest height, species, height and

girth at breast height (GBH) of the nest substrate were

recorded immediately after fledging of the young or predation

of a nest. The vegetation structure and other physical variables

were quantified within an 11.3 m radius circular plot

(0.04 ha) around each nest based on standard methods (James

and Shugart 1970; Martin et al. 1996). Within each of the

plots, tree density (number of all trees >10 cm GBH), mean

tree height, mean GBH of all trees, visual estimates of

foliage cover at canopy (trees >10 m height), sub-canopy

(trees =10 m height), shrub, and ground vegetation layers

were measured/calculated. Densities of nest plants, saplings

and shrubs were measured within a 5 m radius circular plot

(0.008 ha) surrounding the nest. Distance from the nest tree

to the adjacent tree, shrub, water and trek path/road was also

measured. Nest concealment was estimated visually as a

percentage of the nest obscured by foliage, 1 m from the nest

in the four cardinal directions and 1 m above the nest. These

estimates were averaged to obtain a single percentage for a nest.

Data analyses

Breeding season and clutch size was determined from

153 nests. The breeding seasonality was determined by

combining the nesting records of each month during three

breeding seasons. The relationship between breeding

seasonality and climatic variables were tested using non-

parametric Spearman’s rank correlation. Climatic data were

collected from the Walakkad forest station of the Kerala

Forests and Wildlife Department. Variation in nest

morphometry in different treatments was compared by

analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA). Variations in the nest

placement attributes between breeding seasons were tested

using Kruskal-Wallis test. Uniform distribution of nest

orientations were tested using non-parametric Watson one-

sample U2 test for circular distributions. Watson-Williams test

was used to evaluate the hypothesis that successful and failed

nests have the same mean orientation (Zar 1999).

Hatching, nestling and breeding success were defined

as; the probability that eggs laid would hatch, that hatchlings

would fledge, and that eggs laid would survive from laying

to fledging, respectively. Nests that produced at least one

young were considered as successful. Hatching, nestling and

breeding success were calculated as an index of the chick

fledged versus eggs laid (Jehle etal. 2004). Daily nest survival

rates (DSR) were estimated using the Mayfield method

(Mayfield 1975). The number of exposure days was calculated

from the interval between the day the first egg was laid or the

day the nest was found if after laying, and the day of fledging.

Daily survival rates and nest success were calculated

separately for the developmental periods (incubation and

nestling), overall nesting period and breeding seasons.

Standard errors for survival rates were calculated based on

the methods described in Johnson (1979).

Univariate analyses (Mests) were used to compare nest-

site characteristics of successful nest-sites with unsuccessful

ones. For these analyses, the data was lumped for all nests

due to within-breeding season sample size constraints and

means ±SE of untransformed data, are presented for ease of

interpretation. All tests were two-tailed, and differences were

considered significant at /?<0.05. Mean ±SD values are

reported throughout unless otherwise indicated. All statistical

analyses were performed by using SPSS 10.0 (SPSS Inc.)

and Oriana 2.0 (Kovach Computing Services).

RESULTS

Start and duration of breeding season

Yellow-browed Bulbul is a resident and early season

breeder. Nest building started in mid-November (first

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

177

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY

Months

Fig. 1 : Breeding season of Yellow-browed Bulbul based on the

number of clutches initiated per month during different breeding

seasons at Silent Valley National Park

observation for the season: November 14, 2003, and

November 17, 2004) and laying of the first egg was observed

in late November (November 21, 2003 and November 25,

2004). Peak in egg-laying occurred during January and

February in all the breeding seasons (Fig. 1). The clutch

completion dates for the last nest were observed on May 01,

2003, April 11, 2004 and April 07, 2005. The number of

clutches initiated per month was negatively correlated to the

monthly rainfall (r$ = -0.826, n=29, /?=0.001 ), and number of

rainy days per month (r, = -0.829, n=29, p=0.001 ; Fig. 2).

Nest construction, placement and orientation

Nests of Yellow-browed Bulbuls were open cups (outer

diameter: 9.35 ±1 .42 cm, inner diameter: 6.41 ±0.87 cm, outer

nest height: 7.43 ±0.93 cm, cup depth: 5.07 ±0.62 cm, nest

thickness: 2.92 ±0.88 cm, cup volume: 452.54 ±154.41 cu. cm,

material volume: 971.89 ±417.51 cu. cm, n=108) made of

mostly materials available in the vicinity of the nest sites.

The structural constituent of the nests were vine tendrils, dry

grass blades, dry leaves of Cinnamomum sulphuratum ,

Chumnianthus sp., Hopea parviflora , Lasianthus spp.,

Ochlandra travancorica, Oreocnide integrifolia and

inflorescence of Antidesma menasu. Innermost lining was

made with fibrous roots of pteridophytes and other soft

material. 80 out of the 108 nests examined were covered with

green moss. There was a significant variation in the

morphometry of the nests covered with moss and those

2003 2004 2005

Year-wise variations

Fig. 2: Relationship between clutch initiations of Yellow-browed

Bulbul with monthly rainfall and number of rainy days/month

at Silent Valley National Park

lacking a moss decoration (Table 1 ). Both sexes participated

in nest building and construction took 3-7 days to complete

(mean = 5.42 ±1.24 days, n=12).

On an average, Yellow-browed Bulbuls placed their

nests 1.62 ±1.19 m (range: 0.5-6. 2 m, n=108) above the

ground at a relative height of 0.64 ±0.13 (range: 0.28-0.93,

n= 1 08). The relative height is the height of nest in relation to

the tree height on which the nest is placed. There was no

significant variation in nest height (Kruskal- Wallis, %2=5.780,

p=0.056), nest plant height (Kruskal-Wallis, %2=1.988,

p=0.370) and relative height (Kruskal-Wallis, %2=4.910,

p=0.086) during the different breeding seasons. Mean nest

orientation (p ± SE) was 168.27 ±22.98° and deviated

slightly from random (Length of mean vector, r = 0.168;

Watson’s U2 = 0. 193, /?<0.05, n=108; Fig. 3).

Clutch size, incubation and nestling periods

Clutch size of Yellow-browed Bulbul ranged from two

to three with 92.16% of nests containing two eggs (mean

clutch size: 2.08 ±0.27 eggs, n=153). Eggs were laid in the

morning, at about 24 hr intervals. Incubation began with clutch

completion and hatching was synchronous within broods.

Average length of incubation period was 12.06 ±0.64 days

(range: 11-13 days, n= 18). Nestling period ranged from 12 to

13 days (mean: 12.76 ±0.44 days, n=17). Overall nesting

period from the start of incubation was 24.85 ±0.69 days

(range: 24-26, n=13).

Table 1 : Variation in the morphometry of nests with moss cover and nests devoid of moss of Yellow-browed Bulbul

in Silent Valley National Park

178

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

—7.5-H01 2.5- 90

Fig. 3: Nest orientation of Yellow-browed Bulbul in trees used

for nesting (n-108 nests, bin width=15°).

Dotted circles indicate scale (% of nests)

by trampling by large vertebrates (Asian Elephant Elephos

maximus , Sambar Cervus unicolor). No brood parasitism was

recorded in the clutches examined.

Nest-site selection

Yellow-browed Bulbul nests ( n= 1 08) were built in at

least 32 plant species with more than 52% nests in 6 species

(Table 4). The nests without moss decoration were placed in

sub-canopy plants such as Antidesma menasu, Callicarpa

tomentosa, Olea dioica , Oreocnide integrifolia and saplings

of Syzigium sp., while majority of the nests with moss cover

were found in the shrub layer. Nest placement attributes and

nest patch characteristics significantly varied between nests

covered with moss and those lacking a moss decoration,

except for the sub-canopy cover, relative nest height and

distance to the trek path/road from the nest (Table 5).

However, there was no variation in the success rates between

nests covered with moss (23.75%) and those lacking a moss

decoration (21 .43%). The only significant difference detected

between successful and unsuccessful nest-sites was

high nest concealment for successful nests (Table 6). Nest

Nesting success

25 of 108 nests (23.15%) Hedged young birds, with

successful nests producing 2.12 ±0.33 young. Overall

hatching (% eggs hatched). Hedging (% hatched chicks

fledging) and breeding success (% eggs fledged) were 42.92%

(97 of 226 eggs), 54.64% (53 fledged out of 97 hatched) and

23.45%, respectively. Daily survival rates (mean ± SE) were

0.923 ±0.009, 0.949 ±0.011 and 0.932 ±0.007 during the

incubation, nestling, and overall nesting periods respectively

(Table 2). The Mayfield nest success rate for the entire

breeding period was 17.21%. The daily survival rates did not

vary between the breeding seasons (Table 3).

Predation was the major cause of nest failure, which is

characterised by the complete loss of eggs or nestlings. Of

the 83 nest failures, at least 71 nests (>85%) failed due to

predation. Predation of eggs and chicks by Common Vine

Snake Ahaetulla nasuta , White-bellied Treepie Dendrocitta

leucogastra, and Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis were

recorded during the study period. Five nests were destroyed

Table 2: Daily nest survival rate and associated variance

and nest success of Yellow-browed Bulbul during different

reproductive phases, Silent Valley National Park,

southern India

orientation also did not vary between the successful (mean

vector, p ±SE= 186.1 1 ±54.31°, n=25) and failed nests (mean

vector, p ±SE = 163.83 ±24.90°, n=83; Watson-Williams test:

F/ J06 = 0.548, /?=0.461).

DISCUSSION

Tropical birds show great heterogeneity of breeding

seasons compared to seasonal breeding in temperate species

(Moreau 1950; Skutch 1950; Ali and Ripley 1987; Wikelski

et al. 2000). Food supply, competition, nesting conditions,

predation pressure and climatic factors are the ultimate factors

known to influence the breeding time. Majority of the

pycnonotids occur in the equatorial rainforests and tropical

islands, and breed throughout the year and raise several broods

(Ali and Ripley 1987; Fishpool and Tobias 2005). Ali and

Ripley (1987) reported February to May as the breeding

season of Yellow-browed Bulbul. The present study indicates

that they start breeding by mid-November and continue

throughout the dry season in the Silent Valley National Park.

They avoided breeding during the south-west monsoon

Table 3: Daily nest survival rate and associated variance and

nest success of Yellow-browed Bulbul during different breeding

seasons, Silent Valley National Park, southern India

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

179

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

months as in the case of other pycnonotids occurring in the

area (Balakrishnan 2007; in press). Furthermore, the breeding

activities coincide with the general fruiting phenology of the

study area, which shows a bimodal fruiting pattern

(Balakrishnan 2007). Peak egg laying occurs about one month

prior to the peak fruiting during late summer and early south-

west monsoon (March-May). Higher levels of frugivory and

generalism in the diet could be the reason for the early start

of breeding compared to the other high altitude species, such

as Square-tailed Black Bulbul Hypsipetes ganeesa.

Ali and Ripley ( 1987) reported that the nests of Yellow-

browed Bulbuls are quite unlike that of other pycnonotids

and more like a large White-eye’s nest. This is true for the

nests devoid of moss cover, but nests with moss decoration

are larger in size (Table 1 ) and comparable with that of other

bulbul species. More than 92% of nests had two eggs, and

the remaining three. Ali and Ripley ( 1987) also reported the

clutch size as two or three (two in Sri Lanka), which is the

typical range of most African and Asian species of bulbuls

(Fishpool and Tobias 2005). The incubation (12 days) and

nestling periods (13 days) fall within the typical range of

most species of bulbuls (11-14 days) (Liversidge 1970;

Vijayan 1975, 1980; Waiting 1983; Ali and Ripley 1987; Hsu

and Lin 1997; Kruger 2004; Fishpool and Tobias 2005;

Balakrishnan 2007; in press). Overall nesting period from

the start of nest construction was about a month. This along

with the long breeding season indicates that species raise

multiple broods. However, the number of nesting attempts

per season was not determined in the present study due to the

lack of colour marking of birds.

About 23% nests produced fledglings, which is similar

to that of the higher altitude pycnonotids breeding at Silent

Valley (Balakrishnan 2007; in press), but higher than that

reported for the lowland species, such as White-browed

Pycnonotus lutelolus (13.2%) and Red-vented Bulbuls

Pycnonotus cafer (8.3%) in southern India (Vijayan 1975,

1980). The Mayfield nest success rate (17.21%) is also higher

in Yellow-browed Bulbul than in Grey-headed (10.79%) and

Square-tailed Black (12.84%) Bulbuls breeding in the same

habitats (Balakrishnan 2007; in press). However, the nest

Table 4: Plant species used as nest substrates by Yellow-browed Bulbul during 2002-2005 at Silent Valley National Park with their

frequency, height characteristics and success rate

180

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

predation rates are slightly higher than that reported for the

tropical passerines (71%) (Robinson et al. 2000; Stutchbury

and Morton 2001). Nest predation was significantly higher

during the incubation stage than in the nestling stage. This is

opposition to the predictions of parental activity hypothesis

(Skutch 1949), which states that nests may suffer higher

predation rates during the nestling stage because of increased

parental activity and nestling noise. Higher nest predation

during incubation has also been reported in several other species

(Martin 1992; Mermoz and Reboreda 1998; Balakrishnan

2007). Moreover, variation in nest-site quality can often

influence nest predation, and such effects could mask parental

activity effects on nest predation (Martin etal. 2000). Predation

was the major factor limiting breeding success in Yellow-

browed Bulbul, as has been reported for other open-cup nesting

passerines (Ricklefs 1969; Martin 1993, 1995). Two species

of birds (White-bellied Treepie, Greater Coucal ) and one snake

species (Common Vine Snake) have been confirmed as nest

predators by direct observations. Species such as Black-winged

Kite Elanus caeruleus , Common Rat Snake Elyas mucosus

and Jungle Striped Squirrel Funambulus tristriatus are also

recorded as nest predators of other bulbul species at Silent

Valley (Balakrishnan 2007). Other likely predators include

several species of small carnivores, corvids, forest raptors,

dusky squirrels and colubrid snakes.

Nests with green moss cover were placed in the shrub

layer and had a complex vegetation structure surrounding

them compared to that of the nests devoid of moss decoration

(Table 5). However, variation in nest placement attributes

and vegetation structure between nests covered with moss

and those lacking moss decoration did not reflect in the

nesting success. Thus, a moss decoration in the shrub layer

with more foliage cover and lack of moss cover in nests

placed higher off the ground with low foliage cover could

be different anti-predator strategies in respective

microhabitats (Collias and Collias 1984; Hansell 2000).

Yellow-browed Bulbuls seem to be generalists in nest

substrate selection and they used at least 32 plant species as

nest-sites at Silent Valley. Such generalist habits may have

disadvantages like increased nest failures because nesting in

more forms of vegetation may expose a bird species to a

greater variety of predators, thus lessening the likelihood of

evolving efficient anti-predator nesting behaviour (Best and

Stauffer 1980). However, higher predation rates are reported

for high altitude species, such as Grey-headed Bulbul and

Square-tailed Black Bulbul, irrespective of the specificity

in the substrates selected for nesting (Balakrishnan 2007; in

press). Nest concealment was the only habitat variable that

acted as a predictor of nest success in Yellow-browed Bulbul.

Similar results were obtained when the successful and

unsuccessful nests of two groups (nests covered with moss

and nests lacking moss cover) were compared separately.

However, it is highly unlikely that a single attribute of nesting

habitat can determine the fate of the nests given that nest

searching techniques, and ability to detect nest-site patches,

vary substantially among predators (Chase 2002). Thus,

further information on the predator communities and their

behaviour, and experimental manipulations are required to

understand factors influencing habitat selection and nest

success of Yellow-browed Bulbul.

Table 5: Comparison of the nest-site characteristics of nests with moss cover (n=80) and nests devoid of moss cover (n=28,

df=1 06). Shown are means ± SE of untransformed variables and results of t- tests

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

181

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL

‘significant values

Shown are means ± SE of untransformed variables and results of (-tests.

CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Yellow-browed Bulbuls followed the general

pattern of life history traits of other high altitude species, but

they had a longer breeding season, heterogeneity in nest plant

and site selection similar to that of low-altitude bulbuls. The

role of habitat attributes, other than nest concealment, is not

clear from the study. More information on growth rates,

parental care patterns, nest predators and their behaviour, and

nest success rates in disturbed habitats would help to

understand the geographic diversity of avian reproductive

traits and variation in the life history patterns in the tropical-

temperate systems.

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183

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

184-189

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS

IN VILLAGE AREA OF SAURASHTRA REGION

Varsha Trivedi1

Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India. Email: [email protected]

An ecological study was carried out to determine the quantitative and qualitative community structure and population of

spiders in Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea Linn.) crop fields. Spiders were collected at random following a quadrat method

(each quadrat of 1 sq. m taken per visit, total count 25 quadrats), 25 visits every week, during the crop season from July

to November, 2002, at Munjka village of Rajkot, Gujarat State. A total of 809 spiders, belonging to 37 species under

22 genera and 10 families were collected. They were classified into three guilds based on their predatory behaviour as

hunting, ambushing and web building; the percent of spiders within active groups was 68.48, 14.83, and 16.69 respectively.

The largest numbers of individuals collected belonged to the families Salticidae (27.69%), Lycosidae (24.23%), Oxyopidae

(11.25%), and Philodromidae (11.13%). The most abundant genera were Marpissa , Pardosa , Oxyopes and Theridion.

The most abundant salticid and lycosid identified to species were Plexippus paykulli (Audouin) (4.94%) and Pardosa

pseudoannulata (Bosenberg and Strand) (4.94%) respectively. Maximum density of spiders was observed during the

flowering stage of the crop in September, thereafter it decreased, and evenness index (e) was almost higher (3.0) in

Groundnut crop-ecosystem. The results indicated that an increased diversity index (H’ ) was correlated with crop growth

and it ranked as October - 3.94 > September - 3.89 > August - 2.73 >Nov - 0.99 > July - 0.0.

Key words: Spiders, diversity, index (H'), groundnut, crop stages

INTRODUCTION

Spiders serve as biocontrol agents (CIKS 2002). The

role of spiders in the biogenesis of different agro-ecosystems

has been studied by Doane and Dondale ( 1 979). Spiders form

one of the most ubiquitous groups of predaceous organisms

in the animal kingdom (Riechert and Lockley 1984). They

are predators of thrips, insect larvae, aphids, plant bugs, leaf

hoppers, and flies as reported by Nyffeler and Benz ( 1980).

This study reports the predatory activities, species

composition, density, relative density, richness (d), evenness

index (e) and species diversity ( H ' ) of the spiders in

groundnut (Arachis hypogaea Linn.) in relation to the crop

growth stages.

METHODS AND STUDY AREA

The study was carried out during July to November

2002 in a groundnut field at Munjka village, near Saurashtra

University Campus, Rajkot (22° 34' N; 70° 53' E; 138 m above

msl). The climate is tropical arid to semiarid with three distinct

seasons: monsoon, winter and summer. Rainfall is erratic,

annual rainfall during 2002 was 385 mm. Groundnut - G-4

(hybrid variety) was sown in a 7,082 sq. m area of Black

cotton soil. The crop was irrigated once by river water. The

kharif (autumn) crop is usually sown in July in Saurashtra

and the vegetative phase is complete by early September. The

reproductive phase lasts until mid-October and the crop is

harvested during November. A single dose of insecticide was

sprayed during the reproductive phase of the crop (25 mg

Parphate (Acephate 75% S. P.127 powder) and 10 ml

Monocrotophos 36% S.L. mixed in 15/ water).

Collections were made once a week, a total of 25 visits

using the quadrat method (each quadrat of lm x lm per visit).

Invented spiders were caught by bare handpicking (0700 to

0900 hrs; 1600 to 1800 hrs) at random and by pitfall traps

(one pitfall per quadrat) completed both method under total

25 quadrats. The spiders were then preserved in 70% ethyl

alcohol in plastic tubes. Identifications were done using

Tikader and Malhotra (1980), Tikader and Biswas (1981),

Tikader (1982), Pocock (1985), Majumder and Tikader

(1991), and Gajbe (1999). Unidentified new species were

considered up to genus level. Systematics was updated by

Siliwal and Molur (2007).

The following formulae were used for quantitative

analysis;

• Spider density = Total number of Individuals / Total

number of quadrats

• Relative density = Spider density for a given month /

Sum of spider densities over collection period x 100

• Familial percentage of species = (Number of species

from a given family / Total number of species collected

from all families) x 100

Ecological indices for qualitative analysis:

• Shannon Weiner Index (1948) of spider species

diversity

H’ « 3.321928/N (N log10N - 1 ni^og^n.)

where, N is the total number of specimens and n the

total number of species

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS OF SAURASHTRA

• Species richness (d) as per Margalof (1958)

d = (S-l) / log N

where, S = total number of species for a given month,

N = number of total individuals for a given month

® Evenness index (e) as per Pielou ( 1966)

e = H’ / log S

where, S = total number of species for a given month,

H' = Shannon Weiner diversity index

Table 1 : Distribution of Spiders by Predatory Groups in Groundnut fields

S.No. Spider Species Total Occurrence of Spiders

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

185

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS OF SAURASHTRA

Table 1 : Distribution of Spiders by Predatory Groups in Groundnut fields ( contd .)

Note: Asterisk (*) indicates common spider species reported by Patel and Pillai (1 988); Non-bold alphabets and numericals

in parentheses indicate specific age status for a given group of spiders;

Bold numericals indicate unidentified species.

Abbreviations: A - adult; S - subadult; J - juvenile

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Out of 809 specimens, 37 species belonging to 22 genera

and 10 families were identified (Table 1). About 57.23% of

the population were juveniles, 5.56% were subadults, 34.86%

were adults and 2.35% adults and subadults of unidentified

new species. The spiders were classified according to their

predatory behaviour following Satpathi (2004). (i) Hunting

spiders with 25 species (68.48%) belonging to Lycosidae,

Clubionidae, Salticidae, Oxyopidae, Miturgidae and

Sparassidae; (ii) Ambushing spiders with 7 species (14.83%)

of Thomisidae and Philodromidae, and (iii) Web building

spiders comprising 5 species (16.69%) of Theridiidae and

Araneidae. The numerically dominant family and genus rank

are summarised in Table 2.

Hunting Group

(i) Lycosidae - is the second most dominant family in

available spiders and species-wise stands on first position.

Members of this group were present during all the growth

stages of groundnut, represented by 1 0 species from 4 genera;

and two unidentified species one each of genus Evippa and

Pardosa (Table 1 ). Genus Evippa , Lycosa , and Pardosa were

common, while Hippasa was found rarely. Throughout the

crop season (July-November), juveniles and subadults were

found in almost equal proportion to the adults. Females were

more abundant than males by a ratio of 8: 1 among Lycosids.

Females with cocoons were found during the reproductive

phase of the crop from mid-September to November. Of all

spiders identified to species, Pardosa pseudoannulata

(Bosenberg and Strand) and Plexippus paykulli (Audouin)

of Salticids were the most abundant, followed by Pardosa

birmanica Simon and Lycosa tista Tikader respectively

(Table 1 ). Adult females and males of Evippa rajasthaneus

were collected only during late November.

(ii) Clubionidae - Clubionids (0.49%) was the tenth

most abundant family caught with only juvenile females of

a single species collected during the reproductive stage of

the crop (mid-September to mid-October).

(iii) Salticidae - is one of the most dominant family

represented by eight species from six genera, and two

unidentified species, found during almost the entire crop

season from August to October. Adult females of Phlegm

dhakuriensis (Tikader) (2.6% of total females collected) and

Marpissci bengalensis Tikader (2.5%) were collected in

September and October, respectively; adult males of

Telamonia dimidiata (Simon) (8.64%) were also collected

in September. Other Salticid species of both sexes were

found in good numbers during late August to October.

Juveniles of the genera Marpissa and Telamonia were more

numerous during the vegetative stage of the crop (late

August to early September). During flowering and early

pod forming stage of crop (mid-September to mid-October),

more adult males and females were caught. During August-

September fewer females than males were observed,

while females dominated in October only. Rhene sp. was

found the least (0.49% of total spiders collected);

whereas Marpissa sp. (1 1 .25%), Telamonia sp. (4.94%) and

Plexippus paykulli (Audouin) (4.94%) were caught

frequently.

186

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS OF SAURASHTRA

F airily

Fig. 1 : Familial percentage of species

Abbreviations: L - Lycosidae, C - Clubionidae, S - Salticidae,

O - Oxyopidae, Tho - Thomisidae, The - Theridiidae,

A - Aranidae, M - Miturgidae, Ph - Philodromidae,

Sp - Sparassidae

(iv) Oxyopidae - All Oxyopids were found during the

late vegetative and early reproductive stage of the crop (late

September-mid October). Peak abundance of adults was

reached from early to mid-October. Males of Oxyopes shweta

Tikader (2.47%) were seen on the upper parts of the plants

during early October. The number of juvenile females

increased considerably by late September - mid October. The

number of female Oxyopids (i.e., 61/30) exceeded the number

of males by a ratio of 2: 1 .

(v) Miturgidae - Members of this family have been

reported to be important as pest-control agents in the

agricultural sector (Sewlal and Cutler 2003). Two species of

Cheiracanthium (3.59%) were recorded to be most abundant

during the reproductive phase of the crop (late September-

October). Adult males of Cheiracanthium poonensis (4.94%)

were observed only during October. Subadull males and

juvenile females of Cheiracanthium sp. Koch were observed

from late September to October.

(vi) Sparassidae - These giant crab-spiders were the

ninth most abundant family observed running over plants

and hiding under dead leaves in only October. The adult

and immature females represent 2 species, 2 genera and

2 unidentified adult spiders of Heteropoda sp. Latreille and

juvenile females of Olios sp. Walckenaer, were caught in early

October.

Ambushing Group

(i) Thomisidae - Three species of Thomisus (3.7%)

were caught during the flowering and pod forming stage of

crop during mid to late October with only female spiders.

They were found moving over the terminal buds and flowers.

Thomisus is the eleventh most abundant genus

(Table 2). An adult female Thomisus dhakuriensis Tikader

was collected in late October.

(ii) Philodromidae - Members of this fast runner

family were represented by 4 species and 3 genera. They were

caught in vegetative to mid-reproductive stage of the crop

(mid- August to mid-October). The female to male ratio of this

family was 3.5:1. The adult and juvenile spiders of Thanatus

dhakuriensis Tikader and Philodromus sp. Walckenaer

respectively were most abundant (almost three times more of

all philodromids) in only September. The adult male and female

spiders of genus Thanatus were collected in August and

October respectively. Thanatus dhakuriensis Tikader was the

second most abundant spider species (Table 1 ).

Web Building Group

(i) Theridiidae - This was the fifth most abundant

family, represented by 2 species of Theridion (Table 1).

Theridiids were observed during the late vegetative to

flowering stage of the crop (September and October). The

female to male ratio of this family was 4.4: 1 . All subadults

and juveniles of Theridion sp. were found in October only.

(ii) Araneidae - This group included 3 species from

2 genera and two unidentified species of the genera Neoscona

and Araneus. Neoscona sinhagadensis Tikader (2.47%) and

Neoscona sp. (4.82%) were most abundant during the

flowering stage of the crop (late September to October). The

subadult female of Araneus sp. was caught in mid-October.

The female to male ratio in this family is 5: 1 .

Table 2: Family and Genus rank in available spiders of

groundnut field

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

187

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS OF SAURASHTRA

Table 3: Spider density, relative density, species diversity (FT), species richness (d) and evenness index (e)

in relation to growth period of groundnut crop

The status of females and males among predatory

groups was analyzed (Table 1 ). It revealed that the percentage

of female spiders (78.7%) was nearly four times higher than

for males (21.3%) within all hunters. The other two groups,

i.e. Ambushing (females - 83.3%) and web building (females

- 82.2%), showed very close female to male ratios of about

5:1. Hunting (68.5%) spiders formed the most abundant group

while the ambushing group of spiders was least numerous in

the groundnut field. An analysis of age status for males and

females revealed that the percentage of juveniles was 57.23%

that of subadults was 5.56%, that of adults was 34.86% and

that of unidentified new species was 2.35%. A high percentage

of juveniles reveal that (1) ecological factors like humidity,

temperature, edaphic factor, food availability etc. and their

relation to physiological activities (Barghusen etal. 1997) of

spider as food and feeding, breeding were maintained at such

kind of habitat (2) predominant juveniles were of monsoon

breeding families like Lycosidae, Salticidae, Clubionidae,

Oxyopidae etc. (3) prolong vegetative and reproductive phase

of the crop and constant irrigation provide increased insect

food sources.

Assessments in relation to Crop Growth

Out of 809 specimens, a total of 8 individuals from

one species of Pardosa sp. Koch were collected during July,

1 38 specimens of 8 species during August, 298 specimens of

20 species during September and 356 specimens of 23 species

during October. Only 9 specimens of 2 species were collected

during late November in three visits (Table 3). The catch was

very poor after the crop was harvested. This data supports

the results of Patel and Pillai ( 1988) with some similar species

in the same crop. The spider density was highest during

September (60 individuals /sq. m); it dropped to 36 individuals

/sq. m in October. The dominant species during September

included Mcirpissa sp., Philodromus sp., Neoscona sp.,

Oxyopes sp., Lycosa tista , and Tibelhts sp. The relative density

was therefore also highest during September (45.8%). The

species composition changed with the growth period of the

crop and the species diversity (H’) decreased according to

the following trend: October (3.94) > September (3.89) >

August (2.73) > November (0.99) > July (0.0). Spider species

richness (d) followed a similar trend with the growth period

of the groundnut crop as shown in Table 3. This supports

the hypothesis of Pianka (1966) that as the crop growth

increases the prey availability allows more species to co-

exist. The evenness index of the spider species was almost

high (e = 3.0) during groundnut crop growth phase. This

supports the statement of Pielou (1966) that the evenly

distribution of spiders increases with decreases in stress; as

the most of value is higher from zero during entire crop

growth phase. The familial percentage of species for the

families Lycosidae (27.03%), Salticidae (21.62%), and

Philodromidae (10.81%) were especially high (Fig. 1). Out

of 809 spiders, 647 were females (79.98%) and 162 were

males (20.02%) with a sex ratio of 4:1. Generally, the male

dies after mating and the female dies in winter after laying

several hundred eggs.

In similar studies, at different locations in Gujarat,

dominant families observed were Theridiidae (18.96%),

Lycosidae (17.90%), Salticidae (12.32%), Clubionidae

(10.06%) and Thomisidae (8.51%) (Patel and Pillai 1988).

Differences may be due to ecological variations like

temperature, humidity, and edaphic factors. Moreover, this

may reflect physiological activity of spiders. Spiders are

exothermic animals both their metabolic rate and their activity

levels vary with temperature and humidity as stated by

Barghusen etal. (1997).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Prof. V.C. Soni for providing laboratory facilities,

and Prof. S.P. Singh, Department of Biosciences

for encouragement. This work would not have succeeded

without the cooperation of the groundnut field owner

Mr. Nanjibhai, who allowed collecting the spiders

188

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS OF SAURASHTRA

from his field; M.Sc. Student Hemal Kiratsata for data

collection of spiders. I am thankful to Spider Expert

Dr. B.H. Patel for confirmation of identified species and

Dr. M. I. Patel, M.N. Science College, Visnagar, for his

valuable opinions on the manuscript and to the Editor

and anonymous referee for valuable suggestions and

improving the quality of this paper. Thanks are also

due to University Grant Commission, New Delhi, for

providing financial assistance under DSA project during

the study.

REFERENCES

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Doane, J.F. & C.D. Dondale (1979): Seasonal captures of spiders in a

wheat field and its grassy borders in Central Saskatchewan,

Canadian Entomologist 111(4): 439-446.

Gajbe, U.A. ( 1999): Studies on some spiders of the family: Oxyopidae

( Araneae: Arachnida) from India. Records of the Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta. Occ. Pap. No. 97 (part 3): Pp. 31-79.

Majumder, S.C. & B.K. Tikader (1991): Studies on some spiders of

the family Clubionidae from India. Records of the Zoological

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Patel, B.H. & G.K. Pillai (1988): Studies on the spider fauna of

groundnut fields in Gujarat, India. J. of Biol. Control. 2(2): 83-88.

Pianka, E.R. ( 1966): Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review

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131-144.

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Annals of Review of Entomology 29: 299-320.

Satpathi, C.R. (2004): Predacious spiders of crop pests. Capital

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Sewlal, J.A.N. & B. Cutler (2003): Annotated List of Spider Families

( Araneidae) of Trinidad and Tobago. Living World, Jr. Trinidad

and Tobago Field Naturalist' Club, Pp. 9-13.

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Siliwal, M. & S. Molur (2007): Checklist of spiders (Arachnida:

Araneae) of south Asia including the 2006 update oflndian spider

checklist. Zoos' Print Journal 22 (2): 2551-2597.

Tikader, B.K. (1982): The Fauna of India -Araneae. Vol. II. Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 1-553.

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- Part I. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Occ.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

189

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

190-197

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT

LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS AND THEIR CONSERVATION IN THE FLOODPLAINS

OF BIHAR, INDIA

Arvind Mishra1'2 and Jai Nandan Mandal1

'Mandar Nature Club, Anand Chikitsalaya Road, Bhagalpur 812 002, Bihar, India.

2Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

A new breeding population of the Greater Adjutant has been discovered in Bihar in the Ganga and Kosi river floodplains

( diara ) in 2006-07. Earlier its breeding was reported only from Cambodia and Assam (India). This breeding population

was found almost restricted to a single colony in the Important Bird Area, Kursela river course and floodpain (diara).

First site was at Ganga diara (25° 15.142' N; 86° 48.480' E) in Bhagalpur district, where two nests were located on a

single tree in October 2006. We surveyed nine districts of the state, mostly north to the Ganga river up to the border of

Nepal. Sixteen nests were found in Kosi diara on four trees by the end of January 2007, where the Greater Adjutant

had successfully bred. In 2007-08, of the 35 nests recorded on 10 nesting trees, 9 in the Kosi diara and 1 in Ganga

diara , 32 nests were successful.

The conservation efforts and surveys continued for two successive seasons, i.e., 2006-2007 and 2007-2008. In 2006-

2007, 25 juveniles and in 2007-2008, 64 juveniles fledged from the nests, of which 8 were from Ganga diara, and

56 were from Kosi diara. Globally, the population of this rare Stork is declining, whereas in Bihar its population has

shown a remarkable increasing trend in recent years.

Key words: Greater Adjutant, Leptoptilos ditbiits, new breeding ground, conservation, increasing population trend

INTRODUCTION

The Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius is probably

the rarest and most endangered stork in the world; categorized

in the Red list of IUCN (2008) as Endangered. The recent

estimate of its total population is 650-800 individuals

(Wetlands International 2006). It was known to breed only

in Cambodia and Assam (India). Once abundant in many

Asian countries, till the beginning of twentieth century, it

has become rare or extinct from most of its past distribution

range, and is now confined to the Brahmaputra Valley of

Assam, India (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1989; Rahmani et

al. 1990), with a small breeding population of 100-150 in

Cambodia (Mundkur et al. 1995). The recently discovered

population of Greater Adjutant in Bihar has probably not

been considered while estimating the total world population.

Presently, this endangered species has been placed under

schedule IV of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Amendment

Act, 2006(39 of 2006).

After the discovery of a few nests of the Greater Adjutant,

we approached the Wildlife Trust of India ( WTI) who supported

us with a Rapid Action Project (RAP) under their Wild Aid

Program for the protection of the breeding colony.

The prime objective of ibis project was to provide

direct protection to the Greater Adjutant from ally disturbance

in their breeding ground, hunting by Banpar - a nomadic

hunting tribe locally known as ‘Gulgulwa’, protection of

nesting trees, reducing the chance of mortality of chicks due

to accidental fall, locating other nesting sites in the adjoining

area, spreading awareness among the locals and taking

advocacy measures for the protection of the species and their

habitat.

Background

Since the beginning of this century, the Greater

Adjutant was being regularly reported foraging in and around

the river course of Ganga in the Bhagalpur district, Bihar.

Some old records exist from north Bihar, i.e., one in July

1 90 1 from Darbhanga (Inglis 1 904), one in April 1988, from

Purnea (Rahmani et al. 1990), eight in March 1981, from

Kishanganj (N. Krabbe pers. comm, in 1985), and six in April

1988, from Kursela (Rahmani et al. 1990). The best survey

count of 53 individuals of this species was recorded in

Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur in May,

2006 (Choudhary and Mishra 2006). This was indicative of

a breeding population somewhere nearby. The breeding of

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus (LA ) was also reported

for the first time in Bihar in 2004 (Mishra et al. 2004, 2006).

This was also suggesting the possibility of finding the

breeding of Greater Adjutant in this area.

STUDY AREA

An extensive survey was conducted from mid March

to end April 2007, in the nine north-eastern districts of Bihar,

namely Bhagalpur, Khagaria, Katihar, Purnea, Madhepura,

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

Saharsa, Supaul, Arana and Kishanganj in an area between

25° 15.141’-26° 31.646’ N and 86° 08.345' -88° 09.165’ E,

extending up to the border of Nepal in the north and

Bangladesh in the east.

Though, the main breeding colony of Greater Adjutant

was found at Kadwa diara Panchayat in the Kosi river

floodplains, adjacent areas like Khairpur Panchayat, Dholbajja

and Chausa also seemed to be potential breeding sites.

Ganga diara

In Ganga diara , the nests of Greater Ad jutant were first

located in 2006 at Naya tola Basa of Motichak near Sultanganj

in the district of Bhagalpur (25° 15. 142' N; 86°48.480' E). In

2007, the nests of Greater Adjutant were built in Madhopur-

Manharpur villages, about 18 km north-west to Bhagalpur

(25° 15.765’ N; 86° 5 1.406' E).

These sites are a little away from the road and less

frequented by people. But the farmers have their settlements

for agricultural and dairy purpose here. The area remains

inundated during the monsoon but in the remaining months,

the main crops cultivated are maize, wheat, pulses, oil yielding

seeds, and potato. Parthanium hysterophorus and Cannabis

sativa are the major problematic weeds in the cultivating

fields. Some bamboos and trees, such as Acacia nilotica ,

Bombax ceiba , and Ficus religiosa are found scattered in the

crop fields, but there were no bamboos under the tree where

birds were found breeding. People were found helpful in

protecting these birds.

Kosi diara

According to villagers, the Greater Adjutant have been

found breeding in the Kadwa Kosi diara , north to the Kosi

river since the last 10-15 years while some report their

breeding since the last 25 years. They are breeding here in

different tolas (villages), namely Kasimpur, Ashram tola ,

Lakhminia, Khairpur, Pratapnagar in the Bhagalpur district,

and Khalifa tola, in the Madhepura district, at the border of

Bhagalpur district.

These sites are at an aerial distance of about 23 km

north-east of Bhagalpur and about 28 km north-east from the

Ganga diara breeding sites on the northern-most boundary

of Bhagalpur district at the border of Madhepura.

The area is under agriculture and some large trees, such

as Ficus religiosa , Bombax ceiba. Ficus infectoria. Ficus

bengalensis, Syzigium cumini, Gmelina arborea, Dalbergia

sisso. Ficus glomerulata. Acacia nilotica, and Terminalia

arjuna were observed in the area. There are orchards of

Mangifera indica and Litchi chinensis at a few places. The

orchards of Bombax ceiba are grown for commercial

purposes. Bamboo is commonly grown for commercial as

well as for household purposes. The main crops of the area

are maize, wheat, pulses, oil yielding seeds and potato. The

area is affected by flood almost every year. However, the

land is not eroded by flood water as is the common character

elsewhere in Hood affected areas, where rivers and water

channels change their course frequently. The villages are

devoid of electricity, telephone lines and other basic facilities

and the area is not easily accessible.

The Greater Adjutant was seen breeding on trees in the

middle of the cultivating fields and also in the courtyard of

village houses.

METHODOLOGY

The surveys were accomplished using four wheelers,

two wheelers and boats, but at times we walked on foot where

approach was inaccessible by any vehicle. The settlements

of Banpar, a nomadic hunting tribe, were also identified.

Locals were appointed at both Ganga and Kosi diara

to observe the birds and report to us. They were provided

mobile phone, binocular, camera and data collection sheets

to note observations. Safety nets, made of thick nylon lined

with soft muslin cloth were placed under a few trees initially

to protect the hatchlings/chicks/fledglings from casualty in

case they fell from the nest. This measure had been effective

in protecting the chicks of Greater Ad jutant in Assam, where

the fallen chicks were relocated to the nests. In case of

rejection by the parents, the chicks were hand-reared. The

only option available was the local village veterinary doctor,

who could provide immediate medical care to the chicks

during emergency. The forest officials at local and state level,

and zoo authorities at Patna, were contacted to provide the

transport and medical facilities to the injured birds.

Placing of safety nets did not prove much useful in this

case as falling of nests was not common, also it did not protect

the falling chicks where bamboo grew under the trees.

For creating awareness, village meetings were arranged

in the breeding and foraging grounds of the Greater and Lesser

adjutants, signage were erected and pamphlets were

distributed. The villagers, local leaders of gram panchayat

(village council), teachers, school students, village elders,

local political workers and police officers were also involved

in the meetings to support the awareness programmes. The

print and electronic media were contacted to add value to our

conservation efforts. As a conservation measure, the adjutants

were linked with religious beliefs, epics, spirit and mythology.

OBSERVATIONS

During our regular bird watching trips, two pairs of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

191

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

Table 1: Ganga diara (Flood Plains) Site 2007-2008

Greater Adjutant were observed building nests on Bombax

ceiba in October 2006, in the Ganga diara at Naya tola ,

Motichak in the Bhagalpur district; there were seven nests

of Lesser Adjutant on the same tree. The Greater Adjutant

had build nests here for the first time, while the Lesser

Adjutants are known to breed since 7-8 years. This is the first

report of Greater Adjutant nesting outside Cambodia and Assam

(India) in 50-60 years. But in January, both the nests were

dismantled due to unknown reasons. Only some broken pieces

of fresh egg shells were found under the tree with some yolk.

Subsequently, nine districts of the state were explored,

and a new breeding colony of Greater Adjutant was discovered

in the Kosi Kadwa diara with 16 nests recorded by end

January 2007 (Table 2). The nests were protected by

appointing watchers, placing safety nets under the trees and

spreading awareness. Twenty-five chicks fledged successfully

from the Kosi Kadwa diara by end May 2007.

During 2007-2008, no nest of Greater Adjutant or

Lesser Adjutant was build at the old site on Bombax ceiba at

Motichak in Ganga diara. They had visited this tree in August

2007, but did not attempt to build a nest as a troop of Hanuman

Langur had stayed on this tree for two days and scared all the

Adjutants. There seemed to be no other disturbance at this

breeding site, other than that by Langurs as reported by the

local people.

In October 2007, Lesser Adjutant were found about

one km south-east from the original site, while Greater

Adjutant had shifted about 6-7 km south-east to Madhopur-

Manharpur villages (Table 1). Both Lesser Adjutant and

Greater Adjutant had arrived at this site for the first time for

breeding. According to the locals. Lesser Adjutant had arrived

since July, while the Greater Adjutant followed a little later.

The Greater Adjutant generally breeds in colonies. At

a site in Ganga diara , we recorded four nests on a huge Ficus

religiosa along with three nests of the Lesser Adjutant on the

same tree. Altogether, seven nests were found, in addition to

one incomplete nest on the tree. All the four nests were

successful and by the end of third week of April 2008, eight

juveniles fledged. This appears to be first successful breeding

record of the Greater Adjutant in the Ganga diara.

In December 2007, 3 1 nests were recorded in the Kosi

diara. Three were dismantled later for unknown reasons, and

out of remaining 28 nests, 56 chicks fledged.

With further support from the Rapid Action Project of

the Wildlife Trust of India, conservation measures were taken

from March 2007 to May 2008 to protect these breeding

birds in both Kosi and Ganga diara. The impact of

awareness undertaken in 2006-07 was seen in 2007-08. From

32 successful nests, 64 chicks (Table 3) had hatched, but

61 ultimately survived (Table 4). This when compared to

1 8 nests built in 2006-2007, 16 were successful and 25 juveniles

were added to the Greater Adjutant population in Bihar.

The Greater Adjutant has been reported breeding in

Kadwa Kosi diara since the last 10-15 years, but their

population has not increased much during this period. This

was probably due to the number of threats the birds were

facing, and because the locals were not aware about the

importance of this highly endangered species.

For the last two years, the Greater Adjutants build nests

in the Ganga diara. This is certainly a positive sign for the

Greater Ad jutant as they have extended their breeding range

to Ganga diara after establishing their colony at Kosi diara.

Table 2: Kosi diara (Flood Plains) Sites 2006-2007

192

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

Table 3: The details of different sites of Kosi diara in the 2007-08

The tree owners were annoyed with the breeding

Greater Adjutant as they littered the ground and excreted on

their cattle causing wounds. On the other hand, children were

seen collecting fish dropped by the parent bird while feeding

its juveniles.

The detail accounts of different sites of Ganga and Kosi

diaras are shown in the Tables.

Threats in the breeding ground

Some major threats to Greater Adjutant observed during

our study were by Banpar, a nomadic hunting tribe that often

steal eggs, and kill birds and their chicks. Felling and chopping

the nesting trees, natural disaster like thunder storm, falling

of nests and chicks, accidental trap of juveniles in fishing

nets, lack of awareness among the people, annoyance caused

to the villagers by breeding birds by littering the courtyard

and excreting on the cattle, disturbance by the tree dwelling

animals, such as Hanuman Langur and increasing population

of nesting Lesser Adjutant in the breeding zone of Greater

Adjutant, were some of the threats in the breeding ground.

Threats and efforts in the foraging ground

The Greater Adjutant remains at risk in its foraging

ground, especially when juveniles come to feed. Some

instances of their being trapped in the nets of fishermen have

also been reported. On one such occasion, one juvenile was

beaten to death with a bamboo pole by a fisherman in June

2007. Probably the young bird had gone in search of an easy

catch from the fishing net.

A juvenile was caught in a village at Bhawanipur,

Narayanpur while foraging in early May 2008. This was

reported in a leading Hindi newspaper, Dainik Jagran. The

children were playing with this bird while the villagers

surrounded it out of curiosity. The area is well-known for

bird trading on National Highway 31, especially ducks,

waders, Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus. This place is

Table 4: Mortality of Greater Adjutant

* - these 4 nests were destroyed by the locals

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

193

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

about 16 km north from the Ganga diara breeding site and

about 25 km south-west from the Kosi diara site in aerial

distance. With the help of policemen and a press reporter, the

bird was rescued and released to join its flock again. Two

days later, a juvenile was found dead in the crop field of Ganga

diara in the same area. It seemed to have died about 10 days

ago and had probably fallen prey to a predator.

Caring the injured chicks/juveniles

In March 2007, a chick at Ashram tola had fallen from

the tree on the ground and was badly injured in the head and

neck region due to the bamboo spikes. A local veterinary

doctor dressed the wounds with Savlon, an antiseptic solution.

The chick seemed to be about a month old and weighed around

5.5 kg. At this stage (about 5 weeks) the chicks try to leap in

the air (Singha et al. 2003) and fall from the nest. It was

conscious and standing on its feet. Further, the chick had been

injected with Dexona (asteroid) 1.5 ml, Neurobion (Vitamin)

1.75 ml and Penicillin (antibiotic) 1.25 ml. As no food was

immediately available to feed the chick it was given a little

Electral (ORS) powder which it regurgitated. Since we were

new to the villagers, they were suspicious about our interest

in Greater Adjutant. We therefore did not transport the chick

to the city where some qualified veterinary could have treated

him. We decided to relocate the chick back to the nest from

which it had fallen. With the help of a gunny bag folded to

half its length, the chick was relocated in its nest, where

another one was already present. All the adults and juveniles

(about 10-12) had left the tree during this process and had

taken shelter on another tree about half a km away. They

returned gradually after about half an hour. Unfortunately,

the next day the chick had fallen again and was found lying

dead on the ground. Probably the parents had rejected the

injured chick.

On another occasion, in the first week of April 2008,

due to a severe thunder storm and rain, two juveniles were

seriously injured at Kasimpur. One died immediately while

the other suffered a leg injury. This injured bird could not be

traced for a couple of days and was later found in a maize

field. We took assistance of the Divisional Forest Officer,

Conservator of Forest, Chief Conservator of Forest, and zoo

authorities at Patna to provide better treatment and facilities

to this injured bird. But, before it could be transported to the

zoo, the bird died. The juvenile was buried in the soil with

salt, prior to which the wife of a local villager offered flowers,

incense stick after taking a bath as it is done in the rituals of

a human death. The people in the area have developed

religious regard to these Adjutants as a result of our campaign.

They believe that these birds called “Garud" are the carriers

of Lord Vishnu.

Population Estimate

Fifty-three Greater Adjutants were seen foraging in the

river course of Ganga in May 2006 and 25 individuals had

fledged in 2006-07. During monsoon (July to September),

such floodplains in the region are difficult to access, and thus

we could not monitor these birds. It appears that there was a

population of at least 78 individuals of Greater Adjutant

existing in this part of Bihar in 2007.

During the season, 2007-2008, 35 nests were built

(3 were dismantled) by Greater Adjutant in Kosi and Ganga

diara. This confirms the presence of at least 70 (35 x 2) adults.

We found 64 juveniles during our study. The number of adults

and juveniles totals to 134 individuals. The 25 juveniles

fledged last season may not have grown enough to breed.

The Greater and Lesser adjutants become sexually mature at

3-4 years (Bhattacharjee and Saikia 1996). If we add that

number, the total estimate suggests about 159 individuals in

the state in 2008. Three died, thus the final estimate is

156 individuals of Greater Adjutant in Bihar. This newly

discovered population in Bihar has probably not been

considered while estimating the total global population of

this species.

Nesting materials

The Greater Adjutant was observed using nesting

materials from the trees of Dalbergia sisso, Bambusa sp.,

Acacia nilotica, Pithecellobium dulce. Cannabis sativa,

Solanum melangina, Parthenium hysterophorus , Sesbania sp.,

Saccarum munja , Croton sp.. Ficus religiosa. Bombax ceiba,

Gmelina a r bo re a. Anthocephallus cadamba, Terminalia arjuna

and Ficus infectoria. During 2006-07, Solanum melangina

twigs were found to be the major component of the nests built

on Bombax ceiba at Nay a tola , Motichak in Ganga diara. Later,

these nests were dismantled in mid-way probably because it

was weak in nature and could not sustain the weight and

activities of the breeding Greater Adjutant.

Food

Fish was the main food of the breeding Greater Adjutants.

They were also observed eating snakes, frogs, bats, crabs, and

unidentified beetle-like insects. Undigested remains of these

animals were found under the nesting trees. Two head portions

of the fish Wallago attu were found lying under a nesting tree.

Looking at the size of one of the heads, it was apparent that the

fish would have weighed around 2-3 kg. Probably these large

fishes were carried from a distance of a few kilometers. Rats

are also taken by the adjutants, especially when ploughed fields

are irrigated, the rats come out of their holes and are caught by

the Greater Adjutants. In 2007, a Greater Adjutant was seen

feeding on a dead cattle in the Kosi river.

194

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DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

Specific observations

In Bihar, single-species nesting colonies of Greater

Adujtant were found. Only at two sites, the bird was found

sharing a tree with the Lesser Adjutant. One was on Ficus

religiosa at Ganga diara , and other on Bombax ceiba at Kosi

diara , both in 2007-08.

Greater Adujtant have been reported to start nest

building activities in September and leave the nesting trees

by April or early May. At some places, people have reported

the birds on potential nesting trees in August, a peak flood

period.

Bats have been observed as food of the adjutants during

this study. Interestingly, at Ashram tola in Kosi diara , about

25 bats were observed clinging to the branches of the breeding

tree below the nests, while the juveniles and adults were present.

In 2007, the juveniles left nests by mid-May, whereas

in 2008, they fledged in the third week of April, i.e., almost a

month earlier. We do not know the reason for this difference

in the fledging period.

DISCUSSION

The population estimate of 2008 suggests the presence

of at least 156 Greater Adjutants in Bihar compared to a total

of 78 in 2007. The present Greater Adujtant population in

Bihar is similar to that found in Cambodia. Elsewhere, the

population of this species is declining (IUCN 2008), whereas

in Bihar this bird appears to show an increasing trend.

However, we need data of many more years to conclude

whether this increasing trend is due to better search efforts

and public awareness (hence more reports), or due to real

increase in the numbers.

In Assam also, the population of these is probably

declining; incidences of falling nests are common

(Bhattacharya pers. comm, in 2003). There may be a

possibility that the population of Greater Adjutant is shifting

from Assam to Bihar in search of suitable places to breed. If

so, then why has West Bengal, the state between these two

states, not reported any incidences of breeding of this bird?

Possibly, the birds prefer the large river basins of Ganga and

Kosi in Bihar after the Brahmaputra river system in Assam,

and find the next suitable habitat at the confluence of Ganga

and Kosi rivers at Kursela. Burhi Gandak river also

confluences near this breeding zone, where sufficient food

and suitable habitat is available. Very often Greater Adjutants

are seen foraging in this area. Breeding is not being reported

in West Bengal probably due to hunting pressure or lack of

suitable breeding habitat.

In Kosi diara , in the nesting area of the Greater

Adjutant, the number of breeding Lesser Adjutant is also

increasing. Breeding population of Lesser Adjutants is spread

over a large area in the state (Mishra et al. 2004; 2006),

whereas, Greater Adjutant nesting is almost restricted to a

pocket. During our survey in 2007, only 23 nests of Lesser

Adjutants were recorded in Bhagalpur and Madhepura

districts. But in 2008, we recorded 55 nests of Lesser Adjutant

in the breeding area of the Greater Adjutant.

During 2006-07, not more than two chicks or juveniles

were seen in any of the nest, whereas in 2007-08, three

chicks / juveniles were recorded in four nests. Later, in

2008-09, a clutch of four chicks was observed in one of the

nests at Kasimpur in Kosi Kadwa diara. In 2007-08, eleven

nests were built on a single Ficus religiosa tree at Lakhminia

from where 23 juveniles had fledged, whereas there were

only two nests and four chicks in 2006-07 on this tree. This

is possibly the result of elimination of some threat factors as

a result of our campaigns during the last two seasons.

Congregation

Breeding storks flock at the beginning of the breeding

season (Singha et al. 2003), but here a large flock of 53 Greater

Adjutant in four groups of 10-15, were observed during the

evening hours in the river course of the Ganga by end May in

2006 (Choudhary and Mishra 2006). It seems that the whole

colony of Kadwa Kosi diara had congregated at this place

just after the completion of their breeding season. This flock

had both adults and juveniles. Probably such congregations

take place both at the beginning and end of every breeding

season. These periods may be the appropriate time to monitor

population and understand colonial behaviour of the adjutants.

After breeding, all the juveniles and adults leave their nests

and the juveniles still tend to live in association with their

parents. Therefore, we can see some large flocks.

Nests occupied by other bird species

In Kadwa Kosi diara , the Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis

papillosa had occupied the partially destroyed nest of a

Greater Adjutant on a Ficus tree at Kasimpur. At Lokmanpur,

all the vacated nests of Lesser Adjutants on a Banyan tree

were occupied by the Black Ibis. At both places high mortality

of Black Ibis was recorded; crows were observed as the main

predators, which destroyed their eggs and chicks.

The Black Kite Milvus migrans govinda was seen

using the vacated nests of Lesser Adjutant and Black-necked

Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in Ganga diara during our

study. On one occasion, at Motichak in Ganga diara , after

the departure of all Greater and Lesser adjutants, Black-

headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus were seen in fairly

good numbers on the same tree, but they did not stay for

long.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

195

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

Hurdles and Constraints

The sites could not be monitored from the beginning

of the breeding season. Also, the presence of the Greater

Adjutant in the state could not be tracked during peak floods

between July-August, due to inaccessibility and lack of

resources.

Lack of treatment facilities for injured birds, bamboo

growth under breeding trees, and difficult accessibility until

January was our major constraint. The Pontoon bridge on

Kosi river is swept away every year during flood and the

nullahs (streams) and small rivulets remain full of water or

mud, because of which the study area remains inaccessible

on a number of occasions.

Lack of funds prevented extensive surveys in many of

the districts where Greater Adjutants were reported earlier.

Also, the existing population of Greater Adjutants in the state

could not be monitored round the year. General law-and-order

is also a problem which prevented surveys in certain areas.

Recommendations

1 . Since the main breeding colony is restricted to a very

small area in Kosi diara there is an immediate need to protect

this breeding population, till a few more colonies are

established. Else, a single threat factor may eliminate the

species from the state.

2. There is a need for a long term project work, at least

five years, to protect this breeding population and to study

the behaviour of the two adjutant species.

3. Regular monitoring, awareness programmes, and

direct protection measures should be taken at both Kosi

and Ganga diaras to help establish these new breeding

colonies.

4. Many breeding sites of Lesser Adjutants, a Vulnerable

species, and a single nesting site of Black-necked Stork, a

Near-Threatened species, have been observed in this IBA.

Continuous awareness programmes will help in the

conservation of all these stork species.

5. Special protection measures should be taken at

Ashram Tola where regular incidences of falling nests and

high mortality of Greater Adjutant chicks have been observed

during the last two seasons.

6. Attention is required at Lakhminia where nests of

the breeding Greater Adjutant were disturbed by chopping of

trees by the villagers.

7. Movement of Banpar ( Gulgulwas ), a hunting tribe,

should be properly tracked, not only to protect the birds from

them, but also as they may prove a good source of information.

8. Rescue and rehabilitation centres for the injured birds

and chicks should be established at Kosi Kadwa diara and

the district headquarter of Bhagalpur with a provision for a

vehicle to transport the injured birds, and a veterinary doctor

trained especially to treat the birds.

9. The local veterinary doctors in the Kosi and Ganga

diaras should also be trained to treat the birds.

10. Proper monitoring of the population should be done,

especially during their congregation.

1 1 . Efforts should be made to notify this area as a

Community Reserve under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

12. There should be an advocacy to upgrade the status

of Greater Adjutant from Schedule IV to Schedule I in the

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

13. Plantation of suitable tree species should be

encouraged. Care should be taken that that plants identified

as nesting material of the bird should not be destroyed or

thrown far away from the nesting sites.

14. Advocacy is needed at local and higher levels;

concerned government departments should be involved in

conservation programmes. Socio-economic development

work should be taken up. Organising programmes like Garud

Mela (Adjutant Fair) and Pakshi Mitra (Friends of Birds)

awards every year would encourage the locals to conserve

the birds.

15. Regular video documentation would help to study

the behaviour of the species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director, BNHS,

Dr. P.C. Bhattarcharya of Guwahati University, Assam,

Dr. Rahul Kaul, Dr. Sandip Tiwari, Ms. Radhika Bhagat and

Mr. Samir Kumar Sinha from Wildlife Trust of India for

providing valuable guidance and assistance during the

project. We acknowledge the support and cooperation of

Dr. Tapan Kumar Ghosh, President, Dr. Sunil Agrawal,

Secretary, Dr. Tapan Kumar Pan, Dr. D.N. Choudhary,

Mr. Ajay Kumar, Dr. Pramod Kumar Verma and all other

members of Mandar Nature Club. We are thankful to

Mr. Arvind Prakash, who helped in the surveys, the villagers

of Ganga diara and Kosi Kadwa diara and the media people

specially Mr. Anuj Kumar Shivlochan, Sahara Bihar,

Md. Imran, IANS, Sri Kamlesh Tripathi, Local Editor,

Sri Dinkar Jha, Roop Kumar, Rajesh Kumar Bharti of Daily

newspaper, Dainik Jagran, who played a great role in our

awareness and conservation effort.

196

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT IN FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

198-200

NEW DESCRIPTION

ANEW SPECIES OF BRA CHYMER1A WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDIDAE)

ON RICE SKIPPER, PARNARA GUTTATA (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE)

FROM SOUTH KASHMIR

Md. Jamal Ahmad'

‘Division of Entomology, S.K. University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology (Kashmir), Shalimar campus, Srinagar 191 121,

Jammu & Kashmir, India. Email: [email protected]

Brachymeria masoodii sp. nov., a parasite on rice skipper Parnara guttata Bremer & Grey in Kashmir is described and

illustrated. A key to the Indian species of Brachymeria Westwood, parasitic on rice skippers is also provided.

Key words: Brachymeria masoodii, Kashmir, new species, Parnara guttata. Rice

INTRODUCTION

Genus Brachymeria Westwood is so far known by

over 80 species in India including three species, namely

B. intermedia (Nees), B. ornatipes (Cameron) and B. lasus

(Walker) from Jammu and Kashmir (Narendran 1986;

Masoodi et al. 1986). So far, four species, i.e., B. albotibialis

(Ashmead), B. excarinata (Gahan), B.jayaraji (Joseph et al.

1973) and B. nigricorporis (Husain and Agarwal 1982) are

reported from the pupae of Parnara mathias, from India.

B. masoodii sp. nov. has been recorded from Parnara guttata

infesting rice in Kashmir.

Key to the Indian species of Brachymeria Westwood,

ASSOCIATED WITH RICE SKIPPERS

1 . Hind coxa without inner tooth; head without post orbital carina

2

— Hind coxa with inner tooth; head with distinct post-orbital

carina 4

2. Frons with distinct preorbital carina; hind tibia mostly black,

as long as hind femur, the latter black with 10-12 teeth

B. excarinata Gahan

— Frons without pre-orbital carina; hind tibia either red or

yellowish; hind femur always red; other characters vary

3

3. Hind tibia red in middle and at base; antenna with funicle

segments transverse; first tergite of abdomen densely punctate

at apical half B. nigricorporis Husain & Agarwal

Hind tibia yellowish; antenna with funicle segments quadrate;

first tergite of abdomen finely reticulate

B. jayaraji Joseph et al.

Abdomen distinctly shorter than the combined length of

pronotum, mesoscutum and scutellum; hind tibia longer than

hind femur, the latter with 13 teeth; median ocellus as wide as

lateral ocelli; antenna with last two funicle segments wider

than long B. albotibialis (Ashmead)

— Abdomen as long as or slightly longer than the combined length

of pronotum, meso-scutum and scutellum; hind tibia shorter

than the hind femur, the latter with 11 teeth; median ocellus

distinctly wider than lateral ocelli; antenna with last two funicle

segments only slightly wider than long

B. masoodii sp. nov.

Brachymeria masoodii* sp. nov.

(Fig. la-d)

Female (Holotype): Body black, tegulae yellow; tips

of all femur, tibiae, except ventral carina of hind tibia yellow;

tarsi light brown with distal segments blackish brown; all

coxae black; antennae and wing venation blackish brown;

wings hyaline; body pubescent except of eyes, of scrobal area,

clypeus, anterior margin of mesoscutum; first abdominal

tergite white and setose. Body punctures umbilicate with

interspaces smooth, rugose on parascrobal area.

Head: A little wider than maximum width of thorax;

scrobes deep, smooth, almost touching the median ocellus,

with scrobal edges distinctly raised from general surface and

1 .0 mm

Fig. 1 (a-d): Brachymeria masoodii sp. nov., female

a. Antenna, b. Part of forewing, c. Part of fore tibia,

d. Part of middle tibia

4.

NEW DESCRIPTION

Table 1 : Distinguishing characters between B. albotibialis and B. masoodii

in front of antennal toruli; parascrobal area thickly setose, rugose;

clypeus shiny, smooth, with a row of deep punctures, the latter

on head wider than the interspaces, except below scrobes which

is finely rugose. Antenna inserted below centre of face, compact,

1 1 -segmented with other characters as in Fig. la.

Thorax: Moderately arched; mesoscutum with

parapsidal grooves fine, complete, anterior region of

mesoscutum transversely rugose, remaining areas punctate;

pubescence thick on margin of scutellum, sparsely setose

elsewhere on thorax; propodeum with irregular large spaces.

Forewing as shown in Fig. lb. Legs (Fig. lc,d) with fore-

and middle tibiae with a small blackish brown patch medially;

hind coxa with outer surface densely punctate, inner area

smooth, ventral margin with an inner tooth; hind femur with

punctures moderate-sized at its outer margin, finely punctate

medially with interspaces shiny and larger than width of

punctures; outer margin of hind femur with a row of 1 1 teeth,

1-6 large, 7-8 small, 9 smaller and 10-11 smallest.

Abdomen: Compact, first gastral tergite shiny smooth,

glabrous; ovipositor hidden.

Relative measurements (Holotype) (L:W): Head :

dorsally 30:158; facially 108:158; diameter of median and

lateral ocelli 14 and 1 1 respectively; Postocellar length 28;

Ocello ocular length 12; eye 75:41; length of malar space 26;

inter-ocular distance 76; scrobe 60:44; width of parascrobe

17; diameter of antennal torulus 14; inter-torular distance 1 1 ;

distance from toruli to clypeus and median ocellus 22 and

65 respectively; scape 63:13; pedicel 7:9.5; ring segment

2:10; F, 16:13; F2 15:14.5; F3 14:15; F4- F7 14:15.5; club

21:15.5. Thorax : pronotum 32:115; mesoscutum 85:156;

scutellum 85:76; propodeum 25:62; diameter of punctures

on scutellum 1.5 times wider than remaining parts of thorax

(6:4); forewing 150:348; lengths of submarginal, marginal,

post-marginal and stigmal in the ratio of 122:73:29:8

respectively; hind coxa 100:46; hind femur 148:60 and hind

tibia 125:13. Abdomen 200:127; length of first and second

tergites 74 and 5 1 respectively.

Female: 6.82 mm long.

Male: Not known.

Holotype: Female, India: J&K; Anantnag, Regional

Rice Research Station, Khudwani; ex: pupae of Parnara

guttata Bremer & Grey, on paddy, 18.ix.2003 (J. Ahmad).

Paratypes: 6 females (Same data as of holotype).

20.ix.2003 (J. Ahmad) (on card). Holotype, and all paratypes

are deposited in the National Pusa Collection, IARI, New Delhi.

Holotype and Paratypes: 136/15/45/1. Slide number:

13/6/45/1

Etymology: The species has been named after Dr. Amin

Masoodi, ex Director Research, S.K. University of

Agricultural Sciences & Technology (Kashmir), Shalimar

campus, Srinagar, for his excellent contribution in the field

of Agricultural Entomology.

Remarks: The new species resembles Brachymeria

albotibialis (Ashmead) in many respects, such as colour of

tegulae, legs; absence of preorbital carina on frons; maximum

width of scrobes in relation to interocular length comparative

lengths of malar space and eye; funicle segments F3- F7

subequal etc. (Joseph etal. 1973; Table 1 ), however, following

differences between the two are sufficient enough to propose

the present species as new one.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to the Associate Director Research,

Regional Rice Research Station, Khudwani, Anantnag,

(J & K), for providing necessary facilities.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

199

NEW DESCRIPTION

REFERENCES

(1986): Incidence of parasites of Lymantria obfuscata

(Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) in Kashmir. Entomophaga 31(4):

401-404.

Husain, T. & M.M. Agarwal (1982): Indian species of Brachymeria

Westwood (Hymenoptera : Chalcididae). Oriental Insects 16(4):

491-509.

Joseph K.J., T.C. Narendran & P.J. Joy (1973): Oriental Brachymeria

Westwood (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae). Zoological Monograph.

1, viii & 215 pp., Calicut University.

Masoodi, M.A., A.R. Tarali, A.M. Bhat, R.K. Tikoo & R.K. Nehru

Narendran, T.C. (1986): Family Chalcididae. Pp. 11-41, 307-310.

In: Rao, Subba & Hayat (Eds): The Chalcidoidea (Insecta:

Hymenoptera) of India and the adjacent countries. Part II.

A catalogue. Oriental Insects 20: 430.

200

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

201

REVIEW

CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY OF RAJASTHAN (WITH EMPHASIS ON WILD FAUNA

AND FLORA) Edited by Ashok Verma. Published by Himanshu Publications, Udaipur and

New Delhi. 2008. 549 pp. Size: 21.3 cm x 13.5 cm. Hardback. Price: 1,200/-.

This is a book edited by Ashok Verma with nearly

60 contributors. The topics are as varied as “Genetics

conservation” to “Orchids of Rajasthan” to “Career and Job

Prospects in Wildlife Sciences in India”. Some topics have a

much wider reach, while others are restricted to only Rajasthan

(e.g. Bats of Rajasthan). Ashok Verma is a young field

biologist, with a Ph.D. on Harriers, and experience of field

work in Keoladeo National Park, and Sariska Tiger Reserve.

Presently, he is working with the Wildlife Institute of India

as Research Associate. Getting a book, and that also of nearly

550 pages, from him for review was a pleasant surprise.

I congratulate him for this work.

The book is a compilation of interesting information

about Rajasthan, not necessarily new to science, but at least

most of the latest findings about status and distribution of

certain species are available in one document. Most chapters

are written by known experts, so they are quite

comprehensive. Having worked on three major books that

needed basic information about species and sites, I know the

value of compilation of scattered data. In our country, basic

information is sometimes not easily available. I hope books

like this will stimulate researchers of other states to compile

data of their states.

The book is in four sections. The first section with

12 chapters deals with Biodiversity and Conservation Issues,

the second sections deals with Fauna, third with Flora, and

fourth with Ecological Sciences. There are five appendices

dealing with International Biodiversity Resources, Selected

Global Biodiversity Information Centres, Major International

Conventions, Central and State Acts, and ENVIS Centres in

India. The appendices and some chapters do not give new

information, but at least they are available in a book for

managers and decisions makers. Now, these people cannot

hide behind their usual inane excuse that they do not have

information so cannot take conservation actions. Here is a

book that gives basic information about the biodiversity of

Rajasthan, conservation issues, and national and international

obligations.

The book could have been better edited. Many species

names are spelt incorrectly (e.g., Houbra instead of Houbara,

Wodpecker instead of Woodpecker). Some chapters are

reproduced without proper acknowledgement to the source.

Some basic information about Rajasthan is repeated in many

chapters. However, the most galling mistake is in Chapter

23, ‘Status of Vultures in Rajasthan' by Raju Lai Gurjar.

Although he admits, albeit by quoting scientific published

papers, that diclofenac is “the main killer of vultures in India

and Pakistan” (p. 237): he adds, “I also found other reasons

to be responsible for vulture decline, i.e., lack of food and

dehydration”, without giving any concrete evidence. Later,

he adds "heavy pesticides use, poisoning genetic depression,

human persecution and infectious disease” to be the cause of

vulture decline. If he has evidence, then he should publish

his ‘findings’ in a good peer-reviewed journal. He writes

“72 White-backed Vultures died in Mahuva, Bhavnagar in

Gujarat in June (sic) 2005 by dehydration”, and quotes Nature

Club, Mahuva, and Veterinary hospital as evidence. It is

beyond my understanding that in spite of scientific evidence

that proves diclofenac as the primary causative agent for

decline in vulture population, published in some of the best

journals of the world, some people still rant about pesticides,

dehydration, mining, cutting of tall trees, etc., as the cause of

vulture decline. Publishing unscientific statements based on

illogical conclusions in local newspapers does not make a

good scientist. Even if the vulture died of dehydration, this

dehydration occurred due to damage of the kidneys caused

by diclofenac. Why were vultures not dying of dehydration

before diclofenac sodium came into veterinary use in 1993-94

in India? Can a long-distance flying bird adapted to live in

semi-arid and arid regions dying of dehydration in a normal

rainfall year? I cannot believe that the 72 healthy vultures,

which Gurjar claims died of dehydration in Bhavnagar district,

could not find water in this large district. Admitted, the birds

which are ill and exhausted due to kidney failure and visceral

gout (due to diclofenac poisoning) may not have the strength

to fly in search of water, but scientific logic demands correct

conclusions.

I hope Ashok Verma will learn to discriminate between

good science and pseudo-science. A good editor selects the

writers and chapters carefully. This is not done in this book.

■ Asad R. Rahmani

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(2), May-Aug 2009

202-227

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. INTERACTION OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE MACACA NEMESTRINA LEONINA

WITH OTHER PRIMATES IN SOME FORESTS OF ASSAM IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: badru I @sanchamet.in

The Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina Linnaeus,

1766, is a relatively poorly documented primate; its

elusiveness and furtive behaviour being the main reasons for

such poor studies. As such based on field studies, their ecology

and social behaviour have been difficult to analyse (Bernstein

1967; Caldecott 1986). Its range extends from North-east

India, South-west China, Indo-China and Peninsular Malaysia

to several Indonesian islands (from lowland to about 1,300 m

altitude) (Groves 1993; Choudhury 2003). The subspecies

found in north-east India is leonina (Fooden 1975). Groves

(2001) proposed full specific treatment for this subspecies.

The leonina is also known as the Northern Pig-tailed macaque,

which is found from North-east India, to Indo-China.

Some of the works available for leonina are by Pocock

(1931, 1939), McCann (1933), Fooden (1975), Choudhury

(1988, 1989, 1993, 1995, 1996, 2002, 2003, 2008), Tilson

(1982) and Feeroz et al. (1994). Between 1986 and May

2006, several field surveys were carried out in some potential

habitats of the Pig-tailed Macaque in North-east India, as a

part of a broader survey of wildlife in general. In this note,

some interesting observations on interactions between pig-

tails and other primate species are presented.

The main observations are from Bherjan-Borajan-

Podumoni WS (27°25'-32' N; 95°19'-23' E) in Tinsukia district

of eastern Assam. Located on flat terrain ( 1 10-130 m above

msl), this small sanctuary of three disjunct blocks is covered

by partially degraded tropical wet evergreen or rainforest and

deciduous plantations.

In its range in northeastern India, the Pig-tailed

Macaque is sympatric with at least seven different species of

primates, namely loris, three macaques, two colobines and

an ape. Almost throughout its range, the Pig-tailed Macaque

shares its habitat with the Slow Loris ( Nycticebus

bengalensis), Assamese Macaque (Macaca assamensis).

Rhesus Macaque (M. mulatto). Stump-tailed Macaque

(M. arctoides ), Capped Langur (Trachypithecus pileata) and

Hoolock Gibbon ( Hoolock hoolock). In the southern part of

its range in the region, it is also sympatric with Phayre’s Leaf

Monkey ( Trachypithecus phayrei).

Interactions with Capped Langur, Assamese Macaque,

Rhesus Macaque, and Hoolock Gibbon have been observed

in the wild during this study. Capped langurs and Pig-tailed

macaques were seen nearby without any antagonism. Both

were indifferent towards each other; however, they were not

seen on the same tree. The Pig-tailed also maintained a

peaceful coexistence with Assamese macaques. In fact, the

home range of two groups of Pig-tailed macaques is shared

with three groups of Assamese macaques in the tiny Bherjan

forests (105.5 ha). Whenever the two species were clearly

visible to each other, even feeding close by, the adults usually

avoided direct eye contact, but the immatures stared at each

other. Solitary males were usually not tolerated. Once a

solitary Assamese Macaque jumped from a tree to a shrub

where some female and juvenile Pig-tailed macaques were

feeding, the latter chased the intruder away by squealing

and screaming (Bherjan forests; August 01, 1992). The

Assamese Macaque group that was feeding close by

reciprocated by barks and screams, but with no posture or

gesture. On another occasion, an Assamese Macaque moved

to a shrub where some female and immature Pig-tailed

macaques were feeding, although the former did not show

any aggression, the latter fled from the tree uttering low squeals

(Bherjan forests; May 31, 1993). The best example of

coexistence between these two species of macaques was

observed in Bherjan forests on August 15, 1992. A group of

Pig-tailed macaques were busy feeding on Sapium baccatum

fruits, when a group of Assamese macaques came to a nearby

tree. The Assamese macaques waited without any agonism,

gesture or posture, and made no attempt to chase or disturb

the feeding Pig-tailed macaques. It was only when the latter

had finished eating that the former took over.

There were a few interesting interactions with

lone Rhesus macaques. No sympatric primates, Assamese,

Pig-tailed and Stump-tailed macaques, seemed to tolerate the

presence of a lone Rhesus Macaque in their vicinity when it

tried to approach females of other species. On one occasion

the presence of a lone male Rhesus Macaque prevented a

group (eastern group in Bherjan forests) of Pig-tailed

macaques from travelling through a certain path. The alpha

male Pig-tailed Macaque moved first; the Rhesus Macaque

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tried to frighten it by violently shaking the branches, but with

no success. When he was within 20 m, the Rhesus Macaque

fled. Then the whole group moved through behind the alpha

male. In the same forest, two Rhesus Macaque males, an adult

(it was excited with raised and curled-up tail), and a subadult

moved near a group of Pig-tailed macaques, the latter did not

panic but barked hrr, hrr (July 30, 1993).

In Borajan forest, a subadult Rhesus Macaque male was

observed moving towards a group of Pig-tailed macaques that

were busy feeding. The alpha male Pig-tailed Macaque

immediately reacted by barking hrr, hrr, and making

threatening gestures and postures. The females and immature

screamed (visibly frightened at the sight of just one subadult

Rhesus Macaque) - it was a very noisy scene. The Rhesus

Macaque did not panic and remained there. It also once made

a threatening gesture by leaning forward. The ‘aggressive’

behaviour continued for about eight minutes, after that the

Rhesus Macaque went away ‘normally’. In the whole

aggression, there was no actual attack (September 10, 1993).

A largely peaceful coexistence was also noticed with

Hoolock Gibbon in several sites such as Borajan, Upper Dihing,

and Nambor; however, in Bherjan the interaction was

extraordinarily noteworthy. When I started observation in

Bheijan in July 1992, only a lone female gibbon was there.

Since it was alone for at least 3-5 years, it developed a

relationship with the Pig-tailed macaques, but not the Assamese

macaques. Occasionally the gibbon will make warning growls.

The juvenile macaques (not adults) often playfully chase the

lone gibbon for a short distance (latter moves away slightly

Bernstein, I.S. (1967): A field study of the pigtail monkey. Primates 8:

217-228.

Caldecott, J.O. (1986): An ecological and behavioural study of the

pig-tailed macaque. In: Szalay, F.S. (Ed.): Contributions to

Primatology, Vol. 21. Basel (Switzerland): Karger. 259 pp.

Choudhury, A.U. (1988): Priority ratings for conservation of Indian

primates. Oryx 22: 89-94.

Choudhury, A.U. (1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution, habitat

and status. Unpub. Ph D. thesis, Gauhati University, 300 pp. + maps.

Choudhury, A.U. (1993): A Naturalist in Karbi Anglong. Gibbon Books,

Guwahati. 88 pp.+ maps, illustrations (revised 2nd edn.

in 2009).

Choudhury, A.U. (1995): Wildlife Survey in Bherjan, Borajan, and

Podumoni Reserved Forests of Tinsukia district, Assam, with a

proposed for a Wildlife Sanctuary. The Rhino Foundation for

Nature in NE India, Guwahati. 18 pp. + maps.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996): Primates in Assam-status and conservation.

Tigerpaper 23(3): 14-17.

Choudhury, A.U. (2002): Tail carriage in Pig-tailed macaques (Macaca

nemestrina). Tigerpaper 29(1): 1-2.

Choudhury, A.U. (2003): The Pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina

in India-status and conservation. Primate Conservation 19:

91-94.

Choudhury, A.U. (2008): Ecology and behaviour of the Pig-tailed

and did not make any attempt to hold ground). They started

travelling together, gibbon just following the Pig-tailed

Macaque group and also feeding in the same general area.

Some interesting observations were: On July 30, 1992,

the Pig-tailed Macaque group (western group of Bherjan

forests) and the lone Gibbon were seen sitting in different

trees located closeby. No antagonism was noticed; however,

when a female macaque came to the same tree and sat near

the gibbon, she was driven away. On August 01, 1992, the

Gibbon was feeding on a fruit of Artocarpus chaplasha, when

a subadult Pig-tailed Macaque snatched it, the gibbon did

not react. On August 24, 1992, a subadult Pig-tailed Macaque

chased the Gibbon playfully, the latter did not react but moved

away. On October 03, 1992, while the macaques and the

gibbon were together, the latter suddenly started calling at

0830 hrs, the loud call apparently frightened some immature

Pig-tailed macaques as they were very near. The screaming

of the immature caught the attention of the adult macaques,

which uttered warning barks, following which the call of the

gibbon also stopped. However, two subadult macaques

charged at the gibbon and one of them actually came into

physical contact, but without hurting any of them. After this

attack the gibbon was never seen with the group during the

study period for the next two years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Nur Husain and Dilip for accompanying me in

the field.

macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina in some forests of

Assam in north-east India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105(3):

279-291.

Feeroz, M., M. Islam & M. Kabir ( 1994): Food and feeding behaviour

of Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock ), Capped Langur

(Presbytis pileata), and Pig-tailed Macaque ( Macaca nemestrina )

of Lawachara. Bangladesh J. Zool. 22(2): 123-32.

Fooden, J. (1975): Taxonomy and evolution of liontail and pigtail

macaques (Primates: Cercopithecidae). Fieldiana Zoology 67:

1-169.

Groves, C.P. (1993): Primates. Pp. 243-277. In: Wilson, D.E. &

D.M. Reeder (Eds): Mammalian species of the world: a taxonomic

and geographic reference. 2nd edn. Smithsonian Institution Press.

Washington DC, USA.

Groves, C.P. (2001): Primate taxonomy. Smithsonian Institution Press.

Washington DC, USA. 350 pp.

McCann, C. (1933): Notes on some Indian macaques. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 36: 796-810.

Pocock, R.I. (1931): The Pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 297-311.

Pocock, R.I. (1939): The Fauna of British India: Mammalia. Primates

and Carnivora. Taylor & Francis, London.

Tilson, R.L. (1982): The western limit of Pig-tailed macaque

distribution. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 399-400.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

203

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE DIET OF SLOTH BEAR MELURSUS URSINUS

IN MUDUMALAI TIGER RESERVE AS SHOWN BY SCAT ANALYSIS

T. Ramesh1'2, K. Sankar1,3 and Qamar Qureshi14

'Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, P.O. Box 18, Dehradun

:Etnail: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

The Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus is a widely distributed

omnivore, endemic to the Indian subcontinent. It is a medium-

sized mammal weighing between 127 and 145 kg (Prater

1965). Very few studies on its food habits in the Subcontinent

have been carried out; Mudumalai (Baskaran et al. 1997;

Desai etal. 1997), Mundanthurai plateau (Gokula etal. 1995),

Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Johnsingh 1981), Neyyar Wildlife

Sanctuary (Srikumaran and Balakrishnan 2002), Panna Tiger

Reserve ( Yoganand et al. 2005), Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve

(Gopal 1991), Chitwan National Park (Laurie and

Seidensticker 1977; Joshi etal. 1997) and Wilpattu National

Park (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1 972). The Sloth Bear is a well-

known seed disperser, which influences the regeneration of

some plant species (Srikumaran and Balakrishnan 2002).

Consequently, its movement depends largely on the density

001, Uttarakhand, India.

and distribution of its key food availability in the area. Sloth

Bear population is declining in many parts of its range due to

deterioration and loss of habitat (Johnsingh 2003).

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (11° 32'- 1 1° 43' N; 76° 22'-

76° 45' E) is situated at the tri-junction of Tamil Nadu,

Karnataka, and Kerala states at an elevation that varies from

960 to 1,266 m. This 321 sq. km reserve is bounded by

Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary on the west, Bandipur Tiger

Reserve in the north, and in the south by Nilgiri North Forest

Division. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the

vegetation types found in Mudumalai are classified into

Southern Tropical Dry Thorn Forest, Southern Tropical Dry

Deciduous Forest, Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest,

Southern Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest, Moist Bamboo

Brakes and Riparian Forest. Earlier studies on food habits of

Fig. 1 : Locations of Sloth Bear scats collected in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (January-May 2009)

204

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Frequency and percent occurrence of food items

found in Sloth Bear scats in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

(January-May 2009)

Sloth Bear in Mudumalai (Baskaran et al. 1997; Desai et al.

1997) were conducted in deciduous and scrub habitats. The

present study was carried out in the entire Park covering

deciduous, scrub and semi-evergreen habitats in Mudumalai.

Ninety-three Sloth Bear scats were collected along

forest roads and trails in the Park encountered from January

to May 2009. The location of scats collected is given in

Fig. 1. The scats were distinguished by their size, shape,

composition of seeds and animal remains, and by using

indirect evidences (track, signs). Each scat sample was taken

in a separate polythene bag with details of date, place,

condition (fresh, old), habitat, and GPS location. The scats

were washed in running water using a mesh sieve (lxl mm)

and sun dried to recover seeds and animal matter. The plant

remains were compared with seeds obtained from plants in

the field and identified in the herbarium of the Wildlife

Institute of India. Animal remains (bone, hair, insect parts)

were identified in the laboratory of the Wildlife Institute of

India. The percentage occurrence of various plant and animal

remains were assessed.

The frequency and percent occurrence of food items

found in Sloth Bear scats is given in Table I . Thirty-five scats

contained plant matter along with animal remains, 40 scats

contained only animal matter, and 18 scats contained bee wax

remains. A total of 18 plant species were recorded in scats.

Cassia fistula, Zizyphus mauritiana, and Cordia obliqua

constituted the bulk of the diet with each species contributing

13.83, 8.51 and 6.38% respectively. Two grass species,

Heteropogon contortus , Seteria intermedia , and an

unidentified fruit was also recorded. Animal matter in the

scats composed mainly of red and black ants (Formicidae),

termites Odontotermes sp. and bees Apis sp. with wax, which

constituted 15.9, 6.3, 17.5 and 9.5% respectively. Beetles

(Coleoptera) and Sambar Cervus unicolor remains (bone, hair)

formed a small fraction, 3.2 and 2.7% respectively (Table 1 ).

The present study documented eight new plant species

including a grass species, Albizzia odoratissma, Artocarpus

heterophyllus, Ficus sp., Lagerstromia microcarpa ,

Mangifera indica, Olea glandulifera, Syzygium sp., and

Heteropogon contortus, which were not reported from earlier

studies in Mudumalai (Baskaran et al. 1997; Desai et al.

1997). The percent occurrence of animal matter was found

higher than plant matter as compared to previous studies

(Gokula etal. 1995; Baskaran etal. 1997; Desai etal. 1997).

The occurrence of Sambar remains in Sloth bear scats

may be attributed to scavenging behaviour over decayed

carcass of wild animals, which has already been recorded by

Gopal (1991).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for giving

us permission to work in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. Special

thanks to Riddhika for her comments for the improvement

of the manuscript. We thank Mr. K. Vinay Bhargav for his

help in identification of insects, Mr. M.M. Babu for plant

identification and Ms. Nelanjana for preparing the map. We

are indebted to our field assistants C. James, M. Kethan,

S. Mathan and T.M. Manpan for their extensive help in the

field.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

205

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Baskaran, N., N. S ivaganes an & J. Krishnamoorty (1997): Food habits

of Sloth Bear in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu,

Southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 1-9.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the forest

types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt, of India Press,

New Delhi. Pp. 404.

Desai, A.A., N. Baskaran & S. Venkatesh (1997): Behavioural ecology

of the Sloth Bear in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and National

Park, Tamil Nadu. Bombay Natural History Society and

Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Report. Pp. 29.

Eisenberg, J.F. & M. Lockhart (1972): An ecological reconnaissance

of Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions

to Zoology 101 : 1-118.

Gokula, V., N. Sivaganesan & M. Varadarajan (1995): Food of

the Sloth Bear ( Melursus ursinus ) in Mundanthurai plateau,

Tamil Nadu. ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 408-410.

Gopal, R. ( 199 1 ): Ethological observation on the Sloth Bear (Melursus

ursinus). Indian Forester 117: 915-920.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1981): Ecology and behaviour of the dhole with

special reference to prey-predator relation in Bandipur. Ph D.

Dissertation, Madurai University, Madurai, India. Pp. 306.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (2003): Bear conservation in India. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 100: 190-201.

Joshi, A.R., D.L. Garshelis & J.L.D. Smith ( 1997): Seasonal and habitat-

related diets of Sloth Bears in Nepal. Journal of Mammology

78(2): 584-597.

Laurie, A. & J. Seidensticker ( 1977): Behavioural ecology of the Sloth

Bear (Melursus ursinus). London. Journal of Zoology 182:

187-204.

Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals. 3rdEdn. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 124-127.

Srikumaran, PG & M. Balakrishnan (2002): Seed dispersal by the

Sloth Bear ( Melursus ursinus) in South India. Biotropica 34(3):

474-477.

Yoganand, K., A.J.T. Johnsingh & C.G. Rice (2005): Evaluating Panna

National Park with special reference to the ecology of Sloth Bear.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. Final project report.

Pp. 172.

3. MYSTERIOUS CHARACTERS RECORDED IN BLACK-HEADED IBIS

THRESKIORNIS MELANOCEPHALUS DURING BREEDING SEASON

Rajesh C. Senma1-2 & Chirag A. Acharya13

'Department of Zoology, M.N. College, Visnagar 384 315, North Gujarat, India.

2Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

On May 23, 2008, while on a visit to a breeding site of

Black-headed Ibis at Paldi village, situated 8 km north of

Visnagar, Gujarat, India, we observed three pairs of the Bird

busy selecting their nesting site. On approaching closer, we

observed red coloration on the bare hind neck of one bird

(Fig. 1). Similar coloration was recorded on May 29, 2008,

in a bird in a flock of 44 birds at a breeding site at Ralisana

village. On June 14, 2008, we observed two birds with red

lores and scattered red spots on the throat, besides a red hind

neck and mantle, building their nest at Civil Hospital,

Visnagar.

During the breeding season, we observed 93 pairs, out

of which 17 birds with a red hind neck and mantle, and

3 birds with red lores and scattered red spots on the throat

were recorded. The breeding plumage of Black-headed Ibis

Ali, S. (2002): The Book of Indian Birds. 13lh Revised Edition. Oxford

University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 79.

Kumar, A., J.P. Sati, P.C. Tak & J.R.B. Alfred (2005): Handbook on

Indian Wetland Birds and their Conservation. Zoological Survey of

India, Kolkata. Pp. 94.

Fig. 1: Black-headed Ibis with mysterious characters

is well described in literature (Grimmett etal. 1998; Gadhvi

2001; Ali 2002; Kumar et al. 2005) and there is no mention

of any red coloration on body parts during the breeding season.

Gadhvi, I.R. (2001): Ecological and Behavioral studies on the White

Ibis in Bhavnagar. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Pp. 96-97.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Pocket Guide to the Birds of

the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp.190.

206

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. SIGHTING OF GREY-HEADED LAPWING VANELLUS C1NEREUS (BLYTH)

IN HYDERABAD, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

R. Sreekar1 and Rudra Ram2

'306, Shanthi Soudha Apts., Erramanzil, Hyderabad 500 082, Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

2 Asian Wildlife Foundation, Gil, HUDA Swama Jayanthi Complex, Ameerpet, Hyderabad 500 016, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

A solitary Grey-headed Lapwing Vanellus cinereus was

sighted at Hussain Sagar (17° 25' 7" N; 78° 28' 3" E) located

in the centre of Hyderabad city, Andhra Pradesh, India, twice

on January 26, 2008, once on January 27, 2008, and twice on

January 29, 2008. It was seen on the northern shores of the

lake abutting Sanjeevaih Park. Its grey head, yellow beak

with black tip and white secondaries differentiated it readily

from the other Lapwings (Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus

indicus), which were also present in the area. This is the first

record of the Grey-headed Lapwing from Hyderabad.

However, it has been reported earlier from Andhra

Pradesh from the following locations:

1. Machlipatnam, Krishna district on February 17,

February 23, March 13 and April 03 in 2001 (Conroy 2003).

2. Thatipudi Reservoir, Visakhapatanam district on

February 07, 2003 (Aasheesh Pittie, pers. comm, email dated

September 02, 2008).

The sighting in Hyderabad seems to be an inland

extension of range for the Grey-headed Lapwing, which was

earlier reported from the coasts of Andhra Pradesh.

REFERENCE

Conroy, C. (2003): Grey-headed Lapwing Vanellus cinereus seen around Machlipatnam, Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 100(1): 122-123.

5. OCCURRENCE AND BREEDING RECORD OF THE FOREST OWLET

HETEROGLAUX BLEW1TT1 FROM YAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

Rushikesh A. Chavan1 and Kishor D. Rithe2

'A/ll ‘Safalya’, Veera Desai Road, Andheri (W), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

2‘Pratishtha\ Bharat Nagar, Akoli Road, Near Sainagar, Amravatti 444 607, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

The Forest Owlet Heteroglaux blewitti is one of the

least known birds of India. It was considered extinct for

113 years, until its rediscovery on November 25, 1997, by

Ben King, Pamela Rasmussen, and David Abbott in Toranmal

Reserve Forest of Shahada in Nandurbar district, Maharashtra

(King and Rasmussen 1998; Rasmussen and Collar 1998).

The Forest Owlet is protected under Schedule I of the Indian

Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, and is listed as critically

endangered.

We were working to prepare a management plan for

the buffer zone of Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Jalgaon district

of Maharashtra situated in the Satpuda Mountain range. The

177.52 sq. km Sanctuary was established in 1969, and is

located between Melghat Tiger Reserve and Toranmal Reserve

Forest. Since the habitat of Yawal WS is similar to both these

reserves, which hold a population of the Forest Owlet (Ishtiaq

and Rahmani 2000; Jathar and Rahmani 2004), we speculated

the presence of this critically endangered bird in the area.

On May 21, 2004, we were travelling in our vehicle

towards the western side of the buffer zone through

compartment number 166 (21° 36' 94" N; 75° 53' 147" E).

The area is under the jurisdiction of the Forest Development

Corporation of Maharashtra (FDCM). The FDCM has carried

out Teak Tectona grandis plantations in these compartments

about eight years ago. The average height of the trees is

about 8-10 m. There was very little undergrowth, probably

due to the continuous contour trenching (soil and water

conservation work) carried out by the FDCM through out

the area.

At about 1715 hrs an owlet flew past in front of our

vehicle. The plumage pattern and colour of the owlet seemed

to be different. We could not locate the bird as it disappeared

in the nearby forest. We went in the direction the Owlet flew,

but could not locate it. So we decided to play the call of the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

207

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Forest Owlet, recorded from Melghat Tiger Reserve by the

second author; the call was verified with records at the Bombay

Natural History Society. As soon as we played the call, the

Owlet immediately responded and came closer to investigate.

It sat on a leafless teak Tectona grandis tree for about

10 minutes. We continued playing the call and to our surprise

at around 1725 hrs one more bird responded to the call.

Therefore, in all two birds were present in the vicinity. One of

them approached us, up to a distance of c. 150 m. We got an

opportunity to take some photographs of this individual and

carefully observe its plumage. The crown, nape and back were

unspotted brown, sharply contrasting with the broadly blackish

and white banded wings. The breast looked entirely dull brown,

contrasting sharply with the white belly.

We observed another Forest Owlet later in the day close

to the site where we first observed it. The belly of the owlet was

distinctly blotched. The body colour appeared darker with a

stumpy tail. This suggested that the owlet was an immature

and that the earlier birds could have been one of the parent

birds.

King, B.F. & P.C. Rasmussen (1998): The rediscovery of the Forest

Owlet Athene ( Heteroglaux ) blewitti. Forktail 14: 51-53.

Rasmussen, PC. & N.J. Collar (1998): Identification, distribution and

status of the Forest Owlet Athene (Heteroglaux) blewitti. Forktail

14: 41-49.

Ishtiaq, F. & A.R. Rahmani (2000): Further information on status and

Therefore, we conclude successful breeding of the

Forest Owlet in Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary. We have been able

to identify the major stress factors in Yawal WS, which would

possibly affect the Forest Owlet population in the Sanctuary.

The stressors are listed below:

• Clearing of land for agriculture within the Sanctuary,

some nesting trees may have been affected.

• Infiltration of villagers from Madhya Pradesh for

collection of fire wood and timber.

• Encroachment for agriculture and new settlements within

the Sanctuary.

• Forest fires in the Sanctuary.

• Many proposed and existing minor irrigation dams in

the last remaining open scrub forest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are very grateful to all the support staff that was

present during the survey. Thanks are due to Dr. Girish Jathar

and Dr. Asad R. Rahmani for spending their valuable time to

comment on the draft of this note.

distribution of Forest Owlet Athene (Heteroglaux) blewitti.

Forktail 16: 172-173.

Jathar, G.A. & A.R. Rahmani (2004): Ecological studies of the

Forest Spotted Owlet Athene (Heteroglaux) blewitti. Technical

report. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India.

Pp. 77.

6. ULTRAMARINE FLYCATCHER FICEDULA SUPERC1LIARIS IN KACHCHH, GUJARAT

J.K. Tiwari1

'Centre for Desert and Ocean, Village Moti Virani, Taluka Nakhtrana, Kutch 370 665, Gujarat, India. Email: [email protected]

Pingleshwar temple area, on the southern coast of

Kachchh, Gujarat, India, has perhaps the largest tall tree groves

in the area. During a bird watching trip on October 30, 2008,

I came across an Ultramarine Flycatcher Ficedula

superciliaris in a tree grove at Pingleshwar (area 200 sq. m).

So far, the Ultramarine Flycatcher has been reported

from other parts of Gujarat, but not from Kachchh (Ali 1945;

Grimmett and Inskipp 1 998; Kazmierczak 2000; Rasmusseen

2005). There are five records of this bird from Gujarat (Bakul

Trivedi pers. comm.) .

The earlier records were by Bakul Trivedi at Jessore

Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Polo Vijaynagar and by Bharat Jethva

at Indroda Park, Gandhinagar.

This sighting of the Ultramarine Flycatcher in

Pingleshwar temple area is thus a new record for

Kachchh.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1945): Birds of Kutch. Pp. 1-175. Oxford University Press,

Mumbai.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 998 ): Birds of Indian Subcontinent.

1st edition. London; Christopher Helm, A & C Black.

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives. Om Book

Service. New Delhi.

Rasmusseen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The

Ripley Guide. 2 vols. Washington D.C. and Barcelona:

Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions.

208

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. NEW RECORD OF BRACHYSAURA MINOR (HARDWICKE AND GRAY),

AN AGAMID LIZARD FROM ORISSA, INDIA

Rina Chakraborty1-2 and Gouri Das Gupta1-3

'Zoological Survey of India, 27 J.L. Nehru Road, Kolkata 700 016, West Bengal, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

During the faunistic survey, in and around the Satkosia

Wildlife Sanctuary of Orissa, in February, 2009, one dead

specimen of Brachysaura minor (Hardwicke and Gray) was

collected and three others were observed. According to Smith

(1935), Sharma (2002) and Das (2002), B. minor has hitherto

not been recorded from eastern India. Since, compilation of

a detailed report will take some time, it was considered

desirable to record the extension of the distributional range

of the species to eastern India up to Orissa.

Material: 1 (Juvenile); Loc. c. 200 m south to

Bhurbhura nallah, Labangi, district Angul, Orissa; 21. ii. 2009;

Coll. R. Chakraborty. ZSI Registration No. 25833.

Diagnostic Characters: Body feebly depressed, stout,

head large; nostrils situated below the canthus rostralis; snout

equal or slightly longer than orbit; scales keeled, dorsal ones

larger than ventrals; nuchal and dorsal crests are present but

not well-developed; two sets of spines above the small

tympanum; throat fold present; 11-15 upper and as many

lower labials; 48-58 scales round the middle of the body;

gular scales either equal or larger than the ventrals; limbs

and digits short; tail covered with keeled scales; standard

length 53-90 mm; tail not longer than head and body, rounded,

slightly compressed, not annulated.

Colour: Dorsal olive-brown, with three rows of dark-

brown, light-edged spots on the back and base of the tail; the

spots of the middle row are most prominent and rhomboidal;

a white stripe on sides of nape, an oblique yellowish stripe

from the eye to the angle of the mouth; limbs with dark-brown

cross-bars; throat profusely spotted with grey; belly whitish

yellow. The juveniles are olive or pinkish brown in colour

with dark brown band between eyes.

Habit and Habitat: Terrestrial, crepuscular and

nocturnal; in the daytime hides in burrows, usually of rats;

sluggish, prefers to rest on stone but can climb up to a metre

on vegetation; inhabitants of scrub forest and plains; diet

comprises of seeds, insects, and spiders.

Distribution: India: Presently known from Gujarat,

Madhya Pradesh, western Uttar Pradesh. Extralimital: Pakistan.

Status: Vulnerable (Tikaderand Sharma 1992); nothing

is mentioned by IUCN (2007).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of

India for permission to carry out this survey work and also to

Dr. Indraneil Das for his kind guidance.

REFERENCES

Das, I. (2002): Snakes and Other Reptiles of India. Pp. 1-144.

New Holland Publishers Ltd., U.K.

IUCN (2007): The List of Threatened animals, www.iucn.org.

Sharma, R.C. (2002): The Fauna of India and the Adjacent Countries -

Reptilia (Sauria), 2, Pp. 1-430. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Smith. M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. London, Vol. 2, Sauria : xiii +

Pp. 440, figs., pi. 1 map.

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Handbook, Indian Lizards.

Pp. 1-250. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

8. OBSERVATIONS ON UNUSUAL FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF ACANTHODACTYLUS CANTORIS

GUNTHER, 1864, IN WESTERN KACHCHH. GUJARAT, INDIA

Manojkumar Pardeshi1-3, V. Vijay Kumar'-4 and Sanjay K. Das2

'Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Mundra Road, PO Box # 83, Bhuj (Kachchh) 370 001, Gujarat, India.

2University School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Kashmere Gate, Delhi 1 10 006, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

4Emuil: [email protected]

Survival and reproduction of a species depends on its

ability to successfully find and capture the resources on which

it lives. Successful foraging behaviour is assumed to be adaptive

as it increases survival and reproduction of animals. In lizards,

foraging behaviour is studied by various workers (Pianka 1 966;

Schoener 1971; Huey and Pianka 1981; Regal 1983; Cooper

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

209

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Acanthodactylus cantoris in the sit-and-wait position of

foraging

and Vitt 1989, Cooper 1994; Cloudsley-Thompson 1991 ; Eifler

and Eifler 1999; Wymann and Whitag 2002).

Among lizards, two major modes of foraging are

categorised: active, which involves extensive searching or

hunting while moving; and sit-and-wait (ambush) foraging

(Pianka 1966; Huey and Pianka 1981; Cooper 1994). Actively

foraging lizards are characterized by their frequent wandering

movements. They eat prey as it is encountered. Active foragers

range widely, spend more energy on a daily basis, eat

sedentary prey, and are themselves sometimes eaten by sit-

and-wait predators. Sit-and-wait foragers remain still for long

periods of time, and capture prey as it appears before them.

Sit-and-wait predators have small, defined home ranges, eat

mobile prey, and seem to have evolved to spend little energy.

Bhatnagar, R.K. & R.K. Bhanotar ( 1973): Observations on the behaviour

of Acanthodactylus cantons Gray in Thar Desert. Ento. Newsl. 3(8):

53-54.

Chandra, H. & RJ.S. Ahluwalia ( 1973): A note on the predation of

Acanthodactylus cantoris cantoris Gunther. Ind. J. Ent. 35(2):

163-164.

Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. (1991): Ecophysiology of Desert Arthopods

and Reptiles. Springer- Verlag, New York. Pp. 203.

Cooper, W.E. Jr. (1994): Prey chemical discrimination, foraging mode,

and phylogeny. Pp. 95-116. In: Vitt, L.J. & E.R. Pinka (Eds): Lizard

Ecology. Historical and Experimental Perspectives. Princeton

University Press. New Jersey.

Cooper, W.E. Jr. & L.J. Vitt (1989): Prey odor discrimination by the

Broad-headed Skink ( Eumeces laticeps ). J. Exp. Zool. 249: 11-16.

Eifler, D.A. & M.A. Eifler ( 1999): The influence of prey distribution on

the foraging strategy of the lizard Oligosoma grande (Reptilia:

Scincidae). Behav. Sociobiol. 45: 397-402.

Huey, R.B. & E.R Pianka (1981): Ecological consequences of foraging

mode. Ecology 62: 991-999.

Krishna, D. & K.C. Dave (1959): Food and feeding habits of reptiles of

Acanthodactylus cantoris Gunther, 1864 is a diurnal,

insectivorous, terrestrial, and burrowing lizard. In India,

A. cantoris is reported from Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,

Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Rajasthan (Verma and Sahi

1995; Sharma 2002). It is a common species in the sandy

areas, which includes the desert and coast of Kachchh region.

Studies on food and feeding behaviour of A. cantoris have

been carried out by Krishna and Dave (1959), Chandra and

Ahluwalia (1973), Bhatnagar and Bhanotar (1973), Sharma

and Vazirani (1977), and Sinha (1985). It feeds on a variety

of insects, but termites are the most favoured food item of

this lizard. As per our observation, they prefer termites to

other insects when both are available. A. cantoris is mostly

an “active” forager, though sometimes also found to be

relying on the “sit-and-wait” mode, i.e., it is a “mixed”

forager. In 2008, we observed an A. cantoris foraging on the

butterflies near a small water puddle of riverine patch of Mata-

Na-Madh village area (23° 34' 26.8" N; 68° 52' 36.8" E), in

Lakhpat taluka of Kachchh district. The surrounding terrain

with gentle undulations was sandy and soft, covered with

small pebbles, and has mixed thorn forest vegetation in a

nearby area.

The foraging mode of A. cantoris, in this case, was sit-

and-wait but differed from the usual. The lizard had burrowed

itself partially in the sand (Fig. 1 ) near a waterbody and was

predating on butterflies that approached near. Total

observation period was 13 minutes, during which the lizard

repeated this practice four times and got success only twice.

This occasional observation contributes some information

on the feeding ecology of A. cantoris.

the desert of Rajasthan. Proc. 46,h Sess. Ind. Sci. Cong.. Part-Ill,

Pp. 408.

Pianka, E.R. ( 1966): Convexity, desert lizards, and spatial heterogeneity.

Ecology 47: 1055-1059.

Regal, P.J. (1983): The adaptive zone and behavior of lizards.

Pp. 105-118. In: Huey, R.B., E.R. Pianka & T.W. Schoener (Eds):

Lizard ecology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Schoener, T.W. (1971): Theory of feeding strategies. Ann. Rev. ofEcol.

47: 1055-1059.

Sharma, R.C. (2002): The Fauna of India and the Adjacent Countries.

Reptilia. Vol. EL Sauna. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Sharma, R.C. & T.G. Vazirani (1977): Food and feeding habits of some

reptiles of Rajasthan. Rec. zool. Surv. India 73: 77-93.

Sinha, P.P. (1985): Some observations on food habits of two species of

lizards of western Rajasthan. Plant Prot. Bull. 37(3 and 4): 1-2.

Verma, A.K. & D.N. Sahi (1995): Distribution and ecology of the lizards

of Jammu and Kashmir state. Part: Lacertidae. Cobra 19: 1-5.

Wymann, M.N. & M.J. Whitag (2002): Foraging ecology of Rainbow

Skinks (Mabuya margaritifer ) in southern Africa. Copeia 4:

943-957.

210

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. FIRST RECORD OF PROTOBOTHROPS JERDONII XANTHOMELAS (GUNTHER, 1889)

FROM EAGLENEST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, INDIA

Amod Zambre1, Chintan Sheth2, Shashank Dalvi3 and Nirmal Kulkarni4

‘‘Saraswati’ 72/11, Gulmohar Path, Erandwane, Pune 411 004, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

21 1, Serpentine Road, Flat no. 1 1-A, Tallam Residency, Kumara Park (W), Bengaluru 560 020, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

3A-16, Ila Darshan, Gilbert Hill Road, Andheri (W), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

46, Hiru Naik Building, Dhuler, Mapusa, Goa 403 507, India. Email: [email protected]. in

While conducting a herpetofaunal survey of the

Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, West Kameng district,

Arunachal Pradesh, India, during 2006-2008, we encountered

four specimens of Protobothrops jerdonii. Two (one male,

other sex not determined) of the four specimens were found

within a gap of twenty minutes at 0930 hrs and 0950 hrs,

respectively, at Lama Camp (27.16° N; 92.46° E; 2,350 m)

on June 03, 2006. The third and fourth individuals (both

males) were also caught at Lama Camp, on June 05 and 06,

2008, respectively. Morphological characters, measurements

and colour pattern of all four snakes were recorded and

thereafter they were photographed. Three specimens were

released and a male specimen (collected on June 06, 2008)

was deposited at the State Forest Research Institute, Itanagar,

Arunachal Pradesh (S.F.R.I.). On comparing descriptions and

keys in Whitaker and Captain (2004), Smith ( 1 943) and Pope

(1935), the snake was identified as Protobothrops jerdonii.

Gumprecht et al. (2004) recognised 3 subspecies of

P. jerdonii. Analysing scalation data, body colour and pattern,

the snakes were identified as P.j. xanthomelas commonly

referred to as Jerdon’s Red-spotted Pit Viper. This subspecies

differs from the nominate P.j. jerdonii and P.j. bourreti in

having a differing range of ventrals - 1 76-188, subcaudals -

54-67 (both fide table - p. 14), and colour pattern of dorsum

- predominantly comprised of yellow scales marked with

black; always with a dorsal series of rhomboidal or oval

brownish-red (usually) or reddish-brown spots (sometimes),

some of which join to alternate along the midline of the back

(description from images - pp: 129-131). Note: Though the

specimen collected had dorsum predominantly black, some

scales marked with bright/lemon yellow - almost the opposite

of that described earlier, probably this individual is a dark

form with the requisite “oval brownish-red spots”. It matches

well with the other 3 specimens that were recorded from the

same area and which conform to the colour pattern in

Gumprecht et al. (2004).

Gumprecht et al. (2004) record P. jerdonii xanthomelas

from central and southern China, from Henan [sic], Shaanxi,

Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei and Guangxi Provinces.

Though checklists of snakes of the Indian subcontinent

(Whitaker and Captain 2004; Das 2003) as well as checklists

of Arunachal Pradesh (Pawar and Birand 2001 ; Athreya 2006)

Table 1 : Scalation of Protobothrops jerdonii xanthomelas from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary,

West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

211

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Protobothrops jerdonii xanthomelas ( a-e):

a. Head (lateral aspect); b. Head (dorsal aspect, collected

specimen); c. Mid-body region showing dorsal row of red

blotches; d. Head (dorsal aspect); e. General body view

include P. jerdonii, none specifically mention this subspecies.

We thus conclude this to be probably the first record of

Protobothrops jerdonii xcinthomelas from the present day

boundaries of India.

Scalation and measurements are given in Table 1 . The

following meristic characters: number of dorsal scale rows,

(one head length behind head, approximate midbody and one

head length before the vent respectively), ventral scales,

subcaudal scales, supralabial scales and cephalic scales

between supraoculars were recorded. Ventral scales were

counted as per Dowling’s (1951) method. The number of

subcaudals excludes the terminal scale. Specimen 2, 3 and 4

have 173, 170 and 173 ventrals respectively, a slightly lower

value than the range given by Gumprecht et al. (2004) -

176-188.

Morphology of collected specimen: head distinctly

broader than neck; body cylindrical; tail almost l/7th of the

total body length, tail tip pointed. Upper head scales small,

unequal, smooth, scarcely imbricate; supraoculars large and

entire; first supralabial scale entirely separated from nasal,

third largest; a single row of scales between supralabials and

the subocular; temporal scales smooth. Dorsal body scales

strongly keeled; first dorsal body scale row on either side

smooth at midbody (Fig. 1).

Colour and pattern of the collected specimen (in

life): dorsum predominantly black, some scales marked with

bright/lemon yellow; a dorsal series of subrhombic, irregular

brownish-red blotches that are bordered with black; interstitial

skin between scales black. Top of head : black with

symmetrical obscure yellow markings. Supraoculars black

with yellow markings. Sides of head: lemon yellow with a

broad black postocular stripe barely separated from the black

dorsal aspect of head by a narrow yellow stripe. Supralabial

scales yellow with two black spots-one below the eye, other

below the pit. Underside of head and neck : bright yellow.

Venter, anteriormost ventrals dull yellow flecked with black,

gradually turning to black, profusely spotted with yellow.

Posterior ventrals and tail almost entirely black. Colour and

pattern of the collected specimen (after preser\’ation)\ bright

yellow of the body and head cream/dull yellow; brownish-

red blotches on the dorsum black.

All the specimens were found at 2,350 m. The habitat

was degraded and included nettles, ferns and a species of

knee-length grass (species unknown) dominant in the area

with a broken pipeline, which made the whole area wet and

slushy. Of the four specimens one male (collected) was in the

pre-moult condition on June 06, 2008, at 1643hrs and moulted

later that evening.

Occurrence of P.j. xanthomelas though new to India, is

not entirely unexpected as Arunachal Pradesh is adjacent to

China and shares similar biotypes. Interestingly, the specimens

labelled P. jerdonii examined by us at the Bombay Natural

History (BNHS) include two specimens, BNHS-2590 (Haka-

Chin Hills, Myanmar), and BNHS-2593 (Myanmar-China

frontier) which match the scalation of P.j. xanthomelas , and

suggest the presence of this subspecies in Myanmar - a wider

distribution than is currently known. However, fresh

collections from Myanmar would be desirable to eliminate

the possibility of incorrect locality data. The record of this

subspecies from Lama Camp (West Kameng district,

Arunachal Pradesh, India) is a range extension of

approximately 1 ,200 km south-west from Sichuan in China

- the nearest area where P.j. xanthomelas has been previously

recorded (Gumprecht et al. 2004).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Ramana Athreya - Kaati Trust/Eaglenest

Biodiversity Project who provided funds to survey Eaglenest

WLS, and for a ceaseless supply of chocolates; Ashok Captain

for comments on the draft; Kesang, Phurpa, Maila and the

212

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

GREF men for help to collect the snakes; Khandu, Jetha,

Neema and Dorjee for their tireless help during field work.

Thanks to the Bugun community for permission to explore

their community forests; Mark Pinto, Nandini Velho, Apama

Lajmi, Dipti Humraskar, Devdutta Naik, Pranav Kavi and

Asavari Kulkami for their help in counting scales of live

snakes; Salil Sahani for the use of his camera; Indi 'Babu’

Athreya, R. (2006): Eaglenest Biodiversity Project - I (2003-2006):

Conservation resources for Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary. A

report submitted to the Forest Department of the Government of

Arunachal Pradesh, India, and the Rufford-Maurice-Laing

Foundation (UK). Kaati Trust, Pune, iii + 189 pp.

Das, I. (2003): Growth of knowledge on the reptiles of India, with an

introduction to systematics, taxonomy and nomenclature.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100: 446-501.

Dowling, H.G (1951): A proposed system for counting ventrals in

snakes. British Journal of Herpetology 1(5): 97-99.

Gumprecht A., F. Tillack, N. Orlov, A. Captain & S. Ryabov (2004):

Asian Pitvipers - Geitje Books, Berlin. Pp. 1-368.

Glow, P. Ringu and G.N. Sinha for granting us the required

permissions/ permits; Frank Tillack, Andreas Gumprecht for

their valuable comments and Varad Giri (Curator, BNHS)

for allowing us to examine the specimens in the BNHS

collection. Finally, we are indebted to Vidya Athreya for

making sure that the authors were well-fed and hydrated

during their lab work at the Kaati Trust office.

Pawar, S. & A. Birand (2001): A survey of amphibians, reptiles and

birds in Northeast India. CERC Technical Report No. 6, Nature

Conservation Foundation, Mysore, i + 118 pp.

Pope, C.H. ( 1935): The Reptiles of China. Turtles, Crocodilians, Snakes,

Fizards - American Museum of Natural History, New York,

Natural History, Central Asia. Iii + 604 pp.

Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma,

including the whole of the Indo-Chinese sub-region. Reptilia

and Amphibia. Vol. Ill - Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London,

xii + 583 pp.

Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2004): Snakes of India. The Field Guide.

Draco Books, Chennai, iv + 479 pp.

10. REPORT ON MASS MORTALITY OF FROGS AT SON CHIRIYA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

GWALIOR, INDIA

Karthikeyan Vasudevan1-2 and G. Prudhvi Raj1-3

'Wildlife Institute of India, Post Bag #18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

2EmaiI: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Complete disappearance of amphibian populations in

different parts of the world has been reported since 1950 and

the frequency of such reports increased sharply during the

1990s (Kiesecker et at. 2001; Harp and Petranka 2006).

Currently, the rate at which amphibians are going extinct far

exceeds the rate for any other vertebrate taxa in the world

(Stuart et al. 2004). Loss of habitat, introduction of exotic

species and exploitation for food, and pet trade are the key

threats (Stuart et al. 2004). Recent amphibian declines have

been reported from species rich tropical forest sites in Central

and South America, and Australia, with minimal or no

anthropogenic pressure (Alexander and Eischeid 2001;

Pounds 2001; Blaustein etal. 2003). Infectious diseases partly

explain this phenomenon, because it has now been established

that pathogens with multiple hosts, biotic or abiotic reservoirs

could infect species that are rare and cause disease, and even

drive them to extinction (Lips 1999; Lips et al. 2006). The

chytrid fungus - Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis,

Iridoviridae group of viruses and pathogenic bacterial strains

are known to cause catastrophic mortality of amphibians,

decimating wild populations in many parts of the world

(Richard etal. 2004; Densmore and Green 2007). It has been

established that amphibians play an important role in

ecosystem function (Whiles et al. 2006), and are sensitive to

the quality of their environment (Relyea 2009). For this

reason, they are referred to as fortuitous canaries, signalling

problems in our environment. It is therefore important that

studies on the ecology of amphibians report any adverse

impacts on their population.

We present a report on the mass mortality of frogs from a

site in Son Chiriya Wildlife Sanctuary. The site is located at

Nalkeshwar, Forest Compartment number 373, at Ghatigaon,

Son Chiriya Sanctuary, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India

(26.2° N; 77.8° E) at an elevation of 240 m above msl. The

Sanctuary encompasses an area of 5 1 1 sq. km. The site where

the mass mortality occurred has a perennial freshwater source

from a spring on a hillock. The water trickled into small

artificially made puddles that hold water temporarily for use by

wildlife in the reserve. The entire area, including the spring and

the temporary puddles, was spread over one hectare. It had no

human activity and no apparent contamination of freshwater.

The first observation of mass mortality of frogs was

made by the staff of the Sanctuary on March 21, 2009, where

30 individuals of the Indian Bull Frog Hoplobatrachus

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

213

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Bull Frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus with bleeding lesions

found in Nalkeshwar, Madhya Pradesh

tigerinus were found dead at the site. On March 28, 60 more

frogs of the same species were found dead at the site. On

April 05, 2009, 60 more bull frogs were recorded dead and

the population of the species had been reduced to

40 individuals. Carcasses of frogs were found along the edge

of waterbody and inside the water. An inventory of frogs was

carried out on April 25, 2009, using visual encounter survey

of the site and was scanned using a powerful torch by one of

the observers from 1700 to 1830 hours. All individuals, live

and dead, sighted were recorded. Frogs that were dead,

diseased and healthy were collected and sealed in plastic bags.

The specimens were preserved in -40 °C freezer at the Animal

Disease Investigation Laboratory, Department of Animal

Husbandry, Gwalior. Eight specimens of diseased H. tigerinus

collected earlier by the forest department staff were also

preserved in a similar fashion for further pathological

investigation. Only frogs that showed symptoms of disease

were caught and examined for skin lesions, discoloration of

skin and ectoparasites. Carcasses observed were examined

for any sign of predation.

In all, four frog species were encountered, they were

Indian Skipper Frog Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Paddy Field

Frog Fejervarya cf. limnocharis, Indian Bull Frog

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, and Common Burrowing Frog

Sphaerotheca cf. breviceps. The number of frogs of each species

encountered during the survey revealed further reduction in

the population of bull frogs on the site (Table 1). No tadpoles

were observed during the present survey. Diseased frogs had

oedema of limbs and phalanges. Small focal ulcers on the skin

were observed on the limbs, ventral and dorsal surface of the

skin (Fig. 1 ). The ulcers were wet, open and blood oozed from

it when the portion of the body was pressurized. The animal

showed poor reflexes and limb movements were impaired,

making them almost immobile. Bleeding lesions were also

observed on the foot of these frogs. Live frogs representing

those that showed these symptoms and those that did not were

collected and preserved in the deep freezer (Table 1). It is

important to note that all frog species, except F. limnocharis

showed symptoms of the disease, and no carcasses of this

species were recorded from the site. No ectoparasites were

observed on the frogs examined during the survey. Dead frogs

showed no sign of predation on them.

Based on discussions with amphibian disease experts

on this incident the following scenario emerged. There are

several diseases that cause heavy mortality in frog populations.

Among them, only few infectious diseases are reported to

cause mass mortality in wild frogs, they are Ranaviruses

(e.g. FV3, tadpole oedema virus) and chytridiomycosis

(Densmore and Green 2007). Toxins could also cause mass

mortality in amphibians but could be extremely tedious to

diagnose. Chytridiomycosis causes ulcers but typically skin

changes are mild, with excess shedding being the most

consistent sign (Berger etal. 1998). Bacterial infections such

as red leg have not been found causing mass mortality in the

wild (Green et al. 2002). Ranavirus cause skin ulcers and

haemorrhage (Densmore and Green 2007), although they do

not cause lesions identical to those seen in the frogs in

Nalkeshwar. It should not be ignored that there are different

strains of pathogens causing diseases in different regions of

the world, and only a thorough investigation could reveal the

pathogen. However, frogs having legs swollen with fluid is

often considered a typical symptom of infection caused by

Ranavirus (Densmore and Green 2007). They are best

diagnosed by isolating on cell culture using standardized

protocols (Greer and Collins 2007). During monsoons when

frogs breed, they tend to disperse and there is a possibility of

Table 1 : Frogs encountered during the survey of April 25, 2009, at Son Chiriya Wildlife Sanctuary

Species Frogs encountered Live frogs examined for Live frogs showing Dead frogs examined

symptoms and preserved symptoms of disease

Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis 141 5 5 8

Fejervarya cf. limnocharis 63 4 0 0

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus 14 2 2 2

Sphaerotheca cf. breviceps 11 11

214

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

spread of the disease, which is probably localized at present.

It is important to investigate thoroughly such stray incidents

of mass mortality, because they might be the precursor to an

impending disease outbreak in frogs in the region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted for the funding and support from the

National Bioresource Development Board of the Department

of Biotechnology, Government of India to the project

“Barcoding of Anurans of India" ( BT/PR82354/NDB/5 1/141/

2006). We would like to thank Sametha Rajora, Madhya

Pradesh Forest Department, for inviting our attention and

extending support to us. Sanjai Tiwari, Forest Guard, Son

Chiriya Wildlife Sanctuary is thanked for assisting us during

the survey.

REFERENCES

Alexander, M.A. & J.K. Eischeid (2001): Climate variability in

regions of amphibian decline. Conserv. Biol. 15(4 ): 930-942.

Blaustein, A.R., J.H. Romansic, J.M. Kiesecker & A.C. Hatch

(2003): Ultraviolet radiation, toxic chemicals and amphibian

population declines. Div and Dist. 9: 123-140.

Berger, L., R. Speare, P. Daszak, D.E. Green, A. A. Cunningham,

C.L. Goggin, R. Slocombe, M.A. Ragan, A.D. Hyatt,

K.R. McDonald, H.B. Hines, K.R. Lips, G. Marantelli &

H. Parkes (1998): Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality

associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia

and Central America. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95: 9031-9036.

Densmore, C.L. & D.E. Green (2007): Diseases of Amphibians. 1LAR

J 48(3): 235-254.

Green, D.E., K.A. Converse & A.K. Schrader (2002): Epizootiology

of sixty-four amphibian morbidity and mortality events in the USA,

1996-2001. Ann. NY. Acad. Sci. 969: 323-339.

Greer, A.L. & J.P. Collins (2007): Sensitivity of a diagnostic test for

amphibian ranavirus with sampling protocol. J. Wildl. Dis. 43:

525-532.

Harp, E.M. & J.W. Petranka (2006): Ranavirus in wood frogs ( Rana

sylvatica): Potential sources of transmission within and between

ponds. J. Wildl. Dis. 42(2): 307-318.

Kiesecker, J.M , A.R. Blaustein & L.K. Belden (2001 ): Complex causes

of amphibian population declines. Nature 410: 681-684.

Lips, K.R. (1999): Mass mortality and population declines of anurans at

an upland site in Western Panama. Conserv. Biol. 13(1): 117-125.

Lips, K.R., F. Brem, R. Brenes, J.D. Reeve, R.A. Alford, J. Voyles,

C. Carey, L. Livo, A.P. Pessier & J.P. Collins (2006): Emerging

infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a Neotropical

amphibian community. PNAS 103 (9): 3165-3170.

Pounds, J.A. (2001): Climate and amphibian declines. Nature 410:

639-640.

Richard, W., R. Retallick, H. McCallum & R. Speare (2004):

Endemic infection of the amphibian Chytrid Fungus in a frog

community post-decline. Plos 2(11): 1965-1971.

Relyea, R.A. (2009): A cocktail of contaminants: how mixtures of

pesticides at low concentrations affect aquatic communities.

Oecologia 1 59(2 ):363-37 6.

Stuart, S.N., J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, B.E. Young,

A.S.L. Rodrigues, D.L. Fischman & R.W. Waller (2004): Status

and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science

306(5702): 1783- 1786.

Whiles, M.R., K.R. Lips, C.M. Pringle, S.S. Kilham, R. Brenes,

S. Connelly, J.C. Colon Gaud, M. Hunte-Brown, A.D. Huryn,

C. Montgomery & S. Peterson (2006): The consequences of

amphibian population declines to the structure and function of

neotropical stream ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the

Environment 4: 27-34.

1 1. ON A RECORD OF BADIS BADIS (HAMILTON) (TELEOSTEI. PERCIFORMES: BADIDAE) FROM

TAMIL NADU, INDIA

J.D. Marcus Knight'and K. Rema Devi2

'Flat ‘L’, Sri Balaji Apartments, 7lh Main Road, Dhandeeswaram, Velachery, Chennai 600 042, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

:Zoological Survey of India, Marine Biology Station, 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

India is endowed with a vast fish biological resource

representing more than 10% of the world’s fish diversity (Das

and Pandey 1998). The diversity of indigenous aquarium fish

has been documented; however, many species are being

indiscriminately caught from their natural habitats leading to

their depletion and probable extinction. Badis is one such

fish which belongs to Family Nandidae and Subfamily

Badtnae. The first badid species were described by Hamilton

( 1 822) as Labrus badis with a lateral line and 17 dorsal spines,

and without lateral line and 14 dorsal spines in L. dario.

Bleeker (1854) established Badis as a genus to include these

species (Kuliander and Britz 2002), which was also

recognized by Day (1878). Badis badis with highly variable

colour was found to be distributed from Pakistan to Myanmar.

The genus was revised recently by Kuliander and Britz (2002)

with the description of 10 new species from the various

geographical zones while limiting the distribution of the

species Badis badis to the lowlands of the Ganges,

Brahmaputra and Mahanadi basins, in Nepal, India and

Bangladesh. They recognized 2 genera, Badis with 12 species

and Dario with 3 species.

Badis badis is recognised from its congeners (Kuliander

and Britz 2002) in the combination of the following

characters, namely a conspicuous dark blotch covering

superficial part of cleithrum above pectoral fin base; absence

of dark caudal peduncle blotch; in the presence of a series of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

215

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

prominent dark blotches along dorsal fin base and a series of

dark blotches along middle of dorsal fin; with indistinct bars

on sides; in having 25-27 (rarely 28, usually 26) scales in

lateral row, in the presence of 19-20 circumpeduncular scales

among other characters.

Badis is sometimes called the Dwarf Chameleon Fish

due to the considerable colour changes. Predominantly brown

with patterned black or red bars, the male will change to a

bluish-black pattern with iridescent blue showing in the

dorsal, anal, and caudal fins during breeding times and is

known only from northern drainages (Menon 1999). The

distribution of the species is known to be from Ganges,

Yamuna, Brahmaputra (Menon 1999), Godavari drainage

(Karmakar and Datta 1998), and from the Mahanadi (Menon

1951). The authentic southernmost limit of Badis has been

recorded as Mahanadi and Godavari river drainage

(Kullander and Britz 2002). A report from Trivandrum,

Kerala (Herre 1 94 1 ), is not vouched in any recent publication.

During a fish survey conducted by the first author, Badis

badis was found in the Chembarampakkam tank in Tamil

Nadu. Subadult and adult specimens were collected using a

hand dip net in the clear waters in the overflow area of the

tank. The fish is beautifully coloured and has bright red edges

on the dorsal fin; has a series of prominent dark blotches

along dorsal fin base and has indistinct bars on the body.

Though there is a record of this species from Bombay (now

Mumbai) and Madras by Day (Kullander and Britz 2002),

this species has not been previously recorded from any of

the drainages of Tamil Nadu (Menon 1999). Day’s Madras

is the erstwhile Madras Presidency, which also includes parts

of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Orissa. This fish

could have avoided capture in all the previous surveys due

to its hiding behaviour in the aquatic vegetation or

more likely could have been brought in by the Krishna Water

Supply Scheme, which was directly conveyed

to Chembarampakkam lake only during January 2007

(Anon 2007).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Mr. Venkat, Dolphin Aquarium, Chennai, for

his help in the collection of the specimen.

REFERENCES

Anon (2007): Policy Note 2007-08 of the Chennai Metropolitan Water

Supply and Sewerage Board, 14 pp.

Bleeker, P. (1854): Nalezingen op de ichthyologische fauna van

Bengalen en Hindostan. Verhandel. Batav. Genootsch. Kunst.

Wettensch. 25(8): 1-166.

Das, P. & A.K. Pandey (1998): Current status of fish germplasm

resource of India and strategies for conservation of endangered

species. Pp. 253-273. In: Ponniah, A.G. & P. Das (Eds): Fish

Genetics and Biodiversity Conservation. Nature Conservators,

Muzzaffarnagar.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes

known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma and

Ceylon. Text and atlas in 4 parts. London: xx + 78, 195 pis.

Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river

Ganges and its branches. Archibald Constable and Company,

Edinburgh. 405 pp.

Herre, A.W. (1941): California Academy of Sciences, Ichthyology,

Collection Database, SU 41973.

Karmakar, A.K. & A.K. Datta (1998): On a collection of fish from

Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ.

Pap. No. 98: 1-50.

Kullander, S.O. & R. Britz (2002): Revision of the Family Badidae

(Teleostei: Perciformes), with description of a new genus and

ten new species. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwat. 13(4): 295-372.

Menon, A.G.K. (1951): Further studies regarding Hora’s Satpura

Hypothesis. The role of Eastern Ghats in the distribution of

Malayan fauna and flora to peninsular India. Proc. Nat. Inst.

Sci. India. 17(6): 475-497.

Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Check list - fresh water fishes of India. Rec.

zool. Surv. India, Occ. Pap. No. 175 : 366.

12. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON SOME SPECIES OF OXYA SERVILLE

(ORTHOPTERA: ACRIDIDAE) OF KASHMIR HIMALAYA

M. Nayyar Azim1 and Shabir A. Reshi2

'P.G. Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal-Srinagar 190 006, Jammu & Kashmir, India.

Email: [email protected]

Section of Entomology, P.G. Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar 190 006, Jammu & Kashmir, India.

Introduction

The grasshoppers constitute an economically important

group of insect. A large number of species can damage crops,

and they can attack any type of vegetation in any part of the

world including forage crops. In this respect grasshoppers

compete with cattle. This can affect the farmer’s ability to

use the pastures effectively. Besides, some grasshoppers feed

on the most desirable forage plants in the rangeland, leaving

the less desirable plants for cattle. The feeding of grasshoppers

if coupled with drought conditions can cause long term

216

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

deterioration to the forage plant community. Taking into

consideration the economic importance of grasshoppers the

present work was undertaken to identify the species causing

damage to the forage plants in Kashmir, because correct

identification is essential for the evaluation of the damage

caused by the particular species and developing suitable

control measures. The genus Oxya Serville is represented

by five species in Kashmir. They feed on paddy, maize or on

grass. Some workers, such as Hollis (1971) and Usmani and

Shafee (1985), have done taxonomic work on this species,

but they have not given the detailed account of the species

found in Kashmir region. Some contributions have been made

by Sharma and Gupta (1997) and by Bhat and Qadri ( 1999)

on the distribution of species in Jammu and in Dachigam

National Park, respectively. In the present study, an attempt

has been made to provide a detailed account of the species

of the genus Oxya Serville.

The specimens were collected randomly from different

locations of the Kashmir valley. These spots were selected

on the basis of different climatic conditions like temperature,

humidity and rainfall, different topography like hills, plains,

different altitudes and on the basis of different vegetation.

The collected material was preserved in 70% alcohol for

the study of genitalia and dry mounting for the study of

other characters. To study the different parts of the genitalia,

the tip of abdomen was detached and boiled in a test

tube containing 10% KOH, after boiling the material

was thoroughly washed with tap water and normal process

of dehydration was followed, clearing was done in clove

oil and permanent slides were prepared in Canada Balsam.

The genus Oxya Serville can easily be distinguished on

the basis of having lower knee lobe of hind femur

spined and toothed ovipositor valves. These insects usually

feed in large numbers during August and September

in Kashmir. The genus is represented by five species in Kashmir,

which can be identified on the basis of the following key.

Key to species of Oxya Serville found in Kashmir

1 . Posterior ventral basivalvular sclerites of ovipositor without

well-defined spine on its lower margin; ventral surface of

female subgenital plate concave with lateral longitudinal

ridges 2

— Posterior ventral basivalvular sclerites of ovipositor with one

or two tooth like spines on its ventral margin 3

2. Female subgenital plate with median pair of spines on posterior

margin set close together; male cercus with bifid apex

Oxya grandis Willemse

— Female subgenital plate with median pair of spines on posterior

margin set wide apart; male cercus conical with subacute apex

Oxya velox (Fabr.)

3. Ventral surface of female subgenital plate with lateral

longitudinal ridges bordering a median concavity; posterior

margin not smooth 4

— Ventral surface of female subgenital flat or convex, without

lateral longitudinal ridges; posterior margin straight and smooth

Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall)

4. Ovipositor valves with long hook-like dents; posterior ventral

basivalvular sclerite with very small spinelets on its inner

ventral margin; lateral longitudinal ridges on ventral surface

of female subgenital plate spined; male cercus with subacute

or truncate apex Oxya hyla hyla Serville

— Ovipositor valves with short dents, posterior ventral

basivalvular sclerite with a large spine on its inner ventral

margin, lateral longitudinal ridges on ventral surface of female

subgenital plate with or without spines; male cercus with bifid

subacute or truncate apex 5

5 Lateral longitudinal ridges on ventral surface of female

subgenital plate with spines along their whole length; males

with antennae much longer than combined length of head and

pronotum together; cercus with bifid apex

Oxya japonica vitticollis (Blanchard)

— Lateral longitudinal ridges on ventral surface of female

subgenital plate without spines except at apices; males

with antennae as long as or slightly longer than combined

length of head and pronotum together; cercus with subacute

or truncate apex Oxya japonica japonica (Thunberg)

Oxya grandis Willemse (Fig. 1 )

Oxya grandis Willemse, 1925. Tijdschr. ent. 68: 36.

Diagnosis: Antennae as long as or longer than combined

length of head and pronotum; tegmina fully developed,

anterior margin without spines; male with supra-anal plate

having broadly triangular posterior lobe; cercus with bifid

apex, epiphallus; with hook-like outer lophi and broad tooth-

like inner lophi; ventral surface of female subgenital plate

with a long median concavity bordered on each side by a

well-developed lateral longitudinal ridge; posterior margin

with a pair of small median spines set close together; female

ovipositor valves with small dents, posterior ventral

basivalvular sclerite without spines on its inner margin.

Material Examined: 19,3d1; india: Kashmir, Baramulla,

Safapora on Otyza sativa, 9.x. 2005 (Shabir A. Reshi); 1 9,

Srinagar, Harwan on Otyza sativa 13. ix. 2006 (Shabir A. Reshi).

Oxya velox (Fabricius) (Fig. 2)

Gryllus velox Fabricius, 1787, Mantissa Insectorum

1: 239.

Gryllus chinensis Thunberg, 1815, Mem. Acad. Petersb.

5: 253.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

217

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Oxya grandis Willemse

a: Spermatheca, ?; b: Subgenital plate, 9; c: Ovipositor valves, 9; d: Supra-anal plate, 9;

e: Epiphallus, <?; f: Supra-anal plate d1

Gryllus squalidus Marschall, 1836, Ann. Wien. Mus. 1:

213, Syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Heteracris apta Walker, 1870, Cat. Derm. Salt. Coll.

Brit. Mus. 4: 666, Syn by Hollis, 1917.

Oxya velox Kirby, 1910, A Synonymic catalogue of

Orthoptera 3: 393.

Diagnosis: Male with supra-anal plate triangular;

epiphallus with narrow bridge, ancorae absent, hook-like outer

lophi and large tooth-like inner lophi; ventral surface of female

subgenital plate with a median longitudinal concavity in the

posterior half, bordered on each side by a lateral longitudinal

ridge, posterior margin with a pair of median spines set wide

apart; spermatheca in females with preapical diverticulum

broadly tubular and curved as long as apical diverticulum;

ovipositor valves with small and blunt dents, posterior ventral

basivalvular sclerite without spines on its ventral margin.

Material! Examined: 1 9 , Kashmir: Kupwara, Shatgund

Payeen on Oryza sativa , 10.ix.2004 (Shabir A. Reshi); 4$,

4 d , Kupwara, Kamah, Gundi Gujran on Oryza sativa, 9.ix.2005

(Shabir A. Reshi); 69, lid, Baramulla, Safapora on Oryza

sativa, 21.ix.2005 (Shabir A. Reshi); 29, 2d, Srinagar,

Dachigam National Park on grass, 23.X.2005 (Shabir A. Reshi).

Remarks: This species has been recorded from

Kashmir by Kirby (1914). Sharmaand Gupta ( 1997) recorded

it from Jammu region.

Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall) (Fig. 3)

Gryllus fuscovittatus Marschall, 1836, Ann. Wien. Mus.

Naturg, 1\ 211.

Oxya turanica U varov, 1912 , Trudy Russk. Ent. Obshch,

40: 28 Syn. by Willemse, 1925.

Oxya oryzivora Willemse, 1925, Tijdschr.Ent. 68: 25.

Syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oryza uvarovi Willemse, 1925, Tijdschr. Ent. 68: 27.

Syn. by Hollis, 1971.

218

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Oxya velox (Fabricius)

a: Spermatheca, 9; b: Subgenital plate, 9; c: Ovipositor valves, 9; d: Supra-anal plate, 9;

e: Epiphallus, <s\ f: Supra-anal plate s

Diagnosis: Male having supra-anal plate with lateral

projections more pronounced; cercus strongly compressed and

bifid; epiphallus with narrow bridge without ancorae and with

boot-shaped outer and tooth-like inner lophi, left lophus less

developed than the right one; female with subgenital plate flat

on ventral surface, posterior margin almost straight and smooth

or sometimes with two very small medial spines; spermatheca

with apical diverticulum tubular; ovipositor valves with small

uniform blunt dents, posterior ventral basivalvular sclerite with

small spines on its inner ventral margin.

Material examined; 6?, lie?, Kashmir: Kupwara,

Shatgund Payeen on Oryza sativa, 17.ix.2005 (Shabir A.

Reshi); 5 9,2 d, Baramulla, Uri, Uranbuha on Oryza sativa

21 .ix. 2006 (Shabir A. Reshi); 4 9, Id1, Budgam, on Zea ways

10.x. 2006 (Shabir A. Reshi).

Remarks: This species has been earlier recorded by

Hollis (1971) from Kashmir.

Oxya hyla hyla Serville (Fig. 4)

Oxyahyla Serville, 1831. Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) 22: 287.

Heteracris viridivitta Walker, 1870. Cat. Derm. Salt,

coll. Brit. Mas. (iv): 662 Syn. by Kirby, 1910.

Heteracris humeralis Walker, 1870. Cat. Derm. Salt,

coll. Brit. Mas. (iv): 662 Syn. by Kirby, 1910.

Oxya serrulata Krauss, 1891. Zool. Jb. Syst. 5: 662 Syn.

by Kirby, 1910.

Oxya acuminata Willemse, 1925. Tijdschr.Ent. 68: 42

Syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya multidentata Willemse, 1925. Tijdschr. Ent. 68:

44 Syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya ebneri Willemse, 1925. Tijdschr. Ent. 68: 46 Syn.

by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya hyla hyla Hollis, 1971. Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.

(Zool) 26: 282.

Diagnosis: Male having epiphallus with narrow

bridge, without ancorae, inner lophi usually well-developed;

cercus conical or compressed laterally with subacute apex; female

having subgenital plate with a pair of median spines set close

together on posterior margin; ventral surface with a median

longitudinal concavity which is bordered on each side by a

longitudinal ridge bearing short spines, spermatheca with

preapical diverticulum tubular, slightly longer and broader than

apical diverticulum; ovipositor valves with long hook-like dents,

posterior ventral basivalvular sclerites with very small spinelets

on its inner ventral margin.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

219

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 3: Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall)

a: Spermatheca, 9; b: Subgenital plate, 9; c: Ovipositor valves, 9; d: Supra-anal plate, 9;

e: Epiphallus, c?; f: Supra-anal plate <?

Material Examined: 49, 5d\ Kashmir: Kupwara,

Handwara, Shatgund-Payeen on Oryza sativa , 10.ix.2004

(Shabir A. Reshi); 8 9, lid1, Kurnah, GundiGujran on Oryza

sativa, 19.ix.2005 (Shabir A. Reshi); 49, 2d\ Srinagar,

Dachigam National Park on grass, 17.x. 2005 (Shabir A.

Reshi).

Remarks: This subspecies has earlier been recorded

from Kashmir by Bhat and Qadri (1999).

Oxya japonic a (Thunberg)

Gryllus japonicus Thunberg, 1824, Mem. Acad. Sci. St.

Petersberg 9: 429.

Hollis (1971) recognised two subspecies of Oxya japonica

(Thunberg), on the basis of characters already given in the key.

Oxya japonica vitticollis (Blanchard)

Acridium vitticole Blanchard, 1853, hr. Dumont

d'Urville, J. Voyage an pole Sud. 4: 373.

Oxya japonica vitticollis Hollis, 1971.

Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. HistjEnt.) 26: 307.

Diagnosis: In females lateral longitudinal ridges on

ventral surface of subgenital plate with spines all along their

length.

Material Examined: 29, 3c?, Kashmir: Kupwara,

Handwara on Oryza sativa , 13. ix. 2006 (Shabir A. Reshi); 2 9,

1 c?, Srinagar, Shalimar on Oryza sativa , 17.ix.2006 (Shabir

A. Reshi).

Remarks: This subspecies has been recorded for the

first time from Kashmir.

Oxya japonica japonica (Thunberg) (Fig. 5)

Gryllus japonicus Thunberg, 1824. Mem. Acad. Sci.

St. Petersberg 9: 429.

Acridium sinensis Walker, 1870. Cat. Der. Salt. Brit.

Mus. (iv): 666 syn. by Hollis 1971

Heteracris straminea Walker, 1870. Cat. Der. Salt. coll.

Brit. Mus. (iv): 669. syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Heteracris simplex Walker, 1870. Cat. Derm Salt. Brit.

Mus. (iv): 669. syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya lobata Stal, 1877 Ofvers. Vetensk. Akad. Forh.

220

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 4: Oxya hyla hyla Serville

a: Spermatheca, 9; b: Subgenital plate, 9; c: Ovipositor valves, 9; d: Supra-anal plate, 9;

e: Epiphallus, d\ f: Supra-anal plate <?

34: 53 syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya sinensis Willemse, 1925. Tijdschr. Ent. 68: 23.

syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya rufostriata Willemse, 1925, Tidschr. Ent. 68: 33.

syn. by Hollis, 1971.

Oxya japonica japonic a Hollis, 1971. Bull. Brit. Mus.

Nat. Hist. (Ent.) 26: 302.

Diagnosis: Male cercus with bifid apex; epiphallus

with narrow bridge, without ancorae with hook-like outer

lophi and short slender inner lophi; female having subgenital

plate with a deep median longitudinal concavity along

ventral surface bordered on either side by a lateral

longitudinal ridge; posterior margin with a pair of median

spines set close together; spermatheca with preapical

diverticulum tubular, longer than apical diverticulum;

ovipositor valves with short dents; posterior ventral

basivalvular sclerite with a large spine on its inner ventral

margin.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

221

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material Examined: 19, 5c?, Kashmir, Kupwara,

Handwaraon Otyza sativci, 13.ix.2006 (Shabir A. Reshi); 5 9,

9c?, Srinagar, Shalimar on Oryza sativa , 17. ix. 2006 (Shabir

A. Reshi).

Remarks: This subspecies has been recorded for the

first time from Kashmir

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are greatly indebted to Prof. R.C. Bhagat, Head,

P.G. Department of Zoology, for providing research facilities.

Thanks are also due to the concerned authorities for granting

permission to visit disturbed and restricted areas of the state.

REFERENCES

Bhat, G.A. & M.Y. Qadri (1999): Fideletic status and micro distribution

Orthopteran populations in grasslands of Dachigam National

Park, Kashmir. Oriental Science 4(1): 8-23.

Hollis, D. (1971 ): A preliminary revision of the genus Oxya Audinet-

Serville (Orthoptera: Acridoidea). Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.

(Ent.) 26: 267-343.

Kirby, W.F. (1914): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma: Orthoptera, Acridoidea. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers

and Publishers, New Delhi. 276 pp.

Sharma, B. & N. Gupta (1997): Identification key to the short homed

grasshoppers ( Orthoptera- Acrididae) from sub-Shivalik plains

of Jammu. J. Insect. Sci. 10(1): 5-7.

Usmani, M.K. & S.A. Shafee (1985): A revision of the Indian species

of Oxya (Acrididae: Oxyinae). Oriental Insects 19: 311-322.

Walker, F. (1870): Catalogue of Dermaptera Saltatoria in the collection

of British Museum, Part IV. Acrididae.

1 3. A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE MARINE AND ESTUARINE MOLLUSCS

IN AND AROUND BAHUDA ESTUARY, ORISSA, EAST COAST OF INDIA

S.K. Pati1, D. Mahapatro2 and R.C. Panigrahy3

'Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine), Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Beach Road, via Yoga Village, A.U Post,

Visakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

■Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India. Email: [email protected]

'Department of Marine Sciences, Berhampur University, Bhanja Bihar, Berhampur 760 007, Orissa, India.

Email: [email protected]

Marine molluscs of India were well-surveyed right from

Preston ( 1910) to Subba Rao (2003). State- wise series of fauna

brought out by Zoological Survey of India also include marine

molluscs. Relevant publications also contain systematic works

on marine molluscs of Orissa. However, contributions to

estuarine molluscs from different estuaries of the state are

restricted to Mahanadi (Subba Rao 1968; Subba Rao and

Mookherjee 1975; Surya Rao and Maitra 1998) and

Rushikulya (Rama Rao et al. 1992). Therefore, it was felt

necessary to gather information on the molluscs occurring in

and around Bahuda, another important estuary in Orissa. The

results are presented in this communication.

Bahuda estuary ( 19° 05' N; 84° 44' E) (Fig. 1 ) is a minor

estuary situated extreme south of Orissa, originates from the

Eastern Ghats, meanders through several valleys / plains and

finally empties into a shallow lagoon that opens into the Bay

of Bengal through a channel of about 5 km length and 250 m

width. While the banks of the estuary are sandy, those of the

lagoon are muddy with no natural hard substratum around.

Of course, some concrete jetties were constructed along the

channel that joins the Bay.

Random samples were collected every month from the

river mouth and the intertidal zone along the shore in estuarine

vicinities, during low tide from January to December 2005.

A quadrate frame of 1 sq. m was placed over randomly selected

sampling location; sediment up to 10 cm depth was collected

and wet sieved with 0.5 mm mesh. Attached forms were

removed from the jetties with the help of scalpel, chisel and

hammer. All molluscs collected were initially fixed in

5% neutral formalin, later preserved in glycerin ethyl alcohol

mixture (1:19) (Gosner 1971). The specimens were

subsequently identified up to species level following standard

literature (Mookherjee 1985; Subba Rao and Dey 1986; Subba

Rao etal. 1991, 1992, 1995; Subba Rao and Surya Rao 1993).

Fig. 1: Map of Bahuda Estuary

222

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

During the present investigation, 27 species of molluscs

(18 gastropods and 9 bivalves) were collected (Table 1). The

1 8 gastropod species were represented by 1 6 genera belonging

to 13 families falling under 3 orders, whereas the 9 bivalves

were represented by 8 genera belonging to 7 families falling

under 4 orders. Of these, the species, namely Crassostrea

cuttackensis (Newton and Smith, 1912), Cerithidea

( Cerithideopsilla ) cingulata (Gmelin, 1791), Telescopium

telescopium (Linnaeus, 1758), Oliva oliva (Linnaeus, 1758),

Bullia vittata (Linnaeus, 1767), Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus,

1 758), Anadara granosa (Linnaeus, 1758), A rhombea ( Bom,

1780) and Siliqua radiata (Linnaeus, 1758) were common

and abundant. However, Crassostrea cuttackensis (Newton

and Smith, 1912), Cerithidea ( Cerithideopsilla ) cingulata

(Gmelin, 1791) and Telescopium telescopium (Linnaeus,

1758) were most dominant.

Among the 48 species reported by Rama Rao et al.

(1992) from Rushikulya estuary, only 13 species, namely

Cerithidea ( Cerithideopsilla ) cingulata (Gmelin, 1791),

Telescopium telescopium, Natica gualteriana Recluz, 1 844,

Murex tribulus (Linnaeus, 1758), Babylonia spirata

(Linnaeus, 1758), Oliva oliva (Linnaeus, 1758), Anadara

granosa (Linnaeus, 1758), A. rhombea (Born, 1780), Perna

viridis (Linnaeus, 1758), Crassostrea cuttackensis (Newton

and Smith, 1912), Donax ( Hecuba ) scortum (Linnaeus, 1758),

Sunetta scripta (Linnaeus, 1758) and Meretrix meretrix

(Linnaeus, 1758) were common to Bahuda estuary. Surya Rao

and Maitra (1998) had listed 149 species of molluscs from

Mahanadi estuary. Except Natica gualteriana Recluz, 1844,

Ficus gracilis (Sowerby, 1825), Murex tribulus (Linnaeus,

1758), Conus inscriptus Reeve, 1843 and Terebra

commaculcita (Gmelin, 1791), all the species reported during

the present study were common to Mahanadi estuary.

However, all the molluscs encountered during the present

study were recorded earlier from Orissa except Terebra

commaculata (Gmelin, 1791) which forms a new record both

for Bahuda estuary, as well as Orissa.

Thus, the molluscan diversity in Bahuda estuary can

be said to be fairly rich. This abundance is an indirect

indication of good productivity of the estuary. Local fishermen

depend upon these resources next to fin fisheries for their

livelihood. Forms such as Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758),

Crassostrea cuttackensis (Newton and Smith, 1912) and

Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus, 1758) chiefly contribute to the

molluscan fishery and provide an economical and good source

of protein to people. Shells of many bivalves and gastropods

Tablel : Checklist of molluscan fauna of Bahuda estuary

Class Order

Family

Species

Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus, 1 758)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

223

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in this area are exploited for lime preparation and ornamental

/ decorative purposes. In view of good abundance of molluscs

during the present limited work, further survey(s) are likely to

bring to light more species that have not so far been recorded

from this region and understand the biodiversity better.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Scientist-in-charge and

Sri. A. Mahapatra of Estuarine Biological Centre, Zoological

Survey of India, for support and offering valuable suggestions

during the survey. Thanks are also due to the Scientists and

Co-fellows of the Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine),

Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Visakhapatnam,

for their encouragement and help. Special thanks are extended

to Dr. K.V. Surya Rao, Scientist (Retired), Zoological Survey

of India, for invaluable support in specimen identification.

REFERENCES

Gosner, K.L. (1971): Guide to identification of marine and estuarine

invertebrates. John Wiley and Sons, Inc, USA: 693 pp.

Mookherjee, H.P. (1985): Contribution to the Molluscan fauna of India,

Part III. Marine molluscs of the Coromandel coast, Palk Bay

and Gulf of Mannar - Gastropoda: Mesogastropoda (Part-2). Rec.

zool. Surv. India , Occ. Pap. 75: 93 pp., xvi pis.

Preston, H.B. (1910): Descriptions of five new species of marine shells

from the Bay of Bengal. Rec. Indian Mus. 5:1 17-121.

Rama Rao, K.V., C.A. Nageswar Rao, S.C. Nahar, D.V. Rao &

A. Mahapatra (1992): Studies of the ecology and fauna of

Rushikulya estuary (Ganjam), Orissa. In: Estuarine Ecosystem

Series 1: 7-26. Zoological Survey of India.

Subba Rao, N.V. (1968): Report on a collection of wood boring

molluscs from Mahanadi estuary, Orissa, India. Pp. 85-93.

Proceedings of the Symposium on Mollusca - 1 . Mar. Biol. Asso.

India.

Subba Rao, N.V. (2003): Indian Seashells (Part-1): Polyplacophora and

Gastropoda. Rec. zool. Surv. India , Occ. Pap. 192: i-x, 1-416.

Subba Rao, N.V. & A. Dey (1986): Contribution to the knowledge of

Indian marine molluscs. 2. Family Doncidae. Rec. zool. Surv.

India , Occ. Pap. 91: 30 pp., 4 pis.

Subba Rao, N.V. & H.P. Mookherjee ( 1975): On a collection of Mollusca

from the Mahanadi estuary, Orissa. Pp. 165-176. In: Recent

Researches in Estuarine Biology (Ed.: R. Natarajan). Hindustan

Publications, New Delhi.

Subba Rao, N.V. & K.V. Surya Rao ( 1993): Contribution to the Knowledge

of Indian marine Molluscs, Part 3. Family: Muricidae. Rec. zool.

Surv. India , Occ. Pap. 153: 133 pp., 14 pis.

Subba Rao, N.V., A. Dey & S. Barua (1992): Estuarine and marine

molluscs. In: Fauna of West Bengal. State Fauna Series 3(9):

129-268. Zoological Survey of India.

Subba Rao, N.V., K.V. Surya Rao & R.N. Manna (1995): Mollusca.

In: Fauna of Chilika Lake. Wetland Ecosystem Series 1:

391-468. Zoological Survey of India.

Subba Rao, N.V., K.V. Surya Rao & S. Maitra ( 1991 ): Marine Molluscs.

In: Fauna of Orissa. State Fauna Series 1(3): 1-175. Zoological

Survey of India.

Surya Rao, K.V. & S. Maitra(1998): Mollusca./n: Fauna ofMahanadi

estuary, Estuarine Ecosystem Series 3: 161-197. Zoological

Survey of India.

14. CROTALARIA ANGULATA MILLER AND TAXILLUS BRACTEATUS (WALL.)

TIEGHEM - NEW RECORDS TO THE FLORA OF ORISSA

C. Sudhakar Reddy13, Chiranjibi Pattanaik14 and A.K. Biswal2

‘Forestry & Ecology Division, National Remote Sensing Centre, ISRO, Hyderabad 500 625, Andhra Pradesh, India.

“Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Baripada 757 003, Orissa, India. Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Introduction

In the course of phytosociological studies of Similipal

Biosphere Reserve, Mayurbhanj district, Orissa, India, we

collected specimens of two interesting species. After critical

examination (Gamble and Fischer 1915-1936) and examining

the specimens deposited at Linnaean Herbarium (S-LINN),

Swedish Museum of Natural History (Anon 2002) and

Central National Herbarium (CAL), Kolkata, they were

identified as Crotalaria angulata Miller (Papilionaceae) and

Taxillus bracteatus (Wall.) Tieghem. (Loranthaceae). They

are not mentioned in the flora of Orissa (Saxena and

Brahmam 1996; Mishra etal. 1999), and are first time records

from here.

Crotalaria angulata Miller (Papilionaceae)

Crotalaria angulata Miller, Gard. Diet. ed.8. no. 9.

1768. Astragalus biflorusL. Mant. PI. 273. 1771. Crotalaria

biflora (L.) L. Mant. PI. 570. 1771: FBI 2: 66. 1876; Gamble

1: 292 (206) 1918.

Prostrate herb. Branchlets hispid. Leaves simple, ovate.

1.0- 1.6 x 0.4- 1.0 cm, base and apex obtuse, margin entire.

Racemes lateral, 2-flowered. Corolla exerted, yellow. Pod

subglobose, 1 .0 x 0.8 cm, stiff-hispid, twice as long as calyx.

Seeds 8-10.

Habitat: Rare, in fringes of Sal dominated moist

deciduous forests (elevation: 800 m).

FI. & Fr.: August-February.

224

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Specimen Examined: Orissa: Mayurbhanj district,

Aski: 14. ii. 2005, CSR 1991 (North Orissa Univ. Herbarium).

Taxillus bracteatus (Wall.) Tieghem. (Loranthaceae)

Taxillus bracteatus (Wall.) Tieghem, Bui. Soc. Bot.

France 42: 256.1895. Loranthus bracteatus Heyne ex Wall,

in Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 220.1824. FBI 5: 213.1886; Gamble 2:

1252(876). 1925.

Parasitic, evergreen herb; branchlets tawny tomentose.

Leaves orbicular, 1. 5-4.0 x 1. 5-4.0 cm, 3 or 5 nerved

from base, pilose pubescent, base rounded to cuneate. Rowers

in axillary fascicles, yellow, scarlet red inside, 1 cm across.

Habitat: Rare, partial stem parasite on Kydia calycina

on savannah hill tops (elevation: above 1,000 m)

FI. & Fr.: October-March.

Anon. (2002): Linnaean Herbarium. Swedish Museum of Natural

History (http://Linnaeus. nrm.se/botany/fbo).

Gamble, J.S. & C.E.C. Fischer (1915-1 936): The Flora of the Presidency

of Madras, Reprinted Edition (1957), Vol. 1-3, Botanical Survey

of India, Calcutta.

Specimen Examined: Orissa: Mayurbhanj district,

Meghasani hill: 12. ii. 2005, CSR 1916 (North Orissa

University Herbarium).

Note: It differs from Taxillus cuneatus (Roth.) Dancer

in presence of orbicular leaves and tomentose plant parts and

flowers, in case of latter leaves are obovate-spatulate, plant

parts and flowers are glabrous at maturity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. P.S. Roy, Deputy Director

(RS & GIS, Application area), Dr. M.S.R. Murthy, Head,

Forestry & Ecology Division, National Remote Sensing

Centre, Hyderabad and Dr. U.B. Mohapatra, Head,

Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Baripada for

their valuable suggestions and encouragement.

Mishra, M.K., S.S. Dash & P.K. Das ( 1999): Additions to the Flora of

Orissa . Rheedea 9(2): 163-172.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1996): The Flora of Orissa, Vol. I-I V,

Orissa Forest Development Corporation. Bhubaneswar.

2468 pp.

15. HEDYCH1UM FLAVESCENS CAREY EX ROSCOE - AN ADDITION

TO THE FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA STATE

Nilesh V. Malpure1’2 and S.R. Yadav1,3

'Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra, India.

"Email : n malpure @ rediffmail .com

"Email: [email protected]

Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Roscoe (Family:

Zingiberaceae) was recently collected from Tillari region in

Kolhapur district of Maharashtra state, and this is the first

report of its occurrence in Maharashtra. The species was so

far reported from southern parts of India (Sabu 2006). The

genus Hedychium in Maharashtra is now represented by three

species, namely H. coronarium Koen., H. flavescens Carey

ex Roscoe and H. flavum Roxb. The identity of H. flavum

Roxb. is uncertain (Sharma etal. 1996). In the present paper,

the nomenclature of the species along with a note are given

for easy identification.

Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Roscoe, Monandr. t. 50.

1825; Wight, Icon. PI. Indiae Orient, t. 2008 & 2009. 1853;

C.E.C. Fisch. in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 8: 1485. 1928; K.G

Bhat, R. Udupi 631 . 2003; M. Sabu. Zingiberaceae & Costaceae

of South India 199. 2006. H. coronarium var.flavescens (Roscoe)

Baker in Hook./., R. Brit. India 6: 226. 1892.

Specimen Examined: Maharashtra: Kolhapur, Tillari.

05. ix. 2006. Malpure 7 (Shivaji University Herbarium).

Note: The species prefers to grow along streams in

evergreen forests at high altitude. The major threat to the

species is the alteration of habitat and clearing of the forest

for cultivation. The species is now cultivated in the

Botanic Garden of the Department of Botany, Shivaji

University, Kolhapur. The propagules of the species are

also distributed for cultivation in home gardens, which

can be an efficient practice for conservation of rare wild

ornamental plants.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Head, Shivaji University,

Kolhapur, for providing facilities and to the Department of

Biotechnology, New Delhi, for financial assistance.

REFERENCES

Sabu, M. (2006): Zingiberaceae and Costaceae of South India. IAAT, Depaitment of Botany, Calicut University, Kerala.

Sharma, B.D., S. Karthikeyan & N.P. Singh (1996): Flora of Maharashtra State: Monocotyledons. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

225

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. SOME RARE AND ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES OF GUJARAT, INDIA

P.S. Nagar1’3, Sachin Sata1-4 and T.D. Parmar2

'Department of Botany, The M S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390 002, Gujarat, India.

•Gujarat College, Ahmedabad 380 009, Gujarat, India.

•’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

During an extensive survey on the floristic diversity

of Saurashtra (2000-2003) some interesting and threatened

plants of Gujarat, Polygala irregularis Boiss. Diag.,

Lotus corniculatus var. minor Baker, Tephrosia jamnagarensis

Santapau, Periploca aphylla Decaisne and Lepidagathis

cristata Wild were collected; of these the occurrence of

Lotus corniculatus var. minor Baker is a new record to

the flora for Gujarat hitherto not recorded from Gujarat

sensu Santapau (1962), Shah (1978), and Bole and

Pathak (1988). The details of the plants are as

follows:

1 . Poly gala irregularis Boiss. (Polygalaceae)

While studying the flora of Sutrapada coastal Forest,

Veraval, we collected and observed P. irregularis in isolated

pockets. Cooke (1901) has stated “a rare plant, found in Sind

and on coast of Kathiyawad, Gujarat”. Whereas Shah (1978)

refers to Saxton (no. 3273) collected from Ahmedabad,

extremely rare. The plant is rare in the region and requires

immediate attention.

Flowering & Fruiting: September-December

Present status: Uncommon

Habitat: Sandy open plains

Specimen examined: BSI 115190, 94791, PSN-SAU

1028 (19.x. 2001)

2. Lotus corniculatus var. minor Baker (Fabaceae)

An interesting species of Lotus was observed while

exploring the flora of Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary (on the bank

of Jambuda Lake), Jamnagar. On critically examining the

specimen, it was identified as Lotus corniculatus var. minor

Baker. This is a dwarf form of L. corniculatus L.; recorded

by Hooker (1876) from the plains of Sind with solitary

flowers and fleshy leaflets 1/8 inch long. Cooke (1901) has

stated the variety with solitary flowers and is confined to

Sind only. The present observation extends the earlier

known distribution of the species. There is no report of the

species in the Flora of Gujarat (Shah 1978) and in that of

Saurashtra (Thaker 1910; Santapau 1962; Santapau and

Janardhanan 1966; Bole and Pathak 1988). Thus, to refer to

its occurrence and habitat, the same has been accounted here

(Fig. 1).

Flowering & Fruiting: September-November

Present status: Endangered

Habitat and Ecology: The plant was growing on the

clayey and silty saline soil.

Specimen examined: PSN-SAU 1039 (8.x. 2001)

3. Tephrosia jamnagarensis Santapau (Fabaceae)

During a survey of the vegetation of Khad

Khambhaliya vidi (Grassland), Lalpur, Jamnagar district, we

observed an endangered and endemic plant species of

Saurashtra Tephrosia jamnagarensis (Santapau 1958; Kothari

and Hajra 1983; Shah 1983; Nayar and Sastry 1988) at the

lower slopes of hillocks. The present collection forms the

rediscovery of this very interesting taxon after a gap of almost

three decades. Also, it reinstates the endemicity of the species.

The plants were observed on the gravel calcareous soil. The

species is very rare and endemic to the region. A recent survey

showed that the plant does not occur in the earlier stated

regions or surroundings, moreover, is encroached by

agriculture fields (Nagar 2000; Rao 2002). The rarity of the

plant owes to overgrazing, habitat destruction, lack of

protection, and probable other biotic factors.

Taxonomic History

The holotype was collected by Santapau for the first

time near Rozi in Jamnagar, Gujarat on the October 16, 1945

and was deposited in the Blatter herbarium, Bombay (now

Mumbai), India, under the type specimen Santapau 7522.

Ahluwalia collected it on August 24, 1954, in flower buds

from Victoria Bridge, Jamnagar (Santapau 1962). The

specimen was last collected from Bharuch in 1972 (Vyas 1973;

Shah 1978).

Flowering & Fruiting: September-November

Present status: Rare in vidi (grassland)

Habitat and Ecology: It grows usually on sandy loamy

to gravel calcareous soil on the undulating slopes of the

grassland.

Specimen examined: H. Santapau: Jamnagar-7522

BLAT (16.x. 1945), PSN-SAU 1058 (17.X.2001)

4. Periploca aphylla Decaisne, (Periplocaceae)

This plant was located at the coastal belt of

226

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (2), May-Aug 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

F. Keel; G. Stamens with Pistill; I. Fruit

Jamnagar. Only few individuals of the same were recorded

from the area. Earlier the plant has been recorded from

Sind and Kutch (now Kachchh) area (Shah 1978).

However, it is first observation to the flora of Saurashtra,

Gujarat.

Flowering & Fruiting: August-October.

Present status; Endangered.

Habitat: Sandy and Saline.

Specimen examined: BSI 61964, 32876, PSN-SAU

1234 (8.x. 2001)

5. Lepidagathis cristata Wild (Acanthaceae)

The plant has been recorded for the first time from

Shetrunjaya Hills, Palitana, Saurashtra. Earlier the plant was

recorded from north Gujarat (Idar) on old walls of the fort

and hilly slopes (Shah 1978).

Flowering & Fruiting: October-December

Present status: Uncommon.

Location: Shetrunjay Hills, Palitana, Bhavnagar

district.

Habitat: Shade of scrubby vegetation in the slope and

along the rocky riverine area.

Specimen examined: G.L. Shah: N. Gujarat-57062

BLAT (1978), PSN-SAU 1339 (31.X.2001).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply thankful to Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University, Rajkot and GEER Foundation,

Gandhinagar for the financial support. We are also grateful

to Dr. S.M. Almeida for providing access to the Blatter

Herbarium, Mumbai, and to Botanical Survey of India (BSI),

Pune for the confirmation of the species.

REFERENCES

Bole, P.V. & J.M. Pathak (1988): Flora of Saurashtra. Part II & III.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 545 pp.

Cooke, T. (1901): The Flora of Bombay Presidency. Vol. I-III. BSI

Calcutta. 649 pp.

Hooker, J.D. (1876): The Flora of British India. Vol 2, pp. 91.

Kothari, M.J. & P.K. Hajra (1983): Materials for a Catalogue of

Threatened plants of India. Pp.45. Botanical Survey of India.

Howrah.

Nagar, PS. (2000): Biodiversity of the Barda Hills. Ph.D. Thesis.

Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1988): Red Data Book of Indian Plants.

Vol. II. Pp. 133. Bot. Surv. India.

Rao, V.R. (2002): An assessment of Endangered plants of Gujarat. Ph.D.

thesis submitted to S.P. University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat,

India.

Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat. Part II. Sardar Patel University,

Vallabh Vidyanagar.

Santapau, H. (1958): Addition and corrections to the Indo-Nepalese

Flora. Proc. Nat. Sci. Inst. India 24B: 133. t. 1.

Santapau, H. (1962): The Flora of Saurashtra, Part - 1 (Ranunculaceae

to Rubiaceae). Pp. 270. Saurashtra Research Society, Rajkot.

Santapau, H. & K.P. Janardhanan (1966): The Flora of Saurashtra

(Check list). Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8: Supply. 1:1-58.

Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat. Part I. Pp. 248. Sardar Patel

University, Vallabh Vidyanagar.

Shah, GL. (1983): Rare species with restricted distribution in South

Gujarat. Pp. 50-54. In: S.K. Jain & R.R. Rao. (Eds): An

assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Bot. Surv. India,

Calcutta.

Thaker, J.I. (1910): Vanaspati Sastara - Barda Dungami Jadibuti tani

Pariksha anae Upyog. (Botany - A complete and Comprehensive

Account of the Flora of Barda Mountain (Kathiawad). Gujarati

Printing Press. Bombay. Pp. 717.

V yas, K.J. ( 1973): Contribution to the floristics and phytosociology of

the river Narmada in Gujarat State. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to

S.P. University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat.

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EDITORIAL

CONTENTS

3 9088 01757 4369

ON THE DIURNAL ADVERTISEMENT CALL FREQUENCY OF HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS WITH

ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE DISTRESS CALL AND CHURR CALL

Dieter Gramentz

EARLY STAGES OF THE TRAVANCORE EVENING BROWN PARANTIRRHOEA MARSHALL! WOOD-

MASON (SATYRINAE, NYMPHALIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA), AN ENDEMIC BUTTERFLY

FROM THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

S. Kalesh and Satya Krishna Prakash

A NEW REPORT OF CEPHRENES ACALLE HOPFFER (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE)

FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, WITH NOTES ON ITS NATURAL HISTORY AND

IMMATURE STAGES

S. Kalesh and Satya Krishna Prakash

FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA: BRANCH IOPOD A) OF LOKTAK LAKE

(A RAMSAR SITE), MANIPUR (N.E. INDIA)

B.K. Sharma and Sumita Sharma

OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS, INDIA, WITH 52 NEW RECORDS

TO LAKSHADWEEP AND 40 NEW RECORDS TO INDIA: PART 1

133

135

142

149

156

DeepakApte 162

BREEDING ECOLOGY AND NEST-SITE SELECTION OF YELLOW-BROWED BULBUL IOLE INDICA

IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

P. Balakrishnan 176

DIVERSITY OF SPIDERS IN GROUNDNUT CROP FIELDS IN VILLAGE AREA OF SAURASHTRA

REGION

Varsha Trivedi 184

DISCOVERY OF A BREEDING GROUND OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS

AND THEIR CONSERVATION IN THE FLOODPLAINS OF BIHAR, INDIA

Arvind Mishra and Jai Nandan Mandal 190

NEW DESCRIPTION

A NEW SPECIES OF BRACHYMERIA WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDIDAE) ON RICE

SKIPPER, PARNARA GUTTATA (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE) FROM SOUTH KASHMIR

Md. Jamal Ahmad 198

REVIEW 201

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 202

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001 .

Website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]