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THE

JOURNAL s

OF THE

IN fa &

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL.. XL

NOS. 1 & 2

Price ae Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1939

INSTRUCTIUNS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts. should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page oz

Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. alk

List of Contributors pe tree ae

List of Plates... gre bon

Index to Illustrations me

Errata te oe :

Index to Species ee te

To follow frontis-

piece in this order.

To go at the end of

two numbers.

THE.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

P, M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S.. S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.A., J.P

& C. MCCANN, F.L.S.

VOL. XL

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 3 Coloured Plates, 31 Black and White Plates,

32 Text-figures, and 2 maps.

Dates of Publication

“Part 1. (Pages 1 to 136)... ~— April’ 1938.

» 2 ( 4» 137 to 354) .. September 1938.

LONDON AGENTS :

DAVID NUTT, Esq., (A. G. BERRY) 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1O30

Tol i "

Cary: foe f .

. . " f

’ yt A i

= >

. ‘

CONTIGNLS OF VOLUME XL.

No. 1

SomME NOTES ON THE RAISING OF A/B/SCUS SHRUBS FROM

SEED. By Mrs. M. E. Robinson, m.A. (Cantab.) (W2th

/ one coloured and one black and white plate) .......... ry. os

\MALayan GAUR OR SELADANG (8260s gaurus de) By

a Tiibbacks “(Wain 1202 black and White Plates)... i242.

Hiss om Wmorart PAr® iil. by Dr. sy Ul: Hors, wo sc.;

_-*F.R.S.E., F.N.IL and K. S. Misra, M.sc. (Wzth three plates

and six texl-figures)... eee reciente anni Puna fs

SoME BiIrRDS OF A COene Doane ae F. N. Betts, M.3B.0.v.

(With three plates) .. ees Sten ss

SOME NOTES ON ee AND were cee IN eo

By Col. W. M. Logan Home, 1.4. Retd. (With two

plates)... Poneman

ON THE Broo ncs OF A BUiee GENE Oe ee M. . ON

Banana. By K. Brahmachari, M.A. (Wz7th one plate

CHO SII LERL-ILOIUHES \n: see Stared: Para ramets

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE RCH ae ‘Conese

(Mugil corsula Hamilton), WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE

PROBABLE MODE OF ORIGIN OF AERIAL VISION IN

Bismes. By Dr. 5. UL. HORA, D.Sc., F-R.S.E.;. F.L.S., F.Z.S.,

F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I. (With one coloured and three text-

CULES ae, ere LEC re

MEDICINAL AND Poisonous see OF oe Mena

Dillentads, Anonads, Mentspernads, Berberids. By Rev.

Ere hed Caiises.s, Faas. esse ab: 5

OBSERVATIONS ON THE enone OF me ae eee

Cuvier and Valenciennes), WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO ITS LARVICIDAL PROPENSITIES. By A. G. Fraser,

TM. Bs. : ALAA ics sthcneten ty eer

et Gipn us. OF Wren aan eer ee T. Hubback

Ya OUr OI AGhe A7t0. LONLLE DIGLES) 0a: scion alee ise soee- ashes

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Wild Beasts—Real and Apocryphal. By R. G.

Burton .. a ee

IE. Nerice cae: of Meer. Meer c. Sore ice oli a9

ILI. Curious behaviour of Wild Dogs and a Panther at

a Kill. By Ramanuj Saren Singh Deo., ¢.B.E.

LV. Unusual mauling by a Leopard. By A.C. Tutein-

INGO GHG DNUIS oR ZAG tiie 5 .otiae acalts ude bien Sie an aeeees

JUL 13 1939

100

XT.

XI.

XVI.

XV Al:

XVIII.

XIX.

POG

XXII.

Tue GAME FISHES OF INDIA.

D.SC.; F-R.S:Bi,) F284 BRAGS. Bs, ENE

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL

Disappearance of Jackals. By R.C. Morris......

On Whistlhine.oL ‘Bison. eBy (RaCa Wieuiise..

Catise of Sore Neck in Sambar, By S. R. Daver.

Some Birds observed in Kutch and Kathiawar.

By Humayun Ali.

Drumming of Watt ee a R. aS fhe

Jones..

The Tene rane iiiea: ‘Nighti-a -ar © (CHE

macrourus albonotatus ‘Tickeli), By R. M.

Betham;c.1.&- ae

On the parasitic Peni of ihe Pied Cretan Cacioe

[Clamator jacobinus (Bodd.)]......

Egeg-laying of the Khasia Hills Cieae: (Ori

c. baker?) in the nest of the Burmese Stone

Chat (Sartcola caprata burman ae By aa:

LAVESCY 2t.ke oe:

Cuckoo Problems. “By T. Te ibaveccom

Occurrence of the Black-capped Knees,

[ Halcyon pileata(Bodd.)]| in the Gonda District,

WER SB Wiikey ee eee yan ee

Arrival and stay of Snipe in Assam. By R. E.

PAaTrSOOS se Sear tea ee ae)

Occurrence of the Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna)

in Murshidabad District, Bengal. By R: J,

Clough wneticct con ae er ee

Note: on the Python. By Ae Vandile ee

An instance of the ‘ Viviparity’ in Mabuya cari-

wate (SChn.).. By Ak Vy eshalya.c... ae

A supplementary List of the PYRALIDA: of

Calcutta... “By “Dv G. Sevastopulo; #.Rens=.

A note on the Lycenid Butterfly (Zveves dipora

Moore). By A. EB. Jones. (W2th one plate)...

On the differences between Lycenopsts huegelii

huegeliz and 2. ladonides o7gas, Wy VAs.

SOMES CUAULIMOMLCDUQHIEY ..ac2 fiae sneer ene

A note on our Vala Sanctuary. By vA“C@> Patein:

Nolthemiusrenezcs:... 235; 3 eee

No. 2

Part lV. By Dri S. Exbona,

(With one colour-

ed plate of The Silond Catfish S7/oxza stlondia (Hamiiton)

and four

Lentel EB UKES) charset a5 USi ve Sethe Reign eer toe

CONTENDS, OF VOLUME XE

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. Part IV. By Salim

A. Ali and Humayun Abdulali. eae ‘wo black and white

plates).. Saree DMO ual bored DS eee es

THE Orca Hee OF THE EL Coconit ne P. V. Mayura-

nathan .. :

ROSE- PEN Ouse AND OTHER ones OF THE Wee area.

Dye Wat OTR a5. baebates, 1.46) C7272 S22. DIALES) inate tess nos

A FuRTHER CONTRIBUTION TO SOME OF THE COMMON

FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE HYDERABAD STATE: THEIR

DISTRIBUTION AND Economic IMPORTANCE. By Sayeed-

tel OTN PLM RIAD) carck cwcrtersae es stianGinatin bah si shee ume sceees

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE. By H.

Whistler, F.R.S., M.B.O.U.. oe Ss

ON A NEW CoccIpIUM ee ee Sp. n. FROM THE

INTESTINE OF A COBRA WVaja naja Linn. By Matiranjan

Das-Gupta, M.sc. (With a plate)...

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND. iy. Cc. HL “Biddulph.

(With a map)... re

A NOVE ON DLLs a laca Cn (e 7. V. Saiaanatn.

B.A., and K.P. Anantanarayanan, B. A. Ca ae a

Pinte.

THE ome oe AND Poronon Sera. OF Micoas oe Rev

hie em he Cals) G7 5.0 atic, woe mineakess

REVIEWS :—

I. The Birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of

ee oAwis Den dveben Der WV OC ss. tia cscs cade sam oteatenn ee

bile Phe Compleat [ndiam Ancler.. . fis-s.scak meee oe

MVese he rials Ol aor lanter. ca. cc.kcn Proud seek eer rcie

Vee Pe Te IAIN GL VSI 1@ alae aches + saelemei ederim den c ahedure snags

VI. Uganda Game Department Annual Report forthe

S/SIEI GES Stee en ea rm SCI En ras NR ee a ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Panther with abnormal feet. By 8S. H. Prater,

M.A. (CoM.ZS.. nae BE aareies cops rere oars

i Sackals? aa a ee Panther, bs Noel J.S.

Thompson... Piet: Leeda sete t ssa eee ae

the =tancolin= and eahan a curious belief. By

The Editors... yah

TV... An albino Stnbace fee H. G. iChantatony. LF.S..

TOL

213

236

238

2a7

264

322

XVI.

xVile

AVIIT.

XIX.

XXI.

DOM

XXIV.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME RTL

The mating of Elephants. By Paul de Launey.:.

A Large Indian Elephant. By F. J. Mustill......

Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison. By R. C.

Morris.. SE REN At

Behaviour af (on or ina Bicon (eae gaur Was)

By Major H. G. Rossel.. ane

The use of firework or oe Bee: in ee

protection Of crops... By, EF.) Must’. ee

The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (Chelidorynx

hy poxanthum): An Extension of its range. By

Rev. 2. A. otorrs Foxe, s

The Status of the Koel Lunn pe ie '

in Sind, By Ky Re Hates, F:7:S., M.B.0.Us..2 5.

Some interesting records of birds in the Punjab.

A correction. “By He W.. Waite, M0B-0.U......

Cuckoo Problems. By T. R. Livesey........./e. sa

Strange accident to a Vulture. By J. A.C. Green-

wood. (With a photo)...

Occurrence of the Lesser Ones Brensted (eee

Pigeon. (Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta) at

Keamari, Sind. By K. R:- Eates, F. z. s.,

M.B:O.U.,

Woodcock. iyood Seis ‘Pintail hee a jae

Snipe in one day!. By R. F. Stoney...

The Snipe-billed Godwit (L7mnodromus Ste

nmowski N ert.) in, Orissa, Byso. Ele deraver,

M.L.A.; C.M.Z.S.< os

The Occurrence of ne Tie eone. he Re ea

Phalarope, the Falcated Teal and the Sheldrake

at Patna by. Ae Abreu. a: cesar sete kee

Bewick'’s Swan, ee Sea near Delhi. By

E. S. Lewis..

Occurrence of ie ene tai Wea bone Gone

hyemalis, si near Quetta. By Major M.

B.P. Reeve..

Sheldrake Cie na tne na nines ae in mone "Be

Te ik (GO WG ac stot as wane oh terraces ee eee

A Hybrid: Common Teal and Baikal Teal. By

bt.-Col. JWT homson(Glower: cee

Migration of Wild Fowl... s8y The Editors... -.,

The Food of the Mugger (Cvocodilus palustris).

By Tlumay un 7A bduilaliesmeisne skeet: tenes es

PAGE

323

324

S/45)

330

youl

Soc

332

308

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL

XXV. The head-shields of the Hamadryad [Maza

hannah (Cantor)|: An abnormal example.

Byo Re Ne Chamipion-JiOneSisni.g, cx. cesccaezeee ass

XXVI. Two Caterpillars of Economic importance, not

recorded before from South India. By T. V.

Ramakrishna Ayyar B.A., Ph.D.. si

XXVII. Notes on the Earwig (Dine Pee en, INORERY.

By Sir Frank Connor, D.S.O., F.R.C.S., I.M.S.,

(Major-General, Retd.)... :

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ore Cunenan ieee

ING OF THE BomBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOG ela Vere err emer ee ect eo ee ee erat

Vii

PAGE

336

Bile)

338

340

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUPORS

VOLUME XL

ABDULALI, HuMAvUN; The

food of the Mugger (Cvroco-

dilus palustris)

> see Ali, Salim

Some Birds

observed in Kutch = and

Kathiawar ame ee

Al, SALIM and ABDULALT,

HuMavuN; The Birds of

Bombay and Salsette. Part IV

(With two plates)

ANANTANARAYANAN, K. P.,

B.A.; see SUBRAMANIAM, T.V.

Ayvar, T. V. RAMAKRISHNA,

B.A., Ph. D. Two Caterpil-

lars of economic importance

not recorded before from

Dy india ye. Me fs

BAres, MAIOR Ros, 2. ; Cn

the Parasitic Habits of the

Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clama-

tor gacobinus, (Bodd.)

- Rose-Finches

and other Birds of the Ward-

wan Valley (With six blates)

BETHAM, BRIG.-GEN. R. M.

Gire,>* “Pie Indian, “Lone

tailed Nightjar ee

Bers, fb N 4 B.0.U ss ome

Birds of a Coorg Down (With

three plates) by ares

BrpputpeH, C.H,.: The Birds

of Rameswararn Island (Wzth

a map) : ee

BRAHMACHARI, K., M.A.; On

the Bionomics of a Bagworm

(Kophene cuprea M.) on Ba-

nana (With one plate anda

six text-figures) an

BURTON, R.G.; Wild Beasts,

—Real and Apocryphal

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

148

125

183

124

238

112

CAIUS, < ieee S gi Isc

Medicinal, and poisonous

Plants of India: Magnoliads,

Dillenitads, Anonads, Ments-

permads, Berberids aes

——; ‘The

poisonous

Medicinal and

Spureges of India

CHAMPION, FH OG;, 1.8S.3

Albino Sambar . ee

CHAMPION-JONES, R. IN, &

Drumming of Wocdpeckers...

———-—— ; The

head-shields of the Hamadryad

[(Nata hannah Cantor)] an

abnormal example

CrhouGH, @R. wu: Occurrerice

cf the Sheldrake (7adorna

tadorna) in Murshidabad

District, Bengal

Sheldrake

fadornma Linn ) in

(Tadorna

Orissa oe ze

CONNOR, MAJOR-GENRL SIR

PRANK Das. O07, (he ORUGwon

ieM. se Notes. -on the

Earwig (Dicrana kallipyga

Dohrn) cat

D’ABREU, E. A.; ‘The occur-

rence of the Turnstene, the

Red-necked Phalarope, the

Falcated eal and the Shel-

drake at Patna aoe

Das-GuPTA, MATIRANJAN,

M. Sc.; On anew Coccidium

(fsospora minuta) sp. n. from

the intestine of a .Cobra

(Naja naja) (With three text-

{1U7 eS) Sas ae

DAVER, S. R.;: Cause of sore

neck in Sambar

gee

PAGE

334

338

332

236

118

‘

;

‘

| oo ee

ee ae

LIST (OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dro, RAMANUJ SAREN SINGH,

C.B.E.; Curious behaviour

of Wild Dogs and a Panther

at a Kill ee

ATES. Re) 25S, 00. B.O.U

The Status of the Koel

(Eudynamis scolopaceus) in

Sind ee ae

———-— ——— ;: Occurrence

of the Lesser Orange: breasted

Green Pigeon (Dendrophasa

bicincta bicincia) at Keamari,

Sind aa oe bees

Epirors; Wild Beasts—Real

and Apocryphal oe:

Drumming of

————

eas

7 Note Om the Python:

——————-; Pangolin and

Sambar : a curious belief

—; Record Measure-

ments of Indian Elephants ...

The Mating

of Elephants aes

: Records of

Bewick’s Swan within Indian

limits

; Migration of

Wild Fowl

; Function of the

‘Forceps’ in Earwigs ‘

EOxG, H.. vie. STORRS 3 “Lhe

Yellow-bellied Fiyeatcher

(Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum):

an extension of its range

FRASER, A.G., I.M.D. ; Obser-

vations on the Bionomics of

(Panchax ltinéatus Cuvier

and Valenciennes), with

special reference to its Larvi-

cidal propensities

GLOVER, J. W. ‘THOMSON:

A Hybrid: Common Teal and

Baikal Teal a

GREENWOOD, J.A.C.; Strange

accident to a Vulture (With a

photo) dot sec

Pawirr, W A.; Occurrence

of the Black-capped King-

fisher (Halcyon pileata) in

te Gonda, District, U.P.

PAGE

Halls

328

334

330

128

Home, Cort. W. M. LoGan

Some Notes on Butterflies

and Big Game in Kashmir

(With two plates)

HORA SUNDER: CAL, D. Sti,

FUReS.E B.Z.9.4 The Game

Fishes of India Part IV.

(With one plate and four

text-figures)

Ves e

F.R.S.E., F.N.I. and MISRa,

Keo. Ms S.c,% ish or

Deolali Part III. (With three

plates and six text figures ...

HuBBACK, T.; Malayan Gaur

or Seladang (Bibos gaurus

hubbacki) (With five black

and white plates)

; Principles of

Wild Life Gonsenatied (With

four black and white plates ...

JonES A. E.; A note on the

Lycaenid Butterfly (Averes

dipora) With one plate

——; On the

differences between Lycaeno-

psis huegelit huegelit ard

Lycaenopsts ladonides gigas

(With one plate)

LAUNEY, PAUL DE.

Mating of Elephants

LEwIs, E. S.; Bewick’s Swan

(Cygnus bewitckit Yarrell)

near Delhi

baivesmy, “fs Re 3

of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo

(Cuculus c. baker?) in the nest

of the Burmese Stone-Chat

> The

(Saxicola caprata bur-

mLanica) re ae

= —* Cuckoo Pro-

blems a, ae

—— —— ; Cuckoo Pro-

blems

MAYURANATHAN, P. V. The

Original Home of ane Coco-

nut et *

MORRIS. | Rav °C.

ments of Tiger

; Disappearance of

Jackalsy Were ~e —

Measure-

Ege-laying

PAGE

og)

100

133

134

o20

309

MORRIS; On Whistling of

Bison ae aS

——---—— — ; Behaviour of Gaur

or Indian Bison we

MustTILL F. J.; A Large Indian

Elephant

; The use of Fire-

work or rocket cartridges in

the protection of crops ea

Parsons, R. E.; Arrival and

Stay of Snipe in Assam

PRATER, ©... H., Mc As.

C.M.Z.S.; Panther with

abnormal feet ee

; The Snipe-

billed Godwit [Lz:nodromus

taczanowskit (Verr.)] in

Orissa ais Lisi

REEVE, Magor, M.B.P.; Oc-

currence of the Lorg-tailed

Duck (Clangula hyemalis

Linn.) near Quetta

REVIEWS :—

The Birds of British Somali-

land and the Gulf of Aden...

Aus Dem Leben der Vogel ...

The Compleat Irdian Angler.

The Trials of a Planter

The Kandy Flora us

Uganda Game Department...

RoBINSON, M. E.; Some Notes

on the raising of Azdiscus

Shrubs from seed (With a

coloured plate and one black

and white plate) =a

RossEt, Mayor H. G.; Be-

haviour of Gaur or Indian

Bison (Aibos gaurus)

PAGE

325

326

128

321

332

333

314

315

316

317

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

SAYEED-UD-DIN ; A Further

Contribution to some of the

common flowering Plants of

the Hyderabad State; their

distribution and Economic

importance (With a map)

SESHAIVA, R. V.; An instance

of ‘ Viviparity’ in Mabuya

carinata Bi, me

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.E.S. ;

A supplementary List of the

Pyralidae of Calcutta

STONEY, R. F.; Woodcock,

Wood-Snipe, Pintail Snipe

and Jack Snipe in one

day ae Mie re

SUBRAMANIAM, T. V.,_ B.A.

and ANANTANARAYANAN,

Ky RY BAe AY note tcon

Metanastria hyrtaca, Cram.

(With a plate) an

THompson, NoEL J. S.;

Jackals (?)} and a_ captive

Panther ee ee

TUTEIN-NOLTHENIUS, A. C,,

F.z.S.; Unusual mauling by a

Leopard

—_ ; A note on

our Yala Sanctuary ae

WHISTLER, HUuUGH ; The

Ornithological Survey of

Jodhpur State aie

WASTE, El. Wi, .-M.B:070-:

Some interesting records of

Birds in the Punjab. A

Correction

YANDLE, A. J.; Note on the

Python

PAGE

132

257

116

135

213

LISECOP BLATT ES

VOLUME XL

Nos. | and 2

PAGE

Plate I. Varieties of Hzbiscus. Peach, Sunrise, Pale Salmon

Pink and clear straw yellow variety ... me 1

Plate II. Seedlings of A/zbiscus ron A sae 7

Malayan Gaur or Seladang

Plate I. An Old Bull, approaching a Salt-Lick ... a3 &

Plate II. A Cow and her Calf in a Salt-Lick me tas 11

Plate III. Old Bull taken with a herd in a Salt-Lick oe 12

Plate IV. Old Bull with Young Bull in attendance a 14

Plate V. Old Bull—Kran Valley, Pahang, F.M.S. te 17

Fish of Deoiali

Plate I. Barbus kolus id aes ay 28

Plate ll. Cyrosscchilus latins, and the aed forms ee 31

Plate Ill. Fish of Deolali ... oe , a a0

Some Birds of a Coorg Down

Plate I, (A) Yellow-browed Bulbul ee ee) on nest

(B) Hoopoe at nest . 41

Plate Il. (A) Yellow-wattled Lapwing obehiaein oleae

(B) Indian Stone Curlew (Lurhinus wdicnemus

indicus) sie on aa oe 47

Plate III. (A) Nesting ground of Stone Curlew

(B) The Golf course—nesting ground of the Yellow-

wattled Lapwing ee ake ae 48

Some Notes on Butterflies and Big Game in Kashmir

Plate I. (A) Ibex ground, Bisal Nullah, September

(B) The Satpa la, 14,500 ft., July ae a 51

Plate II. (A) In the Chogolungma, August

(B) In the Kerolungma, August 58 re 52

Plate Bagworm (Kophene cuprea) on banana leaf aes 56

Plate Freshwater Grey Mullet (A7ugil corsula) aot 63

Principles of Wild Life Conservation

Plate I. Sambhur Stags in a Salt-Lick ne oe JO

Plate II. Cow Seladang and her calf, entering a Salt. Lick . 102

Plate Ill. Another Sambhur stag ae 105

Plate IV. Young Bull Seladarg of about tw Bie HoBths old

taken in a Salt-Lick sae ee ise». 106

Note on the Lyceerid Butterfly (veres dipora).

Plate I. (A) Ova

(B) Larva = ac te fine w G4

Differences between Lycenopsis huegelit huegelit and Lycanopsis

ladonides gigas

Plate Lycenopsis huegelii huegelit left L. ladonides gigas (left) nee ioe

Game Fishes of India

Plate The Silond Catfish (Sz/onta stlondia) ... ive, 107

TST OFSVEALES

PAGE

Birds of Bombay ard Salsette

Plate I. Nest of the Rufous Woodpecker (A7icropternus

brachyurus jerdont Malh. in carton-like nest of

Crematogaster ants : ve See cy

Plate II. (A) The Common Indian Bee-eater. (J/erops

orientalis ortentalis, Lath.

(B) The White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyr-

nensis smyrnensis, Limn. ¥: i 169

Rose-Finches ard other birds of the Wardwan Valley

Plate I. Himalayan Turtle Dove (Streptopelia orientalis

meena me AA sae -* LOS

Plate II. Kashmir Sooty Fly catcher (emer on stbirica

gulmergt) 184

Plate if, Delta at junction of Bacacn Nullan wie ere

River where large numbers of Hodgson’s Rose-

Finches were nesting in July 185

Plate IV. Hodgson’s Rose-Finches SaaS erythrinus

rosealus) : 186

Plate V.- Phe Camouderely man g Tent near a nest of

Witherby’s Paddy-Field. “Warbler a 187

Plate VI. Witherby’s Paddy-Field Warbler (Avocepraius

concinens haringtont) See Site eo

Hyderabad State, Map of Toit

Rameswaram Island, Map of 239

Plate Note on AVetanastria i "LACa; oa 257

Vip LOTLLOSTRATIONS

PAGE

3-6

reo

abet

237

and

VOLUME XL

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

Barbus traseri, fig. Ventral sur- Fiibiscus figs. 1-8, Leaves of

face of head and anterior ——- seedlings of—PIl.

part of body i o 39 | ————- varieties of —PIl.

.__— -khudree, fig. 1. Lateral Hyderabad State, Map of

view aa az - 296 | Lole icterica, on nest

fic, 2. Ventral Pi. f(a)

surface of head in two Lsospora minuta.

specimens ; 27] Text-fig. 1. Section of intes-

17610, No.3, fueeeval Ties tine with sporobiasts con-

of male and female : 29 taining sperozoites

mee = ols, Pi, male and Text-fig. 2. Mature thin-

female ‘ = 28 walled oocyst with two thick

Birds of Bombay ee Sie walled spherical sporoblasts,

Pl.i. Nest of the Rufcus Text-fig. 3. Oocyst with two

Woodpecker (Micropter- sporoblasts each containing

nus brachyurus jerdoni) 162 4 ripe sporozoites and a

Pl. ii. (a) Common Indian small residue i

Bee-eater (Merops Kashmir Notes on Butterflies

orientalis ovien/a- Big game :—

lis.) Pl. i. (a) Ibex ground, Bisal

(6) White-breasted- Nullah, Sept.

Kingfisher (6) = Salpa la 14,500

(fiatcyon ,July

smyrnensis Piette Cd) tHe Chogolungma,

smyrvnensis) ... 168 August

Burhinus oedicnemus tndicus (6) In the Kerolungma,

| 2) Lanatilven 2) 47 PUGS Us 5 ae

Pl. ii. (6) On nest Kophene cuprea, Pl.

Pl. iii. (a) Nesting ground ... 48 Fig. 1, Male

Crossuchilus bur manicus. Fig. 2, Female

PP for. 1. Fig. 3. Eggs

latius. ot Fig, 4 Larva ,

BiestoS, 2,325 3. Fig. 5. Male Pupa ...

—— — — punjabensis, Fig. 6. Female Pupa

Pl. fig. 4 31 Lobipluvia malabarica.

Everes dtpora Pie (a aii, 4(0)

Ieee (a): Ova, Lycaenopsis huegelit huegelit.

(6) Larva 134 Plo it. ptages of

Pibi.(a) Pupa

(6) Imago 135 Plo Stages:on

XiV INDEX TOMLLOST RATIONS

PAGE

Malayan Gaur or Seladang.

Pla. Anrwold Bull va re 8

Pl, it. A cow with her cali... d1

Pl. iii. Old Bull, taken with

a herd ee : 12

Pl. iv. Old Bull with young

Bull ae Bee 14

Pl.vy.7 Old Bull—-Krau

valley, Pahang,

PANS, ee bie 17

Metanastria hyrtaca.

Plate. ca : sis ee ae Or

Mugil corsula, Pl. oe 62

Figs. 1 a-d. Groups of isin:

in natural posture

Cts ees a 63

Fig. 2. Sketch of JZ. corsula

wandering over

mud-flats in

search of larger

pieces of water ... 64

Fig. 3. Head and anterior

part of body seg 66

Parapbsilorhynchus pratert.

Fig. 5a. Scale from below

base of dorsal fin.

Fig.6. Pharyngeal bone and

teeth aie oa 33

—— tentaculatus

Fig. 5 6. Scale: from below

base of dorsal fin oe 32

Rameswaram Island, Map of 239

Silonia silondia, Pl. ... a 137

Text-fig. 1. An air-bladder . 139

Text-fig. 2. Lateral View of | a

young specimen ... 142

Text-fig. 8. Photo of a fetes

specimen 50 inches in

length es see cas

Text-fig. 4. Alimentary canal.

Upupa epops, at nest.

PaO)

Vulture and calf

Text-fig. Strange accident

to ae re do ante

Wardwan Valley, Rose-Finches

and other birds of the

Plate i. Himalayan Turtle-

Dove (Streptopelia orien-

talis meena )

Pl.ii. Kashmir BOCr: Fly-

catcher (Hemichelidon

sibirica gulimer gt

Pl. iii. Delta at junction of

Basmen Nullah with Ward-

wan River ae ey

Play Elodgson’s « Rao sie-

Finches (Corpodacus

evythrinus roseatus )

Pl. vy. Camouflaged Hiding

tent neara nest of Wither-

by’s Paddy-field Warbler ...

Pl. vi. Witherby’s Paddy-field

Warbler (Acrocephalus con-

cinens haringtont

Wild Life Conservation :—

Pl.i. Sambhur Stags in a

Salt Lick Boe ane

Pl. ii. A Cow Seladang and

her calf entering a Salt-

Lick :

Py ss SA pan Se

Pl.iv. Young Bull Seladang

about twelve months old,

taken in a Salt-Lick

Woodcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail

Snipe and Jack Snipe Text-

figs. Be ae

PAGE

146

330

183

184

185

186

187

188

101

102

105

106

Foi |

ERRATA

Vol. XL, No. 1

Page 179, para (4), the first sentence should read as follows :—‘ In the

same District (Sadiya) during 1936-37 in August I shot a Pintail on the 13th,

I saw a Snipe on the 19th August but failed to secure it. I bagged a Pintail

Vol, XL, No. 2

Page 325, line 6 from top, for ‘ Forty Years among the Wild Beasts of

India’ read‘ Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India.’

ia i - aH

1 : My :

- re 7 z 4

a n

aie

v A

r s

a a .

ee e ae

4 rT

: ee

’

~ ce

INDEX OF

PAGE

Acalypha fruticosa 268 |

—_———-~ hispida 258

— indica 268

—_——- paniculata 259

—_——- siamensis 269

Acanthopsyche opacella 57 |

Accipiter nisus 229

Achimines hirsuta 206

Achyranthus lanata 209

monsonia 209 |

Acridotheres ginginianus sen. eee

tristis tristis . 44, 222, 243

Acrocephalus concinens eee Sy,

dumetorum 187, 220

—_—- stentoreus brunnescens. 220

Adenanthera pavonina ... 198 |

Adhatoda vasica 207

Aerua lanata 209

= monsonia 209

AHgithina nigrolutea Z1G

- - tiphia 216

————- zeylonica 241

Atthiopsar fuscus mahrattensis 44

Aithopyga siparaja v-gorsi nae ste)

Ageneiosus childreni 138, 139

Agrobates galactotes fam? hate 220

Alangium lamarckii 200

Alauda gulgula sie 224

- - gulgula... 156

Alcedo atthis bengalensis 170

—-—-- pallasii 227

——-- taprobana 247

Alchornea rugosa eee 20d)

Aleurites moluccana 2A 270)

Allmania nodiflora 208

Aloysia citriodora 208

Alphonsea ventricosa 74

Alternanthera amabilis ... 209

——~ sessilis 209

tr:andra ... 209

Amandava amandava ... a 150

——-—__—_-- —__--—- amandava 222

Amaranthus caudatus a 209

-— hypochondriacus 209

SPECIES

PAGE

Amaranthus polygamus 208

—— polygonoides 208

——_——_———. viridis 208

Amatissa consorta is 59

Amaurornis phcenicurus Hen ents, 250

Ambassis baculis 235-30

—————- hama a3

———_——- ranga 23

Ammomanes phoenicura 225

-- _ phoenicura 157, 244

Anamirta paniculata a ol

Anas platyrhyncha 234, 335

—-- peecilorhyncha 234

Anastomus oscitans Tevet days)

Anaxagorea scortechinii Ths)

Ancistrodon hypnale 347

-- nepa 347

Andrachne cordifolia 270

Andrographis echinoides 207

Anguilla anguilla 21

Anhinga melanogaster ... 233

Anisochilus carnosus 208

Anona muricata 76

reticulata 76

squamosa a sas et 75

Anogeissus latifolia 199

Antidesma bunius 271

————— ghesembilla 271

zeylanicum 271

Antigone antigone 231

Antigonon leptopus 209

Anthropoides virgo Zou

Anthus campestris 224

- —— griseus 156

eee thermophilus 156

— rufulus rufulus 156, 244

- rufus waitei 224

- spinoletta blakistoni 294

— trivialis 224

pee - igrinetont 155

~ ~ trivialis 155

Aporia leucodice soracta SZ

Aporosa lindleyana 272

Aquila clanga, 208, “248, 344

xviii

Aquila rapax vindhiana

——— vindhiana

Ardea cinerea ie

rectirostris

-——-- purpurea ...

Ardeola grayii ;

Arenaria interpres raterpres

Argya caudata caudata

malcolmi ...

Argynnis adippe jainadeva

SS pallida

————-- aglaia vitatha

—-——-~ childreni sakontala

————-—- jerdoni jerdoni

————-~ kamala

———\- lathonia issoea

——-—— pales sipora ...

Aristolochia elegans

indica

Arocarpus retusus

Artabotrys odoratissimus

-—— suaveolens

Artamus fuscus

Artemisia argentea

-——~-——— maderaspatana

Asclepias acida ...

——--—— volubilis

Aspidoparia morar

Asio lammeus flammeus

Aster amellus

Astur badius badius

dussumieri

Athene brama brama

indica

Aulocera padma padma

——— —- swaha garuna

gilgitica

swaha

Bagarius bagarius os

Balanites roxburghii

Baliospermum axillare

-- montanum

Baoris discreta himalaya

Barbus amphibius

-- chola

—-— chrysopoma

- fraseri

- hamiltonii

- hexagonolepis

- khudree

———- kolus

ee ee

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

228

344

234 |

259

234 |

934, 255

251, 332

216, 241

125, 216

52, 55

50)

. 50, 54

210

200

Ths

243 |

202

201 |

203 |

203. |

22 |

22/ |

202

249

229

248

227

137

196

272

. 22

22, 29

- 95

fa 05

22, 24, 26

22, 28

Barbus melanostigma

- mosal

- neilli

- parrah

- pinnauratus

————- progeneius

——- putitora ..

- sarana

- ticto

- COr

Barilius bendelisis -

-- (Opsarius) bola

Barleria cristata

-- prionitis

Belenois mesentina

Berberis aristata

ica

-— lycium

-——-—--- vulgaris...

Beta vulgaris

Bibos gaurus

hubbacki

Bischofia javanica

Blepharis molluginifolia

Bocchoris artificalis

————- inspersalis

—~——- onychinalis

—-—— ~ rotundalis

Bombax gossypium

Bongardia rauwolfii

Borago officinale

Bos indicus

PAGE

nie

Brachypternus benghaler sis bengha-

—---—--—— _ puncticollis

Breynia patens

———— rhamnoides

Bridelia montana

———--- retusa

Bubalis bubalis

Bubo bubo bengalensis

-——- coromandus

Bubulcus ibis coromandus

Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris

Buddleia asiatica

Burhinus oedicnemus indicus .;.

—- ——_- ——_ —_— saharae...

Butastur teesa ie

Buteo buteo eet

puncti-

collis...

162,

227.

47, 2

22 ee

348

347

206

INDEX OF SPECIES xix

PACE. PAGE

Buteo buteo japonicus ... 1. ws 229 '| Ceropegia juncea ee ab tim 9 Levee 208

ea = vulpinus ... Be .. 229+} Ceryle rudis leucomelanura ... 169, 227

———-- rufinus rufinus ... an s+ 229;| Cestrum nocturnum ©... site a 200

Butorides striatus javanicus ... .. - 234: | Ceyx erithaca erithaca ... she # 170

Buxus sempervirens... on .. - 274 .| Chaliodes vitrea : bet vf 56

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus 165, 245 _| Chaptia aenea malayensis oe vee 42

Cesalpinia coriaria ... s. 9g .| Charadrius dubius jerdoni... 232, 202

Ceesulia axillaris ne 201 | ~~~ leschenaulti is an) “Zee

Calandrella brachydactyla quia ensis «155. |. +7——== mMonogolus atrifrons 4. 252

Bee 8 longipennis- 224 ! | Chaulelasmus streperus — 234, 335

Calendula officinalis ... ... «. 202. | Chelaclupeoides... .. 21, 24

Callichrous bimaculatus = e 230 |e Dao x 54 ee ot

Callistemon lanceolatus %. ao Ae) | Chelidorhyna hypo: anthum wee avs, GAY

—-——-—-lilacinus ... .. .«. 199 | Ghettusia gregaria... 0 82

= fisidus. “ba; i Ce 1000 ta oe CUCUTA Pee 3 wea --* ZOD

Callistephus hortensis ... a .. 202 | Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ... 231

Bee -- wightianus wok ... 201 .| Chlidonias leucopareia indica nea 206

Calophyllum inophyllum Sie .. 195 | Chloroxylon swietenia ... ve ss 196

Calotes versicolor ou. vss Ses «= 347.-'| Choriotis nigriceps ww 231

Camellia japonica ah nee ... 195 | Chrysocolaptes delesserti vie az 123

Camponotus compressus Bh wee = AON Ga festivus es 162, 225

Canangium latifolium ai rn bc Naa eames guttacristatus sul-

——-- odoratum ... at die 78 taneus ... ss = 828

Cansjera rheedii a . - ae 197. | Chrysomma sinensis Be eiencos «-. 216

Capella gallinago cee. ves soe evse-- 233 | Ghrozophora disticha - ~~ s+ a- 276

-- stenura re ae ee e250. Ree ———— _prostrata ies ae = O16

Capparis spinosa ns aed beet ae Oe: rottleri — 3... sg sez- ~~ 246

Caprimulgus asiaticus ... - .. 173 | Ciconia ciconia an cy sie. 20

Caprimulgus asiaticus asi aticus we 247 ee Sra Peas ee a ur BO

europzeus unwini 173, 227. | Cinchona catlisaya ae ais «. 201

—_- macrourus albononotus. 124 ——-ledgeriana ... és seas e201

ee mahrattensig -... ~ ee. LZ ————-- officinalis... ies eee 2

Caprinia conchylalis vas .. 133 | Cinnamomum camphora eae wz +> 2EO

Carcharodus altheze dravira ... es 51 | Cinnyris asiatica asiatica 1S). 225, 226

Cardiospermum halicacabum ... vee. LOT —lotenia — as Pi 158

Carpodacus erythrinus aes .. 222 | ———— zeylonica a ee ‘159, 245

== roseatus ves 150, 186 | Circaétus ferox 9 se 228, 346

Carthamus tinctorius tee .. 202 | Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus 229, 249

Casarca ferruginea re wee «= 204 4 macrourus ale Be 229, 249

Cassia grandis see ve ...... 198 | Cirrepedesmus leschenaulti ... wae» B82

nodosa. sin a ene She) — mongolus ae i aD

Cassytha filiformis ba re Bee LO Cirrhina reba ae oe ts ss 22

Casuarina equisetifclia Re: .. 4211: | Cissampelos. pareira ... ine ae OO OF

Cataclysta fuscalis ee Bie .. 133?| Cissus quadrangilaris ..-- 2. .. 197

Cedrella toona ose 8 .. 197 | Cisticola juncidis cursitans ... be 220

Celosia cristata ie eas .. 208 | Citharexylum subserratum ... ele 208

Centropus sinensis _... ae 122, 226 || Clamator jacobinus ii 125, 226, 245

—_——__-- parrotii ... . 167,246 | -—-——-- ——-—_- pica se ae 3165

Ceratarcha umbrosa _... wee va, .. 182 . | Clangula hyemalis aes oo i 00

Ceratophyllum demersum ay «se 211; |: Clania cramer Ses a oes 5

Cercomela fusca pg ess eee GOES 4 | Cleistanthus collins 22... > | <¢e 211, 276

PAGE

Clematis gouriana 193

Clerodendron inerme ea, oe

Clitoria ternatea ue S198

Clupisoma garua 347

Cocculus hirsutus 84

—- laurifolius : 85

———_———-- macrocarpus So, 193

—- pendulus 85

Cochlospermum gossypium 194

Codiszeum variegatum 211

Coleus aromaticus 208

———- parviflora 336

Colias croceus edusina DOPO2. oO

eogene francesca Ss)

hyale ae 52

——. = OV ACUALE ts 51

p. pyale 55

Columba intermedia 229

———— livia intermedia 249

od subsp. 229

Convolvulus pes-capre... : 204

Copsychus saularis ceylonensis 242

—— saularis ... 218

Coracias benghalensis : AAS

— indica ... 45, 168, 246

— garrula asa,, 60

—- — semenowl 168, 226

Corchorus acutangulus 196

Cordia sebestina 204

Coreopsis tinctoria 202

Corvus corax laurencei... Zale)

- inacrorhynchos cs BANS

ed -culminatus ... .. 241

- splendens splendens 215, 241

Coryllis vernalis subsp. 168

Coscinium fenestratum 85

Cosmos bipinnatus 202

Coturnix coromandelica 230

—-—— coturnix 230

Crambus atkinsoni ee 132

Crematogaster dohrni artifex.. 349

Crocethia alba 254

Crocodilus palustris os i018)

Crocopus phcenicopterus chloro-

gaster...45, 229

Crossandra undulefolia 207

Crossochilus burmanicus eg. 21

latius OQ:

— punjabensis 31

Crotalaria ramossisima e211 (98

Croton argyratus bee? NeO77

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Croton caudatus 278

——- cumingii 278

-—-—- oblongifolius 278

——- reticulatus 278

——- tiglium o 279

Cuculus canorus bakeri... 125

a ees ~ subsp. 164

——-—— micropterus micropterus 164

Cursorius coromandelicus 232

—— ——- cursor 231

Cyanosylvia suecica pallidostianis Leaks)

Cygnus bewickii go3

Cyphomandra betacea e 205

Cypsiurus batasiensis palmarum 172

—- parvus batassiensis 247

Dafila acuta 234

Dahlia variabilis 202

Dalenia speciosa 1g)

Danio equipipinnatus ... ou

fraseri 2.

Deba surrectalis .. 133

Demiegretta asha 259

Dendrocitta vagabunda 43

——- —--—— pallida 215

——-- javanica .. 234

Dendronanthus indicus 155

Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta ye e330

-- —praetermissa... 331

Desmodium parvifolium 133

——- pulchellum 198

Desmos chinensis 78

— cochinchinensis , ore 78

Diceeum erythrorhynchos — erythro-

rhynchos... 160

Dichoceros bicornis 171

Dicrana kallipyga 338

Dicrostachys cinerea Wes 198

Dicrurus coerulescens eeeaaecens NAS 42

—- —~—— leucopygialis ... 43

———- longicaudatus 43, 219

——--—— macrocercus albirictus 219

an peninsularis - “43 243

Dillenia baillonii 72

—- indica 72, 193

-- ovata (Waredie)

Dinopicum shorei 328

Diospyros kaki 203

z —-— tomentosa P 202

Dissemurus paradiseus faslamaoe 42

Dolichandrone falcata ... 206

Dombeya angula 195

INDEX. .OF SPECIES

E PAGE

Dregea volubilis aes 203

Dryobates mahrattensis aurocristatus. 226

Pete —-- mahrattensis. 161

Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis ... 255

Echinocactus multiflorus 200

Echinocereus SP..... 200.

Echinops echinatus 201

Echinopsis aurea 200

Echites dichotoma 203

Eclipta alba 201

= — erecta 201

Egretta alba 234

- garzeita .. ; 234

- Ttcenicdia ietetmedia 29

Eleocarpus ganitrus 196

Elanus caeruleus vociferus 229 |

Emberiza buchanani 223

—- icterica 223

————- melanocephala 151, 223

Emberiza stewarti 223

-——— striolata striolata 223

Emilia sonchifolia 201

Endotricha decessalis 133

——.- ruminalis 133

Eniscostema littorale 204

Epicrocis aegnusalis leis

Epiphyllum sf. 200

EKranthemum bicolor 207

Ercta elutalis wos LOZ

—- ornatalis 132

Erebia mani - wan o4

Eremopteryx albicollis re 225

~-- - grisea grisea ... “157, 225, 244

Eriobotrya japonica ee leo

Erolia minuta : 233, 254

—-— - - Fancollis 254

--—-— temminckii 233

testacea 254

Erythroxylum coca 196

Esacus recurvirostris 231, 250

Etiella zinckenella 133

Eucalyptus citriodora ae ee 199

Eudynamis scolopaceus... 226, 245, 328,

344

— ——— scolopaceus. 166

Eugenia michelii 199

EKumenis heydenreichi shandura 54

— mniszechii droshica ... 54

— parisatis parsis 52

Kunetta falcata ... 332

Eupatria nepalensis 344

Euphorbia antiquorum ...

= VEOLOn eae

———-——-- dracunculoides

-———--—— granulata

—-——_ helioscopia

———_——_hirta ...

————. hypericifolia

~—_———— longifolia

| ———-—— microphylla ...

—_———-——- neriifolia

—_+—_—-—_—— pivulia

_—_— pilulifera

—_——-——— rosea

——————- royleana

——- -——-. sanguinea

See —— thomsoniana

| —_-___- thymifolia

—_—_—— tirucalli

trigona

—— turcomanica

Eutropiichthys vacha

Everes argiades indica ...

———— dipora

Excoecaria acerifolia

agallocha ...

Falco chicquera ...

—- jugeger as

—- tinnunculus Rp uneatee Sr

—- —-——-— tinnunculus

Felis tigris ..

Fibraurea Shioroleuca

Ficus tsiela

Filiceum decipiens

Flacourtia ramontchi

Flemingia fruticulosa

Flueggea leucopyrus

——-——- virosa ... a

Francolinus pondicerianus

Franklin‘a buchanani

gracilis

Fulica atra

Fumaria parviflora

Gaillardia aristata

Galerida cristata chendoola

——-———- deva

— malabarica

Gallinula chloropus

-— indicus

Garra mullya

Gelochelidon nilotica

Gelonium multiflorum ..,,

Zu;

210, 288

230, 249

xxi

PAGE

210, 282

283

284

210, 286

286

210, 286

286

287

210

288

238

288

289

290

347

290

228

228, 248

248

228

114

‘211

196

194

133

291

292

220

231

194

202

225

244

156

231

250

232, 251

292

XXli

Glochidion hohenackeri...

--— zeylanicum ...

Glossocardia linearifoha

Glossogob‘us giuris

Glottis nebularia ...

Gloxinia maculata |

Glyptothorax annandalei

honah

Gomphrena globosa

Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka

--——.- rhamni nepalensis .

Goniothalamus macrophyllus ...

Grangea maderaspatana

Graptophylium hortense

Gratucalus javensis macei

—--— macei layardi

Grewia hirsuta

Grus grus ... :

Guazuma tomentosa

Gymnorhis xanthocollis eee

Gynandropsis pentaphylla

Gyps fulvus fulvescens ..

——- indicus pallescens...

aleyon pileata ..

—_———- smyrnensis

-—— fusca

—--— -——— smyrnensis

Haliaétus leucogaster

- leucoryphus

Haliastur indus indus

Hamelia patens ‘ Cf

Harpactes fasciatus feiepariste

Hedera helix

Helianthus arnus

Helicteres isora

Heliophorus Fade Oke c coruscans

-—— - bakeri

Heliotrop-um indicum

paniculatum

peruvianum

zeylanicum

Hlmicercus canente

cordatus....

Hemipus picatus picatus

Herculia tenius

Heritiera littoralis

Herpestes edwardsi

fulvescens

fulvus

INDEX OF SPECIES ‘

PAGE

50,

42,

xanthocollis. 150,

ne3

248,

—— -— - javanicus auropunctatus ...

293

201

233

206

209

201

207

242

243

196

231

196

222

244

194

228

171

227

247

170

346

228

248

201

172

200

202

195

204

204.

204

123

163

133

195

341

341 ,

Herpestes lanka ...

—-—-——- monniera

——-—--- nepalensis

Hesperia alpina... ss

Heteropneustes fossilis ...

Hibiscus abelmoschus

elatus

——--— mutabilis

———— rosa-sinensis

———— schizopetalus ...

———— splendens

-———— syriacus

tiliaceus

_—_—_——._——_—_,

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus ...

Hierococcyx varius

Himantopus himantopus

Hippolais rama rama

Hippomane mancinella

Hirundo daurica erythropygia

——_——_ ——_—- nepalensis

-——-—— fluvicola

————— rustica guituralis

- rustica

— smithii filifera

Homonoia riparia

Hura crepitans be

Hydnocarpus Ciannene

Hydroflax maritima

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Hymenodictyon excelsum

Hypsipyla robusta

Ilicium anisatum

— floridanum

— griffithii ...

~ parviflorum

~ verum

Inga xylocarpa

Tole icter-ca

Ibis leucocephalus

[pomeea aquatica

—_——— biloba

———— leari

—— —— pes-tigridis

—-.-— quamcclit

Isospora minuta ...

Iynx torquilla torquilla ...

Jacaranda mimoszolia ...

Jacquemontia caerulea ...

Japalura kaulbacki ear

Jasminum roxburghianum

Jatropha curcas ..,

vv =- - 293

1535228

224

153

152

223

153

293

204

194

201

122, 231

200

133

; 69

>, 69}, 70

fie ALS

41, 241

234

204

205

204

236

163

206

205

347

203

‘210, 294

eRe

Jatropha gossypifolia

— grandulifera

— multifida

—---— nana

— podagrica

Jatrorrhiza palmata

Juss cea repens

Justicia adhatoda

—— diffusa

——-—- repens ree

Jynx torquilla torquilla ...

Kadsura japonica

— scandens

Kalanchoe laciniata

—— spathulata

Karanasa hubneri hubneri

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti

Kleinhovia hospita

Kophene cuprea ...

Labeo boggut

calbasu

porcellus ..

Labidura riparia

Lactuca scariola ...

Lalage sykesii :

Lanius cristatus bristanus

-excubitor lahtora

-~——-~- isabellinus

-—_—— - schach caniceps

———-- ——--— erythronotus

- vittatus

——.-- brunneicephalus ...

——-- ichthyaétus

Lavendula vera

Leea aspera

Leiopicus mahrattensis temas

Leonotis nepetzefolia

Lepidocephalichthys guntea

Leptadenia reticulata

Leptoptilus dubius

Leucas aspera

-———- diffusus

Leucocirea aureola aupeete

Leucopolius alexandrinus

Libythea 1. lepita

Limnanthemum cristatum

— indicum

Limnodromus taczanowskii

Limosa limosa ~

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

297

Ba 297

24 297

298

2 Melt

199

297

207

226

199

a Aas ar Ye)

227

195

339

202

219

: 229

41, 24?

219

a «s, At, 219, 242

Larus argentatus cachinnans ...

251

232, 250

250

208

197

344

208

22, 95

203

234

208

219

232°

—- ———-—__—. alexandrinus 252

204

332

233

Lippia nodiflora ;

Lobipluvia malabarica ..

Lobivanellus indicus

Lonicera periclymenum

Lyceena thetis aditya

-- kasyapa

-- philoeas flavens

- indicus

Lycezenopsis huegelii huegelii ...

Lygropia amyntus alis ...

Lymnocryptes minutus

Maba buxifolia

Mabra eryxalis

Mabuya carinata

Macaranga indica

—- peltata

Magnolia grandiflora

Mahonia napaulensis

Mallotus cochinchinensis

———— philippinensis ...

Manihot ultilissima

Maniola coenonympha ...

——-—- davendra brevistigma

——-—- lupinus kashmirensis

——-—- pulchella

Mastacembelus armatus

Melanocorypha bimaculata

Melitea arcesia balbita ...

Melodorum kingti

Melcphus lathami subcristatus..

Jelothria maderaspatana

Memecylon edule

Merops leschenaulti ibecheneuley ;

XXJil

PAGE

207

47, 252

232

200

% 54

Ole

134

50, 134

202

133

hoe

298

299

300

vo 5?

52, 54, 55

224

: 79

Bee oe

199

——~—- orientalis orientalis 43, 169, 226, 246

- superciliosus javanicus

Metanastria hyriaca

Metopidius indicus

Meyenia erecta

Michelia champaca

—— montana

— nilagirica

Microdesmis caseariaefolia

Microgaster psarae

Micropternus brachyurus ecdoni

Micropus affinis i

-— ——— affinis ...

———-— melba bakeri ...

-———--ssp

Microtarsus poicephalus

persicus ...

169, 247

169; 227

KXiv

Milvus migrans govinda

Mimosa cinerea ...

Mirafra affinis

—-———-- cantillans

Molpastes cafer cafer

-—- heemorrhous maniac

-—- leucogenys leucotis

Moniera cuneifolia

Monticola cyanus pandoo

Morinda citrifolia

Motacilla alba dukhunensis

personata

——-_- cinerea caspica

——_——- citreola calcarata

—_——__-——_ ——- citrcola

—_—___- ———_—_-- werae

—— ——- feldegg melanogriseus

—_——_——-- flava beema ...

thunbergi

—_—_————— subsp.

——- maderaspatensis

Mucialla rufivena

Mugil corsula

Mukia scabrella

Murraya koenigii

Musa paradisiaca

Muscicapa striata neumanni ..

Musseenda frondosa

Mystus cavasius ...

Naia hannah

Naja naja

Nandina domestica

Nangra viridescens

Nauciea cadamba

Nelumbium speciosum ...

Nemachilus aureus

———-——- botius

———--——— denisonii

——_-——-. evezardi

—— ---—— sinuatus

Neophron percnopterus ginginianus...

Nepenthes khasiana

Nephelium litchi

Neptis s. sankara

Netta rufina

Nettapus Eoroman dened

Nettion crecca

crecca x N. foae oe

Notioenews brachiata

Notopterus notopterus ..

—erythroptera s:ndiana

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

228, 249

198

244

2250.

ae oo

40, 241

216

217

205

218

=. 2200

153, 224

fe lee

154, 224

224

155

.. 155

155, 224

Prrece ss!

154, 244

see 074

154, 224

132

199

196

218

201

336

236

193

201

193

.. 22, 35

120 136

228

209

197

235

122

234

334

209

PaGE

Numenius arquata | 233, 293

—— phzopus pheopus 293

Nycticorax nycticorax 234

Nympheea stellata of 193

—————- parviflora ... 193

a ae versicolor .. 193

Nymphula affinialis 133

-—— foedalis 133

—— responsalis ... 133

Nyroca ferina 235

— fuligula 235

- rufa PSI)

Ochna squarrosa ; i: 196

CEnanthe deserti atrogularis ... 217

—— --—— isabellina 217

——--——- opistholeuca PANT

—— --—— picata ; oF

—— ---—— xanthoprymna chrvsopigie 218

CEnopopelia tranquebarica tranque-

barica... 230

Olax scandens i 197

Oldenlandia umbellata 200

Oligostigma picale 133

Ophicephalus gachua ... 23

--——— leucopunctatus 23

——-- --—— marulius 23

- ——— sp. 96

Oncoba spinosa 194

Origanum marjorana an e208

Oriolus oriolus kundoo... 43,221

Orophea hirsuta 79

= setosa 79

Orthaga euadrusalis Shee 1S)

Orthotomus sutorius guzerata 220, 243

Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata 40

Pachygone ovata 87

Pachynoa pectinicornalis 133

Pachyzancla aegrotalis 133

— —— phoeopteralis 133

Panchax lineatus 96

————. panchax 99

Pandion haliaétus haliaétus 248

Pangasius pangasius 137

Papilio arcturus arius.... Be 50

~ machaon asiatica .. 00, 54

Parapsilorhynchus prateri 22; 305-83

——— tentaculatus 2S

Parage menava mezeroides Ki: 54

- menava menava Bo Ae

-schakra ... 50

Paratelphusa guerini 348

Parmentiera cereifera ...

Parnassius charltonius

nicevillei

——-——-—- - epaphus nirius

hardwickei

— jacquemonti

Parus major mahrattarum

-nuchalis ...

Passer domesticus indicus

- parkine

hispaneolensis

Pastor roseus

Pavo cristatus wan

Pelicanus philippensis ...

Peltophorum ferrugineum

Penthoceryx sonneratii

—— Se

————- —

——- delphius chitralica

PAGE

.. 92, 54

206

51, 52, 54

50, 51, 52

«. 52,54

122

151,

222)

Perdicula argoondah ee Rete neeent.

-_—_~-——-. aSiatica

Pergularia minor

—— odoratissima

Pericampylus glaucus

Pericrocotus brevirostris

erythropygius

——— ——~— flammeus

—— us roseus

Periophthalmus ...

Periophthalmodon

Petrea volubilis ...

Petunia nyctaginiflora ...

— violacea ...

Phalacrocorax carbo

—_—_-—_-——. fuscicollis

—— -——----—— niger

Philomachus pugnax

‘Phlox drummondi

Phlycteenodes massalis ..

.Phoenicopterus ruber

Se ee MOIST

peregrinus peregrinus ...

Phoeenicurus ochrurus Preemie nmordes:

Phostria piasusalis

Phryganodes analis

Phyllanthus distichus

= ——- elegans

——--—— emblica

——_—_-——-- maderaspatensis ..

——- niruri

——- ——--- reticulatus

——_—_-—— - simplex

—. ——-- urinaria

211,

215

, 216

244

222

223

243

230

233

198

165

230

203

219

208

205

233

204

133

234

256

218

337

132

276

302

303

304

306

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXV

PAGE

Phylloscopus collybita tristis ... 221

—-- griseolus .«.. 221

Physalis m’nima 205

————- peruviara 205

Picuminus innominatus 123

Pieris brassicce ie : sve, D052

— callidice kallora ... 5055102, 35

——- canidia indica 50

—— Napl ajaka 50

——- rapz _~ ‘ , 00, 52

Pimelodus nceanara a ws, 138

— siiondia 138, 140, 141

Pionea ablactalis 133

Piprisoma agile agile 160

Pitta brachyura ... 161

Platalea leucorodia 233

Platytes argentisparsalis 132

Plegadis falcinellus 233

Ploceus benghalensis 148

— manyar se AS

— philippinus Bhan pence 148, 222

Plumbago capensis -- 202

—— —-—— zeylanica eer |, 202

Pluvialis dominica fulva 232, 252

Podiceps ruficollis capensis 239;.220

Podophyllum emodi 95

—_—- peltatum ... 93

Polyalthia longifolia 79

—— — oliveri 79

— simiarum 80

Polygala chinensis 194

Polygonum plebejum 209

Polymnia grandis 202

Polyommatus astrarche bY

—-—_-——- christophi samudra 52

——_—_———_ - devanica devanica Jl

—_— ————- epiron jermyni oe 53

——_——- —-—— - eros 30, 52, 59

—_ ——_-——_- janetee . 32; 94

—_—--—_—.- m, metallica wet 54

—_—___--——— - omphisa Holl 4

—— ~ orbitulus is 02,000

————-_—____——_ astorica se 02, 5A

—-—— ——-— - sarta : 53

-— vicrama Coatimirensice ol oZ

Porana paniculata 205

Porphyrio policcephalus 231

Premna integrifolia 207

——-—— serratifolia 207

Primula involucrata 184

Prinia gracilis lepida “2et

Xxvi

Prinia inornata terricolor Pia

socialis socialis

— —- stewarti

sylvatica gangetica

Prinsepia utilis ...

Proeutropicthys taakree .

Prunus amygdalus

- persica

Psara bipunctalis

Pseudibis papillosus

Pseudogyps bengalensis

Psittacula cyanocephala

——-——. eupatria subsp.

SS — kramer! manitwiensis

Pterocarpus marsupium

Pterocles alchata caudacutus

——_—— - exustus ellioti

——_———- indicus

——-——-- orientalis

—_——-- senegallus

Pteroma plagiophleps ...

Pterospermum acerifolium

Pulicaria wightiana

Putranjiva roxburghii ...

Pycnarmon cribrata

Pycnonotus gularis

——_———- luteolus

Pyrausta phoenicealis ...

Pyrus communis

——-- malus

Python molurus

Querquedula aneraneaue

Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera

Ramila acciusalis

marginella

Rapala micans setira

Rasbora daniconius

-- labiosa =

Recurvirostra avocetta ...

Rhododendron anthopogon

arboreum

aucklandii

Rhopodytes viridirostris ©

Rhynchaea benghalensis

_ Ricinus communis

Riparia concolor

_-+—..-- paludicola. preven neat

———-- rupestris

Rohtee alfrediana .

—- cy yiocepnale

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

224

243

221

135

198

307.

233

eZ ZS

226, 246

168

167

167,

226, 246

198

230

195

201

307

337

133

198

129

250

132

we Zl

. 21, 99

232, 253

184

202

202'

45, 246

Zoll

307

152, .223

223

{a2

- PAGE

Rohtee cotio 22

- vigorsli ... ale 740

Rostellularia diffusa 207

Roupellia grata .. 203

Ruellia prostrata . 206

Rungia repens 207

Russelia-juncea ... 206

Sageraea laurifolia : 80

Salpornis spilonota Piupionee 217

Salvia involucrata 208

Sanchezia nobilis 207

Sapuim indicum = Sir

—-— - insigne 311

———- sebiferum Sid

Sarcogyps calvus 227

Sarcostemma brevistigma 203

Sarkidiornois melanotus ... 234

Sauropus quadrangularis 31)

Saxicola caprata b:color 217

——-—— - - burmanica 125

———— macrorhyncha 217

————. torquata indica CRE

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 218

a - — fulicata ... 242

Scirpophaga bisignata 132

Sebastiania chamaelea 312

Sesamum laciniatum 206

Sida acuta 195

— carpinifolia... 195

Silonia gangetica 140

— diaphina aa abs

— lurida. ss 138, 140

--——— — silondia 137, 139, 141

Silonopangasius ... 138, 144

Silundia he ~ 138

————- gangetica 138, 140

———-— sykesii ... nso

Siphia parva albicilla 4 242

7 ——-- parva. 218

Solanum indicum 205

— macrophyllum 205

Sopubia deiphinifolia 205

Soymida febrifuga Want at bs (6)

Spatula clypeata 235, 335

Spermacoce hispida weer 201

Spilanthes acmelia.. geek ee O2

Squatarola squatarola ... 232

—_——_ — —— squatarola 252

Stachytarpheta cae ies 207

Stemmatophora pallidella 133

Stephania glabra 88

Stephania hernandifolia

Stephanotis floribunda ...

Sterculia foetida

-— urens

‘tereospernum ehelonoides

Bfema albifrons subsp.

autantia: ...

repressa ...

Streptopelia chinensis eoyleneac seat. 249)

--——-_ -—_-— suratensis oe 220

ove Shee, 20S

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

195

206

Zou

232

251

———--——- decaocto decaocto 229

——- -- —— seregalensis cambayensis. 229,

' 249

Striga orobanchioides ... 205

Strix ocellata 227

Strophanthus-wallichii 203

Strymon sassanides - 52

Sturnus vulgaris 222

Sueeda maritima se 209

Surniculus lugubris lugubris .. 165

Sylvia communis rubecula 220

. crassirostris jerdoni 224

curruca blythi 221

—— --——- minuta 221

nana nana 221

Syngamia abruptalis 133

Sypheotides indica 231

Syringa vulgaris 203

Tabernzeemontana coronaria 203

Taccocua leschenaulti sirkee ... ay CLL

Tadorna tadorna 129, 332, 334

Tagetes erecta 202

‘Tamarix articulata 194

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi 242

Tecoma capensis 206

-— undulata 206

‘Tecomaria capensis 206

Tecomella undulata 206

Telanthera ficoidea a oe US,

Temenuchus pagodarum sa, D408 222,243

Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola 42

—— pondicerianus pallidus... 219

——- ———— --—- - - pondiceria-

rus «042, 242

Terminalia chebula 199

Tetracera alnifolia Ts)

—— aspera 73

——— -— assa fi

——-— indica 73

——-— laevis 73

——— -— macrophylla 73

Tetracera oblongata

—— potatoria

XXVIII

PAGE

Thalasseus bengalensis Hettealensis A

Thereiceryx viridis

Threskiornis melanocephalus ..

Thriponax hodgsoni

Thunbergia erecta

Tiaridium indicum. ...

Tigo rubropygialis

Tiliacora acuminata

Tinomiscium petiolare ...

Tinospora cordifolia

—— --—— crispa :

——--—— malJabarica ...

Tockus griseus

Tragia involucrata

Trapa bispinosa

quadrispinosa

Trewia nudiflora

Trichocercus candicans

Trimeresurus albolabris

gramineus

——- —— occidentalis

popeiorum

stejnegeri

Tringa erythropus

- glareola

--—_—— - hypoleucos

- nebularia

- Stagnatil's

—__- sOranllis

Turdoides somervillei Haine

————-— striatus polioplocamus

Turnix sylvatica dussumieri

-- tanki tanki

Upupa epops epops

——--— ——-- ceylonensis

—- ssp.

Uroloncha malabarica

—___— -— striata

Ursus arctos pruinosus ...

——-- gedrosianus

——-- isabellinus

— -- malayarus

——-- tibetanus ...

— -- torquatus ...

Uvaria narum

- dulcis

Val'aris heynei

-~—-—— zeylonicus faouratus

Zao;

233,

Don

aS 222.

-— punctulata lineoventer

251

163

233

123

207

204

123

312

199

313

200

347

254

293

254

253

254

216

24]

230

227

247

171

243

149

114

113

114

113

203

XXVill INDEX OF ‘SPECTES ii,

2 PAGE (oe PAGE

Vandellia crustacea eae Be R209 Vitis lanata a ae eee cage LOZ

Vanellus vanellus § 0.9 2-2) 4: 2, 232) —— pallidus | aasfnt fase see re

Vanessa cardui ... i an .. 00,52 | =— @aadrangularis ... 22.4 oo along

SrICANIACE Gecetran a oos elea es ee 55 |P Wallagovattw ee lo nr «23; ses

-—cashmirensis ... eas OU EOS Fea — dinema eee vee ee

2 __—... egea kashimira Ry --. 50,55 | Wendlandia exserta ... sie Thee 200

-—-urtice rizana ... hens Sei eeoO Xanthium strumarium ... oe Se 70) b

-— xanthomela fervescens OU Oe Xantholaema heemacephala_ indica ... 45,..

Ventilago calyculata. ... a oo 197 . 163, 226

—— madaraspatana aa edema Oe ———— rubricapilla malabarica... 45

Verbena incisa ... = a .. 207 | Xenorhynchus asiaticus ee eis

= — officinalis nee ae .. 207 | Xylia dolabrifermis 72, ase we aS

Vicoa auriculata a ace a 201) Zinckenia perspectalisi m.. vee gens: JS 1s)

——-- indica ssa bead os sco 208 Zinnia elegans ... rae bce cco BeOS

Vinca pusilla... a a .» 203 | Zizyphus cenopila Rae fos epg (0)

Viola odorata:« © .s..-+ > -2 ee .. 194 | ——-——vxylopyrus ... Gs see. 1H

——— tricolor. ... a is ee pe). Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis. 158, 225

l‘istory S

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CONTEWVI SOF VOLUME XI, No. 71.

SOME NOTES ON THE RAISING OF HIBISCUS SHRUBS FROM SEED. By

Mrs. M. E. Robinson, m.A. (Cantab.) (With 2 coloured and 1

CUAGKIAGIOM LL MUL CE DUATON see eh at aire fae dyabenes Pee uiel ver ec a aban oho Mieka wewanaess

MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANC (&ibos gaurus hubbacki). By

Meet back iC 71t 5 DLAC RANG WHILE PLATES ious cccanthveaevdes sui easises

DiSH.Of DEOLALIZ Part Ml.- By.Dr.S. Lb. Hera, D.Sc., F-R.S.E , FiN.T.

and WKS. Misra, M.Sc. -(W2th 3 plates and 6 tEXT-1T1 2 USES) 0 .ccekcenssess

SOME BIRDS OF A CoOoRG Down. By F.N. Betts, M.B.o.u. (With 3

(HITIIOS cet BASE BEES GAC IONS BER PEE aE EEE PEE nC ote eet re ROT ree Hae

SomME Notes ON BUTTERFLIES AND BIG GAMEIN Kasumir. By Col.

Wier woganstome, 177A. Retd = (W112 Lio PIGLES.) aict iicidéddec cos 0%

ON THE BIONOMICS OF A BAGWORM (Kophene cuprea M.) ON BANANA.

By K. Brahmachari, M.A. (With a plate and 6 text-figures)............

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE FRESHWATER GREY-MULLET, Mugil

corsutla HAMILTON, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE MODE

OF ORIGIN OF AERIAL VISION IN FISHES. By Dr.S. L. Hora, D.sc.,

ER S,P., 2 ..5., §-Z.5., F.RoA.S.B:, F-N.1. (With a coloured plate

DOE SILENT CUTIES Ne se actu tensicn set lea ss Agree ets Oat eelns ale ere ee NSN a

MEDICINAL AND PoIsonous PLANTS OF INDIA: Magnoliads, Dil-

leniads, Anonads, Menispermads, Berberids. By Rev. Fr.

aN @ ANS ce Spe ee AG otc ten ccc cae igi tlewa cic ae bale We eaeniiay sae ques aeniens wae cau we eebs

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS OF FPanchax lineatus Cuvier and

Valenciennes, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS LARVICIDAL

PRODENSTEEE Ss auloy ore MTASEL BoM Ds oc scssciaensdene sess tbde ieee cs tvnged ceecus

PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION. By T. Hubback. (With 4

DUG CO LECE DUCES Matsa crina oe ee sie cts Nha vsti honey cebuisne dee shee con tenes de@ieves

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—Wild Beasts—Real and Apocryphal. By R.G. Burton... ..

_AI.—Measurements on Meer. By R/C. Morne ./8 aoe ts eee

~IiI.—Curious behaviour of Wild Dogs and a Panther ata Kill.

Byekamantiq) SaremSimoh Deo, C.B.Bi..c...icenccesetsersocesases

_1V.—Unusual mauling by a Leopard. By A. C. Tutein-Nol-

[ THEMIMISS: “HEZSe.ccestesss RRR ee artes Moa baron civ ne sain ee Malta's

ve Disappearance of Jackals.» By R. C. Morris...c...061 2051405,

Nie On Whistling Of Bisons, 2 By RK: Co Morris sijncssc.) oecscess sec a

/NUL—Cause Oinsore Neck in Sambar... By S. Re Daver...3:2 12...

VII.—Some Birds observed in Kutch and Kathiawar. By Huma-

PAGE

160

114

il CONTENTS OF Vol. i. wor?

IX.—Drumming of Woodpeckers. By R. N. Champior-Jones...... 122

X.—The Irdian Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus

alvononotus. Tickell\: (By R.AM. Betham, Chasse. ..0 124

XI.—On the parasitic habits of the Pied Crested Cuckoo [Clamator

Jacobinus “(Bodd.)\|> (By Rass bs batess, acres eee 125

XII.—Ege-laying of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (C.c. bakert) in

the Nest of the Burmese Stone Chat (Saxicola caprata

ourmanica), “By DR. LiveSeyec.<ssneccsncs ccsnee ceeceanteeeee 125

XIII.—Cuckoo Problems. By T.R. Livesey... ........ acids aan oe Meee IVAN

XIV.—Occurrence of the Black-capped Kingfisher [Helcyon pileata

(Bodd.)] in the Gorda District, U. P. By W. A. Hewitt. 128

XV.—Arrival and stay of Snipein Assam. By R. E. Parsons...... 128

XVI.—Occurrence of the Sheldrake (Zadorua tadorna) in Murshi-

dabad#District, Bengal: = By Rid. Clouchice...scscsca-ansc co,

XVII.—Note onthe Python. By A. J. Vandle....ic...cccc.c05e secon 129

XVII.—An instance of ‘ Viviparity’ in Mabuya carinata (Schn.)

By Ri V.. Seshatya.... +02... win baacdione bac Seioeesariiea seamen sesas 132

XIX.--A Supplementary List of the Pyralide of Calcutta. By

1D. 4G: Sevastopulo, PER Ges acces casaetaes eacweiep we naeceseseaeas 132

XX.-—-A note on the Lyceznid Butterfly Averes dipora (Moore).

By A. Ei Jones.’ CW2th @- plate) iirecises vsnctvees sce a. deeeatt) lod

XXI.—On the differences between Lycaenopsis huegelit huegelit

and Lycaenopsis ladonides gigas. By A. E. Jones.

CWith.d PIGLE\ nots che suscatecce consecrate WOE esis ete alice wee... 14

XXII.—A note on cur Yala Sanctuary. By A. C. Tutein-Nolthe-

HATS; se Se sete as Kaunesiecceueecciensmece tee mecteniossice essere ais ples 135

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

John Bale, Sons & Curnow, Lt? London. "

VARIETIES OF HiBiscus |

(For explanation see end of article).

——= —C

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

SOME NOTES ON THE RAISING OF HIBISCUS

SERUBS PROM) SEED.

M. E. ROBINSON, M.A. (CANTAB).

(With 1 coloured plate and 1 black and white plate).

Among the many beautiful flowering shrubs cultivated in South

Indian gardens, the Hibiscus is a popular favourite. There are

several species and varieties commonly met with; and their large

and handsome flowers appear at all times of the year, and brighten

our gardens with the vivid gaiety of their colouring, when the

more ephemeral beauty of annuals is over. Some shrubs produce

single trumpet-shaped flowers of great size and beauty; others

have a double flower resembling a large full-blown rose, but with-

out its scent.

The Hibiscus belongs to the Malvaceae Order of plants, and

in common with the other members of the Order, the flower

has five large separate petals, enclosed in a calyx of five

large green sepals, outside which is a second calyx of five or

more narrow leaves or bracts. The filaments of the stamens are

all joined to form a long tube, bearing a bunch of yellow anthers

at the top, and through the centre of the staminal tube passes

the long style ending in five round velvety stigmas, ranging in

colour from deep orange to crimson, spread out among the yellow

stamens. This centre tube is often three to four inches long, and

sometimes stands stiffly in the centre of the flower, and sometimes

hangs limply from the inverted blossom. The flower is sometimes

trumpet-shaped; sometimes the petals open almost flat to a salver

shape; and sometimes the petals are recurved.

The shrubby species most commonly planted in gardens are

as follows :—

Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis Linn.: This is the Common Scarlet

Hibiscus, not indigenous, but introduced from China. Trumpet-

shaped flowers, but varieties with recurved petals are also found

and double varieties are common.

ao)

2 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

H, schizopetalus Hook. fil.: Scarlet or scarlet streaked

with white petals, very much cut up into narrow segments quite

reflexed, with a long pendulous tassel of stamens and _ stigma.

It reminds one of a Japanese lantern, and is sometimes called

the ‘Japanese lantern flower’.

Hl. splendens Fras. and H. collinus Roxb.: Both have large

trumpet-shaped single flowers of a pale rose-pink. Double pink

varieties are often seen. .

H, tihaceus Linn.; is a small tree indigenous in the Konkan

and with straw-yellow flowers. |

Hf. elatus Sw.: has sulphur yellow flowers.

H. syriacus Linn.: has large blue-mauve trumpets with pure

white staminal column and stigmas. There is also a variety of

this with pure white petals.

H, mutabiis Linn.: This species known as the Persian Rose

has in the morning huge, pure white, double blooms, which change

colour during the day. At noon it is a pale pink; by five ‘o’clock

in the afternoon, a oi) rose, almost red. There is also a single

variety.

All these species can be readily propagated by cuttings and

as they rarely, if ever, produce seed, that is the usual method

of increasing one’s stock. Very rare cases of seed production

have been observed as for instance the case mentioned by Woodrow

in his book Gardening in the Tropics, published in 1910, where

he refers to, and gives an engraving of some plants of H. Rosa-

sinensis in Poona that produced seed in 1879, nothing apparently

occurring: in the intervening period of-31 years. Some recent

researches into the structure of the reproductive organs of H.

Rosa-sinensis undertaken by Prof. Tiwary and his students at

the Benares- Hindu University seem to show that there is some

defect in the cells frem the pollen grain that precludes the

formation of seed.

= -There are however some species not included in the above list

that do produce seeds quite freely. Of these there are three species,

or what appear to be different species, in my possession and from

them seeds have been collected and seedlings grown which show

very interesting variations in colour and shape of flower, and

leaves. These three plants which I shall call species 1, 2 and 3

fas I do not know and am not able to find out the specific names),

were obtained as cuttings from plants grown by Mr. G. E. Brown-

ing in his garden at Trichur, Cochin State.- Me had a large

collection of Hibiscus plants with flowers of every variety of colour ;

red, pink, yellow, orange and peach, in every imaginable shade,

as: well as. the blue -H. °syriacus. Many’ of his plants. came

originally from Singapore, and also from Calcutta and I have

since been told that the peach coloured Hibiscus Species 1 is very

commonly grown in Malaya.

Species 1. Peach (Coloured plate, fig. 1).

This has very large flowers of a deep peach or apricot colour.

The colour is very ich and uniformly distributed, showing no

differentiation into its component pink and yellow. During the

day, however, the pink or red component fades out, leaving the

NOTES ON THE RAISING OF HIBISCUS SHRUBS

ee)

bloom a pale straw colour by the evening. This loss of red colour-

ing matter occurs in all the species except the scarlet ones, and is

an interesting variation from the behaviour of H. mutabilis which,

as mentioned above, develops a red colouring matter, changing

from white to deep pink. At the base of

each petal is a deep crimson splash; the

staminal column is peach coloured, the

stamens sulphur yellow, and the five scarlet

velvet stigmas, borne on pale peach coloured

styles, protrude beyond the stamens. The

seeds are produced in capsules which split

open into five, exposing the grey velvety

secus (Plate, fos. rb and c). The leaves

are simple ovate, with a rather long point

(text-fig. 1) and irregularly serrate in the

upper half; the lower half tapers somewhat

to the stalk. The surface is. smooth and

glossy, and they are often of a bronze shade,

with red veins, clearly seen on the back of

the leaf. In quite young seedlings grown

from seeds of this plant this bronze colour

is quite pronounced, sometimes even

appearing in the cotyledons as soon as the

first leaves expand.

Species 2: Sunrise (Col. Plate, fig... 2).

‘This species has very large, very regular flowers, the petals

being ‘more rounded at the outer half, and overlapping almost to

the edge; so that the shape is a more regular trumpet or spreading

horn. In colour it is a clear sulphur yellow, irregularly flushed

with pink, and streaked with pink veins. The base of the petals

ao. al

Pig. 2.

are of a very rich crimson, and the staminal column is red at

the base shading to the sulphur yellow of the stamens. The orange

coloured stigmas are on yellow styles. This is a very beautiful

flower reminding one of a sunset or sunrise sky, and as they

open in the early morning, and close at night as do all Hibiscus.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

‘Sunrise’ seems a most appropriate name. The red fades out of

this flower, leaving it a pale clear sulphur yellow at evening.

The capsules and seeds are exactly similar to those of species 1,

but very rarely produced. Three seedlings were produced from it

in 1934 one only having survived, variety 13. The leaves of this

species are simple cordate or cut into three lobes with large

uneven serrations at the edges. Many variations of shape occur,

fig. 2 (a) and (b) being leaves from the same plant.

For some years the original cutting of this species suffered

from a disease which caused the flowers to fall off before they

opened, and the leaves to be veined and blotched with pale yellow.

It recovered somewhat but has lately suffered again from _ it.

Cuttings taken from it however have grown into strong healthy

plants with perfect flowers of a very large size, and leaves with

no trace of yellow.

mpecies. 3:. Cherry.

This species has large flowers of a beautiful shade of cherry

or coral red. The lower half of the petal shades to mauve, on

which is superimposed the usual crimson patch at the base, so

that the colouring of this flower is very subtle, and quite different

from the crude scarlet of H. Rosa-sinensis. The staminal tube is

red, deeper at the base, stamens sulphur yellow, and the scarlet

stigmas on pale red styles.

Capsules and seeds the same as 1 and 2—

less numerous than 1, more numerous than

—and several seedlings were produced in 1934.

The leaves (fig. 3) are somewhat intermedi-

ate between those of species 1 and 2, being

broader and shorter than 1 but not so broad

as 2, and show no lobed varieties. The edge

is irregularly rather deeply serrated.

Two leaves are shown in figs. 4 and 5

for comparison, taken from two varieties of

H. Rosa-sinensis, also growing in_ the

compound,

All these plants do well in a good soil and with plenty of

rain, but where the. soil is poor and rainfall scanty, as at

Negapatam, it is better to have them in large tubs. Cuttings

root freely and the stock of plants can easily be increased in this

way.

It was soon observed however that species 1 produced seeds

very freely and some of these were collected and sown and seedling

plants were obtained from them in about 1927. There are four

quite different varieties of flowers among these seedling plants,

which are now as large as the parent bushes, and themselves bear

seed.

In October to December 1933 a large number of seed capsules

were produced on all the bushes.

The flowers are visited at all hours of the day by small birds,

chiefly the ‘sun birds’ (Cinnyris asiaticus and seylainicus) and the

‘tailor bird’ (Orthotomus sutorius), of which there are any number

in the compound. I have never seen them at the front of the

ellaaadieaimmmaimmmamraabad aman

NOTES ON THE RAISING OF HIBISCUS SHRUBS

flowers however; they seem always to insert their beaks between

the petals from the back of the flower, or to peck holes in the

petals, to reach honey or insects at the bottom of the trumpet.

Pigsm a cand, i:

Numbers of large butterflies, particularly a black and _ scarlet

species and a white one with black veins and black, orange

and blue patches visit these flowers also, and I should imagine

that fertilisation takes place through their agency, rather than as

a result of the visits of the birds.

At the beginning of 1934 seed production seemed to fall off,

and so artificial pollination was tried. Pollen from the stamens

of a flower from species 1 being applied to the stigma of species

2 or 3 by lightly brushing the stamens against it. Similarly pollen

from species 2 was applied to species 1 or 3 and so on.

The result was a very marked increase in the number of seed

capsules formed and the capsules were larger and healthier, and

produced more seeds than ever before. This was particularly the

case with species 2 and 3 which had hitherto only rarely produced

seed.

This would seem to indicate that the lack of seed may be

due sometimes to failure of pollination by outside agencies and not

to any defect in the structure as in the case of H. Rosa-sinensis ;

but this is a subject that requires further investigation before

any definite conclusion can be reached. The seeds obtained in

1933-34 germinated well, and at the end of 1934 there were about

seventy healthy seedlings. These were put into six inch pots, and

those that survived the hot weather, March to July, of 1935 started

to flower in October 1935. A great many of these were given

away, as I was not able to deal with so large a number but I

have seen some of these young plants at various times, and some

of the flowers they have produced. Among those remaining with

me there are certainly seven that have flowers quite different from

6 JOURNAL; “BOMBAY NATURA Egat Si a SO Cli diva io) aexee

any of the original three species or first four varieties. Several

reproduce the original peach of species 1 exactly, one reproduces

species 3. There are two very different reds, and several of

different shades of peach, some paler, some more pink, some more

yellow, and so on. It is difficult to describe colours but an attempt

is made in the following list to show the variety of the flowers

produced by the seedling plants now in the garden.

Variety 1: Practically identical with original Peach Species 1.

Occurs frequently. . ,

Variety 2: Pale salmony pink, very delicate shade; seeds freely,

and seedlings have been raised’ from it. (Coly Pl= tie. 3))

Variety 3: Clear straw yellow, no pink, dark maroon centre;

produced one: seed’.capsule, but died in 1935 (Col. Pl, fig. 4).

Variety 4: Clear cherry red, no mauve; narrow petals, trumpet-

shaped flowers.

These four varieties flowered before 1934. The following

varieties flowered for the first time between October 1935 and

March 1936.

Variety 5: Very dark orange or peach colour; short trumpet,

flat flower.

Variety 6: Salmony pink or peach with a pink flush.

Variety 7: Darker salmony pink or peach with a pink flush.

(Occurred also in Madras.)

Variety 8: Peach, resembling variety 1, but with a patch of

clear yellow on each petal.

Variety 9: Peach with a mauve flush on lower half of petal

and purple centre. Occurred in Madras and Podanur.

Figs. 6, 7; Sa cand “Sb;

ae Bb,

Variety 10: Salmony pink, but with a mauve flush, lower half

of petals mauve purple centre. This flower is very different in

the evening, -as all the pink fades out leaving it clear pale yellow

with mauve to purple centre.

Variety 11: Very large,‘ rich scarlet flowers with a yellow

streak down the overlapping edge of each petal. Very dark red

centre,

SEEDLINGS OF HIBISCUS

showing variation in leaves.

NOES ON TH RAISING OF; ALBISCUS, SHRUBS ef

Variety 12: Bright tomato red; much smaller and unusual in

having the centre almost the same colour as the rest of the petal

no dark patch at the base.

Variety 13: Exactly like Sunrise, species 2. Leaves mostly as

ieee le OL o, a. lew) 2a, OL 7.

The leaves of these young plants show all kinds of variation

in size and shape (Figs. 6, 7, 8a and 8b). In the seedlings some

ltave the leaves all of the type of figs. 1, 3 or 4. Others have the

lobed leaf of fig. 7. Occasionally both types are found on _ the

same seedling (Plate II, figs. A and B), and on older plants a

bunch of the palmate leaves will appear on a small branch of a

plant with ovate lanceolate leaves.

The red colouring matter is often found in the first leaves

giving them a bronze appearance.

This very slight and incomplete study of hybridisation in these

species of Hibiscus seems to give very interesting results, and to

indicate that it might very easily be carried further to establish

the true Mendelian behaviour of the species, and incidentally to

produce some new varieties of this very beautiful plant for our

gardens.

EXPLANATION OF COLOURED PLATE.

Fig. 1.—Peach Hibiscus; b. capsule; c. capsule with seed exposed.

Fig. 2.—Sunrise Hibiscus.

Fig. 3.—Pale salmony-pink variety.

Fig. 4.—Clear straw-yellow variety.

MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANG.

(Bibos gaurus hubbacki)

THEODORE HUBBACK.

(With 5 black and white plates).

The variety of Gaur found in the Malay Peninsula was designated

as a subspecies by Lydekker in 1907, who gave the following

reasons for doing so in his book The Game Animals of India,

Burma, Malaya, and Tibet :—

‘If the pyoung, or Burmese gaur, is separated from the Indian

animal, there can be no reasonable doubt that the seladang, or

Malay representative of the species, is likewise entitled to similar

rank. This probability is converted to a certainty by the distinctive

features presented by three adult bull seladang heads recently sent

to London by Mr. T. R. Hubback, author of Elephant and Seladang

Hunting in Malaya, London, 1904. In that work Mr. Hubback

himself states that in adult seladang there is no dewlap, and the

colour of the ‘‘stockings’’ is dirty yellow. The heads just referred

to show that the seladang has a much smaller development of the

ridge between the horns than the Indian gaur, a greater extent of

tawny on the forehead, and also a distinct whitish band above the

muzzle. -In one of the heads there is a fair development of the

intercornual ridge, but in the other two the line between the horns

is quite straight; in fact, if it were not for the horns, which are

of the characteristic gaur type, these two heads might almost be

referred to as gayal. They render it practically certain that the

latter is not specifically distinct from the gaur; and it is significant

in this connection that the one supposed specimen of a wild gayal

was killed in Tenasserim. |

‘The seladang may be named Bos gaurus hubbacki; a specimen

presented by Mr. Hubback to the British Museum being taken as

the type.’

This description, as I shall show later, is not quite accurate,

regarding the absence of a dewlap, in fact if such a phenomenon

is to be taken as a ground for the making of subspecies it is

possible that there may be two subspecies of gaur in Malaya.

Calf seladang are of a bright golden bay colour but it is possible

that this colour does not develop in its full brilliancy until the calf

is a few weeks old. Regarding this point I am not very certain

although I have seen very small calves which were mouse-colour

instead of the golden bay colour that I would have expected to see.

When the calves are about a month old they invariably show

this golden bay colour and are very conspicuous in the jungle.

I shall refer to this phenomenon later on. I think the bay colour

persists for about five or six months and then the colour of the

body and the legs to the knees and hocks gradually changes into

a dark sepia with light stockings and a light forehead. In most

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc.

YODQINET I, ‘14FAGdOD = "MOIT LVS VY ONIHOVOUddY Sal SI dH “ONVAV1dS TINd G10 NV

MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANG 9

cases there are lightish patches of hair above the bare part of the

nose, round the lips and under the chin. The illustration No. 1 of

a young seladang shows a young bull, probably about twelve

months old. This animal which was within thirty yards of me

for a considerable time was quite dark in colour. In fact one might

describe it as being dark. sepia, but its legs from the knees and

hocks downwards were of a very light khaki colour; the frontlet

as is shown in the photograph was a greyish yellow.

These colours persist through life, except that as the animals

get older the body colour becomes darker and in very old animals

the frontlet becomes grey. Also with mature bulls, it 1s commoner

to see dark khaki stockings than the hght ones seen on the calves

and the cows.

A mature bull seladang is a magnificent animal measuring up

to 6 ft. 34 in. at the shoulder with a length from nose to rump

of between nine and ten feet. It is as the illustrations here show

an animal of enormous strength and great bulk, and although I

have no figures to support my estimate I do not think that a big

bull seladang would weigh less than two thousand pounds. The

cows are lighter build but little less in stature than the bulls and

an old cow measuring 5 ft. to in. at the shoulder is by no means

uncommon. There appear to be two distinct phases of development

of the dewlap in the seladang. In some cases, mature seladang

have a very pronounced dewlap, in other cases, the dewlap is

hardly developed at all. I have found that seladang with heavy

dewlaps are generally taller than those with little or no dewlap,

have longer horns and have more light hair round the muzzle.

Those with little or no dewlap are generally stockily built, but less

in shoulder measurement, and although the light patch on the

chin seems to be common to all seladang, those without a developed

dewlap seldom have any light patch over the nose. This applies

to cows as well as bulls, but the dewlap is never well developed

in the cow.

It is possible that there are two subspecies of seladang in

Malaya, but I have no sufhcient information to enable me to express

a definite opinion on the subject. The soft part of the nose of

the seladang is generally dark grey, sometimes almost black, but

it is never pink as is sometimes the case in the Indian gaur. The

glory of a bull seladang’s horns when in his prime and _ before

the tips have become much worn, is one of nature’s triumphs.

The young seladang has horns yellow at the base with longish

black points; as the animal gets older the bases of the horns

thicken and become corrugated changing colour to a deep olive

green. This happens to the horns of cows as well as bulls although

the cows’ horns never approach those of the bulls in length or

girth. A cow’s horns would very seldom reach a basal measurement

of fifteen inches; bulls sometimes reach a basal measurement of

twenty-two inches or more. The Malayan animal does not, as a

rule, have long or wide spreading horns, due possibly to the dense

jungle in which it spends most of its time, an outside spread .of

forty inches and a length of thirty-five inches is seldom attained.

[ hesitate to estimate what age a really old seladang reaches but,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATUTAL GE Sd SO OME IN = Viol gece

presuming that they reach adolescence during their fifth year,

extreme old age would be reached at about their thirtieth year.

I have known old bull seladang, which frequented certain tracts

of country, well-known to me, which were there for many years,

and this leads me to believe that seladang have a long life.

Seladang never wallow in mud baths so beloved by the Indian

buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). The result is that they always appear,

except in the case of very old animals, as if they had just been

groomed. Their hides shine with a lustre which is most: attractive.

one is due to the fact that seladang exude an oily sweat which

carries with it a brown pigmentation, especially noticeable if their

bodies are wet from rain. When following seladang one is often

warned of their proximity by a strong bovine scent, accentuated in

the case of old bulls, and very noticeable if they have been put to

much exertion, such as a long chase. An oldish animal, under

such circumstances, will sweat so freely that a brown stain may

be found on trees or saplings against which it has brushed, and

the almost continuous scent left behind on the trees should not

be allowed to mislead one into believing that one’s quarry is near.

The fresh scent of close proximity is distinguishable from the scent

left on the trees to any one experienced in bush-craft.

I believe domestic cattle never sweat, and as Bos indicus

(Zebu), the common domestic humped cattle of India is no exception

to this rule, it seems unlikely that they were descended from Bibos

gaurus. The origin of Bos indicus is unknown but was regarded

by Blyth as probably African. The theory was discredited because

it is known that there are no wild cattle in Africa which could

have been the progenitors of the Zebu. The only wild species is

the Buffalo, an animal quite apart from the Zebu. It was ‘sub-

sequently cue eected by Professor Ruttimeyer that the remote

ancestor of the Zebu was the wild Banting of Java: better known

as the T’saine in Burma, a theory upheld subsequently by Lyddeker.

It is now held that the humped cattle of Asia in common with

European cattle is descended from the aurochs or Wild Ox of

Europe and that the Zebu’s hump is a modification developed

under domestication. The presence or otherwise of sweat glands

in the skin might be a clue to the ancestry of wild or domestic

cattle. |

The word seladang is the Malayan word for the variety of

gaur found in the Malay Peninsula and is probably derived from

two native words, satu meaning one and ladang meaning a jungle

clearing, indicating that this animal is one which may be seen in

a elearing, satu ladang, abbreviated to sladang or seladang.

Other large Malayan wild animals would not be seen in such places;

a rhinoceros, an elephant, or a tapir would not be found feeding

in a clearing in the daytime.

The seladang is a forest-edge animal and its habitat is not

virgin forest, although it is frequently found in the forest due to

circumstances which have been forced upon it. It is unlikely that

the seladang is an animal indigenous to the Malay Peninsula.

The following reasons seem to indicate a comparatively recent

migration from the north. The entire peninsula, except the highest

4 ydiad dop

haISsT:

BRM NY

‘a

Journ. BomBay NAT

MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANG ata

mountains, was originally covered with dense tropical virgin jungle ;

there were no natural clearings at all, and until Man appeared

from the north there would have been nothing approaching grass

land except where possibly floods had cleared some river banks

of river-edge vegetation. Even now to this day no clearing remains

free of jungle growth for more than a few months if left untended

and ‘in two or three years returns to a dense secondary forest. This

is not the environment which would evolve the large species of

Bovidae and it is reasonable to suppose that some centuries ago

the seladang, or as they were then gaur, came down through Siam

and Burma to the Malay Peninsula following the cleared spaces

of the early settlers in Malaya. I advisedly write ‘settlers’ because

certain of the aborigines who inhabited the Malay Peninsula and

who still inhabit it make no clearings, merely living on roots,

fruit, and anything they can catch. Such races would not have

helped to provide gaur with the grasses essential to their well-

being and without which they would not be attracted to a new

country. The origin of the seladang in the Malay Peninsula is

I think of the greatest importance when considering their habitat,

environment and general reaction to those ‘civilizing’ influences

which are so perilous to their welfare, and for those reasons we

must consider carefully the artificiality or otherwise of their present

existence.

There is one extremely significant fact which points to a

comparatively recent immigration to the Malay Peninsula and that

is the light colour of the young seladang calves. I have given

this phase of the subject much thought; I have made as careful

observations as are possible on wild animals which can seldom

be seen except in dense cover; I have seen many scores of young

seladang calves; and have drawn the following deductions. That

seladang have not yet adapted themselves completely from a

physical standard to their environment in which they have to live

in the peninsula because a bright bay coloured calf is not able

to achieve that concealment: in the forest, even when immobile,

which Nature generally provides to the young of many species and

to the adults of some species, as a protection against enemies.

In grass country, which I think is the true habitat of Bibos gaurus,

a light coloured calf in times of danger would be well concealed

when lying or squatting down, and it is this very habit of squatting

down when suddenly startled—not of course at very close quarters

when panic would lead to flight—that the seladang calves practise

even in virgin jungle. I could give many instances but the follow-

ing will suffice. I had disturbed a herd of five or six seladang on

the edge of an old clearing which had grown up into a coarse

rank grass called lalang (Imperata arundinacea). Amongst these

seladang was a young calf—a bright golden bay calf. We followed

the herd and saw that the tracks of the calf were not there.

We returned to the edge of the clearing looking round about for

the calf but could see nothing. Presently one of my men spotted

the calf on the edge of the jungle looking’ towards us. It almost

at once disappeared from. view and I felt certain that it had

squatted down for concealment. We walked slowly over to where

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY. Vol. xi

the calf had been and almost reached the edge of the jungle when

the calf jumped up five or six yards from us and dived into the

jungle. It only sought safety in flight when we were very close

to it. The cows almost invariably leave the calves to take care

of themselves on the assumption I suppose that immobility is a

better safeguard for the calf than flight with the herd. I have

never known a cow seladang stand by her calf, but the calf will

remain more or less in the same place until the mother returns

for it, calling in a soft low moo until the calf hears it. I think

it may often be hours before the cow returns, especially if much

alarmed. These peculiar tactics of the seladang, not at all suitable

to its environment in Malaya, no doubt account for a large mortality

amongst the calves from tigers, who will certainly know, if I do,

that a stampeded herd is liable to leave the calves behind. Here

we have one factor against the seladang, owing to an incomplete

adaptation to a new environment.

In the Malay Peninsula seladang herds are few and scattered

and it is more than likely that the ten or twelve animals in a

herd very seldom meet any seladang from another herd. This

would make one suspect a great risk of too much inbreeding, but

I think Nature has ways and means of getting over such difficulties

which we seldom suspect. It has seemed to me from long observa-

tion that there is a predominance of males in each herd. I put

this forward with some diffidence because it is difficult to tell the

young bulls from the young cows and I may have been mistaken

in my deductions, but, if I am right, this would, to some extent,

help to prevent too close inbreeding. Another phase in the life

history of seladang is the frequent absence from the herd of quite

young bulls, who will leave the herd for days or weeks, and then

return to the fold. I do not hold the view that these young

solitary bulls have been driven away from the herd by a more

powerful bull, which is what is generally supposed. I believe that

seladang are naturally independent and that males are liable at any

time to go off by themselves. I have seen quite young bulls

three or four years old, miles away from a herd; such youngsters

would not have been forced or driven out of a herd. I have known

of three young bulls, of which the oldest was not more than five

years, away from any others, thoroughly enjoying themselves in

a salt lick. They certainly had not been kicked out of a herd

en masse, but were, I believe, merely following their natural

inclination for wandering adventure. This proclivity to wander off

by themselves may also help to check too close inbreeding, because

young, middle aged and old bulls all do it. Again old bulls are

supposed to become entirely solitary, having been driven out from

the herd, to live a retired and morose existence. This I do not

believe either, although a very old bull will be more frequently by

himself than with a herd. Still one finds very old bulls with herds

as the photograph opposite clearly shows. So it is more than likely

that the mature cows in a herd are not always served by the same

bull, because even supposing that the master bull is the strongest

one in the herd his habit of going off by himself may at times

coincide with a cow’s desire for a mate and so some other bull

tc)

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MALAYVYAN GAUR OR SELADANG 8

in the herd may be the sire of her next calf. Old bull seladang

have a peculiar habit of attaching a young bull to them who is

often found in their company. I have come across several cases

of this and illustration opposite shows an old bull, with a young

bull, in attendance. But this old bull, whose tattered ears make

him easily identifiable, 1s also to be found in a herd as the -next

illustration shows (vide plate facing p. 14). I have often thought

that this ‘attendant’ 1s picked up to help an old bull to look after

himself, because undoubtedly old bulls frequently become deaf and

a companion can make up for their deficiency by acting as a

watchman. [ once came across a case of a sambhur stag which

attached itself to an old bull seladang, but what was the natural

attraction I do not know.

I believe very old seladang whose strength has greatly decreased,

sometimes fall victims to tigers. I know, at present, of one old

bull seladang, obviously very nearly at the end of the trail, who

is frequently attended by a very large tiger whose presence is

decidedly not to the advantage of the seladang.

Seladang do not appear to have any special breeding season,

calves being born at almost any time of the year. During the

wettest months in Malaya, October to December, very young

calves are seldom seen, although considering it is the cow that

comes in season not long after the calf is born and the gestation

period is nine months there appears to be no reason why one

month should be more favoured than another month. I think

seladang cows seldom have more than one calf during the season

as I have never seen, except on one occasion, two calves following

a cow. On the occasion when I did see two calves attached to

a cow, they were each about twelve months old and only one

of them may have belonged to the cow, the other may have lost .

its mother. .

Seladang are extraordinarily sensitive to disturbance and will

not thrive in country which is continually invaded by Man. In

Malaya that has accounted for the almost entire disappearance of

seladang from the west coast and from many places on the east

coast. It is doubtful if four hundred seladang exist in the Malay

Peninsula and of these at least twenty-five per cent., owing to their

isolated positions, are sure to disappear in two or three decades.

It is all the more necessary therefore to do our utmost to preserve

intact those herds which are now in wilderness country. Unless

great care is taken seladang will be exterminated in Malaya.

Seladang are not mountain animals and although in their many

wanderings solitary bulls will go far into the mountain country a

herd does not do so, and land consisting of undulating country

and river valleys must be preserved intact for their contentment.

Therein lies the difficulty in Malaya where irrespective of true

economic principles the habitat of wild life is often ruined for

some purely ephemeral benefit. National Parks and Reserves are

the only hope of salvation for the seladang of Malaya, and I will

deal with this aspect of the question later on.

The seladang is by no means voiceless. It has no less than

five distinct and characteristic methods of expressing its emotions.

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The one most commonly heard is the snort of alarm and surprise

which is given by seladang when met at close quarters. This

snort is made by a violent and rapid expulsion of air through

the nostrils and is one of the terrifying phenomena referred to

by Malays when describing the extreme ferocity of the seladang.

This snort is supposed to precede an imminent attack and is

immediately followed by flight on the part of the Malay who

describes with vivid detail on reaching his village how he was

charged by a seladang and only by his extreme agility was he

able to save his life. What actually happens is that the seladang

is terrified as well as the Malay—he probably could not be terrified

as much as the Malay—and the snort is immediately followed by

a quick turn and precipitate flight.

The second sound made by the seladang is of the same class

but 1s made when a bull is explaining to the rest of the herd what

a fine fellow he is, or when he is demonstrating to a tiger, which

may be in the vicinity, that he is quite ready for a fight if: the

tiger comes within reach of his horns. These: sounds are chiefly

whistling snorts made through the nose as in the first instance,

but generally accompanied by butting at the undergrowth and by

pawing up the ground. During these demonstrations seladang are

liable to demolish ant hills with their horns, but this is sometimes

due to attempts to remove ticks from their heads. This habit

wears down the tips of the horns in some cases, although not

invariably. I have obtained old seladang with perfect tips to their

horns. It is I. think a matter of temperament. .

The third sound is that-of a cow seladang. calling to her calf,

which in most cases almost exactly represents the moo of domesse

cattle but sometimes may be likened to a mild rendering of a

fourth sound which I will presently describe. This noise is only

made by the cow calling to a younger animal.

The fourth sound is “the most peculiar sound made by seladang.

It is a call to other seladang which may be in the vicinity and

is a sound beyond my powers to describe. It is a cross. between

the bugling of a wapiti (elk) and the trumpeting of an elephant.

It is a melodious sound which carries a long way in the jungle.

I have heard a young. seladang calling when waiting in the jungle

within a short distance from a salt lick, waiting to go into the

lick but. probably not wishing to enter alone. It was in more or

less the same position for about two hours and during that two

hours called four or five times. It had a fairly deep note and I

thought that it was a mature bull calling to the rest of the herd,

but at the end of two hours when it plucked up courage to enter

by itself, lo and behold! this animal which I had taken for a

mature bull was a young bull of not more than two or three years

of age!

The final sound made by a seladang does I believe only occur

once, and that is at the end of its life when it is dying a violent

death. It is a dying moan which once heard will never be forgotten,

and might be taken as a protest against the deprivation of ats life

while still strong and vigorous.

The main food of seladang consists of grasses of which ‘the

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MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANG _15

one they like best is known in the vernacular as rumput cheng-

kent. This is a creeping grass common throughout the Malay

Peninsula and is cut a great deal for cattle food. Lalang. and

allied coarse grasses are also eaten by seladang when they are

young. Clearings which are grown up into lalang are often burnt

off to attract seladang. In the jungle they do not eat many of

the leaves of jungle trees but one tree they are very fond of is

merlimau (Ataluntia monophylla). The leaves of trees which grow

in secondary jungle, mengkirai (T'rema amboinensis) and_ beti-beti

(Eugenia seylanica) are much liked by them. Seladang occasionally

raid crops but never crops that are properly looked after or taken

care of. They will eat young rice which is of course like any other

young succulent grass and will also eat the leaves of young Indian

corn, but as a potential danger to cultivation which is properly

taken care of the seladang may be ignored. Seladang are very

fond of visiting salt licks especially sulphur licks and it is due to

the fact that they will visit these licks during the day time that

the photographs illustrating this article have been made possible.

In the Malay Peninsula there are no open spaces in which one is

the least bit likely to find seladang during the brighter hours of

the day although one might occasionally see them in the early

morning or evening. The sulphur or saline found in these salt

licks are taken I think by seladang to clear their stomach of

intestinal parasites. In some cases where seladang have visited a

mud lick I have seen their droppings almost pure mud, and |

think that these licks must be considered as the chemists’ shops

of these animals. In places.where they are undisturbed seladang

are liable to visit a salt lick at any time of the day or night, but

unfortunately such places in the Malay Peninsula are few and far

between and most visits to salt licks are made during the hours

of darkness. For many decades when visiting salt licks seladang

have been subject to being fired at by Malays safely ensconced

in the shelter of high trees with the result that such places are

generally avoided during the hours of daylight. Even where there

is no disturbance and the seladang have a sense of security the

approach to a lick will still be made with the greatest caution and

an animal about to enter a lick will generally wait at the edge

of the jungle for some minutes before finally entering the lick.

Very old bulls are an exception to this rule because they do not

seem to care for anybody or anything and walk straight into the lick

to have their drink which may take them a long time, perhaps

a quarter of an hour, and then walk away without any concern.

_ With two or three exceptions no expert or intelligent observa-

tions have ever been made on the ecology of the seladang. The

result of this has been that seladang have been judged by native

gossip and have been credited with a ferocity and aggressiveness

entirely foreign to their character. A big seladang if met in the

jungle looks ferociots and has the same psychological effect on

a native as the horrible efhgies on blatant banners, carried in the

van of an army, had on Chinese soldiers in ancient days.

The seladang is in reality an exceptionally quiet and _ well-

behaved wild animal, so far as Man is concerned timid to a degree

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

and not, so far.as I know, intolerant of the presence of other

animals. I have a photo of a doe sambhur (Cervus unicolor)

in close proximity to a cow seladang and apparently unnoticed by

a young bull seladang who has with great impoliteness turned his

back on the doe, supports, to some extent, my contentions. In

this case the doe sambhur, came across my front—I was in a hide—

and walked quietly up to where these two seladang were drinking

in a salt lick. Presently the seladang detected a slight taint in

the wind and went off in a hurry, but this did not disturb the

doe although she immediately became suspicious and ‘froze’ into

an expectant attitude which she maintained for quite a quarter of

an hour. But that is another story.

I have often seen seladang and sambhur deer in this salt lick

at the same time within twenty or thirty yards of each other, but

only on this one occasion in such close proxunity.

Bull seladang do, of course, at times fight. I have shot many

seladang with new and old scars on them but although, in my

time, I have tracked on foot seladang for thousands of miles I

have never come across a single place where a fight had taken

place. Signs of demonstrations I have frequently seen, but they

appeared to lead to nothing in the way of a ‘scrap’.

IT only know of one authentic case of a bull seladang being

found dead after a fight to the death with another bull, but I

did not personally see the site of the affray.

Amongst the big game of Malaya seladang, as a sporting animal,

is ina class by itself. Although rhinoceros hunting may be more

difficult it is much less easy to obtain, and few Europeans have

ever made any attempt to hunt rhinoceroses in the Malayan jungle.

The seladang has been fairly widely distributed throughout Malaya

and has been hunted a great deal at different times by both

Europeans and natives. Unfortunately the seladang is an animal

which may occasionally be shot by waiting for it in the evening

in a burnt off clearing or in some old estate where there is little

disturbance and where these animals occasionally come out to feed.

Seladang shot under such conditions are fired at in much the same

way that one would shoot at a target and trophies obtained in

such a way in no way reflect any credit on the ability of the

hunter. On the other hand those who have tracked seladang in

the jungle and have finally outwitted an animal which is especially

alert when in dense jungle will enjoy hunting and tracking equal

to anything to be obtained elsewhere. As I have said already it

is by no means certain that because an animal is a solitary one

it is therefore a desirable trophy, although it is unlikely that such

an animal would be a cow. But any hunter after some experience

soon gets to know the difference between the big track of a big

young bull and the big track of a big old bull. Very often they

are much the same length but they are not the same shape, the

older track is wider at the heel, more blunt at the tip and does

not show an impression of the outer edge of the hoof seen in the

younger track. This perhaps is scarcely the place in which to

write a long dissertation on the hunting of seladang, but entirely

apart from the great scientific interest attaching to an animal such

ht, PB ie ubback

Copyrig

VALLEY, PAHANG, F.M.S.

3 KRAU

LADANC

OLD BULL

» ieee A bet ae ta coset

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

MALAYAN GAUR OR SELARANG 17

as a seladang it must be remembered that the fact of an animal

carrying a desirable sporting trophy goes a long way towards

insuring that it will not be ruthlessly exterminated. At least that

applies in most countries but not very strongly in Malaya where

now-a-days few white men take any interest in the hunting of big

game. The seladang is extraordinarily difficult to pick up in a

dense jungle. It will, like all jungle animals, remain absolutely

immobile directly it is suspicious that there is something abnormal

in its vicinity and in the dense jungle where it will be found one’s

vision is- confined to a circle of anything from ten to twenty-five

yards—it is almost impossible to see a dark animal like the

seladang so long as it keeps still. Under such conditions the

seladang’s first move which may or may not be preceded by a

violent snort is to swing round and disappear. I am _ presuming

that the hunter is on the tracks of a solitary animal. A long

stern chase of some hours will then take place and will probably

be followed by an exactly similar circumstance. If the first approach

to the seladang is not successful every subsequent approach will

be more difficult. They are extraordinarily alert and until very

old have good hearing and good eyesight. Their powers of smell

are phenomenal, and the slightest taint in the wind will send them

off at once. So to be a successful seladang hunter one has to be

a persistent person, but the reward will come because some day

either the hunter gets an unexpected piece of luck or the seladang

makes a mistake and awaits in a place where he thinks he is

concealed but not sufficiently concealed to deceive the hunter. Or

possibly the hunter’s skill may exceed the seladang’s caution, and

the animal may be caught unawares.

I remember having a long hunt after a very old bull seladang.

In fact I was on his tracks for four days. We came up to him

several times but he was always aware that we were there before

we were aware where he was. He never ran away—perhaps his

running days were past—but he immediately walked off and kept

on walking for hours. At last in the middle of the fourth day

he made a mistake and I was able to obtain one of the finest

trophies that I have ever got. The illustration opposite shows the

mounted head. The mistake he made was this. He had gone

up a steep hillside and we were tracking him when we heard the

heavy breathing of the seladang above us on our right front.

We stopped and presently saw that the seladang was coming down

the hill towards us, but before we could see him properly he also

stopped and although I could see where he was I could not tell

which end was which. He was equally mystified. He realized

that there was something wrong somewhere down the hill below

him but did not know what it was. I dared not fire for fear

of hitting the wrong end. He was more or less sideways to me.

Presently he put his head down close to the ground to look under

the undergrowth to see what it was that was bothering him. The

moment he put his head down I of course knew which end was

which. Had he not put down his head but moved off I should

not have had a chance of killing him. He was about thirty vards

above me up a very steep hillside. bi

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

I have followed seladang often for several days and they have

given me a great deal of wonderful hunting. Despite the fact that

a seladang is an enormously bulky animal, and an extremely active

animal except when very old, he seldom attacks a hunter even

when wounded. I have several times been in such a position when

following a wounded seladang that he could have almost certainly

made good a charge had he elected to be aggressive. But flight

was more to his liking. Only once have I had a near call and

on that occasion the animal, badly wounded, came all out to try

and get some of his own back. In fact he was so close to me

that my shot hit him in the head at about five yards from me

and the impetus of his rush carried the body past me.

But seladang hunting in the Malay Peninsula is nearly a thing

of the past because although there are still seladang the country

is now highly commercialized and seladang will not thrive where

they are continually disturbed.

What of the future of the seladang? I wish I could find an

answer. Although persistent efforts have been made during the last

few years to awaken a lethargic Government to the importance of

properly enforcing the Game Laws and of taking proper steps to

provide sanctuaries and refuges for the wild life of Malaya, nothing

has been placed on a sound foundation, and it is extremely doubtful

if it ever will be placed on a sound foundation. Officials who look

at the balance sheet of an annual budget hate the idea of allowing

a tract of country, which may contain some mineral or some timber

or something else that will produce money, being tied up to

propagate wild life, and it is difficult to get the realization of the

value of wild life into the mentalities of persons who are merely

ephemeral office holders. In Malaya nearly the entire population

consists of Malays, or Chinese, or Indians. The Malays are the

indigenous people, but they do not care a single thing from an

ethical point of view about the wonderful natural resources. of the

country. The others, including most of the, Europeans, are here

to get what they can out of the country, and without a realization

of the necessity for a sound policy regarding the conservation of

the natural resources of the country as a matter of ethics wild

life conservation in Malaya will fail. It is useless to appeal on

the grounds that in a few decades the natural resources of the

country will be ruined, because those who are sufficiently intelligent

to understand that know perfectly well that they will not be here.

The Europeans in Malaya are birds of passage; the indigenous

races cannot grasp the value of the wild life to their country. The

only hope for the larger fauna of Malaya, seladang in particular, is

to make inviolable sanctuaries and unless we can get inviolable

sanctuaries, sanctuaries which will not be carved up to allow Mr. A

to prospect or mine for gold, Mr. B to prospect or mine for tin,

or Mr. C to exploit the timber, the larger wild life is doomed.

There are areas in Malaya which have been set aside and are

at the moment ostensibly refuges for wild life, but it is a continual

fight to get money or personnel to guard these places, and it is

only a matter of time when, if the present apathy continues, it

will be considered not worth while. It is a deplorable thing to

MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANG 19

realize the fact, as I can from personal experience realize it, that

during the last forty years in Malaya the larger forms of wild

life have been so depleted that they are in grave danger of ex-

termination, and so long as Malaya worships the cult of Mammon

Detore everything else, it is difficult to see how matters can

sufficiently improve to retrieve the situation.

FISH OF DEOLALL!

SUNDER LaL Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.N.1., Assistant Superintendent

AND

K. S. Misra, m.sc., Assistant, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Part III.

(With three plates and 6 text-figures).

On Two NEw SPECIES AND NOTES ON SOME OTHER FORMS.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction and List of species <r nee 9% foe ee

Systematic account ae a! a ae ee

Chela clupeoides (Bloch) ... aa Pe ie bee ye

Barbus khudree Sykes ee ae abs oe sta aed

Barbus kolus Sykes ss ia so ae AAP ae)

Barbus ticto (Hamilton) 33 : Me os pee wee O

Barbus fraseri, sp. nov. aa ee a Me e229

Crossochilus latius (Hamilton) ie ae ne i, phar

Parapsilorhynchus prateri, sp. nov. me se Ee re

Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Hamilton) ane és Pn epoO

Nemachiius botius (Hamilton) ap sae ie aS

Nemachilus dentsoni Day... ah ne ies ee O16

Glyptothorax annandalei Hora ne oe es sO

Ambassis baculis (Hamilton) ae ee oe Bhar ei)

Concluding remarks ae ae ey a ee 27)

Explanation of Plates aS ae ek a jae 6 OU

INTRODUCTION AND LIST OF SPECIES.

In the first article of the series? a general account of the localities

and lists of specimens obtained therefrom were given, and here we

propose to give a complete list of the fish-fauna of Deolali, to

describe the two new species of Barbus and Parapsilorhynchus, and

to add notes on certain species whose existing descriptions require

amplification. In preparing the following list we have adopted

the classification proposed by Jordan,* and have given the Bhil

—

1 Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

2-Hora and Misra, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist| Soc. xxxix, pp. 502-519. (1637).

* Jordan, Classification of Fishes (Stanford University, California: 1923).

FISH OF DEOLALI 21

ames: Or the various “species as ‘supplied to us by Mr.

Poesowere. | Nraser. Information regarding the distribution of

the different species of fishes in Deolali waters is also incuded in

the list.

Scientific Name - Bhil Name Local Distribution!

Orders ISOSPONDY LI

Family : NOTOPTERIDA

1. Notopterus notopterus (Pal-

las) sic Ss

Chambaree 1. -O and 38,

Order: OPIS THOM

Family: MASTACEMBELIDAi

2. Mastacembelus armatus

(Lacép.) os sae Sus 38.

Order: APODES

Family : ANGUILLIDA

3. Anguilla anguilla (Ham.)... | Ahhir ox], OO

Order: EVENTOGNATHI =

BPamily : CYPRINIDAt

Sub-Family : ABRAMIDIN 2

4. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) ...| Phal, Phathree,

OF PAtiree: . 2313, 4) Oy Oy. 12, 16.20, Ze

Dew 255, 201 O0s ony 2h,

and 49.

5. Chela phulo (Ham.) ...|Gayroonjee or

Phal an | Or 2205, 40, anGrda,

Sub-Family : RASBORINAE

6. barilius bendelisis (Ham.)...| Waris, Jhor or

Jhoria i) ONO 7 Oo Oye. 2)

13. 16, 19, 323,24, 26,

Big 205 297 02; Coy Oh O0;

36, 37,7 393.4), 42,43;

44, 45, 46, 47 and 50.

7. Danio cequipinnatus (Mc-

Clelland) &. | Gayroonjee.s 2. 1.3,.6;.9, 10,13. 18) 23, 27,

748 Defers i ERE eo Ke Wie” Oe mofo) amro to

39, 42 and 43.

8. Danio frasert (Hora) my \Gayroonjes.. 22.00 and. 7:

9. asbora daniconius (Ham.).|Gayroonjee_... | 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16,

Wee lOe 22, 2329.3 Lk

30; oon 30, 30,040,741.

42 and 44.

10. Rasbora labtosa Mukerji... | Gayroonjee ste ey ae Oyo 1 ee 5 248

| 252 20, 242-35, 39 a5

and 50,

* The numerals given in this column refer to the locality numbers correspond-

ing to those given in the first part of this series (Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

XXXIX, PP. 502-519, 1937).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST,

SOCIETY.” Viol:

Scientific Name

12.

13%

14,

13:

16.

1S:

19.

20;

el.

22.

24.

25%

26.

2d;

28.

Pa3h,

30.

ole

Soe

34.

a0.

36.

Sub-Family :

CYPRININE

Aspidoparia morar (Ham.).

Barbus amphibius (C.& V.).

Barbus chola (Ham.)

Barbus chrysopoma

Vv.)

Barbus khudree Sykes

(Cc. &

Barbus kolus Sykes

Barbus melanostigma Day ..

Barbus parrah (Day)

Barbus pinnauratus Day

Barbus sarana (Ham.)

Barbus ticto (Ham.)

Barbus fraseri, sp. nov.

Cirrhina reba (Ham.)

Crossochilus latius (Ham.).

Garra mullya (Sykes)

Labeo boggut (Sykes)

Labeo calbasu (Ham.)

Labeo porcellus (Heckel)

Parapsilorhynchus

sp. nov.

Rohtee cotio (Ham. )

Rohtee alfrediana (C. & V. Sh

Rohtee vigorsit Sykes aes

prateri,

Family COBITIDA

sas sei Mees Bre

(Ham.) on

Nemachilus botius (Ham.).

Nemachtilus denisonit Day.

Nemachilus evezardi Day ...

i Mallia “or

.| Goorda a

.| Bhokria or Kho-

~1'6578,89;-12, 16, 1920 2ae

lis

., Gayrooniee

F Bhodeer |

-| Piplee-or ‘Tiptoo:

Arrol

W arootee :

Khar-

andya

.| Sandekol

| Khanoos, Kholis

or Goghree

Kaplee -

.. Mhorro, Mohroo

Thail or Moh-

roo Chapra

Mhorroo or

Mohroo

Chickna

Mhorroo or

Mohroo Yaree.

Mhorro

Bhil Name Local Distribution

sandokol]-Phal;,

or Ambli 6, 8, 33, 41 and 42.

mae 16, 18, 22, 30, 31 and 40;

.| Bhokria | Oo andel2s

...| Bhodeer oe 168

.| Waris OO Oi} Os 820 gee laeor

26, 27, 28, 33, 36, 40, 41,

42, 46, 47 and 48.

23, 28, 36, 38, 40, 41, 46,

47, 48 and 49.

19 and 47.

46.

1922. and 31;

20, 21on22, 20,100 436 male

42, 47, 48 and 49.

iA 5; 65.7, (St: 0 ae

16,.19,°23°24, 25, 26) 27,

285.29, 30,3133), 04, 304

36, 39, 40, 41, 43 and 44.

6,8 and 12.

...| 38 and 40.

wit2e.e2s and.ails

13, 9. 10, 13; 16, 19-22-93.

20 29,126,127 2om2o pol,

33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42,

44, 45 and 47.

3, 6, 19, 23, 38, 40, 41 and

42,

16.

16.17. 2286.38, 46.47)

48 and 49.

1, 4, 10, 13, 14, 35and 50.

, 6, o end 23.

22 and 31.

46 and 49. -

6,5, 10502513 14.024 325,

29, 30, 34, 35, 39, 40

and 45,

D, 20348; 20,0 2h 23 Oe

31, 33, 36, and 40.

Hee, OO 2, aS 2d ae

and 39.

13, 14, 23, 24, 34 and 35.

a Se

ISH. OF DEOLALT

Scientific Name

Bhil Name

Local Distribution

Order: NEMATOGNA-

seeal

Family : SILURIDA

Callichrous

(Bloch) ae

Wallago attu (Bloch)

37. bimaculatus

318%

Family : HETEROPNEUS-

TAN

Fleteropneustes

(Bloch)

39. fossilis

Family : BAGRIDA

40. Mystus cavasius (Ham.)

Family : SISORIDA

Glyptothorar

Hora oe oe

Nangra viridescens (Ham.).

annandalet

Family : SCHILBEID

Proeutropicthys laakree

(Sykes)

Order: LABYRINTHICI

Family : OPHICEPHALIDA

44, Ophicephalus Lachua

(Ham.) i

45. Ophicephalus leucopuncta-

tys Sykes te

46. Ophicebhalus marulius

Ham,

Order: PERCOMORPHI

Family : AMBASSIDAi

47. Ambassts baculis (Ham.) ...

48. Ambassis nama (Ham.).

49. Ambassis ranga (Ham.)

Order : GOBIOIDEA

Family : GOBIIDA:

50. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Moonee

Baloo

seosee

Khirkirya

Khordoo

Bibua

eeevece

Dakhia or Dha-

karay

Murral

Goorda or Bing.

Bing

Kharbia or Khar-

bya wat

8 and 40.

20, 21 and 46.

12,

IeatOn 7. 22, 5)8 40.46

and 49,

Zor.

no;

6 and 8.

lt Shoe 10a lan 268315 93.

35 and 40.

38,

, |8, 12. and 40.

and 40.

76, 22.and 40;

‘65, 125, 16, 20528, 22, 20,

26, 30, 31 and 40.

2 Oe NO 20 eed, 2.

26. 36, 40,.47 and 48.

It is seen from the above that in Mr. Fraser’s collection of

4,463 specimens there are representatives of 50 species.

Of these

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

29 belong to the family Cyprinidae, 4 to Cobitidae, 3 to Ophice-

phalidae, 3 to Ambassidae, 2 to Siluridae, 2 to Sisoridae and 1

each to Notopteridae, Mastacembelidae, Anguillidae, Heteropneusti-

dae, Bagridae, Schilbeidae and Gobiidae. The abundance and

variety of Cyprinoid and the comparative rarity of the Siluroid

fishes are noteworthy features of the fauna. Even from the point

of view of the local distribution of the species, the Cyprinoids are

found practically everywhere and no doubt form the major portion

of the fish diet of the local inhabitants.

SYSTEMATIC . ACCOUNT.

Chela ciupeoides (Bloch).

1878. Chela clupeoides, Day, Fish. India, p. 602.

In his account of Chela clupeoides, Day referred to the variability

of the species with regard to lepidosis and number of rays in the

anal fin. Though as a rule the number of rays in the anal

fin is stated by him ‘to vary frome 13 tors (ee ) in the

2 ;

reagan} JN

Tacit detailed

examination of Deolali examples fully bears out Day’s results. In

a majority of the specimens the number of rays in the anal fin is

more than 15 and in some of the examples there are even 18 rays.

specimens from Deccan he found them to be

Barbus kKhudree Sykes.

1841. Barbus khudree, Sykes, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, ii, p. 357.

The precise systematic position of Sykes’ Barbus khudree has

not been properly understood so far, and the reason for this seems

to be the great confusion that prevails regarding the species, races

and varieties of the large-scaled Barbels of India, popularly known

as ‘Mahseers’. Unfortunately Sykes did not publish a figure of

this species and his description contains no reference to scale counts.

Fle characterised 11 as:

eek Barbus, with 4 cirri; blood-stained fins; large hexagonal scales ; elongated

body; and with 14 rays in the dorsal, 14 in the pectoral, and 7 in the anal

fins.’

The above is a generalised definition and is not helpful in

distinguishing the species from a large number of similar fishes

found in Indian waters. Sykes’ detailed description of the species

given below is also very vague. He stated:

‘Dorsal fin of from 10 to 12 rays; first long ray a thick strong bone,

with 3 very short bones before it; the whole four compact: pectoral fin of

12 perfect rays, and 2 incomplete rays, ventral fins of 9 rays; anal fin of 7

rays: tail forked, of 18 rays, besides 4 short rays outside the longest rays:

ESE OF DEOLALD 25

scales large, hexagonal, and of a silvery bluish-green colour: mouth furnished

with 4 short feelers: anal, ventral and pectoral fins tipped with blood-colour.

Lateral line concave, below the centre, and corresponding to the arch of the

belly: the scales along the lateral line emarginate. Length, 1o inches; height,

22 inches; greatest length, a foot and a half; weight, from half to three-

quarters of a seer. This fish has a considerable resemblance in form, size

and habits, to the Cyprinus Mrigala of Dr. Hamilton; but its blood-stained fins,

4 feelers, and the discrepancies in the number of its fin-rays, sufficiently

distinguish it. It is sweet and agreeable food. The same fish, under varied

circumstances of age, has the fins tipped with bluish instead of red.’

‘Found in the Mota Mola river, 8 miles east of Poona.’

Bleeker’ included B. khudree in his list of the fishes of India

without any comments, but Jerdon*, who also had no specimen of

the species for examination, renrarked that ‘If Colonel Sykes had

not given 14 rays to the dorsal fin I might have considered it the

same as B. Hamiltoni.’ Ginther* definitely assigned it to the

synonymy of Barbus mosal (Hamilton). Among the specimens of

B. mosal in the collection of the British Museum, Giinther mentions

deexoune >in bad state. Dekkan.. From: Col. Sykes’ collection’.

Day* doubtfully referred Sykes’ species to his B. neilli, but

his conclusion is not justified, for in the latter species-the last

undivided ray of the dorsal fin, though osseous and entire, is very

weak.

In 1936, Hora and Mukerji® discussed the precise specific limits

of Hamilton’s® large-scaled Barbels—Barbus tor, B. mosal and B.

putitora, and showed that the last two species are synonymous.

In the same year, Hora’ discussed the relationships of the large-

scaled Barbels of Assam and recognised among them two species

described by McClelland*—B. progeneius and B. hexagonolepis—

besides Hamilton’s two species referred to above. An examination

of a large series of specimens of the large-scaled Barbel collected

by Mr. Fraser has convinced us that the South Indian form is

distinct from the North Indian species and, ‘so far as it is possible

to judge, seems to represent Sykes’ B. khudree.. For convenience

of reference in future, we give below a detailed description of the

species from fresh specimens.

Bde) 9; A. 2/7; P. 155 V.9; ©. 19; Ee 25-27.

Like the typical Mahseer of Northern India—Barbus putitora

(Hamilton)—B. khudree possesses a graceful, trout-like form in

——

* Bleeker, P.—Nalezingen op de ichthyologische fauna van Bengalen en

Hindostan. Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, p. 60 (1853).

3 Jerdon, T. C.—On the Fresh Water Fishes of Southern India. Madras ~

Worn. Itt. Sct... XV, p--313 (1848).

* Ginther, A.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, vii, p. 130

(London: 1868).

* Day, F.—Fishes of India, p. 569 (London: 1878).

* Hora, S. L. and Mukerji, D. D.—Fish of the Eastern Doons, United

Provinces. Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxviii, pp. 139-142 (1936).

* Hamilton, F.—Fish Ganges, pp. 303-307 (Edinburgh: 1822).

* Hora, S. L.—On a further collection of Fish from the Naga Hills. Rec.

fiid. Mus., xxxviii, pp. 324-331 (1936).

* McClelland, J.—Indian Cyprinidae. As. Res., xix, pp. 332-340 (1839).

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST SOCIETY, Vole eG

which the dorsal and the ventral profiles are only slightly arched and

the body tapers towards both ends, but more so anteriorly. The

length of the caudal fin is almost equal to the length of the head

which is contained from 4.1 to 4.8 times in total length and from

3-1 to 3.8 times in the length without the caudal. Both these

structures are proportionately longer in the young individuals. The

depth of the body is also more or less equal to the length of the

head, being contained from 3.4 to 3.9 times in the length without

the caudal. The width of the head is contained from 1.5 to 1.8

times and its height from 1.3 to 1.5 times in its length. In young

specimens the eye is proportionately very large and is situated

almost in the middle of the length of the head. During growth,

however, it becomes confined more and more to the anterior half

Sip. Bie are ee

Text-fig. 1.—Lateral view of Barbus khudree Sykes. x2,

The diameter of the eye is contained from 2.7 (in

in the adult) times in the length of the head,

from 1.0 to'1.4 times in. the length of the snout and from Peay:

1.7 times in the interorbital distance. The eyes are not visible

from below and the interorbital space 1s almost flat. The lips are

fleshy; the lower lip is produced into a median lobe of ves

extent. The barbels are, as a rule, shorter than the diameter oe

the eye, but in_ half-grown and adult specimens the maxillary

barbels may sometimes be as long as the diameter of the eye.

The dorsal fin commences in advance of the ventrals and some-

what nearer to the tip of the snout than to the base of the caudal

fin; its last spine is very strong and bony. Tee a a

dorsal spine is proportionately greater in smaller individua Ss; it

“is contained from 1,3 to 1.8 times in the length of the head. The

dorsal fin is considerably shorter than the depth of the body below

it. The pectoral fin is shorter than the head and is separated from

the ventral by a considerable distance. The ventral fin is similar

to the pectoral and is provided with a scaly appendage at its

base. The anal opening is situated just in front of the anal fin.

The caudal peduncle is about one and a half times as long as

broad. The caudal fin is deeply forked with both the lobes

pointed,

of the head.

the young) to 4.7 (

The length of the

RUSH. OF. DEOLALT 27

Usually there are 25 scales along the lateral line, but in some

young specimens there are 26 or even 27. The number of predorsal

scales is 1o and there are 24 series of large scales between the

lateral line and the base of the ventral fin.

The general colour of the spirit specimens is grayish above and

silvery below. The scales along the dorsal half of the body are

provided with diffuse black markings in their basal portions. In

young specimens, up to 45 mm. in total length, there is usually

a black spot at the base of the caudal fin,

Text-fig. 2.—Ventral surface of head in two specimens of Barbus khudree Sykes,

showing variation in the extent of the median lobe of the lower lip. x14.

Remarks :—In general facies, in the form of the head and lips,

and in the nature of the dorsal spine, Barbus khudree is similar

to B. putitora; its body is, however, almost as deep as the length

of the head whereas in B. putitora the head is considerably longer

than the depth of the body. B. khudree also resembles B. proge-

neius, but the dorsal spine of the former is very strong and the

median lobe of the lower lip is fairly distinct, even in young

specimens. It may be noted that so far only a few specimens of

B. progeneius have been collected and it seems probable that when

more material becomes available Sykes’ species may prove to be

a mere local race of the Assamese progeneius.

B. khudree favours strong currents in rivers. and in such

situations it is fairly common in the headwaters of the Godavari

River,

28 JOURNAL, “BOMBA VUNAT OU RAD ETSI: SOC li iey mole

Measurements in millimetres

SC cokooHOoCoSCSCSCS:

| | |

Total length excluding cau- | |

dal ne ... | 362'0 |. 300°0 | 194-0 | 129.0) 85°0|- .74:0| 34-0

Dam- | |

Length of caudal 1°93" Otieaged 3) /56"0) | «34°04 23°0aee 21 Oe ealolin@)

Length of head ... sae | AO UN SIE Oe I53:0M) 345022330; ee One alle O)

Width of head ... fool} (OLSON e846 ice SON) 521200 aesaosl Saunt

Height of Head at occiput ....| 64°0| 52:5 | 37-0), 23-0) 16:0) 16:0 pres

Depth of body ... ven | 0020 17625 929170 1 B60" 52420 2 Teas

Width of body... .«: | 60:0) © 53°0)) (30-0: 20:0 | 313°5//5a2.511 a5:

Diameter of eye .. san ene Os SOR 40 O06) 1203) PTO ee

Length of snout ... wee eo" O's “260i. = 18-0al Od 850 1 ame 0) 4:

Interorbital distance ian’ 34°08) 29°70 a). 1820) | “a0 S03) 7-0.ae a:

Length of rostral barbel: ... | 15°0| 12°0 9°0 72) 40) 49401) 2:

Length of maxillary -barbel, | 20:07) 17:0 | 15-0)1.10 0). *5:0:) 5:07 2:

Length of dorsal fin ove £0705) SOO*Oet 243702) S3207) B2Sr0e lO: 0G au:

Length of dorsal spine vse | 90°01 45°02) °37°07) 25:0 |, 1720.) + 15: 088 a6:

Length of pectoral cacy LLVO aN 130 <1 0508) P2555) 70s aS Onl eos

Length of ventral 7a | g09*OupeSG: 0g)? (32°07 22°0) | 15201513: On peo

Length of caudal peduncle... | 615! 51:0 40-0| 25-0] 160, 140 6

Least height of caudal ped | | | |

uncle 42-0 | 36:0 | 23:0] 160] 11:0; 90, 4

| |

}

Barbus kolus Sykes.

(Plate 1)

41. Barbus kolus, Sykes, Trans, Zool: Soc. London, 11s p. 3357.) pl: ix,

i Jae

1868. Barbus kolus, Giinther, Cat. Fish Brit. Mus., vii, p. 136.

1878. Barbus kolus,. Day,. Fish. India, p. 7573, pl. cxli,, figiee.

Barbus kolus is a fairly well known South Indian species. From

an examination of a very large number of specimens of this species

in Mr. Fraser’s collection we found certain characters by which

the sexes can be readily distinguished. In the adult males patches

of well-developed horny tubercles @(-peatl “oreans \aane present on

the sides of the snout, on certain rays of the anal fin and in the

lower half of the caudal fin. In the case of females only a few

small tubercles are sometimes present on the sides of the snout.

In the males the body is proportionately less deep and the head

longer and more pointed; the dorsal fin is more concave and the

outer. rays of the anal fin are short so that the median rays form

a lobe in the middle of the fin. The secondary sexual differences

noted above can be made out clearly from a comparison of the

drawings of a male and a female specimens reproduced on plate I.

It may be noted that both Sykes and Giinther made a reference

to the tubercles on the head, but they were probably absent in

Day’s specimens, as he makes no mention of them in his descriptions.

Barbus ticto (Hamilton).

Among the large number of specimens of Barbus ticto collected

by Mr. Fraser two colour forms could be readily distinguished. In

one form the membranes between the rays of the dorsal and the anal

fins were intensely black, while in the other these membranes totally

lacked this colour. ‘On opening a number of specimens of each

PLATE I

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

B, Bagchi, del.

Barbus kolus Sykes.

oe sah ‘ oe

i BY sa) ae . 7

- - , 7 1 oe Daan -

: a ? : i an 2 i

e ' a A y i i -

> ran ; fi om

t ‘ 7 T a

¢ : cf i ee a

- - -

1 > ico _ 7

$ ,

a Aataast

- z

4 ~

, 4 é "

FIStE OF DEOLALI 29

kind it was observed that the coloured specimens were males and

the plain’ specimens were females. In the males a number of

AW MY

Text-fig. 3.—Lateral view of a male and a female specimen of Barbus ticto

(Ham.), showing the nature of the secondary sexual characters. X12 -

horny tubercles were present on the caudal fin, while a few of

these ‘pearl organs’ were also present on other fins. Both the

colouration and the horny tubercles thus seem to be the secondary

sexual characters of the male.

In the Deolali examples the lateral line extends over 10 to 12

scales.

Barbus fraseri sp. nov.

(Plate Ill, fig. 2),

Wrenn 3/5 * Peta) Vi 8; Ce tos aly ageac,

The new Carp-minnow, which we have great. pleasure in

associating with the name of Mr. A. G. L. Fraser, is of the Puntius

type. . Its dorsal and ventral profiles are slightly arched and the

body is gracefully stream-lined. The head is small and broadly

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

pointed; its length is contained about 5.4 times in the total length

and 4 times in the length without the

caudal. The width of the head is

contained 1.7 times and its height 1.5

times in its length. The eyes are

large and lateral; they are situated

much nearer the tip of the snout than

the posterior margin of the head; the

diameter of the eye is contained 3

times in the length of the head, 0.8

times in the length of the snout and

1.2 times in the interorbital distance.

The mouth.is small, lunate and sub-

anterior; it is bordered by fleshy lips

which are continuous at the angles of

the mouth. The labial groove is

widely interrupted in the middle.

There are two short maxillary barbels

which are less than half the diameter

of the eye. Sensory pores are arrang-

Text-fg. 4.—Ventral surface of ed in loops above and below the eyes;

head and) anterior part of they meet posteriorly and are continued

body of Barbus fraserit sp. , yy P oh EES. ee

nov. X4. into the lateral line which extends

over 8 to 10 scales.

The depth of the body is considerably greater than the length of

the head; it 1s contained from’4.3 to 4.4 times in the total length

and about 3.2 times in the length without the caudal. The caudal

peduncle is narrow; its least height being contained about 1.7 times

in its length. The body is covered with small, more or less

deciduous scales; there are 42 to 45 scales along the lateral line,

17 series of scales between the bases of the dorsal and ventral

fins, 16 round the caudal peduncle and 15 to 16 before the base of

the dorsal fin. There is a small scaly appendage at the base of

the ventral fin. The anal opening is situated on a prominence close

to the commencement of the anal fin.

The dorsal fin commences midway between the tip of the snout

and the base of the caudal fin, and almost opposite the commence-

ment of the ventrals; it 1s almost as long as the head and con-

siderably shorter than the depth of the body below it. The posterior

free border of the fin is slightly concave and its last undivided ray ts

osseous and serrated. The pectoral fin is shorter than the head and

is separated from the ventral by a considerable distance; it is about

four-fifths of the length of the head. The ventral fin is similar

to the pectoral and extends to the commencement of the anal fin.

The caudal fin is considerably longer than the head and is deeply

forked; both the lobes are sharply pointed.

The colour of the spirit specimens is pale-olivaceous; it is some-

what darker along the dorsal surface. Along the middle of the

body there is a silvery streak which becomes wider posteriorly.

There is a rounded black spot at the sides of the tail slightly in

front of the base of the caudal fin. A somewhat smaller black

spot is also present at the base of the anterior rays of the dorsal fin.

PLATE II

JouRN. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Crossochilus latius (Hamilton) and the allied forms.

B. Bagchi, del.

FISH OF DEOLALI 31

Locality :—Darna river, Deolali. Only seven specimens. of

Barbus fraseri were collected at three different points on the river.

Type-specimen :—F 12497/1, Zoological Survey of India, Indian

Museum, Calcutta.

Remarks :—Barbus fraseri can be distinguished readily by the

following combination of characters :—

(1) Presence of only two barbels.

(11) Presence of an osseous, serrated spine.

(11) Incomplete lateral line.

(iv) Small scales, about 42-45 along the lateral line.

(v) Colouration.

Judged by the above noted characters, our new species seems

closely allied to the members of the Malayan genus Hampala Bleeker,

but differs from it in the extent of the mouth opening, small

scales and incomplete lateral line. We are not aware of any other

species of the Puntius-type which bears any resemblance to the

form described above.

Measurements in millimetres.

Total length excluding caudal vee r 34:0

Length of caudal 3 ihe ... | Damaged

Length of head cs see — 8" &)

Width of head AY ae

Height of head at occiput

Length of snout sg |

Diameter of eye oe a apo

Interorbital width

Depth of body

Width of body

Length of caudal peduncle

Least height of caudal peduncle

Longest ray of dorsal

Longest ray of anal

Length of pectoral

Length of ventral

DHOnNNUNeBEDNOOMCS

4 os

—

SED DD STON IY DATE

DRAINS WMV AIHE

MOUNMNMAMNMRAWNNIOS

SUD ab OFS RO ce

MUOMMAHEAWUMOOBROS

Crossochilus latius (Hamilton).

(Plate IIT)

1934. Crossochilus latius (forma typica), Mukerji, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

SOG.) XXXVil, py 50.

In his detailed work on Crossochilus latius, Mukerji observed

three distinct types—the typical form from the Brahmaputra river

system, the Assamese and Burmese form and the Punjab form.

Later work on these fishes from the Eastern Doons, Naga Hills and

Kashmir has fully confirmed Mukerji’s conclusions. The Punjab

and the Burmese forms are now regarded as distinct species—C.

punjabensis Mukerji and C. burmanicus Hora respectively ; while the

typical form was observed to be limited to the Ganges and the

Brahmaputra systems in Northern India. The specimens collected

by Mr. Fraser in the Deolali waters are of a considerably smaller

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

size than those found in North India, but morphologically they

seem to represent the typical C. latius. In the Deccan specimens,

however, the eyes are relatively smaller, and in this respect they

agree with the Burmese examples. The different species into which

Crossochilus latius is now divided are figured on plate III.

Parapsilorhynchus prateri sp. -nov.

(Plate Tl figs. ata)

D, 2/83 A. 2/5 .iPonse No Oa woneleale eae

In Parapsilorhynchus prateri, a small Garra-like fish which we

have great pleasure in associating with the name of Mr. S. H.

Prater, the head and body are considerably depressed and _ the

ventral surface flattened; the dorsal surface is gently arched while

the ventral surface is horizontal. The head is broadly pointed

anteriorly ; it is proportionately longer in young individuals, its length

being contained from 4.4 to 5.3 times in the total length and from

3.5 to 4.2 times in the length without the caudal. The width of

the head is contained about 1.3 times and its height at occiput 1.6

times in its length. The eyes are fairly prominent and lateral in

position; they are visible both from above and below, and are

situated almost in the middle of the->leneth. of the head.) ihe

diameter of the eye is contained from 3.5 to 5 times in the length

of the head, from 1.3 to 1.9 times in the length of the snout and

from 1.6 to 2.5 times in the interorbital width; the eye is propor-

rvie<

ura tees,

eR ARES

GOA

\\ Vig.

HOON

UY : SNS

ISSSESDS

ASY

SESE

Las

aS an “AY LW, LY)

+ a = = A,

SWS Stat

iS S BY,

Bas CNA SKY

2 ore S/S

A >< ZZ Y

Z es = Ly Ly

Text-fig. 5.—Scales from below base of dorsal fin of Parapsilorhynchus Hora.

a. Parapsilorhynchus prateri sp. nov. ;

b. Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus (Annandale).

tionately larger in young individuals. The mouth is small, inferior

and horizontal. The upper lip is covered by a prominent rostral

fold which is fringed and covered with minute tubercles. The lower

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

B, Bagchi, del.

Fish of Deolali,

BiSHA OF DEOLALI 33

lip is also finely papillated. There is a groove round the corners

of the mouth which is continued anteriorly round the outer margin

of the rostral fold. There are two short and stumpy rostral barbels.

The head is provided with a series of sensory pores. Behind the

lower lip, which is slightly emarginate, there is a callous area of

the skin which presumably helps the fish in adhering to rocks and

stones in fast currents and is thus homologous with the post labial

disc of Garra.

The body is almost as broad as deep; its height is contained

from 6.9 to 7.6 times in the total length and from 5.3 to 6.0 times

in the length without the caudal. The caudal peduncle is almost

as long as or slightly longer than its least height. The scales are

small and firmly adherent; there are from 43 to 47 scales along the

fateral: line, 45 between the lateral line and the base of the ventral

fin, 16 round the caudal peduncle and 21-22 in front of the dorsal

fin. The scales are totally absent on the ventral surface between

the bases of the pectoral fins and only faintly marked in the area

up to the ventral fins.

The scales of P. prateri are of a remarkable type; their sculpture

consists of a network of radii, all originating from the base and

directed distally, and circuli, which enclose small rhomboidal areas.

In the allied species P. tentaculatus (Annandale) there is a well-

defined nucleus from which radii are given both towards the base

and to the outer margin. The circuli are not so well developed.

Text-fig. 6.—Pharyngeal bone and teeth of Parapsilorhynchus prateri, sp. nov.

X 30.

The alimentary canal is greatly convoluted showing that the fish

feeds mainly on algal matter which it scrapes off the rocks with the

help of its sharp-edged lower jaw. The pharyngeal teeth are

sickle-shaped and are distributed in two rows (4.4/4.4). The air-

bladder is of the normal Cyprinoid type, but is small and cylindrical.

The eggs are of a large size, about 2 mm. in diameter in a fish

about 50 mm. in total length.

The dorsal fin commences in advance of the ventrals and is

almost midway between the tip of the snout and the base of the

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

caudal fin; sometimes it is slightly nearer to the latter than to the

former; its longest ray is almost equal to the depth of the body

below it. The paired fins are horizontally placed and fan-shaped ;

the pectoral fins are almost as long as the head and are separated

from the ventrals by a considerable distance. The outer rays of

the pectoral fins are provided with adhesive pads on_ their

ventral surface. The ventrals are similar to the pectorals and

just extend to the anal opening, which is situated at a distance

of one diameter of the eye from the commencement sof the anal

fin. The anal fin is similar to the dorsal. The caudal fin is deeply

forked.

In spirit specimens the colouration is grayish above and pale-

olivaceous on the lower half. Along the lateral line there is a

broad longitudinal band of a somewhat deeper colour with a lighter

band above it. There is a black mark near the upper angle ‘of

the gill opening which is partly covered by the gill membrane. A

short, narrow, vertical bar is present at base of the caudal fin and

another, somewhat broader and more diffuse, in front of it.

There is a series of black markings about the middle of the

dorsal fin. In some specimens the body is covered with small

black spots.

Locality :—Several specimens of P. prateri were collected by

Mr. Fraser in the North Nallah and Narsullah Wadi.

Ly pe-specimen:-——-F 12498/1, Zoological Survey of India, Indian

Museum, Calcutta.

Remarks:—The genus Parupsilorhynchus was proposed' to

accommodate a species discovered by Annandale? from small streams

in the Poona District and though I described another species in

this genus at the same time, the two were afterwards*® found to

be synonymous. P. prateri differs from P. tentaculatus in having

smaller scales and in proportions. There are differences in the

scale-sculpture also (text-fig. 5).

In establishing Parapsilorhynchus as a distinct genus attention

was directed to the features by which it can be distinguished from

Psilorhynchus McClelland. The features common to both genera are

the structures associated with the mouth, such as the rostral fold,

grooves round the corners of the mouth, small mouth, sharp lower

jaw, etc. A close study of these genera indicates that Parapsi-

lorhynchus is less specialised and perhaps an ancestral form. To

these two genera must also be added Gyrinocheilus Vaillant of

Indo-China, Siam and the Malay Archipelago, in which the mouth

structures are of the same type.

The occurrence of Parapsilorhynchus at Pachmarhi in the Satpura

Hills (Hora, op. cit., 1925) shows that the Satpura Mountains may

have served at one time as a highway for the migration of the East

‘ Hora, S. L.—On a New Genus of Fish closely resembling Psilorhynchus,

McClelland. Rec. Ind. Mus, xxii, pp. 13-17 (1921).

~ Annandale, N.—The Fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay

Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus., xvi, p. 128 (1919).

* Hora, S. L.—On the Fishes of the genus Parapsilorhynchus Hora. Ree.

Ind. Mus. xxvii, p. 457 (1925).

FISH: OF DEOLALI 35

Himalayan forms to the Western Ghats and thence to the hills of

the Peninsula.’

Measurements in millimetres.

DN sss

Total length including caudal eh eOOU 50°0 49:0 49°0

Length of caudal ... ae 12°0 11? 11:0 al 8)

Length of head 11:0 10:0 10'9 10:0

Width of head as 8°0 v3 ae he

Height of head at occiput Oe: 6:0 6:0 6°0

Length of snout 4°0 3°8 3°8 3°8

Diameter of eye ... are Varner oes} 2°0 2°0 220

Interorbital width ... 5°2 5.0 30 5:0

Height of body 8°0 7°0 ipl Tom

Width of body i 7°9 Oe, 6:9 6:9

Length of caudal peduncle 6:1 5°0 5°0 5:0

Least height of caudal eee od 4°38. 4°5 5:0

Longest ray of dorsal 9°0 (es 7°3 728}

Longest ray of anal 8°5 o°9 6:0 59

Length of pectoral 11:0 9°8 9°6 9:9

Length of ventral... 9°2 is Tess 75

_ Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.).

1878. Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Day, Fish. India, p. 609, pl. clv, fig. 4.

In the case of the Deccan specimens of Lepidocephalichthys

guntea, Day noted that they possessed only about four rows of spots

on the caudal fin and often two rows on the anal fin. In the

specimens from the Deolali waters the colour is very variable and

there are usually several rows of spots on the caudal fin.

Some of the specimens were greatly compressed and attenuated,

and superficially seemed to represent a different species. <A careful

examination of the material showed that with the exception of

better marked scales in the thin individual no other differences

could be made out. From Mr. Fraser’s labels we found that the

thin specimens were those that had lived in an aquarium for a

long time. Presumably for want of sufficient food under unnatural

conditions they had become attenuated. The scales on the body

had become prominent owing to the reduction in the surface area

of the body.

Nemachilus botius (Ham.).

1878. Nemachilus botia, Day, Fish. India, p. 614, pl. clvi, fig. 5.

Day’s accounts and figures of Nemachilus botius, N. aureus, and

N. sinuatus show a very close relationship between these species ;

they are alike in their general facies but differ in the number of

rays in the dorsal fin and the relative extent of the lateral line.

1 Hora, S. L.—Distribution of Himalayan Fishes and its bearing on certain

Paleogeographical problems. Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxix, pp. 255-256 (1937).

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. KL

Mukerji’ gave a review of N. botius and directed attention to its

-great variability. We have also noted considerable variation in

the number of rays in the dorsal fin and in the extent of the lateral

line in the specimens from Deolali, but till good series of specimens

become available from different parts of India, Burma and Ceylon

it is difficult to discuss its races and varieties.

Nemachilus denisonii Day.

1878. Nemachilus Demsoniu, Day, fish. India, p. 617, pl. clit, aes:

The specimens of Nemachilus denisoniu collected by Mr. Fraser

from the Deolali waters are more slender than the examples from

the Nilgiris. The colouration of this species is very variable and

in the Deolali specimens the caudal fin, instead of being bilobate,

is distinctly and deeply forked.

As already noted by Day, we are also of the opinion that N.

notostigma Bleeker of Ceylon is probably a synonym of N. denisonii.

Glyptothorax annandalei Hora.

(Plates TIT, tiss-aiaga):

1923. Glyptothorax annandalei, Hora, Kec. Ind. Mus., xxv, p. 1a, ipl.'1, tiga

In Mr. Fraser’s collection there is a single specimen about

65 mm. in total length which we refer to Glyptothorax annandalet.

It was obtained from the Godavari river and was listed as G. lonah

in parts | and J]-of. the present Series ‘of (articles: /Recenply wwe

obtained some material from the Moola Mutha river near Poona,

the type-locality of most of Sykes’ species, and doubts arose as to

the precise specific limits of G. lonah. A more careful examination

of the Godavari example and its comparison with the type-series of

G. annandalei showed that it is presumably a juvenile form of the

latter. It possesses an adhesive apparatus on the ventral surface

of the pectoral spines, tuberculated body and a series of larger

tubercles along the lateral line. The illustrations of the specimen

on plate II show some of its salient features.

Glyptothorax annandalei was described from the Bhavani river

at the base of the Nilgiris. If our identification of the Godavari

example proves to be correct, the speciés will probably be found

to occur all along the Western Ghats.

Ambassis baculis (Hamilton).

1876. Ambassis baculis, Day. Mish. -india, wp. ast, pl xv, dig. 1.

Day gave the distribution of Ambassis baculis as: ‘Fresh waters

of Orissa, Bengal, and as far north as the Punjab: also in Burma.’

ee eee

* Mukerji, D. D.—Fishes of the Mali Hka River. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc., xxxvii, pp. 39-43 (1934):

FISH. OR; DEOLALI 37

The record of the species from Deolali is, therefore, of some interest.

Though in its deeper body A. baculis agrees with A. nama, in a

great many morphological features it is more closely allied to A.

ranga. A. baculis can be readily distinguished by its smaller scales

(about 80 along the lateral line), smaller eyes and the presence of

a shoulder spot.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

In the introduction to the first part of this series one of us

undertook to discuss the geographical relationships of the fish fauna

of Deolali, with special reference to its affinities with that of the

Deccan, but such a course will not be possible now as large

collections of freshwater fish have since been received from several

localities in the Deccan, and until these are worked out it will

not be possible to assess fully the geographical distribution

of various species. Particular mention may be made of another

collection made by Mr. A. G. L. Fraser at Poona which should enable

us to clear the taxonomy of some of the little-known species of

Sykes, who in 1841 described a large variety of fishes from Poona

and the adjoining areas.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Barbus kolus Sykes.

A mature male and a female specimen of Barbus kolus Sykes,

showing secondary sexual differences.

Males x 5/12; Female, x 4

Plave iT.

Crossochilus latius (Hamilton) and the allied forms.

Fig. 1.—Crossochilus burmanicus Hora from Lower Burma. x

Fig. 2.—Crossochilus latius (Ham.) from Manipur, Assam. x ?.

Fig. 3.—Crossochilus latius (Ham.) from Dehra Dun, U.P. x.

Fig. 4.—Crossochilus punjabensis Mukerji from Srinagar, Kash-

mater x2.

Fig. 5.—Crossochilus latius (Ham.) from Deolali. x 3.

Plate. Lit.

Fish of Deolali.

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of the type-specimen of Parapsilorhynchus

praterl, sp. nov. x22.

Fig. 1a.—Dorsal surface of head and anterior part of body of

same. x 34.

Fig. 1b.—Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of

same. x34.

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Fig. 2.—Lateral view of the type-specimen of Barbus frasert,

Sp. nov... x2 ¢:

Fig. 3.—Lateral view of a young specimens of Glyptothorax

annandalei Hora. xt i.

Fig. 3a.—Ventral surface of head and anterial part of body of

same. x1.

SOME BIRDS OF A COORG DOWN

F. N. BETTS, M.B.O.U.

(With 3. plates).

For ornithological purposes South India may be divided into

two definite areas, a Wet and a Dry Zone. The former includes the

range of the Western Ghats and a strip of varying width on

either side, while the latter comprises all the dry Central plateau,

the Eastern plains and part of the Western littoral. Each has

its typical avifauna, quite distinct but showing a_ remarkable

parallelism and giving an excellent demonstration of the effect of

climate on the differentiation of species.

The boundary line, here at any rate sharply defined, runs right

through Coorg, making this little province of peculiar interest to

the ornithologist.

The full force of the S.W. Monsoon strikes the Ghats, which

rise sheer from the Malabar plain to a height of 5,c00-6,000 feet. it

sheds much of its moisture on their western slopes but has the

strength to carry an ample supply of rain to the rolling plateau

which stretches for thirty or forty miles on the other side. It

is however finally defeated by the parallel range of low, jungle-clad

hills bounding the district on the East. Beyond these the Dry Zone

begins.

While on the whole the Dry Zone birds are Low-country and

the Wet Zone species Hill forms, rainfall seems to have a much

greater effect on distribution than altitude. From the foot of the

Ghats almost at sea-level, over the hills, and throughout Coorg

proper lying at an average elevation of 3,500 feet, the same species

are to be seen, but a mere ten miles through the eastern forest

belt and a very slight drop in height brings one into quite a

different country.

In the North of the province this strip of jungle is at its

narrowest and the chain of hills becomes broken. Here and there

patches of country of the Dry Zone type encroach through the

barrier and in such spots one finds a very interesting intermingling

of the two types of avifauna.

The stretch of downland which forms the subject of this study

is one of these. It consists of some three or four hundred acres

of grassland and scrub, forming not so much a hilltop as the

culmination of a gradual rise of land here reaching 32,750 feet.

On the East and South it is bounded by the forest, a growth of

mixed deciduous trees and giant bamboo, while on the West and

North are paddy fields, village gardens, and coffee plantations

under thick evergreen shade. The greater portion is open turf

kept short by constant grazing save for frequent tussocks of rushes

too tough even for the hungry cattle which roam there. A few

solitary wild fig-trees and Indian Laburnums (Cassia fistula) grow

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. xk

scattered here and there. All this part is used as a golf course

and the high road runs across it, so that, apart from the herd-

boys who are always wandering about, it is much frequented.

Round the borders and at one end extending over a considerable

area there is more cover, clumps of big trees and brakes of

Jantana, sandal and other scrub growth.

Leaving out of the reckoning most of the birds of prey, swifts

and other species, whose daily range is too great to be restricted

to such a small tract, an analysis of the representative bird popula-

tion gives some eighty-five species which occur or have appeared

with fair regularity during the last four years. Of ‘these the

majority are typical birds of the Coorg countryside and the Wet

Zone in general and.I do not propose to deal with them here in

detail, but sixteen may be classed as Dry Zone forms, eight of

them being regular and numerous visitors to the whole of Coorg

during the winter, while the remainder, though common enough

further east, are seldom seen over the boundary except in a few

places such as this.

A comparison of the two divisions shows that the Dry Zone

types are dominant. I have remarked on the constant parallelism

that occurs and, in almost every case, it will be found that the

Dry Zone species or sub-species is that .typical throughout the

greater part of India, while its opposite number is restricted to

the °S.W..of the Peninsula... Again. whereas it us: rare stomaund

any purely Wet Zone species outside its ecological bounds, one

of the conspicuous features of the bird life of the borderland is

the annual Westerly invasion of Dry Zone birds in the cold weather

and their retreat before the arrival of the rains.

While the long-distance winter migrants from the North all

arrive and depart within a few weeks of each other, there is no

such uniformity in this local movement, and it is evident that a

number of different factors affect the wanderings of the various

species. Some leave early to breed in the Dry Zone, others stay

up to breed and depart when the young are fledged, and one or

two only come up for the breeding season and are gone again

within a couple of months.

Although very attractive to -these visitors, the extent of the

down is too small and the monsoon conditions too severe to en-

courage permanent colonisation. So far as I have been able to

ascertain there is only one strictly Dry Zone species, the White-

browed Bulbul (Pycnonotus luteolus), that has established itself as

a permanent resident remaining throughout the year. It is a great.

place for bulbuls, for within a square mile can be found six of

the seven species inhabiting Coorg. As usual the Red-whiskered

Bulbul (Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata) is much the commonest

and abounds in the scrub jungle and cultivation and penetrates a

short distance into the forest. It is followed, in numbers, by the

Red-vented Bulbul (Molpastes cafer cafer). It is interesting to note

that although the former is decidedly the dominant species over

much of the moister parts of South India, it has not nearly such

a wide range as M. cafer and is unaccountably absent from Ceylon,

though it has reached the Andamans and Nicobars. In _ this

PLATE

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Strick! .) | on mest,

(

tevica

(7G

Tole

ed Bulbul [

ellow-brow

Hoopoe at nest.

SOME BIRDS OF A COORG DOWN 41

district at any rate the two species are found side by side all

over the country in more or less constant proportions though

O. jocosa is perhaps less numerous in the Dry Zone, and further

East, in Mysore, leaves M. cafer in sole possession of the field.

The latter bird however is nowhere to be found in such numbers

as the Red-whiskered Bulbul in its favourite haunts.

The Yellow-browed Bulbul (Jole icterica) is a forest species

but frequently wanders into the clumps of trees growing among

the scrub especially where these have an undergrowth of evergreen-

stubs: It is also to..be seen in the coffee plantations and a

coffee bush is a favourite nesting site.

The remaining three-are much more restricted in their habitat.

The Grey-headed Bulbul (Microtarsus poiocephalus), is a lover of

moist, dark forest preferably near water and is only found in

this rather dry country in the belts of evergreens growing in the

damp ravines of the few permanent brooks. The Ruby-throated

Bulbul (Pycnonotus gularis) likewise demands forest, but of a rather

lishter order and haunts the borders of these belts where they

mingle with the prevailing bamboo. The White-browed Bulbul,

on the other hand, is entirely confined to the scrubland with its

dense lantana brakes where it loves to lurk, for it is a secretive

bird and, until one learns to recognise its loud rattling call, one

does not realise how common it is. At least twenty pairs must

be resident in the neighbourhood and their numbers seem to be

increasing but there is no other colony within miles. They are

cut off from their natural biotope by the forest and, though the

more open cultivation in the other direction seems not unsuited to

their requirements, they do not occur there. This may perhaps be

explained by the fact that in this part of the world every mile

further West means an increase of several inches in the annual

rainfall. They do not appear to move about much. Each pair

has its own patch of thicket which they seldom leave, facing out

the heaviest bursts of the monsoon, though at such times they

are depressed and silent. They undoubtedly breed here but I have

not so far been able to find a nest, their retiring habits and the

impenetrable nature of their haunts making the search a difficult

one.

Another resident which, though not so particular as the White-

browed Bulbul and which is really a Dry Zone species, is the Southern

Grey-backed Shrike (Lanius schach caniceps). Three true shrikes

are on the list of Coorg birds, but of these the Bay-backed

Shrike (Lanius vittatus) is definitely a Plains bird and only just

crosses the eastern border. The Grey-backed Shrike, while much

“more numerous in the Dry Zone, is locally distributed in small

numbers all over Coorg where suitable country obtains, being parti-

cularly fond of the borders of paddy fields. Wherever found they are

strictly sedentary. Ever since I have known the down, two pairs

have occupied the same range of a few acres each. For a month

or two after they are fledged the young birds of the year hang

about but they are all driven off before the cold weather. Though

they have harsh voices when annoyed, the male sings very sweetly

in the breeding season. The song is low and by no means powerful,

A2 _ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL VAIST SOCGhKEIY, Vol ex

uttered in a meditative fashion as if half under the breath and

not at all what one would expect from such a bold, aggressive

bird. The singer is a remarkable mimic introducing all sorts of

other bird and animal noises in a most realistic manner.

By contrast the third ‘species; the Brown. Shrike) (Hanus

cristatus cristatus) is a great wanderer breeding in Siberia and

visiting us during the cold weather. It is one of the earliest of

the long-distance migrants to arrive and quite the last to depart.

Most of these visitors are young birds. They are common on the

down between October and April and, unlike their resident

relatives, are by no means confined to open country but are to

be seen just as frequently inside the coffee estates and the edges

of the forest. They may sing in their breeding quarters but while

with us they chiefly make their presence known by their loud, ill-

tempered scoldings.

The allied families of the Wood Shrikes, Cuckoo Shrikes,

Minivets and Drongos are all represented among the birds of the

down but the residents are Wet Zone types. The Malabar Wood

Shrike (Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola), is common in the coffee

plantations and among the big trees round the borders, whereas

the Common Wood Shrike (7. pondicerianus pondicerianus) which

entirely. replaces it in the Dry Zone sdoes notsoceur.1 Ihe tsame

applies to the Orange Minivet (Pericrocotus -flammeus) and

the Rosy Minivet (P. roseus roseus), while the Little Minivet (P.

peregrinus peregrinus) is equally at home in either biotope, pro-

vided it is fairly well-wooded. The little black and white Pied

Shrike (Hemipus picatus picatus), more a Minivet than a Shrike

in habits, is also not uncommon but does not appear to extend

further East.

The Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike (Lalage sykesit) is a migrant,

arriving in October and departing before the breeding season.

They are regular frequenters of the down during the cold weather

but I have never seen one there after the middle of April though

I have found the nest only ten miles away just beyond the forest

belt. The Wet Zone representative of this subfamily, the Large

Grey Cuckoo Shrike (Graucalus javensis macet) is hardly. a

resident of the down as it 1s a great wanderer but it turns up at

all times of. the year even in the middle of the monsoon. It is

perhaps hardly fair to class it as a Wet Zone bird as it occurs

in the Dry Zone also. It is really a forest species whose range

extends for some way on either side.

The Drongos form a most interesting group. Their character-

istic habits make them the most conspicuous of birds and though

generally so similar in their ways, the difference in the distribution

of the various species is most marked. The two resident forms of

the Wet Zone are the Bronzed Drongo (Chaptia aenea malayensis),

and the magnificent Racket-tailed Drongo (Dissemurus paradiseus

malabaricus). These are both woodland birds and are common in

the coffee bounding the down and frequently wander into the big

trees in the scrub. The corresponding resident in the Coorg Dry

Zone is the White-bellied Drongo (Dicrurus coerulescens coeru-

lescens), which has occurred on the down on one or two occasions

SOME BIRDS OF A COORG DOWN 43

in the hot weather as a straggler. It is definitely a bird of rather

dry country and low elevations and it is strange that its Ceylon

sub-species (D. coerulescens leucopygialis) is resident and numer-

ous in the upcountry tea districts at 5,000-6,000 feet where there

is an annual rainfall of anything up to 200 inches. The Black

Drongo (D. macrocercus peninsularis) and the Grey Drongo (D.

longicaudatus) are probably, with the exception of the Indian Bee-

eater, the commonest of our local winter migrants and from

October to March are to be seen everywhere. The down with its

open spaces and grazing cattle particularly suits their requirements

and the telegraph wires running along the main road are a

favourite perch. One of the most familiar spectacles of cold

weather evenings are King Crows hawking flies from the tree-

tops long after all the other diurnal birds have gone to roost. Each

has its special perch on the highest point it can find to which it

returns again and again after each sally.

« There have been sundry notes in the Journal on the breeding

association of King Crows and Orioles. While the two species do

not seem to have much in common in the off season, it is noteworthy

that the Indian Oriole (Oriolus oriolus Rundoo) arrives in Coorg

at just about the same time as the Black Drongo. Both species

have much the same range in the winter months, leave at the

same time and are absent even from the neighbouring portions

of the Dry Zone during the monsoon. From the results of the

Eastern Ghats survey it seems almost certain that the Orioles

migrate to Northern India to breed, but where our King Crows go

" remains to be discovered. The Drongos appear to be rather

given to allying themselves with other birds. In the case of the

Racket-tailed Drongo one notices a constant association with the

Tree-Pie (Dendrocitta vagabunda). This does not however ex-

tend to the breeding season, the Drongo wisely disapproving of

having that arrant egg-thief as a near neighbour; but at all other

times of the year the two are to be found in company and if one

fem seen the other is sure to be close at hand. What the tie

may be is difficult to see unless it is a common hatred of hawks,

owls and all birds of prey, for whom they are always on the

lookout, and band together to mob and drive away.

Even more numerous in the cold weather than the King Crow

is the little Indian Bee-eater (Merops orientalis orientalis). They

swarm everywhere except in the forest and are _ particularly

numerous on the down. With their bright plumage, pleasant

voices, and wonderful mastery of the air, there are few more

charming birds. It is a never-failing joy to watch them hunting,

darting out from a prominent bough after a passing bee or butterfly,

swooping and looping with the utmost grace and agility, almost

invariably returning triumphant to their perch to hammer the

victim into subjection. They are sociable and affectionate little

creatures and vast numbers will roost in company in a favourite

clump of trees. As the sun sets the flocks come in from all

directions and the last minutes of daylight are spent dust bathing

on a sandy road or with much excited twittering performing aerial

manceuvres in massed formation above the tree-tops. They are

Ad JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUR ALVAIST. AS OCLET VY) aV ol, er

intolerant of cold and on a chilly December morning one may

often see a row of green fluffy little balls huddling as tight as

they can pack along a bough, loath to stir until the sun has

well warmed the world. While the great majority leave at the

end of March, one or two pairs stay to breed in Coorg. They

have never done so on the down, but I know of at least two spots

where solitary pairs have nested for some years in succession.

These are apparently just cases of individual idiosyncrasy but may

possibly be the forerunners of a more general colonisation as there

seems no reason why they should not breed here in large numbers.

Even the few that do stay to raise a* family leave before the

monsoon, and apparently the old birds migrate to some distance

as practically all those that one sees in the neighbouring Dry Zone

in June and July are juveniles lacking the lengthened, wire-lke

central tail feathers.

One other species of bee-eater, the Chestnut-headed (Merops

leschenaulti leschenaulti), is to be seen on the down fairly fre-

quently but their movements: are irregular and: puzzline., (ihey

breed in small colonies along the banks of the larger rivers all

through Coorg and for the rest of the year seem to wander

casually in small flocks, lingering in one spot for a few days and

then passing on. They may turn up at any time even during the

height of a monsoon burst and the weather seems to have little

elect on jthem.

Most of the birds hitherto mentioned occur all over Coorg during

the cold weather, but the remainder of the Dry~ Zone visitors te

the down will seldom be seen elsewhere outside their native

territory.

Certain birds have become almost parasitic on Mankind, and

as the wilderness is opened up and developed extend into regions

where they have hitherto been unable to penetrate. The House

Crow is a typical example, although it is perhaps out of place to

bring it into this paper as it does not occur within the limits

under consideration. It is by nature a bird of the plains but has

gained a precarious footing in Coorg, a few pairs inhabiting three

of the only four towns of any size of which the province can

boast. Even here, they are far outnumbered by the Jungle Crows

and appear to exist very much upon sufferance never venturing

beyond the built-up areas. The status of the Common Mynah

(Acridotheres tristis tristis) 1s rather similar, “but st 7has “sor fan

only reached the confines of the Wet Zone and J have not come

across it anywhere except on the down. Unlike the Crows however,

they seem in perfect amity with their near relatives the Jungle

Mynahs (Aethiopsar fuscus mahrattensis), which are the prevailing

species. Nearly always during the winter one can pick out one

or two common mynahs among the small parties of jungle mynahs

that attend the grazing cattle or spend their evenings chattering

on one of the lone trees scattered about the down, and both join

with the little Grey-headed Mynahs in the big, cold weather

roosting assemblies. Although our birds linger on into the hot

weather and pair off when the Jungle Mynahs start breeding, I

do not think they nest with us and they are certainly absent in

SOME BIRDS OF A COORG DOWN 45

the monsoon. The Common Mynah is slightly larger and heavier

than its cousin and would presumably be the winner if it came

to blows, so that one can only presume that their scarcity is a

question of climate. It is really rather strange that they should

be found at all as they are very much birds of open cultivation

and the few that do occur must have followed the carts up the

Ghat road running through the wide stretch of uninhabited country

cutting them off from their normal habitat. Even in the Dry Zone

they leave the jungles to the Jungle Mynah and the Brahminy

Mynah (lemenuchus pagodarum). One would rather have expected

to see the latter bird which swarms just over the border and is

very partial to the type of light jungle found on the down but

to my knowledge they never penetrate through the forest belt.

Another bird which finds it furthest limit on the down is the

Coppersmith (Xantholaema haemacephala indica). The Malabar

Coppersmith (X. rubricapilla malabarica) with its relation the Small

Green Barbet (Thereiceryx viridis) must be the commonest birds

over a great portion of Coorg, their only possible rival being the

Red-whiskered Bulbul. They are especially numerous in the coffee

estates where wild fig trees grown as shade afford limitless .

food supplies and nesting sites, and their monotonous calls are

the most characteristic bird sounds of the countryside. They

abound in the plantations and the trees round the edge of the

down but do not extend far into the forest on the East. Here

they encounter the true Coppersmith which can be recognised at

a distance by the duller green of its plumage and close at hand

by the yellow which replaces much of the crimson markings on

face and throat. This is the species found in the Dry Zone. It

occurs in small numbers through the forest wherever there is

a fair stand of trees among the bamboos, while except during

the monsoon one or two are usually to be seen on the down. The

two species do not intermix and the visitors have a furtive and

subdued air as though they realised that they were in unfriendly

country. They carefully avoid the strongholds of their rivals and

confine themselves to the scattered trees out in the middle of the

grassland or to those on its immediate edge. They are usually

solitary and I have never heard them calling and do not think

that it is likely that they breed here. Probably like so many

frugivorous birds they wander a great deal according to the supply

of their favourite food

This is certainly the case with the Southern Green Pigeon

(Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster) which, though common in

the Dry Zone, is only a very rare visitor to the down in years

when there is a particularly good crop of wild figs. The Pompadour

Green Pigeon is much more numerous and almost any fig tree in

fruit is sure to be attended by them, but except at these feeding

places they are rarely seen and I have yet to discover their breeding

haunts. All the Green Pigons of course are adept at concealing

themselves. There may be fifty in a tree but until one takes

wing, their presence will often be quite unsuspected.

The two remaining, non-breeding Dry Zane visitors which have

occurred on the down are the Indian Roller (Coracias benghalensis

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST ASOCTELY. Volx exe

indica), and the Green-billed Malkoha (Rhopodytes viridirostris).

Both appear ‘to be mere strays. In Some) years none are y seen

but usually one or two turn up at any time between January and

April and may linger about for several weeks or be gone in a

day or two: There 1s no.missine «the presence of the :rollers) tor

they keep to the open and choose the most conspicuous perches,

their favourites being the telegraph wires or the solitary Indian

Laburnum trees which are leafless at that time of the year and,

when they swoop down to catch the grasshoppers on which they

largely feed, the beautiful blue of their wings is visible at a great

distance. The Malkoha, on the other hand, is a skulker and is

to be looked for among the scrub. It is decidedly shy and if

aware that it 1s being watched disappears into the heart of the

nearest thick tree. It clambers actively among the branches,

rarely coming to the ground and is a poor flier seldom going any

distance on the wing. At long range it looks not unlike a small

male koel but the white tips to the graduated tail feathers are a

good distinguishing mark. It is an extremely silent bird and I

have never heard one utter a sound.

I have found four species which must definitely be classed as

migrants breeding on or round the down. The Hoopoe is with us

for the greater part of the year arriving in September and only

leaving at the onset of the rains. Its favourite haunt is parkland

where large trees grow plentifully but widely spaced on short

sward. The latter is essential as they are entirely ground feeders,

and dense undergrowth or even long grass is of no use to them.

One or two pairs breed regularly in the neighbourhood, finding the

down with its expanses of turf and big trees full of nesting holes

much to their taste. They start early, usually at the beginning

of February, well before the Mynahs are thinking of domestic

‘affairs. Perhaps this is intentional as by the beginning of April,

the latter have annexed every suitable hole and would think nothing

of evicting their less sturdy neighbours. It always comes as a

painful surprise that such a dainty and elegant bird as the Hoopoe

should be so insanitary in its domestic arrangements. One has

only to put one’s nose near one of their nesting holes to identify

the owner. Perhaps for this reason, in the case of the one or

two pairs with which I have been intimately acquainted, the same

site has never been occupied two years running, though they were

undisturbed and the holes were vacant. They are devoted parents

aud, though I have been unable to discover whether the male takes

his turn at incubation, he is indefatigable in feeding his mate

while she is on the nest, and when the young hatch both are

hard at work all day long. They seem to give themselves a lot

of unnecessary labour. I watched one for the best part of an

hour one morning in which time he made half a dozen trips to

the same spot a good quarter of a mile away uphill. Grasshoppers

and ants appeared to be his quarry and on examination of the

ground they seemed to be no more numerous where he was

searching than in an exactly similar locality within a hundred yards

of the nest. I have several times had the luck to witness their

courtship. The female in each case was the more ardent wooer.

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc, PVA E oh

Yellow-wattled Lapwing [ Lobipluvia malabarica (Rodd.) ].

@ Photos by author.

Indian Stone Curlew [ Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori) ].

SOME BIRDS OF A COORG DOWN 47

She flies up to her mate often with an offering of food, cuddles

up to him with low croaks and fully expanded crest, then crouches

with quivering wings inviting an embrace. Apparently coition

goes on much longer than one would expect, for on one occasion

I saw the hen fly out from a nest containing eggs at least ten

days incubated and successfully solicit her mate who had arrived

with food. This particular male used to roost in the crook of

a low tree just outside my garden some hundreds of yards from

the nest. He would appear every day just after sundown and

nestle into the cup formed by the two main branches where his

dusty feet soon left a permanent mark.

The Indian Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus indicus) appears

every hot weather. During the first few months of the year they

may often be heard calling overhead at night but I have only once

found them breeding here. This was in the scrubland bordering

on the golf course. The two eggs lay in a slight scrape among

the dead leaves under a small isolated thorn tree which gave little

shade. As might be expected with such a crepuscular species, the

bird when sitting found the heat and glare very trying, spending

most of the time panting with open beak and _ half-closed eyes.

There were plenty of spots in the neighbourhood apparently just

as suitable and well-shaded in the heat of the day and I cannot

imagine why one of these was not chosen. The male kept close

to his mate while she was on the nest and both birds were

extremely wary, slipping off into the jungle on the least alarm.

They did not prove difficult photographic subjects however. There

was a convenient clump of bushes close at hand in which the hide

was concealed and as soon as the helper was gone, the hen

returned, announcing her arrival by a short croak, the only sound

J ever heard them utter near the nest. I knew the cock was

close by, but unfortunately he would never come into the picture.

Last year there was a most unexpected visitation in the shape

of a pair of Yellow-wattled Lapwings (Lobipluvia malabarica), the

only members of this species that I have seen in Coorg or indeed

within twenty miles of its boundaries. They arrived in

February and by the end of the month had a nest with two eggs

right out in the open on the edge of one of the fairways. This

for some reason was deserted, possibly because the spot was

undermined by white ants, and the birds disappeared for over a

fortnight. They returned however and four more eggs were laid

on a scanty saucer of small bits of dried cowdung and the brood

successfully reared. It was rather surprising that they were able

to do this as the spot is much frequented, cover nil, and the birds

themselves not small, though the greenish brown of the upper

plumage blended so admirably with the burnt-up turf that the

hen while sitting was invisible at any distance. I was most

anxious to get some photographs but in such a populous situation

it was impossible to make any elaborate hide without attracting

unwelcome attention. The best I could do was to leave a pile of

leafy boughs near the nest late one evening and come back at

dawn next day to construct a rough tent of sacking under the

heap. I was pleased to see the bird make off at our approach

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

and with all speed I got into hiding and sent off my helper. Both

birds soon came into view. One, which I took to be the cock, ran

up to the nest, seized a piece of cowdung lying beside it and

went off. Shortly after his mate returned and settled down. Until

the sun was well up she was restless but as soon as it got hot

she sat closely though she evidently felt the heat as she panted

distressfully. To me one of the most puzzling problems of nature

is how these ground-nesting birds in the Tropics can survive, sitting

all day in the blazing sun-shine often on sand or shingle literally

burning to the touch, where the eggs if left uncovered become

baked in a few minutes. It was interesting to note her reactions

to possible enemies. A human being would send her flying straight

off the eggs to a safe distance where, if unnoticed, she would stand

until the. coast was clear., If however she thought eshe@avas

watched, both she and her mate would fly right away out of sight

as if they had been. disturbed. from’ a casual feeding oround:

Grazing cattle she cared little for, only moving and that reluct-

antly if she appeared in danger of being trampled. When a hawk

or crow passed overhead she crouched flat, head and neck laid

along the ground.

As soon as the young were hatched both parents became highly

demonstrative, flapping wildly round any intruder on their domain,

calling angrily. The chicks were full-grown by the end of May

and the whole family thereupon departed and were seen no more

until the following January when a solitary bird turned up in the

same place. Within a week its mate had arrived and a nest was

made almost on the site of the previous one. I was much

surprised to find that the eggs were entirely unlike the previous

ones, being an erythristic type with a pinkish ground colour.

Presumably the original hen must have met with disaster and the

cock had taken a new wife. In view of Stewart Baker’s notes

on this species in the Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire,

it seems likely that she must have come from the laterite belt

on the West Coast perhaps seventy miles away as a bird flies,

where apparently this coloured egg is the rule.. Here they were

decidedly conspicuous on the brown grass and were soon robbed.

On this occasion no second attempt was made and the down has

since been deserted.

The last of our Dry Zone visitors, the Koel makes the shortest

stay of any. They seldom stray far over the boundary and the

down about marks their limit. Although I have not had con-

clusive proof that they breed here there is strong presumptive

evidence. They arrive towards the end of March when the Crows

are starting nesting operations, and for a few weeks make them-

selves very conspicuous. They are extremely noisy and _ there

appears to be much competition among the males which pre-

dominate in numbers for possession of a mate. They always

seem in a desperate hurry and dash from tree to tree as though

the devil himself was after them. The Crows have no love for

them and chase them whenever they encounter them. By the end

of April they disappear, their hosts having hatched off their

families, and opportunities of cuckolding no longer remaining.

RN. BOMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE. III

Nesting ground of Stone Curlew.

Photos by author.

The golf course—nesting ground of the Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

SOME NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES AND BIG GAME

IN KASHMIR.

Cot. W. M. Locan Home.

(With two plates).

Although I first started butterfly collecting in Kashmir in 1go9,

I realised, on the eve of my retirement in 1934, that there were

still many fairly common Kashmir species which I had not yet

added to my collection.

The principal cause of this had been the lack of available

information regarding definite localities for the less common

species. With, perhaps, the exception of Bingham’s, most works

on Lepidoptera give only large districts for the various species ;

Sucieas: Kashmir to Kamaon’; Chitral to Ladakh, etc.

Such information is not definite enough for a collector who has

only a month or two of leave; and the following notes are written

in the hope that they may be of some benefit to fellow collectors

who have been similarly handicapped.

It is not claimed that the lists of butterflies are complete; they

simply give those actually seen by the writer.

Having secured 8$ months’ leave pending retirement, I set

about making preparations for a combined butterfly collecting, and

big game shooting expedition, in Kashmir in 1934. I arrived at

Rawalpindi in March; and motored up to Srinagar in_ perfect

weather. .

En route it was interesting to note, at this early date, Papilio

polyctor and machaon in fresh condition at about 2,800 feet, between

Kohala and Domel, and further up, Pieris daplidice moorei and

Colias croceus edusina, flying over the short grass at the road side

between Baramulla and Srinagar.

On arrival at Srinagar I spent some days making the usual

arrangements for Kashmir travel, and during this time I also

investigated the foothills round the Dhall Lake.

There was a great hatch out of Colias c. edusina here, and a

few Colias hyale, Pieris d. moorei, Papilio machaon, Lycaena phloeas,

Strymon sassanides were also noticed. The only uncommon species

I took was a single Euchloe ausonia daphalis, on a low ridge to

the east of the Nishat Bagh.

I left Srinagar at the beginning of April, and spent a few days

in the Sind Valley trying to bag’a Serow, without success. Butter-

flies I saw there, were Argynnis lathonia issoea, Vanessa canace

himalaya, V. cashmirensis and a few Pieris rapae and Polyom-

matus eros. Before leaving Srinagar I had registered my name-

at the Game Office for Moji nullah, one of the best districts for

Markhor; but at that time two other sportsmen had their names

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

down for. it before mine. About the middle of April I left the

Serow ground and moved down to Sopor. Here I learnt that the

two sportsmen already referred to had relinquished their claim,

and accordingly I marched to the Kajnag and crossed into Moji

from the Jhelum Valley.

On the way up the nullah Papilio polyctor were plentiful, besides

P, machaon, Pararge schakra etc., and I found Everes diporides

alongside the track at 3,o00 feet, and secured a nice series.

At the top of the pass into Moji, at about 9,000 ft, a few

Parnassius hardwickei and Pieris callidice kallora were flying about,

with the usual Argynnis lathonia and Vanessa cashmurensis.

The next two months were spent in the strenuous business of

trying to bag a good Markhor. In this I was unsuccessful, and

I was greatly disappointed at the scarcity of Markhor in this nullah.

Poachers were all over the place when J first entered the nullah,

shots being fired nearly every day; and the third day I was there

I sighted through my glasses 2 men with slung rifles moving

across a snowy ridge on the S.W. side of the nullah. The Game

Watcher was not to be found, and in fact never put in an appearance

till the day I was leaving, when all he did was to ask me the

number of my license; truly adding insult to injury !

ak significant point is that I saw no young kids of the year

with any of the few does I saw, and it might not be out of place

here to wonder whether any members of the Society have been

shooting in the Kajnag since that year (1934), and if so whether

they can give any information on the position of Markhor there?

In the butterfly line I was unlucky too, I missed the only

Vanessa urticae rizana I saw. Other species seen in Moji were :—

Papilio machaon asiatica C. April-June, 8-10,000 ft.

Papilio arcturus arius R. June, 7,000 ft.

Parnassius hardwickei R. a few seen on 15th

only in May, 8,000 ft.

Pieris callidice kallora| RK. a few seen on April isth at 9,000.

Pieris napi ajaka V.C. May-June, 7,000.

Pieris canidia indica V.C. May-June, 7,000.

Pieris brassice C. May-June, 7,000.

Pieris rape N.R. May-June, 7,000.

Belenois mesentina RK. 2 only seen, 11,000 ft.

Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis V.C. May-June, 6-7,000 ft.

Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka C. May-June 8-9,000 ft.

Colias croceus edusina V.C. May-June, 8,-9,000 ft.

Pararge schakra N.R. May-June, 6-8,000 ft.

Aulocera padma padma R. 1 only at 8,000 ft., May-June.

Neptis s. sankara_ RK. One only at 8,000 ft., May-June.

Vanessa cardui V.C. 6-9,000 ft., May-June.

Vanessa egea kashmira C. (Spring form) 7-8,000 ft., May-June.

Vanessa urtice rizana R. 1 only at 9,000, May-June.

Vanessa c. caShmirensis V.C. 6-9,000 ft., May-June.

Vanessa xanthomela fervescens C. 8-g,o00 ft., May-June.

Argynnis childreni sakontala C. 8-9,000 ft., May-June.

Argynnis kamala C. 8-9,000 ft., May-June.

Argynnis lathonia issoea V.C. 8-9,000 ft. May-June.

Argynnis jerdoni jerdoni N.R. Very local, large number noticed flying about

on small grass slope at about 10,000 ft. on 25th May.

Melitea arcesia balbita R. 1 only at 8,000 in May.

Libythea I. lepita N.R. 6,000, May-June.

Polyommatus eros N.R. 7,000, May-June.

April at 9,000 ft. afterwards one

‘vsiyquo ‘gq ‘avjauvl sora *q {(

uduasal uosrda snyommodjog ‘yxy vjsoy sawd “Pp xy vyzwna

‘J snisiu snydoda *q ‘xy ‘layjunaaiu vipjod SluUuIsAp SpoyIsns vYvMS VAVIOINP iD snisu

sniydjap “qd S$ sniuoyavya snissvusvg—: q_ poeyuney snydoda "dq ‘yy wjzuomanbsvl snisspuang-—: Aq poeyuney

JYSIl oy} uO syOOy “ATAL “1a OOS‘FI ‘VI VdLvS aH] sodojs do01§ ‘UAHA NALAMAS ‘HVTIAN TVSIG ‘AGNQOUD xg]

I ALV Id °D0S ‘LSI “LVN AVAWOY, ‘Nunof

SOME NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES AND BIG GAME IN KASHMIR 51

Lycena phloeas indica V.C. 7-8,000 ft., May-June.

Heliophorus bakeri N.R. glades in pinewoods 7-8,o00 ft.

Heliophorus androcles coruscans Kk. 2 only seen, 7-8,o00 ft.

Rapala micans selira N.R. May-June at 7,000 ft.

Hesperia alpina C. May-June at 7,000 ft.

Carcharodus althee dravira RK. 2 only, 8,000, May.

- Baoris discreta himalaya R. 1 only, 8,000 ft., May.

The Argynnis and Vanessa were very fond of both primulas

and viburnum. Early in June I gave up all hope of getting a

good Markhor; the jungle .was very thick and [ only kept on

seeing the same animals; so I struck camp and marched back to

Srinagar.

I already had my name down for an Ovis Ammon block in

S.E. Ladakh, and after laying in a stock of fresh supplies, I set

out once more to the Sind Valley.

There were very few butterflies to be seen until I had crossed the

Zojit La, but on the north side of the Pass Pieris callidice kallora

were plentiful and near Dras I secured some Colias hyale var: erate

and a good series of Polyommatus vicrama cashmirensis. Neither

of these had I seen before.

Near Kharbu I noticed a solitary Polyommatus omphisa sitting

on some wet sand on the path, and I secured some Pararge menava

menava. The march from Kharbu to Kargil is a hot one in the

summer, though the scenery is very fine, the track winding through

rugged mountains, with here and there a distant snow peak; while

alongside the track are numerous rose bushes in full bloom. I

was glad enough however, to reach the comparative coolness of

Kargil’s green fields and apricot groves.

Near Kargil I met a sportsman who had been in the district

of Ladakh for which I was bound, and he told me he had seen

only small male ammon and herds of does there. This was

disconcerting news, and after discussing matters with my Shikari,

I decided to alter my plans and make for the glacier country at

the top of the Shigar Valley in Baltistan. This district was well

known to my Shikari; he had been with several sportsmen who

had secured good Ibex there, and I considered that there was also

a chance of my coming across some uncommon butterflies.

Accordingly after a halt in Kargil, I retraced my steps, and

‘finally arrived at the Satpura nullah, south of Skardu, early in

July. Near the village of Kirkitchoo I caught a single specimen

of the rare Polyommatus devanica devanica. The top of this

nullah holds a variety of butterflies, and I spent some interesting

days there.

No less than 5 species of Parnassius occur in the Satpura, 4

of them flying together on the same ground at 13,000 ft. In this

connection an interesting point is that Parnassius hardwickei is

replaced on the same ground at a later date by Parnassius epaphus

nirius.

My first visit to the Satpa La was on 18th July and hardwickei

were abundant then, but I only saw 1 P. e. nirius.

When I crossed the Pass on 12th September P. e. nirius were

Swarming, but not a hardwickei was to be seen.

52 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

It would appear that hardwickei passes the winter in the pupa

stage, and hatches out soon after the snow has left its haunts;

whereas nirius passes the winter in the egg stage, the larva hatches

out in the early summer and pupates, the imago appearing in the

autumn. I saw a fair number of P. delphius micevillei, but only 3

jacquemonti and 1 chaltonius. The latter were flying about

among precipitous rocks much higher up than the other 4 Parnas-

sius, at about 15,000 ft. and I had no time to go after them.

About the 12th August 2 Q charltonius were observed to be

laying their eggs on the large pieces of slaty rock which were

strewn about the base of a cliff, round which they were continu-

ously flying. .

List of butterflies met with round Skardu.

ParnaSsius jacquemonti K. 13,000 ft., July-September. )

Parnassius epaphus nirius C. 13,000 ft., August-September. | eres ous ;

Parnassius delphius nicevillei R. 13,000 ft., July. ote atput

Parnassius hardwickei C. July. | ullah

Parnassius Charltonius RK. 13-15,000 ft., July-August. J

Pieris brassice C. 7,700 ft., July-September, Skardu.

Pieris rape C. 7,700 ft., July-September, Skardu.

Pieris callidice kallora C. 13,000 ft., July, Satpura.

_ Colias hyale ©. 7,7000 ft., July, Skardu.

Colias croceus edusina C. 7.700 ft., July, Skardu.

Aporia leucodice soracta RK. 10,000 ft., July, Satpura.

Pararge menava NR. 7, 7ooedt., «July; eskacdu:

Maniola lupinus kashmirensis N.R. 7,000 ft., July, Skardu.

Maniola pulchella N.R. 11,000 ft., September, Satpura.

Karanasa h. hubneri KR. 12-13,00 ft., September, Satpura.

Argynnis adippe jainadeva RR. 11,000 ft., July, Satpura.

Eumenis parisatis parsis C. 7,700 ft., July, Skardu.

Everes argiades Indica N.R. 7,700 ft., July, Skardu.

Polyommatus vicrama cashmirensis N.R..7,700 ft., July, Skardu.

Polyommatus christophi samudra N.R. 7,700 ft., July, Skardu.

Polyommatus astrarche N.R. 7,700 ft., July, Skardu.

Polyommatus orbitulus Ix, 14,000 ft., -oeptember, Satpura.

Polyommatus eros janete N.R. July, 7,700 ft., Skardu.

Hesperia alpina) N.R. 11-12,000 ft., July-September, Satpura.

Owing to a sudden rise of the Indus, I was delayed 4 days in

my start for the Shigar Valley, as the ferrymen reported the

crossing to be unsafe. By the time they considered the water had

fallen sufficiently, a large number of would-be passengers had

collected, including cows’ and ponies, all of which were safely

ferried over. A hot march of 16 miles brings one to Shigar, and _

thence another 60 odd miles to Arundu. Between Shigar and

Arundu I saw the following :

~ Colias c. edusina V.C.

Colias hyale V.C.

Eumenis parisatis parsis C.

Pararge menava N.R. in rocky ground.

Aulocera swaha swaha Rk. near Chetrun.

Vanessa xanthomela fervescens N.R. round Arundu.

Vanessa cardui R.A. few near Arundu.

Strymon sassanides N.R. above Chetrun.

Polyommatus eros C.

Polyommatus christophi samudra N.R.

3 miles below Arundu I caught a few of the rare Polyommatus

astovica flying among a small aromatic shrub.

eee

Journ. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

In the Chogolungma, August. Meadow in foreground haunted by :—

Colias eogene francesca, Karanasa hubneri, Polyommatus eros janetae,

P. omphisa, P. orbitulus, Lycaena kasyapa, Hesperia alpina and rocks in

background by :—Parnassius delphius chitralica.

In the Kerolungma, August. Grassy slopes haunted by :—Colias e.

francesca, Evebia mani, R. Manisla_ pulchella, M. d. brevistigma, R.

Polvommatus omphisa, P. eros janetae, P. epiron jermyni, R.

SCGME NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES AND BIG GAME IN KASHMIR 33

On 29th July I pitched my base camp in a pleasant willow

grove above Arundu village, with a view to the south and east

of range on range of snow-capped mountains.

A couple of hundred yards away was the snout of the Chogo-

lungma Glacier, a black wall of ice, from the base of which gushed

out the dirty snow-fed waters of the river; and I spent some time

next morning examining this, as our route was to lead over the

Glacier near this point.

My Shikari having secured a guide and 8 coolies, we set forth

on 31st July with a couple of light tents, and food for ro days.

A rough track, made by al bred Vaks, led over the Glacier,

and we followed this for 2 miles before reaching the left bank.

The villagers drive their Yaks. onto the: Glacier when the snow

has melted sufficiently and the beasts find their way across and

up into the flowery meadows beyond.

Camp was pitched about 2 o’clock among some willow bushes,

and very soon after a snow storm came on, and blotted out the

landscape for the rest of the day.

The next day the Shikari went off very early to look for Ibex,

while I spent a profitable morning after butterflies on a grassy_

hillside near camp. I was very pleased at securing a fine series of

the uncommon Lycaena thetis aditya which I found flying around

a pink flowering Saxifrage, probably the larva’s foodplant.

Other species new to me which I got were:—

ArgynnisS adippe pallida grass slopes high above glacier, over 13000!

Argynnis aglaia vitatha ‘3 3 =

Argynnis pales Sipora - “a

Aulocera swaha gilgitica edge of glacier, 10000!- 12000!

Colias eogene francesca = grass slopes high above glacier, over 13000/

Lycenopsis ladonides gigas iy - 4 im

Polyommatus epiron jermyni i ? . ;

Polyommatus sarta

Meanwhile the Shikari had located a big herd of Ibex with,

he thought, 2 or 3 good heads among them, on the far side of

the Glacier. Next day, therefore, we recrossed near camp I, with

3 days’ food; this crossing was a much more tedious business

than the first day; the Glacier was heavily crevassed, a fact which

frequently entailed long detours, and it was not till late afternoon

that we had reached a suitable spot for a bivouac among the

boulders and seracs.

The right bank proved to be equally productive in butterflies,

and in the next week I caught several species new to me, and

also shot a 42-inch Ibex, and a brown bear.

We then recrossed to the left bank and moving several miles

up, sighted late one evening a small herd of 8 male Ibex, 3 of

which appeared to carry better heads than we had yet seen, and

after an exhausting stalk of over 16 hours, I got one of these,

measuring 46. inches.

Ditrine the stalk ot this Ibex, I secured a couple of the rare

Parnassius delphius chitralica at about T 5,000 ft:

On 20th August a severe snowstorm set in, lasting for 3 days,

and the weather was considerably colder for some time after, but

in spite of this one or two new species began to appear.

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

During the last week of August I explored the Kerolungma

Valley and here I came across the scarce Eumenis heydenreicht

shandura at about 11,000 ft., and secured several in good condition.

From the Kero Glacier my small party of myself, Shikari, tiffin cooly

and two local coolies, moved via the left bank to Bisal, and high

up a small ravine off the main nullah, I found Parnassius charltonius

in considerable numbers, but they were all very worn, and the

only good specimen I got was a P. jacquemonti; this place would

well repay a visit in early August.

At the beginning of September I commenced my return march,

crossing to the right bank near Doku by the twig suspension

bridge, and reaching Chetrun in the evening; the natural hot

springs are a feature of this place, and are well built round with

stone huts. Here I made ‘the discovery that the lid of; aslarce

tin of mulberry jam, which my cook had made at Skardu, had

worked off and its sticky contents were thoroughly mixed up in

my only clean change of clothing. The tiffin cooly spent most of

the night at the hot spring with the contents of that Yakdan !

I reached Shigar on 8th, crossine the river on ay Zak aia

inflated goat skin raft, this performance necessitated 5 trips to get

the servants and baggage across.

Near Nihali village Eumenis mnisgechit droshica were in con-

siderable numbers round some tall thistles near the river, but

these butterflies were rather worn, and had evidently been on the

wing for some time.

I found a small hut, which does duty for a post office at Shigar,

ankle deep in letters, from which I eventually extracted, with the

help of the postmaster, 80 letters and 30 newspapers of mine,

nearly all the rest belonging to the International Himalayan

Expedition, which had its camp up a valley to the east of the

country I had been in.

Other butterflies seen up the Chogo and Kero Glaciers were :-—

Papilio machaon asiatica (larva only, on fennel).

Pararge menava meroides R. edge of glacier.

Maniola pulchella C.

Maniola davendra brevistigma KR. edge of glacier.

Karanasa hubneri hubneri N.R. at 14,000 ft.

EFrebia mani R. edge of glacier.

Argynnis j. jerdoni R.

Polyommatus orbitulus astorica. R. high up, 14-16,000 ft.

Polyommatus eros janete C.

Polyommatus omphisa C.

Polyommatus m. metallica

Lycena philoeas flavens N.R.

Lycena philoeas indicus C.

Lycena kasyapai C.

Hesperia a. alpina C.

On the 11th September I crossed the Satpa La, collecting

several Polyommatus orbitulus in good condition on the south side

of the Pass; Parnassius e. nirius were abundant here and I saw one

P. jacquemonti but failed to secure it.

The next two davs were spent marching across the Deosai

Plateau and it may be of interest to mention that there were very

few butterflies to be seen on the Plateau itself, although grass

SOME NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES AND BIG GAME IN KASHMIR 55

and wild flowers are to be seen everywhere; all I saw in the 35

odd miles between Ali Malik Sar and the Sar Sangri La above

Borzil were a few Pieris callidice kallora, 1 Maniola pulchella and

Pee. orbitulus.

Between Borzil and Gurais I saw the following :—

Colias stoliczkana, in good condition.

Colias c. edusina, in good condition.

Colias p. pyale, in good condition.

Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis, worn.

Maniola cenonympha, worn.

Karanasa hubneri, worn.

Aulocera swaha garuna, worn.

Argynnis adippe jainadeva, in good condition.

Vanessa C. canace, in good condition.

Polyommatus eros, in good condition.

Polyommatus astrarche, in good condition.

While I was after Barasingh in the Pulwar above Bandipur, I

noticed

Aulocera swaha garuna

Vanessa egea kashmira

Vanessa c. cashmirensis

Colias c. edusina

in good condition as late as 15th October at a height of 9-11,000.

It will be seen from the foregoing that a useful line for a 2-

months trip in July and August would be, starting from Bandipur ;

Gurais-Borzil-Deosai (via the Satpa La) -Skardu-Arundu-Chogo-

lungma and_ back.

I secured 34 species new to me from 18th July to the toth

September between Borzil and the Chogolungma.

ON THE BIONOMICS OF A BAGWORM (KOPHENE

CUPREA M.) ON BANANA

Kk. BRAHMACHARI, M.A., Madras Agricultural Department.

(With a plate and 6 text-figures).

INTRODUCTION.

The name Bagworm is generally applied to the caterpillars of

the family of moths called Psycuip&, because of the characteristic

habit of carrying bags or cases with them. There is a pronounced

sexual dimorphism among them in that the males are normal and

winged, while the females are vermiform, legless, wingless and

devoid of mouth parts and antennae. The female after laying its

eges inside its chrysalis creeps out of its bag, drops down and dies.

since very early times, the. Psychids “were the. subject of most

interesting observations by entomologists and a good deal of

literature has accumulated round this group. The insects were

known ‘in Europe about the first half sof (the 17th. century.) Im

India, on the contrary, little attention has been paid to them; not

because of their scarcity, but because they have not been found

to occur frequently as serious pests of any cultivated crops; nor

do they cause any appreciable injury when they occasionally appear

in numbers. Apart from the scanty references to the Psychids

which occur as pests occasionally sporadic on the tea plant in

Assam and Ceylon, no detailed life-history of any Psychid has

ever been worked out. Dr. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar bred two

Psychids Chaliodes vitrea H., and Pteroma plagiophleps H. which

recently occurred in the form of pests on tamarind at Coimbatore.

This paper deals with the bionomics of Kophene cuprea M.

LOCALITY AND HABITAT.

The writer remembers having seen this insect on banana in

the South Canara district a few years ago; but it was definitely

noted at Saidapet in the vicinity of Madras in March last (1937)

causing appreciable damage to banana (Musa paradisiaca).

NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE ON BANANA.

The caterpillars remain on the lower surface of the plantain

leaf and feed from it. The very young larvae simply scrape the

epidermis. As they get older, they eat the leaf in small bits, thus

causing .a number of small or big irregular perforations ail over

the surface of the leaf, a caterpillar hanging close to each of the

perforations. The number of perforations on a single leaf depends

upon the number of caterpillars, which may vary from 10 to 150,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Oo \ ee ee oy =

NEN ae

Suk \

“ A \

\\ |

M.) on banana leaf.

Bagworm (Kophene cuprea,

Caterpillars on banana leaf.

b. Caterpillar.

ON THE BIONOMICS OF A BAGWORM ON BANANA 57

It a badly attacked leaf there is very little of the green tissue;

consequently the plant suffers from want of nourishment. The

leaves, one by one, droop down and dry up. The caterpillars

which are at first confined to the lower leaves migrate to the

fresher ones at the top; these in turn droop and dry, and the

plant finally dies. As the leaves of the adjoining plants are long

and touch each other, the migration of the caterpillars from one

plant to another is easy. In a very short time, therefore, a number

of plants become affected. In a garden of about 50 plants more

than half were severely attacked by the pest and consequently died.

LiFE HISTORY AND HAaBITs.

The female moth lays from two hundred to three hundred eggs

which hatch out in a week. The caterpillars immediately begin to

spin their own cases, move about snail-like, feeding and growing,

moulting nine times before they are completely mature. The

mature larvae pupate within their own cases and the adults emerge

after 7 or 8 days. The period of larval activity is the longest,

lasting nearly 24 months. The duration of the whole life cycle

from oviposition’ to the emergence of adults is about 3 months.

The length of life of the adults, male and female, after emeraence

varies from. 2 to 4 days.

The male (Fig. 1) is a small moth with a small head and

fairly large eyes. The antennae are bipectinated to the tips, the

branches diminishing in length from

the middle. The thorax is covered

with brown and the abdomen with

black hairs. The forewing has the

same colouration as the thorax while

phe. hind wing is fuscous like the

abdomen. The fore tibia is provided

with a long spine. The length of the

eeult trom head to the tip of the

abdomen is 0.8 cm. and the wing

expanse from tip to tip measures

ie) CI:

gig)

yfyf

The female (Fig. 2) is a bag-like degenerate creature with a

minute head and a large abdomen full

of eggs. In the head, the eyes and the

mouth parts are rudimentary while the

antennae. are entirely absent. The

anterior and posterior pairs of wings

are represented on the dorsal side of

the thorax by two pairs of brownish

scale-like spots. The three pairs of ambulatory legs are almost

absent. On each of the abdominal segments from the rst to the

vyth, rows of very fine hairs are found. The tufts of hairs on

the 8th and oth are more strongly developed than those of the

other segments. Chapman (1) found the same feature in the female

of Acanthopsyche opacella H. Sch. The general colouration of the

adult female is dirty-white-and the external cuticle is so thin that

the eggs contained within the abdomen can be easily seen through.

58 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY (NATURAL HES Ty SOCUETY.2 Vol axe

The female measure 08 cm.x‘*3 cm. The female: genitalia are

prominently developed.

SEXUAL UNION.

As soon as the males: emerge they unite with the females which

are enclosed in their bags. Though copulation has not actually

been observed in this particular species, it is believed the process

must be same as in other Psychids. This has been described by

Hevlaerts (2) in his monograph on the PsycHip#. When a male

finds a case in which a mature female is: enclosed,: it fixes. itself

near the narrow region of the bag, then it elongates its rather

protrusible abdomen, introduces it by the side of the head of the

female, and finally bending the tip of the abdomen thrusts its

penis into the vaginal cavity. The copulation is completed within

a few minutes. As the males are fewer than the females, a single

male has to fertilise several females.

OVIPOSITION.

A few words may be added with regard to oviposition. Between

the pupal sac and the maggot-like female there exists a space in

which eggs are laid after fertilisation. Before the female makes

its final exit it sheds its hairy covering found on the abdominal

segments 1 to 7 to which reference has already been made. If

one were to examine a female pupal case after the adult has left

it, one would find at the bottom, lumps of soft powdery matter

easily mistaken for some fungus. On removing this however,

one sees beneath a number of eggs undergoing development.

In all probability, this powdery substance is a protective covering

for the developing embryos. <A part of their post-embryonic life

appears to be spent embedded in this substance. Evidently, the

female moves up and down and rubs against the inner walls of

her pupal case in order to shed the hairy covering.

lhe egg.—The eggs are fairly large for the size of the female,

slightly ovoid in shape, shining

white in colour. Each egg is 0.5

mm. long and 0.3 mm. - broad}

Usually the eggs are laid inside

the female chrysalis as mentioned

3, before and the hatchlings creep

out of it and migrate to various

parts of the. hosts plant. 73 Bie

sometimes the vermiform female pushes itself out of its own

case and then through the narrow region of its bag and hang's

with only its terminal abdominal region outside. In such cases the

egos fall into the soil below or are not laid at all. This’ isthe

behaviour exhibited by a female which has not been fertilised by

a male. After the eggs have been normally laid the female

escapes through the narrow region of the case as_ previously

mentioned, falls to the ground and dies. The eggs hatch in about

7 days.

Larva.—The larva when just hatched is about 1.5 mm., pale

brownish in colour with a large head and the post-cephalic region

Eggs (Figs. 3, 3A).

ON THE BIONOMICS OF A BAGWORM ON BANANA 59

gradually tapering towards the anus. In the thorax, the prothoracic

segment ts the largest, while the meso- and metathorax are of equal

«ay PPB,

The Larva (Figs. 4, 4A).

size. ‘There are ten distinct abdominal segments which, as well as

the throax, bear six rows of fine hairs rising from warts. Of the

five pairs of pro-legs borne on segments 3 to 6 and 10, the last pair

alone is strongly developed and the first four pairs are short. The

three pairs of thoracic legs are pretty long and well developed

so that, once the young larva comes in contact with the host plant,

it walks only on its thoracic legs with the tapering tip of the

abdomen slightly raised, thus foreshadowing the condition of the

adult caterpillar within its bag. Within 2 to 6 hours after hatching

the larva begins to construct the bag wherein it is to pass a

large part of its life. As the larva grows, the case grows

correspondingly in depth and width. After the 9th moult, the larva

is fully grown. The full-grown larva (Fig. 4A) does not. differ

from the newly hatched one except in size. When stretched it

measures 1.5 cm. in length; it has a fairly big head and a gradually

tapering abdomen. The head and the thorax, which are often

protruded for purposes of locomotion, are grey in colour with

patches of brown; while the abdomen is of a darker hue. The

larval period extends over 24 months.

METHOD OF BAG MAKING.

The most characteristic habit is that of bag making. Different

genera of Psychids utilise different materials for the construction

of their bags. Some like (Clania crameri) popularly called Faggot

worms, utilise thorns of Acacia arabica, dried twigs of Casuarina

or leaves of grasses (Mahasena graminivora); others like (Amatissa

consorta) use the leaves on which they feed, a few again use feathers,

thoracic plates of Chrysidids or beetles. Again, the size, shape and

the mode of attachment to the host plant differ as well. In the

Psychid under consideration, the case is fairly smooth and conical,

ashy grey in colour and made up of cut pieces of plantain leaves

stuck up on its outer surface. It was already mentioned that the

young larva begins to form its own bag 2 to 6 hours after emergence

from the egg. The larva cuts small bits of leaves with its mandibles

which automatically adhere to the frothy mass exuding from its

silk glands. When the exudation hardens, the bag is formed with

leafy bits glued on to it. Then another flow of exudation runs

round the rim of the bag already formed and a few more bits

are added. Thus the bag grows day by day. At first, the bits

of leaves appear greenish but later on, when dry, they turn

ashy grey in colour, In the beginning, the case is pyramidal in

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY, Vol.=2XeL

shape and remains so for: over a month. After this period, the

growth is rapid and the bag assumes the shape of a truncated

cone. The bag (vide plate) carried by a fully mature larva

measures 1.8 cm. in depth and 0.8 cm. at its base. From the inner

rim of the base of the cone there extends a diaphragm with a circular

hole in the centre through which the inmate pops in and out. When

the larva moves about or when it has retreated inside the bag,

the diaphragm cannot be made out. In the resting position, how-

ever, it is drawn out so that the bag appears biconical.

If the bag is cut open on one side from the top to the bottom

and the -larva.remoyed, it gets into the. case again and) im

a short time begins to repair it as before. Though the line of

restitching is visible externally, the internal silken lining is as

perfect as before. When more than one bag is offered, the larva

is not able to recognise its own case but gets into whichever 1s

nearer.

A few words may also be added on the mode of attachment of

the larva within its own bag. The last pair of abdominal legs of

the larva has well developed crotchets arranged almost circularly.

This and the other four pairs which are similarly supplied with

circular crotchets grip the inner sides of the case and help carrying

the bag from one place to another.

If the larva is removed out of its bag it curls round bringing

the tapering tip of the abdomen near its head, thus hindering its

progression in a straight line. Difficulty of locomotion is further

accentuated by the fact that the thoracic legs are longer than the

false legs whose crotchets are helpless in the gripping of the smooth

surface.

The fully grown caterpillar pupates within its own bag, the

moulted skin of the final instar being attached to the cremaster

hooks of the pupa. When the caterpillar is

about to pupate, the head which was at the

broad end of the conical case is withdrawn,

the tail end which was near the narrow region

is bent and pushed forward so as to le near

the broad end. By the muscular contrac-

tions of the abdomen, the head is pushed more

and more towards the narrow end while the

tail is brought towards the broad end. The

pupation of the larva takes place in this altered

position and the moth comes out through the

narrow end. When the pupa wriggles out it draws along with it

the last moulted skin already referred to so that in each empty

case, there will be attached to the narrow \region of the bag the

last moulted skin and the pupal case through which the adult has

emerged. The male pupa is 1 cm. long and normal like any other

lepidopterous pupa, with wing pads, antennae, legs, etc. In general

form it is supposed to resemble a Bombycid chrysalis from which

it can, however, be distinguished by the position of two recurved

hooks (Fig. 5A) found at the tip of the abdomen. The colours

the pupa is yellowish brown. The adult moth emerges in about

8 days.

Male Pupa

(Figs. 5, 5A).

ON THE BIONOMICS OF A BAGWORM ON BANANA 61

The change in the position of the mature larva before pupation

already described above in the case of the male pupa also holds

good in this case. But the female pupa

differs remarkably from the male. Wing

pads, antennae and legs are entirely

absent while the eye spots are rudiment-

ary. The head and the following three

segments are slightly curved at the base

and pressed together while the abdominal

segments beginning from the first are

large and bear impressions and excresc-

ences. Some excrescences at the base of ‘=>

the three thoracic segments may indicate ni 6

iieepresence of the feet of. the larva. A

Ihe stigmata are visible as also the Female Pupa (Figs. 6, 6A).

genital opening on the 8th segment

which is probably the combined onal and oviductal openings in

the adult, a very primitive condition in the Lepidoptera. The

terminal abdominal segment near the anus bears a number of

protuberances. (Fig. 6A.) The general shape of the female pupa

differs very much from that of the male and in fact from that of

any other Lepidoptera. From the head downwards the segments

get progressively bigger as far as the 7th segment and thereafter

gradually taper to a blunt point. The colour of the pupa is as

in the male yellowish brown and the adult female emerges from

its pupal case on the 7th day. .

PARASITES.

No egg parasite was noted. But the larva, though much

guarded by the outer bag, is subject to the attack of a small Tachinid

of which two or three may be found in a single bag. The percentage

of parasitism was very small varying between two to five. The

Ichneumonids generally have a partiality for the Psychids. From

Clania crameri, the author has bred the Cryptid Goryphus nursei

Cam. An unidentified Bombylid fly has been noted as parasite on

another Psychid.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

In conclusion the writer acknowledges his indebtedness to Dr.

T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar for his many suggestions and _ helpful

criticisms during the course of this study and the preparation of

the paper and for getting the insect identified.

List OF PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED.

1. Chapman.—‘Note on the habits and structure of Acanthopsyche opacella

itech, L£..S. Lond., pp. 403-410. (1900).

2. Heylaerts.—‘Essai d’une monographie des Psychides’. Ann. Soc. Ent.

Bele 25, pp. 20-73 (1881).

3. Imms, A. D.—A General Text-Book of Entomology (1930).

.4. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V.—‘List of injurious insects affecting crops in

South India’. Madras Departmental Bulletin No. 27 (1932).

5. Watt & Mann.—The Pests and Blights of the Tea Plant (1903).

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE FRESHWATER GRE ve

MULLET, 2~.MUGIL CORSULA HAMIERON: aver

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE MODE

OF ORIGIN OF AERIAL VISION IN -FISHES:

SUNDER “LAL HORA, 2p/Sc., .FURYSSE., FileS., 2oZ0S.5 FoR. Aus Beer Noles

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With a coloured plate and 3 text-figures),

(Read at the Silver Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Congress Association

at Calcutta, and published with permission of the Director, Zoological

Survey of India).

Grey-Mullets of the genus Mugil Artedi are mostly shore fishes,

of which about two dozen species are known from the seas of

India. Several- ot them. enter the» mouths’ of “larse rivers tom

breeding purposes, but a few, such as Mugil corsula Hamilton,

M. cascasia Hamilton and M. hamiltoni Day, mostly or entirely

reside in fresh waters. Of these, M. corsula’ has the remarkable

habit of swimming with its eyes above the surface of the water;

it attains a foot-and-a-half or more in length and usually moves

in small shoals. As aerial vision is unusual among fishes, the

biology of the species was studied with a view to elucidate the

probable mode of evolution of this habit. Observations detailed

below were made at the Calcutta Corporation Water Works at

Pulta where in the settling tanks this fish is found in great

abundance at all times of the year. Normally, however, it is a

fluviatile species.

Hamilton,' who described this species in 1822, remarked:

“The Corsula (Khorsula) is found in most rivers of the Gangetic provinces,’

and, in the southern parts of Bengal, has been introduced into some ponds. It

grows to a foot in length, and swims with the nose and eyes above water,

probably in search of insects. Although, no doubt, of a very different genus, it

would seem to have much of the appearance and manners of Cobitis anableps

(Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl., p. 148, Pl. Ixi, Fig. 240). It is very well tasted?

and, by the Europeans, is much sought after for their tables.’

Day (Fish. India, p. 354, 1876) extended the range of the species to Burma

agd gave the following vernacular names :—Kakunda, Ooriah; Hurd-wahre,

Punj.; Corsula and In-ge-lee, Beng., Undala, Hind.; Nga-cen, Burma.

— = =

1 Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes. found in the river and its

branches. \ Pp: 221, 338, pl. 1x, ng .67, (Edinbursiys 1822).

* Day in his account of ‘The Fish and Fisheries of Bengal’ (Hunter’s

Statistical Account of Bengal, xx, London: 1877) published Hamilton’s notes

on the fish and fisheries of the various districts of Bengal. From these notes

it is clear that Hamilton obtained specimens of M. corsula from the districts

of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Purniah, Bhagalpur, Patna and Gorakhpur. He noted

the following vernacular names for the species:

Dinajpur—Ghobol; Rangpur (Goalpara)—Muji and Ingli; Dacca—Khold ;

Calcutta—Khorsald; = Purniah (Nathpur)—Hundard; Purniah (Bholdhat)—

Murdil; Bhagalpur—Andewdri; Patna—Angruyari ; Gorakhpur—Bhaga.

~- - a ate I AC

THE FRESHWATER GREY MULLET.

Mugil corsula (Hamilton).

In the Settling Tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water-Works at Pulta.

BIOLOGY OF:A MULUBT :"ARRIAL VISION IN’ FISHES 63

I made observations on the locomotion, aerial vision, respira-

tion, feeding and breeding of the species. Notes on these subjects

are given below separately.

Locomotion: When the fish js swimming at the surface, the

eyes, a portion of the head and the anterior part of the body are

entirely out of water; the rest of the body is obliquely inclined

to the surface of the water. As the fish progresses, ripples of the

displaced water are formed at the sides of the head. During

locomotion the pectoral fins are constantly in action, and the

pelvics are held out fully stretched. The tail fin moves gently from

Text-fig. 1.—Sketches showing mode of life of Mugil corsula Hamilton in the

settling tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water-works at Pulta.

Diagrammatic.

a. A group of fishes in their natural posture at time of swimming; Db.

A group of fishes swimming away in a hurry on approach of a

person; c. Skipping and jumping posture; d. A fish keeping in sight

the Caddis-flies hovering over water.

side to side. Thus the fish moves through the water very gracefully

(text-fig. 1a) and occasionally ducks its head below the surface,

presumably to keep the eyes moist. On the approach of an

individual the fish dives under water with great agility but does

not stay there long and comes up to the surface at a_ short

distance from its original position. On certain occasions the fish

was observed to swim away rapidly and in this action the whole

of the anterior part of the head was projected out of the water

(text-fig. rb), presumably to decrease resistance. Sometimes,

when suddenly alarmed, it skips along the surface by using its

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HUST. (SOCIETY. Voln vate

muscular tail and tail fin for giving a push to the water (text-fig.

ic). The skipping is done only over a very short distance ames

which the fish dives and clears away under cover of water.

When the water is drained away from the pucca settling tanks

for cleaning them, it was observed that the fish jumps out of the

receding water (the narrow channels at the bottom by which the

water is finally drained off) and wanders over the muddy bottom,

presumably in search of larger pieces of water. The fish could

thus wander over the mud for 15 to 20 feet, but it usually halted

of s. nee Le Sify

Text-fig. 2.—Sketch of Mugil corsula Hamilton wandering over mud flats in

search of larger pieces of water. Diagrammatic. Sketches of tracks were

made from a_ photograph.

for a few seconds in the course of a long journey.. Dunng

progression through mud the posterior part of the body is

whipped about vigorously and a fairly deep zig-zag track is left

behind (text-fig. 2).

It was further observed that in a current the fish has the

habit of swimming against it.

Vision: Hamilton in describing Mugil corsula correctly remarked

that his species had much of the appearance and manners of

Anableps (Gronow) Scopoli, the so-called ‘Four-eyed Fish’ of

Tropical America. ‘The four-eyed fish has only two eyes but each

has become divided into an upper and lower section by ingrowth

of- the iris. The lower pupil is shaded from the glare of the

surface film by a double screen which, like horse ‘blinkers’,

prevents the water-eyes from looking anywhere but in one direction,

BIOLOGY OF “A MULEET: AERIAL VISION IN FISHES 65

namely downward, where the fish’s enemies prowl about’.’ Mugul

corsula, however, has no such bi-focal arrangement for a double

vision. Its eyes are wholly out of water and are no doubt

adapted mostly for an aerial vision. From a distance they shine

like two white silvery balls, probably on account of the reflected

light. When looked at from close quarters in an aquarium the

pupil is black and the iris has a shade of orange yellow. ‘The

eye-balls can be moved in all directions, especially antero-posteriorly.

Even when the fish is under water the eye-balls are moved in

various directions, showing thereby that the fish is probably

capable of seeing to a limited extent under water also.

In its protruding eyes, mobility of the eye-balls and perfect

aerial vision, M. corsula agrees with the goggle-eyed fishes of the

genera Periophthalmus Bloch & Schneider and Periophthalmodon

Bleeker.

Respiration: Respiration is mostly aquatic, as the fish keeps

its mouth under water even when a considerable part of the head

and eyes are out of it. Thus for respiratory purposes the

fish normally makes use of the better oxygenated water at the

surface. When, however, the water of an aquarium becomes foul,

the fish takes gulps of air at irregular intervals, passes them over

the gills and out at the gill-openings. As with most of the tropical

fishes, the gills of M. corsula probably subserve both for aquatic

and aerial respiration.

It has been remarked above that the fish, when the water is

drained away from its habitat, jumps out of the water and wriggles

about on mud in search of a more congenial habitat. In such

wanderings, which do not last more than a minute or two, the

fish probably resorts to aerial respiration. To test the capacity of

-M. corsula for aerial respiration, a specimen was left in a dish

and its surface was kept moist by occasionally sprinkling a little

water over it. The experiment was started about 7 p.m. After

Io minutes, the fish was breathing air at the rate of 80 respiratory

movements per minute and after about every 15 movements it

took a sort of a deep breath. After-about 20 minutes, the rate of

respiration was the same, but a couple of minutes afterwards the

animal became restless and when placed in water revived fully

within a very short period. The experiment was repeated with other

specimens with more or less similar results. It would thus appear

that the fish, though not fully adapted for aerial respiration, is

capable of living out of water for a short time.

The popular belief that M. corsula burrows in soft mud, when

the waters dry up altogether in its habitat, is not borne out by

my observations. It was found that if fishes moving on soft mud

failed to reach a piece of water they lay at the surface and were

usually found dead after a short time. They made no attempt to

burrow, in spite of the fact that kites swooped over them from

time to time and carried some of them away.

Feeding: The mouth (text-fig. 3) is angular with the upper

* Noble, G. K.—The Four-Eyed Fish. Journ. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xxxvi,

PP- 34, 36 (1935).

5 |

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

jaw longer; it is overhung by the snout. There is a single row

of fine teeth in either jaw. The lower jaw is provided with a

Text-fig. 3.—Head and anterior part of body of Mugil corsula Hamilton. x14.

prominent symphysial knob in the middle and corresponding to it

in the upper jaw there is a deep pit to receive it. These structures

are similar to those found among Carps of the subfamily Abra-

midinae. The alimentary canal is considerably convoluted.

As a rule the adults living in the settling tanks of the Calcutta

Corporation Water Works at Pulta feed on copious quantities of

filamentous algae and one can notice them browsing near the shores

in the evenings and mornings. In this process the incisor-like

structure on the lower jaw probably helps in uprooting algae from

the shores. When feeding, it appears from a distance as if the

fish is resting near the edge of the water with a part of its head .

out of the water. The stomach contents of several adult specimens

contained nothing but algae and a few insects and young molluscs

entangled among the plants.

During May-June, when swarms of Caddis-flies (Trichoptera)

are out in the evenings and hover about near the surface of the

water, the fish keeps the insects in sight and usually moves about

with them (text-fig. 31d). It was, however, never observed to

jump out of the water to catch them, but as soon as an insect

touched the water M. corsula was observed to raise its head and

devour it with a jerk of the head. If, however, it missed to

catch the insect at the first attempt, the insect usually started

moving with great speed on the surface of the water and was

chased by the fish. The fish was usually successful in its attempt.

On such occasions, when there are swarms of insects, M. corsula

feeds voraciously on insects, as within a period of 10 minutes a

specimen, 6 to 8 inches in length, was noticed to devour about a

dozen Caddis-flies.

The stomach contents of small specimens from 6 to 8 ems. in

length were found to consist mostly of large numbers of Copepods,

and sometimes small insects.

The almost toothless jaws, the presence of a symphysial knob,

and convoluted alimentary canal indicate that the observed feeding

habits of M. corsula: correspond with those of the ‘Carp-Minnows’

BIOLOGY OF A MULLET: AERIAL VISION IN FISHES 67

(Rasborinae) and ‘Chilwas’ (Abramidinae). Though the mouth of

M. corsula is situated on the ventral surface of the head, when the

eyes and a part of the head are out of water, its position

becomes almost anterior and the gape becomes obliquely directed

upwards and forwards, as is usually the case with the fishes that

feed near the surface. Thus the anterior position of the mouth

for feeding actually results from the fact that the fish keeps a

greater part of its snout out of the water.

Breeding: No direct observations were made on the breeding

habits of the species, but a large number of young ones appeared

in the settling tanks and filter beds of the Water Works at Pulta

during March and April. Presumably these months represent the

peak-period of breeding for the species. M. corsula presumably

breeds in the river and connected waters, and also in confined

waters such as those of the Pulta Water Works. The presence

of the fish in an isolated settling tank (Pucca Settling Tank No. 4)

after cleaning shows that the fish must have come in a very early

stage of development. This also indicates that M. corsula is in

reality a fluviatile form and that its occurrence in confined waters

at Pulta is only accidental.

Though M. corsula is at present mostly confined to fresh waters,

its habits, as detailed above, seem to have been acquired under

estuarine conditions during the transition period from marine to

freshwater life. In the estuaries during ebb-tides certain small

animals are left high and dry on muddy banks and even a few

fish become stranded in small pools and puddles. The partial aerial

respiration and the habit of wriggling back to water-channels, no

doubt developed under these conditions, must have been of immense

value to M. corsula in tidal creeks. Further, its habit of swimming

against the current probably helped it to invade fresh waters and

prevented its being carried away to the sea. Its habit of swimming

near the surface was probably induced by feeding on the floating

matter. Those, who have observed the incoming tides, know what

an immense amount of dead and living organic stuff is collected

from the mud-flats and floats on the surface layer of the water.

As indicated above, the position of the mouth in M. -corsula is

ventral, but for feeding on the floating matter effort had to be

made to bring the mouth to the level of the surface. The ventral

profile of the head, which is sharply directed upwards (text-fig. 3),

is very suggestive of such efforts having been made by the fish.

In this effort the upper part of the head and the snout were

continually being thrust out of the water. The eyes thus pushed

out of water became gradually modified for aerial vision by an

adjustment of the form of the lens. In the evolution of aerial

vision the globular lens of the aquatic fishes, which is myopic both

in water and on land, becomes flattened for hypermetropic vision

on land. In M. corsula the ratio of the diameter of the lens to

its thickness is as 7 : 6.

As a rule, Mullets feed on algae and other minute water plants

contained in mud near the sea shore or in lagoons, but the habit

of feeding on the floating matter was, in my opinion, acquired

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIERY, Vols:

under estuarine conditions and led to the initial stages in the

development of the aerial vision of M. corsula and also of such

Gobies as Periophthalmus and Periophthalmodon, both of which

possess a ventral mouth. The observed habit of M. corsula of

browsing on algae is no doubt a secondary feature for life in con-

fined waters. In the actual estuarine channels there is usually no

growth of filamentous algae, though the connected pools may

sometimes be full of them. The favourable position of the mouth

must have been of great help in feeding on algae near the edges

ef ponds. At the present day, the fish seems to be equally well

adapted for feeding both at the open surface and on the sides of

a piece of water.

The terrestrial habit of the Gobies was probably acquired at

a later period when during low tides they stayed on the mud-flats,

instead of wriggling back to water channels as M. corsula does,

and began to wander about in search of food. The cup-shaped

ventral fins of the normal Gobies would, in the earlier stages, act

as a support to enable the fish to prevent its head from sinking

into the ‘soft mud. Later the pectoral fins became modified to

support the weight of the fish and a terrestrial mode of locomotion

was acquired by it.

Noble (op. cit.) remarks that Anableps ‘has specialised in feeding

on the floating material which it encounters in its wanderings in

the dual realm of air and water.’ Here again it would seem

probable that the richness of floating food and the comparative lack

of competition in acquiring it must have induced the initial stages

in the development of the remarkable modifications of the eyes in

Anableps.- Anableps belongs to the freshwater group of ‘Top-min-

nows’ (Cyprinodonts) which are mostly confined to fresh waters.

With the exception of Anableps, all are small fishes, rarely exceed-

ing 3 to 4 inches in length. As a group, they are-in every way

adapted for feeding near the surface and have for the same reason

been used all over the world for the control of insects, especially

mosquitoes. Anableps seems to have acquired the habit of using

the upper part of its eyes for aerial vision in its search for floating

organisms. Thus the primary inducement for aerial vision—feeding

at the surface on floating matter—was probably the same in both

the cases, but modification of the eye proceeded along different

lines owing to differences in the position of the mouth in the two

types. of fishes. In M. ‘corsula the eyes had te be wholly out=oa

the water for the mouth to come to the level of the surface, whereas

the already anterior mouth of Anableps had only to be slightly

raised to come to the level of the surface, and hence only a part

of the eyes was exposed to aerial conditions.

Noble has characterised the bi-focal vision of Anableps as ‘The

first stage in the evolution of vision in the air’; but to me it

seems that such a fine arrangement, probably perfected under the -

circumstances detailed above, cannot be regarded as a generalised

structure. At any rate, it seems probable that an aerial vision was

acquired by estuarine animals of the type of Periophthalmus,

Periophthalmodon, Boleophthalmus and M. corsula without under-

going the Anableps-stage of bi-focal vision.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA:

MAGNOLIADS, DILLENIADS, ANONADS,

MENISPERMADS, BERBERIDS.

J.B CAIUS, S:jJ., F:L.S:

The MaAGNOLIACEAa are trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing,

often aromatic. They are chiefly natives of the tropical and

temperate Asiatic mountains and United States, a few are Australian.

There are about 70 species belonging to ro genera, 9 of which

are used medicinally in various parts of the world :—Drimys

(South America; New Zealand to Borneo); EupTELEea (Japan to

Bengal); ILzttcrum (Atlantic North America; Asia); KapDsuRA

(tropical Asia, China, Japan); Liriop—ENDROoN (North America) ;

Macnoria (Asia, North America); MicuHe.ta (tropical Asia, China) ;

SCHIZANDRA (tropical and warm temperate Asia, North America) ;

TaLauMA (eastern Asia, South America, West Indies).

Many members yield essential oils.

Among the products isolated the following may be mentioned :—

(1) cyanogenetic glucosides and saponins; (2) crystalline compounds

of alkaloidal (?) nature—tulipiferine—; (3) bitter principles—iirio-

dendrin, magnolin, shikimin—; (4) toxic principles—sikimitoxin— ;

(5) tannins and resins—; (6) mucilage.

The medicinal Magnoliads of India belong to the three genera

ILLIcCIUM, KapsuRA, and MICHELIA.

A. Erect trees or shrubs.

Stipules absent. Carpels in one whorl ... me SPELICIOM:

Stipules conspicuous. Gynophore stalked ... ... MICHELIA.

B. Climbing shrubs.

Carpels of fruit capitate wats ses ... IKXADSURA.

[LLICIUM.

The genus consists of 20 species distributed over India, China,

Japan, and Atlantic North America.

The fruits are aromatic, stimulant, and carminative.

The following species are used medicinally in China—I. ani-

satum Linn.—;-in Indo-China—I. anisatum Linn., I. Griffithii

Hook.f. & Th., I. verum Hook.f.—; in Malaya—I. verum Hook.

f.—; in the Philippine Islands—I. anisatum Linn.—; in North

America—I. floridanum EIl., I. parviflorum Michx.—.

Sikimitoxin, a highly toxic substance, has been isolated from

I. anisatum.

The fruit of I. verum Hook. f. or the essential oil from it is

official in Austria, Brazil, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary,

Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and_ the

United States.

The essential oil from I. anisatum Linn. is official in Mexico,

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NAT URATG SHS is 2S O CHETAN V0) smeKele

illicitum Griffithii Hook. fil. & Th. occurs in Bhutan and the

Khasia Hills between 4,000 and. 5,000 feet.

The fruit is aromatic, stimulant, and carminative.

Ivench: Faux badianier—; Indo-China: Dai hoi nui—.

KADSURA.,

This genus includes 8 species, which inhabit tropical Asia,

China, and Japan.

K. japonica Juss. is used medicinally in Japan.

Kadsura scandens Bl. is common in the forests of the Malay

Peninsula and the Malay Islands at low elevations.

A decoction of the root is used by the Malays for rheumatism.

Malay: Akar dama daura, Akar kapala patong—.

y I p §

MICHELIA.

The genus consists of 15 species inhabiting tropical Asia, and

China.

The barks are bitter and aromatic, stimulant and antiperiodic,

The following are used medicinally in Indo-China—M. Cham-

paca Linn.; in Malaya and Java—M. Champaca Linn., M. montana

Blum.

1. Leaves 15-25 cm. long.: Flowers yellow. Sepals and

petals 15 or more sie's te . M. Champaca.

Leaves s-10 cm. long. Flowers white or with a

tinge of yellow. Sepals and petals 9-12 wt Me onilagirica.

3. Leaves up to 19 cm. long. Flowers white. Sepals

and petals 8 fe ar ... M. montana.

1. Michelia Champaca Linn. occurs wild in the Eastern sub-

Himalayan tract and lower hills up to 3,000 feet, Assam, Burma,

Western Ghats and South India; it is much cultivated in various

parts of India and Burma. It is distributed to Yunnan, Indo-China,

Siam, and Malaya—not in the Malay Peninsula where, however,

it is common in gardens.

The root is bitter and demulcent; it is also considered purgative.

The dried root and root-bark, mixed -.with curdled milk 1s

useful as an.application to abscesses, clearing away or maturing

the inflammation. In the form of an infusion it is a valuable

emmenagogue.

The bark has febrifugal properties; it is a stimulant, expectorant, |

and astringent. It is described in Ayurveda as bitter with a sharp

acrid taste, causing warmth in the abdomen, destroying poisons,

removing worms, facilitating micturition and sweating, useful in

bile and blood affections.

A decoction of the bark was tried in sixteen mild cases of chronic

gastritis. After using it for several days the patients obtained

considerable relief from the pain and discomfort in the epigastrium

with which they were troubled, but none of the cases was completely

cured (IKoman).

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA Ch

Ayurveda practitioners use the leaves in combination with other

drugs to remove the foetid odour of vaginal discharges. In Dacca

the juice of the leaves is given with honey in cases of colic.

According to Ayurveda the flowers are bitter, stomachic, diuretic ;

they remove bilious conditions; they are good in leprosy, skin

diseases, and ulcers. Yunani doctors consider their smell a good

stimulant; they use the flower as an expectorant and look upon it

as useful in cough and rheumatism.

The flowers and fruits are considered bitter and cool remedies,

and are used in dyspepsia, nausea, and fever. The flowers mixed

with sesamum oil form an external application, which is often

prescribed in vertigo; they are also applied to foetid discharges

from the nostrils. They are useful as a diuretic in renal diseases

and in gonorrhoea. They are considered stimulant, antispasmodic,

tonic, stomachic, and carminative.

The perfumed oil prepared from the flowers is a useful applica-

tion in cephalalgia, ophthalmia, and gout.

The seeds and fruit are said to be useful for healing cracks in

pie feet.

The flowers and the fruit in combination with other drugs are

recommended as an antidote to snake and scorpion venoms, but

Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that both the flower

and the fruit are useless in the antidotal and symptomatic treat-

ment of snake bite and scorpion sting.

Annam: Dam bac, Su Nam—; Assam: Phulchopa, Phulsopa, Titasoppa—;

Bengal: Champa, Champaka, Chumpa, Kotu—; Bombay: Champa, Chapha— $;

Burma: Changal, Paranyam, Saga—; Canarese: Champaka, Kendasampige,

Kolasampige, Sampage, Sampaghy, Sampige—; Deccan: Champa—; English:

Golden Champa, Yellow Champa—; French: Champac—; Gujerati: Champo,

Pitochampo, Raechampo, Sonchampa—; Hindi: Champ, Champa, Champac,

Champaca—; Indo-China: Kim cuong moc—; Kathiawar: Pilochampo, Raya-

champo, Sachochampo—; Konkani: Champa, Champo, Pudchampo—; Lao:

Chum pi—; La Reunion: Champac—; Malay: Bongasjampacca, Mangliet— ;

Malayalam : Champakam— Marathi: Kudchampa, Pivalachampa, Sonachampa— ;

Matheran: Champaka, Pilachampa, Souchampa—; Mundari: Champabadaru— §;

Nepal: Aulechamp, Ouliachamp—; North Western Provinces : Champa—; Philip-

pines: Champaca, Champaga—; Portuguese: Champo—; Punjab: Chamba,

Chamoti, Champa, Chamuti—; Sadanit: Campa—; Sanskrit: Anjana, Atigan-

dhaka, Bramaratithi, Bhringmohi, Chambunala, Champaka, Champeya, Deepa-

pushpa, Gandhaphali, Hemanga, Hemapushpa, Hemapushpaka, Hemavha,

Kamabana, Kanchana, Katu, Kumara, Kusuma, Kusumadhipa, Kusumadhirata,

Nagapshpa, Patichampaka, Peetapushpa, Punyagandha, Rajachampaka, Shata-

padatithi, Shitala, Shitalachchada, Sthiragandha, Sthirpushpa, Subhaga, Suku-

mara, Surabhi, Svarnachampakapaka, Svarnapushpa, Ugragandha, Vanadapika,

Vanadeepa, Vanamalika, Varalbdha—; Sinhalese: Champak, Hapu, Sapu—;

Tagalog: Champaga, Sampac, Sampaka, Tsampaka—; Tanul: Amariyam,

Sambagam, Sembagam, Shampangi, Vandumarmalar—; Telugu: Champakmu,

Champeyamu, Gandhaphali, Gangaravi, Hemangamu, Hemapushpamu, Kanj-

anamu, Sampangi, Sampega—; Tulu: Champaka, Sampay—; Uriya: Chompa,

Chompoko—.

2. Michelia nilagirica Zenk. is found in the shola forests of

the Nilgiris, Anamalais and Pulneys above 5,000 feet.

The bark is used as a febrifuge.

Canarese: Bilisampage, Doddasampage, Sampana, Sapage—; Hindi: Pila-

champa—; Marathi: Pilachampa—; Sinhalese: Walsapu—; Tamil: Kattu-

chambagam, Nilagirishambagam, Shambagam—,

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEIW, Vol Gr

3. Michelia montana Bl. is found in the Himalaya, the

mountains of Perak and Redah, and in Java.

The bark is a bitter tonic useful in fevers.

The DILLENIACE2 are trees or shrubs, chiefly natives of the

southern hemisphere. Tropical America and Asia possess about

an equal number of species; they are rare in Africa, and hitherto

none have been found in South Africa or temperate South America.

4 of the 16 genera are reputéd medicinal :— CUuROTELLA (tropical

America, West Indies); DaviLia (tropical America, West Indies) ;

DiLtLENtIA (Indo-Malaya); TETRACERA (tropics; chiefly America).

Two of these—DILLENIA and TETRACERA-—are represented in India.

I. Woody climbers; filaments dilated upwards. Carpels

2 Ors oe me ... TETRACERA.

IJ.° Trees’; filaments not dilated.

Follicles not expanding nor dehiscing enclosed in

the thickened pulpy sepals; seeds not arillate ... DILLENIA.

“DILLENIA.

This genus includes 20 Indo-Malayan species.

In Indo-China the calyces of D. Baillonii Pierre, D. indica Linn.,

and D. ovata Wall. are made into jellies and cooling drinks; the

bark of D. ovata is used medicinally in Cambodia.

1. Flowering with the leaves; flowers large, 6 to 9 in.

across, white; fruit very large os -1 DD. “ndica:

2. Flowering before leaves; flowers 2 to 5 in. wide,

yellow; leaves 4 in. long, oblong, blunt, velvety

beneath ye bs ee son) Looabas

1. Dillenia indica Linn. occurs from Nepal to Assam, extend-

ing to the Malay Peninsula and Indo-China; southwards it spreads

over to Céylon.

A syrup of the juice of the unripe fruit allays coughs, assists

expectoration, and cures angina and aphthae.

The juice of the fruit, mixed with sugar and water, is used

as a cooling beverage in fevers, and as a cough mixture. The

fruit is slightly laxative, and is apt to induce diarrhoea if too freely

indulged in.

The bark and the leaves are astringent. The bruised bark is

applied as a cataplasm in arthritis.

The Malays use the pulp of the fruit as a hair-wash.

Assam: Chalita, Otengah—; Bengal: Chalita, Chalta, Hargesa, Ruvya—+;

Bombay : Karambel, Mothakarmel, Mothekaramala—; Burma: Thabyu, Thibuta,

Zinbrun, Zinpyunngan—; Canarese: Bettadakanagal, Bettakanigala, Ganagalu,

Kadkanagula, Kanagala, Kanigala, Neyitaku—; Deccan: Mutakurmul—; Garo:

Panpui—; Gujerati: Karmbal, Otaphal—; Hindi: Chalta, Chaltr, Girnar—;

Indo-China: Dok shan, So ba—; Kachin: Masang—; Kolami: Korkotta—;

Konkani: Corombol—; Lepcha: Kyangmozhu, Phamsikol, Phan-se kung—;

Magahi: Chauralesi, Thapru-—-; Malay: Chimpuh, Simpoh—; Malayalam:

Chalita, Punna, Syalita, Valapunna—; Marathi: Karmbel, Motakarmal, Mota-

karmbal— ; Monghyr: Chilta—; Mundari: Korkotadaru, Kurkutadaru—; Nepal:

Panchkule, Panchphal, Ramphal—; Sanskrit: Bhavya, Ruvya—; Santal:

Korkot, Korkotta—; Sinhalese: Hondapara, Wampara—; Taleing: Carllow—;

Tamil: Akku, Ugakkay, Uva, Uvav, Uvatteku—; Telugu: Kalinga, Pedda-

kalinga, Uvva—: Uriya: Chalota, Oao, Ou, Rai, Uau—.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 73

2. Dillenia ovata Wall. is found in the Eastern Peninsula,

Malaya, Cambodia, Indo-China.

In Cambodia the astringent bark is given for diarrhoea in the

form of a strong infusion.

Cambodia: Knang krepeu, Plou—; Cochinchina: Thu dau mot—.

TETRACERA.

The genus consists of 25 tropical species.

The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands—

T. indica Merrill, T. macrophylla Wall.—; in Nigeria and Guinea—

T. alnifolia Willd., T. potatoria Azfl.—; in Guiana—T, alnifolia

Willd., T. aspera Willd., T. ovalifolia DC.—; in Brazil—T.

oblongata D.C.—.

1. Follicles 3-5-seeded.

Leaves 2-5 in. long up to 2 in. wide, toothed,

glabrous except the nerves beneath ... I. indica.

2. Follicles 1-2-seeded.

Leaves 3-5 in. long, oblong or lanceolate. Sepals

silky inside, glabrous outside, broadly oval... T. laevis.

3. Follicles 1-seeded.

Leaves 5-7 in. long, 3-6 in. wide. Sepals silky

inside, puberulous outside, obovate obtuse, edges

ciliate ae aks ee ... IT. macrophylla.

1. Tetracera indica Merrill (=7. assa DC.) is found in

Eastern Bengal and the Eastern Peninsula from Chittagong to

Singapore. It extends to Siam, Cochin-China, Java, and _ the

Philippine Islands.

In the Philippines an infusion of the plant is used internally

for pulmonary haemorrhage, and externally as a gargle for the

treatment of aphthae.

Malay: Ampelas, Mempelas minyak, P’las payah—; Tagalog: Malacatmon—.

2. Tetracera laevis Vahl is found in the Western Peninsula,

the forests of ‘Malabar, Ceylon, Java and Borneo.

In Malabar a decoction of the leaves is mixed with rice gruel

and given for the treatment of aphthae.

Malayalam: Piripu—; Tamil: Anaittichal—.

3. Tetracera macrophylla Wall. occurs in the Eastern

Peninsula from Penang to Singapore, extending to Sumatra.

An infusion of the plant is used in the Philippine Islands as

a drink for haemoptysis, and as a gargle for aphthae.

Malay: Ampelas gajah, Ampelas lidah kuching, Ampelas rimau, Ampelas

rimbah, Mempelas gajah, Mempelas lidah kuching, Mempelas rimau, Mempelas

rimbah— ; Tagalog: Malacatmon—.

III

The ANONACE# are trees or shrubs, often climbing and frequently

aromatic. There are 80 genera comprising 820 species, nearly all

tropical, especially of the Old World.

The medicinal and poisonous Anonads of the world belong to

22 genera: ALPHONSEA (tropical Asia): ANAXAGOREA (tropical

4 — JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIEIY= Vols wr

Asia, America); Anona (Tropics; chiefly America); ARTABOTRYS

(palaeotropics); Asimmna (Cuba, Mexico, Eastern United States);

BocaceEa (tropical America and Asia); CANANcIUM (tropical eastern

Asia to Australia); DEsmos (tropical Asia); ENnantia (West Africa) ;

GONIOTHALAMUS (tropical Asia) ; HaBzELta (tropical Asia); HExALOBUS

(tropical Africa, Madagascar); MELoporum (Tropics); Monopora

(tropical Africa, Madagascar); OROpHEA (Indo-Malaya); OxyMiTRa

(palaeotropics); PoLyaLtTuia (palaeotropics); ROLLINIA (tropical

America); SAGERAEA (Indo-Malaya); UNona (tropical Asia, Africa);

Uvaria (warm regions); XyLopia (Tropics).

The medicinal and poisonous Anonads of India belong to 12

genera:—-ALPHONSEA, ANAXAGOREA, ANONA, ARTABOTRYS, CANAN-

GIUM, DESMOS, GONIOTHALAMUS, MELODORUM, OROPHEA, POLYAL-

THIA, SAGERAEA, UVARIA.

A. Petals 2 in 2 rows, one or both rows imbricate in bud.

Stamens many. Anther-cells concealed by a_ flat

appendage

1. Sepals imbricate. Trees or shrubs. Ovules 6-8.

Torus flat — ans ae ... SAGERAEA.

2. Sepals valvate. Climbers. Ovules many i: UVARTA,

B. Petals valvate in bud, flat, or base only concave.

Inner petals similar to outer. Stamens many, with

overlapping appendages. Ovaries indefinite, rarely few

1. Petals connivent at concave base, covering stamens

and ovaries. Climbers with hooked peduncles.

Flowers rather large ae

2. Petals flat. Carpels indehiscent

a. Trees. Ovules many in 2 _ rows. Stamen-

ARTABOTRYS.

appendages acute a A ... CANANGIUM.

b. Trees. Ovules 1-2 rs Re +2) UROLVYALTHIA®

c. Shrubs, half climbing. Ovules 6 in 1 row.

Petals sometimes connate and reduced to 2 .... DESMos.

d. Shrubs. Fruit follicular dehiscent ... ... ANAXAGOREA.

C. Petals valvate, outer spreading ; inner concave connivent

different, arching over stamens. Stamens and _pistils

numerous and anther appendages overlapping except

Orophea. Trees. Inner petals clawed.

1. Inner petals connivent, not vaulted. Flowers rather

large i ah aoe ... GONIOTHALAMUS.

2. Inner petals vaulted, longer than outer. Stamens 6. OROPHEA.

D. Petals valvate, thick, connivent; outer long narrow or

broad, inner small but similar.

1. Trees or shrubs. Ovules solitary. Fruit fleshy of

many connate carpels ae oh ... ANONA.

2. Climbers. Ovules 2 or more. Outer petals broad.

Torus convex ae re ... MELODORUM.

E. Petals valvate, outer often very small. Stamens definite

loosely imbricate. Ovules 1 or many. Flowers usually

solitary. Trees or shrubs.

Ovaries indefinite. Petals all larger than sepals saccate

at base ae a ae ... ALPHONSEA.

ALPHONSEA.

The genus consists of g to 10 Indo-Malayan species.

Alphonsea ventricosa Hook. fil. & Th. occurs in Assam and

Chittagong and extends to the Andamans and Penang.

The plant contains a poisonous alkaloid,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 75

ANAXAGOREA,

The genus numbers about 8 species, natives of tropical Asia

and America.

Anaxagorea Scortechinii King is found in the woods of the

Malay Peninsula.

The Malays put the seeds among clothes.

Malay: Bunga lerak, Pali monyet—.

ANONA.

The genus includes 70 tropical species, especially American.

The following species are used medicinally in Senegal—A.

senegalensis Pers.—; in Nigeria—A. cherimolia Mill., A. senegal-

ensis Pers.—; in Guinea, Oubanghi-Chari and the Gold Coast—

A. muricata Linn., A. senegalensis Pers.—; in Indo-China—A.

muricata Linn., A. squamosa Linn.—; in the Philippine Islands—

A. muricata Linn., A. reticulata Linn., A. squamosa Linn.—;}3 in

North America—A. muricata Linn., A. palustris Linn., A. spines-

cens Mart., A. squamosa Linn.—; in California—A. cherimolia

Mill., 4. muricata Linn.—; in Porto Rico and Jamaica—A. muricata

Linn.—; in Guiana—A. Ambotay Aubl.—; in Brazil—A. cherimolia

Mill, A. Marcgravu, Mart., A. murncata Linn., A. palustris Linn.,

Ae Pisonis Mart., A. reticulata Linn., A. spinescens Mart., A.

squamosa Linn.—.

A, muricata Linn., A. reticulata Linn., and A. squamosa Linn.

are used medicinally in India.

Fruit tubercled isi oe wise ... I. A. squamosa.

Fruit smooth, slightly areolate we fae 2a e VCHGULOLG.

Fruit bearing numerous fleshy spines ee ... 3. A. muricata.

1. Anona squamosa Linn. is a native of the West Indies,

now cultivated throughout India.

The root is considered a drastic purgative, and is administered

in acute dysentery. It is also employed internally in depression of

spirits and in spinal diseases.

The astringent bark is used as an antidiarrhoeal cure in

Cambodia.

An infusion of the leaves is considered efficacious in prolapsus

ani of children; and the bruised leaves with salt make a cataplasm

to induce suppuration.

In Brazil they are applied as a poultice over boils and ulcers.

In Gambia, the West Indies, Central and South America they are

Heed to kill lice and to prevent bed bugs, etc.

The ripe fruit is medicinally considered a maturant; and when

bruised and mixed with salt, is applied to malignant tumours to

hasten suppuration. The seeds contain an acrid principle fatal

to insects, and the dried unripe fruit, powdered and mixed with

gram flour, 1s used to destroy vermin.

In Chota Nagpur the seeds are crushed and used for destroying

worms in the wounds of cattle,

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The seeds are a powerful irritant of the conjunctiva.

Annam: Mak khieb, Mang cau ta, Qua na, Tiep—; Antilles: Cachimant,

Hattier, Pomme-canelle— ; Arabic: Ambeberesch, Beresch, Chermisch, Saripha— ;

Assam: Ata, Katal—; Bengal: Ata, Luna, Meba, Sitaphal—; Brazil: Ata,

Pinha, Frutta de Condessa—; Burma: Auza—; Cambodia: Tiep srok—;

Canarese: Amritaphala, Duranji, Sitaphala—; Ceylon: Anoda—; Cuba:

Anon—; Deccan: At, Sitaphul—; English: Custard Apple, Sugar apple,

Sweet Sop—; Ewe: Eevunyikleng—; Fanti: Apre—; French: Anone écailleuse,

Ate, Attier, Cachiman, Guanabane, Hattier, Marie baise, Pomme canelle—; Ga:

Ngawyei, Nangwi, Ngaasie—; Guam: Atis—; Gujerati: Anan, Anuram, Seeta-

phul, Sitaphal—; Hasada: Sarupa—; Hindi: At, Ata, Atasitaphal, Saripha,

Shariphal, Sitaphal—; Ibo: Mbubo-ago—; Indo-China: Phan le chi—; Kolami:

Mandal, Nenwa—; Konkani: At, Ath—; Kyrobo: Hangbue—; Lambadi:

Sitaphal—; La Reunion: Attier—; Malay: Mannapapuwa, Srikaya—; Malay-

alam: Antacheecha, Attachchakka, Sirpa, Sitapalam, Sutakanni—; Marathi:

At, Sitaphal—; Mexico: Anona, Anona blanca—; Mundari: Borordaru, Neoa,

Sampa, Sarupa—; Nagpuri: Neoa—; Nepal: Sharifal—; North-Western Pro-

vinces: Behli, Sharifa—; Persian: Kaj, Sharifah—; Portuguese: Ateira,

Fructo de Conde—; Puerto Rico: Anon, Anona con escamas, Atis—; Punjabi:

Sharifa—; Sanskrit: Agrimakhya, Atripya, Bahubijaka, Gandagatra, Krishna-

bija, Sitaphala, Subha, Suda, Vaidehivallabha—; Sakalave: Konkony—; Santal :

Mandargom—; Sind: Sharifa—; Sinhalese: Anoda, Atta—; Sumatra: Siri-

kayu—; Tagalog: Ates—; Tamil: Atta, Sitapalam—; Telugu: Gandagatramu,

Sitapandu, Sitaphalamu—; Timne: Momina—; Tulu: Amritakay—; Twi: Apre,

Bororfo nyankonga—; Uriya: Ato, Sitapholo—.

2. Anona reticulata Linn. is a native of the West Indies, now

cultivated in India.

The bark is a powerful astringent, and is used as a tonic by

the Malays. In China it is used in the treatment of inflammation

Gt the seve:

In Brazil the leaves are used as a maturant.

In the West Indies and in Central and South America the

green fruit is much used as an antidysenteric and an anthelmintic.

A. de Santos has isolated from the bark of the trunk an

alkaloid which he has named anonaine.

Antilles: Cachimen, Coeur de boeuf, Corossol réticulé, Mamilier—; Bengal:

Luvuni, Nona—; Bombay: Ramphal—; Burma: Awza—; Canarese: Rama-

phala, Ramphal—; Ceylon: Anona—; Chinese: Meng Pa—; Cuba: Anona,

Mamon—; Deccan: Ramphal—; English: Bullock’s Heart, Custard Apple,

Netted Custard Apple—; French: Anone en réseau, Cherimolier, Mamilier—;

Goa: Anona—; Guam: Anonas—; Gujerati: Ramphai—; Haiti: Guanabano—;

Hindi: Anta, Luvuni, Nagnewa, Nona, Ramphal—; Hova: Voankobohobo— ;

Konkani: Anon—; La Reunion: Anone, Coeur de boeuf—; Malay: Manua,

Nona, Nona Kapri—; Malayalam: Manilanilam, Parankichchakka, Ramach-

chita— ; Marathi: Ramphal—; Mexico: Anona, Hama—; Mundari: Nagneva— $;

Philippines : Anonas—; Portuguese: Anona—; Puerto Rico: Anona de redecilla,

Corazon—; Sakalave: Hobohobo—; Sanskrit: Krishnabija, Lavali, Lavani,

Mriduphala, Raktatvatch, Ramawhaya, Ramphala, Vasanta—; Santal: Gom—;

Seychelles: Coeur de boeuf—; Sinhalese: Anoda—; Tamil: Aninuna, Rama-

chita, Manilayatta—; Telugu: Ramaphalamu, Ramasitaphalamu—; Uriya:

Barhial, Neua, Ramopholo, Ramositapholo—; Venezuela: Rinon—.

3. Anona muricata Linn. is a native of tropical America, now

common in the tropics of the Old World.

In La Reunion the root is considered antispasmodic and para-

siticidal; the leaves are given in fevers, and also used in the form

of a poultice to produce suppuration; the flower buds and the

flowers are considered an excellent remedy for cough; the unripe

fruits when dried and powdered are given in chronic dysentery,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA vel

and they are used for aphthae in the form of a decoction; the

seeds are valued for their astringent and emetic properties.

In Jamaica a decoction of the root is said to be an antidote

against fish-poison.

In Southern California and Tropical America the bark is used

as a drastic purgative.

In Brazil the leaves are steeped in hot water or ground with

oil, and used as a maturant. An infusion of the leaves is used

as a remedy for dysentery in Porto Rico. - In general the leaves are

regarded as a useful remedy for fever and dysentery. In Guinea

they are pounded and applied fresh to cicatrice wounds. In Gambia

they are used to get rid of bed bugs.

The seeds are emetic and astringent. In Southern California

and Tropical America they are said to be poisonous and they are

used as a parasiticide and an insecticide; they are used to poison

fish.

Akim: Abrorfontunkum—; Antillas: Anona de puntitas—; Antilles: Anone

en bouclier, Cachiman épineuse, Corossol montagne, Grand corossol, Sapadille— ;

California: Guanabana, Sour-sop—; Canarese: Mulluramphala—; Cartagena:

Anona de broquel, Catuche, Guanabana—; English: Sour sop—; Ewe: Vo,

Voti, Votsi—; Fanti: Apre—; French: Corrossolier—; Fula: Dukumeporto— ;

Ga: Aluguntungung, Nkrangmrobe—; Guam: Laguana—; Indo-China: Mak

khieb thet, Mang cau xiem, Tiep parang—; Krepi: Yevunyakle—; Krobo:

Alukutum—; La Reunion: Corossol—; Malayalam: Mullanjakka, Vilattinuna— 3;

Mexico: Anona, Anona amarilla, Cabeza de negro, Catuche, Guanabano— ;

Peru: Guanabano—; Philippines: Goyabrano, Guanabano—; Sakalave: WKaor-

aosaly— ; Sinhalese: Katuanoda—; Tamil: Mulluchitta, Pulippala—; Tschaudjo :

Alola—; Twi: Aduatungnkungm, Apre, Deboo, Nkrangmrobe—.

ARTABOTRYS.

Vhis genus consists of 30 species distributed over the tropics

of the Old World.

A. odoratissimus R. Br. is used medicinally in Indo-China, the

Philippine Islands, the Malay Archipelago; A. suaveolens Bl. in

Java.

1. Limb of petals broad, lanceolate or elliptic-oblong ... 1. A. odoratissimus.

2. Limb of outer or all the petals linear, narrow-oblong,

or subclavate aa ne ... 2. A. suaveolens.

1. Artabotrys odoratissimus R. Br. is largely cultivated in

India, Ceylon, Java and China.

A decoction of the leaves is given for cholera in some of the

islands of the Malay Archipelago.

Bombay: Vilayatichampa—; Canarese: Kandalisampage, Manoranjanballi— ;

Deccan: Madanmast, Madmanti—; Hindi: Champa—; Indo-China: Day cong

chua—; Malayalam: Madanakameswari, Manoranjitam—; Philippines: Mang-

ilang de China—; Sanskrit: Harachampaka, Nilachampaka, Phalasampenga— ;

Southern California: Climbing Vine, Climbing Ylang-ylang—; Tagalog:

Alagalag sonson, Alangilang sonson—; Tamil: Manoranjidam—; Telugu:

Manoranjidamu, Muddasampenga, Phalasampanga, Sakalaphalasampanga— ;

Uriya: Kalomuro, Monasocompa—.

2. Artabotrys suaveolens Bl. is found in Sylhet, Chittagong,

Mergui, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Islands.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FISTS SOCIETY wViclm ce

The Malays use the leaves to prepare an aromatic infusion

whose good effects have been extolled in the treatment of cholera.

Malay: Akar chenana, Durie carban—.

CANANGIUM.

This genus consists of 3 species inhabiting tropical Eastern

Asia and extending through Burma to New Guinea and the

Philippine Islands.

1. Leaves glabrous. Flowers over 2 in. long ... C. odoratum.

2. Leaves ovate to orbicular, woolly beneath, deciduous.

Flowers large Bie ne ... C. latifolium.

1. Canangium odoratum Baill. is cultivated throughout India,

From Ava and Tenasserim it extends to Java.

The flowers yield the ‘ilang-ilang’ of perfumes. ‘Cananga Oil’

consists of the early portions of the distillate.

The oil is used as an application in cephalalgia, ophthalmia,

and gout.

Burma: WKadapnyan, Kadatnyan—; Canarese: Apurvachampaka—; English:

Ylang-ylang—; french: Bois de Bananen, Bois de lance batard, Caneng aro-

matique—; Guam: Alangilang—; Ilocano: Alangilang, Ilangilang—; Jolo:

Angilang—; Malay: Cananga, Ilangilang, Kenanga—; Rarotonga: Moto-oi—;

Samoa: Moso’oi— ; Sinhalese : Wanasapu—; Tagalog: Alangilang, Ilangilang— ;

Tamil: Karumugai, Maladi, Maramanoranjidam, Sadi, Sirusambagam— $;

Telugu: Apurvachampakamu—; Visayan: Alangilang, Ilangilang—.

2. Canangium latifolium Pierre is distributed over Burma,

the Malay Peninsula, and Cambodia.

In Indo-China the wood is considered a febrifuge.

Indo-China: Su tay, Tai nghe, Tom xui—.

DESMOs.

This genus numbers 20 species inhabiting tropical Asia.

Flower opposite leaf. Leaves glabrous.

1. Pedicel 4 to 6 in. long; leaves hardly glaucous

beneath see ae She ... D. cochinchinensis.

2. Pedicel 1 to 2 in. long; leaves quite glaucous beneath D. chinensis.

1. Desmos cochinchinensis Lour. is found in Assam, the Malay

Peninsula, and Cochin-China.

The Malays use a decoction of the roots for fever.

Malay: Akar sugi-sugi, Larak salai—.

2. Desmos chinensis Lour. occurs in East Himalaya, Burma,

the Malay Peninsula and Islands, and Cochin-China.

The Malays use a decoction of the plant for dysentery.

Malay: Akar darah, Akar mariam, Akar singa, Kenanga hutan, Poko

sikenchong—,

(GONIOTHALAMUS.

The genus includes about 50 species distributed over tropical

Asia.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 79

Goniothalamus macrophyllus Hook. fil. is common in woods all

over the Malay Peninsula whence it extends to Sumatra and Java.

The wood is aromatic. The plant is used medicinally by the

Malays.

Malay: Bongsoi, Penawar hitam—.

MELODORUM,

The genus consists of about 4o species found in tropical Asia,

Africa, and Australia.

Melodorum Kingii Boerl. is found in the forests of Malacca

and Perak.

A decoction of the flowers is used by the Malays for dyspepsia.

Malay: Poko achar—.

OROPHEA.

This genus consists of 30 Indo-Malayan species.

Inner petals vaulted.

= Stamens 12; stem hairy; carpels globose ... ee Oy SeLOsi.

Stamens 6; stem hairy; carpels globose ... ee ey Sata.

1. Orophea setosa King is found in the woods of Perak and

Negri Sembilan from 500 or 1,200 ft. altitude.

A decoction of the roots is used by the Malays in malaria.

Malay: Pialu—.

2. Orophea hirsuta’ King inhabits Perak, where it is how-

ever rare.

The Malays chew the plant with betel-nut in cases of cough.

Malay: Supucha pelandok—.

POLYALTHIA.

The genus includes 70 palaeotropical species; mostly in tropical

Asia, a few in Africa and Australasia.

P, Oliveri Engl. is used medicinally in Sierra Leone, Liberia,

and parts of Cameroon.

1. Leaves narrow, lanceolate, undulate ... 4 I. f. lOnSiolla.

2. Leaves oblong ve site 2 Ps SUIATUNY

eXetel. eta

1. Polyalthia longifolia Benth. and Hook. fil. is cultivated

throughout the hotter parts of India.

The bark is used as a febrifuge in the Balasore District of

Orissa.

Bengal: Debdaru, Devadar, Devadaru—; Bombay: Asok, Asoka, Asopalav,

Asupal, Asupala, Devadaru—; Canarese: Putrajivi—; Ceylon: Maraillupai— ;

English: Indian Fir, Mast Tree—; Gujerati: Ashopalo—; Hindi: Asok, Debdari,

Deodar, Devadar, Devadaru, Devidari— ; Konkani: Assok, Devandaru—; Madras :

Nettilingam—; Malayalam: Aranei, Aruna, Ashokam, Ashvattam, Chorani,

Hemapushpam, Vanjolam—; Sanskrit: Devadaru, Putrajiva—; Tamil: Asogam,

Asuvattai, Kalgoli, Kasubam, Kolikkudi, Nettilingu, Pundi, Ravadam, Saribam,

Selai, Sendu, Tevadaram, Vansulam—; Telugu: Asokamu, Asvattamu, Deva-

daru—; Tulu: Asoka—; Uriya: Debodaru, Asoka, Oswottho, Putikashto—.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

2. Polyalthia simiarum Benth. and Hook. fil. is found in

Orissa, Pegu Yoma, Martaban and Tenasserim.

The bark is used in Orissa as a cure for scorpion sting.

Bhuia: Champa—; Modesia: Khari—; Nepal: Khutti, Labshi—; Orissa:

Mongai, Ojarh, Mojarh—; Santali: Dighibentia—.

SAGERAEA.

The genus consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species.

Sageraea laurifolia Blatter occurs in South Konkan.

The leaves have a pungent, astringent, and bitter taste. In

the Konkan they are used for fomentation.

Bombay: Andi—; Canarese: Sagare—; Konkani: Sageree—; Marathi:

Harkinjal, Sageri, Undie—.

UVARIA.

The genus numbers roo species distributed over the Tropics of

the Old World.

V. Chamae P. Beauv. is used medicinally in Gold Coast, Sierra

Leone, Togo, Lagos, and Senegal; V. Afzelit Scott Elliot in Liberia;

V. calamistrata Hance in Indo-China.

1. Stamens all cuneate oe ‘ wee wd artis

2. Outer stamens flat bee Pe seo Mi saulcis:

1. Uvaria Narum_ Bl. occurs in the Bombay Presidency—

Konkan and North Kanara—, and the Madras Presidency—forests

of the Western Ghats from South Kanara to Travancore, and hills

of Salem up to 4,000 “feet.

The oil obtained from the roots by distillation, as well as the

root, are used medicinally in various diseases. The root is

fragrant and aromatic, and the bruised leaves smell like cinnamon.

Canarese: (ariballi, Unamini—; Malayalam: Narampanal—; Matheran:

Narampanal— ; Tamil: Pulichan—; Tulu: Pandel—.

2. Uvaria dulcis Dunal occurs in Burma, the Malay Peninsula,

Java and the Philippines.

The bark of the root has astringent, stimulant, and alterative

properties.

Malay: Pisang-pisang hitam—; Visayan: Dalaganum, Dalagao—.

The MENISPERMACEAE are scandent or twining shrubs, found

chiefly in the tropics of the Old and New World. They number

65 genera and 360 species. Many of them figure among the

poisonous plants used in making arrow and dart poisons.

The medicinal and poisonous Menispermads of the world belong

to 21 genera:—ABUTA (tropical South America); ANAmIRTA (Indo-

Malaya); ANOMOSPERMuUmM (Brazil, Guiana); Burasata (Madagascar) ;

CISSAMPELOs (tropical and subtropical regions); CoccuLus (tropical

and subtropical regions); Coscintum (Indo-Malaya); CyCcLEA

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA ~ BI

(tropical Asia); FIBRAUREA (tropical and subtropical Asia); JATROR-

RHIZA (tropical Africa); MENISPERMUM (eastern Asia, Atlantic North

America); PAcHYGONE (eastern Indo-Malaya); PENIANTHUS (western

tropical Africa); PERICAMPYLUS (eastern Indo-Malaya) ; SPHENOCEN-

TRUM (western tropical Africa); SpiRosPERMUM ( Madagascar) ;

STEPHANIA (palaeotropics); STRyCHNOopsIS (Madagascar); TILtA-

cora (Indo-Malaya); Tiomiscium (tropical Asia); TINOSPORA

(Palaeotropics). |

The following are among the products isolated:—(1) alkaloids—

bebeerine, isobebeerine, beta-bebeerine, berberine, buxine, chondro-

dine, curarine, menispermine, para-menispermine, pelosine, sango-

line, tiliacorine—; (2) quaternary bases (none of which has been

obtained in a free state)—columbamin, jatrorrhizin, palmatin—; (3)

crystalline bitter principles—anamyrtin, columbin, picrotoxin, picro-

toxinin, trilobin—; (4) acids—columbic, picrotoxic—.

The medicinal and poisonous Menispermads of India belong to

I2 genera:—ANAMIRTA, CISSAMPELOS, COCCULUS, COSCINIUM,

FIBRAUREA, JATRORRHIZA, PACHYGONE, PERICAMPYLUS, STEPHANIA,

TILIACORA, TINOMISCIUM, TINOSPORA.

A. Flowers trimerous. Ovaries usually 3. Drupes with a

subterminal, rarely ventral or basal style-scar. Seeds

oblong or subglobose

t. Sepals 6. Stamens 6 or 3, often connate ... JATRORRHIZA.

2. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Filaments free aa ... TINOSPORA.

3. Sepals 9. Petals 6. Filaments free a ... LINOMISCIUM:

4. Sepals 6. Petals o. Filaments free we ... FIBRAUREA.

5. Sepals 6. Filaments all connate ih ... ANAMIRTA.

. Sepals g. Outer filaments free is ... COSCINIUM.

B. Flowers trimerous. Ovaries usually 3. Drupe with a

subbasal, rarely subterminal style-scar. Seed horseshoe-

‘shaped. Albumen copious. Embryo slender, cotyledons

linear or slightly dilated

1, Petais 6, minute. Ovaries 3-12. Style subulate .... TILIacora.

me ectals 6. Ovaties’ 3-6. Styles ‘subulate .... she COCCULUS: '

imewetais 6.,Ovaties3; Stylés forked «4...» .. PERICAMPYLUS.

C. .Flowers 3-5-merous. Ovaries usually solitary. Drupe

- with a subbasal style-scar; endocarp dorsally muricate

~or echinate. Seeds horseshoe-shaped. Embryo linear ;

cotyledons appressed

1. Sepals 6-10, free. Petals of male flower and female

3-5, free Bape oe Me ne ... STEPHANIA.

- 2. Sepals 4, free. Petals of male 4, connate, of female 1 CISSAMPELOs.

D. Flowers usually trimerous. Ovaries usually 3. Drupes

with a subbasal or ventral style-scar. Seed curved,

hooked or inflexed.

__ Sepals, ‘petals and stamens 6 each He ... PACHYGONE.

ANAMIRTA.

~~ Phe only’ Indian species of this genus, A. paniculata Colebr.

is found in the Khasia Hills, Assam, Eastern Bengal, from Orissa

and “the Bombay Konkan to Ceylon; it extends through the Malay

Archipelago to New Guinea. |

- According to -Yunani authors the berry ‘is. slightly bitter,

expectorant, demulcent, and carminative; useful in the treatment

of rheumatism; poisonous to fish.

83 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The bitter berries are sometimes used in the form of an oint-

ment. This ointment is employed as an insecticide to destroy

pediculi, and in some obstinate forms of chronic skin diseases.

Koman prepared an ointment containing 80 grains of finely

powdered seeds to one ounce of vaseline, and used it as an external

application in ringworm; cases of one to two months’ duration

were cured by a few days application, but chronic cases did not

derive benefit.

The fresh leaves are used in Bengal as a snuff in the treatment

of quotidian ague.

In Ceylon the bruised fresh bark is applied to the bitten part

in cases of snake-bite. But Mhaskar and Caius have found that

the bark, leaves, and berries are equally useless as an external

application in the treatment of snake-bite.

The seeds are used in the nightsweats of phthisis.

The jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula use the plant to

poison their arrows and their kriss.

Both its poisonous properties and any therapeutic virtues the

plant may contain depend upon picrotoxin of which the fruit is

the source. The plant also contains two minor alkaloids of un-

known constitution, menispermine and paramenispermine, both

physiologically inactive.

Arabic: Mahijehreh—; Bengal: Kakamari—; Bombay: Kakaphala, Kak-

phal, Vatoli—; Burma: Hong—; Calcutta: Bacaenkaphal—; Canarese: Kaka-

mari, Kakkisoppugade—; Deccan: Kakmari—; Dutch: Indiaansche rezies,

Koklus—; English: Crow Killer, Fish Berry, Fish Killer, Indian Berry, Indian

Cockles, Louse Berry, Oriental Berries, Poison Berry—; French: Arbre a

enivrer, Bois a enivrer, Bois enivrant, Bois ivrant, Coque du Levant, Coque

Levant, Herbe a tous maux, Pareire a feuilles rondes—; German: Fischkoerner

baum, Kokkelskoernerbaum, Tollkoernerbaum—; Gujerati: Jermae, Kaka-

phula, Kakmari—,; Hindi: Jermae, Kakmari—; Indo-China: Ben nau, Day

tao, Seg Dom—; Italian: Coccole d’India—; Konkan: Garudphul, Kadul—;

Malay: Dawonnboelann, Tubabidji—; Malayalam: Anakrytu, Garalaphala,

Garaphala, Kantakakonnuveli, Kantakakunavam, © Karantakam, Miunannu,

Machattinkaya, Nanninkuru, Pola, Pullukunavam—,; Oceania: Lacton, Lagton,

Libtang, Soma, Suma, Tubaflava—; Pampangan: Balasin, Bayati, Lactang,

Lanta, Lictang, Lingtangbaguin, Suma, Tuba—; Persian: Mahijehreh—;

Philippines: Abutra, Pangmavan—,; Portuguese: Coca de Levante, Fruta

matapeixe—; Sanskrit: Garalaphala, Kakahva, Kakamari, Kakanashika— $;

Sinhalese: Pangan, Tittawel—; Spanish: Coca de Levante, Coca levantina—;

Tagalog: Balasin, Bayati, Lactang, Lanta, Lictang, Lingtangbaguin, Suma,

Tuba—; Telugu: Kakamari, Kakichempoo, Koditige, Tippatige—; Tulu:

Chipulu—; Urdu: Mahijehreh—; Uriya: Kalabiti Nai, Kaumari—; Visayan:

Balasin, Bayati, Lactang, Lagtal, Lanta, Lictang, Lintangbaguin, Suma, Tuba—.

CISSAMPELOS.

This genus includes 21 species inhabiting the warm regions of

the world.

The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands

and Indo-China—C,. Pareira Linn.—; in the Antilles and Guiana—

C. Pareiva Linn.—; in South America—C. caapeba Linn., C. Pare-

iva Linn.—; in Brazil—C. glaberrima St. Hil., C. ovalifolia DC.—;

in the Gold Coast and in Nigeria—C. mucronata A. Rich., C.

owariensis P. Beauv.—; in Southern Africa—C. angustifolia Bucch.,

C. capensis Thunb., C. mucronata A. Rich., C. Pareira Linn.,

C. torulosa E. Mey.—; in Mauritius—C. mauritiana Pet. Th.—.

MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA «83

Cissampelos Pareira Linn. occurs throughout tropical and sub-

tropical India; and throughout the warm parts of Asia, East Africa,

and America.

The root is the part most esteemed; it has an agreeable, bitterish

taste, and is considered-a valuable stomachic. It is frequently

prescribed in the later stages of bowel complaints, in conjunction

with aromatics. It is given for pains in the stomach and_ for

dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dropsy and cough; also for prolapsus uteri.

It is applied externally in snake-bite and scorpion-sting.

Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the root, ground and

mixed with water, is used against stomach-ache and diarrhoea,

especially against infantile diorrhoea.

In Hausaland the bitter root is sold as a medicine for many

purposes.

Fhe Chuanas,:-Subias, and Kobas of South Africa drink ah

infusion of the powdered root for stomach-ache. The Filabusi

natives and the Xosas drink a similar preparation for. snake-bite.

The Pedis use a decoction of the root as a wash for children who

have pimples over their body.

In Madagascar the root is considered diuretic, emmenagogue,

and antipyretic; it 1s given for urinary gravel.

In La Reunion the bitter root is considered tonic, stomachic,

and diuretic; and it is used in the treatment of bladder troubles.

In French Guiana the roots are used as a diuretic in cases of

dysuria and calcular nephritis. An infusion is expectorant and is

considered a potent alexiteric.

The root acts as an antiseptic of the bladder and is used in

chronic inflammation of the urinary passages. In Yoruba it is

used as an anti-emmenagogue.

The leaves are said to have a peculiarly cooling quality, and

they are used locally in cases of unhealthy sores and sinuses. In

the Gold Coast they are applied to abscesses. The Xosas apply

a paste of the leaf to wounds.

The root in combination with other drugs is an Ayurveda cure

for snake-bite and scorpion-sting. Mhaskar and Caius have, how-

ever, demonstrated that the root is not an antidote to snake venom

and that it is useless as an external application in the treatment

of scorpion-sting. |

The root contains the alkaloid bebeerine. It is official in

Portugal.

Annam: Moi tron, Tiet re—; Antsianaka: Voaravinaviavy—; Ashants:

Akuraso—; Batangas: Calancalamayan—; Bengal: Akanadi, Nemuka, Nimuka,

Tejomalla—; Betstleo: Vahemboatavo—; Betsimusaraka : Vahifotsy—; Bombay:

Pahadmul, Pahadvel, Venivel—; Canarese: Padavali—: Cebu: Batangbatang— ;

Chuana: Mokaekae— ; Dehra Dun: Parhe, Purhe—; East Africa: Kinukadjio

—; English: False Pareira brava, Ice Vine, Velvet-leaf—: Filabusi: M’cessie

—; French : Faux pareira brava, Liane a glacer l’eau, Liane A serpents—;

French Guiana: Pareira brava, Paria brava—: Garhwal: Pahari, Parhe—;

Goa: Parayel—; Gujerati: Venivel—; Hausa: Fiyaka, Jibdakassa, Judarkas,

Piyaka—; Hindi: Akanadi, Dakhnirbissi, Harjeuri, Harjori,: Pari—; Hova:

Vahivory, Voriravina—; Ilocano: Cuscusipa— ; Java: Areujtjantjuan—; Koba:

Mokaekae—; Kolami: Pitu-singh, Ranu-sed—; La Reunion: Liane blanche

Pareira brava—; Lepcha :- Tamshaprip— ; Madagascar: Ravinbury, Vahenosy—:

Malaya: Akar mumpanang, -Gasinggasing, Gegasing—; Malayalam: Kattuvalli,

Patuvalli— ;_ Marathi: Padavali, Padavel, Pahadvel, Paharmul, Paharvel—;

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Mexico: Oreja de raton—; Mundari: Cutulutur, Dirikakaru, Haruarajaite,

Huringpitusing—; Nepal: Batulpoti—; North Western Provinces: Dakhnirbisi,

Duknirbissi— ; Oudh: Harjewri—; Pedi: Lepeta—; Philippines: Calaad,

Chanchae, Sansao—; Porebunder: WKardhiyunbang—; Porto Rico: Bejuca de

mono—; Portuguese: Abutua, Pareira brava—; Punjab: Bat, Batindupath, Bel,

Katori, Parbik, Pataki, Tikri, Zalkhmihaiyat, Zucumyeat—; Sakalave: Hama-

fana—; Sanskrit: Ambashtha, Ambashthika, Avidhakarni, Brihattikta, Chchin-

naveshika, Devi, Ekashthila, Kuchela, Kucheli, Laghupatha, Mahanjasi,

Malati, Malavi, Papacheli, Papehelika, Patha, Patika, Prachina, Prachinam-

bastika, Pratanini, Rasa, Ruchishya, Shishira, Shreyasi, Sthapini, Sushhira,

Tiktapushpa, Trishira, Trivrita, Uthika, Vallika, Vara, Varatikta, Vatsadini,

Venivalli, Vidhakarni, Vridhakarnika, Vriki, Vrittaparni—; Santal: Tejo-

malla—; Saora: Paterutivu—; Sind: Belpath, Katori—; Sinhalese: Deyamitta,

Diyamitta, Weniwela—; Spanish: Butua, Pareira brava—; Subia: Mokaekae— #;

Tagalog: Chinchaochinchauan, Gulangulamanan, Sansaosansansaosan, Yemou-

mohan—; Tamil: Appatta, Puimushti, Punaittitta, Punmushti, Puttutiruppi,

Sina, Titta, Tuvan, Tuvigaba, Vattattiruppi—; Telugu: Adivibankatige, Pata,

Visaboddi—; Thayu:Batulpati—; Twi: Aportororkungma—; Uriya: Okano-

bindhi— ; Uruguay: Butua, Pareira brava—; Visayan: Hampapari, Himpapara,

Pari, Sampapari—; Yoruba: Je-in-joko, Jo-ko-je—.

COCCULUS.

This genus consists of 11 species found in all warm countries.

C. laurifolius DC. and C. trilobus DC. are used medicinally in

Indo-China and Malaya, C. Thunbergii DC. in Japan, and C.

pendulus Diels in the Sudan and in Senegal.

I. Scandent shrubs.

1. Leaves suborbicular, glabrous; panicles large ... 4. C. macrocarpus.

2. Leaves deltoid or hastate, villous; panicles short 1. C. hirsutus.

3. Leaves oblong or trapezoidal, at length glabrous.

Male flowers fascicled, female solitary bee 2a C. spenauliuce

II. A shrub or small tree ae ie .» 3. C. laurtfolius:

1. Cocculus hirsutus Diels occurs in tropical and subtropical

India from the foot of the Himalayas to South India and Ceylon

and Pegu; it extends to Southern China, Arabia, and tropical Africa.

The root is generally used as a refrigerant, and also as a

gentle laxative. It has been extensively used as an alterative in

chronic rheumatic and venereal diseases.

A decoction of the fresh roots, with a few heads of pepper, in

goat’s milk, is administered for rheumatic and old venereal pains;

half a pint every morning is the dose. It is reckoned heating,

laxative, and sudorific. ae :

In the Konkan, the roots, rubbed with Bonduc nuts, are

administered as a cure for belly-ache in children. In bilious

dyspepsia, they are given in 6 massa doses, with ginger and sugar.

In Sind, the root and leaves are used in headache and neuralgic

pains.

The juice of the leaves, mixed with water, has the property of

coagulating into a green jelly-like substance, which is taken inter-

nally, sweetened with sugar, as cure for gonorrhoea.

In Baluchistan the mucilage is used to cure spermatorrhoea,

taken in milk; it is used for coughs and to put on to sore eyelids.

and to soften breasts

Arabic: Haddal, Herrije, Luah, Schirwai

Dusariballi, Sugadiballi, Yadaniballi—; English: Broom Creeper, Ink Berry—}

; Baluchistan: Afaband, Zan ;

Bengal: Huyer—; Bombay: Parvel, Vasanvel—; Canarese: Dagadiballi,.

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 85

Gujeratti: Vevati, WVevdi—; Hansot: WVachhana—; Hindi: Chireta, Dier,

Faridburti, Hier, Jalayamani, Jamtikibel—; Jaisalmer: Bajarbel—; Konkan:

Vanatiktika—; Marathi: Hunder, Parvel, Tana, Vasanavela, Vasanel, Vasanvel

—; Matheran: Tan, Vasanyel—; Nimar: Bochan—; North-Western Provinces :

Patha— ; Oudh: Karsane—; Persian: Faridbutti—; Porebunder : Vadhinovelo— ;

Sanskrit: Patalagarudi, Chchilihinda, Dirghakanda, Dirghavalli, Dridhakanda,

Dridhalata, Garudi, Mahahala, Mahamula, Mochakabhida, Sauparni, Soma-

valli, Tiktanga, Vanatiktika, Vasandi, Vasantitikta, Vatsadani—; Sind: Kursan,

Zamir—; Tamil: Kattukodi—; Telugu: Chipurutige, Dusaritige, Katlatige— ;

Urdu: Faridbutti—; Uriva: Musakani—.

2. Cocculus pendulus Diels occurs in Sind, Baluchistan,

Waziristan, the Punjab Plains to the Northern Circars, Kathiawar,

Deccan, Carnatic to Tinnevelly. It extends through Afghanistan

and Arabia to tropical and subtropical Africa.

The root is used in Sind and Afghanistan in the treatment

of intermittent fevers and as a substitute for Anamirta paniculata.

It is used by the natives in sanclefalls and in the French Sudan for

the cure of periodic fevers.

The flowers are added to food, and an infusion of the plant is

used in Senegal to assist in removing thorns from the feet.

The Arabs make an intoxicating drink from the fruits.

Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen have found in the root about 2

per cent. of pelosine, and about 3 per cent of a new crystalline

alkaloid ‘sangoline’. The root also contains columbin.

Arabic: Ssag-el-ghorab, Turrach—; Baluchi: Zamor—; Brahui: Zamor— ;

Egypt: Lebakh-el-gebel—; Falor: Tiati—; Gujerat: Parwatti—; Jaisalmer:

Pilwan—; Jodhpur: Pilwan—; Punjab: Ilarbillar, Parwatti, Vallur, Vehri— =;

Sind: Ullarbillar—; Senegal: Sangol—; Songhai: Liligui—; Telugu: Dusar-

atige—; Tukulor: Safatou—; Waziri: Jadhai, Parwatiae—; Wolog: Mboum

sehet, Mboum tiéré—.

3. Cocculus laurifolius DC. occurs in subtropical Himalaya

from Nepal to Jammu up to 5,000 feet, in the Western Ghats of

the Madras Presidency, Eastern Bengal, and Burma. It is distri-

buted to South Cochin-China, South China, Java, Formosa, and

Japan.

The jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula use the plant to poison

their arrows and darts.

China: Wu Yao—; Dehra Dun: Tildhara, Tilphara—; Garhwal: Tildhara— ;

Japan: Kansirowujak, Vjaku, Wujak—; North-Western Provinces: Tilphara—.

4. Cocculus macrocarpus W. and A. is found in_ the

Konkan, North Kanara, the South Mahratta Country, and China.

The powdered leaves are taken in milk as a cure for biliousness,

gonorrhoea, and syphilis.

Matheran: Vatoli, Wat-yel, Watan-yel—; Tamil: WKottaityachachi—.

COSCINIUM.

The genus consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species.

Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. occurs in South India and

Ceylon, extending to Sumatra.

The root is extensively used in Ceylon as an efficient bitter

tonic, and is viewed as a very good substitute for Columba, It

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

has also antiseptic properties to a great extent, and can be used

for dressing wounds and _ ulcers.

The wood is valued as a bitter tonic by the Sinhalese. It is

also much used as a cure for tetanus.

A decoction of the stem is given internally im cases of bitess

from monkeys, snakes, brahmin-lizards and geckos. Mhaskar and

Caius have found experimentally that the stem is not an antidote

to snake venom, whether colubrine or viperine.

The decoction of the bark was administered in doses of one

to two ounces three times a day to several patients suffering from

malarial fever, but no beneficial effects were noticed (Koman).

The plant is used by the Sakais in the preparation of their

dart poisons.

Tummin Katti and Shintre (1930) have analysed the alcoholic

extract of the stems and they have reported inter alia a considerable

amount of a mixture of alkaloids.

Bengal: Haldigach—,; Canarese ? Doddamaradarasina, Maradarashina, Mara-

manjali— ;_ Deccan: . Jhadihaladi, Jharkihaldi—; English: Calumba Wood,

Ceylon Calumba Root, Columbo Wood, False Columbo, Tree Turmeric—;

Malay: Akar kunyit, Kunyit babi—; Malayalam: Haridram, Maramannal—;

Maratht: Venivel—; Sakai: Tol—; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Darvi, Pitadru—;

Sinhalese: Bangwellgetta, Venivel, Woniwol—; Tamil: Atturam, Imalam,

Kadari, Manjalkodi, Maramanjal, Pasamantram, Sanniyam, Seyebasam, Tiya-

ram, Udaravi, Udubadi—; Telugu: Manupasupu—; Tulu: Maramanjali—.

FIBRAUREA.

The genus consists of 4 species found in tropical and subtropical

Asia.

Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers is very common in hedges and

woods from Singapore to Penang. It extends to Tavoy and to

the Malay Islands and Celebes.

The plant is used medicinally in Cochin-China and in thé Malay

Peninsula.

The root is used as a diuretic. The bitter stem is considered

a valuable tonic, and is given in intermittent fevers and hepatic

troubles.

Indo-China: Day vang giang—; Malay: Akar kinching kerbau, Akar

kuning—.

JATRORRHIZA.

The genus consists of 2 species, natives of tropical Africa.

J. strigosa Miers is used medicinally by the Bakwiri and others

in Cameroon.

Jatrorrhiza palmata Miers is cultivated in some parts of India.

The root is much used in Zambezi, Mozambique, Madagascar,

and Indo-China as a bitter tonic and stomachic. By the natives of

Mozambique it is used in dysentery and various other diseases.

It is. a ‘mild bitter free from astringency. It is’ usetulim

functional atonic conditions of the digestive organs, especially with

other tonics, aromatics, or cathartics.

The root contains three physiologically active bases : columbamin,

jateorhizin, and palmatin,

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 87

J]. palmata Miers. is official in all pharmacopoeias. The

difference in botanical origin is merely one'of synonymy; and there

is considerable confusion in the spelling of both the generic and

specific names.

Austria: Kalumba—; Belgium: Colombo—; Bombay: Colombo—; Brazil:

Calumba—; Denmark: Kolumbo—; England: Calumba, Colombo—; Finland :

Kolumbo—; France: Colombo—; Germany: Kolombo—; Holland : Calumba— ;

Hungary: Calumba—; Indo-China: Phong Ky—; Italy: Colombo—; Japan:

Calumba— ; Mexico: Columbo—; Norway: Kolumbo—; Portugal: Calumba— ;

Russia: Kolombo—; Spain: Colombo—; Sweden: Kalumba—; Switzerland :

Colombo—; Tamil: Kolumbu—; Telugu: Kalamba—; Turkey: Guvercin,

Kalumba—; United States: Calumb, Calumba, Columbo—; Uriya: Kolombo—.

PACHYGONE.

This genus consists of t1 Indo-Malayan species.

Pachygone ovata Miers inhabits South India and Ceylon.

The dried fruit is used to destroy vermin and to stupefy fish.

Burma: Ngupyu—; Ceylon: Kadukkodi—; Tamil: Kadukkodi—.

PERICAMPYLUS.

This genus.consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species.

Pericampylus glaucus Blatter occurs in Sikkim, Khasia, Assam,

Pegu, Martaban, Tenasserim, Mergui, Chittagong, the Nicobars,

and the Malay Peninsula. It extends to the Malay Archipelago,

eastwards to the Moluccas, Cochin-China, Laos, Tongking, South

China and Formosa.

The roots have long been held in great repute among snake-

charmers in India as an antidote to the bites of poisonous snakes;

but Mhaskar and Caius have shown that they are not an antidote

to snake venom.

Bengal: Barakkanta—; Cochin-China: Day loi tien—; Java: Aroygeureung

—; Nepal: Lahara, Pipalpati—; Sumatra: Currung—.

STEPHANIA,

The genus numbers 32 species, found in the Old World, chiefly

in tropical Africa, China, and the Malayan Islands.

S. abyssinica Walp. and S. Dinklagei Diels are used medicinally

in Yorula, Liberia and Sierra Leone.

1. Leaves ovate or subdeltoid, peltate ae .. S. hernandifolia.

2. Leaves broadly ovate or suborbicular, at the base

rotund ae ses pa dee eKIavT a.

1. Stephania hernandifolia Walp. is found on the western and

eastern coasts of the Indian Peninsula, in Cachar, Sikkim, Eastern

Bengal, Assam, and Penang; it is distributed over Siam and the

Malay Archipelago to Australia.

The bitter root enters into the composition of a good many

Ayurveda preparations as a substitute for that of Cissampelos

Pareira Linn.

It is regarded as bitter, astringent, easily digestible and useful

in fever, diarrhoea, urinary diseases, dyspepsia, etc.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL .HIST..SOCIETY,. Vol. XL

The extract acts as a strong poison on frogs (Bancroft).

Bengal: Agnadnemuka, Akanadi—; Burma: Sha ma say nway—; China:

Chien Chin T’eng—; Hindi: Akanadi—; Java: Areujgeureung, Ojotminjak—;

Malayalam: Patakilannu, Patavalli—; Mundari: Marangpitusing—; Nepal:

Tambarki—; Sadani: Gaipari—; Sanskrit: Ambashtha, Patha, Vanatiktika— ;

Saora: Duvgyatige—; Sinhalese: Lunuketigawel, Lupuketigawel—; Uriya:

Musakani, Nimukha, Okanobhindi, Sondhimali—; Zulu: umTambane—.

2. Stephania glabra’ Roxb. occurs in the Himalaya from

Simla to Sikkim, in the Khasia Hills, Assam, and Tenasserim.

Roxburgh states that the acrid root is used medicinally in

Sylhet.

In Cochin-China it is used in pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma,

dysentery, and fever.

Annam: Cu binh voi, Cu mot, Tu nhien—; Dehra Dun: Parah, Purha—;

Garhwal: Gindaru—; Nepal: Brakulilahara, Nimilahara, Tambarki—; Tong-

king: Day moi tron—.

‘TILIACORA.

The genus includes 15 species, which inhabit India and tropical

Africa.

Tiliacora acuminata Mlers occurs from Bengal to Orissa and

Konkan, Ceylon, Singapore, Java, and Cochin-China.

The root rubbed between stones and mixed with water, is given

as a drink for the cure of venomous snake-bites; but, according

to Mhaskar and Caius, the root is not an antidote to snake venom.

Bengal: Tiliakora, ‘Tiliakoru—; Canarese: JKuri—; Hindi: Bagamushada,

Karraath, Karwanth, Rangoe—; Malayalam: Vallikkanniram—; Oudh: Karw-

anth, Rangoe—; Telugu: Kappatige, Nagamushini, Nallatige, Pataveru,

Tigemushidi, Vettichitramulamu—; Urviya: Ralajati noi, Kolichiti—.

TINOMISCIUM.

This genus consists of 8 Malayan species.

Tinomiscium petiolare Miers is very common in forests and

secondary jungle, along roadsides, etc., from Singapore to Kedah.

It is distributed to Tongking, Sumatra, and Borneo.

The Malays use the plant as a drug in rheumatism,

Malay: Akar langkap, Akar lempoyang, Akar lumpang, Akar. mumbulu,

Akar nasi—.

TINOSPORA.

The genus numbers 4o species distributed over most of the

palaeotropical regions, but chiefly in Indo-Malaya.

The following species are used medicinally in Senegal—T. bakis

Miers.—; in Indo-China—T. cordifolia Miers., T. crispa Miers.,

T. malabarica Miers.—; in the Philippine Islands—T, crispa

Miers.—; in Java—T. Rumphii Boerl.—.

I. Endocarp distinctly tuberculate

1. Leaves pilose on both sides or at least beneath ... 1. T. malabarica,

2. Leaves glabrous 2. Crispas

II. Endocarp rotund-ovoid, ribbed on the back, otherwise.

almost smooth eee aa Sit ge L. cordifolia,

MEDICINAL AND -POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA .- 89

1. Tinospora malabarica Miers is found in Bengal, Khasia,

Assam, Orissa, Konkan, Kanara, nearly all the districts of the

Madras Presidency, and Ceylon.

The plant has tonic properties.

In China and Tongking the fresh leaves and the stem are used

in the treatment of chronic rheumatism.

The whole plant is used medicinally in Cambodia. Fumigations

are recommended for piles and ulcerated wounds. Medicated baths

are prepared in cases of liver complaint.

Almora: Gureh—; Annam: Khoan can dang—; Bengal: Bara padmagul-

ancha, Padmagaluncha—; Cambodia: Kambaur—; Ceylon: Bukinda, Wal-

kinda—; Garhwal: Gileh—; Hindi: Giloe, Gulancha, Gureh—; Malaya: Bara

sarasati lat—; Marathi: Gulvel—; Ramnagar: Gurja—; Sinhalese : Bukinda—;

Tamil: Potchindil—; Tongking: Day dan xuong—; Uriya: Guduchi, Gulochi,

Podmogulochi—.

2. Tinospora crispa Miers occurs in Sylhet, Assam, and

Burma. It is cultivated in the Malay Peninsula and Ceylon. It

is found throughout the Malay Archipelago.

The whole plant is exceedingly bitter, and is employed by the

Malays in the cure of intermittent fevers.

In Indo-China the stem is considered a febrifuge of great

importance. Asa tonic it is said to give as good results as quinine.

There is a widespread opinion that it is an excellent tonic during

convalescence from exhausting diseases.

In the Philippine Islands it is considered to’ be a panacea to be

applied to all bodily afflictions. It is given in general debility, in

chronic rheumatism, in malarial fevers.

The jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula use the plant in the

preparation of their arrow and dart poisons.

Annam: Day Ki nin, Day than thong—; Cambodia: Bandaul pech, Bora

phet—; French: Liane-quinine—; Malay: Toba, Tuba, Tubabidyi—; Sinhalese :

Tithakinda, Tittakinda—; Sunda Islands: Andawali—; Tagalog: Macabuhai— ;

_Tongking: Thuoc sot ret—; Visayan: Paliavan, Panavan, Pangiavan—. The

Indian names are the same as for T. cordifolia.

3. Tinospora cordifolia Miers is found throughout tropical

India, Burma, the Andamans, and Ceylon.

The stem is one of the most popular drugs in India, being

held in high repute by Ayurveda and Yunani doctors alike. |

The stem is a bitter stomachic; stimulates bile secretion; causes

constipation; tonic; allays thirst, fever, burning sensation, vomit-

ing; diuretic; enriches the blood; cures jaundice; useful in’ skin

diseases; the juice is useful in diabetes, vaginal and urethral dis-

charges, low fevers, and enlarged spleen (Ayurveda).

Stem bitter; appetiser, stomachic, tonic, antipyretic, expectorant ;

good in cough, jaundice, giddiness, vomiting, piles, anaemia,

chronic fever; renews the blood; mixed with sesame oil it is useful

for massaging the body (Yunani):

An infusion of the powdered stem is used as an alterative and

tonic, and has enjoyed the reputation among ancient Hindu writers

of being an aphrodisiac.

In Ceylon the stem is used in fevers, skin diseases, jaundice,

and: syphilis. A decoction of the stem is given internally, and the

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

bruised fresh leaves are applied externally for the bites of flies and

the sting of bees.

The starch obtained from the roots and stems of the plant is

similar to Arrow-root in appearance and effect. It answers not only

as a remedial medicinal agent in chronic diarrhoea and some forms

of obstinate chronic dysentery, but it is also a valuable nutrient,

when there is intestinal irritability and inability to digest any kind

of food. I have myself had experience of the usefulness of this

starch. 1 think that this drug is useful where there is an acid

diarrhoea, due to an acidity of the intestinal canal or acid dyspepsia.

It is useful in relieving the symptoms of rheumatism. There is

another preparation of this plant, the swccus (juice), freshly prepared

from the fresh plant. It acts as a powerful diuretic. It is pre-

scribed by ancient Hindu physicians in gonorrhoea with advantage

(Kirtikar).

The Mundas of Chota Nagpur apply the ground plant on

fractures.

In certain parts of India the plant is regarded as a specific for

the bites of poisonous insects and venomous snakes. The juice

and decoction of the root are applied to the part bitten, poured

frequently into the eyes and administered internally by mouth at

intervals of half an hour.

The majority of Sanskrit authors prescribe the root and stem

in combination with other drugs as an antidote to snake-bite and

scorpion-sting. Mbhaskar and Caius have, however, shown expert-

mentally that the root and stem are useless in the antidotal

treatment of snake-bite; the root is also useless as a collyrium

or ‘as an external application to the bitten part; the root is equally

useless in the treatment of scorpion-sting.

A tincture was tried in mild cases of malaria and was found

to be useless in such cases. The aqueous extract was tried in

the low chronic fever of kala-azar and also in diabetes, but it was

not found to possess the virtues attributed to it... . The drug

was given, another fair trial in the form of a liquid extract in

several cases of malarial fever, both in children and adults. Its

action was found to be very slow. The drug had to be administered

for several days before even mild cases were cured. In chronic

cases it did not do any good, although it is a reputed medicine in

the Hindu Pharmacopoeia for all fevers (Koman).

Arabic: Gilo--; Bengal: Gadancha, Giloe, Gulancha, Guluncha, Gunchi,

Nimgilo—; Bombay: Ambarvel, Gharol, Giroli, Guloe, Gulwel—; Burma:

Singomone, Sinzamanne—; Canarese: Amrytaballi, Madhuparne, Uganiballi— ;

Cantonese: Fun khu hang—; Central Provinces: Gulwel—; Ceylon: Chintil— ;

Chinese: K’uan Chu Hsing—; Deccan: Gulbel, Gulo, Gulvel—; French:

Culancha—; Goa: Amritvel, Amrityel—; Guyerati, Gado, Galo, Gulo, Gulwel— ;

Hansot: Galavel—; Hindi: Giloe, Gulancha, Gulbel, Gulel, Guloh, Gurach,

Gurcha— ; Indo-China: Day than thong—; Kathiawar: Galo, Galonowelo—;

Khond: Gursilai—; Konkani: Amontevel, Ekoiss givanem—; Kumaon:

Gulancha, Gurcha—; Lepcha: Kantherrik—; Malaya: Foon kan thang, Sarasati

lat—; Malayalam: Amrytu, Peyamrytam, Sittamrytu—; Marathi: Ambarvel,

Gharol, Giroli, Gulavela, Gulaveli, Guloe, Gulvel—; Mundari : Harajora, Hara-

juri, Harjora—; Nepal: Garjo—; Persian: Gulbel—; Punjab : Batindu, Garham,

Garum, Gilo, Gilogularich, Zakhmihaiyat—; Reddi: Korapattatige—; Sadani:

Harjora—; Sanskrit: Amrita, Amritalata, Amritavallari, Amritavalli, Bhisha-

kapriya, Chakralakshana, Chakrangi, Chandrahasa, Chandrapasa, Chchinna,

——$

MEDICINAL AND POTSONOUS PLANTS, OF INDIA 91

Chchinnaruha, Chchinnodbava, Chchinnodhana, Dhira, Goraksha, Guduchi,

Guluchi, Jivanthika, Jivantiha, Jwaranashini, Jwarari, Kundalini, Kundalli,

Madhuparni, Madhuparnika, Nagakumarika, Nirjara, Pamrodhara, Pittaghni,

Rasayani, Shyama, Somalatika, Somavalli, Surakrita, Tantri, Tantrika, Uddhara,

Vara, Vataraktari, Vatsadani, Vayastha, Vishalya—; Sikkim: Gurjo—;

Sinhalese: Galuchi, Rasakinda, Rassakinda—; Tamil: Amridavalli, Amudam,

Asasi, Kaippuchindil, Kunali, Narsindil, Niraidarudian, Paganrai, Padalamulam,

Parivai, Pattigai, Sadi, Sagadundam, Sagamuli, Silam, Sindil, Sivandi, Sivedai,

Ubavam, Vallikkandam, Vayamadu—; Telugu: Duyutige, Guduchi, Iruluchi,

Jivantika, Madhuka, Manapala, Somida, Tellatippatige, Tippatige—; Tharu:

Gulach—; Tulu: Amrytaburu—; Uriya: Gulancha, Gulochi—.

The BERBERIDACE2 are glabrous herbs or shrubs, sometimes

climbing. They number 200 species included in 12 genera. They

erow in the temperate regions of the northern hemispheres, in

tropical mountains, in the Andes and extra-tropical South America.

They. are absent from tropical and -South Africa, Australia and

New Zealand. .

The medicinal and poisonous Berberids of the world belong to

10 genera:—ACHLYs (Japan; Pacific North America); BERBERIS

(Northern hemisphere; South America); BoNGarpia_ (Eastern

Mediterranean); CAauULopHyLLum (North-eastern Asia; North-Ameri-

ca); DipHyLLeiA (Atlantic North America; Japan); EPIMEDIUM

(northern temperate regions) ; LEONTICE (northern temperate regions) ;

Manonra (southern hemisphere; cultivated); Nanpina_ (China,

Japan); PobpopHyLitum (northern temperate regions).

In general the root and bark are purgative; the bitter bark is

tonic and antiperiodic or depurative and cooling; the sour fruit is

astringent and antiscorbutic.

The following are among the products isolated :— (1) alkaloids

—berbamine, berberine, oxyacanthine— ; (2) resins—podophylloresin,

podophyllotoxin—; (3) colouring matter—podophylloquercetin— ;

(4) acids—malic, citric—.

The medicinal and poisonous Berberids of India belong to 4

genera—BERBERIS, BONGARDIA, MAHONIA, PODOPHYLLUM.

Ay Stem o or erect. Flowers hermaphrodite. Carpel 1.

Seeds usually small

I. Leaves unequally pinnate. Leaflets opposite ... MAHOonIa,

Il. Leaves simple, fascicled in the axils of 3-5-partite,

rarely simple spines Be : . BERBERIS.

III. Leaves simple, palmate. Ovules many ... ... PODOPHYLLUM,

B. Glabrous herb with tuberous root. All the leaves

radical = ah des ... BONGARDIA.

BERBERIS.

This genus includes 190 species inhabiting the northern

hemisphere, and South America.

About forty species of Berberis are used medicinally, and they

all seem to have similar therapeutical properties. Their stems and

barks are bitter tonics and mild laxatives.

There are three well-defined medicinal groups:—(1) The Rocky

Mountain group, including B. aquifolium Pursh.; (2) the Asiatic

group, which includes B. aristata DC.; (3) the European group,

_. which includes B, vulgaris Linn.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL] HIST. SSOCIEIY {Vor onl

The following deserve special mention in Europe—B. aetnensis

Presl., B. vulgaris Linn.—; in China—B. Sieboldi Migq., B.

vulgaris Linn.—; in Indo-China—B. asiatica Roxb., B. Lycium

Royle, B. japonica R. Br., B. vulgaris Linn.—; in North America—

B. aqujohum Pursh.,- B. nervosa Pursh.,;%B. pinnata "Vac, aeem

valgaris Linn.—; in Central America—B. trifoliatus Moric.—; in

Colombia—B. glauca DC.—.

Berberine has been isolated from B. aetnensis, B, aquifolium,

B. buxifolia, B. glauca, B. nervosa, B. vulgaris. Berbamine and

oxyacanthine are contained in the root barks of B. aquifolium and

B, vulgaris.

A. Ripe fruit red. Inflorescence a simple raceme. Leaves

usually toothed, lower pedicels 8-25 mm. long ol. B. vulgaris:

B. Ripe fruit blue black. Inflorescence a simple raceme

1. Leaves glossy green not glaucous beneath no, 2. Be QMIStalae

2. Leaves pale glaucous beneath

a. Leaves 1.3-3.8 cm. broad, secondary nerves

prominent above te nae a0 4. DB Masiaticor

b. Leaves .7.5-18 mm. broad, secondary nerves not

prominent above ag Bs 123. DB. yeni:

1. Berberis vulgaris Linn. is found in the Western Himalaya

from Kashmir to Nepal up to 12,000 feet. It also occurs in Western

Tibet, and is generally distributed over temperate Asia and _ the

greater part of Europe and Northern Africa.

The root-bark and the stem-bark have the same composition

and possess the same medicinal properties.

Barberry bark is tonic, purgative, and antiseptic. As a bitter

stomachic tonic, it proves an -excellent remedy for dyspepsia and

functional derangement of the liver, regulating the digestive powers,

and if given in larger doses, acting as a mild purgative and

removing constipation.

The bark is used for all cases of jaundice, general debility

and biliousness, and for diarrhoea. It possesses febrifuge powers

and is used as a remedy for intermittent fevers. It also forms

an excellent gargle for a sore mouth. A good lotion for application

to cutaneous eruptions has also been made from it.

In the Punjab, the root bark is used as diuretic, and for the

relief of heat, thirst and nausea. It is considered astringent,

refrigerant and antibilious. In small doses it is tonie, in larger

cathartic. In the form of decoction, it is useful in scarlet fever

and brain affections.

In Baluchistan the roots are boiled in water and the decoction

given both to men and cattle for internal injuries. It is said to be

good for fever, especially high fever.

On the Pacific Coast of North America the root-bark is con-

sidered tonic and aperient; the leaves are used as an antiscorbutic.

The berries are official in France. They contain citric and malic

acids, and possess astringent and antiscorbutic properties. They are

useful in inflammatory fevers, especially typhus, also in_ bilious

disorders and scurvy; and in the form of a jelly they are very

refreshing in irritable sore throat, for which also a Syrup of

Barberries made with water, proves. an excellent astringent gargle. .

_MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 93

-In England the fruits are macerated in about twelve times

their quantity of water, to which a little fennel seed has been

added, and the liquid is used as a cooling draught in cases of fever.

The Egyptians are said still to employ a diluted juice of the

berries in pestilential fevers. In Ceylon the ripe fruits are used

in the preparation of cooling, astringent, and antiscorbutic drinks

which are given in febrile diseases and diarrhoea.

In Persia the consumption of the berries is said to remove

itch and other skin complaints.

Arabic: Ambarbaris, Ambar-us-shahab—; Baluchi: MKaroskae, Korae,

Zrolg—; Bombay: Zarishk—; Brahui: Zarch—; Catalan: Coralets—; Dutch:

Barbarine, Berberis, Kweekdorn, Zuurdoorn—; English: Barbaryn, Barberry,

Barboranne, Berber, Berberry, Guild, Jaundice Berry, Maiden Barberry, Pepper-

ridge, Piperidge, Piperidge Bush, Piperidge Rilts, Pipperidge-bush, Piprage,

Woodsore, Woodsour, Woodsower Tree—; French: Berbéris, Chivafou, Epine-

aigrette, Epine-vinette, Verre-vinette, Vinette, Vinettier—; German Basselbeere

Berberitze, Berberstrauch, Bramelbeere, Bromelbeere, Dreidorn, Erbselbeere,

Erbsele, Essigdorn, Farsbeere, Gallhageldorn, Gelbbeere, Passelbeere, Peiselbeere>

Reifbeere, Reisbeere, Reissbeere, Reisselbeere, Rhabarberbeere, Sauch, Sauerdorn,

-Sauerrach, “Saurach, Spitzbeere, Versuchsbeere, Weinaengleinstrauch, Weinling,

Weinnaegelein, Weinshade, Weinschaerl, Weinzaepfel, Wuetscherling, Zwack-

holzbaum—; Greek: Axokanda—; Hamadan: Zirishk—; Hattu: Chamchur,

Chochar— ; Hindi: Zarishk—,; Italian: Berberi, Berbero, Crespigno, Crespino,

Spina santa, Trespino—; Jaunsar ; Chatrod—; Pacific Coast: Barberry, Common

Barberry, European Barberry, Garden Barberry, Guild-tree, Jaundice-berry, Sow-

berry, Wood-sour—; Persian: Bedana, Cutch, Karoskai, Zarishk—; Portuguese :

Berberis—; Punjab: Chachar, Chochar, Kashmal, Zirishk—; Pushtu: Karos-

kai—; Roumanian: Dracila, Lemn_ galben, Macris de riuri—; Russian:

Barbaris—; Sibi: Karoskae, Zrolg—; Spanish: Acetin, Agracejo, Agracillo,

Agraz, Agrecillo, Alarguez, Alguese, Azlacristo, Berberos—; Toba Hills:

Karoskae, Zrolg—; Urdu: Ambar—; Zarghun: Karoskae, Zrolg—j; Zhob:

Korae, Zrolg—.

2. Berberis aristata DC. occurs in the Himalaya from Chota

Banghal to Nepal, between 6,000 and 10,500 feet.

The wood, root-bark and extract of Indian Barberry have been

used in Hindoo Medicine from a very remote period. Its properties

are said to be analogous to those of turmeric. Indian Barberry

and its extract, vasot, are regarded as alterative and deobstruent,

and are used in skin diseases, menorrhagia, diarrhoea, jaundice,

and above all in affections of the eyes. Sarangdhara recommends

a simple decoction of Indian barberry to be given, with the addition

of honey in jaundice. In painful micturition from bilious or acrid

urine, a decoction of Indian- barberry and emblic myrobalan is

given with honey. A decoction of the root-bark is used as a wash

for unhealthy ulcers, and is said to improve their appearance and

promote cicatrization. Rasot, mixed with honey, is said to be a

useful application to aphthous sores. | |

A decoction of the root bark in doses of one to two ounces

Was given to several patients for malarial fever and was found to

be beneficial, the effect being very slow (Koman). 7

Arabic: Aargis, Ambarbaris, Hhodhub, Itrarahh, Messuk—; Bagi: Chochar,

-Kambra, Tharmala—; Bhutia: Tsema—; Canarese: Bagisutra—; English:

Indian Barberry, Tree Turmeric—; Garhwal: Kingora—; Greek:. Lykion

iindikon—; Hindi: Chitra, Chotra, Darhald, Hooshish, -Kashmal,- Kashmar,

~Rasvat, Rusot—; Jaunsar: Kashmoi—; Malayalam: Maradarisina, Maramanjal

--3; Narkand: Chochar, Kambra, Tharmala—; Nepal: Chitra, Chutro—; North-

‘Western Provinces: Chitra—; Persian: Chitra; Zirishk—; Punjab: Chitra,

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Kasmal, Kemloo, Simlu, Sumlu, Tutrum—; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Darvi,

Kata, Katankati, Kateri, Pitadaru, Suvarnavarna—; Simla: Kammul, Kashmal,

Kaumul— ; Tamil: Mullukala, Usikkala—.

3. Berberis lycium Royle is found in the Punjab Himalaya

between 3,000 and g,ooo feet, and in Kumaon at 2,500-8,500 feet.

The root is highly esteemed as a febrifuge and as a _ local

application in eye diseases.

An extract prepared by digesting in water sliced pieces of the

root, stem, and branches, is called rusot, and is used advantageously

in cases of ophthalmia.

The leaves are administered in Baluchistan as a cure for jaundice.

In Indo-China the fruit is given as a tonic in troubles of the

kidney.

The tincture was found to be useless as a remedial agent in

fevers of malarial origin (Central Indigenous Drugs Committee).

Arabic: Ambarbarin, Hooziz, Hoozizindi—; Baluchistan: Koroski, Zarch—;

Cutch: Kasmal—; Hindi: Chitra, Kushmul—; Indo-China: Cau tu, Ky tu—;

Jaunsar: Chahoi, Daruhaldli, Kashmal—; North-Western Provinces: Kushmul

—; Persian: Unjebar—; Simla: Chochar, Chotra, Kashmal, Kasmal—; Sind:

Kushmul— ; Waziri: Khadavanai, Sakazie, Sarghazie—.

4. Berberis asiatica Roxb. is found in the dry valleys of the

Himalaya, from Garhwal to Bhutan, between 2,000 and 8,ooo feet.

It also occurs in Bihar, Mount Abu, and Afghanistan.

The plant is used for the same purpose and in the same ways

as B. aristata. It is reputed useful in the treatment of snake-bite ;

and scorpion-sting; but Mhaskar and Caius have shown the root,

stem, and gum are all equally useless for the purpose.

Almora: Kilmoru—; Bengal: Daruharitra—; Canarese: Maradarisina— ;

Dehra Dun: Kingora—; Garhwal: Kingora—j; Gujerat: Daruhaldar—j; Hindi:

Daruhaldi, Sumlu—-; Jaunsar: Kishornoi—; Kumaon: Kilmora, Kilmoru—;

Marathi: Daruhaldi—; Nepal: Chitra, Kissie, Matekissie—; Persian: Darhuld,

Daruhuld—; Ranikhet: Kilmoru—; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Darupita, Daruni-

sha, Darvi, Dvitiyabha, Haimavati, Haridra, Hemakanti, Hemkranta, Kaliyaka,

Kamini, Kapitaka, Karkatini, Karnavati, Kashtha, Kashtharajani, Katankateri,

Marnmari, Nirdishta, Pachampacha, Parjani, Parjaniya, Pita, Pitachandana,

Pitadaru, Pitadru, Pitatvaka, Pitika, Sthirraga—; Simla: Kammula, Kashmala,

Kaumula—.

BONGARDIA.

B. Rauwolfii C. A. Mey. The only species of this genus occurs

in Baluchistan, whence it spreads to Afghanistan, Persia, Trans-

caucasus, Syria, Palestine, Bithynia, and the Greek Islands.

In Baluchistan the leaves are used as a cure for sore eyes in-

horses.

Ghandoba: Puccatutuka—; Kotra: Shrin—.

MAHONIA.

This genus includes 50 species, which inhabit the southern

hemisphere. Many are cultivated as ornamental shrubs.

In North America the berries of M. fascicularis DC. are con-

sidered a cooling laxative medicine.

Mahonia napaulensis DC. is found in the temperate Himalaya

at 4,000-8,o00 feet, from*Garhwal to Bhutan; in the Khasia Hills

MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 95

between 4,000 and 5,000 feet; in Mergui; and in the Nilgiri

mountains between 5,000 and 8,ooo feet.

The berries are considered diuretic, and demulcent in dysentery.

Chamba: Kandlu, Sharor—; Garhwal: Gurm, Haldia—; Jaunsar: Khoru

—; Nepal: Chatri, Jamnemunola, Milkissie—; Punjab: Amudanda, Chiror— ;

Ramnagar: Bankhilmana—; Travancore: Maranthu—.

PODOPHYLLUM.,

The genus consists of 5 species distributed over the northern

temperate regions.

The rhizome of and resin from P. emodi Wall. are official in

Great Britain; the dried rhizome and roots of P. peltatum Linn.

are Officially recognized in Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France,

Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Italy, Japan, Norway, Portugal,

Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United States; the

resin from P. peltatum Linn. in Austria, Finland, Hungary and

Yugoslavia.

Podophyllum emodi Wall. is found in the interior ranges of

the Himalaya from Hazara and Kashmir to Sikkim.

The constituents of the Indian podophyllum and of the American

podophyllum (,P. peltatum Linn.) are identical. The chief consti-

tuent is podophyllotoxin. An uncrystallizable resin, podophylloresin,

has also been isolated. :

The drug was administered in the form of a tincture to six

cases and was found to possess all the properties that the podo-

phyllin of the British Pharmacopoeia possessed. It acts as a

hepatic stimulant and cholagogue purgative (Koman).

Gujerat ; Venivel— |; Hind: : Bakrachimyaka, Bhavanbakra, Papra, Papri,

Nibishi, Pilijati—; Kashmir: Banwangan—;— Marathi: Podwel, Patvel—;

Punjab: Banbakri, Bankakra, Bankakri, Chimyaka, Chyakri, Gulkakri,

Gulkakru, Kakra, Papri, Wanwangan—.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS OF PANCHAX

LINEATUS CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES, WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 1S VARVICIDAL

PROPENSITIES.

A. G. FRASER, I.M.D.

The opportunity of making the following observations was

provided by Mr. Adams who showed the writer a pool near

Poona containing a large number of specimens of the ‘Top-

Minnow’ Panchax lineatus Cuv. & Val. The local Hindi name

of the fish is Konkani garah. It can be readily distinguished

from the other local fishes by the possession of a silver star mark

on the head. The pool referred to above is situated on the south

bank of the Mutha-Mulla river and, at the time of our visit, contained

specimens of P. lineatus only, though from the end of the channel

connecting the pool with the river a young Ophicephalus was also

obtained. The paucity of the fish-fauna of the pool was probably

due to the fact that it was at the time stagnant and very foul with

evidence of sulphuretted hydrogen emanations. There was a heavy

scum on the greater portion of its surface with fragments of

floating algae. The pool was about 15 feet in diameter with an

average depth of 18 inches. The bed was practically rocky through-

out and grown with algae; some portions of the bank and the

bed at the edges were overgrown with long grasses and weeds.

Field observations show that Panchax lineatus has the habit

of lying for hours on end nearly flat with the surface film. When

disturbed it dives below, and after 4 to 5 minutes reappears again

to resume its position at the surface. Dorsally in a line with

and behind the eyes there is a bright silver shield—shaped somewhat

like the letter I in very thick type—the lustre of which when |

viewed from the bank and also in the aquarium is very striking.

Owing to the sheen on this silver patch one is able to spot these

fishes in the clearer portions of the pool almost at once, especially

if the sun is shining when the scintillation produced by it is very

noticeable. In the aquarium, when the fish were placed in a_

very dark corner of the room, the silver shield faded away and

was replaced by a black or greatly dulled blotch; and at times,

when there was a dim light streaming into the room, the lustre

of the shield waxed and waned. When exposed to the glare of

sunlight, or in the hght of a dull day when clouds hide the sun,

the lustre of the shield is always bright. The more light, the

brighter does the sheen and scintillation become and the fishes

themselves tend to turn towards the source from which _ the

light is falling. Fishermen tell me that this species lies at the

ON THE BIONOMICS OF PANCHAX LINEATUS 97

surface and waits for insects to fly over, when it leaps out for

them. I was unable to confirm their statement as during my visits

to the pool there was no ocular evidence of this habit. Owing

to my observations having been made during the rainy season

when the skies are overcast with clouds, and also because of an

absence of small insects—large red and blue dragon flies were

numerous and disturbed the fishes by darting down on the surface

of the water—the fish, in the matter of insect food, were perhaps

at a seasonal disadvantage.

The habitat of Konkani garah and the evidence of fishermen

indicate that it is probably an insectivorous fish. Mr. Adams

informs me that he has never at any time of the year been able

to find larvae of mosquitoes in the pool from which the fishes were

mecovered. I. can certainly say there were no larvae present: in

this pool at the time of my four visits within a period of a fortnight

during June-July, 1937.

In the aquarium, as in the pool, the fishes lie flat on the surface

film, particularly if the water is foul. The same foul water from’

the pool was used to keep a batch of 6 fishes, and 6 others were

kept in a receptacle containing clear tap water.' One fish in the

clear water receptacle died after 24 hours, but five others lived

on without showing any ill effects. They only occasionally rose

to the surface, but remained most of the time below in mid-

water; and even in this situation the silver shield on the head

remained bright as long as the fishes were directly exposed

mteht. When kept in a dark corner of the room the lustre. of

the shield gradually faded to black. On the other hand, those

kept in foul water with green algae in it, remained the whole time

—night and day—at the surface film, practically motionless except

for a slight wriggle of the caudal and pectoral fins and with

them also the shield shone brightly when in _the light. The

position of the fish at the surface film ts such that they lie almost

Hat with it. The head with the silver shield is under water, but

the dorsal ridge from this point backwards is flush with the surface

right up to the caudal fin which is below the water line. The

dorsal fin near to the caudal fin is partly above the water level.

The fish will remain thus for hours unless disturbed. It should

be noted that the mouth is only imperceptibly opened in the act

of breathing and that the gill covers are seen to move very

slightly as the respiratory rate is very slow. Some fishes leaped

out of the receptacle and it was then noticed that the silver shield

became black and remained so as long as the fishes were out of

the water. As a matter of interest, I kept three of these fishes in

a wet handkerchief and observed them from time to time and at

the end of 6 hours all were alive and during the whole period

they remained in a form of suspended animation with the shield

showing up dulled and dark. There was no evidence of any

respiratory movement or gasping for air as in the case of other

— ——____.

Z Tap water should usually be allowed to mature for at least 48 hour's

before it is used for aquarium purposes.—S. L.

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, BiSi) SOCIETY Yo eae

surface fishes when out of water. They only wriggled or jumped

if touched. One was restored to water and it recovered inter

minutes. The other two died after 6} hours and, only in the final

stages of death, showed respiratory embarrassment by opening

their mouths and muscularly exerting the gill covers. After death

the colour tones became much darker. Another physical presenta-

tion is that the body is semi-transparent; the vertebral column is

visibly defined as a dark shadow, so also are the stomach and

the lungs, but the swim bladder is not seen as is the case with

the glass-perch Ambassis ranga. A curious fact is that the fish,

which died after a stay of 24 hours in clear water, showed the

silver head shield still fairly bright; this has not yet faded in

preservative up to now—a period of about one month—it is quite

white but without the sheen observed in the lving fish. The

two fishes which were kept in a wet handkerchief and died after

6; hours also show a subdued discoloured patch. In all the others

which had to be killed in preservative the shields have become

black.

The significance of the phenomenon observed in connection with

the silver shield is at this stage very difficult to explain. The

behaviour of the fish and the photosensitivity of the shield on the

head appear to indicate that it may be a means of attracting those

insects which are usually drawn towards light. It was observed

in an aquarium that at night when there is no luminosity the

shield is quite dark. It reacts to artificial electric light in the

same way as to daylight. This would indicate that during

moonlit nights, when myriads of small insects hover over pieces

of water for breeding purposes, the silvery head spot is capable

of shining and presumably of attracting insects. These facts

therefore, appear to support the conjecture that the silvery spot

is a specialization which enables the fish to attract the particular

kinds of insects required as food. Further investigation is required

to confirm this purely tentative theory.

Colouration: When alive the fishes are pretty. Dorsally there

is a dark colour tone on a background of buff with a slightly

yellowish green tinge. The caudal and anal fins are piped in

scarlet. The dorsal fin is yellow and faintly pink at the tips with

a basal black dot, and the junction with the body is stippled

with silver. The pectoral fins are also yellow and the area behind

them is stippled with crimson dots. The body is semi-transparent.

The anterior portion of the anal fin is prolonged into two red

stained rays. ‘There are 7-8 transverse black bands on the posterior

half of the body.

| The mosquito-larvae eating propensities of the genus Panchax

are well-known, and several workers have already reported the

absence of mosquito larvae from pieces of water in which these

‘Top-Minnows’ live. Mr. Fraser’s observations show that P.

lineatus can live in very foul waters and that it can subsist on

aerial respiration alone for considerable periods. Moreover, the

tentative hypothesis concerning the function of the silver spot on

the head, advanced for the first time, seems to be well worth

further investigation. If it proves to be a fact that the silver

ON THE BIONOMICS OF PANCHAX LINEATUS 99

spot is used for attracting insects, then in. Panchax we shall not

only have an agent for destroying mosquito larvae but also a

trap for luring adult mosquitoes that visit suitable pieces of water

for breeding purposes. It may be noted that adult mosquitoes

have often been found among the stomach contents of P. panchax

(Hamilton). Reference may also be made to certain fishes, which

live in deep seas, and emit light from special organs to attract

their prey. It would thus seem that Mr. Fraser’s view concerning

the utility of the silver spot is not in any way extravagant.

‘The habits and habitat of P. panchax, the well-known Ti-Choki

msi, (the three-eyed fish, in the third.eye reference is made to

the shining, silvery spot on the head) of Bengal are similar to

the Peninsular species—P. lineatus. While determining the utility

of P. panchax in keeping pieces of water free of mosquito larvae,

Nair and I kept one valve chamber opposite the Engine Room

of the Pulta Pumping Station as a control and introduced no fish

in it. In three. other chambers specimens of P. panchax were

introduced early in July. Occasional inspection of the chambers

showed that no mosquito larvae were present in the chambers.

containing the fish, while in the control chamber the water became

very foul and in about half a pint of water taken from the surface

there were over 200 mosquito larvae on the 7th of August, 1937.

Ten specimens of P. panchax were introduced in the evening, but

two died during the night. More specimens were introduced the

following day and by the evening the number of mosquito larvae

in the chamber was reduced to 4 or 5 in half a pint of surface

water. These observations show that P. panchax, like its congener

P, lineatus, can live in very foul waters and is an effective larvicide.

_ Two specimens of P. panchax were left in a small glass bowl

on wet cotton wool and the bowl was covered with a wet piece

of cloth at about 8 p.m. At 8 a.m. next morning both the specimens

were alive, but one died an hour after, while the second was

revived by keeping it in water. This experiment bears out the

hardy nature of these fishes, and shows the ease with which it

should be possible to transport them over long distances.

In connection with the subject of the larvicidal fishes of India,

it seems desirable to refer to an earlier observation made by Mr.

Fraser while stationed at Deolali in the Nasik District. He found

that a stagnant pool in a disused quarry was kept free of mosquito

larvae by a small Carp-Minnow, Rasbora labiosa Mukerji, a

remarkable fish which has developed a special contrivance, by the

hypertrophy of the lower lip, for catching insects by jumping out

of the water. The fishes of the genus Rasbora are usually

regarded of moderate utility in destroying mosquito larvae, but it

seems probable that they may prove very useful for local needs

in certain areas.—S. L. Hora. | |

PRINCIPLES, OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION,

THEODORE HUBBACK.

(With 4 black and white plates).

INTRODUCTION.

Are the principles of Wild Life Conservation to continue as

elusive conceptions without material form, or are they to become

a living presence increasing in virility year by year?

There appears to be a danger that these principles will be

sacrificed for: private profit. The present tendency to exploit all

natural resources regardless of the future will eventually result in

the disappearance of many species of the larger fauna unless such

tendency is drastically checked.

Until it is recognized that Wild Life is a valuable natural

resource and that the bénefits derived from an unguarded resource

are wasting benefits, waste will continue till the resource has gone

and the benefits have vanished.

* * * * *

_No natural resource is more sensitive to conservation than wild

life, and no natural resource has suffered more from lack off

conservation. During the last fifty years species have been

exterminated due to this deficiency.

Wild life is only just being recognized as one of our valuable

assets, but this recognition is so tardy, especially in some of our

Colonies and Dependencies, that there.is a very real danger of

the recognition coming too late. The days when efficient conserva-

tion may be possible are rapidly passing away.

Unfortunately it is a fact that those principles of conservation

which it is imperative should be applied to wild life preservation

are seldom understood by those who have the power to further or

retard the measures desired. The lack of proper financial provision’

is, I believe, the real reason why in some of our Colonies and

parts of India and Burma we are losing our wild life. Those who

hold the keys of the money bag’s never appear to be conservationists !

I shall endeavour to show in this article how senseless it is

to expect to save wild life unless the true principles of conservation

are recognized and adopted. The ‘hit or miss method’ of a budget

allowance for what is erroneously called ‘game protection’ will never

achieve the saving of our wild life.

To conserve wild life resources you must have a fairly accurate

idea of what you have to. conserve and what you wish to conserve.

In other words, you should know what your stock consists of}

you should know where it is to be found; you should have a

knowledge of its ecology, numbers and status.

These alone are questions which cannot be answered except

after careful research and skilled inquiry.

"VAWIVIN NI YNHaWVS AO

YY}

lea!

aa)

PRINCIPLES” OF \WILD’ LIFE CONSERVATION 101

Let us take the larger forms of wild life and consider certain

species. Wild elephants, for instance, may have, as they have

in India and elsewhere, an economic value, apart from the value

of their ivory, because they are used for domestic and transport

purposes. Therefore, there is probably in such countries a desire

to conserve elephants for economic reasons and it is not desired

to see the wild stock, the natural resource, exterminated. <A wild

elephant is certainly out of place in a highly cultivated or industrial

area, but not out of place in his jungle habitat, and so long as

it is desired to conserve wild elephants for economic reasons, so

long should we retain sufficient of their habitat to make that

conservation a possibility. But principles of conservation cannot be

based solely on such premises. I merely give the above illustration

as an instance of one reason for consideration of the problem from

an economic outlook.

There is much wild life which we cannot claim as having to

our knowledge any direct commercial value to the community,

although its zsthetic value may be very great.

One will readily divide the classes of commercially valuable and

esthetically valuable wild-life resources by thinking of fur-bearing

wild animals, and the many attractive song-birds which delight

our hearts and soothe our nerves. People desire that both classes

should be conserved, but for dissimilar reasons. Then again wild

life is conserved for recreation all over the world, another reason

different from those quoted above.

It is legitimate to presume that there being many reasons for

the continuance of wild life in most parts of the world, proper

steps for its conservation should be taken, and therefore one would

expect to receive the support and approval of the Public for any

sound policy of conservation.

It is useless to imagine that you can conserve wild life without

spending money on an organization to do so. You get very little

in this world for nothing and wild life conservation is no exception

to the general rule of having to pay for a good article.

An International Conference for the Protection of the Fauna and

Flora of Africa was held in London in November, 1933, and a

convention was ultimately signed by the representatives of niné

Governments.

Besides the representatives of the Governments immediately

concerned the Governments of the United States of America, India

and the Netherlands sent observers to the Conference.

This Convention embraced many phases of conservation and

should prove of inestimable value to African Fauna and Flora.

Although the recommendations are far-reaching and are vital to

a proper system of conservation the question of how the expenditure

on such proposals should be met was not referred to in any of the

documents published.

Possibly it was not within the province of this Conference to

deal with or even refer to the question of financial arrangements :

such matters are left to the Governments concerned. Nevertheless

the whole constructive policy of conservation may break down,

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xe

whatever resolutions are passed, unless financial provision is assured

for that policy.

It is clear, I think, that as a Nation we are anxious to preserve

and keep from extermination the fauna in our charge. To an

International Conference for the Protection of Nature held in Paris

in July, 1931, the Prime Minister, Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, sent a

message of which the following is an extract:

‘In the Territories for which they are responsible His Mayjesty’s

Government in the United Kingdom regard themselves as trustees

for the Protection of Nature not only in the interests: of them

present inhabitants, but in those of the world at large and of future

generations.

‘The wonderful fauna and flora with which Nature has.endowed

the world have already suffered grave losses. Animals and plants

of great scientific interest and often of great beauty have been

exterminated, objects of great geological interest have been

destroyed and the beauties of Nature defaced. Lovers of Nature

may do much to stem this process, but if their object is to be

secured the active co-operation of Government is essential.’

The obligation of a Nation towards the wild life in its territories

is well stated in a speech made by the present King of Belgium,

when he was _ still Prince Leopold, at a dinner of the African

Society held in London on November 18, 1933. He said:

‘The protection of nature raises problems of universal im-

portance, the evolution of which cannot be left to the initiative of

isolated groups, whose action is necessarily limited, and. who are

eee to enforce in their entirety the effective measures of preserva-

tion which are necessary.

‘The State alone can and must take the responsibility for a

protective organization which will command the interest of all

mankind in its moral, social, economical, and cultural development;

and thus the political aspect of the question becomes apparent.’

Are we, as a Nation, to allow the conservation of wild life to

be undertaken by local Governments as a purely domestic policy ?

The pronouncement of the Prime Minister is against this.

Yet during the last few years, serious steps have been taken

by local Governments to prejudice considerably the work of

conservation by withholding funds and reducing personnel, making

constructive methods impossible. Financial stringency has been the

excuse.

In my opinion these unfortunate contretemps, which most

seriously affect the status of the fauna, can be and should be

avoided by a recognition of the fact that there is an intimate

connection between “the revenue derived from Wild Life Resources

and the amount of money that can be spent on its. conservation.

This is the base on which a sound financial policy for efficient

conservation can be built.

Whatever laws are passed, without adequate means to enforce

them, the work of conservation must fail; and to inaugurate success-

fully a real service for the conservation of wild life there must be

‘dNIM AHL ONILSAL SI MOOD FHL MOH JANESHO “MOT LIVS V ONIYSLNA ATVO YAH UNV ONVAWTHS MOO Y

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PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE. CONSERVATION 103

a definite financial policy to deal with it. So long as funds can

be cut off, which reduce, or even abrogate, the service for conserva-

tion, while the methods of destruction are left unchecked by any

practical application of the law, so long will our work fail. We

must appreciate the fact that failure means the ultimate disappear-

ance of the wild fauna.

We are not concerned at the moment with the laws: their

general principles are, broadly speaking, agreed to, and although

not consistent throughout our Territories and Colonies could easily

be brought more or less into a condition of co-ordination. The

great importance of inviolate reserves is now widely recognized,

but steps to implement the laws for such sanctuaries are awaited.

What we are concerned with are ways and means to enable the

laws we have to be properly enforced.

A method has been adopted in many parts of the United States

whereby a ‘Game Fund’ is established by law—embodied in fact in

the Game and Fish laws—by which all revenue, direct and indirect,

derived from Wild Life Resources is credited to the Fund. That

money is kept apart from the general revenue and earmarked for

the conservation of wild life. The most striking example of the

success of this method can be seen in the results obtained in

Pennsylvania, U.S.A. This State was ‘shot out’ in 1890, but in

that year a few of the people realized that drastic steps would

have to be taken if their wild life was to be saved. Finally a

Board of Game Commissioners was appointed, and when the Board

began its work in 1896 its funds consisted of the sum of G. $800

omy. Im roriz3-a sum of G. $97,000 was available; in 1930,

G. $1,413,251 was the amount budgeted for the fiscal year, June 1,

HQ29, to May 31, 1930.

Not only was a large revenue obtained, but a ‘shot out’ State

was turned into one of the best sporting States on the eastern side

of North America.

Can we afford to ignore such methods which have proved so

strikingly successful? I think not.

Another method is by the ‘yard-stick,’ whereby the amount to

be spent on conservation of wild life is budgeted according to the

estimated revenue for the year from Wild Life Resources.

But whichever system is used it must be laid down by law that

in the case of a fund—call it ‘Wild Life Fund’ if you like—that

fund cannot be raided or interfered with by the Legislature. The

Budget Commissioner, or whoever is the officer handling finance,

cannot be allowed to interfere with the proposed expenditure pro-

vided it is within the estimated revenue of the fund, or the limits

of the measurement by ‘yard-stick.’

Whichever system is adopted it must be recognized that the

service for the protection of wild life will be expected to protect

certain types and forms of the fauna which do not produce any

direct or indirect revenue, but still require expenditure on their

preservation for other reasons.

It may therefore be necessary before a substantial fund has

been built up, to obtain from the general revenue funds for the

conservation of insectivorous birds, and other forms of wild life

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL VHIST,, SOCIETY, 3] Vol7 ee

which are of utilitarian value. Later on, as in Pennsylvania, when

a solid revenue is assured, such requests will be unnecessary.

The direct and indirect revenue which should be credited to the

department for the conservation of wild life should consist of:

Game Licences.

Licences and Permits for Sporting Arms.

{mport and Export Licences for Sporting Arms.

Duties on Sporting Arms.

Duties on Sporting Cartridges.

Licences for Purchase of Sporting Arms and Sporting Cart-

ridges.

Licences to Sell or Store Sporting Arms and Sporting Cart-

ridges.

Fishing Licences.

Fines and Costs.

Sales of Confiscated Articles and Picked-up Trophies.

The expenditure should include:

Salaries, Allowances and Transport of Officials.

Construction work on and maintenance of- National Parks,

Sanctuaries and Reserves.

Building and Maintenance of Offices.

Predatory Animal Control.

Fencing.

Rewards.

Court Expenses.

Sinking Fund for Leave, Gratuities and Pensions.

The officer in charge of the conservation department, with the

opportunities that a stable financial policy would give him, could

surely organize a service which would not only benefit the wild

life of his country but would be of inestimable value to the country

itself.

What we are now doing for conservation of wild life in many

places is just so much waste of time, because we have never got

past the stage of treating the work as a casual matter which can

be undertaken by anyone.

It is useless trying to build up a staff knowing that just as

the work of conservation is beginning to make its mark it 1s

lidble to be dispensed with at the behest of some ephemeral office

holder.

The whole matter turns on proper measures being taken to

finance the work required. If the system of the ‘Wild Life Fund’

is adopted, and the organization necessary and possible with the

funds obtainable placed in the hands of experienced conserva-

tionists, success is assured.

Adequate funds at the disposal of an efficient organization—you

cannot have such an organization without adequate funds—would

enable the proper guarding of wild life resources, the proper

policing of sanctuaries and reserves, the building up of a loyal

service for these objects, all of which are quite impossible so long

as the position of the staff and the execution of the work has no

foundation for lack of a financial policy.

In actual practice the work of successfully conserving wild life

5 EE ENTE 2)

fe)

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist.

PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION 105

is one of considerable difficulty and is highly specialized work.

lew have the aptitude to become practical conservationists, and

still fewer have the knowledge or experience to enable them to

exercise that aptitude if they possess it. j

But the real menace to any sound policy of wild life conservation

lies in that ugly word ‘indifference.’ This is generally synonymous

with ‘ignorance’. The latter is easier to overcome. There is often

a feeling, in a new country especially, that exploitation can be better

carried on by not paying too much notice to the claims and rights

of the indigenous fauna. In the United States of America there

has frequently been an outcry against the creation or extension of

a National Park by certain of the get-rich-quick fraternity. These

people are sometimes described by the elusive expression ‘vested

interests.’ This class of opposition to the conservation of natural

resources will be found in many places, generally coming from

local inhabitants who are looking for immediate profit and immediate

‘development.’ Sometimes this indifference to conservation is shown

by Governments—no doubt for the same reason.

The opposition to a National Park project may come from the

fact that the conservation would then be real and effective. That,

f think, is the truth.

By leaving the financial arrangements for the service of con-

servation to local Legislatures we are taking a great risk of losing

our fauna altogether. Some Legislatures might not object to a

dénouement !

India, Burma and Malaya have adopted a policy by which many

firearms are now in the possession of those whose observance of

the laws for the preservation of wild life is only governed by the

chances of detection if such laws are disregarded; and although

during the last few years the issue of weapons for the destruction

of wild life has been great, funds or personnel to ensure the

observance of the laws for preservation have not been increased,

in some cases they have even been curtailed.

Usually the argument used to justify the supply of arms to

the ryot is to enable him to defend his crops; in most cases his

crops can be much more efficiently protected by a stout stake and

rail fence. In the case of large wild animals, such as elephant,

the frequent wounding by firing at them with any sort of missile,

even bird shot, merely aggravates the trouble. Guns issued for

crop protection are used for poaching, and such poaching can only

be kept in check by the enforcement of an energetic policy through

an adequate organization. _

In the Dominions, especially Canada, the value of the conserva-

tion of wild life is well recognized and the work well organized.

It is in countries such as India, Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, British

Borneo and parts of Africa that so much yet requires to be done.

The principles of conservation have not been fully and generally

applied in these countries.

In India there are no appointments of Game Wardens as such,

conservation work being entrusted, as a side-show, to the Forest

Department. Burma had a Forest Officer appointed as a _ whole-

time Game Warden, but directly there was financial stringency, the

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL {HIST SOCIETY ji Vol. ce

billet was discontinued, and is still discontinued. A Forest Officer

with a full-time job was appointed as an Honorary Game Warden;

he subsequently resigned. Another Forest Officer has now been

appointed Game Warden.

At the recent Conference on Indian Fauna it was resolved that

the Provincial Governments should be asked to appoint Game

Wardens. Also that licence fees, etc., accruing from wild life

resources should be spent on conservation.

Even these principles had not been recognized, or at least not

publicly advocated, in India as vital to the conservation of wild life.

Dr. R. L. Spittel, President of the Ceylon Game and Famag

Protection Society, speaking in London at a meeting of the Society

for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire on October 7

1934, did not hesitate to emphasize the parlous condition of the

wild life in that Island. Here are some extracts from his address:

‘Those who know our jungles have long realized that unless

protective measures are instituted, the wild life of so small an

island as ours would soon be doomed.

The story of the Ceylon Game Protection Society, since its

birth some thirty-eight years ago, is that of a long-sustained

struggle to interest Government in the protection of the larger

fauna, which, but for its efforts, would hardly be worth speaking

of, to-day. ;

Owing to the interest taken by Sir Henry McCallum, the

then Governor, the Dried Meat Ordinance was passed in 1908

and the Game Protection Ordinance in 1909, when the Yala and

Wilpattu. Sanctuaries were established; the first real step in

protection was then taken.

But since that time things were allowed to drift, and the

situation was becoming very alarming.

Game is now scarce even in our remotest jungles, largely

because thirsty animals are killed in months of drought (June-

August) at water-holes, and their dried flesh bartered. Up to some

years ago shooting had to be done by moonlight. The slaughter

then was not anything like as terrible as it became with the

introduction of the electric torch, by the aid of which animals could

be killed nightly throughout the year.

But worse than that, parties began to ply the jungle roads

at night in cars equipped with powerful spot-lights, carrying a ~

battery of guns and hand-torches. They blazed away at the

gleaming eyes of ‘‘timid hunted hares’’, deer, leopard, or anything

they met. One such car to my knowledge was responsible for

six deer and a dozen hare in a single night and another for

twenty-eight hare in a few hours. One man, accustomed to driving

out occasionally for an hour or two at night, accounted in about

six years for no less than thirty-five leopards.

' When animals thus worried became shy of the roads, the

‘“spot-light sportsman’’ carried his torch along jungle paths, giving

the creatures no quarter in their seclusion. ;

_Then breech-loaders became cheap and began to replace the

muzzle-loaders of villagers, who also acquired torches, and the

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

YIDQQnNH “L ‘1ysiaNdory

“MOVT LTIVS V NI NaAVI AIO SHLNOW

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HATAML LAOUV

HO ONVGVTHS TING ONNOA

PRINCIPLES? OF ) WILD , LIFE «CONSERVATION 107

animals were harassed out of existence. Their carcasses always

commanded a ready sale to passing buses. |

You will inquire, “‘Were there no games laws to put a stop

fomuniss §.' lhere were, but they were not enforced. A. policy of.

laissez-faire made even people who should have known better forget

the existence of these laws. There was no prohibition against the

shooting of any but game animals by night, even with spot-lights

from cars. And men going out on the pretence of shooting leopard

and pig did not scruple to kill any sambhur and deer they met.

Sport had degenerated into night-shooting with lights or driving

jungles with gangs, legitimate stalking being practised by few.

We, like other countries, realize to the full that this is the

age of the destruction of the world fauna, and that many species

will be exterminated unless provision is made for their protection.

The spectacle of wild animals in their natural surroundings

is one of the greatest joys of man. The true sportsman gradually

becomes the champion of wild creatures, and it is chiefly owing

to his initiative and understanding that sanctuaries have been

established. Nowhere, perhaps, has this been better exemplified

than in Ceylon. The religion of the land is mainly Buddhism—

perhaps the only religion in the world that extends its benevolence

to animals—yet the outcry for protection has come not from the

Buddhist, but from the men who shoot.’

A sorry picture of the failure of a Colonial administration to

enforce its own laws.

Malaya has been, due to unstable and vacillating administrative

methods, in a state of disturbance and uncertainty regarding what

should be done for wild life, and is still in that state, despite the

fact that a full constructive programme in the Report of a Com-

mission appointed to inquire into the whole matter was submitted

to the Malayan Governments so long ago as 1932.

In Africa recent reports made at the instance of the Fauna

Society showed that in West Africa at least no satisfactory methods

of wild life conservation exist.

The destruction of elephants in Uganda goes along merrily,

and the following figures taken from the Game Warden’s Reports

are instructive :

UOGOM et a. | 892

oe Me These elephants were officially

25s Ue aie a ea destroyed.

MOQ Qh a! stl! "sr. 360

HOGA: 2 sy. ae 14003

In the Annual Report of the Uganda Game Department for 1934,

the following words appear (para. 34):

‘This gives an aggregate wastage of 13,096 elephants, which

is the minimum for the period (ten years), and with the addition

of tuskless juveniles which are not shown on the returns, and a

percentage of elephants which perish in swamps and are never

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- XE

found, the grand total can be taken to be approximately 14,000,

truly a stupendous figure.’

Stupendous indeed !

The stock of elephants must be enormous to stand _ this

destruction, because in addition to the above figures, many hundreds

of elephants must have been killed or died in other ways. But

perhaps this is merely the backdoor to ‘birth control’, because

such disturbance as must result from the harassing, inseparable

from so much kijling, must react to hinder normal breeding. There

is some fatal period reached in the life-history of wild animals when

the continuing abnormality of a disturbed existence appears to break

their spirit and they are then liable to cease to produce their species.

This psychological phenomenon is not properly understood, but is

recognized as existing by persons who have studied wild life at

close quarters.

These are only meagre outlines, space forbids an extensive

review, but they indicate that we have a long way to go before

the principles of conservation are applied as they should be applied

in some of our Possessions.

In America it is now fully recognized that organizations for

wild life conservation are necessary and that proper financial support

should be forthcoming based on the revenue which accrues from

wild life resources.

Wide latitude in dealing with the funds at their disposal is given

to the officers who carry out the conservation programme.

To illustrate this policy I wish to quote from a statement made

by Mr. Slautterback, the Executive Secretary of the Pennsylvania

Game Commission, at the annual meeting of the American Game

Association, held in New York, in December, 1929. Mr. Slautter-

back having addressed the meeting on the subject ‘Budgeting

Game Funds,’ was asked certain questions and gave certain

answers. Here they are:

Mr. Apams: As I understand it, you have a separate game fund

in Pennsylvania to which all the revenues from licences go auto-

matically, but in making any expenditure against that fund must

you receive legislative sanction?

Mr. SLAUTTERBACK: No.

Mr. Apams: Must you get sanction from any budget commission

or any one outside of the game department?

Mr. SLAUTTERBACK: We prepare our budget, holding it within

our expected revenue. This is presented to the officer and he

naturally approves the budget if our several items are within the

estimated revenue. I am referring to the state budget officer.

Mr. Apvams: In the last analysis have they the authority if

they wish to use it of making any changes in your set-up, or

simply inspect it to be sure that it stays inside of your anticipated

revenue ? |

Mr. SLAuTTERBACK: Your explanation is correct—to inspect it

to see that it remains within our revenue but to be used for no

other purpose except for game protection and propagation purposes,

PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION 109

CHAIRMAN QUINN: Your budget commissioner has no authority

to disapprove the budget if it is within your income?

Mr. SLAUTTERBACK: He has not.

JupcE Mires: I would like to ask if it is necessary that the

funds accumulated to this department have to be appropriated by

the Legislature before it is available?

haope OLAUTIERBACK:= They. are. not appropriated by the

Legislature.

The Game Commissioner is made responsible and is held

responsible for the work and is given the power and means with

which to do it.

As the exact opposite of this, I should like to mention a case

in Malaya where a Game Warden’s monthly bills were held up

and sent back to him, although they were certified by the

guarantee of the Game Warden’s signature, because one bill,

a recovery for a small petty-cash payment to an illiterate native,

was witnessed by one person only and not by two as required by

a general order!

Such red-tape entanglements can scarcely come within the

category of the ‘principles of conservation.’

After all, what are the principles of conservation which we can

apply to wild life? )

I think we may claim that the chief object of conservation of

wild life must be to prevent the disappearance of species. We

cannot say we don’t want such-and-such a species because it eats

our fowls or disturbs our garden; its benefits to the universe in

other ways may be more important than our pet fowls or our local

garden.

We can say we don’t want such species in our backyard and

we can take steps to protect our property, but we are wrong if

-we say such-and-such species should be exterminated. Our knowl-

edge is much too incomplete to allow us to say anything of the

sort.

Most people would have answered in the affirmative a question

regarding the desirability of the extermination of the shark, and

yet the first discovery of insulin, a drug which has brought relief

to thousands of diabetics, was made in the liver (pancreas ?) of a

shark (see Journal of Mammalogy, No. 2, vol. 6, p. 87, 1925).

Therefore, I think the practical application of steps to prevent

extermination of species must be the foundation on which to build

our framework of conservation.

This can be done in many ways, but the most certain, most

equitable and most spectacular method of achieving this is by setting

aside certain areas of suitable land as permanent sanctuaries for

the fauna.

Conservation must be recognized as a specialized subject and

the execution of the duties necessary to conserve any natural

resource should be entrusted to, and undertaken by, persons whose

training and practical experience enable them to know what is

required to make such conservation a success. This sounds like a

platitudinous argument which is redundant in its obviousness; and

110 jOURNAL;. BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIEIV) 4 Val, wae

so it is, but unfortunately the intelligent minds in this world are

in the minority, and it often happens that conservation work is

looked upon by the unenlightened mind belonging to someone who

is in a position to place conservation on a low plane of activity,

as work which can be looked after by anyone as a spare-time job.

No greater mistake could be made. Until it is recognized. as

essential to make full-time appointments for those in charge of

the work of preservation and protection, so long will the work

fail; as it has failed everywhere in countries where preservation of

the fauna is professed but the application of the principles of

conservation refused. Certainly we must recognize as one of the

practical applications the entrusting of the work to persons with

full responsibility to carry out the duties necessary.

We must guard against a present tendency to treat a Game

Warden as a conservationist only as a last resort. He may be

expected to devote too much of his time looking after the interests

of agriculturists leaving him insufficient time to attend to matters

relating to conservation. Ftunds may be voted for control schemes,

which generally mean destruction of some sort or other, rather

than for guarding sanctuaries or for enforcing the game laws.

A Game Warden is expected to take action to relieve cultivators

when they allege damage to crops by wild life, irrespective of

the condition of the cultivation; the indolence or industry of the

cultivator; the feasibility of prevention of damage by fencing or

other non-lethal methods. Advice which does not include the killing

of something is unwelcomed, sometimes because a killing means

a feast, and sometimes to satisfy a desire for revenge. Revenge

on a wild animal! What a high ideal for a human being.

But, if a Game Warden is to achieve the objects of conservation -

he must only take extreme measures when really necessary. It is

unfortunately the truth that much unnecessary killing, wounding

and suffering is inflicted under the guise of crop protection. Have

a proper financial policy with a Wild Life Fund; allow the Game

Warden full powers to spend it; then these matters would be dealt

with by those who would know what to do and relief could be,

and no doubt would be, given to cultivators by fencing and other

methods. The dangerous policy of ‘control’ if. not properly

controlled is a real menace to the future of many species.

An important principle of conservation is the utilization of

natural resources for the benefit of mankind. We cannot improve

on Theodore Roosevelt's definition of conservation as ‘preservation

through wise use.’ Only such use may be made of wild life species

which we desire to conserve as will ensure that the stock is not

dangerously depleted.

A wise policy of wild life conservation will provide for:

(1) Adequate laws for protection.

(2) Adequate areas as permanent sanctuaries | or refuges for

species in their known habitat.

(3) Adequate organizations to enforce the former and ad-

minister the latter. |

If these three principles are insisted on, then we may have some

PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION aa

hope for the future of the fauna of our Empire, but unless steps

are taken, and taken soon, to recognize the critical state of the

wild life in many of our Colonies and Dependencies, and to check

the present rate of destruction, the future can be contemplated only

with apprehension. To those who know how inefficient and

inadequate in many places our methods of wild life conservation are,

the wild life in such places appears doomed to extinction.

You can replace trees; you can sustain domestic animals by

private breeding; but wild life must have an environment of its

own in which to thrive and increase in a natural and normal fashion.

The price to pay for the neglect of the observation of conserva-

tion principles as applied to wild life is a terrible one—no less

than the disappearance for ever of species after species.

‘Out nunc it per iter tenebricosum illuc unde negant redire

quemquam.’

MISCELLANE®US NOTES-

I.—WILD BEASTS—REAL AND APOCRYPHAL.

The description of the skin of a Blue bear (Ursus arctos

pruinosus) from Eastern Tibet, by Captain R. K. M. Battye and

Mr. S. H. Prater in Volume xxxviii, No. 3, page 610 of the Journal

is of special interest, not only as relating to an animal first des-

cribed by Edward Blyth in 1853, but in view of recent correspon-

dence in The Times regarding footprints of so-called ‘Mountain Men’,

seen by Mr. Ronald Kaulback at an elevation of 16,000 feet in the

Tibetan interior during a journey in December 1935. Mr. Kaulback

could not identify the footprints as those of any particular animal,

but he wrote that they were ‘very extraordinary tracks. There

were five sets of them leading down the side of the valley through

the snow, at an almost impossible angle, and on to the compara-

tively level floor. Unfortunately there had been a very slight fall

of snow, and the tracks were not completely clear, but they looked

exactly as though they had been made by bare-footed men. There

are no bears in that part of the country’. He thought they ‘might

have been the pug-marks of snow-leopards going slowly with the

hind-paws overlapping the fore, but had never heard of these

animals travelling in a party’. There is, however, no reason why

snow-leopards, like other felines, should not so travel; tigresses

have been known with four well-grown cubs; a pack of six panthers

were seen walking across a jungle glade in Berar, just like a pack

of hounds; and lions are frequently observed in large parties. Four

or five bears may be met with together.

Two of Mr. Kaulback’s coolies favoured the snow-leopard

theory, while two said the footprints were those of ‘Mountain Men’,

a wild race which they all agreed lived in the snow, described as

being ‘like men, white-skinned, naked, with long hair on the head,

shoulders, and arms’. That is what a bear may look like. Its

tracks, at least of the hind-feet, are just like those of a bare-footed

man; the bear, like the man, has long hair that may fall over

the head at times, when, for instance, it descends a mountain

side ‘at an almost impossible angle’, as a sportsman who shoots

at a bear above him will find; an isabelline bear may be as white

as a polar bear; in India bhalu or reench, the bear, with his skin

stripped off, is very like a grotesquely- shaped human being ; he

is known as adamzad, ‘man-kind’, and the Hill-man, when in the

depth of the forest, always refers to him as Rishi, that is ‘Master’,

says Mr. F. W. Woods. One of my beaters in Berar had a strong

growth of black hair on his shoulders and back; the other men

nicknamed him ‘bhalu’.

Certainly indications point to the tracks being those of bears,

notwithstanding Mr. Kaulback says there are none in the district,

where, however, he spent only five months. Even if they are not

always found in that part of the country, these and other animals

often travel and stray far from their usual haunts. The habitat

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113

of the Blue Bear, described by Captain Battye as being ‘in the

bare mountains where there is no jungle and where there is snow

lying for seven months in the year’, corresponds with the description

of this Tibetan region. There is no reason to look for marvels

and suggest that the tracks ‘may have been made by some unknown

relative of the Giant Panda or Snow Bear’, as does one correspondent

writing from what The Times terms ‘the British Museum (Natural

History) stable’, adding that ‘dramatists have so often used unknown

relatives to explain away improbable occurrences that there seems

no reason to make apocryphal additions to the Panda’s family

circle in order to evade the issue’. Moreover, if improbable un-

known Pandas, (the Panda feeds only on bamboo shoots), may

exist in that region where there are no bamboos, why not far more

probable bears? It may also be remarked that Pandas are bears

to natives but not to science, while Ursus isabellinus has priority

of claim to the name of ‘Snow Bear’.

From the same source as the apocryphal Panda comes the

suggestion that the tracks might be those of langur monkeys. This

was ruled out by Mr. Kaulback, for the footmarks were found 3,000

feet above the tree-line, while the creatures that made the tracks

had both come down and returned to a considerably higher point

on the mountain. The only interest of this suggestion is that a

similar one was made regarding the Mamh or black bear in

Baluchistan, which excited considerable controversy in India some

sixty years ago, ‘some writers maintaining that it was a mytho-

logical animal, and others that it was a monkey’ (see Valentine

Ball’s Jungle Life in India, 1880, page 447). Bears had hitherto

been unknown in Baluchistan, when the production of a skin led

Blanford to suppose that the animal was a new species which he

called Ursus gedrosianus. It was afterwards identified as the

Himalayan Black Bear, Ursus tibetanus or torquatus. The earlier

specific name of that animal is itself of interest, for the species is

unknown in Tibet. Lydekker, however, refers (Game Animals of

India, p. 388) to a local race of Malayan Bear, Ursus malayanus,

occurring in Eastern Tibet.

As for mythical monsters, conjured up not only into the native

imagination, it 1s surely time to put them in their proper place in

the realms of mythology, whether they be Mountain Men in the

Himalayas, Mahoni in Alaska, or Grey Seals in Scottish lochs,

transformed by local imagination into ‘monsters of the prime’.

Meanwhile reports of new species or varieties of fauna must be

received with caution; even black tigers have proved to be leopards;

obliterative colouration has strange effects, and a leopard in shadow

may look like a lion in the way!

BAFFORD GRANGE, R. G. BURTON.

CHARLOTN KINGS,

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

Wciober A, 1937.

[The discovery of mysterious footprints in the snows of the

higher Himalayas have drawn various conjectures as to the identity

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA BISTS"SOCIET V,. Vol age

of the owners. Most appealing to the popular imagination is the

theory that the footprints were made by a mysterious race of

‘Mountain Men’ to whom local legend ascribes the name ‘Abominable

Snowmen’; the term ‘abominable’, it has been explained by a

correspondent in the London Times, is used by the Himalayan folk,

not in disparagement, but in the fear and reverence due to that

which is ‘awful’. The belief in the existence of a race of demigods

or their reincarnations has its origin in Hindu Mythology. Hindu

Epic Literature abounds in stories of warriors and sages who,

relinquishing the world and its vanities, retired into the Himalayan

fastnesses, where by fasting and meditation, they overcame the

forces of Evil and acquired such spiritual power as made Gods and

Men tremble. Stripping the meat of fiction from the dry bones of

fact, the most likely conclusion that we can arrive at is that the

footprints were those of bears. The species concerned being either

the Kashmir Brown Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus), which ranges

from Thian Shan to the Western Himalayas or the Tibetan Blue

Bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), which ranges from Western China

into Tibet. These bears keep to the higher elevations in summer

living chiefly on the grass slopes above the tree line close to the

snow and the human-like impress of their broad feet in the snow,

with some imagination, might be taken for the tracks of the so-

called Abominable Snowmen—Ebs. |

Il.—MEASUREMENTS OF TIGER.

With reference to Mr. Marshall’s note on measurements of tiger

in the Naga Hills, Assam, I give below measurements of a few

tigers shot in the North Coimbatore jungles. One of these, a male,

(length: g ft.) weighed 366 lbs.

I also give measurements of panthers shot in the same area

including, some weights, and also the weights of four bisons shot.

Tiger Panther Bison

Male : 88” Male c/s Bull: weight 1530 lbs.—height

Female : 8'6” 6’—-spread= 37 =

Female : 7’ Do, ahs Bull: weight 1900 1bs.—height

Male : 9110" Do. dou 64’—spread : 34”.

Female : 8'7” Bull: weight 1720 ibs.—spread :

Dow 7 sor Do. as 335” (74” x 21”) very old bull.

Don 7 10 Do: : 7'3” Buil: weight 1700 lbs.—spread ;

Male : 8’ De. he O 304:

Dor. 26'G2 ote a0"

Do. » O12" Do. ee aa

Do. 8/6” Do. St ne A

Do. Sire ey Female : 6'6”

1 Tailless Tiger.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 115

Tiger Panther Bison

Female : 8’2” Male : 8’2” (shot and measured by Capt. J.

OLS! Todhunter, R. A.). |

a : ye Female : 6’ pets . ae a

Po. cy Male eOGLOG

Female : 8/10” Do. : 7/4"

Dos. + 8'2” Do. Sot 1

Do. © 73” Weight 131 lbs.

‘Do! : 6/8” 91 lbs.

Do. meh 2a * 132 Ibs.

Do. RaW Gee - 143 lbs.

Do. 740 a 131 lbs.

Do. : 6’64” =e 145 lbs. (abnormaliy

short tail).

Do. 6-107 yo OAs;

Do. ed cons:

Female : 5'94” »» 60% Ibs.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN-—MysoreE P.O., R. C. MORRIS.

SoutH INDIA.

III.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF WILD DQGS AND

A PANTHER AT A KILL.

I am writing you a curious incident which I have personally

come across while bringing to book a ‘notorious cattle lifting

panther’. The panther measured 7 ft. 5 in. round the curves. It

was a very cunning beast and it was causing a lot of damage to

the calves. It was decided to tie a kill on a raised platform about

5 feet high and then to shoot the panther with a spot light. A

kill was duly reported and as a major portion of the kill was already

devoured, it was thought best to remove the old kill and tie up a

fresh goat. I sat up and about 7 p.m. it was seen that two

jungle dogs came near the raised. platform where the kill was

tied up. Shortly. afterwards the panther also came, and sat at

some distance from the tied-up goat. It did not at all mind the

presence of the two wild dogs. The panther was killed with a

neck shot while sitting, and the dogs were moving about when

the shot was fired only at a distance of 20 yards from the panther.

This is rather a curious incident and I thought it better to put this

in writing as it may be interesting to the readers of your Journal.

Could any reader kindly throw more light on the subject?

RAMANUJ SAREN SINGH DEO; c.s.£., |

RAGHUNATH PALACE, Maharaja of Surguja.

AMBIKAPUR (SURGUJA), :

EASTERN STATES AGENCY.

November 13, 1937.

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WNALURAE HISTASOCIEI NG. Viol oxge

IV.—UNUSUAL MAULING BY A LEOPARD.

During May last year a party of Survey labourers were working

on the re-survey and clearing of the old ‘cut’ boundary of the Yala

Wild Life Sanctuary, which soon will be Ceylon’s Strict Natural

Reserve.

The place where the sad accident happened is very thick forest

with hardly any small glades.

K. Charlie, the deceased, was in charge of a party of five

Survey labourers.

Having returned at noon for their meals, the party left their

camp again at I p.m., each man taking a katty, but no other

tools or arms.

Kk. Charlie went a little ahead of the men (it must be noted that |

this was just after 1 p.m.), to try and locate an old picket and

a blazed tree marking the old and overgrown boundary.

Suddenly the men heard him screaming, and suspecting he had

been attacked by some wild animals, they ran after him, shouting

to scare away any animals, and found Charlie some 12 chains

further on bleeding profusively from severe injuries all over his

body, and crying out that a leopard had suddenly pounced on ‘him

and wounded him. They tried to take the wretched man to the

nearest hospital, at Tissamaharama, some 20 miles away, but he

died en route and was given a last resting place near the scene of

his labour in a wild and inhospitable part of the country where

he lost his life when serving his Department.

According to the enquiry the deceased had stated that the leopard

had suddenly charged him, this at about mid-day, a most unusual

time for a leopard to feed at a kill. It was stated that there was

a carcass, but it is not stated where that carcass actually was

when the animal so suddenly mauled the labourer.

Perhaps the man disturbed the animal in its sleep near its kill,

and in surprise and anger and by way of self-defence it at once

went for and attacked the intruder.

Nevertheless the sad accident is so unusual that I think it is

worth recording.

The hearsay report that ‘leopards sometimes attack pilgrims to

Kataragama,’ (some twenty or twenty-five miles away,) and ‘there

is every possibility of animals which have tasted human _ flesh

roaming about in the neighbourhood’ seems to me most unlikely.

It is also very unlikely that the man disturbed the leopard actually

while it was feeding on the kill at that hour of the afternoon. It

seems hardly possible to me that the man could have made his

way through that very thick undergrowth so quietly that the leopard

would not have heard his approach.

The sad accident happened at a spot on the old boundary,

miles from anywhere, and where no one had been for very many

years until this Survey party arrived to re-survey the boundary.

If the leopard was not wounded, the case is a very unusual one

for Ceylon.

The true facts of course can never be known, but in many years

out here I have never yet heard of a leopard, which had not been

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117

fired at, suddenly attacking a man in Ceylon, except for the well-

known man-eater of Punanai, one of the rarest cases of man-eaters

ever recorded for Ceylon.

Not very far from there, walking quietly along a narrow game

track and unarmed, a leopard, a very fine male, suddenly slipped

-out of the jungle some ten yards from where I stood, a magnificent

sight, I actually saw him ‘grin’ and with one bound he _ had

disappeared.

A. C. TUTEIN-NOLTHENIUS,

West HApuTALe ESTATE, H,Z5Si

Outya, CEYLON.

V.—DISAPPEARANCE OF JACKALS.

I should like to know whether cases of disappearances of jackals

from an area or district have been recorded previously.

Jackals were very numerous up to three or four years ago in

this part of the Coimbatore District lying on the Mysore Plateau,

but appear to have almost vanished from these jungles. This is

probably due to an outbreak of some disease, wild dogs for instance

have been attacked by mange badly in the last year or two, but

it is curious that their disappearance appears to coincide with the

last stages of a very serious outbreak of rinderpest among village

cattle which lasted for three years. Jackals naturally fed their -

full on the carcasses of cattle that died from this disease, and one

wonders whether the jackals did not fall victims to a complaint

brought on by a surfeit of stricken beef !

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS.

ATTTIKAN—Mysore_E P.O.,

SouTH INDIA.

September 12, 1937.

VI.—ON WHISTLING OF BISON.

In regard to the whisting sound made by bison (Bibos gaurus)

mentioned by Mr. Biddulph in the last Journal this ‘whistling’

noise, or high-pitched wail, is always made by a bull during the

breeding season months, October-November to February-March.

_ HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN—MysoreE P.O.,

SouTH INDIA.

October 12, 1937.

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

VII._CAUSE OF SORE NECK IN SAMBAR.

A circular bare and hairless patch on the throat of sambar has

been the subject of controversy going on from 1921 under the

caption ‘Sore Neck in Sambar’ in the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society and readers of this valuable Journal owe

the editors a debt of gratitude for allowing many sportsmen and

writers to express their own views.

In this connection a note appeared in the Journal of the Natural

History Society of Siam under the signature of Mr. P. R. Kemp.

It was referred to in Volume xxxvil, No. 4, Misc. Note No. viii of

the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal for the first time

in IOQ2T.

Although this subject is discussed in Shikar Books and in

subsequent issues of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society in recent times, yet this phenomenon seems to have been

observed for the first time, as early as 1890 by Mr. W. S. Thom

(vide his interesting article in the Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society, Vol. xxxix,: No.2):

Before coming to the real cause for ‘Sore Neck’, it would not

be out of place to summarise the opinion of various writers and

tribes who live in forests where sambar abound. Mr. Kemp was

told by the Siamese that this ‘Sore Neck’ is the leprosy of the

Sambar and it is caused by the animal eating the fruit of the

Ma-Kawk tree known as the wild olive or plum. The matter was

referred to Mr. Dunbar Brander, I.F.s., who writes that he always

observed this mark or sore during the period when hair and horn

are undergoing a change. He naturally connected the two and

came to the conclusion that the sore was the result of the changes

taking place. He qualifies his remarks and states that this is

merely’ his suggestion.

On reading the above notes, Lieut. R. A. H. McConnel states

that while shooting in the Southern Province of Ceylon, he ~

encountered a sambar hind which was incapable of movement.

On examination he found that the under part of the neck was

covered with festering sores. The hind was otherwise in fair con-

dition and, as the sore was superficial, Lieut. McConnel supports

the theory of disease. Here it may be mentioned that the sore

neck due to a change in horn does not explain the phenomenon.

(Vol. xxviii, No. 4, Misc. Note No. v, Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society.) ;

Then in Vol. xxviii, No.:2, Note No. ii appears the note from

Mr. J. H. Hutton (now Dr. Hutton) with reference to ‘Sore Neck’.

He was told by Nagas that it is due to the animals perpetually

rubbing themselves to get rid of ticks. Dr. Hutton adds that ticks

certainly attack the necks of sambar but suggests that it may —

possibly be the result rather than the cause.

A further reference was made to the Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society through Mr. Blackburn and he

very kindly supplied me with a reference to ‘Sore Neck’ in Mr.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2 119

Dunbar Brander’s book Wild Animals in Central India. The

author says that—

‘In parts of India, especially towards Assam, Sambar have

often been observed to have a curious sore bare patch or spot on

fhe base of the neck. The cause is not known: it has been

suggested that it is the manifestation of some disease. The pheno-

menon is not common in the Central Provinces, and I. have only

noticed it late in the hot weather or at the commencement of the

rains. At this season of course Sambar are subject to little

intelligent observation so it is possible that these spots exist more

frequently than we are aware of. Occurring as they do in the

region of a hair whorl or centre, and at a time when rapid moult

is taking place, I have associated the phenomenon as being in

some way connected with the new growth of hair. When Sambar

change their coats they often do so in large tufts, the old hair

coming away in sections before the new hair has developed. During

this stage they have a very ragged appearance.’

In the publication of 15th April, 1937 of the Bombay Natural

History Society’s Journal (Vol. xxxix, No. 2) a very interesting

article on this subject appears. This is ‘The Malayan or Burmese

Sambar’ by Mr. W. S. Thom. In this article Mr. Thom not only

explains his own theory and observation but adds the experience

of other sportsmen and observers. At the instance of Mr. Thom,

tubes were supplied by Mr. Mitchell to Mr. Mustill, the Game

Warden, Burma to collect some of the exudation from the sore of

the sambar, so that Mr. Mitchell may be in a position to make an

attempt to diagnose the disease, if disease it is. Mr. Thom thinks

that if the sore or circular patch on the sambar’s neck is not

the result of a parasite or a secretory gland such as is found in

elephants, camels, black buck etc., then it may be the result of

bites by ticks and the intense irritation: set up by the animals

pushing their way through elephant grass and under growth. Mr.

Thom suggests that plants like Mucuna pruriens whose pods are

clothed with intensely irritating bristles, stinging nettles and the

fine hairs of the bamboo set up irritation, and he adds that when

sambar push their way through grass and tick-infested jungle, the

animals hold their heads well up and these insects then find the

throat and neck the most convenient spot on which to gather. Mr.

Thom writes that he has been told that ‘Sore Neck’ has been seen

‘on the necks of brow-antlered deer and in one instance, on the

neck of a barking deer.

Captain S. R. Rippon informs Mr. Thom that skin on the bare

patch on the tame sambar’s neck appeared to be quite normal,

i.e., there was no sign of any parasitic disease to the naked eye

nor did it appear as if the hair had been lost by rubbing. Captain

Rippon thinks that the bare patch is probably a normal character-

istic of the species and he doubts whether the sores are due to

rubbing. He states also that it certainly would seem to be too

much of a coincidence to find only this area on the neck affected

in the way in every case, ticks must be found on other parts of

the body. ~ .

Mr. Thom gives further very interesting facts from Major C. P.

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Evans’ book Big Game Shooting in Upper Burma. This is quoted

below :—

‘Major C. P. Evans in his book Big Game Shooting in Upper

Burma has a lot to say on the subject of the sambar sore, vide

pp. 144-48 of his book, but I will only quote a few extracts. He

says that the Burman and Indian Shikaris state that the sambar

is attacked by a parasite (I doubt whether they could explain what

a parasite was) and that the sore is caused by the animal rubbing

itself to get relief from the irritation. This he says no doubt is

true so far as it goes; but they are quite unable to explain why

sambar should invariably be attacked in exactly the same place

or why the sore should be as circular as if it were made by a pair

of compasses, and why sambar alone of all deer should be so

afflicted. - But are sambar the only deer so afflicted. Hawena

black buck in India got it? Evans goes on to say that

he does not himself believe in the rubbing theory. If Wike

beast rubbed itself against a tree or branch. to get rid of *the

irritation it would do so with an up and down motion and the

result would be irregular scratches along the throat. But strange

to say in spite of the forbidding appearance of the sore sambar

do not appear to be at all inconvenienced by it. Evans says that

he has watched sambar, when out in the open both in India and

Burma for half an hour or more at a time, on purpose to see

whether the animals rubbed the sore; but he never saw any sambar

whether young or old pay the slightest attention to it. That the

disfigurement is caused by a peculiar parasite which only attacks

the sambar is according to Evans quite certain; but why it should

invariably confine its attentions to the throat, or why it should

cause a complete circular sore and, having done so, desist from

further attack he is unable to explain. Judgine by the bleeding

spot in the centre of the circle it looks, according to Evans) jas

if the parasite having reached its limits, returned to the original

spot and fed there, since it is, in full-grown animals, always quite

raw, the remainder of the circle being merely bare and pink-looking.

Seen in the early dawn this raw spot has quite a gruesome

appearance.’

The writer of this article has seen several sambar at close

quarters during the course of 20 years of his roamingss in the jungle,

but has never seen a single specimen of sambar with a ‘Sore Neck’

and never attempted to wait and watch for sambar as Major

Evans did.

Though there are several sportsmen and scientists in the field,

seeking to unravel the mystery of this phenomenon, for the last

20 years, the writer had an uncommon bit of good luck to read a

passage in a small book which explains the cause of ‘Sore Neck’

in such a manner that it leaves no room for any doubt.

The fact of the matter is, our jungle friend the sambar although

sometimes described as ‘Monarch of the Dale’ does not carry ‘blue

blood’ in its veins. He has much humbler origin than _ people

think. This ‘Sore Neck’ is nothing but a badge of inferiority

complex which sambar and other higher forms of animals carry

round their necks to remind them for all time, that they were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121

once marine animals. When the Himalayas were under water,

these animals including sambar perhaps were swimming in the

shallow sea.

In the biological language, ‘Sore Neck’ in sambar is an insistence

of ‘Atavistic Degeneracy’, i.e., a return to an ancestral type. What

we see as a bare patch and a sore on the neck of the animals. used

to be a place where gills were attached when these animals were

leading a marine life. The disease is called ‘Cervical Fistula’. |

recommend the readers to study Mr. B. Lindsay’s book The Story

of Animal Life. I now quote the relevant passage from this

book.

‘Nor do we need to go into the nursery to find links with

our inferiors. Much, indeed far too much, has been written of

late years about ‘‘atavistic degeneracy’’; that is to say degeneracy

which imitates the characteristics of our forefathers. Many things

which are classed as diseases, whether of the body, mind, or moral

nature, may be explained in this way. Take the gills, which, as

we have stated, exist in all vertebrates, but not in the adult of the

highest groups. In a sickly individual, even among the highest

vertebrates, traces of these are sometimes seen existing in the

adult, as a gap or open space in the neck called by the medical

man cervical fistula’’: this is an instance of degeneracy in the

body. Take, for another instance, the kleptomaniac, who snatches

up everything he takes—a degeneracy of the mind, a relic of savage

nature out of place in civilised man. Yet the gill-space is an

ancestral feature which has its right time to appear though it is

out of place in the adult; and the ‘‘want-to-snatch’’ stage, as we

have already seen, is quite natural in the young child.’

To understand clearly the development, position, and modification

of ‘gills’ in the modern animal, I quote another passage from Mr.

Lindsay’s book.

‘The classes of the Vertebrata are Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles,

Birds and Mammals. We used to learn that of these, fishes had

gills, and Amphibia gills for a time; but, to be strictly accurate,

we must say that fishes have gills, and all the rest of Vertebrata

have gills for a time. There is no exception to this rule, not even

among the highest vertebrates. But in those vertebrates which

stand higher in the scale of life than Amphibia, viz., Reptiles,

Birds and Mammals, these gills are never brought into use. They

only exist in the early embryo, and afterwards disappear, giving

rise by their modification to other structures.

‘Strange to say, one of these structures is the ear. This takes

its origin from one of the gill-‘‘clefts’’ or spaces. The Eustachian

tube, which communicates between ear and nose, is part of this

cleft; and the little bones which are inside the ear represent

the bones of the gill-cleft. For, in fishes, bones support each gill,

and are connected together to form a complex arrangement. In

the higher vertebrates, which possess gills only in the embryo,

this gill-skeleton is much modified, and persists as a bone, the

hyoid bone, supporting the tongue.

‘The gills of vertebrates, arranged in successive pairs along the

Le)

throat, are “‘perforating gills’’; that is to say, they consist

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY. Vole ue

essentially of holes or spaces which pass right through the wall

of the throat.’

JAGDALPUR, ©. R. DAY Bike

BASTAR STATE,

OCiobers 7291937:

VIIIL—SOME BIRDS OBSERVED IN KUTCH AND

KATHIAWAR.

From the ornithological point of view Kutch appears to be

one of the. least known of our Indian provinces, and Lester’s

Birds of Kutch is the only reference work to it that I can trace

A few notes jotted down during two short week-end visits (mid-

June, 1936 and mid-August 1937) may be of interest.

At Bedi Bunder in Kathiawar, a curlew was seen on 12th June.

Lester cites a local sailor to the effect that curlew breed onmgae

islands in the Gulf. At Rozi Bunder (also on the Kathiawar side),

curlew and whimbrel were both common on the 16th June. Again

in mid-August this year, both species were plentiful in the mangrove

swamps around Kundla. Judging from the arrival and departure

of these birds round Bombay, however, my notes alone would not

justify a belief in the breeding of these birds in India. Further

information on this point would be interesting. aa

At the Hemisa Tank in the heart of Bhuj, I saw a solitary

drake cotton teal (Nettapws coromandelicus) in full plumage.

This is apparently the: first record of this bird in the States

Subsequent to this I learnt from Prince Fatehsinghji of Kutch (who

is taking a keen interest in birds) that two more had been obtained

at a recent shoot and their identity confirmed in Bombay.

I was also fortunate enough to meet during my short visit, a

pair of those rare and elusive birds, the white-winged black tits

(Parus nuchalis) on a scrub-covered hill-side. Unfortunately I had

no occasion to add anything to our knowledge of this little-known

bird.

Other birds seen, apparently rare in Kutch (vide Lester) were

the two Jacanas (Metopidius and Hydrophasianus) both of which

were common at the Hemisa Tank in June. The Crow-pheasant

(Centropus sinensis), which Lester particularly notes as absent in

Kutch, was seen at Jamnagar, just across the Creek.

ANDHERI, SALSETTE, HUMAYUN ALI.

BOMBAY.

December £5, 91937.

IX.—DRUMMING OF WOODPECKERS.

Anyone who lives in or near the jungles of this continent is

familiar with the peculiar rat-a-tat or drumming on dead trees, a

performance so often heard but not so often seen. I have the

good fortune to have a vocation which permits of a study of bird

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123

life and situated where woodpeckers abound After a number of

years witnessing these performances I am still at a loss to account

for the reason therefor.

A woodpecker will fly to a dead tree which is often used time

and again for this purpose and after sitting still for a short while

will peck rapidly with ever quickening strokes of its bill at the

bole or branch of the tree selected. It will keep up for some time

with regular intervals between each bout of drumming the while

looking round as if expecting something to turn up in response,

but I have never seen any other of the species attracted in this

manner so it would not appear to be a mating call. In any case

why should a bird with usually loud vocal call go to the trouble

of wasting its energy, tapping against trees to attract the female?

It seems to be a practice common to all types of woodpecker and

even those allied species which cannot be called true woodpeckers

such as the Piculets. The other day I was attracted to a dead

Grevillea tree by a persistent br-r-r-r, br-r-r-r sound at regular

intervals and saw up at the top a Nilgiri Speckled Piculet

performing.

I give a list of the various woodpeckers I have observed

drumming.

Southern Golden Backed Woodpecker, Malabar Golden Backed

Three-toed, Malherbe’s Golden Backed, Malabar Heart-spotted,

Malabar Great Black Woodpeckers and the Nilgiri Speckled

iculet, :

It would be interesting to hear through the medium of the

Journal others’ observations on this subject. I note that Whistler

mentions that it apparently is an outlet for sexual emotion though

he does not support it with any reasons why it should be.

NADUAR ESTATE, R. N. CHAMPION-JONES.

VALPARAI P.O.,

SOUTH INDIA.

December 12, 1037.

[The vocal or instrumental music of birds thecugh it has its

origin in sex, cannot be interpreted as nothing more than an

elaborate form of sex signalling. It may pass outside the immediate

circle of sex relationship and become an outlet for such emotions as

joy, fear, jealousy or even the expression of mere content. In

an interesting article on the drumming of the Heart-Spotted Wood-

pecker (Field, November 20, 1937), Major A. Buxton, writing about

the performance of the birds at the nest, says that little drumming

took place while the birds were sitting, but when he first entered his

hide to film the birds in the act of drumming, the hen, disturbed

‘ by the noise he made, hit the trunk of the tree a resounding bang

and ran up it drumming for all she was worth. The writer says

that for two or three days he could always make her drum by

making noises in the hide or by getting some one to hang about

near the nest, for it was simply ‘a case of making her rather but

not too annoyed’. But once the woodpecker became accustomed

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISE. (SOCIETY, Volos

to these disturbances, she ignored them and ceased to demonstrate.

What part if any the drumming of the woodpecker plays in the

inter-relationship of the sexes is not known. Both sexes apparently

indulge in the habit—but Major Buxton’s note indicates that

drumming may be a reaction to emotion not directly connected

with the sexual impulse. It is interesting also here to include

a comment by Mr. Eric Parker on Major Buxton’s note published

in the “same issue of the field. The series of cine camera

photographs which illustrate Buxton’s article record probably

for the first time the movements of the woodpecker’s head

when drumming—movements too quick to be caught by the eye,

the head of the bird during the process becoming as blurred as

a fast spinning top. The photos reveal a rotatory movement—the

beak of the bird, first pointing half left, next points directly jan

the tree and then reverts to the half left. Major Buxton holds the

commonly accepted view that the sound is produced by the rapid

striking of the bird’s beak against the wood and he observed that

the sound varied according to the state of the wood, being much

softer on dead wood than on live, and even varying in intensity

on different parts of the trunk according to the state of decay.

Mr. Parker holds that the drumming sound of the woodpecker is

not produced by repercussion but that it is purely vocal and

emanates from the bird’s throat. He submits that it would be

impossible, with so small an instrument as the Spotted Woodpecker’s

beak, to produce by hammering on any sort-of wood the long and

sonorous volume of sound which can be heard more than a quarter

of a mile away.—Ebs. |

X.—THE INDIAN LONG-TAILED NIGHTJAR

(CAPRIMULGUS MACROURUS ALBONONOTUS TICKELL).

The article on Nightjars contributed by Mr. E. H. N. Lowther

to the Journal, Vol. xxxix, No. 3, is most interesting, made more

so by the admirable photos accompanying it which illustrate the

wonderful provision of Nature in self-protection.

The Indian Long-tailed Nightjar is quite common at Dehra Dun.

During the hot weather it calls almost incessantly throughout the

night. Deep and shady nullahs are features of this place, which

are the resort of «this bird:- 4 so breeds in them,

About the 15th April 1919, I flushed a bird, in one of these,

off a single egg. The nest was just a few leaves scraped together.

I marked the spot most carefully, so as to make sure of finding

it again. I returned to the spot on the 18th, and although I looked

hard and carefully at the spot where I was certain the nest was,

I could detect absolutely nothing, so I thought there was ‘nothing

doing’. I walked slowly towards this spot. When I had arrived

there I stopped and with my stick I pointed to the place, practically.

between my feet, when up flew the bird, disclosing two beautifully

fresh eggs. The point of my stick must almost have touched her

before she moved. The protection afforded her by her colouration

could not have been better.

LONDON, RY M. -BETHAM.-c.nEes

Ocioben 22.) 19377 Brigadier-General.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125

mir ON THE PARASITIC HABITS OF THE PIED CRESTED

CUCKOO [CLAMATOR JACOBINUS (BODD.)].

Three weeks ago | returned from leave to find many young

Pied Crested Cuckoos about the station. Now both Mr. Stuart-

Baker in the Fauna and Mr. Hugh Whistler in his popular Hand-

book of Indian Birds state that the young Clamator has that un-

pleasant cuckoo habit of pushing the other inmates or eggs out

of the nest. In fact, Mr. Stuart-Baker enlarges on the habit by

saying that, although at times many eggs may be found in the one

nest, obviously the products of more than one female cuckoo, the

strongest and first-hatched youngster alone survives.

Hume and Oates (Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, 2nd Edition,

page 388) only go so far as to say that ‘as a rule’ the young

cuckoo is the only bird the foster-parents raise, and, on the same

page, quote R. M. Adam as follows :—‘On the 13th August I

observed in a garden in Agra two young birds of this species

—being fed by an Argya malcolmi. There was also a young Argya

malcolmi with the party.’

On August 23rd, I saw a Jungle Babbler feeding two young

Clamator seated close together on a buttress root of a pipal tree

close to the door of my office. The babbler first fed one, flew up

into the tree, returned almost immediately and fed the other one.

It then flew off followed by both young cuckoos.

Two days afterwards I found we had a pair of young Pied

Crested Cuckoos in our own garden, obviously just out of the

nest. These were moving about together with a crowd of nine

(at least) babblers, and are still to be seen together in the compound.

Now are these really cases of two young cuckoos being brought

up in the same nest? If so, it would seem that this species is

not so black as it is painted. On the other hand I have seen four

members of a gang of babblers feed the young babblers in one

nest, so it is faintly possible that these young cuckoos actually

came from different nests belonging to members of one gang. |

wonder if any other members of the Society have anything to say

on this subject?

BAREILLY, Re ot Pe BAY DES:

September 6, 1937.

he Hh GG-LAYING. OF THE KHASIA HILES CUCKOO

(CeCe BAKER IN THE NEST OF THE.BOURMESE

STONE CHAT (SAXICOLA CAPRATA.BURMANICA).

(May 1937).

Yesterday, May 19, 1937, I went for a walk with my wife and

children at about 5 p.m. at Taunggyi, S. Shan States. Elevation

about 5,000 feet. On our return we passed a ploughed field just

outside my north field and some two hundred yards from my cottage.

It was then about twenty minutes past six in the evening and the

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL VUAIST.SOCIEITY, Vol. Xue

sun low. My dogs chased a bird off the plough, and then I noticed

that it was a cuckoo. I stood there pondering when the cuckoo

returned and perched on the bamboo rails. Two chats were after

her, and so I suspected that they had a nest there, and that the

cuckoo was going to lay. She then flew off with the chats after

her—out of sight. We sat down to wait, and I got my field

glasses ready. Back came the cuckoo and she flew low over the

centre of the field, almost settling at a place some sixty yards in

front of us. She then carried on to perch on the rails quite close

to us. Then she flew back over the same area and carried on out

of sight.

In a couple of minutes’ time she came again with the chats -

after her and dipping low in flight she settled at about the place

I suspected the chat’s nest to be. I got my glasses on her, and

though the light was failing a little, I could see her very plainly.

She had the appearance of .a laying cuckoo, being a female with

her throat feathers puffed out and her crown feathers raised from

time to time. She began to search for the nest, hopping about in

an ungainly fashion from clod to clod stretching her neck up

looking everywhere. The chats were now mobbing her furiously,

causing her to be continually ducking to avoid their onslaughts.

As she did this she opened her beak at them and made faces.

She did not appear to know exactly where the nest was and began

a systematic search for it in an area of about five yards by three.

The clods in the field were very large and lumpy with all manner

of holes and cavities to conceal a chat’s nest in, so that she

disappeared from sight from time to time as she hopped into the

depressions. Backwards and forwards she went in a very persistent

manner, mobbed the whole time. I should have perhaps driven

her off and quickly erected a hide there, but it was getting so late

and I did not know exactly where the chat’s nest was myself. I

decided to risk it and continued to watch her with the glasses in

the hopes that she would be in sight when she found the nest.

With luck I should then be able to see her lay.

She was, I think, a full ten minutes searching for the nest. It

seemed to me a very long time. Her persistence astonished me.

She really did not seem to know where it was as she frequently

went to look into holes only to come out disappointed again. At

last she dipped out of sight from me and a flutter of her wing

tips suggested that she had found the nest and was in the act

of laying. She was there just out of my sight for about six

seconds—and then away she sped in a great hurry.

She had undoubtedly laid!

When she was about a hundred yards’ distance she gave two

or three times her bubble note.

We climbed the fence and walked up to the place, and there

we found a very well concealed chat’s nest of the inaccessible

type. The exact situation of it was obvious to me from the cuckoo’s

feathers—six or seven of which were scattered about the nest

entrance—mostly over it. As it was all soft earth thereabouts from

recent rain her feathers must have been pecked out by the chats—

both of which attacked her furiously at the time of laying.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 127

By stooping down with my head a foot above ground-level I

could just make out that the nest contained two eggs—the cuckoo’s_

and one chat’s egg. From the outside to the edge of the nest

would: be about three or four inches—that will be shown in the

photograph. It was not a nest that I could get my hand into—

although my hand is exceptionally small. By using just the tips of

my forefinger and middle finger I was just able to get the cuckooo’s

egg out—and then after it, the chat’s. One at a time and with

difficulty. The cuckoo’s egg was warm and quite dry—with that

lovely mat bloom on it of an egg just laid. The chat’s egg was

whole and uninjured.

We went home with the cuckoo’s egg, intending to photograph

the nest next day.

This incident confirms in every respect my observations of last

year. The actual egg-laying took about three seconds, if we allow

three seconds for the cuckoo to put her head into the chat’s nest

Ho take out a chat’s egg.

There were the usual preliminary flights to the vicinity of the

nest to get her ready for her laying. The only thing that astonished

me a little was that she really did not, on this occasion, seem

certain of the exact situation of the nest but had to hunt diligently

for it—for about ten minutes, and this proves that a cuckoo is able

forcetain. her egg for ten minutes.

The laying took place at six forty—the sun fis about to dip

behind the hills.

A photo with measurements of the nest concludes my account

of this incident.

TAR. LIVESEY.

May 20, 1937.

XTI.—CUCKOO PROBLEMS.

In regard to my paper ‘Cuckoo Problems’ published in Vol.

ceoxiil, NO. 4 of 25th August 1936, an-explanation is called for.

The term I used to express my theory of the evolution of parasitism

in the Cuckoos and the final adaptation of their eggs was ‘Desire’.

That was perhaps an unfortunate term to use, as it suggests a

sudden and independent volition on the part of the cuckoo amount-

ing to almost conscious reasoning. Many people have given it

this meaning, and so completely misread me, in spite of my having

fully explained that my ‘desire’ was an inherited desire.

ifemust- therefore explain that ‘desire’, has to be read as an

‘inherited urge to parasitism’ in most places where it occurs.

TAUNGGYI, Te RSE RV SNe

SOUTHERN SHAN STATES,

Burma.

Oelower 13, 1437:

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAYI NATURAL AISI20 SOCKET VY). Volswxas

XIV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK-CAPPED

KINGFISHER [HALCYON PEILEATA(BODD\:

IN THE, GON DA DISTRICH War,

I am sure you will be both surprised and interested to hear

that a specimen of the Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata)

was caught alive in the garden next to mine this morning. It

was found to have a very badly broken wing and I think it must

have struck the electric light wires in its flight and so got its

wing broken. According to the Fauna of British India, it has not,

with one exception, been known further west than Monghyr on

the Ganges and what it was doing up here, I fail to surmise. I

have been in the stretch of country from Purneah on the east

to Cawnpore on the west for the past 14 years and am always

on the watch for birds, but I have never seen this species before.

I shall be glad to know if it has ever been recorded. from these

parts previously, if not, its occurrence here may be of sufficient

interest to warrant publication in one of the next issues of the

Society’s Journal. Beyond its broken wing, the bird is in beautiful

condition, but I can only get it to eat with difficulty.

BarRGaon P. O. WAL HE Wie

Gonpba, U.P.

September 25, 1937.

[In India the Kingfisher is found in forests along the coasts and

in the banks of tidal rivers, following these practically up to the hills.

Its occurrence in the Gonda district, U.P. is unusual. The bird in

question was probably a straggler from its normal habitat.—Ebs. |

XV.—ARRIVAL AND STAY OF SNIPE IN ASSAM.

I have read with interest the note on ‘Early and Late Snipe’

in Vol. xxxix, No. 4 of the Journal which I have just received and

on turning up my Game register I find the following information

which may be of interest :—

(1) In the Rajshahi District in Bengal during the season 1931-

32 the first snipe I saw were three birds on the 19th August,

but they were very wild and I failed to secure any. I saw another

bird on the 25th August, but this also eluded me. It was not

until the 30th August that I actually bagged one. Unfortunately

I kept no record as to whether it was a Fantail or a Pintail. In

the Game Book at the Police Mess at Sardah in the same district

the earliest recorded snipe shot was on the 29th August up to

the year 1930. The Game Book goes back a number of years.

The latest snipe I secured in this district in this year was on

the 3rd April when four couple were bagged all of which were

Fantails; but a Pintail was shot by a friend who was _ shooting

with me on the same date. He also got-three Fantails.

(2) In the Sylhet District of Assam during the season 1932-33

the first snipe I saw was on the 25th August and I shot it. It

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 129

was a Pintail. I know of another Pintail shot in the same district

the same year on the 13th August. Snipe have been heard of in

Sylhet at the end of April.

(3) During the season 1935-36 in the Sadiya Frontier Tract

of Assam I shot a Fantail on the 8th August and a further eight

couple Fantails on the 21st August.

(4) In the same District (Sadiya) during 1936-37, I saw a snipe

on the 19th August but failed to secure it. I bagged a Pintail

on the 20th August, two more on the 21st August and a further

34 couple Pintails on the 22nd of the same month. Snipe do not

appear to stay late in this District and I know of none shot

after March. I feel certain however that the first birds reach

the district at the end of July for all the birds shot in August

have shown no signs of their long journey~ southwards being in

very good condition and very lively. It is interesting to note

that, whilst in August 1935 all the first birds shot were Fantails

all the first birds shot in 1936 were Pintails!

Further information as to the first arrivals and the latest re-

corded snipe particularly from areas just south of the Himalayas

would be interetsing.

GAUHATI, Rk: Ey. PARSONS,

KamMRuP DisTrRIcT, ASSAM. Indian Police.

December-31,-1037.

XVI.—OGCURRENCE OF THE SHELDRAKE (TADORNA’

TADORNA) IN MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT, BENGAL.

It might be of interest to record the occurrence of the Sheldrake

(Tadorna tadorna) in district Murshidabad, Bengal, a small party

of some 5 or 6 of the birds having been seen by a friend and

myself on a piéce of open water on December 5th 1937. The

_ Sheldrake which were observed at about 100 yards’ range through

field-glasses were not mixing with the numerous other ducks

on the water (mostly Pintail) but formed a small party of them-

selves near the edge. I understand this species is a somewhat

rare visitor to this part of India.

Another fairly interesting occurrence of this season in the same

district the Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha), two having been obtained

on November 21st and one on November 28th, others having been

seen on both days.

I, CLIVE STREET, Rog) CLOUGH.

GCAECUTTA,

December 17, 1937.

XVIT.—NOTE ON THE PYTHON.

A few days ago I obtained a python near a small ‘busti’.

The reptile was said to have caught and swallowed a goat the

previous afternoon, at the edge of a paddy field, and had moved

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST? SOCIETY, Vol-XxE

a distance of only about twenty-five yards into thick undergrowth,

to sleep off the effects of its rather large meal.

In order to lighten the carcase for easy transport to my car,

and also so that the owner of the goat might regain his lost

property, (for he was of the opinion that it would still be quite

good to eat), I opened up the snake and removed the goat, which

latter was incidentally a large one and quite above average size.

The goat had been swallowed head foremost and rather more

on its back than side, as the sharp points of the horns could be

seen in the tightly stretched belly skin of the python. Digestion

had only slightly commenced round the head and neck, where

some of the hair had gone, and the bare skin had turned a dark

colour. This was at 11 a.m. and if my information was correct,

about 19 to 20 hours after swallowing. (Pretty slow digestion !)

With the exception of this discolouration the goat was absolutely

intact, no wounds were visible and no bones appeared to be broken.

The python was not a large one, measuring a bare 14 feet 6

inches.

The few books in my possession that mention this subject, would

have one believe that the python crushes its victim into a sausage-

like mass before swallowing, but in this instance the crushing

process had certainly not taken place. Even the legs were un-

broken, the fore ones doubled back, and the eva ones forward,

under the belly.

Questions that seem to need answering, are:—(1) How was the

goat killed without wounds being inflicted, or bones broken? (2)

How did the hind legs assume the position mentioned above? (3)

Why were the usual signs of crushing entirely absent? Is it

possible that the goat was swallowed alive, and therefore died of

suffocation, thus accounting for the lack of wounds and broken

bones, and also the position of the hind legs, in that they were

caught in this position by the jaws of the snake during its (the

goat’s) death struggles? Finally, would a python of this size find

the goat small enough to make crushing unnecessary, and only ©

employ this method on larger animals?

It would be of great interest to know if the natural feeding

habits of the python have been accurately observed, and also how

such an apparently sluggish snake is able to catch wary creatures

like wild pig, and barking deer, as they undoubtedly do.

Since writing the foregoing I have discussed the matter with

a friend, who is a very keen observer with long experience in

Assam, and I quote with his permission, two out of many instances

that go to prove his contention of the habits of the python, in

obtaining its food.

It is his opinion that the python waits beside a path used by

domestic animals or game, near a tree stump or sapling that offers

an anchorage for his tail, and lies (perhaps for days), with the

fore part of his body in the form of an ‘S’. When the unsuspecting

victim comes along, this ‘S’ is straightened out with lightning-like

rapidity, and the snake using its head as a battering ram, delivers

a blow that ‘knocks the wind out’ of the animal, if not actually

killing it on the spot. It then throws its body upon the animal,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131

and using the purchase of its tail from the convenient stump or

sapling, presses down with terrific force until life is extinct.

In support of this; in each of the two instances mentioned

above, a goat was killed by a python, but the reptile was disturbed

before swallowing had commenced. In each instance the animal

had been killed with no apparent wounds, on a pathway. Again,

in each case there was a tree stump or sapling nearby, and from

the latter a definite impression of the snake (described by my

friend, as resembling a small trench), leading towards the pathway,

of about the right length to allow of a turn of the tail round the

stump, with the ‘S’ formation at the head end, within striking

distance of the path.

My friend, on both occasions found the reptile lying up just

where his experience had led him to expect it, and in the attitude

described above. He also mentioned that both goats were found

with the eyes wide open and a placid expression, giving no indication

of having died in great pain or fear.

TINKONG TEA ESTATE, hale YIN DEE:

Tinkonc P.O.,

ASSAM.

November 4, 1937.

[Snakes being limbless invariably seize their prey with their jaws :

but the teeth of snakes are fragile and ill-adapted to hold a struggling

animal; movement of the prey is arrested either, with the paralysing

effect of poison, or, when this is insufficient or wanting, the snake

holds its quarry still by encircling it with its coils. Boas and

Pythons deal with their prey according to size. Invariably the

victim is seized with the jaws. It is a question of actual seizure;

not merely of knocking the animal over with a battering blow

of the head. The mouth and head of a python are not built for such

usage. When seized in the jaws, if the prey is small and makes

no struggle the snake does not attempt to wind its body around

it but proceeds to swallow it. Frogs and lizards are frequently

swallowed alive and have been rescued little the worse for their

experience. If the prey is bulky or struggles, the coils are brought

into use to stop movement. There is no intention to crush or

break bones, and this seldom happens. The extent to which the

quarry is encircled and the amount of pressure exerted is proportion-

ate to the struggles of the victim. But the vice-like grip of the

snake, preventing expansion of the lungs or the muscular action of

the heart, results in killing the prey by asphyxiation. This explains

why in the incident described above the goat was without wounds.

The teeth would make little apparent impression on a_ hairy

animal, and why there were no bones broken or apparent signs of

crushing—death was brought about in the usual way by asphyxia-

tion; the position of the hind legs was merely incidental to the

manner of seizure in the coils of the snake. The python’s method

of attack both under conditions of captivity or in the wild state

has been frequently observed. The snake may make its seizure on

132 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL “BIST. SOCIETY, Vole Xie

the ground. In forest country it may climb into trees, where

it hides so securely that even so alert a creature as a monkey is

frequently taken unawares and meets its death, or the snake, with

the help of its prehensile tail, suspends itself partly from the

branches like a great aerial root, and from this position strikes at

the unsuspecting quarry passing below. The element of surprise

is part of.the attack and the prey is seized and enmeshed in the

coils before it is able to realise what has happened.—EDs. |

XVITI.—MAN INSTANCE OF ‘VIVIPARITY’ IN MABUYA

CARINATA (SCHN.).

Malcolm A. Smith' in describing the habits of Mabuya carinata

says ‘It is usually stated that this skink is viviparous, but such

is not the case. A female kept by Father Dreckmann in captivity

laid twenty-three eggs; from another female he recovered twenty-

two eggs. All are about the same size—about 13 by 8 mm.; none

of. those examined showed any trace of embryo’. My observations

show that Mabuya carinata is ovoviviparous. Some years back I

came across, one morning in a school garden, a partly mutilated

skink. On opening the body of the animal I found a number of

eggs all of which showed developing embryos. I could observe

closely the heart beat and circulation of blood. The stage of

development roughly corresponded to a three-day-old chick embryo.

Two of these embryos which I stained and mounted are still with me.

Subsequently I came across a case of oviparity in a skink in

Annamalainagar. The egg clutch is now in the Zoology Laboratory

of the Annamalai University.

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, Rye VY. SESHATYA

ANNAMALAI NAGAR. Lecturer in Zoology.

XIX.—A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE PYRALIDAE

OF CALCU TAs

Some time back (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxviii, p. 204)

I recorded 91 species of Pyralidae taken in Calcutta. One species,

Ercta elutalis, Wlk., must be deleted from this list, the specimen

in question being a particularly pale example of Ercta ornatalis,

Dup., and two species, Ramila marginella, Moore and Ceratarcha

umbrosa, Swinh. must be corrected to Ramila acciusalis, Wl1k. and

Phryganodes analis, Snell.

I now add a further 33 species, bringing the total to 123 to date:

Mucialla rufivena, Wk.

Crambus atkinsoni, Zell.

Platytes argentisparsalis, Hmpsn.

Scirpophaga bisignata, Swinh.

om a

* Fauna of British India Reptilia and Amphibia (Vol. ii) by Malcolm A,

Smith. (New series.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133

Epicrocis aegnusalis, Wk.

Hypsipyla robusta, Moore.

Etiella zinckenella, Treit.

Orthaga euadrusalis, Wk.

Endotricha decessalis, Wlk.

Endotricha ruminalis, Wk.

Stemmatophora pallidella, Hmpsn.

Herculia tenuis, Btlr.

Nymphula foedalis, Guen.

Nymphula responsalis, Wik.

Nymphula affinialis, Guen.

Cataclysta fuscalis, Hmpsn.

Oligostigma picale, Guen.

Mabra eryxalis, Wk.

Zinckenia perspectalis, Hbn.

Syngamia abruptalis, Wk.

Bocchoris rotundalis, Hmpsn.

Bocchoris onychinalis, Guen.

Bocchoris inspersalis, Zell.

Bocchoris artificalis, Led.

Caprinia conchylalis, Guen.

Deba surrectalis, Wk.

Lygropia amyntusalis, Wk.

Pachynoa pectinicornalis, Guen.

Pachyzancla phoeopteralis, Guen.

Pachyzancla aegrotalis, Zell.

Phlyctaenodes massalis, Wk.

Pionea ablactalis, Wk.

Pyrausta phoenicealis, Hbn.

LONDON. Ds *G 7 SEV ASTOR ULG. e227, s.

Wovember 20, 1937.

XX.—A NOTE ON THE LYCAENID BUTTERFLY

EVERES DIPORA (MOORE).

(With a plate).

During the warmer months (April-September) this delightful

little butterfly may be observed in suitable localities between 3,000

ft. and 6,5co ft. in the Simla Hills. It is usually found in open

grassy country about which the food plants grow.

In the summer of 1936, I observed the females ovipositing on

the leguminous plant Desmodium parvifolium. I took some of

the eggs but due to the withering of the plant I had no success

with the larva.

This year I was surprised to see a female laying her eggs on

another plant, Flemingia fruticulosa which also belongs to the

Leguminosae.

A few eggs were collected from time to time and, with the

latter plant (see photo of larva), kept in glass-covered tin ento-

mological boxes (which method I would stress keeps the contents

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NADTURAE VAIS? ~SOCIE TN: aVoleas

of the box perfectly fresh for a week) and several larvae were in

due course reared to maturity. |

It was interesting to note that the larvae were dimorphic, one

brown with self-coloured longitudinal stripes, the other green

similarly marked. These were separated, the green in one box, the

brown ones in another box, but the pupae were all cream-coloured

and the imagoes, irrespective of sex showed no differences.

During the lifetime of the larva it is seldom seen feeding, as

this it does entirely on the tiny immature flower buds enclosed by

the folded bracts. Pupation also took place in the same safe

situation. So that altogether the species is more or less immune

from the attacks of would-be enemies.

The sculpture of the egg is much the same as that of Lycaenopsis

huegeli but 1s smaller and, whereas the latter’s is dead white, this

is sea-green.

Pupation lasts nine or ten days; the imago emerges between

FO and /12 aun:

It would appear that the ants do not enter into the economy

of this species.

In conclusion I would like to express my grateful thanks to Col.

IX. A. Glennie for photographing the specimen.

2, THE Matt, SIMLa. A. FE, JONES:

November 3, 1937.

XXI.—ON THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LYCAENOPSIS

HUEGELIT HUEGELTT AND LYCAENOPSIS LADONIDES

GIGAS.

(With a plate).

When Brigadier Evans’ Identification of Indian Butterflies was

published in 1927 there was no mention of the latter species, so

when the second edition of this very admirable work appeared in

1932, with many additional species included, entomologists in India

awoke to the fact that still more intense investigation might be

profitably spent on solving some of the problems presented.

The above two species are to the casual collector of Lepidoptera

very much alike in the imago stage. Last year, I told Brigadier

Evans I had been breeding some of these from larvae; he suggested

that further experiments in this direction would be useful. This

year more larvae were collected but it was difficult to separate the

two species from these and the credit of solving the problem is

entirely due to Col. E. A. Glennie who, while hunting for larvae,

came across numbers of eggs and herein were found the great

differences which will be observed by reference to the photographs.

From these eggs, duly separated into their respective boxes, a number

of larvae were reared and the imagoes eventually emerged, some

were bred by Col. Glennie and some by myself and all came

out true to species as discriminated in the egg stage.

From the time the pupa was formed eleven days usually elapsed

before the imago emerged,

—

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE I

Ova x 40

Larva x3

Stages of Eveves dipora, Moore.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II}

Imago, d x3

Stages of Everes dipora, Moore.

Journ. Bompay Nat. His. Soc.

Lycaenopsis Lycaenopsis

huegelii huegelii ladonides gigas

X 29 X 29

L. huegelii huegelii

Comparison of

Stages of Lycaenopsis huegelii huegelii (Left) and Lycaenopsis ladonides gigas (right),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135

from the photographs the respective larvae look distinct enough,

both are green of various shades, the heads only being black. ‘Lhe

only difterence, as the camera depicts, is that the markings on

ladonides gigas are somewhat clearer than those of huegelit.

The food plant is Prinsepia utilis, Royle, Order Rosaceae, a

shrubby spiny bush attaining to a height of usually 4 to 5 ft.

common in the Simla Hills from about 5,000 ft. to 7,500 ft.

Ants have not been observed attending either of the above

species so far aS we Can ascertain.

2, THE MALL, SIMLA, A, E. JONES.

XXIT.—-A NOTE ON OUR YALA SANCTUARY.

On May 5th my wife and myself had the pleasure of taking

Sir Thomas Comyn-Platt to the wild life Sanctuary at Yala, so

that he could get a ‘glimpse’ and an idea of that lovely country

and see, if possible, some of our bigger fauna before his return to

England after his visit to the F.M.S. where he was sent to obtain

first-hand information for the Society for the Protection of the

Fauna of the Empire.

Our visit was very hurried but fortunately conditions were good

and this note may be of interest to those who contemplate a visit

to this splendid, and the best Sanctuary in Ceylon, before it may

be too late.

I knew it would be impossible to attempt it in our own car,

but we were fortunate in finding a very ancient Chevrolet. at

Tissamaharama, which is the last jumping off place and which is

some 30 miles from Yala, where the Ranger lives, and where the

Sanctuary starts at the other side of the river, the Menik Ganga.

How that old car and the owner driver did that frightful journey

would be a surprise to many. It is only a cart track-.and an

apology at that. Every single obstacle where anyone else would

have slowed down, or even stopped and got out, our driver simply

charged at and over tree stumps and boulders we flew, only twice

sticking in very deep and dry sand, where combined efforts of the

.party made the ‘modern’ Ship of the Desert continue its weary way.

What propaganda for the make of Chevrolet cars!

The track is only possible for only some makes of cars, during

the dry season, which of course is not the best time to see the

country at its best or to expect to see very much of all the wild

life it holds. One heavy shower of rain, and one might be held

up or cut off for many days. Therefore a car is not advisable,

and the usual method of travelling in the little bullock carts is

the best. The first miles are not very interesting although parts

are beautiful open park-country and huge salt pans, like Daytona

Beach,

After Palatapana, where the Game Reserve starts, the country

soon becomes more interesting and very soon we began to see game,

deer, buffalo and wild pig. Many of the deer simply stood and

stared at our passing, or tried to race the car.

Reaching Yala at 9 a.m., rather late, we crossed the river

where in future, it is hoped, there will be a boat or a canoe or

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL

a raft, as I have recommended for many years. This river very

often suddenly comes down in flood when it would not be possible

to cross without a boat. Some of my men have been cut off and

have had to spend the night up a tree and in heavy rain, simply

asking for death by malaria. A raft would be a simple matter

and easy to make, but progress moves so slowly!

It was very hot and rather late in the day when we reached

the first huge open plain, but still we were lucky in being able to

show Sir Thomas many buffalo, deer, pig, etc. while a bear ambled

across our path, disturbed in its feeding on the delicious ripe palu

fruit, which taste like small fresh dates and are very refreshing

and said to be intoxicating, but we noticed no such effects.

On our return a cup of tea with the Ranger was most welcome,

when one of the men suddenly called out ‘Elephant’. This was

luck, and from the small bungalow compound we could show our

visitor a fine large bull slowly wandering about the river bank.

If we had tied up a tame one, it could not have been arranged

better !

It was a pity that time was all too short, as a few days camped

in the very heart of the Sanctuary is an experience one never will

forget.

The camp-site is on a huge plain under some large shady trees,

and from one’s camp chair or even camped, one sees the whole

plain covered with wild life, practically throughout the whole day

except during the hot noon hours. Herds of deer, small lots of

sambhur, hundreds of buffalo, many fine lone old bulls, sounders

of pig, jackals, peafowl, numerous waders and storks, and often

a lone—or some herd elephants. It is an experience few would

believe one could find in this world, where Nature and Wild Life

are pushed back more and more by our unwelcome and destroying

‘civilisation’.

Intending visitors should remember that permission to visit this

Sanctuary must be obtained from the Minister for Agriculture in

Colombo, while any information as how to. arrange such a trip

and make all the arrangements, will be gladly given by the writer

of this note.

It must be remembered that when the Yala Wild Life Sanctuary

has been declared a Strict Natural Reserve, permission to visit it

will be most difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Personally I

think that a great mistake, I know that country very well, and I

cannot possibly see what harm it could ever do for a small party

to visit it and camp there a few days. That cannot disturb the

game or the wild life in any way whatsoever, and it will be a sad

day if that glorious country will be closed for ever for those who

are genuinely interested in wild life and who love beautiful country

so little known.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL, No. 2.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA, Part IV. By Dr. S. L. Hora, psc,

F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., FAN.I. (With one coloured plate and 4

MAIMED CS atest Gar see vaca he snipes sin rls solr Silane soc aS sa veskied obs 0eadss. sha veoset sabe

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE, Part IV. By Salim A. Ali, and

Humayun Abdulali. (With two black and white DUGLES) Rauch heer ed

THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THE Coconut. By P. V. Mayuranathan.......

ROSE-FINCHES AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE WARDWAN VALLEY. By

Major R. SP. Bates, t.A. (W2h 6 Plates) cscccvsisessescvesstlvsvescecccsate

A FuRTHER CONTRIBUTION TO SOME OF THE COMMON FLOWERING

PLANTS OF THE HYDERABAD STATE: THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With a Map.)....

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE. By H. Whistler,

ARE Sigs NisE Oliinateusts sc rncosnewtere sauna vole sneee Goad caheswabuber cr teadasndliety es a

On A NEw Coccipium J/sospora minuta n. sp. FROM THE INTESTINE OF

A CoBRA WVaja naja Linn, By Matiranjan Das-Gupta, M.sc. (With

QED UGUE Na ctnecg oni: eh vars uecieyip stoma imeun bie dau cedssnesed iW eaeoutepatnweened se aioe twats

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND. By C. H. eae (With a

LM) atc ntgen eens iuigsiaiaataeie caer Wank e Reteac yds ceea tia thunsiw bs pases abeecdtoareeey ene

A Note on Metanastria hyrtaca Cram. By T. V. Subramaniam, B.a.,

and... P. Anantanarayanan, B.A. (Hon.). (W2th @ Plate) .tevc.cscsssres

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA. By Rev. Fr. J.F.

WANTS NaCI Meee yearn i re cha ee tera canesrccmuecec uss Seite s loenane en tina cosa voor est Senides ic

REVIEWS :—

I.—The Birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden...... ..

hes Wem Leben Der Voge lis c.ccdeisteve cnc wsebewest es vscnesens vereenes

iM —The Compleat Indian: AMC. 3 6... us .csccserse cendeesiasneatescs veers

IWee hel risis of a Plamter.. i. ene. Eee ete Peres ene ee

Waa We wea EVOtas toss .scateee ve paesdl 600 voc cca e6 vacieey secieedvccese cs eae

VI.—Uganda Game Department Annual Report for the year 1937,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

i-—Panther with abnormal feet. By Ss, H. Prater.......... eee

IIl,—Jackals (?) and a captive Panther. By Noel J. S. Thompson.

Ill.—Pangolin and Sambar: A curious belief. By Eds............

IV,—An albino Sambar. By H. G. Champion, 1.8.S..................

V.—The mating of elephants. By Paul de Launey...................

VI.—A Large Indian Elephant. By F. J. Mustill...... wo...

VII.—Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison. By R.C. Morris.........

VIII.—Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison (760s gaurus). By

NiO ele GOSS Cla my'wwnaa cscs onesivesssotcnddeeseuetact ore

IX.—The use of firework or rocket cartridges in the protection of

ChOps.: oy eed), NEUSHU: co cnesects.cesetecare.. Resarasepreeeecces aie

191.

Zu3

236

238

257

i CONTENT SOF Vol.-XL Wo..2

PAGE

X.—The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (Chelidoryna hypoxanithum) :

An extension of its range. By Rev. E. A. Storrs Fox....... 327

X1I.—The Status of the Koel (Audynamis scolopaceus L.) in Sind.

Byek . KR. Hates; PeZiSs5 Mas On tentecscren-caceonmaconccae sear 328

XII.—Some interesting records of birds in the Punjab. A correc-

tion. ‘By EW.” Walle MB iO Uses as Sere Cee cnaete ese maseoee 328

XIL—Cuckoo Problems. By D.WR: eivesey-e. 7. oe aeaes ee 329

XIV.—Strange accident to a Vulture. By J. A. C. Greemwocd:

(WAL SG, BOLO) akicgeat sacle Siaencon eur dose ahenecn eae ee saceaan 330

XV.—Occurrence of the Lesser Cone Green Pigeon

(Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta) at Keamari, Sird. By

K... Ri: Bates .BiZS a MeB.O: Us cosets ask cas cnnuce cent cs ee eee sence 330

XVI.—Woocdcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail Snipe and Jack Snipe in one

day. BY ARE, StOReY. igi. i cecse'nacsas bose caset ae aeeceneaeee 331

XVII.—The Snipe-billed Godwit ee taczanowskius

(Werreatx) || in Orissa “By 82 Ea erate ccssete sera eene BIO

XVIII.— The occurrence of the Turnstone, the Red-necked Phalarope,

the Falcated Teal and the Sheldrake at Patna. By

BH Ate: DO ADE CU cosas staenatenetnccuces rim orton: aetna conan cme 332

XIX.--Bewick’s Swan (Cygnus bewickii Pane near Delhi. By

Ee) Dx, LLC WIS. sect 'aneoc esis ns cunvens Mouacensesemnces asta an et Geen eee eecee 333

XX.—Occurrence of the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis

Linn.) wear Quetta. By MiB. P.Reeve (Major) aes 333

XXI.—Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna Linn.) in Orissa. By

Re a) Cloueiie oresa she oase ota ee ose n ee noeweee es ae ioe 334

XXII.—A Hybrid : Common Tealand Baikal Teal. By Lt.-Col. J. W.

Thomson: Glovers Jn. as5 seosea ese. seemtders adasues enue wens ome ae 334

XXL. Migration of Wald fowl. By HGS: icicawsscrsstouneeescseregent 335

XXIV.—The Food of the Mugger (Cvrocodilus palustris). By

Humayun: ApGtlali css acsconece se ccvadoess iceman sat as eee 336

XXV.—The Head shields of the Hamadryad [Nata Hannah (Cantor) ]:

Anabnormalexample. By R. N. Champion-Jones......... 336

XXVI—Two caterpillars of economic importance not recorded

before from South India. By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar,

Bea § PROD Asc. ceramics cute cee cen an Meo vonsomeas eocee tence ee ee eneee 336

XXVII.—Notes on the Earwig Dicrana Seer Dohrn. By sir

Frank Connor, D.S.O., F.R.C.S., I1.M.Ss. (Major-General,

RGEC: ) ca qudtainn sess Gresser nststqan de cose pets Gaaghcmen sivas oats Went acngtnnes 338

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting of the Bombay

Natural History, SOClEtVins. s.cstitaust oe ca scee eo aceeeeees ee er eee 340

‘(uoz!WeH) eIPUO]IS BLUO|!S

HsI4LV> GNONS JHL

‘90S “ISIE] “LVN ‘Wog ‘Nano[

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1988. Vou Xi. No. 2.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.!

Sunper Lan Hora, D.8¢., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F-R.A.S.B., FNL

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one plate and four text-figures).

Continued from page 678 of Vol. xxxix.

IV.—TueE Srtonp CatrFisu.

SILONIA SILONDIA (Hamilton).

CONTENTS.

“= +. ee re PAGE

__ Introduction ik ec” J ght Paras ae es OY

- Nomenclature and Systematic Position | et he ee 38

Synonymy and Description ae a eee we dT

Bionomics and Fishing Notes a oni oes va .. «144

Acknowledgments ae Thee Bes 2 (246

List of References a a fc its sor 146

Explanation of Plate sis =n ae bs saw «7

INTRODUCTION.

Among a great variety of Indian Catfishes, there are four

species, viz., Silonia silondia (Ham.), Pangasius pangasius (Tam.),

Bagarius bagarius (Ham.) and Wallagonia attu? (Bloch), which

attain a size of about five to seven feet in length, and on account

of their voracious habits and powerful build are sometimes called

‘Freshwater Sharks’. They cause considerable damage to fisheries

1 Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

2 Myers (Copeia, p. 98, June 1988) has restricted the use of the generic

denomination Wallago to W. dinema Bleeker and has included the Indian

Species in his new genus Wallagonia.

NOV -5 1988

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

and are very undesirable in several respects. However, they pro-

vide considerable sport to anglers, and are regarded game fishes of

ho mean value. ‘Lhe present article deals with the Silond Catfish,

which is perhaps the most powerful of all the four species enu-

merated above and whose flesh is certainly more prized than that

of the others. The following three articles will be devoted to the

treatment of the three other so-called freshwater sharks.

NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION.

Hamilton (3)' who discovered the Silond Catfish for science,

named it Pimelodus silondia, but later workers regarded Hamilton’s

Pimelodus as a generalised, composite genus and split up his group

of 383 species into several genera. Swainson (6) removed the first

two species of Hamilton’s Pimelodus—P. silondia and P. chandra-

mara, to a new subgenus Silonia of Ageniosus (sic) which was

defined as follows:—

‘Body of equal thickness with the head, which is not dilated; eyes very

large; cirri two, very minute; adipose dorsal very small, oval; gill-membrane

ten-rayed; ventral fin beneath the first dorsal; caudal fin slightly lunate.’

The two species included by Swainson under Silonia, S.

lurida Sw. (=P. silondia Ham.) and S. diaphina Sw. (=P. chandra-

mara Ham.), are quite different from each other, except that both

were characterised by Hamilton as possessing only two barbels.

P. silondia is, however, designated as the type of the species and

it is to the fishes of this kind that the generic designation of

Silonia is now applied.

Probably beimg unaware of Swainson’s classification, Cuvier

and Valenciennes (1) also proposed a new genus Silundia for the

same two species of Hamilton’s Pimelodus and characterised it as

follows : —

‘Les Silondies sont des siluroides, voisines des Bagres, a petite téte lisse,

fort semblable & celle des schilbes, & trés-petite nageoire dorsale adipeuse, 4

longue nageoire anale, qui n’ont que deux barbillons maxillaires, et tellement

petits, qu'il faut de l’attention pour des découvrir. Leurs rayons branchiosteges

sont au nombre de douze. Leurs dents de machoires, sur un on deux rangs

seulement, sont plus longues et moins semées que dans les autres siluroides.

Nous n’en connaissons bien qu’une espéce le pimelodus silundia de Buchanan;

inais il me parait que le pimelodus chandramara du méme auteur s’en rapproche

aul moins beaucoup.’

Cuvier and Valenciennes changed the specific name of Silond to

Silundia gangetica and the later workers adopted this name without

any reference to Swainson’s earlier work. As Silonia Swainson

has priority over Silundia Cuvier and Valenciennes, in accordance

with the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature the species

must now be designated as Silonia silondia (Hamilton),

As recognised here Silonia is a monotypic genus. Some authors

have regarded Sykes’ (7) Ageneiosus childreni as a doubtful mem-

ber of this genus but I (4) have placed it in a separate genus

Silonopangasius Hora. Day (2) described a new species of

1 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 139

Silundia, S. sykesi, from Deccan and was doubtfully of the opinion

that it may be synonymous with Sykes’ childrenit. In the col-

lection of the Zoological Survey of India there is a considerable

material of the Deccan form. Though both the species possess

eaniniform.teeth which project outside the mouth-opening, Silono-

pangasius childreni has two pairs of barbels while Silonia silondia

has only one pair. The structure of the air-bladder is also differ-

ent in the two species. Moreover, the Deccan form rarely exceeds

a foot and a half in length.

Taylor, Day, and Bridge and Haddon described the air-bladder

of S. silondia,! but their accounts differ greatly from one another.

On dissecting a number of specimens of various sizes it was

observed that the form of the air-bladder undergoes considerable

Text-fig. 1.—Air-Bladder, associated skeletal structures, and dentition of Stlonta

stlondia (Ham.).

a. Air-bladder of a specimen 53 mm. in length without caudal. x38; b. Air-

bladder of a specimen 131 mm. in length without caudal. x3; ¢.

Air-bladder of a specimen 237 mm. in length without caudal. x2}.

The portion shaded by section lines represents a strong fibrous structure

by which the bladder is attached to the neighbouring skeletal elements;

d. Airebladder of a specimen about 1.070 mm. in length without caudal.

x4. The bladder from the right side is removed to show the nature

of the bones to which it is firmly attached; e. Longitudinal horizontal

section of the air-bladder shown in d. X3%. The portion shaded by

section lines represents the solid, fibrous part of the bladder, while its

cavity is shaded black with dots; f. Upper dentition of a specimen 237 mm.

in length without caudal. Nat. size.

changes during growth. I reproduce here (text-fig. 1) four drawings

of the air-bladders of specimens 53 mm., 181 mm., 237 mm. and

* For references to the accounts of Taylor, Day, and Bridge and Haddon

See the synonymy of the species on page 141,

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

1,070 mm. in length without the caudal, respectively. In both

the earlier stages the form corresponds with that described by

Bridge and Haddon, Hore that of the third specimen approaches

the type described by Day. Fortunately, Taylor noted that his

specimen was about 8 pounds in weight, so he was certainly deal-

ing with a much larger specimen than those examined either by

Day or by Bridge and Haddon. Taylor’s description more or less

corresponds with the form of the bladder of the largest specimen

examined by me. Nair (9) has recently given an account of the

changes in the internal structure of the air-bladder of Silonia

silondia during growth.

The genus Silonia may now be defined as follows :—

The body is elongated and compressed. The head and body

are covered with soft skin. The head is of moderate size and is

rounded anteriorly. The median fontanel extends throughout the

length of the head. The occipital process is sharply pointed

posteriorly and there is a considerable space between it and the

basal bone of the dorsal fin. The eyes are situated laterally behind

the angle of the mouth and are visible both from above and below;

they are provided with circular adipose lds. The mouth is

anterior, wide and obliquely directed upwards. The lower jaw is

somewhat longer than the upper and broadly pointed in the middle.

The teeth in the jaws are large and caniniform; they project out-

side the mouth-opening. There is a continuous U-shaped band of

villiform teeth across the palate. The lips are well developed near

the angles of the mouth and are continuous. The _post-labial

groove is widely interrupted in the middle. The nostrils are

situated wide apart and are slit-like; the anterior nostrils are along

the front edge of the snout while the posterior ones are placed

backwards and inwards. There are only two small maxillary

barbels which lie in grooves and are liable to be overlooked. The

dorsal fin is situated considerably in advance of the ventrals; it

is provided with a moderately developed bony spine which is

roughened externally and serrated internally. A small adipose

dorsal is present in the last fourth of the body length. The anal

fin is very long. The pectoral fin is provided with a strong, bony

spine which is roughened externally and serrated internally. The

pelvic fins possess 6 rays each. The caudal fin is deeply forked.

The gill-openings are wide. The gill-membranes are deeply

notched; they are united with each other but are free from the

isthmus. There are 11-12 branchiostegal rays. The air-bladder is

greatly reduced, thick-walled and uniform in the earlier stages; it

has its long axis transversely disposed and lies across the body

of the anterior, modified vertebrae. It is not enclosed in bone

but is supported laterally by the transverse processes of the fourth

vertebrae.

Genotype:—Silonia lurida Swainson 1838 -=Pimelodus silondta

Hamilton 1822.

Distribution: —Same as of the only species, vide infra, p. 143.

__ Relationships:—Silonia belongs to the family Schilbeidae of

the order Siluroidea. This family is represented by a number of

genera both in the Oriental and the Ethiopian Regions. As I (4)

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 141

have remarked elsewhere Silonia with one pair of barbels is probably

a primitive form in the family, though owing to its highly preda-

ceous habits it has developed large caniniform teeth in both the

jaws. Its close allies are represented today by forms like Pangasia-

nodon Chevy of Siam and Indo-China, and Silonopangasius Hora

of Southern India. The former, like Silonia, grows to a very large

size, while the latter rarely exceeds a foot and a half in length.

SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION.

Silonia silondia (Hamilton).

1822. Pimelodus silondia, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 160, 3875, pl. vii,

fig. 50.

: 1830. Pimelodus silondia, Taylor, Gleanings in Science, p. 171 (air-bladder).

1838-39.. Silonia lurida, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Fish., etc., i, p. 345, fig. 85;

woid., 11, p. 3805.

1840. Silundia gangetica, Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., v,

Be40, pl. ceccxxvi.

1858. Silundia gangetica, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, p. 118.

1858. Silundia gangetica, Blyth, Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, p. 28.

- 1868. Silundia gangetica, Bleeker, Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., i, p. 108.

1864. Silundia gangetica, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p. 66.

1873. Silundia gangetica, Day, Rep. Freshw. Fish Fisheries India and

Burma, p. 269. .

1876. Silundia gangetica, Day, Journ. Linn. Soc. London, xii, p. 570.

1877. Silundia gangetica, Day, Fish. India, p. 488, pl. exiv, fig. 3.

1877. Silondia gangetica, Beavan, Freshw. Fish. India, p. 186.

1889. Silundia gangetica, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 1, p. 145, fig. 62.

1894. Silundia gangetica, Bridge & Haddon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London

(B), clxxxiv, pp. 222, 223 (air-bladder).

1987. Silonia silondia, Hora, Curr. Sci., v, p. 852 (affinities and distri-

bution).

1938. Silonia silondia, Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus., xl, pp. 5-11, 6 figs. (air-

bladder).

Vernacular Names:—Silun (Bengal, for young and half-grown),

Dhdin (Bengal, for larger specimens); Silondia-vacha (Calcutta);

Silon (Dinajpore and Rungpur); Baikar (Gorakhpur); Silond (Pun-

jab); Ji-lung and Silond (Ooriah and Bengali). |

In the higher Bengali dialect this species is known as Silandha

while its Sanskrit names are Silendhra and Silindha (vide Hamil-

ton’s list of Bhagalpur fishes).

eee ii-i2; D. 1/7; A. 40-46; P, 11-18; V. 6; C. 17.

Silonia silondia is herring-shaped in its younger stages, but in

the adult condition its belly becomes very bulky. The dorsal and

ventral profiles are almost equally arched in the young individuals

(text-fig. 2 and plate), but im full-grown specimens the ventral

profile is greatly arched (text-fig. 8). The length of the head is

contained from 5-0 to 5-8 times in the total length and from 4-0

to 4-6 times in the length with the caudal. The head is propor-

tionately shorter in the larger individuals. The width of the head.

is about two-thirds of its length. The depth of the body undergoes

considerable variations with age; it is contained from 4:7 to 7-4

times in the total length and from 4-0 to 6-0 times in the length

without the caudal. The eyes are lateral in position and are

visible both from above and below; the diameter of the eye is

contained from 3-1 to 4:4 times in the length of the head, from

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

1:2 to 2-0 times in the interorbital width and from 1-0 to 1°5

times in the length of the snout. Proportionately the eyes are

much smaller in larger individuals. The eyes are provided with

narrow adipose lids. The head is provided with a median fontanel

along its entire length which is shallow in front and somewhat

ee sie rah

ROT TY

che a .

Text-fig. 2.—Lateral view of a young specimen of Stlonia silondia (Ham.)

72 mm. in total length, collected from the river Hooghly in November 1937.

deeper behind. The occipital process tapers to a fine point pos-

teriorly; it is thrice as long as broad and is separated from the

basal bone of the dorsal fin by a considerable distance. The mouth

is slightly ascending. The lower jaw is broadly pointed in the

middle and is somewhat longer than the upper. There is a pair

of small maxillary barbels which lie in grooves and do not extend

beyond the eyes. The teeth in the jaws are caniniform and

arranged in two series in each jaw; those of the outer series in-

variably project beyond the mouth-opening. The teeth on the

palate are villiform and are arranged in a U-shaped band.

The dorsal fin is considerably, but not wholly, in advance of

the ventrals; its forward position is more marked in the young

than in the full-grown specimens. The dorsal spine is rather

slender; it is rugose anteriorly and, finely serrated posteriorly in

its upper portion; it is about two-thirds the length of the head.

The pectoral fin extends beyond the origin of the ventrals in

young and half-grown specimens, but in larger specimens it does

not reach to the base of the ventrals. The pectoral spine is

similar to that of the dorsal fin. The adipose fin is small, but

well-marked; it is situated above the posterior portion of the anal

fin. In younger specimens it is in the posterior quarter of the

length of the body, whereas in a fully mature specimen it lies in

the posterior fifth of the body length. The ventrals just reach the

anal opening and are separated from the anal fin by a short dis-

tance. The caudal fin is deeply forked: both the lobes are of

equal length. The least height of the caudal peduncle is contained

from 1-4 to 1-7 times in its length.

Colouration:—According to Hamilton (3) ‘The back is of a

dusky green colour; and, although the sides are like silver, the

fish has a dirty lurid appearance, with a shade of livid hue. The

back and tail fins are greenish, the others are white.’ Some time

after the fish is removed from water the back assumes a neutral

tint while the ventral surface and sides become silvery. The

opercle is shot with orange and yellow which is continued forwards

to the mouth-opening. The iris is of an orange colour. The dorsal

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 143

fin is of a light neutral tint; the pectoral fin is also of the same

colour but is provided with an orange band at the base. The

ventrals are shghtly tinted with orange. The anal fin is lght

purple with an orange band at the base. The adipose fin is of a

purple colour. The tail fin is much darker and at the base is

provided with a band of light Indian red colour.

In young specimens, below 4 inches in length, the dorsal and

the pectoral fins after preservation in spirit are deeply stained

with black. The posterior margin of the caudal fin and a con-

siderable part of its superior lobe are also stained with black.

These colour marks gradually fade away during growth.

Distribution: —Day in his Fishes of India states that this

species is found in the ‘Estuaries of India and Burma, ascending

high up the larger rivers to nearly their sources’. The collection

in the Indian Museum contains no specimen of S. silondia from

Burma. Prof. F. G. Meggitt, at my request, sent to the Museum

a collection of the local Rangoon fishes, but this species is not

Text-fig. 8.—Photograph of a large specimen of Silonia silondia (Ham.),

50 inches in total length, purchased from the Calcutta market.

represented in that collection. It may also be noted that Vinci-

guerra (8) in his account of the fishes of Burma does not record

this species. It seems doubtful, therefore, whether the species is

actually found in Burmese waters.’ If, however, it occurs in

Burma, it will be worthwhile to make a detailed study of the

Burmese specimens and to compare them with the Indian examples

* Macdonald (Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxii, p. 306, 1929) records

the occurrence of Silund (Silundia gangetica) in the higher reaches of the

Trrawadi river.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL His. SOCIETY, Vol: cae

to see the effect of isolation on them, as was found to be the

case in Hutropiichthys vacha (Ham.) and Clupisoma garua (Ham.)

(vide the second and the third articles of this series).

In South India Silonia silondia is replaced by the allied form

Silonopangasius, and from the information available it seems

probable that Silonia is restricted only to the Indo-Gangetic basin

of Northern India.

As the body proportions vary considerably with growth,

I give below in inches the measurements of a specimen

over 4 feet in length (text-fig. 8). The measurements are only

approximate.

Measurements 7n inches.

SEDAN DIB IR DAY Hwy Wry

Sonnac Sd

Total length without caudal

Length of caudal >

Length of head

Length of snout

Diameter of eye

Depth of body

Length of pectoral

Length of dorsal

Length of ventral

Length of anal base

Length of caudal peduncle

Least height of caudal peduncle

Distance between tip of snout and origin of first dorsal .

Distance between tip of snout and origin of ventrals

Distance between ventrals and ara! fin

Distance between rayed dorsal and adipose dorsal

—

AAIMNIKHONA

—

BIONOMICS AND FisHinc NotTEs.

Hamilton (3) noted that Silonia silondia ‘is very common in

the Gangetic estuaries, and is considered by the natives as good

eating. It commonly grows to three feet in length, and occasion-

ally to twice that size.’ This species is a common food fish of

Bengal and in the Calcutta markets large quantities of this fish

are sold. The majority of the specimens, as stated by Hamilton,

are below three feet in length.

It is a voracious feeder and does considerable harm to the

fisheries. The young specimens, below 4 inches in length, col-

lected from the river Hooghly were found feeding on prawns,

voung fish, etc. while the largest specimen examined had full-

erown Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in its stomach. The stomach is a

large bag-lke structure about twice as long as broad (text-fig. 4);

the alimentary canal is only slightly convoluted. In a young

specimen about. 938 mm. in length, the length of the alimentary

canal was about 80 mm. In a specimen 50 inches long, the

stomach measured 11 inches in length and 5-5 inches in breadth.

The iength of the intestine was 62 inches.

Silonia silondia probably breeds in the rainy season as young

specimens from three to eight inches in total length were found

to be fairly common in November-December in the catches from

the river Hooghly at Nawabgunge about 20 miles above Calcutta,

145

FISHES OF INDIA

THE GAME

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"SIAJIMUAPITUL UL SJUIUMIANS DIY]

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ae g,ounped [epnvo jo ysus'T

a laqreq AISIPIXVU Jo YASUI]

re gaids peroyod jo y38u97T

sat “* gutds Tesiop Jo qjsueT

ma ta jnous jo 4}8user]

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[epnvo jo yysue]

“ag [epneo Suipnypoxs yysug] [210.1

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

In the list of Gorakhpur fishes Hamilton noted under Bazkar that

‘in this district it is said never to exceed six inches in length’.

Presumably Hamilton was in Gorakhpur

after the rainy season when the young fish

are common in the river. It also seems

probable that Silonia ascends rivers for

breeding purposes and when the waters

fall after the rains it becomes stranded in

large pools in the upper reaches of the

river. Principally it is an estuarine fish.

The Silond Catfish is a very game fish

and fights well. It frequents the same

type of habitats as the Goonch, but prefers

stronger streams and clear white deep

waters. The usual bait is a spoon or a

fish, but specimens have also been caught

on a Mahseer fly and provided good sport

with this tackle also.

Though Silonia silondia is primarily a

fluviatile fish, it can flourish in tanks and

large reservoirs as well. In the Settling

Tanks of the Caleutta Corporation Water-

works at Pulta the species is very common

‘ and attains a large size. It enters these

reservoirs in the egg or larval stages. From

Text-fig. 4.—Alimentary 4 practical fisheries point of view its culti-

canal of Silonia silondia ae ; : ee

(Hara.). vation should be discouraged, as it is very

destructive to other types of edible fishes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The Bombay Natural History Society very kindly made a grant

towards the cost of the illustrations and for this I offer my sincere

thanks to the authorities of the Society. Mr. K. 8. Misra, m.sc.,

my assistant in the Zoological Survey of India, has helped me in

the preparation of the tables of measurements and for this I am

indebted to him. The illustrations were prepared by Babu B.

Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my supervision.

List oF REFERENCES.

1. Cuvier, M. and Valenciennes, M. A.—Histoire naturelle des Poissons,

vol. xv, p. 49 (1840).

2. Day, F.—‘On Some of the Fishes of the Deccan’. Journ. Linn. Soc.

London (Zool.), vol. xii, p. 569 (1876).

8. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes Found in the River Ganges and

its branches, pp. 160, 875 (Edinburgh, 1822).

4. Hora, 5S. Lu.—Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes and

its bearing on the probable land connections between India and the adjacent

countries. Curr. Sci., vol. v, p. 352 (1987).

De Nan ee aie — Changes in the Internal Structure of the Air-bladder of

Silonia silondia (Ham.) during growth. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xl, pp. 5-11 (1938).

6. Swainson, W.—On the Natural History and Classification of Fishes,

Amphibians and Reptiles, vol. ii, p. 305 (1889).

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 147

7. Sykes, W. H.—‘On the Fishes of the Dukhun’. Trans. Zool. Soc.

London, vol. ii, p. 875 (1841).

§. Vinciguerra, D.—' Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e Regioni vicine.

Pesci’. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova (2), vol. ix, pp. 129-862 (1890).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Colour sketch of the lateral view of a specimen, 214 mm. in length without

caudal, of Silonia silondia (Hamilton) from the river Hooghly.

Immediately after the fish is taken out of water its colour is golden, but

it fades quickly. The fish then becomes blue-backed with a white belly.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE.

Vs /

SALim ALI AND HuMayun ABDULALI

Parr, [V.

(With 2 plates).

(Continued from p. 688 of Vol. xxxix).

The Common Weaver-Bird or Baya: Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linn.).

Local name: S6n-chiri.

Field identification: Size of the House-Sparrow. In non-breeding plumage

both sexes very like the female of that bird, but with a thicker bill and

somewhat shorter tail. In the breeding season the male acquires a_ golden-

yellow head and breast, and the back is suffused with the same _ colour.

The throat and sides of the head are dark brown. Flocks about rice cultivation.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: o? 21-3-24 Chembur (S.A.); 92 14-1-13 Santa) (@suz

(N. B. Kinnear); St. Xavier’s College: 63 9, 64 3, 65 3 3-9-33 Jogéshwari;

186 d 19-3-34 Gorégaon; 205 Q, 206 o? November 734 (H.A.).

Apparently a local migrant to some extent, as it becomes quite scarce in

Salsette during January and February. Common on the open outskirts of

the city, in the suburbs and throughout the island of Salsette. In the dry

season flocks may usually be met with gleaning paddy in stubble fields. At

this period, however, they split up into smaller or larger parties and spread

far and wide over the countryside. They are also less noisy, and _ therefore

not so conspicuous as when nesting. They do a certain amount of damage

to ripening paddy crops. Erythrina flowers are largely resorted to in season

both for the nectar and for the newly forming pods. Lantana berries are also

eaten. At night, large numbers foregather to roost among tall grass patches

and the mangroves by our tidal creeks, such as at Mahul and Godhbunder.

Here, hundreds of birds may be observed any evening arriving from all

quarters. They also roost amongst the reeds and bulrushes round the margin

of Powai Lake.

Breeding: Many males have already acquired breeding plumage by the

middle of May, but the nesting is not in full swing until the monsoon is

well set. During the rains nest colonies are to be seen dotted about on ber

and babool trees and palmyra and date palms all over Salsette. By the middle

of October all the chicks have left the nests.

The retort-shaped, woven, fibre nests are too well known to need des-

cription. The building work is done almost entirely by the males. In _ the

earlier stages of a building colony the females are absent. They arrive only

after some of the nests are half built, and take possession of these if approved.

Thereafter the hen helps the cock in finishing off the interior. When the

nest is ready, the eggs laid and the hen brooding, the cock commences to

build another nest on a nearby twig which, in due course, may be appropriated

by a second roving or prospecting female. In this way some cocks have three

or more nests with as many wives, acquired one at a time. The usual

number of eggs in a nest in Salsette is 2 to 4. They are pure white in colour.

[The Black-throated Weaver-Bird : Ploceus benghalensis (Linn.).

We have not come across this species in our area, but Wenden (N. & E., ii,

120) records finding 8 or ro nests, some containing eggs, at Bhandip on 28

August somewhere about 1880 (?).]

[The Striated Weaver-Bird : Ploceus manyar ssp.

Not met with by us, but there is a specimen listed in the Bombay Natural

History Society’s Card Catalogue as from Bombay. It is doubtful however,

if this was a wild bird or one procured in the local bird market. ]

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. 149

The White-backed Munia: Uvoloncha striata striata (Linn.).

Field identification: Smaller than the House-Sparrow. A small black-and-

white finch with a heavy conical bill and wedge-shaped tail. Sexes alilxe.

Pairs or small flocks in scrub country, about roadside hedges, ete.—often

feeding on the ground.

No specimen. Noted: Salsette: Chembtr, Andheri, Borivli.

Resident. Not common in Salsette though pairs and small flocks are

occasionally seen. We have observed them feeding on grass seeds both on

the ground and from off the stems. They are also very partial to bamboo seeds

whenever available.

_ Breeding: In Salsette and across the Harbour—at Kihim and Alibag, where

it is common—we have found nests in various stages of construction or with

eggs and young chiefly between March and November. August and September,

however, appear to be the months when most eggs are laid. The nest is

an untidy globular structure with entrance-hole on one side, occasionally in

the form of a short tube. It is made of fine soft feathery grass, intermixed

on occasion with a little coarse grass and even cocoanut fibre. It is placed

between 5 and io feet up in a small bér, lime or similar tree or bush, in scrub

country and gardens. We have frequently observed four birds working on a

single nest, but whether more than one female uses it for laying in at a

time is not known. The nests are certainly used as dormitories by the entire

family long after the young have flown. The eggs, pure white in colour

with a pinkish tinge when fresh, number four to seven. Both parents roost

within the nest at night even before the first egg is laid, and continue to do

so throughout the incubation period. Brooding seems to commence in earnest

only after the laying of the last egg. In one clutch of 5 eggs the incubation

period was ascertained to be 13-14 days from the last egg (or 19 from the

first). Both parents feed the young, apparently largely by regurgitation. The

nests become foul with the excreta of the young, which are not removed.

~The White-throated Munia : Uvoloncha malabarica (Linn.).

Field identification: Size same as the last. A plain earthy-brown, thick-

billed little bird with a pointed black tail, whitish underparts and a _ white

rump. Flocks feeding by hedges and along cart tracks in open scrub country,

gardens etc.

Specimens: GB .N.H.S.: o? 5-7-25 Borivli-(S:A.)5 St. X. G.: 87° G;, 889

25-9-33 Juhu (H.A.).

Resident. Not uncommon in our area but perhaps more plentiful across the

harbour in the Kolaba District. It prefers open sparsely scrubbed country

and: babool jungle. _H.A. has noted it as common on the Reclamation at

Church Gate (1933-35) and Br. Navarro observed it making abortive attempts

at: nest-building .there in September.

Breeding: We have records of nests. from Borivli, Chembtr and elsewhere

in Salsette, and from Kihim (across the Harbour, in Alibag Talika) for every

month in the year except December,. January and February. This Munia

habitually utilises disused Baya nests for laying purposes. Indeed it may

almost invariably be seen haunting Baya nest-colonies even while the legitimate

owners are still in occupation, entering the hanging tubes as opportunity

offers. Although so far we have never found its eggs in occupied Baya nests

but only in old and deserted ones, it is quite conceivable from its behaviour

that it may in course of time develop a habit of parasitism on the Baya.

When constructed by the bird itself, the nest is an untidy globular affair

with a lateral entrance hole, similar to the Striated Munia’s but with. fine twigs

on the exterior and often lined with feathers. Large feathers such as_ those

of egrets and rollers are often used. The nest is placed in a babool, bér

or other thorny bush usually at heights of 6-12 feet. We have found, as a

rule, 4-7 white unmarked eggs in a clutch. Both when self-built and when

appropriated from a Baya, the nests are used as dormitories when the breeding

season is over, as many as 6 or 8 birds—probably parents and their brood—

crowding into a single nest to roost.

The Spotted Munia: Uvoloncha punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson).

Field identification: Shape and size about the same as the last. In breeding

plumage head and upper parts chocolate-brown. Underneath white with black

speckles. In non-breeding plumage more or less plain brown. Pairs, parties

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Volexr

or flocks, according to season, feeding on ground in open scrub-and-grass

country, and by cultivation.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 00 7-2-24, 0 8-3-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (SAL) Rares

I-12-12, Santa Cruz, Q 4-12-09 Andheri (N. B. Kinnear); Si. X. C.: 62 fet

3-11-33 Jogéshwari ; 73 0, 74 0, 75 G juv., 76 of 12-11-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Resident. Common. Otten met with in large flocks of 75-100 birds or

more. In the cold weather these flocks comprise largely of individuals in

the plain brown plumage. A conspicuous change is noticeable by the first

week of March when a large number are in the chestnut and spotted phase.

This increases gradually until by July or August, when the breeding season

is at its height, the majority of birds (if not all) are in the speckled plumage.

The flocks have of course then mostly broken up into pairs. When a flock

is disturbed feeding on the ground, the birds fly up into trees and bushes

uttering feeble chirrups.

Breeding: The season in our area is a prolonged one lasting from about

June to December. The nest is the usual globular structure of a Munia,

made of grass blades, and is placed in the same sort of situations as that of the

two previous species. We have, however, seen several nests in Salsette built

at the bases of palmyra leaves, 4o ft. or more up. A normal clutch consists

of 4-6 white eggs.

The Indian Red Munia: 4mandava amandava (Linn.).

Field identification: Slightly smaller than the foregoing, with a square (nol

pointed) tail. In breeding plumage the male is a beautiful deep crimson with

white spots on the breast and flanks. Female brownish with a red bill and

crimson rump. ‘The male in non-breeding dress resembles the female. F locks

about tall grassland and amongst reeds.

Specimens not collected.

Status? This Munia is rare in Salsette. We have come across it only on

three occasions and it is possible that these were all escaped cage birds. The

Red Munia or ‘Waxbill’ is a favourite with fanciers and large numbers from

upcountry are always for sale in the Crawford Market.

Breeding: Aitken (C.B.B., p. 138) saw a pair making a nest at Tardeo.

According to Betham (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 78) it breeds in the neighbourhood of

Poona at the beginning of September.

The Common Indian, or Hodgson’s Rose-Finch : Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus

(Blyth).

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow, with thicker

bill and slightly forked tail, the last being a conspicuous feature. The male

in full plumage has a beautiful crimson-pink head, breast, back and shoulders ;

the female is brown with an olive tinge. Flocks in flowering trees, Lantana

bushes and sometimes on the ground.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 8-12-25 Gédhbunder, ¢ 3-3-29 Tulsi Lake (S.A.);

¢@ 1-12-23 Andheri (S..H. Prater); Si. X. C.: 187 6 21-3-34 Borivli (HAS):

Winter visitor and passage migrant. Fairly common. Flocks usually arrive

in Salsette about mid-November and some individuals stay over till the first

week of April. The birds are much more in evidence about March when

their numbers are augmented by the return passage from the south. While

with us, we have observed Rose-Finches feeding largely on Lantana berries

and on nectar from the flowers of Calycopteris floribunda, Erythrina indica

and various other species. Large quantities of Erythrina pollen were found on

the forehead and chin of specimens shot off the flowers, and the birds doubtless

do service in cross-pollination. The call note is a _ pleasant interrogative

whistling tooee?

The Yellow-throated Sparrow: Gyimnorhts xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton).

Field indentification: Size that of the House-Sparrow. Earthy-brown above,

whitish below. The male has a lemon-yellow patch on the throat, two whitish

bars on the closed wing and a bright chestnut patch near the shoulder. The

female lacks the yellow throat-patch, and the chestnut on her shoulders is

duller. Slightly but markedly forked tail. Pairs and flocks, according to

season, by village cultivation, and in open deciduous forest.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: G 21-3-24 Chembir ; 0? 6-4-24 Sion Causeway (S.A.).

‘THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. 151

Noted: Elephanta Island, Thana, Borivli etc. Common on the mainland—

across the harbour—at Kihim, Alibag etc.

The Yellow-throated Sparrow is a common breeding species in our area.

It is a local migrant; during the monsoon months practically none are to

be seen, but its numbers increase again after about the first week of October.

Farties of from 8 to 20 birds may be seen gleaning in harvested paddy-fields

and in the vicinity of threshing floors in villages. Along with numerous other

bird species, they invariably teed on the nectar from Bombax and Erythrina

flowers in season. During the heat of the day flocks collect in leafy trees

and spend the hours in noisy chirping. The call-notes are very like those

of the House-Sparrow, somewhat pleasanter.

Breeding: The nesting season lasts from March to May. The nest is a

pad of hair and fibres lined with feathers, and placed inside natural hollows

in trees, barbet- and woodpecker-holes, pipes, old disused street lamps, etc.

Iwo to four eggs—in appearance very like those of the House-Sparrow—is

what we have tound to comprise a normal clutch. Both parents share in

feeding the young.

The Common House-Sparrow: Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby.

Local name: Chir. ;

Field identification: Too well-known to everybody to need description. A

commensal of man.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 12-6-07 Worli, Bombay (Mr. Strong); St. X. C.:

192 dy 193 2 4-4-34 Bombay City (H.A.).

Resident. Abundant alike in city and suburbs, as well as in villages

farther afield, and by human habitations of every description. Often feeding

in large flocks on the maidans and the Reclamation area. There is a recent

record of a sparrow being struck in mid-air and killed by a cricket ball while

a match was in progress on the grounds of the Islam Gymkhana! Large

numbers collect every evening at sunset to roost in favourite trees and much

noise and bickering prevails before the birds finally retire, usually well past

dusk. It is difficult to conjecture what determines the choice of a particular

roost out of several apparently equally suitable trees. How long the same

tree continues to serve as a roost we do not know, but we know one that

had been in occupation for three years at least. The Green Whip Snake

(Dryophis mycterizans) commonly preys upon House-Sparrows in the suburbs,

and crows and cats do great destruction amongst their fledglings everywhere.

Albinism appears to be a not uncommon disease among the sparrows in

Bombay. Several cases of complete or partial albinism have been reported

from time to time.

Breeding: Sparrows breed practically throughout the year and make them-

selves a thorough nuisance in more ways than one to the inmates of the

dwellings they select. Holes in the masonry ot buildings and wells are most

commonly used. Every conceivable site, such as the angle behind a_ picture

hung on a wall and the globes of lamps, is appropriated. The inverted glass

bell-jars, so commonly seen in mosques and fire-temples, offer irresistible

Opportunities for nesting. Gargoyles and drain pipes are everywhere much

patronised. We have observed a bird trying to build up in a papaya tree and

another on an fkrythrina. The nest is an untidy collection of grass and

feathers, and during its construction a formidable accumulation of rubbish

litters the ground below. The usual clutch here consists of 3-5 eggs, greenish-

white in ground colour, blotched and speckled with greyish-brown.

The Black-headed Bunting ; Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli.

Field identification: Slightly larger than the House-Sparrow with a longer

and noticeably forked tail. Head black. Bright yellow underparts and much

of this colour in the rest of the plumage also. In the female the head

appears rufous-brown and the yellow in her plumage is merely a suffusion of

greyish-olive. Flocks, in and about cultivation.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 30-12-07 Andhéri; ¢@ 9-11-12 Santa Cruz (Kinnear).

Winter visitor. This Bunting is very common in the cold weather in

Deccan and small numbers may also be met with in our area. Aitken

(C.B.B., p. 144) mentions it as a winter visitor to Bombay. We have not come

across it actually within Salsette, but in the Kolaba District across the

harbour, flocks are not uncommon from the beginning of November up to

152 JOURNAL,- BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY. Volr xr

March... The birds usually feed on hedged-in cross-country cart tracks, and

in fields in the vicinity of villages.

There are no records of the Red-headed Bunting (EKmberiza icterica) in

Salsette, but it is not unlikely to occur here, as in the Deccan, in mixed

flocks with the Black-headed Bunting.

[The Crested Bunting : Melophus lathami subcristatus (Sykes).

There is a specimen of this Bunting in the B.N.H.S. collection from Kalyan.

We have come across it at Vasind. There is no record in Salsette.]

[The Crag Martin: Riparia rupestris (Scop.).

H.A. has observed this Crag Martin at Karnala and Panvél (Kolaba

District) on the adjacent mainland in the cold weather (16-2-36), and it is

therefore quite probable that it occurs in Salsette also at that season. EHA

(C.B.B., p. 41) thought he saw it about Malabar Hill—quite a likely spot in

Bombay City. As compared with the next species, which is our common crag

martin in this area, it is whitish on the underparts which contrast with the

blackish ~undertail coverts in overhead flight. It is also slightly paler above

and larger than the Dusky Crag Martin. |

The Dusky Crag Martin; Aipuria concolor (Sykes).

Field identification : Somewhat smaller than the House-Sparrow. A uniformly

sooty-brown bird with short square tail and swallow-like wings and flight.

Usually seen about caves and rock-scarps, and in company with swallows,

hawking winged insects.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 2-3-24 Elephanta Island (S.A.); Si. X. Co: 231

o Bombay (H.A.). .

Resident. Not uncommon in Bombay City, the suburbs, and in Salsette

generally, In the city it keeps to large and old buildings such as the High

Court and the University; farther afield caves—as at Kanhéri, Jogéshwari and

Elephanta—and rocky cliffs, ruined forts and buildings are favourite resorts.

Breeding : The nesting season is apparently much prolonged. We have noted

nests in various stages of construction or with eggs or young in February,

March, April, July, August, October and November. The birds are probably

double brooded. H.A. has found them breeding in the city in July, but observes

that if the nest is destroyed ‘the birds persist in rebuilding or laying again

till they succeed, sometimes as late as October.

The nest is a deepish half saucer of mud pellets collected while ‘damp,

at-..a' rain puddle or the like. It is stuck to the perpendicular cliff or wall

about. 2 incnes below the ceiling or rock projection. It is lined with tow or

feathers as a rule. The. normal clutch consists of 3 eggs. These are white

in ground colour, spotted and blotched with purplish-brown. Both sexes share

in building the nest, incubating the eggs and feeding the young.

An experiment in the ringing of nesting Crag Martins was tried by, H.A.

A. pair had nested successfully in .a ground-floor verandah of St. Xavier’s

College in the 1932 season. In the following year a pair (then presumed to

be the. same) built in the verandah of the first floor. They succeeded in

raising two young from the ‘second laying, the first clutch having been

removed. The parents and young were ringed at the nest at night. In the

1934 season a pair took possession of the identical site, one of which was

a ringed bird—obviously one of the four. At the end of the breeding season

—during the college vacation—the ringed bird was accidentally destroyed and

unfortunately the ring was not read. In the year following a ringless pair

took possession of the site. There were no other nests here besides this one

in. any season. All this shows that where the same site is used year after

year, it is not necessarily by the same birds.

The Eastern Swallow: [irundo rustica gutturalis Scop.

Field identification: Smaller than the House-Sparrow. Head and_ throat

chestnut. Upper plumage glossy blue-black with a band of the same. colour

across breast. Underparts pale. Tail deeply forked—the conventional ‘swallow

tail’. Gregariously, on telegraph wires, etc. Hawking insects on the wing,

especially by water. :

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 153

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-4-24 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.); 0?

mo=t2-12 Tulsi Lake (Kinnear); St. X: C.: (159 Q: 9-10-33. Powai; 184 6

i9g-3-34 Juhu (H.A.).

Winter visitor. fairly common. Arriving in October in flocks, often quite

large, which take up positions over long stretches of telegraph wires here

and there. By the middle of April practically all birds have departed. All

our specimens belong to this race, but the one from Tulsi Lake appears

to be intermediate between this and rustica. Gutturalis is theretore evidently

the race that visits Salsette and not rustica as should be the case according

to the distribution given in the Fauna, vol. iii, pp. 241-2.

The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow: Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens.

Field identification: Size as the foregoing. Glossy steel-blue above white

below, with chestnut crown. Two long wires in tail which in the female

are shorter. May be differentiated on the wing from other swallows by the

pure white underparts and the presence of tail-wires. Small flocks, often in

association with other swallows, on telegraph wires, etc. or hawking winged

insects usually near water.

Specunems : BiV.S.: G2 12-12-23 Andheri (S. Hi. Prater).

Noted: Mud Flats—Sion Causeway, Gdodhbunder.

Resident? Sparsely distributed throughout North Konkan, being everywhere

far less abundant than it is in the Deccan.

breeding: We have no record of nests in Bombay or Salsette, but on

575-35 OMe was observed under the old pier at Dharamtar Ferry (Kolaba

District) which contained young. The nest is a halt-cup of mud pellets stuck

to the wall about 2 inches below the ceiling or an overhang. It is not

unlike that of the Dusky Crag Martin. It is built under bridges and culverts,

on cliffs near water, and occasionally in buildings. There is ,usually a lining

of grass and feathers.

The Wire-tailed Swallow breeds in some numbers at Khandala (ca. 2,000 ft.

—Western Ghats) in April and May.

[The Indian Cliff Swallow: Mirundo fluvicola Blyth.

Hield identification: Much smaller than the other swallows with a_ short

square tail and black-streaked white underparts. Gregarious; usually large

numbers.

Not met with by us, but EHA (C.B.B., p. 41) records seeing it in Bombay.

It is common in the neignbournood ot Poona and Betham (/.Bb.N.H.S., xii, 78)

found nests there built under arches of a low bridge, 4 or 5 feet above

water level. |

Sykes’s Striated Swallow : Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes.

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow. Upper parts

deep glossy blue except for the chestnut half collar on nape and the chestnut

rump. Below pale rufous with fine blackish streaks. ‘Tail deeply forked.

Gregariously, about old mosques and buildings and on telegraph wires.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-4-24 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.); St.

Mee. : 58 of juv. 21-8-33 Goregaon (H.A.).

Resident (?) in small numbers. During the cold weather large congregations

are seen closely packed on telegraph wires in the early mornings, often

covering several hundred yards of the line. Most of these birds are migrants,

however, and possibly belong to the race nepalensis. Unfortunately we have

no specimens collected from such flocks.

Breeding: We have no record from Salsette. For four years in succession

we found a nest with eggs on the ceiling of a small rock-cave in the hills

near Kihim (Alibag Talika) between 15 and 31 May. The nest is_ retort-

shaped, attached to the ceilings of domes, caves, etc. with an entrance passage

about 6 inches long. It is made of miud-pellets, and the egg-chamber is

lined with grass and feathers. The normal clutch is of 4 eggs, pure white

in colour.

The Indian White Wagtail ; \otacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes.

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow, slimmer, with

a slenderer bill and a much longer tail which is constantly wagged up and

down, and longer legs. General colour grey above, white below with a black

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

aape and bib. Ear coverts white at ali seasons. Singly or small scattered

parties, running about on lawns, maidans and open spaces, picking up insects.

_ Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 10-2-24, 0? 16-2-24 Pali Hiil, Bandra (S.A.);

St. Xs C.: 151. gd . 27-10-33 Juhu (H.A.).

Winter visitor. Common. The earliest record we have for Salsette is

2 October; the latest 8 April. During the cold weather months the birds

may invariably be seen on all our maidans as well as on the grounds of

the Willingdon Sports Club and the Race Course at Mahaluxmi, the various

Gymkhanas and the Reclamation along Back Bay.

When the inward migration (autumn) is in full swing, the fresh arrivals

may frequently ibe seen ‘swarming’ in certain localities of the city and suburbs

for a day or two, roosting for the night in large numbers among the roadside

trees. ‘Lhe majority of birds pass on subsequently, but the remainder disperse

over the countryside to spend the winter in our midst. At the commencement

of the hot weather, March-April, there are similar waves of passage migrants

from the south.

The Masked Wagtail: Motacilla alba personata Gould.

Field identification: Similar to the above, but with the ear-coverts black

at all seasons.

Specimens: .B.N.H.S.: .¢ 29-11-23 Andheri (S.: H.. Prater).

Winter visitor. Much less common than the White Wagtail and, except

for the ear-coverts, difficult to distinguish from it in the field.

[The Large Pied Wagtail : Alotacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin.

lield identification: Larger than the foregoing species—about the size of

the Bulbul. Jet black above and on breast, white below, with conspicuous

white stripes above the eyes and a broad white patch on the wings. General

-colour scheme that of the Magpie-Robin. Pairs by rocky streams and_ near

water.

We have not come across this Wagtail in Salsette, neither have we seen

any specimens hence. EHA (C.B.B., p. 114) says ‘not often seen in Bombay’

which would imply that he had seen it occasionally.

We have noted it at Tansa Lake, and at Roha, Mahad, Panvel and

elsewhere in the Kolaba District on the mainland opposite.

Breeding: The nearest record we have is from Khandala (ca 2,000 ft.—

Western Ghats) where Brother Navarro took a c/3 in October 1935.]

The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail: Motacilla flava beema (Sykes).

Field identification: Size same as the White Wagtail. Differentiated. only

in summer plumage from the Grey-headed Wagtail principally by its paler

greyish-blue, head.. Singly or scattered parties, on the wet grassy margins of

tanks etc.

Specimen: St. X. C.: 78 dG 12-9-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Winter visitor, arriving early.

The Grey-headed Wagtail : Wotacilla flava thunbergi Billberg.

Field identification : Size as above. In summer plumage distinguishable from

the next species by the dark blue-grey head and bright yellow underparts, with

no black on throat or breast. Usually several, widely separated, on grassy

water-logged ground on the margin of tanks etc.

Specimens :. B.N.H.S.: @Q 11-3-24 Pali Hull, Bandra. (S.A.); St.: Xos@as

115 0? 10-10-33 Juhu (H.A.).

Winter visitor. Fairly common. Earliest date ?; latest 4 May, ’34 (Powai

Lake).

The Grey Wagtail: Motacilla cinerea caspica S. G. Gmelin.

Field identification: Size as above. Grey above—with greenish-yellow rump

—pale sulphur-yellow below, brighter on abdomen and under the tail. Whitish

eyebrows. In summer plumage, just before the birds leave us, chin, throat

and upper breast black in male, mottled in female. Almost invariably singly,

on damp ground or near streamlets etc.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 5-2-24 Pali Hill, Bandra; o? 12-10-24 Khar;

@ 17-3-24 Tulsi Lake (S.A.); St. X. C.: 96 0? 28-90-33 Borivli (H-A):

Winter visitor. Fairly common. » Earliest date 28 September; latest 12 April.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 156

The Biack-headed Wagtail : Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus Homeyer.

Field identification: Size as above. In summer plumage crown, sides of

head and nape black without contrasting eyebrows; white throat, yellow under-

parts. In winter plumage very confusing in the field and almost impossible

to tell with certainty trom several other species. On water-logged ground or

grassy margins of tanks, etc.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-3-24, @ -11-3-24 Pali. Hill, Bandra (S.A.); 0?

7-3-10 Gorégaon (N. B. Kinnear); St. X.'C,: 114 0?,.116 0? 10-10-33, 152 @

27-10-33 Junu; 227 07, 228 G 8-3-35 Andhéri (H.A). .

Winter visitor. Common. Noted on open meadows by the seashore about

Danda and the Pali Hill Golf Course, feeding in company with White Wagtails

and Pipits. Latest date 31 March. :

: Motaciila citreola werae Buturlin.

The Yellow-headed Wagtail : Motacilla citreola citreola Pall.

Field identification: Size as above. In summer the male of the race werae

has a bright yellow head and black back. In M. c. citreola the back is not

black. The females are duller. Usually by tanks and streams with grassy

margins. Commonly on floating vegetation in Powai Lake, etc.

Specimens: M. c. citreola. ».N.11.S.: 00 8-4-24 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway,

0? 23-3-29 Tilsi Lake, 0? 10-3-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.) ¢ 7-3-10 Goérégaon

(Kinnear); 0? 30-1-21 Santa Cruz (Ellison); QQ 14-3-26 Mud Flats, Bhayndar

Creek; o? 17-3-24 Tulsi Lake (S.A.).

Witercs wWerac + St. NX. C.. 233 07, 256 OP 22-3-35 Andher (H-A.),

Winter visitors. Fairly common.

It may here be remarked that in immature plumage many of the above

species of wagtails are impossible to identify with certainty, and- while they

are probably correctly named as above, we are far from being positive.

The Forest Wagtail :; Dendronanthus indicus (Gmelin). .

Field identification: Size as above. Olive brown above, white below, with

a conspicuous black band across breast. Two: whitish bands on closed wing.

Singly or pairs, feeding on ground under shady trees and vegetable ‘mandwas’

or bowers.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0? 30-3-24: Deonar, Chembur (S:A-).

Not noted elsewhere in Salsette. a

Winter visitor or passage migrant? Uncommon. At Kihim (Alibag Taluka)

—across the harbour—we have observed it only at the end of March and

in the first week of April, evidently on northward passage.

When disturbed, the bird flies up into a nearby tree and wags its tail

slowly up and down. It utters a soft pink, pink like the Crested Bunting.

The Tree Pipit ; Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linn.).

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 20-2-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear); Q 4-2-24, Q

7-2-24 Golf Links, Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.).

Witherby’s Pipit: Anthus trivialis haringtoni Witherby.

Specimen: St. X. College: 176 0? Vihar Lake 12-9-34 (H.A.).

Field identification: The Pipits. found in Bombay and _ Salsette are all

birds about the size of the House-Sparrow, somewhat slimmer and with a

longer tail that is constantly moved up and down like a wagtail’s. In general

colouration they resemble the female House-Sparrow. They frequent open

spaces such as maidans, golf links, the vicinity of tanks, and semi-barren

stony ground. They feed entirely on the ground along which they run with

‘great agility, unlike the sparrow which hops. They .are usually seen singly

or in small scattered parties. Their food consists mainly of insects. They

fly up into trees when disturbed. They have the same undulating flight as

wagtails. The different species are often impossible to tell in the field, Only

one species, rufulus, is resident in our area. aaron

Winter visitor. Earliest date 12 September. Usually found in shady

tango topes, :

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Indian Pipit: Anihus rufulus rufulus Vieillot.

__ Specimens: of 17-3-24; G 2-4-24 Pali,Hill, Bandra; 3 15-60-25, O 21-6-25

Trombay Hitl at ca. 1,000 tt.; ¢ 10-11-27 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.);

¥ 20-1-13, G 12°11-12, . g ' 20-2-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear); (00? 12-12-99,

eave Esplanade, Bombay (J. W. Mason); St. X. C.: 208 2 -12-34 Andhéri

Resident. Common. Seen in open fallow land with short grass, stones, ete.

Breeding: On 15 April (1931) a nest was located on the coarse grass land,

inundated during the monsoon but now hard and pitted, adjoining the Santa

Cruz Match Works, opposite the Juha aerodrome. It was a pad of rootlets

and hair placed in an old hoof-print of cattle. It contained 3 chicks about a

week old.

The Eastern Tawny Pipit: Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll.

Specimens: St. X. C.: 14 0? (worn juvenile plumage) 14-10-32 ‘Salsette’;

18 d 13-1-33, 106 2. 13-11-33, 199 Q 27-9-34, 226 dO 13-11-35 Andhéri (H.A.).

Blyth’s Pipit: Anthus campestris thermophilus (Jerdon).

specimens: “St. AC. 155 20 | 31-10-33 sJuhu (nas 4),

Both these races of the Tawny Pipit visit our area during the winter.

Griseus appears to be by far the commoner. H.A. finds that it is possible to

differentiate Tawny Pipits from the Indian Pipit in the field by the brighter

coloured legs and more ‘nasal’ notes of the former. é

The Small Indian Skylark : Alauda gulgula gulgula Franklin.

Iield identification: Somewhat smaller than the House-Sparrow but in

general appearance not unlike the female of that bird. Rather squat and

with a shorter tail. Pairs or small parties, about the tidal mud flats, in the

rank grass patches bordering salt pans, and in the surrounding fields. Males

soaring, ‘hovering’ and singing.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢d. 10-11-27 Mud Flats, Sion. Gauseway’ (S:AD5

Q 7-4-24 Andhéri-(S. H. Prater); St. X. C.: 43 0, 198 0, 203 0 Salsettes (Ear

._ Resident. Common. It is plentiful in short grass near the Golf Course at

Andheri.

Breeding: On 11 April (1934) H.A. flushed a bird off a nest with c/2,

slightly set, at Andhéri. The nest was cup-shaped, made of grass and buttressed

‘with pieces of thick grass stems. It was placed in the shelter of a grass

tussock. On 26 April he noted flying young, and has a record of a bird

feeding fledged young out of nest on 30 September (1935) on the Churchgate

Reclamation. On 10 June (1930) S.A. observed an adult feeding a full-fledged

young one, about 3 weeks old, in among cut paddy fields. The season,

therefore, appears to be a prolonged one in our area, April to ‘October.

The Short-toed Lark ;: Calandrella brachydactyla dukhunensis Sykes.

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the House-Sparrow and _ not

unlike the Skylark to look at except that it is more whitish underneath.

Large flocks in open country, about mud flats and fallow fields.

Specimens: Si. X:. Co: 106 G, 107 Gy 108d, 109 1d, 11077 eae

8-10-33, 165 CG 10-11-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Winter visitor. Fairly abundant in Salsette and on the mainland across

the harbour chiefly between November and January. The flocks keep to

open, stony, scraggy grass-covered country, tidal mudflats and stubble fields.

Occasional chirps are uttered in flight. They drink regularly in the mornings

and have favourite watering places at which enormous numbers foregather

for the purpose.

The Malabar Crested Lark: Galerida malabarica (Scop.).

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow. General

appearance above, streaked brown somewhat like the female of that bird.

Breast streaked black. Small parties or scattered flocks on the dry open

ground about tidal mudflats and creeks, and on the scraggy grass-covered hills

as at Trombay.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: og 22-3-24 Godhbunder, 0? 6-4-24 Sion Causeway,

QO? juv. 1§-6-25 Trombay Hill at ca. 800 ft. (S.A.);\ G 30-12-23 Andhéri

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 157

(Prater); 9 5-11-12, 9 18-1-13, -G: 6-4-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear);. St X. Cy:

56 do, 57 @ 21-8-33 Andhéri, 232 9, 235 OG 24-4-35 Gorégaon (H.A.).

Resident. Common. Larger flocks are seen during the cold weather, and

at that season evidently some local movements take place in Salsette. We

have observed these larks feeding on the seeds of Spermacoce stricta picked off

the living plant.

Breeding: In Salsette S.A. has noted fledglings out of nest on 15 June.

At Thal (Kolaba District) on the sea-coast—across the harbour—H.A. found

a nest with 2 young on 25 October. Both parents were bringing in caterpillars.

The nest was a shallow cup of grass placed under a stone, in open stony land.

The mouth-colour of the nestlings was a bright orange red and the tongue

(of the same colour) had 3 conspicuous black spots upon it.

The Indian Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark: Ammomanes phoenicura phoenicura

(Franklin).

Field identification : Somewhat larger than the House-Sparrow. A plain dark

brown sparrow-like bird, rather squat, with a black-tipped bright rufous tail

conspicuous in flight. Pairs, running about on fallow land near the tidal

mudflats, stubble fields, etc.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 10-11-27 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.).

Resident. Fairly common. Feeds on the ground upon grass seeds, paddy

grains, etc. and also insects. We have frequently observed its habit of rapidly

opening and shutting its wings as it moves about in search of food. This

manoeuvre is effective in dislodging lurking insects from the little unevennesses

of the ground.

Males are usually seen, apparently even in the non-breeding season, rising

into the air every now and again and rocketing downwards in steps—nose-

diving—with wings pulled in to the sides, and singing on each dive.

Breeding: This is a most elusive and circumspect species when breeding

and we have not as yet succeeded in marking down a nest in Salsette although

between March and May we have several records of birds carrying building |

material or food for the young.

Eremopterix grisea grisea

The Ashy-crowned or Black-bellied Finch-Lark :

(Scopoli).

Field identification: A squat, finch-like bird, rather smaller than the House-

Sparrow, seen in pairs, parties or small flocks on mudflats and open stony

country. The male has black underparts, ashy crown and sandy hen-sparrow-

like upper plumage. The female is sandy hen-sparrow-like all over.

Specimens: B.N.H.S: 0? 27-2-24 Pali Hill, Bandra; 0? 7-6-25 Trombay

Hii at. ca, 900 ft. (S.A.); G 30-1-21 Santa .Cruz (B. C,. Ellison); ¢. juv,

II-11-12; Oo 11-10-12; 9 19-1-13, Q 25-1-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear); ¢ imm.

21-1-11 Bombay (P. F. Gomes); St. X. C.: 67 6 8-9-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Resident. Common. Males constantly soar into space on quivering wings

for about 30 feet or so, and sing. The same sort of aerobatics are indulged

in as by the Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark, namely shooting up almost perpendicularly

and nose-diving in steps with closed wings. In the final step it looks perilously

as if the bird was going to dash itself to smithereens on the ground, but the

wings are opened out at the last moment and it alights safely on a clod or

stone. The grace and ease with which all these moves are executed are a

delight to watch. There is a very marked decrease in the numbers of these

larks in Salsette during the monsoon months—June to September—and evidently

they then emigrate into drier country as in the Deccan. By about the beginning

of October the birds are back again in considerable numbers.

._ Breeding: We have seen many nests in all stages of construction or with

eggs and young in Salsette during March and April. There is a fledgling

in the Society’s collection dated 11 November and another immature bird

21 January. This indicates that the birds are double brooded, i.e., some breed

in the earlier part of the year and some in the latter part. The nest is a tiny

cup-like depression in the ground, lined with fine grass or tow, under the

shelter of a stone or small bush in open country. It is usually rimmed with

gravel or small stones. In our area c/2 seems to be invariable. The com-

monest colouration of the eggs is a pale yellowish stone, blotched and speckled

with brownish-lavender.

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol. XL

The White-eye : Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst.

Field identification: Size about half that of the House-Sparrow. A tiny

bird greenish-yellow above, bright yellow and greyish-white below, with a

conspicuous ring of white feathers round the eyes. Slender slightly curved

bill. In flocks, in trees .and bushes in wooded country and gardens. A

pleasant but feeble tinkling or cheeping call, sometimes like a miniature

woodpecker ‘laugh’.

Specimens: B:N.H.S.: <6 25-3-29 Tulsi Lake (S.A\);"St. X. Co @2nemoe

24-11-35 Borivli (H.A.).

Noted: City: Warden Road, Cumbala Hill; Government House Grounds,

Malabar Hill; Salsette: Godhbunder, Chembur, Powai Lake environs, Shendtr

Hill; common on mainland across the harbour.

Resident. Not uncommon in suitable localities. Feeding largely on the

nectar of various flowers. Almost invariably present on those of Bombax,

Erythrina, Woodfordia, Calycopteris floribunda and Loranthus clumps. Of the

last particularly, it is an important cross-pollinating agent. Flocks move about

from tree to tree, keeping up their musical cheeping calls and often clinging

upside. down on the sprigs in search of insects. They are very partial to

the sticky exudation from the petioles of Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) leaves.

Breeding: Although we have no actual record, we have no doubt that the

White-eye nests in Salsette. The specimen of 25 March had enlarged gonads

and was evidently preparing to breed. During the breeding season the male

develops a_ pretty, rather feeble, tinkling song reminiscent of the Nilgiri

Verditer Flycatcher’s. This is uttered from some exposed perch.

Vigors’ Yellow-backed Sunbird: thopyga siparaja vigorsi (Sykes).

Field identification: Size same as the White-eye or the Purple or Purple-

rumped Sunbird. <A tiny restless gem of a bird with metallic green head, crimson

back, bright yellow rump and crimson-scarlet breast. Longish pointed tail.

The female is olive-brown and pale dull yellow, not unlike the female Purple

Sunbird. Singly, in wooded hilly country, usually on flowers of Woodfordia,

Bombax and others. j;

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ «15-11-25, Go 29-11-25 Godhbunder; ¢ 8-12-25, 0?

3-3-29 Tulsi Lake. Environs (S.A.); St. X. C.: 158 6 9-11-33 Powai Lake

environs (H.A.).

Noted: Salsette: Chembur, near Kanhéri Caves; Adjacent mainland: Tansa

Lake, Karnala Fort, Panvél (Kolaba District).

Resident? Not uncommon in the well-wooded hilly country in North

Salsette, especially in the environs of Powai, Tulsi and Vihar Lakes, and

about Godhbunder. All our records seem to be for the winter months only.

Breeding: We have no record from Salsette. In the Western Ghats,

Wenden (N. & E., ii, 250) found a nest—17 September—on the face of a cutting

at the upper entrance of Bhér Ghat Tunnel No. 19 with c/3, fresh. Another

nest was found by him in the.same locality on 21 September.

Loten’s Sunbird : Cinnyris lotenia (Linn.).

Field identification: Size as above. Adult male black with metallic green

and purple sheen, a maroon band across the breast and yellow tufts at the

‘armpits’. Underparts sooty brown without gloss. Female brown to olive-

brown above, pale dull yellow below. Singly or nairs, in wooded country on

trees, shrubs, creepers and Loranthus clumps in flower.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 16-3-24 Vihar Lake (S.A.); & 4-1-13 Santa Cruz

(Kinnear = St) Xe O.2OG: 2 S100 57,5 (testes 4x3 mm.) 28-9-22 Borivli (H.A.).

Noted: Salsette: Chembar, Andhéri, Powai, Tulsi. Mar6dl: Adjacent

mainland: Karndla Fort, Bassein, Alibag. Aitken (N. & E., ii, 252) describes

it as not uncommon at Uran on the island of Karania (Bombay Harbour).

Resident. Common. We have not. observed it within city limits, but

while it is certainly more partial to wooded country farther afield, it is just

possible that it may have been overlooked here. .

Sunbirds of all species feed largely on the nectar of flowers and are directly

responsible for the cross-pollination of many species. In probing into the

flower tubes for nectar with its well adapted slender curved bill, the forehead

comes into contact with the anthers and a quantity of the ripe pollen adheres

to the feathers. This is transferred to the stigma of the next flower visited.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 159

Their visits to the flowers are thus of vital benefit to the tree. Spiders and

small insects usually taken at the flowers, are also eaten.

Breeding: On 14 July (1934) H.A. observed a Q building on a tree in

forest at Tulsi, ca. 20 ft. up. He found a nest at Powai Lake on 5 March

containing 2 fledglings which both parents were busy feeding. It was the

usual sunbird structure—an oblong purse of soft grasses, rubbish and cobwebs,

draped with pieces of bark and woody refuse,—with a porched lateral entrance—

hung 18 inches from the ground in a bare thorny bush. On 3 May a male

was observed courting a female. The tufts of yellow feathers under the

‘armpit’ are erected during the display to such an extent that they become

strikingly conspicuous even from over the bird’s back. A second nest with

c/2 was noted at Mulund on 26 June (32) It was about 7 ft. up, in close

proximity to a nest of red ants (Cfcophylla smaragdina) and apparently at

peace with it.

Aitken (J.B.N.H.S., ii, 52) took a nest containing 1 egg and 1 young just

hatched at Uran (Bombay Harbour) in November (1886). He describes the

eggs as of a dirty brownish-white ground colour with the smaller end covered

with dull brown spots passing into large confluent blotches and forming a

eap on the broader end.

From the evidence it is clear that the season in Salsette is not well defined.

The Purple Sunbird : Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Latham).

Field identification: In size and general appearance very similar to Loten’s

Sunbird. Differs from it in having a metallic purple sheen instead of green,

in the absence of the maroon band across breast, and in the underparts being

glossy purple-black instead of dull sooty-brown. It also has the yellow and

ecarlet feather-tufts at the armpit. Female very like that of C. lotenia.

Similar to the foregoing in habits and habitat except that it is met with oftener

in gardens, both in the city and suburbs.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 2-6-25 Malad (E. Henricks); 3 28-8-21 Bhandtp

(G. C. Amore); S 7-2-13 Andhéri (Kinnear); G 17-11-27 foot of Trombay

Hag (S:A.); St. X. C.: 161 3 9-11-33 Powar Lake (H.A.).

Resident? Common.

Noted: Citv: Girgaum, Bhiléshwar, Byculla, Chowpati, Walkéshwar,

Malabar Hill, Warden Road etc.:; Salsette: Pali Hill, Bandra; Khar, Gorégaon,

Borivli, Kandivli, Chembur, Godhbunder, Thana and elsewhere generally.

An unfailing attendant on flowering trees, shrubs and creepers in gardens.

Along with the Purple-rumped species, it is invariably present on the blossoms

of the Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) and on those of the tree parasite,

Loranthus. For the latter it is a most important cross-pollinating agent.

Breeding males, and those about to breed, habitually perch on the topmost

branches of a tree, a telegraph wire or in some other exposed situation and

utter their excited ‘song’ cheewit-cheewit-cheewit, repeated in quick succession

from 2 to 6 times. While thus engaged the bird pivots from side to side

and nervously raises and lowers his wings.

Breeding : Curiously enough we have no record of its nest from our area

or from our immediate neighbourhood. Is it a local migrant?

The Purple-erumped Sunbird : Cinnyvris zeylonica (Linn.).

Mahratti name: Chimka; Hindtstani: Shakar-khora.

Field identification: Size as last. Head, upper plumage and breast mostly

metallic green, crimson and purple. Rump metallic bluish purple. Lower

parts bright yellow. Female sober olive-brown and dull yellow as with the

other sunbird species. Habits and habitat same as in the previous species,

but this is even more common by human habitations.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 25 0? juv. 3-8-33, 26 Q juv. 10-9-33

Andhéri: 55 < 20-8-33 Chendevli (H.A.). :

Noted: City: Girgaum, Khétwadi, Chowpati. Bhualéshwar, Byculla, Wal-

késhwar, Malabar Hill, Fort (Prince of Wales Museum garden), Warden .and

Pedder Roads, Apollo Bunder, Colaba and elsewhere. Common _ everywhere

in the suburbs and Salsette.

Resident. Very common. Its notes and song are, with a little practice,

easily distinguishable from those of the Purple Sunbird.

Breeding: We have records of numerous nests in Bombay City and Salsette

either under construction or with eggs or young in January, February, April:

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. XL

May, July, August, September and October. The period from July to September,

however, is when breeding is at its height. The nest is like that of Loten’s

Sunbird. It is usually suspended from the tip of an outhanging branch at

moderate heights—between 6 and 12 feet. It is frequently built in creepers

growing on the trellis work of verandahs of inhabited bungalows and_ the

birds do not seem to mind the proximity of human beings. Building work

is done solely by the female, but the male usually accompanies her to and

from the nest while she is at work, encouraging her as it were by little

snatches of song from a nearby perch. The male does not share in the

incubation which takes 14-15 days. Both parents feed the young. These leave

the nest when 16-17 days old. We have invariably found 2 eggs or young

in our area. In ground colour the eggs are usually grey with a greenish

or buff tinge; they are flecked and speckled with greyish-brown, more profusely

round the broader end.

Tickell’s Flowerpecker : Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than a sunbird. A_ restless olive-

brown bird with grey-white underparts and flesh-coloured slender bill. Singly,

usually on clumps of the tree parasites Loranthus and Viscum on mango °*

trees, hopping about energetically and uttering chip, chip, chip, ete.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.:-0? 16-2-24 Pali Hill; 0? 8-12-25 Godhbunder (S.A.);

St. X... C. 2°97 ©. 28-09-33 “Borivli (HAY):

Noted: City: Government House Grounds—Walkéshwar; Victoria Gardens

—Byculla, Chowpati, Colaba, Malabar Hill; Salsette : common everywhere.

Resident. Common. Especially plentiful in orchards where Loranthus and

Viscum abound on the mango trees. It fertilises the Loranthus blossoms in

its attempts to reach the nectar, and eats the berries of both almost exclusively

when available. It is thus perhaps the most important agent in the spread

of these parasites in Salsette.

Breeding: According to EHA (C.B.B., p. 68) the breeding season here is

March and April. H.A. has taken fresh eggs at Andhéri on 4 February (’33)

and also on 7 March (’36) at Powai. On 26 April (’36—Borivli) he observed a

bird visiting a nest in a high tree evidently containing young, and on 5 May

a young bird just out of nest was being fed by its parents.

The nest of Tickell’s Flowerpecker is a hanging oval purse like that of

a sunbird but somewhat smaller and of neater appearance. It is made of

soft fibres and vegetable down and not draped on the exterior with rubbish.

It may be at any height from to or 1§ to 4o feet. Both sexes build the nest

and feed the young. The normal clutch is of 2 eggs, white-in colour,

unmarked.

The Thick-billed Flowerpecker : Piprisoma agile agile Tickell.

Field identification: Size and general appearance of the last, but the under-

parts faintly streaked brown. The bill is thick and finch-like and of a slaty-

grey colour. Singly, in same facies as Tickell’s Flowerpecker and very similar

to it in habits.

Specimens: [St. X. C.: 139 0 21-10-33 Kihim (Alibag, Kolaba District). ]

None collected in Salsette. .

Noted: Salsette: Powai Lake environs, Chembur, Andhéri, Borivli. Not

within city limits.

Resident. Not uncommon. Its food consists largely of the berries of the

tree parasites Loranthus and Viscum, and it shares with Tickell’s Flowerpecker

the responsibility for their spread and for the resulting damage to mango

orchards. Other berries such as those of Lantana camara and Bridelia retusa

are also greedily taken, as well as Peepal and Banyan figs. Bombax and

Erythrina flowers are regularly resorted to for the nectar, and spiders likewise

form part the dietary. It utters chik, chik as it restlessly hops about the

foliage, but its notes are easily distinguishable from those of the previous

species. While thus engaged, it spreads out its stumpy square little tail and

screws it nervously edgewise from side to side.

Breeding: On 5 March (’36—Powai) an adult was observed feeding two

juveniles just out of nest. On 24 April (’36—Andhéri) a bird was building

ca. 15 ft. up in a Ficus of sorts. Red Ants (Gcophylla) were swarming on

this tree but apparently did no harm to the nest. On 2 May the eggs, c/3

—partly set—were removed from this nest. On 3 May (’36—Borivli) another

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 161

nest was noted in an Erythrina tree also about 15 ft. up. The nest—a

hanging oval purse of reddish vegetable down, about 4 inches long—is not

intentionally concealed, but is usually so cryptically coloured that at a casual

glance it looks like a dry rolled-up leaf. It is usually suspended from near

the tip of an outhanding twig. The attachment is not from a_ point but

is about 2 inches wide along the length of the twig. C/2 or c/3 is the

normal. The eggs are pinky-white or salmon in ground colour, speckled and

blotched with reddish- or purplish-brown.

The Indian Pitta: Pitta brachyura Linn.

Hindustani name: Nowrang (=g9 colours).

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna. Stub tail. A gaudily

coloured bird mostly green, blue, crimson, fulvous and black. Singly, on the

ground amongst scrub undergrowth in jungle. When disturbed, it flies up

into low trees with a whirr of its wings like a slow game bird.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 2-6-25 Bombay (J. Azavedo); 0? 4-6-21 Bombay

(B. C. Ellison).

Noted: City: Colaba, Malabar Hill; Salsette: Pali Hill, Bandra; Géodh-

bunder, Powai Lake Environs. Not uncommon on the mainland across the

harbour in the monsoon.

Monsoon visitor. Its arrival in Bombay and Salsette, presumably from

South India, synchronizes more or less with the South-west Monsoon. We

have noted it here between 15 May and 15 October (one on 28 April at Alibag !)

although by about mid-September most birds have departed. We really know

very little beyond conjecture about the local movements of the Pitta, and

here is a problem which only the ringing method can help to solve. The

House-Crows of the city and suburbs are usually the first to herald the arrival

of the birds by their relentless persecution of them. Many a_ refugee is

picked up every year, disabled by these blackguards or caught in a room

into which’ it has blundered to escape its pursuers. Its call is a loud clear

double whistle wheet-tew heard mostly in the early morning and late evening,

and also on cloudy overcast days. These calls are uttered at the rate of

about 3 or 4 in 10 seconds and are sometimes kept up for over 5 minutes at

a stretch. Each time the bird calls it pulls itself upright and jerks its head

well back. as when swallowing water. In between the calls the stumpy tail is

wagged slowly and deliberately up and down. The bird progresses on_ the

ground in search of insects by long hops, like a thrush.

Breeding: On 3 June (’36—Powai) H.A. observed a bird building in a

Loranthus clump on a mango tree about 30 ft. up. The tree was situated

in a patch of fairly open country near a village. The bird was busy collecting

sticks from. the ground nearby, one of which was over a foot long.

The nest of the Pitta is a deep cup of twigs and rootlets, domed and often

larger than a football. We have no other record of its nesting in our area.

The Southern Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker : Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis

(Latham).

Field identification: Size about that of the Bulbul. Spotted black and white

plumage with yellowish-brown crown and scarlet patch on abdomen. In_ the

male the hind crown is also scarlet. Long, stout, pointed bill and stiff, wedge-

shaped tail. Singly or pairs, in orchards and wooded country. Clinging to

trunks or branches of trees and = scuttling upwards in spurts and_ spirals,

tapping the bark at intervals. Flies with rapid wing-beats interspersed with

pauses.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 3G 11-3-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.); @ 30-1-21 Santa

Cruz (Ellison); ¢ 19-1-25 Andhéri (H.. Hearn). St. X. C.: 255 Q juv. 8-3-36

Powai Lake Environs (H.A.).

Noted: City: Warden Road, Fort, Colaba. Salsette : Chembur, Goédhbunder,

Borivli, Mulund, etc.

Resident. Fairly common. The call note is a sharp click click or clik-

r-r-r-r. We have occasionally observed it feeding on the nectar of Bombax

and Erythrina flowers.

Breeding: EHA (C.B.B., p. 59) says they breed here in February and

March. We have seen a nest with young—both parents bringing caterpillars,

etc.—on 21 March (’26—Chembir). It was in a more or less horizontal mango

branch about 12 feet above the ground, with the entrance hole on the underside.

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY, Viol. Xr

The parent birds were very circumspect, and both before and after their

ae to the nest-hole kept hopping about the adjacent branches for a considerable

while

The Rufous Woodpecker : Wicropternus brachyurus jerdonii (Malherbe).

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna.. General colour chestnut-

rufous. A typical woodpecker with stout straight, pointed bill and_ stiff

wedge-shaped tail. Singly or pairs, in orchards or lightly wooded country.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: CG 15-1-24 (Prater), @ 9g-2-08 (Kinnear) Andhéri;

Si. X. C.: 167 9 19-11-33 Borivli (H.A.).

Noted: Salsette: Chembir, Trombay, Mulund.

Resident. Fairly common. Its food in our area consists to a very large

extent of Crematogaster ants and their larve. To get at the insects, the bird

perches in the passerine manner across a branch adjoining the carton-like

arboreal nest of the ants, and digs into it with its bill, The ants are picked

off’ as they swarm to the site of the disturbance. In a garden at Deonar

(Chembur) we have on several occasions observed it clinging on the stems of

banana trees and probing into the soft tissues near the bases of the leaves,

evidently for the sap. One was noted eating a Banyan fig perched like a

barbet across a branch. Its call is a high-pitched ke-ke-ke-ke something like

the Myna’s.. The alarm note is a quick, low qi-tk.

Breeding: The Rufous Woodpecker is remarkable for habitually utilising

the carton-like nests of Crematogaster ants for its own. H.A. has found 2

such nests in Salsette (19 April ’35 and 31 March °36—Borivli) at heights of

about 20 and 25 feet. Unfortunately both these were empty at the time,

but the birds were flushed from within. The ants’ nests had been hollowed

out and a neat round entrance hole was made in them at the side. H.A.

noted that the nests were alive with ants at the time!

N. F. T. Wilson (J.B.N.H.S., xi, 744) found this woodpecker breeding at

Thana in April.

The Golden-backed Woodpecker: Brachypternus benghalensis — puncticollis

(Malherbe).

Mahratti name: Bhandart.

Field identification: Size slightly larger than that of the Myna. Head black

and white, with a crimson crest. Back and upper parts of wings golden yellow.

Underparts whitish with black streaks. The female has no crimson in the

crest. Singly or pairs, in wooded country, mango orchards and cocoanut

groves, clinging to the tree-trunks, running up or backing down them in

jerks and spirals and tapping the bark for insects. Flight of rapid wing-beats

with pauses, usually accompanied by a loud, naren chattering call or ‘laugh’.

Specimens =. B.N-H:S.: 0 -10-4-03);25t2) XxX. 1 O.c: 35301 10";

Noted: City: Warden Road, Walkéshwar, Matinee Hill. Salsette: Chem-

bar, Pali Hill, Khar, Andhéri, Borivli, G6odhbunder, Tulsi Lake environs,

Jaht, Mahim.

Resident. Fairly common. Its food consists largely of large black ants

(Camponotus sp.) picked off the ground or on trees. We have observed it

feeding on nectar from the blossoms of Erythrina indica and drinking rain

water collected in the casing of the inflorescence of a cocoanut palm.

Breeding: The only two nests of this species we have come across in our

neighbourhood were at Kihim (Alibag Talika) across the harbour. One (9 April)

“was in a decaying cocoanut trunk about 18.ft. up and contained young which

both parents were busy feeding. The nest was evil-smelling and the young

made a screechy hissing sound when approached. The second nest was in a

hole in the vertical stem of an Oondi tree (Calophyllum inophyllum) about

8 ft. from the ground. On 13 May (’31) this contained 3 fresh eggs...The

nest hollow was about 15 inches deep and unlined. The brooding bird sat

so close that it was caught By hand. The eggs are roundish pale glossy

china white, unmarked.

The Black-backed Woodpecker: Chrysocolaptes festivus (Bodd.).

Field identification: Size as the foregoing. Similar to it in general

appearance except that the back is black instead of golden yellow. Upper

parts of the wings golden-olive. Crown and crest crimson in male, golden.

yellow in female. Singly or pairs in thin jungle.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuaTE I.

Nest of the Rufous Woodpecker [ Micropternus brachyurus jerdoni (Malherbe) ] in carton-

like nest of Crematogaster ants.

( Photograph of an exhibit in the Bird Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. )

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 163

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 94 CG 28-9-33 Borivli (H.A.).

Noted: In the environs of Powai and Tilsi Lakes.

Resident. Not uncommon in parts of N. Salsette. Pairs keep in touch

with each other by means of a ch-chrr-chrk call. The usual chattering call

is something like that of the Golden-backed Woodpecker, but louder and more

‘nasal’. *

We have no records as yet of its breeding within our area.

The Malabar Heart-spotted Woodpecker : Hemicircus canente cordatus Jerdon.

Field identification: Size about that of the Bulbul; squatter and with a

shorter and wedge-shaped tail. Black above, including crest, dark olive below.

White-speckled forehead in male, buffy-white in female. Whitish rump = and

some white in wings. Chin, throat and sides of neck buffy white. A smallish

pied bird with a large head and thin neck, clinging to, and running up and

down, or around the branches of trees and shrubs in forested hilly country.

Specimen: Sz.°X. C.: 9 ‘24-11-35 Borivli (H.A.).

Noted: Tulsi Lake environs (once only). -

Presumably resident. Rare; unknown in these parts until the specimen

was obtained.

Breeding: The gonads of the specimen measured 6X4 mm. It was flushed

from within a nest-hole in a rotten branch, about 12 ft. up, in light forest.

The Wryneck : Iynx torquilla torquilla Linn.

Field identification: Slightly bigger than the House-Sparrow. Above grey-

brown with black markings; below whitish with black arrow-head markings

producing a cross-bar pattern. Colour scheme of back very like.a nightjar’s.

The peculiar dipping flight and general behaviour rather finch-like. Singly,

in small tree- or scrub- jungle especially babool and date. Often hopping on

ground in search of insect food.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 8-3-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.); 00? 21-3-24

Chembur (S:A-)* ¢ 31-8-06 Port, Bombay (L. H. Saville); St. X.. C2: $2

on 22-90-33. Juhu. (H-A,),

Noted: Khar, Andhéri, Godhbunder.

Winter visitor. Fairly common though unobtrusive. Earliest record 31

August; latest 9 April. Its call is a feeble but rapid, high-pitched chk-ch-ch-ch,

etc. like that of the smaller woodpeckers. Its food consists largely of the

small black terrestrial ants. The stomach of a specimen contained over 500

of these insects. The birds appear to localise themselves and may be found in

the same patch of country day after day.

The Bombay Green Barbet : Thereiceryx zeylanicus inornatus (Walden).

Mahratti name: Kokrus.

Field identification: About as big as the Myna. An ungainly grass-green

bird, paler underneath, with streaked brownish head, neck, breast and upper

back. Heavy conical orange-brown bill with coarse bristles at the base. <A

bright orange naked: patch round the eye. Singly or parties, on Banyan and

other forest trees in fruit, in well-wooded country. Heavy noisy flight.

Specimen: St. X. C.: 93 3 28-9-33 Borivli (H.A.).

Noted : Vihar, Tulsi and Powai Lake environs: Borivli, Kandivli, Godhbunder.

Resident. Common in the wooded hills of North Salsette and in the ‘lake

district’. Its call kr-r-r-r, kittroo, kitroo, kiutroo, etc. resounds. in these

localities. As soon as one bird begins calling, a+ second invariably takes it

up at once. The sudden report of a gun will set off half. a dozen birds calling !

Its food consists of Ficus fiss and berries of many kinds. We have also

observed it at the flowers of Erythrina stricta for the nectar.

Breeding: We have not taken any nests in Salsette, but on 21 March (’35—

Godhbunder) a bird was observed entering a nest-hole in a dead stump about

15 feet up.

The Crityson-breasted Barbet or Coppersmith : Xantholoema haemacephala indica

(Latham).

Mahratti name: Sonar.

Field identification: Slightly larger and dumpier than the House-Sparrow.

A grass-green bird with bright crimson forehead and a patch of the same

colour on the breast. Below, yellowish-white streaked with green. Naked

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

skin round eye dull crimson. Bill heavy, with coarse hairs at base. Short

square tail appearing triangular in flight. Singly or loose parties, in Banyan

and other trees in fruit, both within and outside city limits.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: $ imm. 28-5-15 Bombay (Kinnear); St. X. C.:°¢

22-2-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: City: Balaram Street and Sleater Road—near Grant Road; Warden

Road, Chowpati, Bhuléshwar, Fort, Colaba, Government House Grounds—

Walkéshwar, Victoria Terminus, Cruikshank Road and elsewhere. Common

everywhere in Salsette.

Resident. Very common. Its monotonous tuk-tik-tik as of a coppersmith

at work, may be heard in the busiest parts of the city and vies with the

shouts of vendors and traffic noises of every description. Its food consists of

fruit of which Ficus figs form an overwhelming proportion. We have occasion-

ally observed it launching ludicrous sallies after moths and winged termites.

Aitken (J.B.N.H.S., viii, 326) has also made a similar observation. We have

noted a canary yellow specimen which was particularly conspicuous in_ its

leafy environment.

Breeding: In Bombay City we have seen nests at Warden Road, Balaram

Street, Grant Road, Girgaum, Colaba, near Victoria Terminus, Khétwadi and

Bhuléshwar. Numerous others in the suburbs and Salsette. The principal

breeding months here are February, March and April. One in Bombay City

was excavating a hole on 25 August so it is probable that some birds breed

later in the year also. The nest-holes are excavated in decayed vertical

branches of trees usually at moderate heights, between 12 and 20 feet, by

the birds themselves. Sometimes horizontal branches are used when the entrance

hole is placed on the underside. Softwood trees such as Erythrina, Moringa,

Mango and Karanj (Pongamia) are mostly selected for the purpose. The nest-

hole is 6 to 8 inches deep; it is unlined and has a round entrance hole about

2 inches in diameter. Usually 2 or 3 eggs are laid, unmarked white, elliptical,

and of a smooth texture. Both sexes feed the young.

[The Cuckoo: Cuculus canorus ssp.

Specimen: St. X. C.: 0? juv. 20-10-33 Réwas, Alibag Talika, Kolaba

District -(EL-A.).

The above was shot off a wire fence near the Dharamtar Creek. As _ it

is in juvenile plumage the race cannot be determined. H.A. has also observed

(13. October) a Cuckoo at Bassein on the mainland immediately north of

Salsette. ]

The Indian Cuckoo; Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould.

Field identification: Size about that of the Pigeon, somewhat slenderer and

with a longer tail. Upper parts brown except head and neck which are ashy-

grey. Breast pale grey. Underparts whitish, cross-barred with black. A black

band across tail, near the tip. Singly, in wooded country.

Specimen: St. X. C.-: 267 0? Powai.(H.A.).

Noted: Tulsi Lake environs (30 July ’35).

Status uncertain. Uncommon. Its call may be syllabified as Cross-word-

puzzle or What’s your trouble. H.A. likens it to that of the Scimitar Babbler

(Pomatorhinus horsfieldii).

The Common Hawk-Cuckoo : Hierococcyx varius Vahl.

Field identification: Size and shape as last. Above ashy-grey, below

whitish, cross-barred with brown. General colouration very Jike the Shikra’s.

Flight and movements also reminiscent of that hawk. Singly, in mango

orchards and wooded country.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: G imm. 13-11-08 Pali Hill, Bandra (Major H. J.

Walton): St.. X. (C..; 172 6 19-11-33 "Borivii (HSAs).

Noted: Andhéri.

Resident? Not common. Its obstreperous and aggravating brain-fever

calls usually begin to be heard in early May and continue right up to August

or September. The bird is thus always more in evidence at this season and

as it is likely to be overlooked at other times of the year, when silent, it

is possibly less uncommon in our area than it appears.

Breeding: We have no evidence of its breeding here beyond the immature

specimen in the Society’s collection.

THE. BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND. SALSETTE 165

The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo : Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl.).

Field identification: Size about that of the Bulbul. Above dark ashy-grey,

below paler. Lail blackish with white tip. White patch on wing noticeable in

flight. Singly, in mango orchards and wooded country.

Specimen: St. X. C.: ¢ 7-8-33 Goregaon (H.A.).

Presumably a monsoon visitor. Our records are only from the middle of

May to the end of August (once heard 30 October). It is quite common in

June in and about the scrub country along the base of Trombay Hills and

at Powai Lake, and its call is then on the air everywhere. It consists of

several rather plaintive whistling notes: Pee-pipee-pee, pipee-pee, etc. When

calling (from some exposed part of a tree) the tail is depressed and the rump

slightly arched, with the wings drooping at the sides. Its food consists of

grasshoppers, bugs and caterpillars. H.A. noted it gobbling up hairy cater-

pillars of the moth Nepita conferta swarming on a loose stone wall.

Breeding: We have no record from Salsette. In the Deccan it lays commonly

in the nests of the Tailor-Bird and the Ashy Wren-Warbler, both of which are

also breeding in Salsette while the cuckoo is with us.

The Indian Bay-banded Cuckoo ; Penthoceryx sonneratii [sonneratii (Lath.) ?].

H.A. has only one sight record of a single bird of this species in Salsette :

Tulsi-Vihar Lake environs, 10 October.

The Drongo Cuckoo; Surniculus lugubris lugubris (Horsf.).

Field identification: Size of the Bulbul or Black Drongo, with the deeply

forked long tail of the latter. In colour and appearance it is very like the

slack Drongo and liable to be confused with it at a casual glance. If

carefully watched, however, its flight and habits are distinctly cuculine. Singly,

in well-wooded tracts, especially with an abundance of Tad or Palmyra

palms (Borassus flabewsjer).

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 14-6-25 Trombay Hills, 0? 21-6-25 Powai Lake

(S.A.); St. X. C.: 92 Q 27-9-33 (H.A.) This last is in heavy moult, hence

the sub-species is unconfirmed.

Noted: Salsette: Borivli, Kandivli, Chembur.

Monsoon visitor? We have recorded it here only between 2 June and 27

September. During this period it is greatly in evidence by virtue of its

distinctive call of 6 (sometimes 7 or 8) short whistling notes. The notes—

1-2-3-4-5-6, etc.—rise in scale and end abruptly. While calling, the body is

carried in a horizontal position and its resemblance to the Drongo is then

least pronounced. Occasionally it may be heard calling all night, but especially

between 2 and 4 a.m. Its food consists principally of caterpillars, the hairy

ones being much relished.

We are not satisfied with the suggestion that its close outward resemblance

to the Black Drongo is of real advantage to the bird, and are unable to say

as yet what the significance of it may be.

Breeding: We have no direct evidence of its breeding in Salsette. The

specimen of 27 September, however, had a fully mature ovary with the

largest follicles 3 mm. in diameter. This bird was obviously preparing to

lay, inspite of the fact that it was in heavy moult at the time. Elsewhere,

the eggs of this cuckoo have been recorded from nests of the Black Drongo

and from those of the Iora and the Black-fronted Babbler (Rhopocichla).

The Pied Crested Cuckoo: Clamator jacobinus pica (Hempr. & Ehr.).

Mahratti name: Tiu.

Field identification: Somewhat larger than a dove and with a longer tail.

Black above—including crest—white below. A white roundish patch on wings

conspicuous in flight. Singly or pairs, in and about groves of trees and in

scrub country dotted with large trees. Usually very noisy while with us.

_ Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢g 10-6-15 Bombay; o? 1-6-24 Pali Hill, Bandra

(S.A.); 0? 7-11-00 Apollo Street, Bombay (E. Comber).

Noted: Khar, Andhéri, Borivli, G6dhbunder, Chembur.

Monsoon visitor. Common. Arriving at the end of May (earliest 25th) and

leaving again by the end of October (latest 11 November). The birds are

most abundant and noisy between 15 June and the end of August. Pairs are

usually seen chasing each other and calling—a loud, rather plaintive, tinkling

L166 JOURNAL,: BOMBAY NATURAL HIS£, SOCIETY, Vol XE

piu, piu, pee-pee-piu, pee-pee-piu, etc. Its food consists ‘of hairy caterpillars,

grasshoppers and other insects.

In bombay City, the Pied Crested Cuckoos are much_ persecuted by the

local House-Lrows. lhe specimen of 7 November 1g00 had taken ~ refuge

from them in the Societys Rooms at 6, Apollo Street. Similarly 3° such

relugees were caught in st. Xavier’s College and 2 in the Prince of Wales

Museum between 25 May and 1 June (1936).

Breeding: We have no record from within the limits of Bombay

and Salsette, but at isihim (across the harbour—in Alibag Talika) we have

found this species breeding from July to September. ‘he usual host there is

the Bombay Babbler (Luraoides s. somerviller). On 16 August a pair of Pied

Cuckoos were observed in copula. A specimen shot on the 29th of that month

had a complete oviduct egg of a pale blue colour. The laid egg is a deeper

blue and approximates closely to that of the fosterer.

The Indian Koel; Ludynanius scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linn.).

Field identification: Somewhat larger than a dove and with a longer tail.

Glossy black all over—like a slenaer Jungle-Crow—with a_ yellowish-green

bill. The female is blackish-brown, spotted above and barred below with

white. Singly or pairs, in gardens and groves of trees.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 22-5-16 Malabar Hill, Bombay (J. E. Needham) ;

St. X, -C. 3 30 72 (1-8-33 “Andheri (ELA. ).

Noted: City: Victoria Gardens—Byculla, Pareél (about Haffkine Institute),

Government House Grounds—Walkéshwar, Ridge Road and the neighbourhood—

Malabar Hill, Fort. Salsette: Pali Hill—Bandra, Khar, Borivli, Mulund,

Bhandup, Godhbunder, Thana, etc.

Resident. Common. It is, on the whole, silent during the winter months

but becomes extremely obstreperous from March ‘to July. At that season its

shrill shrieking call: ktoo, kuoo, etc. resounds through the countryside all day.

It begins on a low note, but rises in scale at each successive kuoo until at

the seventh or eighth it reaches feverish pitch and breaks off abruptly. The

bird soon begins it all over again, however. By an imitation of its calls,

which the bird insists on answering, village boys are wont to drive the bird

frantic and hoarse! It is perhaps the earliest riser amongst our local birds

being usually up and calling long before the House-Crow and the Magpie-

Robin, who tie for second place. We have frequently heard it as” early as

3.45 of a summer morning. The female Koel utters a sharp kik-kik-kik

as it flies from tree to tree or hops about among the branches. Its food

consists of hairy caterpillars and other insects, but a large variety ‘of fruits

and. berries is also eaten, amongst which Ficus retusa, F. bengalensis, F.

religiosa, Bridelia, Streblus aspey and Phyllanthus reticulatus are common. We

have observed it plucking and swallowing the nuts of the Fish-tail Palm (Car-

yota urens) and, on another occasion, a full clutch of eggs from a nest of

the Red-whiskered Bulbul (Otocompsa jocosa).

Breeding: The laying season is in May and June and corresponds with

that of its most usual host the House-Crow (Corvus splendens). Occasionally

the Jungle Crow which nests somewhat earlier, is also victimised. ‘HLA.

(see J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 458) once found a House-Crow’s nest at Bhandup (9

June) containing 11 Koel eggs exclusively. These belonged to two. different

types and were probably the product of two females. While crow and Koel

eggs may often be found together in a nest, it is but rarely—in our experience,

never—that one comes across a victimised crow’s nest containing both crow

and Koel young. Usually there is only 1—very exceptionally 2—of the ‘latter

in sole possession, from which it would appear that like the Cuckoo, the Koel

hatchling also disposes of its rightful foster-brothers by heaving them out of

the nest. It is surprising how thoroughly an intelligent bird like the crow

will be duped into incubating the impostor’s eggs and rearing its young

especially when the young Koel, which is speckled and barred with white, is so

unlike its own young in appearance.

We have never witnessed a Koel in the act of depositing her egg and

there is some doubt as to the actual procedure. From circumstantial evidence,

however, it appears that she snatches the opportunity for doing so while

the male Koel draws the owners away from the nest by leading them a

chase. The eggs of this cuckoo are very like the crow’s in appearance—pale

greyish-green or stone-colour, speckled and blotched with reddish-brown.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE lo

The Common Crow-Pheasant or Coucal: Centropus sinensis parroti Stres.

Local name (Mahratti?): Kamar Kaila.

Field identification: Size that of the Jungle-Crow. A’ striking glossy black

bird with chestnut wings and long broad tail. Singly or pairs, in scrub jungle,

mango groves, etc. Usually stalking along the ground like a_ pheasant

searching the undergrowth tor food.

Specunens: bi. d1.o: 2 Os 27-12-23 Andher (S. i. Prater); st. AVC. 2 53

Q 20-8-33 Chendevli, Salsette (H.A.).

Noted: Salsette: Marol, Pati Hith—Bandra, Trombay Hills and Chembur,

Tulsi Lake environs, Godhbunder, Thana, Malad, ete. a

Resident. Common. Its call is the familiar ook, ook, ook, etc. so commonly

heard on the countryside especially during the hot weather. Besides this it

has a large variety of croaks and chuckles—some distinctly weird—which are

usually heard in the breeding season. Its food consists ot caterpillars, grass-

hoppers, beetles, bugs and insects of every description. In addition, we have

found it greedily devouring mice, frogs, geckos (Hemidactylus), skinks (Mabuia),

Bloodsucker lizards (Calotes) and Green Whip Snakes (Dryophis mycterizans).

It is also highly destructive to the eggs and young of other birds:

Breeding : The Crow-Pheasant is one of the respectable cuckoos that do not

foist their domestic responsibilities upon other birds. Its nest is a large globular

structure about a foot in diameter, of coarse grasses, strips of palm leaves,

etc. placed at moderate heights in a thorny bush or tree. We have not found

a nest within the limits of Salsette as yet, but the female shot on 20 August

(33) had soft ovarian eggs, indicating that the breeding season here is during

the S.-W. Monsoon.

_ [The Large Alexandrin2 Paroquet: Psittacula eupatria ssp.

Hindustani name: Hiraman tota.

_ Field identification: Size about that of the Pigeon. Slenderer and with

a long pointed tail. A grass green paroquet with a black and rose-pink collar

in the male (absent in female). A conspicuous maroon-red patch on_ the

shoulder. Usually seen in fanciers’ cages.

We have only observed the Large Paroquet flying overhead in small parties

in various parts of Bombay City, but never in the well-wooded or hilly tracts

of Salsette where one would expect to find it in the wild state. From this

it would seem that all the birds here are escapes, since it is a favourite cage

bird and numbers are always for sale in the Crawford Market. According to

Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., v, 13) these imported birds mostly come from the

Central krovinces. the race theretore would be the typical one P. e. eupatria.

It is said to be a good ‘talker’. Its call is deeper and more ‘sedate’ than that

of the Rose-ringed Paroquet. ]

The Rose-ringed Paroquet : Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechst.).

Local name: Popat.

Field identification: A somewhat smaller replica of the above, but lacking

the red shoulder-patch. Parties, usually noisy, in mango orchards and_ thinly

wooded country; also in gardens and trees in the city. Occupying holes in

outer brick walls of buildings and temples. Commonly caged.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 25-3-24 Warden Road, Cumbala Hill (S.A.).

Noted: City: Chowpati (Wilson College neighbourhood), Fort, Elphinstone

Circle, Colaba, Churchgate, Bhuleshwar, Parel, Byculla, etc. Salsette: Pali

Hill—Bandra, Andhéri, Borivli, Godhbunder, Powai Lake environs, Chermbur,

Bhandup, Thana, ete.

Resident. Common. Destructive to ripening mangoes and fruit of every

kind. Invariably present on Bombax and Krythrina flowers biting off the petals

and eating the nectar. It is destructive in its methods and of no service in

cross-pollination. At Dana Bunder and the Goods sheds of the G.J.P. and

B.B. & C.I. Railways, these paroquets may usually be seen clambering about

and. biting into the grain bags arriving from upcountry, and helping themselves

to the contents.

Breeding: The Rose-ringed Paroquet breeds in suitable holes in -walls of

buildings and trees, both within and without city limits, not excluding the

noisiest and most congested parts of the town. . February, March and April

are the months most favoured for nesting. In trees, woodpecker- and barbet-

holes are utilised,. as well as those excavated by the birds themselves. The

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

rotten stems of Palmyra palms standing in the water at Powai Lake and

elsewhere, and cocoanut palms at Juha, Mahim, etc. offer suitable sites. The

normal clutch is of 3 or 4 eggs, roundish oval, white, unmarked.

The Blossom-headed Paroquet : Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linn.).

Field identification: Smaller than the last. About the size of the Myna ;

slenderer and with a long pointed tail. General colour yellowish green. The

male has a beautiful bluish-red head which in the female is bluish-grey. The

bright maroon-red patch on the shoulder of the male is absent or obsolete in

the temale. In flight the peculiar sharp single interrogative cry tooi? and the

yellow tip of the tail are diagnostic features. Small flocks in wooded country,

Jamun groves, etc.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 00? 2-12-25 Kurla (Baretto).

Noted: Salsette: Pali Hill—Bandra (M. Suter!), Andhéri, Chembur, Borivli,

Tulsi Lake, Powai. Not in city limits.

Status uncertain. Our records here are only between 7 August and 31

March, but we have noted a flock at Kihim (across the harbour} on 11 June.

It is possibly largely a dry season visitor from the Ghats and Deccan.

The Loriquet : Cosyllis vernalis ssp.

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow. A_ bright

ycllowish-green little parrot with a red bill, short square tail and a crimson

rump. Singly or small parties, among leafy trees in wooded country.

No specimens.

Status uncertain. Not uncommon, but patchily distributed and to some

extent undoubtedly also a local migrant. We have no record of it in Salsette

between 23 June and g September. On the other hand, at Kihim (Alibag

Talaka) ca. 15 miles from Bombay City, across the harbour, they appeared to

arrive in the tirst week of June (1930) and were very common througheut the

monsoon, disappearing completely by the beginning of November! These little

birds on account of their small size and wonderfully obliterative colouration

are usually visible only when flying across from one tree to another. The

flight is swift, consisting of several rapid wing-strokes followed by a short pause

and a consequent slight dip. It is invariably accompanied by a sharp trisyllabic

chee-chee-chee, repeated every couple of seconds or so. Their food consists of

Ficus figs and other fruits and berries. The nectar of flowers, especially

Erythrina, is also largely eaten.

We have no record of its breeding in. Salsette or on the adjacent mainland.

The Indian Roller; Coracias benghalensis indica Linn.

Field identification: Size of the Pigeon. A_ striking Oxford-and-Cam-

bridge-blue bird with biggish head, heavy bill, rufous-brown breast and_ blue

abdomen and undertail. Singly, perched on telegraph wires or in some other

exposed situation such as a tencepost or a tree-stump, in open fallow land

and cultivation. Laboured flight with deliberate wing beats.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢G 21-2-21 Santa Cruz (B. C. Ellison); St. X. C.:

168 ¢ 19-11-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: City: Churchgate Reclamation. Salsette: Matunga, Kurla, Chembur

Trombay, Mulund, Borivli, etc.

Resident? Not common. Its food consists of grasshoppers, crickets and

other insects usually captured on the ground. When an insect is sighted the

bird flies down to it and returns to the same perch or another one nearby,

where the victim is battered and swallowed. It has a variety of loud raucous

calls and is particularly noisy and demonstrative in the breeding season when

the male also indulges in some fantastic aerobatics.

We have no information regarding its breeding in Salsette, but we have

once observed the above nuptial display (Borivli) in March which suggests

the probability.

According to Aitken (J.B.N.H.S., xiii, 398) the European Roller (Coracias

garrula ssp.), distinguished from our bird in having the underparts pale blue

throughout, has occurred in or near Bombay. H.A. observed this bird at

Khandala in the Western Ghats on 25-3-34, and obtained two specimens of

the Kashmir race (C. g. semenowz) in October-November 1935.

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THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND. SALSETTE 169

[The Common Indian Bee-eater : Merops orientalis orientalis Latham.

Mahratti name: Patéri.

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow. A bright green

bird tinged with reddish-brown on the head and neck. Two pointed feathers

sticking out beyond the tail. A narrow black gorget on foreneck. Slender, long,

slightly curved bill. Parties, in gardens, open country and near the seashore.

Perching on telegraph wires, fence-posts, etc., making graceful sallies and

swoops after winged insects, capturing them in mid-air and circling round

on motionless wings back to the perch. Often dust-bathing on country roads.

epecumens: BIN..S.: G 29-12-23 Andheri (S. H. Prater); St. X. C.:

“41 Q 6-8-33 Marol (H.A.).

Noted: City: Malabar and Cumbala Hills, Walkéshwar, Mahaluxmi,

Victoria Gardens—Byculla, etc. Salsette: Pali Hill, Khar, Juht, Versova,

Chembur Trombay, Borivli, Kandivli, Godhbunder, Thana and_ elsewhere

generally.

Resident and local migrant. Though very common during the dry months,

the great majority of Bee-eaters disappear from Bombay and Salsette about

the middle of April. During the rainy season, i.e. up to about the end of

August, they are only rarely seen.

The birds roost at night in leafy trees into which they begin to collect

about sunset. Great noise and bustle prevails, the gathering suddenly flying

out in a rabble every now and again and returning after circling about in

disorder above the tree. They are late risers, and parties may be seen sleeping

huddled together on a branch well after the sun is up.

Breeding: We have no record of nests in Bombay or Salsette, but the birds

breed freely at and in the neighbourhood of Alibag across the harbour. The

nest is at the end of a curved tunnel in sandy soil or soft earth. The burrow

is either driven horizontally into a bank or cutting or sunk obliquely into more

or less level ground. It is usually from 1 to 3 feet deep and about 13 inches in

diameter. Four to six roundish white eggs form the normal clutch. They

seem to be laid at longer intervals than 24 hours each, and _ incubation

commences—or perhaps the heat in the tunnel suffices for the purpose ?—from

the first egg. This is evident from the great disparity between the growth

of the oldest and youngest chick in a_ nest. ]

[The Blue-tailed Bee-eater : Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsf.

Field identification: Somewhat larger than the Common Bee-eater—about the

size of the Bulbul—but generally similar to it in appearance. Bright bluish-

green with a greenish-blue tail including the pin feathers. A black stripe

through the eye.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0? 19-9-26 Kandivli (S.A.).

Noted: Salsette: Santa Cruz, Saki, Andhéri, Borivli, Thana. Mainland |

Kihim, Kolaba District (specimen @ 17-10-26).

A passage migrant (to the south?) in September-October. All our records

are during these 2 months only. Once (28 April) a bird was heard passing

over at Santa Cruz, probably on return passage, but it is evident that for

this they follow some other route and the majority at least avoid Salsette.

These bee-eaters keep to open country and we have frequently observed parties

on the sandy seashore. Its notes are like the Common Bee-eater’s, but deeper

and readily distinguishable from them. |

[The Blue-cheeked Bee-eater : Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas.

This race presumably also passes over, Salsette in October. We have no

specimen from actually within our limits, but a male obtained by H.A. at

Bassein (Thana District) on 13 October (733) belongs to it. On that date

he found the birds to be very abundant there, all perching more or less

exclusively on the telegraph wires whence they launched sallies after winged

insects. This subspecies differs from javanicus chiefly in having the rump and

tail more green less blue, and in possessing more conspicuous blue-green cheeks. |

The Pied Kingfisher : Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach.

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna. A speckled and barred

black and white bird with a stout, dagger-shaped bill. Singly or pairs, by

‘streams and tanks, hovering (‘standing on its tail’) in mid-air and dropping

like a bolt upon fishes near the surface.

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

No specimens.

Noted: Salsette: Powai Lake, Mahim. Across the harbour at Mandwa,

Kihim, Alibag, etc.

_ Resident? Uncommon. It is usually found by fresh water, but we have

frequently observed it fishing on tidal creeks and in salt water pools on the

rocky seashore. It utters a sharp chirruk, chirruk as it flies.

We are not aware of its nesting in our area or its immediate neighbourhood.

The Comn:on Indian Kingfisher: Al!cedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin.

Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow, with a_ short

stumpy tail and a long, straight, pointed bill. An attractive blue and green

little bird with deep rust-coloured underparts. Singly, by water—stream, tank,

puddle or sometimes even a well. Usually seen perched on a bush or rock

overhanging water, or in swift direct flight above the surface, uttering a

squeaky chi-chi-chi. When sitting, bolt upright as is its wont, it bobs its

head up and down, turns it from side to side, jerks its stump of a tail and

utters little subdued clicks from time to time.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ©- 16-1-24 Andheri (S:. H...Prater), St) xX. 7 Cas

Q juv. 29-7-33 Gorégaon (H.A.).

Noted: City: Dhobi Talao (1913), Scandal Point—Mahaluxmi. Salsette:

Pali Hill, Danda, Bhayndar, Chembur, Borivli, Powai-Tulsi-Vihar Lakes, ete.

Resident. Common. Its method of fishing differs from that of the Pied

Kingfisher in that it seldom hovers. More usually it drops upon the victim

from an overhanging perch and returns with it to the same or a nearby one

to batter and swallow it.

Breeding: We have found nests in Salsette with eggs or young at Wadauli

(Chembtr), Saki, Borivli, and Andhéri between the middle of July and the

end of August. By the latter date, most eggs have hatched. The nest or

egg-chamber is at the end of a tunnel dug into the side of an earth-cutting,

1 to 3 feet deep. A normal clutch consists of from 4 to 7 eggs, roundish,

white, unmarked.

The Indian three-toed Kingfisher : Ceyx erithaca evithaca (Linn.).

Field identification: Slightly smaller than the Common Kingfisher. A lovely

little orange-brown, lilac and blue bird with rusty orange-yellow underparts.

A deep blue patch on either side of neck and a rufous patch on the underwing

conspicuous—the latter only in flight. Singly, by streams, pools and rain

puddles in forest.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 18-6-02 Government Dockyard, Bombay (Mrs. A. J.

Paterson); 0? 3-10-10 Bombay City (?); 0? 12-g-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (Mrs.

Wright).

Noted: Salsette: Godhbunder, Deonar-Chembur, Trombay Hills, Powai.

Monsoon visitor. The specimens as well as all our sight records cover the

months June to October only, i.e. the S.-W. Monsoon season. We have no

evidence that the bird is with us during the rest of the year.

The White-breasted Kingfisher: ‘Yalcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis (Linn.).

Local name: Chingla.

Field identification: Size of the Myna, slightly bigger. Brilliant turquoise

blue above, dark chocolate-brown head neck and underparts. A conspicuous

white ‘shirt front’. Long, stout, pointed, straight red bill. Singly, on tree

stumps, telegraph poles, fence posts, etc. in open thin forest, near tanks,

wells, puddles, at fish-yards, etc.—also away from water.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: ¢@ 18-10-24, 0? 13-2-26 Kurla (D. A. Baretto).

Noted: City: Dhobi Talao (1913), Byculla, Chowpati, Warden Road,

Malabar Hill, Walkéshwar. Generally in Salsette.

Resident. Common. Its diet is not confined to fish. Earthworms, insects,

frogs, lizards, mice .and young birds are all relished. Its call or ‘song’ is

a loud, not unmusical, chattering scream uttered from the top of a tree or

some other exposed situation. It ends in a detached, harsh undertone, some-

thing like the pench of a snipe, audible only at close quarters.

Breeding: The principal breeding months in our area are May, June and

July. The nest tunnel, as with the other kingfishers, is dug into the side of

an.earth cutting or bank 2 to 3 feet deep and ends in a circular egg-chamber

about 6 inches in diameter. A normal full clutch consists of 5 or 6 eggs,

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 171

more often the former. They are pure white, roundish ovals. H.A. has

observed that the nestlings, when pulled out of the nest, back away into the

tunnel on their ‘hocks’. If replaced in the tunnel head first they invariably

back out of it, but if inserted head facing outwards the young will slowly

back into the nest! The nestlings seem incapable of forward movement at this

early stage. Inglis (J.B.N.H.S., xi, 480) also says that the young of the

Common Bee-eater have a curious habit of ‘walking backwards when being fed

by the hand’. It is significant that both these species are tunnel breeders,

and this habit is doubtless of survival value to their chicks.

The Black-capped Kingfisher : Halcyon pileata (Bodd.).

Field identification: Size same as that of the White-breasted species. Rich

cobalt blue above, buffy-white with rufous tinge below. Top of head or ‘cap’

velvety black. A prominent white collar round the hindneck. Bright coral red

bill. Singly, by tidal*creeks and mangroves about the sea-coast.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 31-10-08 Kolsette Bunder, Thana Creek (L. H.

Saville); 0? 11-11-28 Godhbunder (S.A.); St. X. C.: 0? 28-11-? Godhbunder

(EE A.).

Noted: City: Chowpati (once—flying over, 7-10-26) Salsette: Tulsi Lake

(January), Andhéri (January and February).

’ Presumably, as suggested by Aitken (J/.B.N.H.S., xi, 164), a cold weather

visitor to Salsette. All the specimens and our sight records are between

October and February. We have also met with it in the Rewa Danda Creek

Kolaba District in January; there is a specimen thence in the Society’s

Collection dated 13 December, and another one from Kalyan also shot in

December. E. H. Aitken often saw it in the vicinity of the seashore and

creeks along the Konkan Coast, perched on high trees whence it swooped

down with the action of a hawk upon the sand crabs which he_ believed

formed its chief food.

The Great Indian Hornbill : Dichoceros bicornis (Linn.).

EHA in the introduction to his Common Birds of Bombay writes: °. ... a

misguided hornbill may make its appearance on Malabar Hill’. We do not

know of one ever having done so, within recent years at any rate, and it is

therefore surprising to read the distribution of the Great Hornbill (new Fauna,

iv, 284) in South India as ‘along the western coast from S. Travancore to

Bombay City... .’

The Malabar Grey Hornbill : Tockus griseus (Latham).

H.A. saw a_ single hornbill of this species at Géodhbunder on 17-4-34.

It was being chivvied by a pair of Jungle Crows. It took refuge in a_ tree

but was hustled out and chased out of sight. This is the only record we

have of the occurrence of any hornbill in Salsette.

The Hoopoe : Upupa epops ssp.

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna. A rufous-brown full-

crested bird with black and white zebra-like markings on the back and wings.

a long slender slightly curved bill and short legs. Singly or pairs, in open

scrub country, light jungle or near villages, running about on the ground like

quail but with a somewhat waddling gait, and digging with its bill. The

crest is erected and opened out fanwise when the bird alights after a short

flight.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: G 3-11-24, Q 18-1-24 Andhéri (S. H. Prater); 0?

13-12-08 Andhéri (Kinnear).

Noted: Salsette: Pali Hill, Khar, Chembur.

Presumably a winter visitor only. We have no record of it in Salsette

between 21 March and 12 October. Apparently both the races orientalis and

ceylonensis occur within our limits. While with us, the Hoopoe is mostly

silent.

It breeds on the Western Ghats and in the Deccan. Brother Navarro of

St. Xavier’s College had a young bird brought to him at Khandala (2,000 ft.)

in May (race ceylonensis?). } °

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST “SOCIETY, Wot. Gb

The Malabar Trogon: Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould).

Field identification: Size about that of a dove. Head, neck and_ breast

grey. A white collar dividing the last from the striking crimson lower

plumage. Upper parts (back etc.) yellowish-brown. Fine wavy white bars in

the wing. Bill and bare skin round the eye blue. Female duller with the

underparts orange-brown instead of crimson. Pairs or small parties, in heavy

deciduous jungle.

Specimens: St. X. C.: 194 Gf 31-12-34 Hills N.E. of Borivli (H.A.).

Noted. Salsette: Tulsi Lake environs. Adjacent mainland: Tungar Hill,

Bassein, Thana _ District.

Evidently a local cold weather immigrant to Salsette. Rare. We have

come across it here only on three occasions: 24 November, 30 December and 3

March. ‘Lhe party keeps up a subdued musical chuckle. When the specimen

was shot, the female kept uttering a low krr in the neighbourhood.

[The Alpine Swift :\Jicropus melba ssp.

EHA (C.B.B., p. 41) says he shot this bird ‘a few miles from Bombay’

(in Salsette?). We have not come across it in our area.]

The Common indian House-Swift : Micropus affinis affinis (Gray).

Field identification: Smaller than the House-Sparrow, but with longer and

narrower wings. Smoky-black with white throat and’ white rump. Short

square tail. In overhead flight the backwardly curving narrow wings look

like a bow and the body an arrow set in it. Gregariously, hawkinng insects

on the wing, near human habitations, open country, above tidal mudflats, etc.

_ Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-4-24 Mudflats—Sion Causeway (S.A.); 6

-10-15 Bombay (S. H. Prater); ¢ 2-10-25 Bombay (C. McCann); Q 18-9-12

Cumbala Hill; St. X. C.: 66 Q 5-9-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: City: Bhuléshwar, Fort, Chowpati. Salsette: Borivli, Mulund,

Thana, Ghatkopar.

Resident. Common. IJ.rge numbers occasionally seen about sunset hawking

winged insects or ‘balling high up in the air with shrill cries.

Breeding: The House-Swift usually builds in colonies, but single nests or

just 2 or 3 together are not uncommon. They are, as a rule, plastered helter-

skelter along the angle of the wall and ceiling in buildings ana porches, both

deserted and occupied, in the midst of the busiest part of the town or outside.

They are round untidy cups made entirely of feathers, grass, etc. cemented

together by the birds’ saliva. The entrance-hole is often merely a_slit between

the wall and the nest. The birds use the nests throughout the year for

roosting purposes as well, and so it is difficult to say without examination

exactly when they are breeding and when not. H.A. has taken 2 fresh eggs

at Andhéri on 27 March and found a nestling in the same nest on to April

of the following year. The same site and nests—repaired if necessary—are

used for many years in succession if the birds are left undisturbed. The

colony of nests under the entrance archway of Messrs. Greaves Cotton & Co.

Forbes Street, Fort, mentioned by EHA (C.B.B., p. 40) in 1880 or thereabouts,

is in occupation to this day!

~ Usually 2 eggs are laid. They are long ovals and pure white in. colour.

The Palm Swift : Cypsiurus batasiensis palmarum (Gray).

Mahratti name: Shimrt.

Field identification: Smaller than the House-Sparrow ; considerably slenderer

in body with long slender wings. Uniform smoky-brown in colour. Invariably

seen on the wing, hawking flying insects in open country. Inseparable from

Palmyra palms. The deep cleft or fork in the tail is noticeable when the

bird wheels in flight.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 16-2-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.); St. X.-C.3 48

3 17-7-33 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: City: Malabar Hill, Tardeo, Cumbala Hill, Byculla, Parél. Common

everywhere in suburbs and Salsette.

Resident. Common. It has a_ shrill, joyous quick repeated triple note

ti-ti-tee uttered on the wing. H.A. observed a pure albino, except for the

wings, flying about amongst Borassus palms along with normally coloured birds

(Powai, 3-6-36).

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 173

Breeding: We have records of the following nests in Salsette:

Andhéri) 1 nearly full-fledged chick (H.A.).

a Bombay) eggs (Br. Navarro),

20 August (35—Cumbala Hill, Bombay) A 1 fresh egg; B bird brooding,

2nd week Seale: 1 hardset egg.

The nest is a tiny half-saucer, or shallow purse, made of vegetable down and

feathers agglutinated with the bird’s saliva and cemented into a furrow on

the underside of a Palmyra leaf. It measures about 2 inches from side to

side. The normal clutch is of 2 eggs—long, pointed ovals and white in colour.

Hume’s Nightjar; Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Q October 1915 Colaba, Bombay City.

An aberrant straggler? This specimen was caught by Mr. Prater in his

room wherein it appears to have blundered.

[Sykes’s Nightjar: Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 7-12-99 Kalyan (J. Brand)..

We have not come across this species in Salsette. The specimen was also

most probably an aberrant straggler, but it is worth including in this list in

view of the nearness of Kalyan (on the mainland, across Thana Creek) to

our area. |

The Common Indian Nightjar ; Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham.

Field identification: Size about that of the Myna. Yellowish-grey and pale

brown above with black streaks in a complicated camouflaging pattern. Buff

and fulvous underneath. White patches on wing conspicuous when flying.

Large owl-like head with large eyes and wide gape. Singly, in scrub in

compounds, ravines or thin jungle. Lying close on ground invisible amongst

dry leaves and rising up when almost trampled upon. Silent, rather leisurely

flight. Often seen on suburban roads at dusk, eyes gleaming red in the

headlights of an on-coming car.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 20-11-99 Bombay, ¢ 20-5-31 Malad; St. X. C.:

246 0? 12-12-35 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: Salsette: Santa Cruz, Vilé Parlé, Chembur, Godhbunder-Thana

Road.

Winter visitor? Our records in Salsette are all between October and May

(latest 20th). It is fairly common during December. A low chik-chik uttered

on the wing, is the only call we have heard while the birds are with us.

The stomachs of two specimens shot at Andhéri contained the following: 13

Dung Beetles (Onthophaga sp.), 1 Disticid Beetle, 1 cricket (Gryllus sp.).

It is: noteworthy that several of the Dung Beetles were still alive when

removed from the birds’ stomachs 18 hours after they were shot!

(To be continued).

THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THE COCONUT.

P. V. MAYURANATHAN,

Curator, Botany Department, Government Museum, Madras.

The origin of most cultivated plants is enshrouded in mystery

and few among them have received as much attention at the hands

of eminent botanists as the Coconut. Dr. H. N. Ridley, Sir Arthur

Hill, Dr. E. D. Merril and others have all made very valuable

contributions to cur knowledge of the original home and _ spread

of this most useful of palms, pantropic into cultivation. The present

paper, while examining most of what has already been said

discusses the problem from the standpoint of the antiquity of the

Coconut in India and attempts to locate its native home more

definitely by taking into consideration the geological history of the

regions under discussion. It also supplements botanical and

biological evidences with philological and ethnological issues.

That the Coconut has been known in India from the earliest

of times is an unquestionable fact. Mention is made of it in

several of the Puranas which are the oldest books after the

Vedas. The Maha Bhagavata, Vishnu, Matsya, Markandeya

and Brahmanda Puranas have references to the Coconut. There is

also mention of it in the Ramayana and the Maha Bharata and

also in ancient Tamil literature like Porunarattupadai. The above

references prove the great antiquity of the Coconut in India but

do not show that it is native to the country. Although now an

inevitable article used in worship throughout Peninsular India it

is significant that the coconut is not included among the fourteen

articles sanctioned by the Shastras in the performance of holy

sacrifices. Nor is it used by a considerable section of the orthodox

Hindus in sradha ceremonies—those performed to propitiate the

manes of the departed—in which non-indigenous vegetables are

tabooed. Again, though an indispensable item in sacrifices offered

to Ganapati, it is not in the list of articles favourite with that

deity as prescribed in the Dharma Shastras. In all auspicious

ceremonies of the Hindus, worship is offered to Varuna, the deity

presiding over the water and the oceans. This deity is represented

by a pot of water with a coconut placed on its mouth. A text is

repeated in praise of the Coconut which says that it is a favourite

with God Shiva and a destroyer of inauspiciousness. This text

has come from a very remote period but is not Vedic. Such of

the observances as are not in the Vedas are traceable to the

Tantras which are of a much later origin. The offering of an

unbroken coconut to the sea by orthodox Hindus on auspicious

occasions is probably suggestive of the idea that the Coconut came

from the seas. And there is a Ceylonese legend which says that

it was brought to India from Nagaloka, the blissful region beneath

“=

PHEVORIGINAL FOME OF THE COCONUT 175

the seas, by an illustrious king for special worship and was thence

introduced into Ceylon by a king of that island for a_ similar

purpose.

The Sanscrit name for the coconut is Nalikera or Narikela the

y and the 1 being interchangeable acccrding to the rules of Sanscrit

grammar. Paucity of names in a language replete with synonymy

is indicative of foreign nativity. In Pali also, it is known as

Nalikera. North Indian languages as we'l as Arabic and Persian

have their names for the coconut derived from Sanscrit. The

philological relation of the Malayan names Kerambil and Kelambir

with the Sanscrit is worth investigating. My view is that they

have come from the Sanscrit as a result of Hindu influence. In

the early centuries of the Christian era the Hindus had conquered

and colonized a great part of Malaya and the Malayan Archipelago,

and it is natural to assume that the names used by the conquering

race were adopted by the sons of the scil with some local variations

and that these names have persisted through centuries side by

side with the native names. In Sanscrit literature, we come across

the word Kera in place of Nalikera as in Kera bala phala which

means the fruit of a young coconut tree. The transition from Kera

to Kerambil is recognisable. Further, it may be observed that

these names, again with their variants, are used in Sumatra, Java

and the smaller adjacent islands. Kelapa, Kelapo and Kalapa are

names for the coconut in Java; in the Malay Peninsula it is Klapa.

I am of opinion that these names also are after the Sanscrit form

Kela or Kela phala, the fruit. It is significant to note that this

series and the one just previously discussed are in use only in

the lands once under Hindu colonization. Further, the investiga-

tions of Dr. Bartlett’ help to remove any possible doubts as to

whether the Malayan names could have influenced the Sanscritic.

He has concluded that the Niu-Niog series is the oldest, that the

Kerambil series came into use much later, and that the Kelapa

series is the most recent of all. The Sinhalese name Pol has

probably originated from the Sanscrit Phala which means a fruit,

as the coconut is described as the Purna phala which means the

perfect fruit. Niurali, the name used in ancient Sinhalese works,

also comes from Sanscrit. The commercial name copra by which

the dried kernel is known all over the world has likewise a

Sanscritic origin. Karpara in Sanscrit means a skull or cranium

and there is an etiological story extant in South India which says

that the Coconut was created in lieu of a head. Thus Karpara

has come to mean a coconut among the common people, from the

resemblance of the shell to the human skull. In Prakrit which is

the colloquial form of Sanscrit the 7 is always elided and hence

Karpara becomes Kappara. From Kappara has come the Mala-

yalam Koppara the a having changed to o, just as Sanscrit Ghata

became Kota in Malayalam. MKoppara has become Kopra or Copra,

and has gained a place in standard English dictionaries.

The Tamil name for the coconut is Tengu, Ten or Tennat. It

is mere speculation-to seek to explain the root meaning of these

words. Kai is the name for a fruit. According to the rules of

Tamil grammar Tengu-Kai becomes Ténkdi which is the name by

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY 2 Volk

which the fruit is known throughout the Tamil country. That the

Tamils knew the coconut earlier than any other section of people

in South India is evidenced by the fact that other languages

of South India have derived their names for it from Tamil. The

Malayalam Tengu and Teénga, the Telugu Tenkdya and _ the

Kanarese Tengu and Tengina Kdyi have all originated from Tamil.

The Sinhalese hame for a dry waterless coconut, Kotta pol, and

that for an immature fruit—Kurumba, must have come from the

Tamil Kotta Ténkai and Kurumai respectively. The Tamils were

an enterprising race who had attained maritime importance in

ancient ages and had crossed the seas to trade with distant islands

cf the Eastern Archipelago. Traces of their age-long civilization

are discernible in the islands they had conquered in the distant

past. Possibly they brought back several varieties of coconut to

South India.

From Marquesas Island to Madagascar the coconut is known

by one or more variants of the name, Niyw which has multiplied into

local forms like Nia, Nio, Niog, Nijol and a host of derivatives too

numerous to mention, testifying that the name has travelled with

the plant itself. Of these some like Noera, Njor, Noora, Noro,

Nor, extant in the Malay Archipelago, are of some _ interest.

Whether these latter names have any relation with the Sanscrit

Narikela is again a problem for the comparative philologist.

My impression is that the latter series are derivatives from the

Sanscrit Nari-kela. It is interesting to note that the name Nore,

which obviously belongs to the latter series, in the jargon of some

of the backward classes of the Malabar Coast means the fresh

kernel of a coconut. A list of all the recorded oriental names

for the coconut would run through several pages. Heyne? records

180 names from the Netherlands East Indies alone. It is apparent

that philologists have not so far paid any attention to the wealth

of material available and the value of contributions based on its

study should not be underrated.

The original home of the Coconut should be a region where

the nuts would freely germinate without watering, where its

cultivation would demand the least care, where the plant could

provide for itself, and where it would grow very prolifically as

is the case in Malaya, the Eastern Archipelago, or the islands of

the West and Central Pacific Ocean in the equatorial belt where

coconuts grow as densely as bristles in a brush. These are regions

of heavy and constant rainfall with a warm moist climate. That

it 1s a sea-side plant is evidenced by its high tolerance for saline

moisture, by its nuts being adapted to efficient dispersal by sea

and by the rare attribute of vivipary. The original form of the

Coconut must have been one with viviparous adaptations and the

inland form of today should be a retrograde from the original.

Coastal swamps which are the home of the mangroves provide a

habitat in which the Coconut cannot grow. <A sea-washed well-

drained coast with constant fresh moving water in the soil is genial

to the palm. A region of light wind is more conducive to its growth

than a region of violent winds. The area of equatorial calms

characterized by light and varied winds, heavy and constant rainfall,

THE VORTGINAL HOME OR STHE COCONUT 77

extreme humidity, equable climate,. and warmth without heat,

provides ideal conditions for the nurture and growth of the Coconut.

This then is the region where its place of origin should lie.

Cocos is an American genus; with the exception of the Coconut

there is no living representative of that genus anywhere except

in the Continent of America. This had led many a botanist into

presuming that America was the original home of the Coconut.

But the discovery of fossil Cocos® in the Pliocene deposits of North

Auckland in New Zealand proves that the genus Cocos in bye-gone

ages had a far wider distribution than it has today. The Spanish

traveller Oviedo* found a large grove of coconuts on the shores of

the Isthmus of Panama in 1515. Thus the Coconut was already

established on the west coast of Central America when Europeans

first landed there. Oviedo’s discovery lent support to the view that

the Coconut was evolved in America. But the west coast lands

of America are dry and it is not at all likely that a species with

so strong a predilection to a moist climate and heavy rainfall should

have originated in the dry zone of Central America in preference

to the moist eastern zone which is better suited to its growth.

Actually the Coconut was unknown on the east coast of America until

the Spaniards introduced it. This argument, however, involves a

supposition that the west coast and the isthmian region of Central

America always had a generally dry climate despite any climatic

pulsations through the distant past. The grove of coconuts seen by

Oviedo may have originated from nuts carried thither by Polynesian

immigrants. The soil there was a fine loam well drained by the

tides for a considerable distance without stagnating. There was

adequate rainfall and sufficient protection against violent winds.

Under such surroundings the Coconut could easily establish itself.

When we attempt to trace the home of any species the place of

its original discovery may mean nothing or very little. It is the

whole area of dispersal that counts. Peter Martyn,® who in the

year 1520 explored the East Indies, wrote that in the island of

Moluchas (Moluccas) he saw the Coconut (Coccus) growing ‘quite

accidentally’. His statement is of value in settling the issues.

Further, the fact that at the time of their discovery, when they

were uninhabited, the Cocos Keeling Islands of the Indian Ocean

were wooded with coconut trees, evidently started from ocean-borne

nuts, has also to be taken into account. There are yet other

islands of the Indian Ocean which stand as outposts of oceanic

flora to which the coconut has extended its range naturally and bear

testimonies of their own. That one fails to notice the use of the

coconut among the aborigines of Central America, when it forms

an integral part of the ceremonials, culture and technology of the

islanders of the Pacific and Indian Oceans and even more the lack

of native American names for the coconut are sufficient proofs that

it is not of American origin. And conceding for a moment that it

started from America one asks how it reached India millenniums

ago when it is an established fact that the American aborigines

had neither the incentive, nor the need, nor the skill to journey

beyond the vicinity of their native shores.

The Polynesian islands and the numerous small islands of the

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY: a0! Ge

Western Pacific are all either of coralline or volcanic formation and

as such represent geologically new lands. Hence the first plant

colonists of these islands should have reached thither by the agency

of air or water. The Coconut could not therefore have evolved

on those islands though most of them are admirably adapted for

its growth. Though established in other lands it is in Polynesia

that the Coconut has attained its highest development. It is here

that its many varieties were perfected as insular climates always

favour endemism. Storm-swept islands of small size should give

rise to several dwarf forms and Brown® enumerates over fifty

varieties of coconuts in Marquesas Island, where every variety is

known under a distinct native binomial. Incidentally it may be

mentioned that not more than two or three varieties are known

from America. The Polynesians must have known the Coconut

ever since their islands came to be inhabited and a _ coconut

civilization such as theirs should be as old as their race. With

them the Coconut has always occupied a high ceremonial status,

being worshipped as one of their Gods, the only other botanical

God, though occupying a lesser status being the Taro, Colocasia

antiquorum. The cult of the Coconut is so ingrained in the daily

life of the Polynesians that they like the Malays have definite

names for the nut pertaining to various stages of its growth.

According to Te Rangi Hiora,’ the Polynesian ethnologist, thirteen

names distinguish the stages of the coconut from the female flower

to* the dried Seed nut.

De Candolle® in 1883 expressed the view that the Coconut most

probably belongs to the Indian Archipelago; and his opinions have

seldom been challenged. O. F. Cook® accepting the infallibility of

the present classification of the genus Cocos put forth a strong

plea in favour of its American origin and among the adherents

to his theory were leading botanists. Beccari'’ cut the Gordian

knot by splitting the existing genus into several genera and

reducing Cocos, sensu stricto, to a monotypic genus with a single

species, Cocos nucifera, the Coconut. The writer of this paper

who has been eneaved on this preblem for several years could not

find a way out of the difficulty till the discovery of fossil Cocos

nuts from New Zealand was announced. Dr. Merril’* writing in

1937 says that the actual place of origin of this palm is somewhat

of a mystery although it is indubitably native to some part of the

Old World Tropics. Prof. Emilio Chiovenda'’? in an Italian publica-

tion has interpreted certain references in the works of Arabian

historians like Ibn Wahab, fide Abu Zaid, and Albiruni to indicate

that the original home of the Coconut is not far from India. He

says that it had its origin somewhere in the ‘lands now under the

sea which existed in the western parts of the Indian Ocean’. It is

not altogether safe to base conclusions on the works of historians

when we have to go back millenniums anterior to the dawn of any

history when the configuration of land and sea was altogether

different from what we see on a modern map. It is a happy state

of things when conclusions drawn from historical data are in

agreement with those based on biological grounds. However, all

are agreed that the home of the coconut is somewhere between

THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THE COCONUT 79

Zanzibar and New Caledonia. No one ever thinks that Africa was

its home. And all know that the Dutch East Indies, the islands

of the Western Pacific and British Malaya are the great centres

of coconut cultivation. |

The claim of Malaysia comes in next for consideration. The

geological history of this great equatorial group of islands, which

extends from Northern Sumatra to Eastern New Guinea, a distance

of about 4,000 miles, as discussed by Dr. Mollengraff, the eminent

Dutch geologist, has been accepted by biologists and adopted by

Dr. Merril'® in his paper on the phytogeography of this region.

According to these authors Malaysia is divided into two continental

areas and an intermediate insular group the several islands of

which are surrounded by deep straits and seas. The continental

areas are the Asiatic bank—which includes the Malay Peninsula,

Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo and the Palawan-Calamian group of

the Philippines and the Australian bank which includes the ancient

continent of Papua. These areas are the two great centres of

origin and dispersal of plant and animal life. The intermediate and

unstable area between the continental banks consisting of the

Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas, Gilolo, Celebes and all the

Philippines except the Palawan-Calamian group, has been subject

to great upheavals and depression from the earliest times. Its

flora and fauna are made up partly of infiltrations from the two

continental areas and partly of relic species and their descendants.

Judging from its geologic history the Coconut could not have

evolved in this intermediate area. The flora and fauna of the

Asiatic bank is Asiatic or Malay-Asiatic in character. The Coconut

having no affinities with the Asiatic genera of palms could not have

evolved in the Asiatic bank.

The ancient Papuan land includes the island continent of New

Guinea as we know it today and parts of it that have since

been submerged. Biological evidence goes to prove that there

were older lands connected with New Guinea that are now

entirely submerged. It is submitted on grounds heretofore covered

that the home of the Coconut should lie here. The nature of the

sea shelf on the north-west of New Guinea in the region now

occupied by the Geelvink Bay, of the area just to the north of it,

and the level of the adjoining shore tell us that in past ages, this

huge land mass extended farther in this direction than the present

day map indicates. Alfred Wegener'* and others are of opinion

that the climate of the whole of Malaysia, at any rate, of the

regions of low altitude, has been constant through ages. As

shown by the modern map the northern fringe of the submerged

platform referred to lies in the equatorial belt and before it was

deluged by the ocean possibly was the cradle of the Coconut.

Our present knowledge of the New Guinean flora is scanty. A

greater part of its mountainous interior which rises to a height of

16,000 ft. has not been trodden by civilized man. A little known

pygmy race inhabits its inaccessible recesses. Exploration of its

flora has just begun and until we know what it contains we cannot

draw conclusions. But from what we know of its floristics we

understand that its affinities are with the Australian-New Zealand-

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XL

New Caledonian cycle. And we know that fossil Cocos has been

discovered in New Zealand. When palzobotanical explorations

are taken up in New Guinea we may expect to find _ fossil

species of Cocos with closer affinities to the Coconut than its

living or extinct congeners in Tropical America or New Zealand.

The claim of New Caledonia, if any, is set aside on climatic

grounds as it lies far too remotely from the equator, near to the

tropic of Capricorn.

The Papuans of New Guinea take pride in calling themselves

the coconut people and hate the non-Papuans of their island who,

they say, are not of the coconut people. A very fantastic 4egend*®

is current among them regarding the origin of the Coconut.

Incidentally it also throws light on the abominable practice of

head huntine which according to these savages is an act of

religious merit. Even before the creation of Man their God killed

another God, Somoali by name, who later became the god of the

bushmen and the nomads. He placed the head of his victim on the

bank of the river Wamaga. After sleeping six nights he returned

to see the head of his enemy and found leaves sprouting from

it. He then planted the sprouting head in the earth and from it

grew the first coconut. The mortal feud between the two gods—if

the two can go by that name—has been continued by their respective

followers. The Papuans who are orang laut—people of the sea—

take the heads of bushmen—who are orang hutan—people of the

forest—and who are followers of Somoali to please their god.

Mythical as this story is, it tells us in the words of the aborigines

that the Coconut was created in the land of the Papuans and that

its creation is prior to that of Man.

It would appear that the Coconut having evolved on the sub-

merged land to the north-west of New Guinea move eastwards and

westwards as drift nuts over calm tropical waters, and spread

from islet to islet. This mode of accidental transportation, however,

could not have successfully carried the species through long stretches

of seas. Weaver and Clement'® basing their remarks on a paper

of O. F. Cook have indicated that the seed nuts lose their viability

after some days due to salt water infiltration. This handicap has

been largely overcome by the agency of man—the amphibious

Polynesians and the wandering Malays. The migratoriness of the

Polynesian seafarers must have been the main cause of the wide

distribution of the palm over the islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Either as a result of subsidence of their island homes for which

evidence is not lacking, or pressure of population in their inelastic

confines which tends to drive oceanic islanders to seek new lands,

or as vanquished parties in the frequent wars which were a main

feature of Polynesian life, these islanders had attempted distant

colonization and had overrun parts of Melanesia in early ages.

They developed singular navigational skill and nature’s bounty in

their quest for a new home in the unknown eastern waters, had

given them timber and fibre to build huge crafts. A party of these

adventurous mariners, remarkable for their powers of endurance

and having their native methods of assuaging hunger and thirst in

long voyages were probably the pioneers that first planted the Coconut

THE ORIGINAL HOME OF. THE COCONUT 181

in the New World. The consensus of opinion among eminent

authorities on the problem cf the Pacific basin today is that contact

between the Old World and the New across the Pacific Ocean did

not begin till about the close of the fifteenth century though there

is probability of some accidental contact earlier than that period.

Competent ethnologists including the late Baron Nordenskioid

concede the possibility of Polynesian mariners having reached the

shores of America within comparatively recent times—recent in an

anthropological sense which according to Diamond Jenness’’ is still

pre-Columbian. I. H. Burkill'® cogently points out the improbability

of the arrival of the coconut in America much earlier than its

discovery since it had not then spread even to the opposite coast

of such a narrow isthmus as Panama. The Malays were active

sea-farers who had spread to the Eastern Archipelago in the distant

past and traces of their emigration are seen throughout Polynesia.

They, as well as the once maritime Tamils, together with the

ancient mariners of the Bengal coast, have been responsible probably

for a much wider distribution of the Coconut into the lands of the

Indian Ocean and in this spread ocean currents and the monsoon

drifts have undoubtedly played their part. The natural dispersal

of the Coconut from the lands of the West Pacific to the islands

of the Indian Ocean was rendered easy as there is a strong flow

of water from the former to the latter ocean during the North-East

monsoon. Of course man has carried the plant all over. But

everything seems to point out to some island of the West Pacific

as its original home and this as far as we can see is possibly the

land now under the waves but which once formed part of the

ancient Papua.

So old is the Coconut in India that the Arabs from early times

upto now called it the Indian Nut. John of Monte Corvino and

Marco Polo, both of the thirteenth century, both named it so.

Cosmas in the sixth century described it under its Sanscrit name.

To the orthodox Hindu it is the Kalpaka vriksha or Tree of Heaven

and hardly will he agree when told that it is an alien species

come to this land ages ago. The explanation of its vast antiquity

is as simple as it is natural. It started from the shores of the

ancient Papuan land. The strong eastward current during the

North-East monsoon carried it through the Straits of Malacca into.

the Bay of Bengal and primitive man brought it over to the shores

of India in pre-historic ages.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Bartlett, H. H.—‘Papers Michigan Acad. Sc.’, 6: 16-17 (1927).

2. Heyne, K.—‘De Nuttige Planten Van Nederlandsch Indie’, ed. 2, 1:

398-399 (1927).

3. Hill, A. W.—‘Nature’, p. 151 (July, 1929).

4. Ridley, H. N.—‘Distribution of Plants throughout the World’ (1930).

5. Hakluyt, Voyages.—V. p. 381. Quoted by Dr. Ridley.

6. Brown, F. H. B. ‘Flora of Southern Polynesia’. Bull. Honolulu Mus.

(1931).

7. Rangi Hiora, Te.—‘Ethnology of Manihiki’. Bull. Honolulu Mus. (1932).

8. De Candolle, A.—Origine des plantes cultivées (Paris, 1883); Eng. trans.

Origin of Cultivated Plants (New York, 1885).

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST {SOCIETY Vole xe

g. Cook, O. F.—The Origin. and Distribution of Cocoa Palm’. Conir.

U.S. “Not. Herbs, 73: pp. 257-295, (1001):

10. Beccari,; O.—'The Origin and Dispersal of Cocos nucifera’. Philip. Jour.

S¢.; 12% pp. 27-42 «("017),

11. Merril, E..D.—Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,

Vol. 733, Now (937).

12. Chiovenda, E.—*Webbia’, 5: pp. 447-448-449 (1923).

3. Merril, E. D. Dr.—‘Essays in Geobotany in honour st William Albert

Setchell’, pp. 247-261 (1936).

14. Wegener, A.—‘'The Origin of Continents and Oceans’ (1924).

1s. Hides, J. G.—Papuan Wonderland’ (1937).

16. Weaver and Clement.—‘ Plant Ecology’ (1929).

. ‘Proceedings of the Fifth Pacific Science Congress’, Vol. <1 -“(1933))

18. Burkill, I. H.—‘A Dictionary of Economic Products of Malay Peninsula’

(1935):

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

HIMALAYAN TURTLE DOVE (Streptopelia orientalis meena).

Wurjwan, 8300 feet, 3rd July 1937

ROSE-FINCHES AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE

WARDWAN VALLEY.

Vajor RR. oF Py BATES.

(With 6 plates).

‘To anyone interested in bird study I can thoroughly recommend

a trip through the upper Wardwan Valley in the Kashmir province

ef Kishtwar. Last year, feeling it to be high time to try my

luck with birds breeding at the higher elevations, I took two

months’ leave from June 15th, but in view of our experiences,

set forth in the following account, I would advise an earlier start,

say June ist at the latest.

We chose Achhabal as our base, motoring direct from Jammu

over the Banihal and meeting servants and kit there on the after-

noon of June 18th. On the 22nd we took the Kishtwar trail but

on coming over the first gali into sight of the Sinton Pass we

bore off to the left, finally camping at Gurdraman ‘in the park-

like Upper Naubug Valley, an easy but definitely hot march. After

a day’s halt we pushed on, meaning to camp at 10,000 ft. for

a week on a marg called Naokan where I hoped to get my eye

in in preparation for the birds of the Wardwan.

The least said about that camp the better. We hunted for a

patch of clean level ground for an hour and a half. Eventually

we had to pitch the tent at a fearsome angle which entailed a

restless night, being prevented from rolling out of bed only by

the judiciously stacked store boxes. Shortly before dark the wind

veered into the West immediately filling the air with the horrid

stench of putrefying flesh; a dead cow was found forty yards

distant in the midst of a patch of viburnum. Seven of the coolies

with the aid of a rope soon trundled the carcase down the steep

hillside, leaving it where we hoped it would do its worst on the

Gujars and Bakribans whose flocks had befouled the only level

spots.

It would have been a good place for birds, but we left it the

next morning with no regrets. A noisy pair of Variegated

Laughing Thrushes in the viburnum bushes saw us off and in a

small patch of juniper I found a Hedge-Sparrow’s nest with one

fresh egg in it. It was an interesting and to begin with a

thoroughly enjoyable march but take heed and put not your faith

in the half-inch map. It was constructed by a humourist who put

a little note in the margin “Inshan 6 miles’. And so it may be,

as the crow flies, but at the end of the day we reckoned we had

tramped little short of 20 miles, exclusive of playing about for a

couple of hours on the summit of the Margan Pass.

A two thousand foot climb up a fairly steep boulder-strewn

slope had brought us to a heavenly two mile stretch of almost

level marshy ground. The meadows were covered with blue and

184. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

white anemones, buttercups and a blue corydalis. Round the

marshes bright yellow trollius and rose primulas were much in

evidence. Straight ahead a fine series of snowy peaks proclaimed

Nun Kun, while on our right a further two thousand feet of steep

slope was stippled in shaded stretches of vast extent with the tiny

cream flowers of the dwarf Rhododendron anthopogon. Marmots

shrilled from every patch of rocks making the dogs quite wild with

excitement, while for me there were birds in plenty. I disturbed a

flock of feeding Rose-Finches. It was to cope with Rose-Finches

in particular that I had chosen the Wardwan.

It was 6 p.m. before we got down to the river after tramping

round bare shadeless spurs for six or eight miles at an elevation

of never less than 11,000 ft. before coming to the abrupt drop

through the forest to Inshan. The only. redeeming feature was

that we came on a primula new to us, the charming white Primula

involucrata which grew in little clusters in damp spots between.

the spurs.

On reaching the Wardwan river we hailed with joy the news

that upstream was the last forest hut in the valley. Wearily we

dragged ourselves the extra mile and a half and took possession,

thankful to get out of pitching the tents.

At this point, and in fact for most of its length, the Upper

Wardwan is a comparatively open wide vale. Villages are spaced

at increasing intervals as far as Suknes. Up to there the stony

soil is tilled with but fair success, rice being imported in exchange

for home-spun blankets to supplement the insufficient crops. Above

the point we had reached, to work the dwindling forests is no

longer an economical proposition, but I confess that did not

depress me; it is a grand country for birds.

In the mornings the pine wood sheltering the F.R.H. was filled

with their voices. In front of the hut was a ‘kuth’ nursery, the

ripening heads of which attracted many Goldfinches. Kashmir

Sooty Flycatchers were exceedingly common: I marked down four

nests within a hundred yards radius. Two pairs of Blue-headed

Rock-Thrushes lived near by but the young ones had just left

their nests, one of which I found—of pine needles as usual—

tucked into the buttress roots of a tall tree. We were also visited

by those mysterious Red-browed Finches but if they had nests,

as usual they were not giving away their positions. Meadow

Buntings were common both within and without the forest. One

pair actually had a family of large young ones, fifteen feet from

the ground in a thick fir tree. In the fields a few pairs of Larks

were often singing, but Greenfinches were the most numerous

birds in the open lands.

By the side of a stream I obtained some good photos of a White-

capped Redstart, whose nest we found on June 27th with large

young ones in it. I was also most successful with a Himalayan

Turtle Dove which had built a scanty nest of roots only a foot

from the ground on some brushwood at the foot of a sappling in

a small spinney. The light seemed hopeless in such a_ sheltered

position but the bird sat still enough for .time exposures.

The most interesting birds of all however were by the river.

JourN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Th.

Photo: —— os | R. S. P. Bates

KASHMIR SOOTY FLYCATCHER (Hemichelidon sibirica gulmerg?).

Wurjwan, 8300 feet, 1st July, 1937.

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S:NOSOGOH AO SHHAWOAN HOUT AHAHM AAATA NVMCUV MA HLIM HWVTION NAWSVE AO NOLLONOA SL LV V.L14Sd

‘TI ALW Id "90G “LSUJ “LYN AVaINog ‘-Nunof

ROSE-FINCHES AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE WARDWAN VALLEY 185

Around Inshan and for a few miles upstream there are many bush-

covered islands with stony margins. Some were easily accessible

and of considerable size. Grey and Hodgson’s Pied Wagtails and

Sandpipers galore were naturally the commonest denizens here, but

it was not long before I realized that the strange I[bisbill was by

no means rare. For some days I watched four pairs of these

curious birds but eventually I was reluctantly forced to the con-

clusion that their nidification was over for the year, in spite of

the fact that they used to fly backwards and forwards crying

peevishly whenever we invaded their particular haunts.

On one occasion, on July goth, while searching one of. the

largest islands, | came upon a Japanese Wryneck feeding young

ones in a crevice near the top of a thirty foot tree. Stepping

back into the cover of some bushes in order to watch it unobserved,

I almost fell over a down-covered young Himalayan Brown Wood

Owl. It could only fly a tew yards at a time so must have been

reared on the island. While photographing it, one of the parents

arrived using the most obnoxious language.

On June 26th I thought I was at last to be permitted to photo-

@raph.a Monal Pheasant at the nest but returning to erect the

hiding tent not half an hour after Guffara, the Shikari, had

discovered it, we found the eggs gone. A search resulted in the

recovery of a piece of wet shell beneath a stump 4o yards distant.

A thieving Jungle Crow was probably responsible for the disaster.

There had been only three eggs in it, but we found the stained

remnants of two others in a leaf-filled hollow 1o ft. below the nest

-which was on a steep forest-clad hillside between two close-growing

pine trees where undergrowth was conspicuous by its absence.

The day after arriving at Wurjwan I noticed a Buzzard circling

above our wood, and a couple of days later picked up half an

egg-shell a hundred yards behind the hut. I was not therefore

particularly surprised to come across a fledgeling on June 3oth

sitting not fifteen feet up on a dead branch just as I was turning

into the wood. It was quite unafraid and I doubt if it had been

twenty-four hours out of the nest. Next day I shot it, its death

being unfortunately necessary in order to determine the breeding

race of the North-West Himalayas. That problem is now solved

satisfactorily but to fathom what name this race should bear is

evidently a harder task.

The only other bird I photographed with fair success at Wurjwan

was a Skylark. On alarm it was amazingly quick in its movements

and although I pressed the release when its bill was inside a

young one’s gape, the photograph shows the head up and the wings

commencing to open.

On July 11th we moved to Basmen about eight miles further

up the valley at approximately the same elevation, 8,500 ft. Within

an hour of starting we passed through the most charming glade

just short of Tsuidraman village. It looked the most. delightful

of camping spots and I was sorely tempted to curtail the march.

We reached Basmen early, so while setting the camp in order

and while my wife was ministering to the needs of the halt and

the maimed and the pathetic little ill gujar babies brought in by

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

their trusting parents, I sent the shikari out to prospect. He

returned with the most amazing news. He had found a nest of

the Simla Streaked Laughing-lhrush with three eggs in it and

seven other nests, all, he said, containing blue eggs with black

spots on them. Had we come up with the Rose-Finches at this

low elevation? We certainly had. Within the next couple of days

we must have found a score of nests of this, Hodgson’s Rose-

Finch, which was excessively common breeding in bushes of various

kinds from about 2} to 7 feet from the ground. Most of them

were pretty well concealed but I saw two quite exposed in willows

and one on the outer edge of a wild rose-bush. The eggs were

incubated; I was quite unable to find fresh ones. All these birds

must have finished laying about the last week in June. Some of

them contained only three eggs, the majority four. I managed

to obtain one photograph with both parents at the nest. The male

seemed bent on feeding his three newly-hatched chicks on

regurgitated seeds but the female swallowed all his offerings,

thereafter proceeding to bring them up. as required for the next

half hour when more fully digested.

The reason for this concentration of Rose-Finches is evident

from the photograph taken as we were leaving Basmen. Here a

side river of considerable importance flows into the Wardwan,

and as the valley at this point is comparatively wide and flat,

it has formed a considerable delta. Every channel is bordered by

willows, the islands and strips of land between being at times

densely clothed with bushes of many kinds. Nowhere else either

up or down the valley did I see any spot like it. However, |

Rose-Finches were by no means uncommon from here upwards

breeding mostly in tall weeds and bracken. Amongst the bushes in

the Basmen delta was a delightful small-leafed rose-bush bearing

deep yellow single blooms. A double white cottage rose was also

not uncommon.

At Basmen we had pitched the tent amongst some boulders

a little way up the side nullah to get away from the village.

Alas we were intruders on the preserve of a pigmy hare—a quaint

reddish-fronted little chap the size of a guinea pig. Nothing

daunted by our intrusion he used to waggle his whiskers at us

from the top of a rock close to the tent door. I was actually able

to take tour photographs of him, the last at only 34 feet. Twice

in spite of the dogs I tound him nibbling grass inside the bathroom

pertion of our canvas home.

On July 17th we moved up a thousand feet to Suknes, the

very last hamlet in the valley. The headman wished us to camp

on a hilltop overlooking his village, but fortunately we made for

the opposite side of the river, the left bank, where there were

still a few woods and hopes of an uncontaminated water supply.

We crossed the tumultuous river by a rickety wooden bridge of

the usual type and explored some barren fields along the edge of

a steep wood commencing in clumps of deciduous trees—a charm-

ing piece of country. Finding only one rather muddy trickle of

water we moved up half a mile over a long spur and found our-

selves in a charming little side valley which did not begin its ,

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV.

Photo: R. S P. Bates

HODGSON’S ROSE-FINCHES (Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus).

Basmen, 8500 feet, 16th July, 1937.

‘A ALV 1d

‘90G “LSIF[ “LYN AvaWog *‘Nunof

ROSE-FINCHES AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE WARDWAN VALLEY 187

abrupt upward sweep for a thousand yards from the main river.

A narrow tongue of forest ended close to a series of springs, so

here in the shade of the last trees we pitched our camp.

Somehow the character of this part lying at 9,300 ft. above

sea-level struck me as being different from other Kashmir valleys

I have explored. The herbage was rank—there is no other word

‘for it. Patches of a tall fleshy weed bearing large flowering heads

packed both slopes and level spaces between the sketchy fields.

In places these weeds must have been six feet high. The steeper

slopes were clothed in bracken. Before we could pitch camp we

had to slash away deep grass and weeds through which glorious

flowers were pushing their way—Canterbury Bells, tall Monkshoods,

deep blue Delphiniums. Stately Mallows and Himalayan Scabious

were just coming into flower, and within a few feet of the back of

the tent where the deeper forest shade commenced Polyphyllum

lilies were almost profuse. One such plant I found with a dozen

blooms upon it and as many buds, growing on a stem nearly six

feet high. This I photographed in colour. |

Other evidence of a danker climate was to be found in the

particularly hefty mosquitoes which in the evenings necessitated a

lavish use of citronella. Fortunately they seemed to be active only

round about dusk. We could therefore put up with them but

loathsome earwigs were an absolute pest. Every night I used

to brush dozens of them off the top of the tent immediately over

our beds and it became almost impossible to cope with them in

the store boxes. From Suknes we were never free from these vile

insects until we left Kishtwar behind us. There seems no doubt

that the Wardwan enjoys a definite monsoon period. Throughout

almost every morning of July we could see the heavy clouds piling

up from the South and creeping in between the curve of the Pir

Panjal range and the massive slopes to the North-East.

I have dwelt particularly on the character of this part of the

valley as it was here that I made a discovery of some importance.

On July 23rd returning from the river towards camp along the

spur with weed patches on either flank, I noticed a little bird

singing lustily from the top of the tallest weed in view. I could

hardly believe my eyes. It was undoubtedly a Reed-Warbler. A

careful search revealed a nest twenty yards down the hillside with

the female sitting on two-eggs, one of which was definitely

abnormal, being very small. The nest had a heavy list as it was

built round the main stem of the weed with no further support

of any kind. I put the hide up immediately and got a fine series

of negatives with very little trouble, after which I proceeded to

shoot the female off the nest to make certain of identification. <A

quotation from my diary sums up the position. ‘From the excellent

vocal efforts of the male I first thought it might be dumetorum

but the wing formula does not agree at all. Is it a concinens

after all and is there still a mix-up over these races?’ It was a

concinens and what is more the same bird as the one which breeds

so profusely in all the swamps of the main vale of Kashmir. I

gather this discovery has confirmed Mr. Hugh Whistler’s suspicions

that the Kashmir bird which he separated a few years ago as

188 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

hokraue is in reality Acrocephalus concinens harringtoni, the race

found breeding on open hillsides of the North-West Frontier.

Subsequently I found that most of the larger weed patches were

each occupied by a pair of these Reed-Warblers. They must breed

here mainly during June and July, commencing as soon as _ the

weeds are sufficiently tall as I was able to find only one more nest

still occupied. This had three large but almost naked young ones

in it on July 25th. Unlike the first one this nest was a typical

Reed-Warbler’s in construction; a deep grass cup, one side twined

firmly round the main stem of a weed 18 inches from the ground

with two smaller stems supporting it at other points of the rim.

It was near the edge of a patch growing on level ground between

two of the stony fields.

I really had a very successful time at Suknes as I also obtained

good photographs of a Jerdon’s Hedge-Sparrow and a Hodgson’s

Shortwing at their respective nests. Unfortunately the light was

particularly bright on both occasions causing very strong contrasts.

As ill luck would have it, just as the negatives were due to come

out of the developer I spilt the whole of the fixing solution. By

the time I had prepared a fresh supply they were of course over-

developed. As I was developing for as soft a negative as possible

under the circumstances, this was indeed a mild disaster.

A pair of Hodgson’s Rose-Finches were building on our arrival

in a little perrottia bush 15 feet behind the servants’ tents. We

quite expected them to desert but.they had three eggs before we

moved on. I also found two nests of this species in thick bracken

both with 4 well-incubated eggs in them.

We had intended moving up to the foot of the Bhotkol glacier,

where I hoped to find Redstarts and Rubythroats breeding and with

any luck White-browed Rose-Finches whose nesting habits remain a

mystery. But the weather had deteriorated so much that we hung

on at Suknes longer than intended. Time was getting short and no

signs of a break in these monsoon conditions appeared imminent.

We therefore reluctantly decided to make straight for Rangmarg,

cross the Gulol Gali (14,500 ft.) on the first good day and drop into

the East Lidar where conditions might be less inimical to bird

photography. I knew from previous experience that around Zojpal

there are Redstarts, Rubythroats and Tickell’s Willow-Warblers in

plenty. We fixed on July 27th to push our camp a few miles up

the river to Wanhoi preparatory to crossing the ridges to Rangmarg.

Wanhoi consists of a small stony space just large enough to hold

a camp. Just beyond the river forks. The East branch rises

steeply to a wide scored-out valley lying at about 11,500 ft. left

by the retreat of the glacier’s snout. This is the head of the

Wardwan and the road to Suru. The West or rather North-West

branch flows from the Sain Nullah through abrupt cliffs, consequently

one has to climb a few thousand feet over the obstruction to get

into this sequestered little vale.

Our luck was out. Every time we moved we got soaked to the

skin. It started to rain soon after leaving Suknes and kept it up

until after we had pitched camp near the snow-bridge which is now

the sole means of crossing to the Suru path. The bridge which

JourRN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI.

Photo: 7 | R. S. P. Bates

WITHERBY’S PADDY-FIELD WARBLER (Acrocephalus concinens harington?).

.Suknes, 9100 feet, 24th July 1937.

ROSE-FINCHES AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE WARDWAN VALLEY 189

B. B. Osmaston writes of building during his return from Suru

(vide Journal vol. xxxi, p. 194) has since been swept away and no

one has been enterprising enough to rebuild it.

Next morning we started to climb immediately to circumvent

the junction cliffs. Nearing the top of a ridge a cruising Eagle

put up a Monal Pheasant which went whistling close over my head.

It was followed shortly by a couple of chicks.

We had hoped for fine views of the glaciers around Nun Kun,

but down came the clouds and we were soon almost lost in wreathing

mists and driving rain. Lush grass and fields of dripping flowers,

columbines, Jacob’s ladders, asters, brushing against. us whenever

we left the ill-defined path soaked us to the thighs, while cold

blasts of wind and rain helped to add to our sorry plight. Descend-

ing greasy shale slopes under these conditions was most unpleasant.

A dozen times I saw visions of finding myself at the bottom in

record time but minus the seat of my pants. However, after cross-

ing two unpleasantly swollen streams, where one of the dogs, after

first nearly pulling me into an uncomfortably turbulent pool,

dislodged a stone from the steep bank which caught me a resounding

crack on the knee-cap, we arrived at the flat space called Rang-

marg just as the rain ceased.

We put our tents on a narrow fold near the Gulol stream where

there were tufts of large gentians of two kinds growing within

twenty yards of one another, the pale blue wide-mouthed Moorcroft’s

Gentian on the Southern face and the taller narrow Gentiana

decumbens where the trend of the ground was to the North.

But for a few patches of birch the Sain Nullah is devoid of

trees. Even the juniper is represented only by a few straggling

patches. This state of affairs I suspect to be due to the depreda-

tions of the large flocks of goats. The bottom of the valley

however provides good pasturage for some Gujars’ buffaloes.

Here I saw a number of Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtails,

but during the one day we spent there it became obvious that

{t was unlikely to find the Rubythroats and Rose-Finches nesting

Ener.

Our day of rest was brilliantly fine, so of course we decided

to do the stiff 4,500 ft. climb to the Gulol Gali the very next

morning. At dawn patches of blue sky showed through occasional

rifts in a thick mist. We soon lapped up the first thousand feet

and crossed the slope of broken rocks flowing down between the

steep cliffs we had seen from below. Here I saw a Wall-Creeper

feeding a large young one seated on a ledge. After that birds

Were conspicuous by their absence except for a few Yellow-billed

Choughs and a flight of Snow-Pigeons. But the Gulol Gali is a

disappointing pass. It consists largely of unstable disintegrating

Shale slopes where few plants can ever get a hold, and with

nothing about it to attract birds, particularly in such weather as

we encountered.

Just as we got safely over the stone shoot, which must be

_ rather dangerous in wet weather, the blackest clouds I have ever

seen rolled up from the Junction and from across the valley. They

met soon afterwards, resulting in the rest of that toilsome ascent

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCKET Y alaciie 2c

beiny carried out in a series of heavy downpours and with all the

hoped-for distant views blotted out.

The narrowest of cols which forms the summit was reached at

midday. It was most curious to crouch down in an almost dry

still pocket with swirling mist and rain driving almost vertically

upwards from the further side blown in furious gusts of wind from

the East Lidar valley. We pulled down our earflaps, put down

our heads, and charged over the ridge down the further slope until

we had dropped four or five hundred feet and found the shelter of

a large boulder. We reached Zojpal three hours later just as the

rain at last stopped, and were settled into camp in time to watch

one of the most heavenly sunsets I have ever seen. Our adventures

in the Wardwan were over.

——

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A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO SOME OF THE

COMMON FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE HYDERABAD

STATE; THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC

IMPORTANCE.

DICOPTYV ILE DONS

M. SAYEEDUD-DIN.

(With a map),

INTRODUCTION.

The present paper places on record some of the dicotyledonous

plants: collected and identified by the author since the publication of

his last paper! on dicotyledons. In order to widen the scope of

this paper some of the commonly cultivated plants are also listed.

Its scope is further widened by the inclusion of material from

several representative districts—representative in the sense of their

floristic characteristics—of H.E.H. The Nizam’s Dominions.

The two large distinct divisions of this extensive land, viz.,

the Marathwari and the Telangana are not only distinct as regards

their geology but are also markedly different in their floristic

composition. Out of the places visited for the collections for this

paper Aurangabad District is typical of the Marathwari side, and

Warangal District typical of the Telangana side. Plants from the

following places are listed in this paper—Ajanta, Phoolmari, Doulata-

bad, Khuldabad (Aurangabad District); Nizamabad District; Mulug,

Pakhal (Warangal District); Vikarabad, and the suburbs of the

Hyderabad City.

A few words must be said regarding the topography and

ecology of some of the important localities, if the reader is to get

a general idea of the floristic composition with reference to the

different habitats. In the vicinity of the Hyderabad city, Adigmet

presents an interesting flora, and is therefore worthy of a little

consideration. It is an open country full of characteristic

boulders, and the highest place, 1,725 feet above sea level is

occupied by the Osmania University. The soil is gravelly with

sheets of big rocks underneath at several places. Naturally the

soil. does not retain water for any considerable length of time, and .

the plants show marked xerophytic characters. The following

communities are readily distinguished: the Turf-community, con-

sisting of small herbs which are found in a marked association on

—_————_.

' The Paper published in J.A.S.B., vol. i, p. 9 (1935), is ‘Dicotyledons—Part 1’

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOGIBEY, Volo xe

untrodden portions of lawns and grassy places; the Sand-binders,

which are in abundance and serve to bind the sand; the so-called

Mat-plants which spread out like a mat without much binding the

sand. Then there are the cosmopolitan weeds and shrubs. Trees

are scarce. The majority of the trees found round about Adigmet

are those planted for shade. The natural growths are perhaps only

the Acacias, Ficus and a few other plants belonging to different

families. In summer the ground lies bare except for a few hardy

herbs and grasses. A great damage is being done to the natural

vegetation by the grazing of ‘cattle. The effect of grazing on the

vegetation of Adigmet will form the subject of a subsequent paper.

So far about Adigmet.

As I have to a great extent already dealt with the Warangal

District on the Telangana side in my last paper, I shall now briefly

describe the topography and ecology of the Aurangabad District

on the Marathwari side. Aurangabad les north-west of Hyderabad.

Travelling along the Marathwari side towards Aurangabad one

comes across with very poor tree-vegetation, except for the several

species of Acacia along vast expanse of cultivated land and for

distantly scattered patches of forests. The soil is typical black-cotton

soil and apart from cotton many useful crops already detailed in

the last paper are grown. The chief Hill Range—the Sahyadri

Parvat—running along the north, from Nirmal in Indur District in

the east, reaches Ajanta after passing Parbhani. Hundred miles of

its length are styled as the Ajanta Hills. It is here that thick

vegetation is met with, and some of our collections were made

along this region. The flora of the river-beds in this part of the

country is very interesting. Further collections were made along

the country between Doulatabad and Ellora. The vegetation of the

valleys near the Ellora caves presents a marked contrast to the

vegetation met with in scrub jungle. The forest on this side seems

to be a Rain-forest and a transitional form between rain and

monsoon-forest in contrast to the mixed deciduous forest and Rain-

forest on the Telangana side. Apart from these the typical thorn-

forest consisting of the dominant members of the Leguminosz

family, and the open forests are also readily distinguishable.

The families have been arranged in accordance with the classi-

fication adopted by Bentham and Hooker in Genera Plantarum.

Altogether 255 species belonging to 70 families have been recorded.

Apart from the economic uses mentioned the plants of medicinal

importance have been marked as such, and their medicinal properties

may be referred to in the literature cited and to any further

literature existing on the subject. Regarding the botanical names

of plants the most common and well-known names are given,

although in some cases synonyms have also been given especially

when different names are used for the same plant in standard

works, thus making the work of reference comparatively easier.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I am indebted to my assistants Messrs. M. A. Waheed and

Sri Ram Loo, and particularly to Mr. M. Abdus Salam who has

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 193

been of great help to me in my tours for the collection of the

material. My thanks are due to Mr. Mayuranathan of the Madras

Museum who has kindly confirmed some of the doubtful species

after comparing them with the type-specimens. I am very much

thankful to Dr. B. Sahni for his suggestions and appreciation of

the work on the flora of Hyderabad. 1 cannot adequately express

my thankfulness to Sir Arthur Hill and Prof. F. E. Fritsch for

their encouragement.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT.

I. RANUNCULACE.-E.

1. Clematis GourianaRoxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 4.

(Indian Travellers’ Joy).

Vernacular name.—Morvel (Mar.).

Habitat.—Western Himalayas to Ceylon, extending to Java and the Philip-

pines; throughout the Bombay Presidency both in the Konkan and Deccan. I

have not so far found it wild in Hyderabad, but it is successfully cultivated in

gardens.’

Uses.—Leaves are medicinal.

Il. DILLENIACEA.

2. Dillenia indica Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 36.

Vernacular name.—Chalta (Hind.); Karmbel (Mar.); Walinga (Tel.).

Habitat.—Himalayas, from Nepal to Assam; Behar and Ceylon. Cultivated

as an ornamental tree.

Uses.—Bark, leaves and fruits are medicinal.

Ill. MAGNOLIACE/.

3. Magnolia grandiflora.

Habitat.—Cultivated. Flowers in April.

IV. MENISPERMACE.

4. Cocculus macrocarpus W. & A., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Pt. I, p. 20

Habitat.—Wild on the Anantgiri Hill, Vikarabad.

V. BERBERIDACE/Z.

5. Nandina domestica Thunb., Willis’s Flow. Plts. and Ferns, p. 443.

Habitat.—Native of China and Japan. Cultivated.

VI. NYMPHASACEA,

6. Nymphea stellata Willd., H.F.B.I., i, p. 114.

Vernacular name.—Nilkamal (Hind.).

Habitat.—Common in ponds and tanks. The collection was made towards

Kamareddy side. Flowers in October.

There are two varieties :—

(a) parviflora H.F. & T.—flowers small, blue.

(b) versicolor H.F. & T.—flowers large, white, blue, purple or flesh-

coloured.

Uses.—Roots and seeds are edible, especially in famines. Rootstock and

flower¢ are medicinal.

7. Nelumbium speciosum Willd., H.F.B.J., i, p. 116.

Vernacular names.—Nilofar, Kanwal.

Habitat.--Common throughout India. Extensively cultivated for its magni-

ficent flowers.

* This plant has since been collected from the Telangana forests.

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XL

U'ses.—Filaments, seeds, leaves and roots are medicinal. Underground stems

are eaten. The flowers are considered sacred and are worshipped by. the Hindus.

VII. FUMARIACEA.

8. Fumaria parviflora Lamk., H.F.B.I., i, p. 128.

Vernaculay names.—Pitpapada (Hind.); Tura (Tam.); Chatarashi (Gels):

Habitat.—A common weed on cultivated ground.

Uses.—Except the root entire plant is used in medicine.

VIII. CAPPARIDACEE.

9g. Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC., H.F.B.I., i, p. 171.

Vernacular names.—Hulhul, Hurhur (Hind.); Mambli (Mar.); Vela-kura

(Tele)

Habitat.—A common weed in waste places.

Uses.—Seeds, leaves and roots are medicinal.

10. Capparis spinosa Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 173.

Vernacular name.—Kabra (Hind.).

Habitat.—A_ prostrate shrub often seen in dry places.

Uses.—Root and root-bark are medicinal.

IX. VIOLACEA#.

11. Viola odorata Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 184.

(Sweet Violet).

Habitat.—Kashmir etc. Cultivated for its flowers.

12. Viola tricoler Linn.

(Pansy).

Habitat.—Cultivated for its handsome flowers.

Xx, - BIXACEA!.

13. Cochlospermum Gossypium DC., H.F.B.I., i, p. 199.

Syn.—Bombax gossypium Linn.

Vernacular names.—kumbi, ganiar, gangal (Hind.); Gungu, gondugogu (Tel);

Kalir-gond, Kathalya gonda (Mar.).

Habitat.—May be it is wild, but I have not found it so far. It is cultivated.

Uses.—A kind of silk cotton obtained from the seeds is of economic

importance. Gum, leaves and flowers are medicinal.

14. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’Hérit., H.F.B.I., i, p. 193.

Vernacular names.—Bilangra, Katti (Hind.) ; Kangregu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Wild in many parts of India, also in the Hyderabad forests.

Cultivated.

15. Hydnocarpus Wightiana Blume., H.F.B.1., i, p. 196.

Vernacular names.—Nowti (Hind.); Niradivittulu (for seeds Tel.).

Habitat.—The Konkans and Kanara chiefly on hill ranges near the coast.

Cultivated for its medicinal importance.

Uses.—The oil from the seeds is medicinal.

16. Oncoba spinosa.

Habitat.—Cultivated.

XI. POLYGALACEA:.

17. Polygala chinensis Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 204.

Vernacular names.—Miragu (Hind.); Negli (Mar.).

Habitat.—A very common weed at Adigmet and elsewhere.

Uses.—The- root is . medicinal.

XII. TAMARICACE/,

18. Tamarix articulata Vahl., H.F.B.I., i, p. 249.

Vernaculay names.—Faras, Sarru, (Hind.); Farwa,’ Marlet (Pb.).

FLOWERING PLANTS OF. HYDERABAD. STATE 195

Habitat.—Common in river beds on the Marathwari side, viz., in the river

bed at Phoolinari in Aurangabad.

Uses.—The bark and galls are used in medicine.

<I. -GULTIFERA,

19. Calophyllum inophyllum Linn., H.F.B.1., i, p. 273.

(Alexandrian Laurel.).

Vernacular names.—Sultana Champa, Surpan (Hind.); Surangi, Undi,

nagchampa (Mar.); Ponna-chettu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Concan and Orissa, Ceylon, etc. Cultivated for its flowers.

Uses.—Bark and seeds medicinal.

XIV. TERNSTROEMIACE.

20. Camellia japonica Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 292.

Habitat.—A cultivated plant.

XV. MALVACEAL,

21. Sida acuta Burm., H.F.B.I., i, p. 323.

Syn.—Sida carpinifolia Linn.

Vernacular names.—Kareta (Hind.); Jangli-methi (Bomb.) ; Vishaboddee (Tel.).

Habitat.—Extremely common.

Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal.

22. Hibiscus Abelmoschus Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 342.

Vernacular names.—Hab-ul-mishk (Arab.); Lata-kasturika (Sans.); Mushk-

dana (Hind.); Kattuk-kasturi (Tam.); Karpura-benda (Tel.); Nasturi-bhenda

(Mar.).

Habitat.—It was found in a field at Mulug. I am unable to say whether

it is really wild or is an escape from cultivation.

Uses.—Root, leaves and seeds are medicinal.

XVI. STERCULIACEAE.

23. Sterculia fetida DC., H.F.B.I., i, p. 354.

Vernacular names.—Jangli-badam, Chinee-badam (Hind.); Pinari (Tam.) ;

Gurapu-badam (Tel.).

Habitat.—Often planted. Flowers: March-May.

Uses.—The seeds are eaten. Leaves, seeds and capsules are medicinal.

24. Sterculia urens Roxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 355.

Vernacular names.—Gulu, Kulu (Hind.); Pandruka, Karai (Bomb.); Kavalee

talbsu (Tel.); Vellay putali (Tam.).

Habitat.—Common in most of the Hyderabad forests.

25. Heritiera littoralis Dryand., H.F.B.I., i, p. 363.

Vernacular name.—Sundrit.

Habitat.—Fruits were collected from the Mulug forest.

26. Helicteres Isora Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 365. ;

Vernaculay names.—Marorphali, Marosi (Hind.); Murad Shing (Mar.); Known,

Kewan (Bomb.); Valum-birikai (Tam.); Gubadarra (Tel.).

Habitat.—Wild in many of the forests.

Uses.—A strong fibre is extracted from the bark. Bark, root, and fruits are

medicinal.

27. Kleinhovia Hospita Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 364.

Habitat.—A cultivated tree—Botanic Garden, Osmania University and else-

where. Flowers: Aug.-Sept.

28. Pterospermum acerifolium Willd... H.F.B.J., i, p. 368.

Vernacular names.—Kaniar, Kanak-champa (Hind.); Matsu Kanda (Tel.).

Habitat.—Doubtfully indigenous. Often planted in gardens.

Uses.—Leaves, bark and flowers are medicinal,

The following are also cultivated :—

29. Dombeya angulata.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XL

30. Guazuma tomentosa Kunth., H.F.B.I., i, p. 375.

(Bastard Cedar).

Vernacular names.—Nipal tunth (Beng.); Rudrakshi (Bomb.) ; Tain-puchli-

pattar (Tam.); Udrik-patta (Tel.).

Uses.—It yields a good fibre suitable for rope-making. Bark is medicinal.

VTE See Ae Aa

31. Grewia hirsuta Lamk., H.F.B.I., i, p. 391.

Habitat.—Wild. Collection was made from a_ forest near Kamareddy.

Flowers: Aug.-Sept. Fruits in Oct.

32. Corchorus acutangulus Lamk., H.F.B.I., i, p. 308.

Habitat.—A common herb round about Adigmet and elsewhere. Flowers in

September.

33- Eleccarpus Ganitrus Roxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 400.

Habitat.—Often planted in gardens. (Botanic Garden, Osmania University.)

AVITI LINACEAs.

34. Erythroxylum Coca Lamk., Willis’s Dict. Flowering Plants and Ferns.,

D253:

Habitat.— Cultivated.

'lses—Cocaine is obtained from leaves.

XIX. RUTACEAE.

35. Murraya Kcenigii Spreng., H.F.B.I., i, p. 503. :

Vernacular names.—Harri, Katnim, Karripak (Hind.); Naru-veppilai (Tam.) ;

Kari-vepa-chettu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Probably wild, but generally cultivated for its leaves.

Uses.—The leaves are used to flavour curries. Bark, root and leaves are

medicinal.

XX. SIMARUBACE.

36. Balanites Roxburghii Planch., H.F.B.I., i, p. 522.

Vernacular names.—Hingan, hingota (Hind.); Nanjunda (Tam.); Gavi (Tel.).

Habitat-—Common in the Mulug forest.

U'ses.—The seeds, bark, leaves and fruit are medicinal.

XXI. -OCHNACE.

37. Ochna squarrosa Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 523.

Vernacular name.—lKanak-champa.

Habitat.—Throughout tropical Asia and Africa. Planted in gardens for its

flowers.

XXII. BURSERACEA.

38. Filiceum decipiens Thwaites., H.F.B.I., i, p. 539..

(Fern-leaved tree.) ‘

Habitat.—Western Ghats, Ceylon etc. It is often cultivated for its foliage.

XX. “MELIACEAE

39. Chloroxylon swietenia DC., H.F.B.1., i, p. 569.

(The Indian Satin wood.)

Vernacular names.—Dhoura, Girya, (Hind.); Halda, Billu (Bomb.); Halda,

Bheria (Mar.); Billu-chettu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in many forest reserves.

Uses.—Bark and leaves are medicinal. Wood is of an excellent quality and

is used in making furniture.

40. Soymida febrifuga A. Juss., H.F.B.I., i, p. 567.

Vernacular names.—Rohan (Hind).; Ruhin (Mar.).

Habitat.—Wild in forests on the Telangana side,

Uses.—Bark is medicinal.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 197

41. Cedrella Toona Roxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 568.

(The Toon or Indian Mahogany tree.)

Vernacular names.—Tun, Mahanim (Hind.); Nandi-chettu (Tel.); Deodart,

Kuruk (Mar.).

Habitat.—Common in ravines. Flowers in January.

Uses.—The wood is used for furniture. Flowers yield a dye. Bark is

medicinal.

XXIV. OLACACEA:.

42. Olax scandens Roxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 575.

Vernacular names.—Dheniani (Hind.); Harduli (Mar.).

Habitat.—A common forest tree on the Telangana side.

Uses.—Bark is said to be medicinal.

43. Cansjera Rheedii Gymel., H.F.B.I., i, p. 582.

Habitat.—Also a forest tree.

XXV. RHAMNACE.

44. Ventilago calyculataTulasne, H.F.B.I., i, p. 631.

Syn.—Ventilago madraspatana Roxb.

Vernacular names.—Rat ohant (Hind.); Sakal yel (Mar.); Zerra chiotali

(el.).

Habitat.—The material was collected from a valley near the Ellora caves

(Aurangabad District).

Uses.—The bark and shoots are medicinal.

45. Zizyphus CEnoplia Miil., H.F.B.I., i, p. 634.

Vernacular names.—Jangli ber, Jhar beri (Deccan); Burgi (Bomb.).

Habitat.—Wild throughout the dominions in scrub-jungle.

46. Zizyphus xylopyrus Willd., H.F.B.J., i, p. 634.

Vernacular names.—Locally the name Jangli ber is used indiscriminately for

all the wild species of Zizyphus; Guti (Bomb.).

Habitat.—Common in many dry places.

XXVI. AMPELIDACEA.,

(Vitaceae).

47. Vitis quadrangularis Wall, H.F.B.I., i, p. 645.

Syn.—Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

Vernacular names.—Harshankar, WKandawel, Kharbutt (Hind.); Pirandal

(Tam.); Nulle rotigeh (Tel.).

Habtiat.—Very common.

Uses.—Young stems are eaten in curries. Stem and leaves are medicinal.

48. Vitis pallida W. & A., H.F.BI., i, p. 647.

Habitat.—Rather rare.

49. Vitis lanata Roxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 651.

Syn.—Cissus vitiginea Roxb.

Habitat.—Wild.

50. Leea aspera Wall., H.F.B.I., i, p. 665.

Habitat.—Wild in the Ghats at Khuldabad (Aurangabad District).

XXVII. SAPINDACEA:.

51. Cardiospermum Halicacabum Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 670.

(Heart-pea or Balloon-vine).

Vernacular names.—Lata phatkari, noaphutki, kapalphodi, khibjal (Bomb.) ;

Muda-cottan (Tam.); Kanakaia, budha-kakara (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in hedges and_ fields.

Uses.—Roots, leaves and seeds are used in medicine.

52. Nephelium Litchi Camb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 687.

Vernacular names.—Litchi, Lichi.

Habitat.—A native of S. China, occasionally cultivated in Hyderabad. (It

is growing in the Botanic Garden, Osmania University.)

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Uses.—The leaves are said to be used in China as a remedy for the bites

of animals.

XXVITI. LEGUMINOSAE.

53: Crotalaria ramosissima Roxb., H.F.B.1., ii, p. 80.

Habitat.—The material was collected from a field in Mulug.

54. Desmodium pulchellum Benth., H.F.B.I., ii, p.162.

Habitat.—Very common in forests, viz., near Kamareddy towards Nizam

Sagar.

55- Clitoria Ternatea Linn., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 208.

Vernacular names.—Asphota (Sans.); Kalizer, Visnukranti (Hind.); Gokaran

(Bomb.); Kakkanam-kodi (Tam.); Dintana, tella-dintana (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in hedges and _ fields.

Uses.—The root, leaves and seeds are medicinal.

56. Pterocarpus Marsupium Roxb., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 239.

Vernaculay names.—Bija (Hind.); Bibla, asan (Bomb.); Vengai (Tam.);

Peddagi (Tel.).

Habitat.—Fruits were collected from the Mulug forest.

Uses.—Gum and bark are medicinal.

57. Cesalpinia coriaria Willd., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres. Pt. iii, p. 413.

(The American Sumach.)

Habitat.—Native of S. America which is often cultivated.

58. Peltophorum ferrugineum Benth., H.F.B.J., ii, p. 257.

Habitat.—A cultivated road-side tree.

59. Cassia grandis Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Pt. III, p. 426.

Habitat.—Commonly planted.

60. Cassia nodosa Ham., H.F.B.1., ii, p. 286.

Habitat.—Also a cultivated species.

61. Xylia dolabriformis Benth., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 286.

Syn.—Inga xylocarpa DC.

Vernacular names.—Jambhai, Yerul.

Habitat.—Wild in the forests on the Telangana side.

Uses.—The wood which is hard and durable is useful for making poles and

rafters.

62. Adenanthera pavonina Linn., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 287.

Vernacular names.—Ronta-chandan, ranjan (Hind.); Thorla-gunj (Bomb.) ;

Manjadi (Tam.); Bandi-gurvina (Tel.).

Uses.—Leaves and seeds are medicinal.

Habitat.—Often planted.

63. Dicrostachys cinerea W. & A., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 288.

Syn.—Mimosa cinerea Linn.

Vernacular names.—Vurtuli (Hind.); Segumkati (Mar.); Yeltu, Veturu (Tel.);

Vadatalla (Tam).

Habitat.—Wild in many of the Hyderabad forests.

Uses.—Young shoots are said to be medicinal.

XXIX. ROSACEA:

The following are cultivated :—

64. Eriobotrya japonica Lindl., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 372.

(Loquat.)

65. Pyrus communis Linn., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 374.

(Pear.)

66. Pyrus malus Linn., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 373.

(Apple.)

67. Prunus anygdaius Baill., H.F.BJ., ii, p. 313.

(Almond.)

68. Prunus persica Benth., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 313.

(Peach.)

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 199

XXX. CRASSULACEAE.

The following are cultivated :—

69. Kalanchoe spathulata DC., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 414.

Vernacular names.—Tatara, Haiza-ka-patta (Hind.).

Uses.—Leaves are medicinal.

70. Kalanchoe laciniata DC., H.F.BI., ii, p. 415.

Vernacular names.—Tukhmhyat, Parna-bij (Bomb.); Mala-kullie (Tam.).

Uses.—Leaves are medicinal.

XXXT. COMBRETACEA:.

71. Terminalia Chebula Retz., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 446.

Vernacular names.—Harara (Hind.); Wadukai-maram (Tam.); Karakaia

(@el:):

Habitat.—Very common in the forests on the Telangana side.

Uses.—Fruits are medicinal.

72. Anogeissus latifolia Wall., H.l.B.1., ii, p. 450.

Vernacular names.—Dhaoya (Hind.); Dhavada, Dabria (Bomb.); Vallai-naga

(Tam.).

Habitat.—Very common in dry forests.

Uses.—The wood is strong and may be utilised in making several useful

articles. A useful gum is also obtained.

XXXI]TI.- MYRTACEAS.

The following are cultivated :—

73. Eugenia Michelii Lamk., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres. Pt. UI, p. 495.

(Brazil Cherry.)

Habitat.—Native of South America.

74. Callistemon rigidus (bottle-brush).

75. Callistemon lilacinus.

76. Callistemon lanceolatus.

77. Eucalyptus citriodora.

(Lemon-scented Eucalyptus).

XXXITI. MELASTOMACE.

78. Memecylcen edule Roxb., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 563.

Vernacular names.—Limba (Mar.); Alli chettu (Tel.); Cashamarum (Tam.).

Habitat.—Eastern Peninsula and Ceylon, very common at Mahabaleshwar.

Cultivated as an ornamental tree.

Uses.—The leaves and root are medicinal.

79. Dalenia speciosa.

Habitat.—Also cultivated.

XXXIV. ONAGRACEH.

80. Jussiea repens Linn., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 587.

Habitat.—Common on the margins of tanks and in rice-fields.

81. Trapa bispinosa Roxb., H.F.B.1., ii, p. 590.

Syn.—Trapa quadrispinosa Wall.

(Water chestnut).

Vernacular names.—Singhara (Hind.); Parigadda (Tel.); Shingada (Mar.);

Shingara (Tam.).

Habitat.—Commonly cultivated in tanks.

Uses.—~Fruit is eaten. It is also medicinal.

RXKV eS CUCURBITACEAE.

82. Mukia scabrella Arn., H.F.B.I., ii, p. 623.

Syn.—Melothria maderaspatana Cogn.

200 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Vernaculay names.—Bilari, Gwala-kakri (Hind.); Musu-musuk-kai (Tam.) ;

Kutaru-budama (Tel.).

Habitat.—Conimon in hedges and fields. Flowers in July.

Uses.—Root, leaves and seeds are medicinal.

XXXVI. (CACTACE AS.

The following are cultivated :—

83. Trichocereus candicans § Gill.

84. Echinopsis aurea Rose.

85. Echinocereus sp.

86. Echinocactus multifforus Hook.

87. Arocarpus retusus Scheidw.

88. Epiphylilum sp.

(Phyllocactus.)

XXXVII. ARALIACEA.,

89. Hedera Helix Linn., H.F.BJ., ii, p. 739.

(The Ivy.)

Vernacular names.—Dudela (Nepal); Lablab (Behar).

Habitat.—Throughout the Himalayas. Cultivated and thrives well.

Uses.—Leaves and fruits are medicinal.

XXXVIII. CORNACEAS.

go. Alangium Lamarckii Thwaites, H.F.B.I., ii, p. 741.

Vernaculay names.—Akola, thaila ankul (Hind.) ; Akar-kanta (Beng.) ; Alangi,

Azhinji (Tam.).

Habitat.—Very common in the forest at Mulug.

Uses.—Root, root-bark and fruits are medicinal.

XXXIX. CAPRIFOLIACEA..

gi. Lonicera Periclymenum Linn, JWillis’s Dict, Flowering Plants and Ferns.

(Honey-suckle or woodbine.)

Habitat.—Cultivated.

XL. RUBIACE.

92. Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall., H.F.B.J., iii, p. 36.

Vernacular names.—Bhaulan (Hind.); Kalakurwah, Bhorsal (Bomb.) ;

Chetippa, Bandara (Tel.); Bhoursal (Mar.); Sagapu (Tam.).

Habitat.—I mentioned in J.A.S.B., Sc., I, p.1, 1935 that this tree was

recorded by Paztridge. Now I have to remark that I have found it very

common in the Telangana forests.

Uses.—Bark is medicinal. Wood is durable and _ close-grained, and _ is

employed in making agricultural implements.

93- Wendlandia exserta DC., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 66.

Habitat.—It is found in some of the dry forests, but it is not so common

as the preceding plant.

94. Oldenlandia umbellata Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 66.

Vernacular names.—Chirval (Hind.); Cherivells, Chiruveru (Tel.); Imbural

(Tam.).

Habitat.—Extremely common in the vicinity of the Osmania University.

Prefers rather hard and dry soil.

Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal.

95. Morinda citrifolia Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 155.

Vernacular names.—Al (Hind.); Al, Bartondi (Bomb.); Molagha, Maddichettu

(Tel.); Noona-maram (Tam.).

Habitat.—It is pretty common, but I am unable to say whether or not it is

really wild.

Uses.—The roots furnish a valuable red dye. They are also medicinal.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE D018

go. Hydroflax maritima Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 199.

Habitat.—Extremely common at Adigmet. It may be classed as a sand-

binder.

97. Spermacoce hispida Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 200.

Syn.—Borreria hispida K. Sch.

Vernacular names.—Madana ghanti (Hind. and Tel.) ; Nuttee-choorie (Tam.).

Habitat.—Same as that of the preceding species.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

g8. Mussenda frondosa Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 89.

Vernacular names.—Asari (Nepal); Sarvas, Bhuta-kesa (Bomb.); Shivardole

(Mar.); Vellaellay (Tam.).

Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal.

99. Nauclea cadamba_ Linn.

100. Hamelia patens Jacquin.

101. Cinchona Catlisaya Wedd.

102. Cinchona Ledgeriana Moens.

103. Cinchona officinalis Linn.

XLI. COMPOSITE.

104. Grangea maderaspatana Poir, H.I.B.J., iii, p.247.

Syn.—Artemisia maderaspatana Roxb.

Vernaculay names.—Mustary (Hind.); Afsanteen (Arab.); Baranjasif kowhi

(Pers.); Namuti (Beng.); Mashi pattiri (Tam.); Savi (Tel.).

Habitat.—A very common ‘mat plant’, spreading flat like a spider’s web.

Uses.—Leaves are medicinal.

105. Cesulia axillaris Roxb., H.F.B.1., iii, p. 291.

Habitat.—A common herb.

106.. Vicoa auriculata Cass., H.F.B.1., iti, p. 297.

Syn.—Vicoa indica DC.

Habiiat.—A common herb found in dry situations.

107. Pulicaria Wightiana Clarke, H.I'.B.1., iii, p. 298.

Syn.—Callistephus Wightianus DC.

Habitat.—Very common round about Adigmet and at other places.

108. Xanthium strumarium Linn., H.f.B.J., iii, p. 303.

Vernacular names.—Chota-gokhru (Hind.); Bun-okra (Beng.); Shan-keshvara,

Dhupa (Bomb.); Marlumulta (Tam.); Veritel-nep (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in the compounds of houses.

Uses.—The whole plant is said to be medicinal.

109. Eclipta alba Hassk., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 304.

Syn.—Eclipta erecta Linn.

Vernacular names.—Kesaraja (Sans.); Maka, Bhangra (Bomb.); Naitkeshi

(Tam.); Goontagelinjeroo (Tel.).

Habitat.—Fretty common all over.

Uses.—Leaves and juice are described as medicinal.

110. Glossocardia linearifolia, H..B.1., iii, p. 308.

Vernacular names.—Parapalavum (Tel.); Pitpapda, Phattarsuva (Bomb.).

Habitat.—Very common.

Uses.—The plant is described as medicinal.

111. Emilia sonchifolia DC., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 336.

Vernacular name.—Sadhi-mandi (Bomb.).

Habitat.—A common herb all over.

Uses.—Medicinal.

112. Echinops echinatus DC., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 358.

Vernacular names.—Utali (Sans.); Utkatara (Hind.).

Habitat.—Abundant throughout.

Uses.—Medicinal.

202 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

113. Carthamus tinctorius Linn., H.F.B.I., ili, p. 386.

(The Safflower.)

Vernacular names.—Narar, Kusum (Hind.); Kusumbha (Sans.); Kardai,

kurdi (Mar.); Sendurgam, Kushumbavittu-lu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Cultivated.

U’ses.—The oil from the seeds is used in Hyderabad to adulterate sesamum-oil.

Seeds, oil and flowers are medicinal.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

114. Spilanthes Acmella Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 307.

Habitat.—Although found throughout India I have not met with in a wild

state so far.

Uses.—The flower-heads when chewed have a hot burning taste and cause

profuse salivation. Medicinal.

115. Aster Amellus Linn.

(The Michaelmas Daisy.)

116. Caliistephus hortensis Cass.

(German or Chinese Aster.)

117. Zinnia elegans Jacq.

118. Helianthus annus Linn.

(The common Sun-flower).

119. Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt.

120. Dahlia variabilis Desf.

121. Cosmos bipinnatus Cav.

122. Tagetes erecta Linn.

123. Gaillardia aristata Pursh.

124. Calendula officinalis Linn.

(The common Marigold).

125. Polymnia grandis.

126. Lactuca Scariola Linn.

(The garden lettuce).

127. Artemisia argentea Buch.

XLIL, “ERICACEZ:.

The following are cultivated :—

128. Rhododendron arbtoreum Sm., H.F.B.1., 11, p. 465.

Uses.—Medicinal.

129. Rhododendron Aucklandii.

XLIIT. PLUMBAGINACE/E. :

130. Plumbago zeylanica Linn., H.F.B.J., iii, p. 480. — ate

Vernacular names.—Agni-shikha, Chitraka (Sans.); Chitra (Hind.) ; Shitaray

(Arab.); Shitaruk (Pers.); Chitu (Beng.); Tella-chitra (Tel.); Venchittira (Tam.);

Chitrak (Bomb.).

Habitat.—Wild.

Uses.—Root is considered medicinal.

131. Plumbago capensis Thunb., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Pt. Il, 1, p. 78.

Habitat.—Cultivated for its profuse blue flowers.

XLIV. EBENACE:.

132. Maba buxifolia Pers., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 560.

Habitat.—Wild in the Mulug forest.

133. Diospyros Chloroxylon Roxb., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 560.

Habitat.—A common forest tree.

134. Diospyros tomentosa Roxb., H.F.B.J., iil, p. 564.

Habitat.—Same as that of the preceding species.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 303

135. Diospyros kaki Linn., H.F.B.I., iii, p.555.

Habitat.—Khasia Mountains. Cultivated.

XEV. OLEACE As.

136. Jasminum Roxburghianum Wall, H.F.B.1., iii, p. 595.

(Perhaps a variety of Jasminum arborescens Roxb.)

Vernacaulay name.—Jangli Chambeli (Local).

Habitat.—Common in scrub jungle and forests.

137. Syringa vulgaris Linn.

(The Lilac).

Habitat.—Cultivated.

XLVI. APOCYNACEA:,

138. Vinca pusilla Murr., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 640.

Syn.—Lochnera pusilla K. Sch.

Habitat—A common weed in the beginning of the rainy season.

139. Vallaris Heynei Spreng., H.F.B.I., iii, p. 650.

Syn.—Echites dichotoma Roxb.

Vernacular names.—Ramsar (Hind.); pala malle tivva (Tel.); Bhadravalli

(Sans.).

Habitat.—Although found in abundance in many parts of Hyderabad I doubt

if it is really wild here.

Uses.—The milky juice is medicinal.

140. Tabernemontana coronaria Br., H.F.B.J., iii, p. 646.

Vernacular names.—Tagara (Sans.); Chandni, Taggar (Hind.); Nandi-vardana

(Tel.).

Habitat.—Not indigenous, but very commonly cultivated for its white and

fragrant flowers.

The following are occasionally grown in gardens :—

141. Roupellia grata Wall, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., UH, 1, p. 143.

A climber with pale rose-coloured flowers.

142. Strophanthus Wallichii A. DC., Cooke, Fl. Bomb. Pres., I, 1, p. 143.

A climber with red and white flowers.

XLVIl., ASCLEPIADACE As.

143. Sarcostemma brevistigma. W. & A., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 26.

Syn.—Asclepias acida Roxb.

Vernaculay names.—Somalata (Hind.); Soma (Bomb.); Tigatshumoodoo (Tel) ;

Ran sher (Mar.).

Habitat.—A wild xerophytic plant common round about Adigmet.

Uses.—Water passed through a bundle of this plant and a bag of salt

seems to extirpate white ants from a field watered by it (Kirtikar).

144. Dregea volubilis Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 46.

Syn.—Asclepias volubilis Linn. ;

Vernacular names.—Nak-chhikni (Hind.); Tita-kunga (Beng.); Ambri (Mar.) ;

Kodie-palay (Tam.); Dudi-palla (Tel).

Habitat.—A wild climber in most forests on the Telangana side.

Uses.—Roots, leaves and tender stalks are medicinal.

145. Leptadenia reticulata W. & A., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 63.

Habitat.—A common twiner with greenish-yellow flowers.

146. Ceropegia juncea Roxb., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 68.

Vernacular name.—Kanvel (Mar.).

Habitat.—Very common. The specimens were obtained from Amir Pet.

The following are cultivated :—

(Both are growing in the Botanic Garden, Osmania University.)

147. Pergularia minor Andr., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 38.

Syn.—Pergularia, odoratissima W.

Flowers in April.

148. Stephanotis floribunda Brongn, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., ii, 1, p. 180.

4 exe

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

XLVI. LOGANIACEA.,

149. Buddleia asiatica Lour., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 82.

Habitat.—Although very common throughout India it is not found wild in

Hyderabad, but is commonly grown in gardens.

XLIX. GENTIANACEAE.

150. Enicostema littorale Blume, H.F.B.I., iv, p. 101.

Vernacular names.—Chola kirayata (Hind. & Bomb.); MKadavinayi (Mar.);

Vellurugu (Tam.); Nela-gulamidi (Tel.).

Habitat.—Very common in morum soil and dry places at Adigmet and

elsewhere.

Uses.— Medicinal.

151. Limnanthemum cristatum Grieseb, H.F.B.I., iv, p. 131.

Habitat.—Extremely common in ponds and canals. Flowers in April.

152. Limnanthemum indicum Thwaites, H.F.B.J., iv, p. 131.

Habitat.—It is not so common as the preceding species.

L. POLEMONIACE.

The following is commonly cultivated :—

153- Phlox Drummondii.

LI. BORAGINACEZE.

154. Heliotropium paniculatum R. Br., H.F.B.I. iv, p. 151.

Habitat.—Very common at Adigmet, growing in patches. Flowers: April.

155- Heliotropium indicum Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 152.

Syn.—Tiaridium indicum Lehm.

Vernacular name.—Bhurunadti.

Habitat.—A common weed in waste places.—Flowers—Oct.-Dec.

156. Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 148.

Habitat.—Same as that of the preceding species.

The following are cultivated :—

157. Cordia Sebestina Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Il, 1, p. 202.

158. Heliotropium peruvianum Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., UW, 1, p. 213.

159. Borago officinale.

Lil. -CONVOLVULACEZAS,

160. Ipomoea Quamoclit Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 199. .

Vernacular Names.—Vishnukrant (Mar. ); : Kamlata (Hind.); Ganesh-vel, Sita

che kesh (Bomb.).

Habitat.—Native of tropical America, commonly grown in gardens throughout

India.

Uses.—Leaves are said to be medicinal.

161. Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn., H.F.B.J., iv, p. 204.

Habitat.—Common in_ hedges.

Uses.—Medicinal.

162. Ipomeea aquatica Forsk., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 210.

Vernacular names.—Kalambi (Sans.); Nari, Nali (Pb.); Nalichibhaji (Bomb.) ;

Koilangu (Tam.); Tuti-kura (Tel.).

Habitat.—Wild, growing in shallow ponds and marshy ground.

Uses.—The juice is described as medicinal.

163. Ipomea biloba Forsk., H.F.B.J., iv, p. 212.

Syn.—Convolvulus Pes-caprae Linn.

Vernacular names.—Dopti-lata (Hind.); Marjadvel (Bomb.); Balabandi tige

(Lelia).

Habitat. sandy or morum soil.

Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 205

164. Porana paniculata Roxb., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 222.

Habitat.—It is wild in many parts of India, and is commonly grown in

Hyderabad, and is also found as an escape.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

165. Jacquemontia caerulea Choisy, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I,

p. 236.

Habitat.—Native of South America.

166. Ipomoea Leari Purt., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 251.

Habitat.—Native of tropical America, a favourite ornament of verandahs.

The large blue flowers become reddish on fading.

LIV. SOLANACE.

167. Solanumindicum Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 234.

Vernacular names.—Barhanta (Hind.); Mulli (Tam.); Kuk-machi (Tel.);

Dorli, Ringani (Bomb.).

Habitat.—A common _ undershrub.

Uses.—The root and leaves are medicinal.

168. Physalis minima Linn., H.F.B.1., iv, p. 238.

Vernacular names.—Kupanti (Tel.); Chirbott, Ran-popati (Bomb.).

Habitat.—A common weed in fields and hedges.

Uses.—Medicinal.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

169. Solanum macrophyllum Hort., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I,

Pp, 269.

Habitat.—Native of Mexico with large leaves and showy blue flowers which

turn white on fading.

170. Physalis peruyiana Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. Il, Pt. II,

p. 270.

(Cape Goose-berry).

Habitat.—Native of Tropical America.

171. Cyphomandra betacea Sendt., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. U1, Pt. II,

Pp. 275:

Cooke menticns on the authority of Woodrow that it has been unable to

resist the south-west monsoon in the Deccan, but in the Botanic Garden,

Osmania University, it seems to have adapted itself.

172. Cestrum nocturnum.

Flowers greenish-yellow, very fragrant.

173. Petunia nyctaginiflora Juss., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II,

p. 276.

174. Petunia violacea Lindl., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 276.

Both are natives of the Argentine. Several varieties are grown in gardens.

ElV>. SCROPHULARIACEZS,

175. Herpestis Monniera H. B. & K., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 272.

Syn.—Moniera cuneifolia Michaux.

Vernacular names.—Brahmi, jal-nim (Hind.); Beami nirpirimie (Tam.)

Sembrani-chettu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in damp places, particularly on untrodden portions of

lawns. Flowers—Feb.-April.

Uses.—Root, stalks and leaves are medicinal.

176. Vandellia crustacea Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 270.

' Habitat.—Quite common. Flowers in August.

177. Striga orobanchioides Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 299.

Habitat—A common root-parasite. It was found on Lepidagathis cristata.

dries black. Flowers—October-November.

178. Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 302.

Vernacular name.—Dudhali (Bomb.).

Habitat.—Very common in cultivated fields, Flowers at the close of the

rains—A ugust-October.

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Uses.—The juice of the plant is said to be medicinal.

The following are cultivated :—

179. Russelia junceaZucc., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II. Pt. II, p. 310.

A Mexican plant grown in gardens for its handsome showy scarlet flowers.

LV. GESNERIACEA.,

The following are grown in gardens :—

180. Achimines hirsuta DC., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 325.

A native of Brazil. Several varieties are grown.

Gloxinia maculata L’Herit, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I, p. 325.

LVI. BIGNONIACEA,

181. Dolichandrone falcata Seem., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 382.

Vernacular names.—Mersinge (Bomb.); Mersingi (Mar.); Kodatathie (Tam.) ;

Udda, Wodi (Tel.).

Habitat.—Rather rare.

Uses.—Fruit and bark are said to be medicinal.

182. Stereospermum chelonoides DC.,H.F.B.1I., iv, p. 382.

Vernacular names.—Padri, Parral (Hind.); Dharmar (Beng.); Padal (Bomb.) ;

Kirsel, padhri (Mar.); Padri, Appu (Tam.); Moka-yapa, Pisul (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in moist forests.

Uses.—Roots, leaves and flowers are medicinal.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

183. Tecoma undulata D. Don., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 378.

Syn.—Tecomella undulata Seem.

184. Tecomaria capensis Spach., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. Il, Pt. II,

P. 335:

Syn.—Tecoma capensis Lindl.

185. Parmentiera cereifera Seem., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. HI,

Ds 330.

(Candle tree of Panama).

186. Jacaranda mimoszolia D. Don.

LVII. PEDALIACEZ:,

187. Sesamum laciniatum Klein., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 387.

Habitat.—It was in abundance at Adigmet in 1935, but owing to grazing

and clearance of weeds it has not been seen last season, that is, at the close of

rains about September. It has dark purple flowers.

LVIIT. ACANTHACEZAS.

188. Ruellia prostrata Lamk., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 411.

Habitat.—A common weed. Flowers after the rains.

Uses.—Leaves are medicinal.

189. Blepharis molluginifolia Pers., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 479.

Habitat.—Wild. The material was collected from a field in Mulug.

190. Barleria Prionitis Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 482.

Vernacular names.—Karuntaka (Sans.); Katsareya (Hind.); Korhanti,

Vijradanti (Bomb.); Piwala koranta (Mar.); Varamulti (Tam.); Muli-goranta

(Tel.):

Habitat.—Common throughout the Dominions, also often planted as a hedge.

Flowers, October-January.

Uses.—Medicinal.

19t. Barleria cristata Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 488.

Vernacular names.—Jhinti (Sans.); Thanti, Sada-jati; Gokran (Bomb.);

Bansa siyah (Pb.).

Habitat.—A common plant with purple-blue or white flowers.

Uses.—Root, leaves and seeds are said to be medicinal.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 207

192. Andrographis echinoides Nees., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 505.

Habitat.—Wild, very common in the vicinity of Adigmet and elsewhere.

Uses.—Medicinal.

193. Adhatoda vasica Nees., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 540.

Syn.—Justicia Adhatoda Linn.

Vernacular names.—Arusak, Vasa etc. (Sans.); Arusha (Hind.); Bakas,

vasaka (Beng.); Bansa (Pers.); Adhadode (Tam.); Adasara (Tel.).

Habitat.—A common hedge plant about villages near Aurangabad and

elsewhere.

Uses.

medicinal.

A yellow dye is obtained from the leaves. The leaves and root are

194. Rungia repens Nees., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 548.

Syn.—Justicia repens Linn.

Vernacular names.—Kodaga saleh (Tam.); Ghatipitpada (Bomb.).

Habitat.—An extremely common weed. Flowers, October-January.

Uses.—Medicinal.

195. Justicia diffusa Willd.. H.F.B.1., iv, p. 538.

Syn.—Rostellularia diffusa Nees.

Habitat.—As common as the preceding species.

The following are garden favourites :—

196. Meyenia erecta Benth., Cooke. Fl Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 343.

Syn.—Thunbergia erecta T. Anders.

197. Eranthemum bicolor Schrank, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II,

p. 390. he

(Several varieties are grown.)

198. Graptophyllum hortense Nees.. Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I,

p. 416.

Uses.—Leaves are medicinal.

199. Crossandra undulefolia Salisb., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 492.

200. Sanchezia nobilis Hook, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. I, Pt. II, p. 416.

LIX. VERBENACE.

201. Lippia nodiflora Rich., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 563.

Vernacular names.—Vashira (Sans.); Bhin-okra (Hind.); Ratolia (Bomb.) ;

Podutabi (Tam.); Bokenaku (Tel.).

Habitat.—Very common on untrodden portions of lawns and grassy places.

Flowers: February-April. Cooke mentions that they are found more or less all

the year which is true, but in Hyderabad they are seen in abundance during the

months of February and March.

Uses.—Medicinal.

202. Stachytarpheta indica Vahl., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 564.

Habitat.—A common herb. It is so common that it can easily be taken as

indigenous, although, perhaps, it is not.

203. Premna integrifolia Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 574.

Syn.—Premna serratifolia Linn.

Vernacular names.—Ganikarika, Agnimantha (Sans.); Agetha, arnt (Hind.):

Ganiari (Beng.); Erumaimullai, Munnay (Tam.); Pinuanelli (Tel.); Chamani

(Mar.).

_ Habitat.—I am doubtful about its being wild here, although it is very

common near the sea. Flowers in July.

Uses.—Medicinal.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

204 Verbena officinalis vinn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 656.

Uses.—Medicinal.

205. Verbena incisa Hook., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. I, Pt. III, p. 436.

206. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 589.

Uses,—Medicinal,

208 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL BIST? SOCEETRY) Vol. Xi

207. Aloysia citriodora Orteg., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., vol. II, Pt, III,

P- 436.

Syn.—Lippia citriodora H. B. (Lemon-scented Aloysia or Verbena).

208. Petrea volubilis Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. III, p. 436

209. Citharexylum subserratum Sw., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres. Vol. II,

Pte Ul pao4ar.

Vernacular name.—Din-ka-Raja (local).

LX. LABIATA.

210. Coleus aromaticus Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 625.

Vernacular names.—Pashana Chedi (Sans.) Pathar chur (Hind. and Bomb.) ;

Karpura valli (Tel.); Panacha onva (Mar.).

Habitat.—Commonly cultivated.

Uses.—Medicinal.

211. Amnisochilus carnosus Wall., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 627.

Vernacular names.—Ajapada, induparni (Sans.); Panjiri-ka-pat (Hind.);

Ajvan-ka-patta (local); Karpuravalli (Tel.); Panajiren (Mar.).

Habitat.—Wild in many parts of India. Cultivated.

Uses.—Leaves and oil are medicinal.

212. Leucas diffusa Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 680.

Habitat.—Very wild in gravelly soil at Adigmet and elsewhere.

213. Leucas aspera Spreng., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 690.

Vernacular names.—Tamba (Bomb.); Tunbai-chedi (Tam.); Thiumma-chettu

(Tel.).

Habitat.—The same as that of the preceding species.

Uses.—Leaves are said to be medicinal.

214. Leonotis nepetefolia Br., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 601.

Vernacular names.—Dipmal, Ekri (Mar.);. Rana bheri (Tel.).

Habitat.—Commonly found, but doubtfully indigenous.

Uses.—Flowers are considered medicinal.

The following are commonly cultivated :—

215. Lavendula vera D.C., Cooke. Fl.- Bomb. -Pres., Vol. 1, Pt. ITI, p. 453.

(True Lavender).

Cooke is right in remarking that it sometimes drags out a sickly existence

as a pot plant. I have to add that it often does so in Hyderabad. Economically

and medicinally important.

216. Salvia involucrata Cav., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. 11, Pt. IIT, Dp: 475:

217. Origanum Marjorana Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. III,

P. 475-

(The Marjorum).

Vernacular names.—Murva (Hind.); Maroo (Tam.).

Uses.—An essential oil is distilled from the leaves and is used as a perfume.

Seeds, leaves and oil are medicinal.

LXI. AMARANTACEZ:.

218. Celosia cristata Linn., H.F.B.I., -iv, p. 715.

(Cock’s comb).

Vernacular names.—Murgha-ka-phul, Pila-murgha, Lal-murgha (Hind.).

Habitat.—Cultivated.

Uses.—Medicinal.

219. Allmania nodiflora Br., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 716

Habitat.—A common ‘weed. It is very variable, and hence there are many

varieties.

220. Amarantus viridis Linn., H.F.B.J., iv, p. 720.

Habitat.—A common weed in gardens and waste places.

221. Amarantus polygamus Linn., H.F.B.J., iv, p 721.

Syn.—Amarantus polygonoides Willd.

Habitat.—Also a common weed,

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 209

The following species of Amarantus are cultivated :—

222. Amarantus caudatus Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. Il, Pt. III,

*p. 4gI.

(Love-lies-bleeding).

223. Amarantus hypochondriacus Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II,

Pte IIT; p.-4or.

(The Prince’s Feather).

244. Nothoserua brachiata Wight., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 726.

Habitat—Pretty common.

225. Aerua lanata Juss., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 728.

Syn.—Achyranthus lanata Linn.

Vernacular mnames.—Kapur-madhura (Mar.); Sirru-pulay vayr (Tam.);

Pindie-conda (Tel.). J

Habitat.—Quite a common weed. Flowers: September-November.

Uses.—Medicinal.

226. AeruaMonsonia Mart., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 728.

Syn.—Achyranthus Monsonia Pers.

Habitat.—Very common. Flowers: October-January.

227. Alternanthera sessilis Br.. H.F.B.I., iv, p. 731.

Syn.—Alternanthera triandra Lam.

Vernacular names.—Kanchri, Jaljamba.

Habitat.—A very common weed at Adigmet and other places. Flowers:

August-January.

The following are commonly cultivated in gardens :—

228. Telanthera ficoidea Mog., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. If, Pt. UI,

Be 499.

Syn.—Alternanthera amabilis of gardeners.

It makes an excellent edging for small beds.

229. Gomphrena globosa Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres, Vol. II, Pt. MI,

P. 499.

(The Globe Amaranth).

Vernacular name.—Jafri-gundi.

LX. CHENOPODIACEZA:,

230. Susda maritima Dumort., H.F.B.I., v, p. 14.

Habitat.—Apparently a common weed in grassy places.

231. Beta vulgaris Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 5.

(The Beet-root).

Vernacular names.-——Chukhander (Hind.); Palak (Bomb.).

Uses.—It is much used in curries and salads.

LXITI. POLYGONACEE.

232. Polygonum plebejum Br., H.F.B.I., v, 27.

Habitat.—A common herb, very variable.

Uses.—Medicinal.

233. Antigonon leptopus H. & Arn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. I, Pt. WI,

P- 519.

Habitat—A native of South America, commonly cultivated.

LXIV. NEPENTHACE:.

234. Nepenthes khasiana Hook., H.F.B.I., v, p. 7o.

(The Pitcher-plant).

Habitat.—Khasia and Jyntea mountains. It is seldom cultivated. It is

being grown in the Botanic Garden, Osmania University. But the climate does

not seem to suit it, as it often puts on a sickly appearance.

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

LAV. ARISTOLOCHIACE:.

235. Aristolochia indica Linn., H.F.BI., v, p. 75.

Vernacular names.—Rudrajata, Ishvari (Sans.); Isharmul (Hind.); Sapsund,

Sampsum (Bomb. and Mar.); Perumarindu (Tam.); Ishvara-veru, govila (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in_ bushes.

Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal.

236. Aristolochia elegans Masters, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. IIT,

Habitat.—A native of Brazil, commonly cultivated.

LXVI. LAURACEZ:,

237. Cassytha filiformis Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 188.

Vernacular names.—Akas Valli (Sans.); Amarbeli (Hind.); Akaswel, Amar-

vellu (Mar). ; Cottan (Tam.); Paunch figa (Tel.).

Habitat.—A common parasite on trees and shrubs. It is often mistaken

for Cuscuta.

Uses.—Medicinal.

The following are cultivated :—

238. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 131.

(The Cinnamon of commerce).

Vernaculay names.—Dalchini (Hind.); Karruwa (Tam.); Sanalingul (Tel.).

Uses.—The bark (Dalchini) is used to flavour curries and some_ sweets.

Officinal.

239. Cinnamomum camphora F. Nees., H.F.B.I., v, p. 134.

(The Camphor tree).

Vernacular name.—Kafoor-ka-jhar.

Uses.—Medicinal.

LXVII. EUPHORBIACE.,

240. Euphorbia antiquorum Linn., H.F.B.J., v, p. 2

Vernacular names.—Sihunda (Sans.); Tindhara schund (Hind.); Naraseja

(Mar.); Shadhurak-kalli, Tirikalli (Tam.); Bonta-chemudu (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in dry places.

Uses.—Medicinal.

241. Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn., H.F.B.J., v, p. 249.

Vernacular names.—Hazardana (Pb.); Nayeti Dudh mogra (Bomb.); Dhakti-

dudhi (Mar.).

Habitat.—Wild.

Uses.—Medicinal.

242. Euphorbia hirta Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 250.

Syn.—Euphorbia pilulifera Linn.

Vernacular names.—Dudhi (Hind.); Nayeti (Bomb.); Dudhi or mothidudhi

(Mar.); Amumpatchay-arissi (Tam.); Nanabala (Tel.).

Habitat.—A very common weed.

Uses.—Medicinal.

243. Euphorbia microphylla Heyne., H.F.B.I., v, p. 252.

Habitat.—Wild throughout.

Uses.—Medicinal.

244. Euphorbia thymifolia Burn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 252.

Vernacular names.—Rakta vinda chada (Sans.); Dudhi, Chotka dudhi (Hind.) ;

Hazardana (Pb.); Chinamam (Tam.); Biduru’ nana biyyam (Tel.); Nayeti

(Bomb.); Mathi-dudhi (Mar.).

Habitat.—Also a common weed.

Uses.—Medicinal.

245. Jatropha Curcas Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 383.

Vernacular names.—Nepalam (Tel); Mogali-eranda (Tel. and Bomb.).

Habitat.—Common near villages.

Uses.—Medicinal.

FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 211

246. Jatropha multifida Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 383.

Habitat.—A native of America. Cultivated.

247. Jatropha podagrica Hook., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. III,

p. 598.

Habitat—A native of Grenada. It has a curious gouty stem. Often

cultivated.

248. Cleistanthus collinus Benth., H.F.B.I., v, p. 274.

Vernacular names.—Korsi, kurchi-chettu (Tel.); Woadugu mayam (Tam.);

Garari (Mar.).

Habitat.—Fruits were collected from the Mulug forest.

Uses.—Outer crust of capsule is said to be exceedingly poisonous. Medicinal.

249. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir., H.F.B.I., v, p. 288.

Vernacular names—Krishna-kamboji (Sans.); Panjoli, Kala mahmooda

(Hind.); Pavan, Datvan (Bomb.); Pillanji, Karappu-pillanji (Tam.); Purugudu,

phulser (Tel.).

Habitat.—Common in the vicinity of the city, and extremely common in

Doulatabad and Khuldabad (Aurangabad District).

Uses.—The berries are edible. Leaves and bark are medicinal.

250. Tragia involucrata Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 465.

Vernaculay names.—Vrischi-kali (Sans.); Barhanta’ (Hind.); Nan-churi

(Tam.); Kauch kuri (Bomb.); China-dulagondi, druda-gunti (Tel.); Kauch-kuri

(local name, but the real Kauch-kuri is Mucuna Pruriens of the Leguminosae

family).

Habitat.—A common twining herb in many hill-forests. The material was

collected from a hillock near Kamareddy.

Uses.—Medicinal.

251. Codizum variegatum Blume, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. IV,

p. 626—the croton of gardens.

252. Aleurites moluccana Willd., H.F.B.I., v, p. 384.

(The Belgaum Walnut).

Vernacular names—Akosta (Sans.); Jangli-akhrot (Hind.); Girdagane hindi,

Chahar maghze hindi (Fers.); Jangli akhrota Japhala, Akhod (Mar.); Nattuwu

akrotu kottai (Tam.).

Uses.—Medicinal.

LXVIIT. URTICACEAS,

253. Ficus Tsiela Roxb., H.F.B.I., v, p. 515.

Habitat.—Common near villages in Aurangabad.

LXIX. CASUARINACE,

254. Casuarina equlsetifolia Forst, H.F.B.I., v, p. 508.

Habitat.—Extensively planted, but not indigenous.

LXX. CERATOPHYLLACE.

255. Ceratophvilum demersum Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 639.

Habitat.—A very common water-plant.

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

Brandis, D.—The Indian Trees (1906).

Chopra, R. N.—Indigenous Drugs of India (1933).

Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay (1903-08).

Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora (1861).

Hooker, T. D.—Flora of British India (1875-79).

Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D.—Indian Medicinal Plants (1918).

Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of the Madras City and its

Immediate Neighbourhood (1929).

Partridge, E. A.—Forest Flora of the Hyderabad State (1911).

Roxburgh, W.—Flora Indica (1874).

Sayeeduddin, M.—Some of the Common Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad

State; their distribution, economic and medicinal importance. ‘J.A.S.B., vol. i,

No. 1’ (1935).

1 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETYZ Volt Xa

Sayeeduddin, M.—Vegetation of Hyderabad (India). ‘The Sc. Forum, the

official Jour. of I.F.Sc. (London), vol. i, Nos (1935).

Talbot, W: A.—Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind (1909).

Watt. G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1889-96).

Watt, G.—The Commercial Products of India (1908).

Wight, R.—Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis (1838-53).

Wight, R.—lIllustrations of Indian Botany (18309).

Willis, J. C.—A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns (1931).

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE.

HoucH W ISTLER:

In 1933 His Highness the Ruler of Jodhpur State suggested

that our Society should make arrangements for an ornithological

survey of Jodhpur State on ‘the lines of the previous surveys

undertaken by the Society and he further expressed his willingness

to defray the cost of such a survey for a period of three months.

Needless to say this handsome offer was gratefully accepted and the

work in the field was put into the hands of Mr. V. S. La Personne,

one of the Society’s officers who had already taken part in the

Eastern Ghats Survey.

It was not expected that any novelties would be discovered

in Jodhpur State. This was quite unlikely in view of the arid

and semi-desert character of the greater part of the State and

its close correspondence with the neighbouring areas of Sindh,

Rajputana and the Punjab, of which the birds were already very

generally known. But it was felt that careful collecting over a

period of three months could hardly fail to add something to our

knowledge of an area of which so little was on record, even though

it could only furnish a picture of part of the bird year.

Our previous knowledge of the birds of Jodhpur State is derived

from three main sources. The first is the work of Mr. R. M.

Adam who was resident at Sambhur for several years. About

1870-74 he was a correspondent of A. O. Hume’s and made a

large collection of birds which are now in the British Museum.

The result of his observations was recorded in Stray Feathers as

follows:—‘Notes on the Birds of the Sambhur Lake and _ its

vicinity’, Stray Feathers, vol. 1, pp. 361-404. ‘Additional Note on

the birds of the Sambhur Lake and its vicinity’, Stray Feathers, ii,

PP. 337-41 and pp. 465-6.

Sambhur Lake cuts across the north-east boundary of Jodhpur

State and Adam treated of the area of the lake as a whole without

considering political boundaries. As many of the birds mentioned

are water birds and the area is not typical of Jodhpur State proper

and as there is nothing to show in many cases which side of the

boundary the birds came from this list has to be used with some

discretion by the student of Jodhpur State.

The second authority for Jodhpur is Dr. King who collected

at Mount Aboo and in Jodhpur for nearly two years. His birds

are also in the British Museum. He unfortunately published no

account of his observations but he supplied Hume with a manuscript

list of species obtained in the plains of Jodhpur in spring, summer

and autumn and that was largely drawn on by Hume in his notes

to Captain Butler’s paper, to be mentioned below (vide S.F., iii

P- 440).

)

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The third authority for the State is Allen Octavian Hume

himself. He appears to have been in Jodhpur on more than one

occasion but his only paper dealing with his own collecting in the

area will be found in Stray Feathers, vol. vii, pp. 52-68, ‘The Birds

of a Drought’. This deals with a stay at Jodhpur city from 15

January to 15 February and with intensive collecting in an area

of 8 to 10 miles round the city. Conditions were not however

normal owing to the severe drought. He did however contribute

a series of notes on the neighbouring areas, including Jodhpur, to

an important paper by Captain E. A. Butler, ‘Notes on the avifauna

of Mount Aboo and Northern Gujerat’ (Stray Feathers, iti, pp. 437-

500 and iv, pp. 1-41). To this paper Hume also contributed one

of his customary regional analyses which is of interest to the

student of Jodhpur.

From these three sources I have abstracted as far as is

practicable—for many of the references are in very general terms

—the information which refers to Jodhpur State and adding it to

the information which has been obtained by the present survey

have thus prepared what can only be regarded as a very imperfect

nominal list of the birds of Jodhpur State. My hope is that it

may serve as a starting point for any fresh observer who may be

stationed in Jodhpur and is able and willing to study the birds

of the State in the way that they should be studied.

Mr. La Personne collected 361 birds during the survey. The

following list shows the serial numbers of the specimens collected

at each camp together with the period spent there.

Nos. 1-18; 8 Oct. 1933—9 Oct. 1933; Pali, Marwar District.

Nos. 19-140; 10 Oct. 1933—31 Oct. 1933; Hamavas Lake, Pali.

Nos. 141-211; 2 Nov. 1933—10 Nov. 1933; Jalor.

Nos. 212-238; 13 Nov. 1933—16 Nov. 1933; Bhinmal.

Nos. 239-300; 21 Nov. 1933—2 Dec. 1933; Sunda Hill, Jaswant-

pura District.

Nos. 301-316; 2 Dec. 1933—5 Dec. 1933; Jawar, Jaswantpura

District.

Nos. 317-330; © Dec. 1933—27 Déc. 1933 =) Vilwara’

Nos. 331-351; 1 January 1934—5 January 1934; Phalodi.

Nos. 354-361; 8 January 1934—14 January 1934; Pichiak Lake,

Bilara District.

It will be realised, therefore that Mr. La Personne must have

worked very hard in collecting and skinning. He did not however

furnish any field notes of importance on the collection or any notes

on the collecting areas so I fear that my report can be little but

a nominal list of the specimens collected, supplemented by such

notes as I have procured from the three main sources outlined

above. Critical discussions of races have not been called for as

whatever might have been said on these particular species has already

been said by Dr. Ticehurst in his Sind papers or by myself in

connection with the Punjab or in the various survey papers.

Any Gazetteer may be consulted for a general description of

Jodhpur State. With these few preliminary remarks I now proceed

to enumerate the species and subspecies either procured by the

survey or otherwise recorded as occurring in Jodhpur State,

CHE ORNITHOLOGICAL’ SURVEY “OF fODHPUR STATE 215

Corvus corax laurencei Hume.

Specimen collected :—338 Q 2-1-34 Phalodi; 358 9 12-1-34 Pichiak Lake,

Bilara.

Found throughout the whole State in the winter months. Hume remarks

on the boldness of this Raven. ‘Our camp, he says, was a large one perhaps

containing a thousand souls and in amongst the tents from dawn till dark,

familiar and fearless as sparrows, were at all times from 50 to too of these

Ravens, stalking about singly and croaking vigorously to each other’. La

Personne also remarks on the tameness of the bird in the desert towns. In

Phalodi they actually entered the bungalow verandas and no. 338 was caught

with a basket and string trap. A nest with 2 fresh eggs was seen on 19

December on a signal platform of the railway at Tilwara, the birds being

but little disturbed by passing trains. Many old nests were seen in the desert

outside Chanod, mostly placed on acacia trees barely 6 foot high. .

Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler.

La Personne reports that a single Jungle-Crow was seen in His Highness’

garden at Jaswantpura, no doubt as a straggler from the Aravallis. Hume

and Adam failed to meet it either at Jodhpur or Sambhur.

Corvus splendens spletidens Vieillot.

Specimens collected :—187 ¢ ad. 6-11-33, Qad. 10-11-33 Jalor 500 ft.

Hume found the House-Crow rare at Jodhpur under drought conditions,

but La Personne says it occurs throughout the greater part of the State except

in the more arid regions. It was common at Barmer in December. In

some localities, such as Puchbunddra, according to Hume the House-Crow is

only a rains visitor (S.F., iii, 493).

La Personne furnishes an interesting note on the roosting flight of this

species in Jaswantpura district. The evening flight passed over his camp at

3,400 ft. on Sunda Hill and from that elevation he could see the birds leaving

the plains in huge flocks and crossing the hill at one particular dip in the

ridge, making for the Abu range. The first flock would cross (at the end

of November and beginning of December) about 5.30 p.m. and then with

intervals of a minute or two between each flock the flight would continue until

about 6-45 to 7 p.m. The morning flight was over before sunrise. Some of these

birds doubtless came from great distances, as when the survey was at Jalor

and Tilwara the start of the evening flights was noticed.

Both specimens collected belong to the typical form and La_ Personne

particularly remarks that throughout the survey he noticed that all House-

Crows were typical in colour and not of the paler zugmayeri form.

Dendrocitta vagabunda pallida Blyth.

Specimens collected :—Q imm. 10-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 306 @ ad. 4-12-33,

313 6 ad. 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura District.

The Indian Tree Pie was common in and around Jodhpur town but the

specimen collected at Hamavas Lake appeared to be the only individual in

the strip of Babul jungle growing along the dam. A pair visited the camp

on Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

Specimens collected will pass in colour as pallida though their measurements

(39 ad. wing 161, 150 tail 259, 235 mm.) are a little on the small side.

Lal Personne remarks, however, that the pair on Sunda Hill appeared to be

larger with longer tails.

Parus major mahrattarum Hartert.

Specimens collected :—244 9 245 CG 21-11-33, 248 sex ? 22-11-33, 262 oO

23-11-33, 271 © 25-59-33,. 286 CG 28-11-33, 204 9, 205 G 20-

Hills, 3,400 ft., Jaswantpura.

The Indian Grey Tit was plentiful on Sunda Hill frequenting the ravines

and old watercourses and being found in the hunting parties with White-eyes

and Willow-wrens. There is a specimen in the Hume collection obtained on

the Desuri Road from Jodhpur on 10 February 1878 and it is also found

in the Marot and Koochamun jungles to the north of the Sambhur Lake.

1 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Parus nuchalis Jerdon.

The survey unfortunately failed to meet with the White-winged Black Tit

but it occurs along the eastern borders of the Jodhpur State as Adam found

it quite common towards Marot and Mokrana, and Hume (S.F., iii, 492)

obtained it from the neighbourhood of Pali.

Turdoides somervillei sindiamus (Ticehurst).

Specimens collected :—279g Q 27-11-33, Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

This specimen of the Jungle Babbler was secured from a family party

on Sunda Hill. The species was not otherwise observed though Hume included

the bird in his Jodhpur list.

Argya caudata caudata (Dumont).

Specimens collected :—4 sex ? juv., 9 @ ad. to dG -juv., 8-10-33 Pali; 178

3, 119 g, 120 Q 21-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali district ; 323 ¢ 19-12-33 Tilwara,

348 9 ad., 349 Q@ imm. 5-1-34 Phalodi.

The Common Babbler is one of the most common and generally distributed

birds in the State though it was not found in the hill area of Jaswantpura

district. Young and eggs were noted in October.

Argya malcoimi (Sykes).

Specimens collected :—142 ¢G 31-10-33, 164 @ 3-11-33, 170 Q 4-11-33 Jalor.

The Large Grey Babbler is very common at Jodhpur and extends to

Balotra, Siwaria and Jalor, though it is absent according to La Personne from

the desert region further west and from the hills of Jaswantpura.

Chrysomma sinensis hypoleucos (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—19 CG 10-10-33, 34 OG II-10-33, 49 CG 13-10-33, 138 ¢&

25-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 259 d, 260 d, 261d juv., 23-11-33, 267 Q 25-11-33,

Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.; 301 ¢, 302 2 2-12-33, Jawar, Jaswantpura district; 354 d

355 & 8-1-34, Pichiak Lake.

The Yellow-eyed Babbler is common on Sunda Hill in the bamboo-jungle

and was also found on the plains in Tamarisk and Babool forests and in the

reed beds and grass lands round the larger lakes, but was met by the Survey

nowhere west of a line roughly through Jodhpur, Jalor, Bhinmal and Jasw-

antpura. Adam obtained it from the hills near NKoochamun. The young

male no. 261 was probably not more than a month old and was secured from

family party.

Aegithina nigrolutea (Marshall).

Aegithina tiphia (L.).

Specimens collected :—268 dg imm. 25-11-33, Sunda Hill, 3,000 ft.

La Personne says that an [ora was not uncommon on Sunda. Hill. When

Hume wrote in 1875, before the two species of Iora had been differentiated,

he said that the Tora was common in the eastern portions of Jodhpur but

occurred for the most part only in the rains in western Jodhpur. The solitary

specimen obtained by the Survey—which was in company with a party of

White-eyes in a large Banyan tree—is immature and therefore cannot be

identified subspecifically but it appears to me to be of the species tiphia. A

specimen in the Hume collection from the hills near Koochamun is, however,

nigrolutea to which species also belong the Ioras collected by Adam at Sambhur

and a specimen from Anadra (just over the Jodhpur border near Mount

Aboo) in the Hume collection. It is evident, therefore, that both forms of

Iora occur in Jodhpur State but their status and distribution and the exact

relationship between them remain to be worked out.

Molpastes haemorrhous pallidus Stuart Baker.

Specimens collected :—108 @Q, 109 ¢ 20-10-33, 116 @Q 21-10-33, Hamavas

Lake, Pali.

The Red-vented Bulbul is common on the hills of the Jaswantpura district

and extends into the plains, as at Jodhpur, Barmer and Phalodi where

conditions are suitable. In western Jodhpur, according to Hume it occurs for

CEE MORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE 217

the most part only in the rains. Fledged young were seen. being fed. by

their parents on 18 October.

Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould).

Specimens collected :—26 ¢ 11-10-33, 64 @ 15-10-33, 105 C 20-10-33, 117

OF 21-10-33, 126 CG 22-10-33, 130 Q 132 sex ? 23-10-333: Hamavas . Lake,

ali; =163 .4 3-11-33, Jalor.

The White-eared Bulbul is one of the most familiar and widely spread

birds in the State, inhabiting light babul forest, cactus-covered land and _ the

semi-desert country round villages. It is plentiful at Barmer and Phalodi and

about Nawa and Mata Pahar on the Sambhur Lake. La Personne remarks

that both species of Bulbul were common on the hillside at Hamavas which

was thickly covered with cactus, and on more than one occasion individuals of

the two species were observed in company, though no hybrids were observed.

Salpornis spilonota rajputanae Meinertzhagen.

There are a pair of specimens of the Spotted Grey Creeper in the British,

Museum collected by Adam on the 6th and 25th of June 1873 and _ labelled

Sambhur. These are presumably the two specimens which Adam_ says he

obtained in the jungle near Jkoochamun.

Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes.

Sepcimens collected :—38 @Q 12-10-33, 72 SG 16-10-33, 79 GO 17-10-33, 88

6 18-10-33;) Hamavas Lake; 161 °¢ 3-11-33, 165 OG 4-11-33, 173 6; 174

3, 175 @ 5-11-33, 184 SO 6-11-33; Jalor; 232 9 16-11-33, Bhinmal.

The Pied Bush-chat is very common and generally distributed in Jodhpur,

occurring both in the desert country and on the hill top at Sunda.

Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth).

Specimens collected :—87 ¢ 18-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 178 ¢ 5-11-33 Jalor;

212 OG 13-11-33, 244 GO 15-11-33 Bhinmal.

The Stone-chat is a common winter visitor.

Saxicola macrorhyncha (Stoliczka).

Stoliczka’s Whin-chat was not procured by the Survey but Hume found it

‘extremely common in the thin, stunted scrub jungle that here and there studs

the sandy, semi-desert, waterless tracts that occur all round Jodhpur’. He

procured a large series of over 30 specimens (now in the British Museum) at

the: end of January and during the first week in February and wrote an

interesting note on them (S.F., vii, 55). It is no doubt resident.

Oenanthe picata (Blyth).

Specimens collected :—2 (¢ 8-16-33 Pali; 150 G 2-11-33 Jalor.

Although scarce at the beginning of October the Pied Wheatear, says

La Personne, increased in numbers with the colder weather and was very

generally distributed except in the forested areas. At Jalor and other rest-

houses they often rested on the doors and windows during the heat of the day

and at Jalor a fine male roosted regularly on the ‘kass-kass’ door.

Oenanthe opistholeuca (Strickland).

Strickland’s Wheatear was not procured by the Survey but Hume says

it occurs here and there throughout Jodhpur, of course as a winter visitor only.

Oenanthe isabellina (Temm.).

Specimens collected :—1 ¢ 3-10-33, 7 G 8-10-33 Pall.

The Isabelline Wheatear is said by La Personne to be very generally

distributed except in the hill tracts of Jaswantpura.

Oenanthe deserti atrogularis (Blyth).

Specimens collected :—146 Q 1-11-33, 183 J 6-11-33 Jalor; 337° Q 2-1-34

Phalodi.

The Desert-Wheatear was found to be very common at Barmer and Phalodi.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCTERY Vole

Oenanthe xanthoprymna chrysopygia (De Filippi).

The Red-tailed Wheatear was not procured by the Survey but Hume obtained

it in the neighbourhood of Jodhpur and wrote a long note on its correct

name (p. 57).

Cercomela fusca (Blyth).

Specimens collected :—162 ¢ 3-11-33, 188-9 Od 6-11-33, I91 ¢ 194-5 QQ

7-11-33 alot; 240 9, 243 CG. 21-11-33, 275 cG 26-11-33. Sunda Hill 2,400

La Personne says that the Brown Rock-chat is very irregularly distributed

in Jodhpur State. He found it common at Phalodi, at Jalor and on the

Sunda Hill whereas it was not observed at Marwar Pali or at Barmer and

further west of the latter place.

Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides (Horsfield and Moore).

Specimens collected :—45 Q 12-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 167 ¢@ 4-11-33, 182

Q 6-11-33, 208 OG 10-11-33 Jalor.

The Black Redstart was found to be very generally distributed.

Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis (Sarudny).

Specimens collected: 46 qd 12-10-33, 61 Q 14-10-33, 62 Q 15-10-33, 112

S 21-10-33, 127 GO 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

La Personne says that a large influx of Bluethroats was observed on

the 21 October at Hamavas where there is mest suitable ground for them

covered with reeds and tamarisk beyond the Jake-dam. Many were flushed

from chilli crops at Jalor and a single bird was seen in a patch of pulse in

the Rest-house garden at Barmer. Hume remarked long ago that in_ the

more desert portions of Jodhpur the Bluethroat seems to be chiefly found

towards the close of the rains, that is on the autumn passage.

The identification of Bluethroats in winter plumage in India is largely

a matter of guess work but these specimens apparently belong to the race

pallidogularis.

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham).

Specimens collected :—83-84 92 17-10-33, 107 3 20-10-33 Hamavas Lake;

151 OG 2-11-30 Jalor.

The Brown-backed Indian Robin is absent from the desert areas, such as

Barmer and Phalodi, but seems to be generally distributed and common on

the eastern side of the State. Hume was of opinion that specimens from

western Jodhpur (S.F., ili, 474) were of the type which I have since named

imtermedia but the Survey specimens are clearly cambaiensis.

Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected :—310 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura District.

Local and apparently absent from the desert tracts, the Magpie Robin is

said by La Personne to occur at Chanod, along the Jawai River and at

Jodhpur, Balotra and Pali.

Monticola cyanus pandoo (Sykes).

Specimens collected :—133 23-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 186 39 6-11-33 Jalor.

The Blue Rock Thrush was first seen on 20 October at Hamavas. It was

noted on Sunda Hill. Hume includes it in his list from the neighbourhood

of Jodhpur.

Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche.

The autumn passage route of the Spotted Flycatcher includes Jodhpur as

Hume received specimens collected in the State on September 8th and 16th.

The Survey was too late to meet with it.

Siphia parva parva (Bechstein).

Specimens collected i— 55 sex 2? 14-10-33, 58 G 12-10-33 Hamavas” Lake:

The Red-breasted Flycatcher is also included in Hume’s Jodhpur list.

THE SORNITHOLOGICAL: SURVEY, OF -fJODHPUR. STATE 319

Leucocirca aurevla aureola (Lesson).

Specimens collected :—53 ¢ 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 314 9 5-12-33 Jawar,

Jaswantpura district.

The White-browed Fantail-Flycatcher is a common bird in the gardens of

Jodhpur town and in the Babul groves of the eastern side of the State. Adam

met a few pairs about Nawa and Marot. According to La Personne it does

not occur west of Balotra.

Lanius excubitora lahtora (Sykes).

Specimens collected :—3 dj, 8 sex ?, 15 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali; 144 ¢ 1-11-33 Jalor.

The Indian Grey Shrike is extremely common throughout the State except

in the forests of Jaswantpura and the wetter areas round the lakes. Occurs

on Sunda Hill.

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes.

Specimens collected:—7o0 ( juv. 16-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 305 GO 4-12-33

Jawar, Jaswantpura district.

According to La Personne the Bay-backed Shrike is found all along the

eastern side of the State, and also wherever suitable conditions occur on

the western side though it avoids the desert country. Noted at Barmer and

Phalodi and in most Rest-house gardens. Adam found it breeding commonly

in the Marot jungles. on 1 August 1872.

Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors).

Specimens collected :—8o0-81 92 G 17-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

The Rufous-backed Shrike was fairly generally distributed, being also noted

by the Survey at Phalodi, Godra Road and Barmer and in the Jaswantpura

district.

Lanius isabellinus Hempich Ehrenberg.

Specimens collected :—25 9 11-10-33, 111 ¢ 20-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 160

3-11-33 Jalor; 216 3 14-11-33 Bhinmal; 328 @Q 21-12-33 Tilwara.

The Isabelline Shrike is common throughout the whole State, according to

La Personne, in all the drier and semi-desert areas.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pallidus Ticehurst.

Specimens collected:— 168 sex ? 4-11-33, 176 @ 5-22-33 Jalor; 281

27-11-33 Sunda Hill 3,400 ft.; 308-309 Oo 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura district.

The Common Woodshrike occurs wherever there is suitable Babul forest

or bush-covered country and it was noted in the tamarisk forest at Tilwara.

The specimens collected are intermediate between the typical race and

T. p. pallidus but on the whole. are closer to the latter.

Pericrocotus brevirostris (Vigors).

Hume states that the Short-billed minivet appears in winter in the southern

portions of Jodhpur but it was not procured by the Survey.

Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon).

No minivets were collected by the Survey but Hume procured the White-

bellied Minivet in the neighbourhood of Jodhpur town and Adam _ collected

specimens in the jungles near Marot and Koochamun.

Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (Hodgson).

Specimens collected :—56-7 GQ 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali; 153-4 do

2-11-33 Jalor, 500 ft.; 235 Q 16-11-33 Bhinmal.

The King Crow is very generally distributed throughout the State in

suitable country.

Dicrurus longicaudatus Jerdon.

Specimen collected :—297 ¢ 29-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

This specimen appears to provide the only record of the Grey Drongo for

Jodhpur State. It is doubtless a winter visitor only.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCHET VY: Vol. ee

Agrobates galactotes familiaris (Meénetries).

As in the case of certain other species which take the Arabian route te

their winter quarters in Africa, the Rufous Warbler appears in Jodhpur on

passage in September in which month in 1868 Dr. King obtained two specimens

now in the British Museum (vide S.F., ili, 476 and Ibis, 1869, 355).

Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon).

Specimens collected :—45-48 ¢ d.2 d 13-10-33, 63 OG 15-10-33, 69 SG 16-10-33,

75 92, 77 SG 16-10-33, 113 ¢G 20-10-33, 115 CG 21-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali.

The Great Reed Warbler was abundant in the extensive reed beds _ that

were examined by Hamavas Lake and they were found to visit the neighbouring

tamarisk forest. All the specimens are undergoing a complete moult and _ it

seems extremely probable that the birds breed where they were found, though

no old nests were remarked by the Survey, and there are no juveniles amongst

the specimens collected.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth.

Specimens collected :—30, 32 sex ? 11-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

Mr. La Personne is of opinion that Blyth’s Reed Warbler was very generally

distributed in gardens and other suitable places. It was probably on passage.

Orthotomus sutorius guzerata (Latham).

Specimens collected :—123-124 GQ 22-10-33, 134 ¢ 23-10-33 Hamavas Lake;

155 dG 2-11-33, 192d 7-11-33, 197-198 Gd 8-11-33 Jalor; 250-251 ¢ QO 22-112ge

Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

The Tailor-bird was not observed westwards of Tilwara and it does not

occur in the desert areas.

Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—104 juv. 20-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 220-222 9d sex ?

14-11-33, 229 Q 15-11-33, 231 So 16-11-33 Bhinmal. —

In addition to the above localities the Fantail Warbler was noted, a

single specimen only, at Tilwara. It is of course absent from the desert

tracts.

Franklinia gracilis (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—246-7 @d 21-11-33, 249 @Q 22-11-33, 256-7 Jjuvs.

23-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.; 316 od 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura.

Franklin’s Wren-Warbler was found in the grasslands which grow to a

height of over 4 feet in places, on the Sunda Hill. Adam’s collector found

it fairly common in the hills near Koochamun.

Franklinia buchanani (Blyth).

Specimens collected:—6 ¢ juv. 8-10-33 Pali; 27° ¢ 11-10-33, 99 sex ?

102 juv. 19-10-33, 106 @, 110 Q juv. 20-10-33, 122 juv. 22-10-33, 131 o

23-10-33, 137 Q 24-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 141 ¢ 31-10-33, 152 9, 156 ¢ 2-11-33;

199 6 8-11-33 Jalor; 329 ¢ 21-12-33 Tilwara; 343 d 3-1-34 Phalodi.

Hume stated that the Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler was very common

about Jodhpur and La Personne adds that it is very widely distributed in the

State, being there as elsewhere more particularly addicted to the semi-desert

tracts thickly studded with the Zyziphus bush.

Hippolais rama rama (Sykes).

Specimen collected :—29 @Q 11-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

Syke’s Tree Warbler is probably a passage migrant.

Sylvia communis rubecula Stresemann.

According to Hume (S.F., iii, 488) Dr. King collected specimens of the

Common White-throat at Jodhpur itself and near Pali in September. The

specimens are not in the British Museum but they doubtless belong to this

race. This is another of the species that pass through north-west India on

ate “ORNILHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF [ODHPUR STATE 221

the autumn passage to take the Arabian route to Africa and their winter

quarters.

Sylvia crassirostis jerdoni (Blyth).

Specimens collected:—136 Q 24-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. Hume

procured the Orphean Warbler at Jodhpur but considered it rare.

Sylvia nana nana (Hemprich & Ehrenberg).

Specimens collected :—331-333 ¢ 9 @Q _ 1-1-34 Phalodi.

The desert areas of Jodhpur State are particularly suited to the requirements

of the Desert Warbler and Hume found it extremely abundant in the low

scrub round Jodhpur.

Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler | Sylvia affinis auct. ].

Specimens collected :—14 © 8-10-33 Pali; 21 ¢ 10-10-33, 35 OG 11-10-33,

121 G 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali; 159 ¢ 3-11-33 Jalor; 241 Q 21-11-33

Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

Sylvia curruca minuta Hume.

Specimen collected :—219 Q 14-11-33 Bhinmal.

These two subspecies of the Lesser White-throat were ‘excessively common’

when Hume was collecting at Jodhpur in January and February. His paper

contains very important notes on the discrimination and distribution of these

two subspecies and of the allied Sylvia althaea.

Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth.

Specimens collected :—33 CG 11-10-33, 39 @Q 12-10-33, 140 sex ? 25-10-33

Hamavas Lake, Pali; 330 Q 21-12-33 Tilwara.

Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth.

Specimens collected :—252 d 22-11-33, 263 Q 24-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

Prinia gracilis lepida Blyth.

Hume says that the Streaked Wren Warbler was very common about

Jodhpur but it was not procured by the Survey.

Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth.

_ This race of the Ashy Wren Warbler is said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur

though he adds that it is nowhere common. It was not procured by the Survey.

Prinia sylvatica gangetica (Blyth).

Specimens collected :—239 CG juv.. 21-11-33, 253-4 @ oS juv. 22-11-33; 258 do

23-11-33, 265 G juv. 24-11-33, 270 juv. 25-11-33, 272 @ 26-11-33, 278 Q@ juv.

27-11-33, 285 d juv., 287 Q ad. 288 juv. 28-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

These specimens of the Jungle Wren-Warbler are of particular interest in

that they confirm my opinion, given in full in Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

Xxxvi, 575, that birds from Mount Aboo could not be separated from those

of the rest of northern India. Specimens were procured by Adam_ in. the

Koochamun jungles and by Dr. King at Jodhpur.

Prinia inornata terricolor (Hume).

Specimens collected :—28 ¢ 11-10-33, 47 @ juv. 12-10-33, 82 Q juv. 17-10-33,

86 juv. 18-10-33, 128 ¢G juv. 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali.

The specimens of the Indian Wren-Warbler are all either juveniles or adults

in heavy moult and therefore cannot be identified’ racially with complete

certainty. They presumably belong to the northern race.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes.

The Golden Oriole was not procured by the Survey. Hume however states

that it is ‘common in the eastern, rare in the western portions of Jodhpur’,

iw)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIERY,. Vols XE

Pastor roseus (Li nnaeus).

The Rosy Pastor is said by Hume to be common in Jodhpur in the cold

weather. It was not procured by the Survey.

Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus.

Hume says that the Starling is a very common visitor to Jodhpur but

i have seen no specimens from the area and cannot say what race or races

occur.

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin).

Specimens collected :—11 Q 8-10-33 Pali; 139 9 25-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 185

Q 6-11-33 Jalor.

Hume considered the Brahminy Mynah to be fairly common in Jodhpur.

Acridotheres tristis tristis Linnaeus.

The Common Mynah is not represented among the specimens collected by

the Survey but Hume says it is common in the State.

Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham).

Hume says that the Bank Mynah is common in the State.

Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected :— 13 @ 8-10-33 Pali, 22 Q 10-10-33, 40, 43, 44 juvs.

12-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali.

According to Hume the Baya is common during the rains but less plentiful

and more local during the rest of the year.

Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.).

Specimens collected.—37 CO 11-10-33, 65 dG 66 3 68 OG 15-10-33 Hamavas

Lake; 223 Q 14-11-33 Bhinmal.

Judging by the organs of the specimens collected the White-throated Munia

was about to breed at Hamavas Lake.

Amandava amandava amandava (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected :—51-52 GQ _ 13-10-33, 78 @ 16-10-33, 90-92 ddA

18-10-33, 100-101 GQ _ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali.

The Red Avadavat was evidently breeding at Hamavas Lake as the males

had the organs enlarged and the females were laying eggs.

Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas).

Recorded by Hume for Jodhpur State.

Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris (Blyth).

Hume saw and obtained a single male of the Trumpeter Bullfinch near

Jodhpur and it also occurs in Jaisalmer but the Survey failed to meet with it.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis transfuga Hartert.

Specimens collected:—71 d, 76 @ 16-10-33, 129 ¢ 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake,

Pali; 172 OG 4-11-33 Jalor.

These specimens of the Yellow-throated Sparrow are somewhat intermediate

in colour between the typical race and G. x. transfuga, but they are on the

whole closer to the latter.

Passer domesticus parkini Whistler.

Specimens collected :—217 @, 218 o 14-11-33, 225 CG 15-11-33 Bhinmal.

No. 218 with a wing measurement of 81 mm. clearly belongs to the large

race of the House-Sparrow. So the probability is that the other two birds,

which are on the larger side of the overlap of measurements common to

both parkini and indicus, belong also to parkini. No doubt it is a winter

visitor here as I found a marked passage through Jhang in September

(Ibis; 1922;-.272).

ThE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY “OF JODHPUR STATE 22:

wu)

Passer hispaneolensis (Temminck).

Adam informs us that he found the Spanish Sparrow very plentiful in

the ‘‘Neggara’’ jungles near to the town of Koochamun during the cold season.

Emberiza stewarti Blyth.

Specimens collectéd :—264 @ 24-11-33, 280 3 27-11-33, 283 Q 28-11-33, 291-2

3 Q 29-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

The White-headed Bunting is of course only a winter visitor to Jodhpur.

Emberiza buchanani Blyth.

Specimens collected :—18 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali; 346 C 5-1-34 Phalodi.

The Grey-necked Bunting was found ‘in huge flocks’ at Pali according to

the label of the specimen. Adams procured specimens in the low range of

hills close to Nawa and about Koochamun.

Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli.

Specimen collected :—143 @ 1-11-33 Jalor.

The survey specimen is completing an entire moult. Hume says that at

Soojut (north-east of Pali) he found the Black-headed Bunting in ‘simply

millions’ at the time of the spring harvest.

Emberiza icterica Eversmann.

Specimen collected :—179 CG 5-11-33 Jalor, 500 ft.

This bird is also completing an entire moult. Hume says that he procured

the Red-headed Bunting at Soojut and Pali where it was closely associated

with the Black-headed Buntings. Both species occurred in joint flocks.

Emberiza striolata striolata Lichtenstein.

Specimen collected :—196 ¢ 7-11-33 Jalor, 1,000 ft.

Hume met with the Striolated Bunting near Jodhpur but says that it

was only found on the flanks of the rocky hills. Adams found it in the

scrub jungles about the hills near to Nawa and Marot.

Melophus lathami subcristata Sykes.

Specimens collected :—268 dQ 25-11-33, 276 CO 26-11-33, 293 Q 29-11-33

Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

Adam’s collector found the Crested Bunting common in the Koochamun

hills.

Riparia paludicola brevicaudata Horsfield.

According to Hume the Indian Sand Martin is found in Jodhpur but is

comparatively rare.

Riparia concolor (Sykes).

Specimens collected:—190 9, 193 OG 7-11-33 Jalor, 1,000 ft.

Hume met with the Dusky Crag Martin near Jodhpur but says that it

was rare. Adam obtained it near Mata Pahar and the western end of the

Sambhur Lake, and at Mata Pahar it was found by Hume to be breeding.

Hirundo rustica rustica Linnaeus.

Specimen collected :—g95 Q 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

Hume obtained the Common Swallow at Jodhpur in the winter. From

his remarks (S.F., iii, 451) it seems that the Eastern race H. r. gutturalis may

also occur in Jodhpur.

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes.

Specimens collected :—200-202 ¢ ¢ Q 8-11-33 Jalor.

All three specimens are completing an entire moult. Hume remarks that

this Red-rumped Swallow is common during the rains in Jodhpur but rare

in the hot season.

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIEI 7) Vol xr

Hirundo daurica nepalensis Hodgson. | ?].

Specimen collected :—g93 @Q 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

This is a poor specimen, probably immature, very worn and with the

wings commencing to moult but it seems to me to belong to the Himalayan

race of Red-rumped Swallow.

Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes.

The White Wagtail was procured by Hume at Jodhpur in the winter but

the Survey did not obtain it.

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin.

The Large Indian Wagtail is said by Hume to occur about Jodhpur town

but only sparingly.

Motacilla cinerea caspica (S. G. Gmelin).

The Grey Wagtail is said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur.

Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus (Homeyer).

The Black-headed Wagtail is said by Hume to occur in. Jodhpur.

Metacilla flava subsp ?

Specimens collected :—67 Q 15-10-33, 103 @ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lakke.

It is not possible to identify these female wagtails subspecifically.

Motacilla citreola calcarata Hodgson.

Hume received the Yellow-headed Wagtail from Jodhpur.

Anthus trivialis Linnaeus.

Recorded by Hume from Jodhpur.

Anthus rufulus waitei Whistler.

Specimen collected :—230 3 16-11-33, Bhinmal.

Hume remarks that he had received no specimen of the Common Indian

Pipit from Jodhpur.

Anthus spinoletta blakestoni Swinhoe.

There are no Jodhpur examples in the British Museum but Hume recorded

this species and the race may be inferred.

Anthus campestris (Linnaeus).

The Survey curiously enough did not procure the Tawny Pipit but Hume

includes it in his Jodhpur list.

Melanocorypha bimaculata (Meénétries).

Specimens collected :—344-345 OC 4-31-34, 350-353 OSC 5-1-34. Phalodi.

Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis (Eversmann).

Specimens collected :—145 od, 147-8 Oo 1-11-33, 204-206 GSS 10-11-33

Jalor; 226-7 OQ 15-11-33 Bhinmal; 318 Go 19-12-33 Tilwara; 341-2 @9Q

2-1-34, 347 OG 5-1-34 Phalodi.

Hume found the Short-toed Lark very common at Jodhpur, and it is no

doubt general and common as a winter visitor as King procured it at Pali

on 16 September 1868 and Blanford got it east of Bahmir-Malani

on 10

February 1876.

Alauda gulgula (Franklin).

Said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur.

PAE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF -(ODEHPUR STATE 225

Mirafra cantillans (Blyth).

According to Hume the Singing Bush-Lark occurs sparingly in the western

parts of Jodhpur.

Mirafra erythroptera sindiana Ticehurst.

Specimen collected :—94 (¢ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

‘Hume considered the Red-winged Bush-Lark common in Jodhpur.

Galerida cristata chendoola (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—319-321 9 @Q@¢ Tilwara, R. Luni.

The Crested Lark was very common at Jodhpur according to Hume.

Ammomanes phoenicura (Franklin).

The Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark is said by Hume to be common in Jodhpur.

Eremopteryx grisea grisea (Scopoll).

Specimens collected:—17 Q 8-10-33 Pali; 157-158 $92 3-11-33, 166 Q juv.

4-11-33, 177 Q@ 5-11-33, 207 @ 10-11-33, 209 G imm., 210 Q juv. 10-11-33

Jalor; 214 @ 13-11-33, 215 juv. 14-11-33 Bhinmal.

The above specimens of the Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark are intermediate in

colour between the typical race and EF. g. siccata but they are if anything closer

to the typical race. Hume got no specimens of this Lark at Jodhpur but

it was collected there by Dr. King and is said to be common.

Eremopteryx albicollis affinis (Blyth).

Specimens collected :—334-336 ¢€ SS I-1-34, 339-340 36 Q 2-1-34 Phalodi.

Hume found the Black-crowned Finch-Lark extremely common _ in_ the

sandy wastes about Jodhpur and he says that it extends into Jaisalmer. He

collected a good series and gives a detailed note on the various plumages.

Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst.

Specimens collected :—242 ¢ 21-11-33, 273 3 25-11-33 Sunda hill, 3,400 ft. ;

303-4 OQ 2-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura.

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Latham).

Specimens collected :—16 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali; 114 CG 21-10-33, 135 CG 24-10-33

Hamavas Lake; 315 @ imm. 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura.

Hume says of his specimens collected at Jodhpur that they are ‘short-billed

and green, closely approaching the brevirostris form’. He collected in a year

of extreme drought which may have brought in birds from further west, but

the specimens collected by the Survey appear to me to be closer to the typical

form. :

Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert).

Adam collected a single specimen of the Black-backed Woodpecker in the

Koochamun jungles.

Brachypternus benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected :—298 ¢, 300 ¢ 2-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura District.

These specimens of the Golden-backed Woodpecker definitely belong to the

typical form. The bird is evidently not common as in the Sambhur area.

Adam only saw one individual in the Koochamun jungles.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOGIN IRV = Viole

Dryobates mahrattensis aurocristatus (Tickell).

Specimens collected :—41-42 ¢$Q 12-10-93, 54. 6 14-10-33, 74 Q 16-10-33,

125 dO 22-10-33 Hamavas nae 266 ¢ 25-11-33, 289-290 dd 29-11-33, 299 CG

2-12-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft., Jaswantpura.

Hume also procured the Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker near Jodhpur.

Jynx torquilla torquilla (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected :—31 G 11-10-33, 73 db 16-10-33, 89 S 18-10-33 Hamavas

Lake; 180 sex ? 5-11-33 Jalor; 274 3S 25-11-33, 284 @ 28-11-33 Sunda Hill,

3m00 it.

Hume procured the Wryneck at Pali in April.

Xantholaema haemacephala indica Latham.

Specimen collected :—296 9 29-11-33 Sunda Hill.

Hume records the Crimson-breasted Barbet from Jodhpur State.

Hierococcyx varius Vahl.

Hume includes the Common Hawk-Cuckoo in his Jodhpur list as a

monsoon. straggler.

Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert).

Hume says that the Pied Crested Cuckoo is only found in Jodhpur in the

rains.

Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linnaeus).

The Koel is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Centropus sinensis (Stephens).

The Crow-Pheasant is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Taccocua leschenaultii sirkee (Gray).

Specimen collected :—60 Q 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

The ovary of this Sirkeer Cuckoo was much enlarged as if the bird was

just about to lay. Adam considered the Sirkeer rare as he only met and

procured a pair in a patch of jungle near Marot. Dr. King obtained the

bird at Jodhpur in the rains.

Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein)

No specimen of the Common Indian Roller was preserved by the Survey

but Hume includes it in his Jodhpur list.

Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus).

The Blossom-headed Parralkeet is included in Hume’s Jodhpur list.

Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus).

No specimen of the Common Indian Roller was preserved by the Survey

but Hume includes it in his Jodhpur list.

Coracias garrula semenovi Loudon and Tschusi.

Specimen collected :—24 Q 10-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

An immature specimen of the Roller, evidently on passage.

Merops orientalis orientalis Latham.

Specimens collected :—233-234 ¢ OG 16-11-33 Bhinmal.

Hume remarks that the Little Green Bee-eater was ‘scarce’ near Jodhpur

in January and February.

EE OMNI OLOGICATE “SURVEY -OF -fODHPUR “STALE

“I

Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas.

Specimens collected :—97 ad. 9, 98 juv. 3 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali.

According to Hume the Blue-cheeked Bee-eater is a summer visitor only

to Jodhpur. Adam found it common in the Marot hills.

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach.

Hume includes the Pied Wingfisher in his Jodhpur list.

Alcedo atthis pallasii Reichenbach.

Specimen collected :—59 ¢ 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake.

This specimen of the Common Kingfisher is an adult in complete moult

but it appears to belong to the above migratory race and not to the resident

bengalensis.

Halcyon smyrnensis Linnaeus.

The White-breasted Kingfisher was not procured by the Survey. Hume

met with it by some little tanks near Jodhpur, though he called it ‘very rare’.

Upupa epops epops Linnaeus.

Specimen collected :—12 Q 8-10-1933, Pali.

Hume also noted the Hoopoe at Jodhpur.

Micropus affinis (Gray).

The Common Indian Swift is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume.

Specimens collected :—36 Q 11-10-33, 50 [9] 13-10-33, Hamavas Lake.

Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan).

Specimens collected :—273 @Q@, 238 CO 17-11-33, Bhinmal.

Strix occellata (Lesson).

Specimen collected :—312 @ 5-10-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura.

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (Temminck).

The Fish-Owl was not procured by the Survey but Hume saw and collected

a single specimen near Jodhpur.

Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—85 Q 17-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 359 3 12-1-34 Pichiak

Lake, Bilara.

Hume considered the Rock Horned Owl rare in Jodhpur.

Bubo coromandus (Latham).

Specimen collected :—356 @ 12-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara.

The Dusky Eagle-Owl is included in Hume’s list.

Athene brama indica (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—20 © 10-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 326 21-12

Tilwara.

Hume met with the Spotted Owlet near Jodhpur.

Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli).

Hume met with the King Vulture near Jodhpur and Adam mentions a

rock nest. in March in the hills near the town of Nawa.

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume.

Hume shot the Indian Griffin himself at Jodhpur.

Gyps indicus pallescens Hume.

Also procured by Hume at Jodhpur where it is apparently common. No |

specimens of Vultures were preserved by the Survey.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin).

Noted by Hume near Jodhpur and apparently common. |

Neophron percnopterus ginginianus (Latham). |

The Egyptian Vulture is very common in Jodhpur State. Hume _ records

it as of this form.

Falco jugger Gray.

Specimens collected :

Tilwara.

Hume met with the Lugger Falcon at Balmeer and Jodhpur but considered

it) rare.

307 dO 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura; 327 21-12-33

Falco checquera Daudin.

The Torumti was noted by Hume near Jodhpur but no specimen’ was

procured by the Survey.

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus.

Specimen collected :—203 Q 8-11-33, Jalor.

Hume called the Kestrel rare in the neighbourhood of Jodhpur.

Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin.

Specimens collected:—149 1-11-33 Jalor; 228 Q 15-11-33 Bhinmal; 317

Q 6-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura ; 325. 20-12-33 Tilwara.

Hume also records the Tawny Eagle from the neighbourhood of Jodhpur.

Aquila clanga Pallas.

Specimen collected :—360 Q imm. 14-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara District.

The Large Spotted Eagle is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot).

Specimen collected :—361 Q 14-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara District.

Hume had a specimen of Bonelli’s Eagle from the State.

Circaétus ferox (S. G. Gmelin) [gallicus auct.].

Hume states that he took the nest and saw several specimens of the Short-

toed Eagle in Jodhpur. For the change of the name of this Eagle see Ibis,

1934, P- 645.

Butastur teesa (Franklin).

Specimens collected :—311 G 4-12-33. Jawar, Jaswantpura; 236 ¢ imm.

16-11-33 Bhinmal.

The White-eyed Buzzard is included by Hume in his list.

Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pallas).

Pallas’ Fishing Eagle is said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur but it is

necessarily rare there.

Milvus migrans govinda Sykes.

No specimen of the Common Pariah Kite was brought back by the Survey

but Hume includes the bird in his Jodhpur list and it is presumably common.

PHEDORNITHOEOGICAL “SURVEY. .OF J[ODHPUR STATE 229

Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham).

Specimen collected:—171 dG 4-11-33 Jalor.

Included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin).

Specimen collected :—277 Q 26-11-33 Sunda hill, 3,400 ft.

The Pale Harrier is said by Hume to be common.

Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected :—357 ¢ 10-1-34 Bilara.

Also said by Hume to be common but suitable jheels are scarce in the

State.

Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar).

Specimens collected :—322 @, 324 OG 19-12-33 Tilwara.

Hume found the Long-legged Buzzard ‘rather scarce’ in the neighbourhocd

of Jodhpur.

Buteo buteo burmanicus Hume.

Specimens collected :—255 G 23-11-33, 282 dG 27-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.

In attributing these two Buzzards to the above race I am following con-

ventional usage rather than any profound conviction of my own as the whole

question of the identity of Indian Buzzards seems to be uncertain. No. 282 is

the smallest Buzzard I have ever seen (bill from = skull 32.5, wing 342, tail

182 tarsus 7.5 mm.) and smaller than the measurements given by Witherby

for vulpinus (g wing 350-85 mm.) and by Hartert for japonicus (=burmanicus) |

(3 wing 355-87 mm.). It seems to me equally likely to belong. to either form.

It will be remembered that Hume was very puzzled by a small Buzzard

with a wing of 13.4 ins.=34o0 mm. obtained on the Brahmagherries. S.F.,

X, Pp- 159, 327 and 338.

Astur badius dussumieri (Temminck).

Specimens collected :—181 9 6-11-33 Jalor; 213° Q@ 13-11-33 Bhinmal.

Hume records the Shikra from Jodhpur but considered it local and absent

from the more barren areas.

Accipiter nisus (Linnaeus).

Hume says that the Sparrowhawk occurs in) Jodhpur but is apparently

very rare.

Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth).

The Southern Green Pigeon is stated by Hume to oceur in Jodhpur.

4 P

Columba livia subsp.

No specimen of the Blue Rock-Pigeon was procured by the Survey. Under

the name of intermedia Hume stated that he found this species extraordinarily

scarce in Jodhpur even though its killing was strictly forbidden. This was

in a year of drought and he was informed that it was more common. in

normal years.

Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin).

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin).

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto Frivalsky.

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INATO RAE HiSis SOCIBIOG kal Ge

Oenopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann).

No specimens of doves were preserved by the Survey but Hume includes

these four species in his Jodhpur list.

Pterocles orientalis (Linnaeus),

The Imperial Sandgrouse is said by Hume to be very common in Jodhpur

and he describes (Game Birds, i, 49) how he came upon a pack of fully two

thousand, grouped together in a clump little, if at all, more than thirty yards

long by ten wide.

Pterocles indicus (Gmelin).

Adam found the Painted Sandgrouse common in the Koochamun Hills in

March 1871 and gives a full account (S.F., i, 391) of how he shot them over

water there. He subsequently obtained eggs from that locality in April and

May.

Pterocles alchata caudacutus (S. G. Gmelin).

According to Stuart Baker (Game Birds, ii, 283) the Large Pin-tailed

Sandgrouse has been obtained in Jodhpur but no details are given.

Pterocles exustus ellioti Bogdanow.

The Common Sandgrouse is common in Jodhpur according to Hume.

Pterocles senegallus (Linnaeus).

Dr. Newman obtained the Spotted Sandgrouse at Polkurun and found it

very common between that place and the town of Jaisalmer as well as throughout

the country for about 20 miles south of Jaisalmer. This tract is hard and

stony but intermingled with sand. A male skin and the wing of a female

were sent to Butler in verification of this record (cf. S.F., iv, 508 and v, 60).

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus.

In spite of the drought and famine Hume found a few Peafowl still at

Jodhpur and he remarks that as the bird is more or less sacred in Rajputana

it becomes very common wherever there is suitable cover.

Perdicula argoondah meinertzhageni Whistler.

Specimen collected :—169 Q 4-11-33 Jalor, 500 ft.

The Rock Bush-quail is said by Hume to be common. Either this or

P. asiatica occurs in the Ioochamun_ Hills.

Francolinus pendicerianus (Gmelin).

Included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Coturnix coturnix (Linnacus).

In Hume’s Jodhpur list.

Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin).

According to Hume the Black-breasted quail is found in western Jodhpur

only in the rains.

Turnix tanki tanki Blyth.

Hume states that the Button-quail has been obtained in Jodhpur towards

the close of the rains in August and September.

Turnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temm. & Lang.).

The Little Button-quail is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

= -> r ee ; —

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE 231

Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus).

The Waterhen is given in Hume's list.

Porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham).

Very rare in Jodhpur (Hume).

Fulica atra Linnaeus.

Given in Hume’s list.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli).

Given in Hume’s list.

Rhynchaea benghalensis (Linnacus).

Occurs in Jodhpur according to Hume but is more common in the rains.

Grus grus (Linnaeus).

The Common Crane is more or less common in the cold season according

to Hume.

Antigone antigone (Linnaeus).

Common in Jodhpur according to Hume.

Anthropcides virgo (Linnaeus).

The Demoiselle is common in Jodhpur according to Hume. Adam mentions

seeing a flock near Nawa on 13 March 1873.

Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors).

In Hunie’s day the Great Bustard was ‘uncommon’ in Jodhpur.

Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii (Gray)

Common in Jodhpur (Hume).

Sy pheotides indica (Miller).

Common in Jodhpur as a rain’s visitor according to Hume.

Burhinus oedicnemus saharae (Reichw).

Specimen collected :—g96 ¢ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali.

Adam says that he met with the Stone-curlew in the scrub jungle near to

Mata Pahar and in the low range of hills to the west of Nawa; in the

latter place he saw a party of four. Mack-worth-Praed and Grant ([bis., 1936,

p- 200) have come to the same opinion which I reached independently that

saharae and astutus are only sandy and greyish phases of the same_ bird,

phases which Ticehurst has suggested (Ibis. 1937, pp. 406-407) may have

some connection with soil and locality as in the case of various larks. Bates’

suggestion (Ibis., 1937, p.308) that the sandy phase was connected with

immaturity is refuted by this specimen which is very sandy in colour and is

an adult undergoing the complete post-nuptial moult.

Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier).

The Great Stone Plover is found in suitable river beds in Jodhpur (Hume).

Cursorius cursor (Latham).

According to Hume the Cream-coloured Courser replaces the next species

throughout the greater part of Jodhpur.

232 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIEDY> WV olgexte

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin).

Hume notes that he saw the Indian Courser near Jodhpur town.

Larus brunneicephalus Jerdon.

Chlidonias leuccpareia indica (Stephens).

Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin).

Sterna aurantia Gray.

Hume notes that these 4 species occur in Jodhpur.

Squatarola squatarola (Linnacus).

‘In Jodhpur I do not know of its occurring except when migrating in

autumn and spring when stragglers are met with at many large pieces of

water’ (Hume).

Leucopolius alexandrinus (Linnaeus).

Included on Hume’s authority.

Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge).

Specimen collected :—5 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali.

According to Hume the Little Ring Plover is common in Jodhpur.

Cirrepedesmus mongolus (Pallas).

Cirrepedesmus leschenaultii (Lesson).

According to Hume both these Plovers may be met on migration in Jodhpur

between 15 August and 15 September or during April and May.

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gmelin).

Hume states that he has only seen one specimen of the Eastern Golden

Plover from Jodhpur and that was taken at Pali.

Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus).

Adam says that he only saw the Lapwing twice at a lake near Koochamun

and only obtained one specimen.

Chettusia gregaria (Pallas).

A cold weather visitor and common according to Hume.

Chettusia leucura (Lichtenstein),

Included in Hume’s list.

Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert).

Although the Red-Wattled Lapwing was not procured by the survey it is

common in Jodhpur according to Hume and during the drought he found a

pair or two about every hamlet. The little village ponds, around which these

birds usually live, were then empty and Hume describes in amusing language

how they had. in consequence betaken themselves to the village Golgathas,

living on the maggots and the flesh of the carcases of dead animals.

Himantopus himantepus (Linnaeus).

Common (Hume).

Recurvirostra avocetta Linnaeus.

Comparatively rare in Jodhpur (Hume).

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE — 233

Numenius arquata Linnaeus.

Rare in Jodhpur where the localities suited to it are few (Hume).

Limosa limosa (Linnaeus).

Common according to Hume.

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein).

Not uncommon in suitable localities in Jodhpur (Hume).

Tringa giareola Linnaeus.

Tringa totanus (Linnaeus).

Tringa erythropus (Vroeg).

Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus).

These four species are all included by Hume in his list.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus).

The Ruff is common according to Hume.

Erolia minuta (Leisler).

Erolia temminckii (Leisler).

Both these Stints are included in Hume's ist.

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus).

Lymnocryptes minutus (Brinnich).

Both these Snipe are included in Hume’s list, the former being said to

be common.

Pelicanus philippensis Gmelin.

Hume includes the Spot-billed Pelican in his Jodhpur list.

Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus).

Included in Hume’s list.

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens.

Dr. King noted the Indian Shag from Jodhpur but Hume says that he

personally had not examined any specimen from there.

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot).

Said by Hume to be common in suitable localities.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant.

Included in Hume’s list.

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus.

Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham).

Pseudibis papillesus (Temm. & Laug.).

All three species are included by Hume in his list apparently as more or

less common birds.

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus).

‘Very rare in Jodhpur’ (Hume).

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus)..

Hume did not think the White Stork was very rare in parts of Jodhpur

suited to its tastes.

Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus).

The Black Stork has been obtained in Jodhpur (Hume).

Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham).

Rare in Jodhpur (Hume).

Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin).

Hume says that the adjutant in his day was scarcely seen in Jodhpur

except during the rains, but I imagine that it is no longer found there.

Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant).

Common in Jodhpur according to Hume.

Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert).

Hume says that the Open-bill is not uncommon in Jodhpur.

Ardea purpurea Linnaeus.

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus.

Egretta alba (Linnaeus).

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus).

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert).

Ardeola grayii Sykes.

Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield).

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus).

All the above species of Heron are included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus.

According to Hume Dr. King obtained the Flamingo at Pali in October.

Sarkidiornis melanotus (Pennant).

The Nukta is common in Jodhpur according to Hume.

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield).

Very rare in Jodhpur (Hume).

Casarca ferruginea (Pallas).

Occurs in Jodhpur (Hume).

Anas platyrhyncka (Linnaeus).

‘I have only seen one killed in Jodhpur near Pallae* (Hume).

Anas poecilorhyncha Forster.

Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus).

Nettion crecca (Linnaeus).

Dafila acuta (Linnaeus).

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE

Querquedula querquedula (Linnaeus).

Spatula clypeata (Linn.).

Netta rufina (Pallas).

Nyroca ferina (Linnaeus).

Nyroca rufa (Linnaeus).

Nyroca fuligula (Linnaeus).

The above ducks are all included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori.

Finally the Little Grebe is also included by Hume in his Jodhpur list.

ON A NEW COCCIDIUM ISOSPORA MINUTA n. sp. FROM

THE INTESTINE OF A COBRA NAJA NAJA LINN.

MATIRANJAN DAS-GUPTA, M.SC.

(rom the Dept. of Zoology, University of Calcutta).

(With three text-figures).

INTRODUCTION.

July 1935, some specimens of Cobra Naja naja bought

from local dealers who captured them from Sunderbans, Bengal,

were examined. Oocysts of a coccidium belonging to the genus

Isospora, were directly recovered from the natural droppings and

rectal contents on dissection of some of the specimens kept in

captivity. From the literature on the subject the following species

of Isospora from snakes are found to have been recorded :—

Isospora sp. Grassi (1881) from Coronella austriaca; I. laverani

Hagenmuller (1898) from Coelopeltis lacertina; I. fragilis Leger

(1904) from Vipera aspis; I. crotal (Trifitt, 1925) Hoare from

Crotalus confluentus; I. neivai Pinto and Maciel (1929) from

Bothrops jararaca; I, naiae Fantham (1932) from Naja flava; I.

dirumpens Hoare (1933) from Bitis arietans; I. phisalix Yakimoft

and Gousseff (1934) from Elaphe quatuor lineata sauromotes; I.

lenti Pinto (1934) from Bothrops jararaca.

The development of the oocysts of this coccidium took place

outside the body of the host and thus it differs from I. dirumpens

Hoare in which the oocysts become mature in the wall of the

intestine (intra and sub-epithelial regions). It also differs from

I. naiae Fantham by the absence of oocystic residue and the

presence of sporocystic one. This parasite obtained from cobra

differs from other known species of Isospora from snakes by its

shape, size and nature of the oocysts and the name Isospora minuta

n. sp. 1s proposed for it.

MATERIAL AND METHODS.

Rectal contents diluted with saline was examined systematically

in sealed preparations. The oocysts were transferred to 1 per cent

chromic acid solution where the development was completed in three

days. . Portions of the intestine were fixed in Buin’s fluid and then

cut sections 6m thick and stained in Heidenhain’s hzmatoxylin.

Measurements of oocysts were taken from samples both fresh and

in chromic acid solution.

OBSERVATIONS ON Isospora minuta n. sp.

In the sub-epithelium of the sections of the intestine oocysts

were found with two sporocysts containing ripe sporozoites (Fig. 1).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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Isospora minuta n.

ON A NEW COCCIDIUM TSOSPORA MINUTA 237

No other endogenous stages were observed. The fully matured

oocysts in chromic acid solution measure 15 x 7.5 (Fig. 2). The

oocystic membrane is very thin and there is no oocystic residue.

The two thick-walled sporocysts (Fig. 3) are spherical and measure

7.5 w« in diameter. A small sporocystic residue is present. The

sporozoites are arranged in a regular manner and lie on one side

of the small sporocystic residue. The presence of innumerable

mature oocysts in the sub-epithelium and the total absence of a

single ripe oocyst or any sporocysts in the faeces and the absence

of the other endogenous stages of the parasite may be accounted

for. In one stage in the life of this parasite the ripe sporozoites

by rapturing the sporocystic wall, may infect the neighbouring

cells and then by some of them oocysts are formed which come

out with the faces to infect a new host.

Diagnosis.— Systematic position Isospora minuta n. sp.

(Coccidiida, Eimeriidae).

Oocysts very small, thin-walled, development extra corporal, no

oocystic residue; sporocyst spherical, thick-walled; small sporocystic

residue present; unsegmented oocysts discharged from host;

sporulation time 3 days.

Habitat.—Small intestine of cobra Naja naja.

Locality.—Sunderbans, Bengal.

REFERENCE TO LITERATURE.

Fantham, H. B.—‘Some parasitic protozoa found in South Africa’. S. Afric.

Journ.. Sci., 29; 627 (1932).

Grassi, B.—‘ Intorno ad alcuni protisti endoparassitici ed appartenenti alle

classe dei flagellati, lobosi sporozoi e ciliati’. Atli. Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., 24, 135

(1881).

Hagenmuller, P.—‘Sur une nouvelle coccidie diplosporée (Diplospora laverant)

Hgm. parasite d’un ophidien’. C.R. Soc. Biol., 150, 309 (1898).*

Hoare, C. A.—‘Studies on some new ophidian and avian coccidia from

Uganda, with a revision of the classification of the Eimeriidea’. Parasit.

Cambridge, 25, 359 (1933).

Leger, L.—‘Protozoaires parasites des vipéres (Vipera aspis)’. Bull. mensuel

Assoc. Franc. Avanc. Sciences, No. 9, 268 (1904).

Pinto, C.—‘Isospora lenti n. sp. parasita de ofidio venenose do Brasil.

Eimeridia, sporozoa’. Ann. Acad. Bras. Sci. Rio., 6, 11 (1934).

Pinto e Maciel, J.—‘Eimeria arnaldoi e Isospora neivai’. Revista medico-

cirurgica do Brasil, No. 6 (1929).

Trifftt, M. J.—‘Observations on two new species of coccidia parasitic in

snakes’. Protozoology, 1, 19 (1925).

Yakimoff, W. L. and Gousseff, W. F.—‘Isospora phisalix n. sp. neue

schlangencoccidie’. Arch. Protistenk., 81, 547 (1934).

ExPLANATIONS OF FIGURES.

All the drawings were made under camera lucida.

1. Section of intestine with sporoblasts containing sporozoites. X750.

2. Mature thin-walled oocyst with two thick-walled spherical sporoblasts.

X 2700.

3. Oocyst with two sporoblasts each containing 4 ripe sporozoites and a

small residue. 2700.

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND.

C. H. -BIDDULP rH

(With a map).

Rameswaram Island, situated at the southern end of the

Ramnad District in the Madras Presidency and forming the Indian

end of Adams Bridge between India and Ceylon, is of importance,

other than as regards the bird life which is found on it. Besides

being a spot venerated by Hindus it is the terminus, at the Indian

end, of the Indo-Ceylon rail connection between Dhanushkodi and

Talaimannar.

The island, which is roughly triangular in shape, is approxi-

mately seventeen miles in length and seven miles in width at the

widest part. It is separated from the mainland of India by the

Pamban Pass which is something over a mile in width and is

bridged to enable trains to cross over to the island and proceed

to the rail terminus at Dhanushkodi.

The northern half of the island is really the only portion with

any appreciable width and elevation above the sea and is sparsely

covered with trees and vegetation, the vegetation being thicker

where the swamps and backwaters occur. Practically the entire

southern half consists of bare sandy plains and sand hills, which

are continually moving during the heavy seasonal winds. The

vegetation in this area consists of a few babool trees with coarse

grasses and a few stunted bushes.

The common trees are the tamarind, neem, casuarina and

mango with coconut and palmyrah palms. All the above have

been planted by the inhabitants of the island. The remaining

vegetation, which has not been cultivated, consists of babool trees,

dwarf date palms, screwpine, various thorn bushes, creepers,

mangrove in the swampy areas, cactus in the drier areas and

various varieties of coarse grasses, which in some parts cover

considerable areas.

All the commoner birds are found in the northern, or wooded

half of the island, whereas the southern half is admirably suited

to the Plovers, Gulls, Terns, Flamingoes and Waders. The

Flamingoes are restricted to the extreme southern end of the island,

where it tapers to a point and the low-lying sand flats become

shallow lagoons during the north-east monsoon.

Apart from the bird life the island is singularly devoid of

animals, squirrels and mongooses only being seen. The only

reptiles observed were the common bloodsucker and a few rat and

water-snakes.

The sea surrounding the island is one of the few areas in which

the Dugong is found and occasionally caught by the fishermen.

Turtles, both Green and Hawk-billed, are also caught in fairly

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THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 239

large numbers; the former for food and the latter for the

tortoise shell.

The average rainfall for the past sixty years is 36.81 inches,

of which 27.90 inches is accounted for during the north-east monsoon

in October, November and December. June, July and August are

the driest months of the year, the rainfall being under an inch

per month during this period.

The heavy winds at the time of the south-west monsoon are

responsible for a great deal of the drifting sand which forms

big sand-dunes which move from west to east across the island

until anchored by encountering trees and being covered by a

growth of grasses and shrubs.

The island is fairly healthy except for malarial fever which is

prevalent at certain seasons of the year.

The main occupation of the inhabitants is fishing and_ fish

curing, the salted fish being exported to Ceylon. This occupation

has a direct bearing on a certain section of the bird life. At this

season there is a large influx of Pariah Kites, Brahminy Kites,

Common Crows and Jungle Crows from the mainland. They can

then be seen in large numbers where the fish are spread out to

dry. These birds are seen each morning flying over from the

mainland and returning again in the evening. These non-resident

birds do not appear to consider the island a home, or even a

temporary home, during this period as they return to the mainland

each night.

Observations of the bird life extended over the period June

1929 to May 1931, records being maintained of all the resident

species, local migrants and true migrants for each month of the

year.

The list of birds furnished is not to be considered as complete,

but covers only such birds as were readily seen during the two-

year period under review. Such birds as the Golden Oriole,

Coppersmith and Spoonbill have been reported to occur, but have

not been included as they were not observed by me. Attention

was directed mainly to the water birds because of the restricted

area in the Presidency where their movements could be studied

under such favourable conditions. These birds appear to find the

island admirably suited to their requirements, both as a permanent

or semi-permanent feeding ground, as also a convenient resting

place on their journeys through India to Ceylon and back again

at the end of the north-east monsoon.

It will be observed that certain of the waders have been recorded

in practically every month of the year and it is presumed that

such of them as are seen during the summer months are non-

breeding birds that have found conditions on the island suitable

and have remained, when the majority have left for their breeding

grounds in Central Asia and Siberia.

The list of birds shows that the permanent bird population

consists of only the commoner birds seen on the plains of

the mainland of India, but there appears to be scope for a

detailed examination of all the resident birds, as also the local

migrants, as there would be every possibility of finding inter-

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

mediate races between the true Indian and Ceylon forms on the

island.

It is regretted that a series of skins of all the birds under

these classes was not secured at the time, as a detailed paper

was not contemplated with a view to establishing the existence

of local races, but merely to cataloguing the number of species

found on this small island. This paper may be considered as an

introduction to a more detailed examination of the resident bird

life on the island by an investigator with more time at his disposal,

who can obtain a series of skins for comparison with collections

of skins from India and Ceylon already available in the British

Museum collection.

A perusal of the articles in the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Journal, in connection with the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey

of the Eastern Ghats’, shows that considerable information is still

required in connection with some of the commonest birds found

in the Madras Presidency. It is hoped that information furnished

against some of the species found on Rameswaram Island may in

a measure supplement what has so far been placed on record.

In Volume xxxv, No. 3, page 505 of the Journal, in the ficst

article in connection with the Survey the attention of members

has been drawn to this lack of knowledge and it is felt that although

Rameswaram Island lies outside the actual area of the Eastern

Ghats that it is still one of the interesting areas where careful

bird-watching will result in clearing up some of the problems

before investigators interested in a detailed study and comparison

of the birds of India and Ceylon.

The ‘only other -reference to a study of the bird life of

Rameswaram Island which I have been able to find, through

references given in the published accounts of the Vernay Scientific

Survey, is a list of twenty-four birds secured by Doctor Armstrong

near Pamban in March 1875. The skins of these birds were sent

to Hume and published in Stray Feathers, 1876, pp. 457-459.

Twenty-three of these birds have been marked with an asterisk

in the list of birds now furnished.

One bird, Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata, appears unusual as

it was never seen on the island by me and is practically a

permanent resident in the hills. It may be presumed that the bird

secured was a very rare stray migrant or else an escaped cage-

bird which had been brought to the island. |

I have to acknowledge reference to the Manual of the Birds

of Ceylon by W. E. Wait of the Ceylon Civil Service, from which

I have quoted in certain instances where it is thought that

observations recorded in the case of the Ceylon birds confirmed

those of the birds from Rameswaram Island; or accounted for

certain uncommon birds which may have come, or been blown

over from Ceylon during the monsoons.

I have also to acknowledge the valuable assistance and advice

given me by Mr. N. B. Kinnear, M.B.0.U., of the British Museum

of Natural History, South Kensington, in the preparation of this

paper. It was with his permission that I was able to consult

reference books in the Museum Library and study the valuable

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 241

collection of birds’ skins secured by the collectors of the Vernay

Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats of the Madras Presidency.

In this paper Rameswaram Island has been considered as lying

with its longest length due north and south; actually the map

shows that it lies almost due east and west. It is however not

considered sufficiently important to alter the notes to agree with

its actual situation.

The Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus (Sykes).

A common bird seen everywhere on the island. Greater numbers are seen

during the months of May and June and again in August and September

when fish curing operations are in progress.

A pair of these birds were seen building a nest on a palmyrah palm on

12-6-1930.

The Common House Crow Corvus splendens splendens

(Vieillot).

A common bird seen everywhere on the island. As in the case of the

Jungle Crow much larger numbers are observed on the island during the

months of May and June and August and September.

The birds breed freely on the island and five nests were seen in June

1929. Coconut palms were used in two instances, casuarina trees in two

instances and one nest in a tamarind. In one case the nest was only 9g feet

off the ground in a casuarina tree. In every instance the birds were sitting

on the nests and four eggs were taken from one of the nests in a coconut

palm on 11-6-1929. Three of the eggs were heavily incubated but the fourth.

which was much smaller, was practically fresh and was thought to be that of

a Koel. It will be noticed however that Koels have only been observed on

the island during the months of October, November and December.

Crows were again seen building in September and on 1-10-1930 a nest with

young was seen in the steel lattice jib of the pier crane at Dhanushkodi.

Baker and Inglis in The Birds of Southern India give the breeding season

of the Crow as February to August.

“The White-headed Babbler Turdoides striatus polioplocamus

(Oberholser).

A common bird found in the northern half of the island. These birds

are more in evidence during the months of July, August and September.

*The Common Babbler Argya caudata caudata (Dumont).

A fairly common bird, but not nearly so common as _ the_ preceding

species. They are seen in small parties, in every month of the year, in the

northern half of the island.

*The Ceylon flora githina tiphia zeylonica.

A fairly common bird in the northern half of the island. The birds seen

are generally very dark in colour and are almost certainly the Ceylon Tora,

although this matter cannot be settled satisfactorily until a series of skins

has been examined.

The Red-vented Bulbul Molpastes cafer cafer (Linn.).

A common bird seen in the northern half of the island. These birds are

more in evidence during the months of November, December, January and

February.

The Yellow-browed Bulbul Jole icterica (Strickland).

A fairly common bird seen moving about the undergrowth, in small parties,

in the northern half of the island. The numbers seen are fairly constant for

every month of the year.

A bird was shot on 29-9-1930 for purposes of identification,

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST“ SOCIETY, Vol. XE

The Black-backed Indian Robin = Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata

(Linn):

A rare bird on the island as a male of this species was only once seen

ON 31-I-1g30.

It is reported as abundant all over the low country in Ceylon and may

have been a stray bird blown over during the heavy winds of the north-east

monsoon.

*The Magpie Robin = Copsychus saularis ceylonensis.

A very uncommon bird only seen on two occasions in May and August.

On each occasion only a single bird was seen in the northern half of. the

island. .

Hume however had a skin which was obtained from Pamban in March 187s.

The Red-breasted Flycatcher Siphia parva albicilla.

A rare bird seen during the month of October near Rameswaram town in

the thick babool scrub jungle. Four birds were seen on the same day.

It is suggested in the account of the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey of the

Eastern Ghats’ that this bird should be omitted from the Madras Presidency

list. I am of the opinion however that it should be considered one of the

Presidency birds as it has been frequently seen by me in the Villupuram,

Tanjore and Madura Districts during the winter months.

Wait remarks that it would appear to migrate down the centre of the

Indian peninsula and that it has been observed in the Deccan in October.

*The Paradise Flycatcher Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.).

A fairly common bird seen in the northern half of the island in gardens

near dwellings at Pamban. Usually seen during the months of October,

November, December and January. I have a single record of one seen on

29-3-1930, which appears to be late for the island.

None of the pure white and black males were observed, nor did any of

the males have the median chestnut tail feathers fully developed.

Reported by Wait as only being seen in its white and black plumage on

one occasion although a common resident bird in Ceylon.

The Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus (Valenciennes).

A fairly common bird seen in the northern and central portions of the

island where it was drier and babool trees and thorn bushes were found. The

numbers appear to increase during the months of July, August and September.

The Grey-backed Shrike Lanius schach caniceps (Blyth).

A fairly common bird which is seen in the same areas as the preceding

one, but not in the same numbers. My notes do not record the bird in the

month of September, but this may be due to the one or two birds usually

seen being in some other part of the island during that month.

*The Common Wood Shrike TJephrodornis pondicerianus

pondicerianus (Gmelin). |

An uncommon bird on the island, three being the greatest number seen

on a single day. Usually found in the same area as the two _ preceding

species.

My records show that these birds were not observed on the island during

the months of March, April and May and again in November and December.

Hume records this bird from the island in March 1875. There appears to

be no reason why it should not be resident.

The Large Indian Cuckoo Shrike Graucalus javensis macei

(Lesson).

An uncommon bird only seen during the months of January and February

and in a single instance one was observed in October.

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 243

Three birds was the largest number seen on any single day. It is possible

that the birds seen on the island were the Ceylon type Graucalus macei layardt.

*The Ashy Swallow Shrike <Artamus fuscus (Vieillot).

A fairly common bird which is seen almost everywhere on the island where

palmyrah palms are growing. These birds are very numerous during the

period June to September, the numbers falling off considerably during the

remaining months of the year. The fewest birds are seen during the period

January to March.

Reported as appearing to be a partial migrant in parts of Ceylon.

*The Black Drongo Dicrurus = macrocercus peninsularis

(Ticehurst).

A common bird seen over the greater part of the island. The numbers

appear to increase during the period June to September and it is during

the latter month that numbers of young birds are seen without their long

outer tail feathers. The breeding season on the island would therefore agree

with that shown by Baker and Inglis in The Birds of Southern India.

Some of the drongos on the island should be shot and examined as _ it

is possible that the Ceylon Black Drongo may also occur.

*The Indian Tailor Bird = Orthotomus sutorius gusurata

(Latham).

A bird which is not seen in any numbers due to its skulking habits

and size. Birds were seen in every month of the year excepting November

and December and this may have been due to the fact that they were keeping

under cover during the north-east monsoon.

The Ashy Wren-warbler = Prinia socialis socialis (Sykes).

This bird was not seen during the period February to May. It is never

really common and three is the greatest number seen on any single day.

The Rosy Pastor Pastor roseus (Linn.).

These birds only visit the island during the winter months when they

are seen in small flocks during December, January and February. Most birds

are seen in the month of December.

It is thought that these birds are migrants on their way to Ceylon that

spend as short a time as possible on the island due to the scarcity of

suitable food.

Reported as a rather uncertain migrant to the north and west of the

island of Ceylon.

*The Brahminy Mynah = Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin).

These birds only visit the island during the winter months. The scattered

birds collect into small parties which are seen flying about in December

and January. Usually seen in the northern and central parts of the island.

No birds are seen during the period April to September.

The Common Mynah Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linn.).

A common bird seen practically all over the island.

A pair of these birds were seen entering a nest in a hole in a palmyrah

palm on 21-6-1930.

The White-throated Munia Uvoloncha malabarica (Linn.).

This bird was not seen during the summer months of April to September.

A few were however seen on one occasion in June 1929.

The greatest number seen together was twelve, the usual being three or

four birds, It cannot be considered to be a common bird on the island.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Yellow-throated Sparrow Gymnorhis xanthocollis

xanthocollis (Burton).

Seen on only one occasion on the island on 19-2-1931.

Reported as a mere straggler to Ceylon.

The House Sparrow Passer domesticus indicus (Jardine and

Selby.).

A very common bird which is found wherever there are dwellings on the

island. They have gathered in large numbers even at the extreme end of

the island and nest in the verandahs of the Post Office building at Dhanushkodi

during July and August. Large numbers also breed in dwellings at Pamban

and Rameswaram town.

The Grey-headed Wagtail Motacilla flava thumbergi

(Billberg).

A fairly common bird found on the island from September to March each

year. They are never seen in great numbers and are usually found near the

railway line in the lower and more sandy part of the island, frequenting the

railway borrow-pits which contain water.

These birds are commonest during. January and February, when from

twenty to thirty may be seen in a single day.

It is observed in the account of the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey’ that it is

suggested that these wagtails may reach Ceylon by way of the Andaman

Islands. This is not considered by me to be the usual route as large numbers

are seen during the period December to February, in the Tanjore District,

which appear to be migrating. In some instances, especially in the evenings,

flights consisting of from two to three hundred birds were seen resting on

house tops and even on large trees before resuming their flight at sunset.

Reported as one of the commonest migrants arriving in Ceylon in September

and abundant during the north-east monsoon.

*The Indian Pipit Anthus rufulus rufulus (Vieillot).

A bird which is never really common, although a greater number are

seen in December, January and February. This pipit is usually found in

the southern half of the island where there are large areas of very flat land

covered with coarse grasses.

The Madras Bush-lark Mirafra affinis (Jerdon).

A fairly common bird which is found practically all over the island, but

more especially in the area referred to when dealing with the pipit.

There does not appear to be a period in the year when they are more

numerous.

Sykes’ Crested Lark Galerida deva (Sykes).

A fairly common bird which is found in the southern half of the island

where there are large areas of level grass land.

Birds were not actually observed in May and November, but it cannot

be assumed that they leave the island for two short periods in the year.

The Rufous-tailed Finch-lark Ammomanes phoenicura phoeni-

cura (Franklin).

A fairly common bird which visits the island during the period May to

October. It is usually found in the southern half of the island, although

not entirely confined to that area as it is frequently seen along the railway

line in the northern half. The largest numbers were seen in the months of

July and October.

*The Ashy-crowned Finch-lark Evremopterix grisea grisea

(Scopoli).

A very common bird seen practically all over the island during every

month of the year. Larger numbers appear to be seen during the period

October to January.

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND | 245

ter

*The Indian Purple Sunbird Cinnvris asiatica asiatica

(Latham).

A fairly common bird which is confined to the northern half of the island.

Has not been observed breeding on the island although it must do so.

The Purple-rumped Sunbird Cimnyris seylonica (Linn.).

A fairly common bird which is confined to the northern half of the island.

More birds appear to be seen during the months of July, August and September.

Baker and Inglis in The Birds of Southern India state that the breeding

season extends from January to March, whereas my observations on_ the

island show that they breed from August to December. It would therefore

be more correct to say, as Baker and Inglis do in the case of the Purple

Sunbird, ‘breeds practically all the year round in some portion or other of

its habitat.’

5-8-1929. Nest with two fresh eggs on a _ babool tree.

19-11-1929. Nest with one fresh egg on a babool tree, about three feet off

the ground.

2-12-1929. Nest being constructed on the end of a palmyrah palm _ leaf,

about twelve feet off the ground.

‘The Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats’ mentions February, March,

August and December as months during which breeding has been recorded

in the Madras Presidency.

*The Southern Golden-backed Woodpecker Bruchypternus

benghalensis puncticollis (Malherbe).

A fairly uncommon bird which has not been observed by me in March

and November. It is possible that the bird found on the island is intermedius,

the Ceylon race, but. this can only be established by securing a series of

skins. It may also be found that both birds occur on Rameswaram Island.

The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus passerinus

(Vahl.). 7

A very uncommon bird seen during the period September to December

in the northern and north-eastern portions of the island.

A very shy retiring bird which was occasionally seen when flying from

one tree to another. One bird only was usually seen, but from my _ notes

it is observed that on 19-11-1929 four birds were seen on the same day.

Reported as a migrant appearing during the north-east monsoon in Ceylon.

*The Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus jacobinus

(Boddaert).

A fairly common bird which was observed during all the months of the

year excepting May. More birds appear to have been seen from August to

February than in the other months of the year. Usually found in the northern

half of the island in the scrub jungle.

A pair of these birds were seen mating on 29-3-1930.

The Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linnaeus).

A fairly uncommon bird only observed during October, November and

December. This period corresponds with the north-east monsoon and _ the birds

were seen eating a red fruit on a creeper that was found growing on some of

the ‘bushes and babool trees at this season.

My notes show that on 24-10-1930 a Koel was seen flying from the mainland

to the island across the Pamban Pass.

In the note on the Common House Crow a record is furnished, dated

1-6-1929, in which a fresh egg was found along with three hard-set eggs.

This small egg exactly resembled a Koel’s in size and colouring and would

point to the presence of this bird on the island during June.

It is reported to be a resident bird in Ceylon.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

*The Small Green-billed Malkoha Rhopodytes viridirostris

(Jerdon).

A fairly common bird which is seen skulking in the bushes and undergrowth

in the northern half of the island. A couple of these birds can be seen any

day in the year, although their numbers appear to increase during the period

August to October, when from five to eight birds have been seen in a single

day.

Reported as resident in Ceylon and breeding from January to November.

The Southern Crow Pheasant Centropus sinensis parroti

(Stresemann).

While not being observed during five months of the year (i.e.) February,

April, May, September and November I consider this bird is one of the

more uncommon resident species on the island. Its skulking habits and the

thick undergrowth in the northern half of the island must have accounted

for its not having been recorded during the months previously referred to in

the note.

Usually only a single bird is seen in a day, but there is a record in my

notes of three having been seen on 17-12-1929.

The Green Parakeet Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein).

A common bird which is seen practically all over the island.

These parakeets appear to breed during the months of January, February,

March and June on the island as will be observed from the particulars

furnished.

11-6-1929. Two birds seen entering a hole in a coconut palm, about ten

feet off the ground, near Rameswaram town.

Another bird observed entering a hole in a coconut palm

which was being gradually covered by a large sand-dune. The

height of the hole above the sand-dune was only about five feet.

21-6-1929. Nest in a coconut palm near Rameswaram town containing two

very young birds and one chipped egg, with the chick about to

hatch.

31-1-1930. Two or three pairs of birds seen entering or leaving nest holes

in coconut or palmyrah palms.

29-3-1930. Many birds seen entering and sitting at holes in palm trees.

19-2-1931. Several birds seen at nest holes in palm trees.

The above notes have been given in detail as it is noticed in the records

of ‘The Vernay Scientific Survey’ that mention is made of the lack of

precise details of the breeding of these birds in the Madras Presidency.

Baker and Inglis refer to February or March as the breeding season.

The Blossom-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala cyano-

cephala (Linnaeus).

A very uncommon bird only seen during May, July, August and September

and then only in small numbers. The greatest number seen was five on

16-7-1930.

Usually seen sitting on the topmost branches of tall casuarina trees near

Rameswaram town.

Reported as a resident bird on the island of Ceylon.

The Southern Indian Roller = Covacias benghalensis indica

(Linnaeus).

A common bird seen almost all over the island.

A nest with four young birds found in a hole in a palmyrah palm, about

eight feet off the ground, on 21-6-1930. This date appears to agree with the

period April to June given by Baker and Inglis in The Birds of Southern

India.

The Little Bee-eater Merops orientalis orientalis (Latham).

A common bird which is seen all over the island. During July and August

most of the birds appear to be without the two middle tail feathers, or these

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 247

feathers have not developed so as to be longer than the rest of the tail and

with the narrow terminal portions visible. _By September practically all the

birds had these feathers fully developed.

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater <JAlerops superciliosus javanicus

(Horsfield).

A fairly common bird which is seen during the period September to March.

When the birds commence arriving in September nearly all of them appear

with the two middle tail feathers undeveloped. By December the majority

still have these feathers undeveloped, although they can be seen growing out.

Towards the end of January all birds have fully developed tails. It will be

seen that these bee-eaters are about from four to five months behind the

previous species in attaining the full adult plumage.

The Common Ceylon Kingfisher Alcedo atthis taprobana

(Kleinschmidt).

A fairly uncommon bird only seen during the period May to September

on the island. Usually found near ponds in the northern half of the island

and along the backwaters.

The White-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis fusca

(Boddaert).

A fairly common bird which breeds on the island, selecting sand banks

near some of the small streams. Details in my notes show that a pair were

seen working on their nest hole on 21-1-1930 and two pairs were doing the

same in another bank on 31-1-1930.

Baker and Inglis record the breeding period for Southern India to be

from March to July. This period may be extended to from January to July.

*The Ceylon Hoopoe UL pupa epops ceylonensis (Reichenbach).

A fairly common bird seen all over the northern and central portions of

the island.

Baker and Inglis give the breeding season as January to May, with the

remark that the early months are on the plains and the later ones on the

hills. It would appear more correct to extend this period to include the

month of June and to omit the remarks about the later months being on the

hills.

Breeding particulars :—

g-1-1931. A bird seen entering its nest in a hole in a stone wall.

21-1-1930. Bird seen carrying food in its beak and flying towards a building.

29-3-1930. Bird seen carrying food in its beak and flying towards a building.

21-6-1930. Bird seen carrying food in its beak and flying towards a building.

The Alpine Swift = Micropus melba bakeri (Hartert).

This bird is found on the island during the periods December to March

and again from August to October. Usually found in the central and southern

portions of the island. The numbers increase from December to March when

parties of from twenty to forty may often be seen seated on the telegraph

wires alongside the railway line. The account of these birds in the ‘Vernay

Scientific Survey’ is interesting as both Legge and more recently Phillips

suggest that the birds that visit Southern India may be daily visitors from

Ceylon, where it is resident in the higher hills.

The Palm Swift = Cypsiurus parvus batassiensis (Griffith).

A common bird seen everywhere on the island where there are palmyrah

palms. Most birds are seen during the period June to September.

The Common Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus

(Latham).

A rare bird only seen on one occasion on 5-6-1929 in the scrub jungle

in the northern end of the island and quite close to Pamban.

Reported as a resident bird in Ceylon.

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

*The Southern Spotted Owlet Athene brama brama (Tem-

minck).

A fairly common bird which is usually found near Pamban.

Hume procured a pair of skins of this bird which had been collected for

him on 17-3-1875 near the town of Pamban.

A bird was seen seated in a hole in a palm tree on 30-1-1930, but it is

not certain if it was breeding or merely using the hole as a shelter.

Although not seen by me in July, August and November it must be

presumed that this was only due to the birds skulking habits and the fact

that observations were not made on the island in the late evenings and

nfehitsi-due™=te ithe risk Of lever.

The Osprey Pandion haliaétus haliaétus (Linn.).

Usually seen in the Pamban Pass during the period December to May.

Birds were sometimes also seen in the extreme south of the island, flying

along the coast line.

The birds seen were usually perched on navigation posts or discs in the

Pamban Pass, from which they made their attacks on large fish as they

went past.

The Jugger Falcon [alco jugger (Gray).

A very uncommon bird which was usually seen on the island during the

period June to November. A single bird was also seen on 27-2-1930, this

being an unusual month.

These birds were seen in the wooded portions of the island, as also along

the sea coast and it is presumed that they visit the island at seasons when

they are able to procure the smaller migrant waders.

*The Indian Kestrel falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Stuart

Baker).

A moderately common bird which is seen on the island during the period

October to March. It usually frequents the northern and central portions

of the island, where it can be seen hovering over the more open grassy

spaces on the look out for small birds, animals and reptiles.

On one occasion a single bird was seen at the extreme southern end of

the island.

A skin of this bird was procured for Hume from Rameswaram island in

March 1875.

The Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila claunga (Pallas).

A very uncommon bird seen on three occasions on the island, in the

northern half, during the months of February, July and August.

The White-bellied Sea Eagle Haliaétus leuwcogaster (Gmelin).

A fairly common bird which was seen in every month of the year but

April round the coast of the island and occasionally inland. Only one or

two birds at the most were seen on any single day, but they appeared to

be more numerous during the period September to November. I have been

unable to find any evidence of the bird nesting on the island. Nests have

however been found at Cuddalore on the east coast of the Presidency and

in two instances on 28-11-1933 and again on 22-11-1934 a single fresh egg

was obtained.

A detailed note on this bird has been submitted to the Bombay Natural

History Society as it was noticed that the information published in the

reports of the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey’ did not furnish full details of the

distribution and breeding season. This note will appear in the journal and

should tbe read in conjunction with these particulars.

The Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert).

A very common bird seen all over the island throughout the year. The

number of birds seen during the two periods May to June and August to

September is very much greater than at other times and is due to the fishing

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 249

and fish curing operations then in progress. Most of the birds that appear

at these times are non-resident birds which come over to the island from the

mainland. The breeding season is mainly in January, the nests being built

on coconut palms. Young birds, without the adult plumage, are commonly

seen during July and August,

The Common Pariah Kite Milvus migrans govinda (Sykes).

A very common bird seen all over the island. The numbers increase during

the same periods as recorded for the Brahminy Kite and for the same reason.

The breeding season on the island appears to be in March and again in

September as my notes record a pair building on 18-2-1931 and two _ pairs

building on 17 and _ 18-g-1929. In all three instances coconut palms were

selected.

The Pale Harrier Circus macrourus (Gmelin).

An uncommon bird only seen during the period December to March.

Usually seen flying over the marshy areas in the central and southern

portions of the island. Two birds was the maximum number seen on any day.

The Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus).

A fairly common bird which is seen on the island during the period

October to June. As in the case of the Pale Harrier these birds are found

flying over the grassy areas and marshy portions in the centre and south.

More birds are seen during November, December and January than at

other times. Nine birds have been recorded in one day.

The Ceylon Shikra Astur badius badius (Temminck and

Lang.).

A moderately common bird which has been recorded on the island during

February, the period June to October and in the month of December. The

largest number seen on any single day was two, in June 1929.

_ These birds are seldom seen on the island as they keep to the thicker

babool and scrub jungle tracts in the northern part of the island.

The Indian Blue Rock-Pigeon Columba livia intermedia

(Strickland).

A rare bird seen on two occasions on the island. A flight of about twenty

being recorded on 25-10-1929 and a single bird on 9-1-1931.

The old temple at Rameswaram town is almost certain to have some

resident birds which can hardly be considered to be wild, other than that

they are ownerless.

The Ceylon Spotted Dove Sitreptopelia chinensis ceylonensis

(Reichenbach).

A fairly common bird seen all over the northern or wooded area of the

island. As some doubt existed as to whether the birds were suratensis or

ceylonensis two birds were shot and measured. The result showed that it

was the Ceylon Spotted Dove which was found on the island.

Length 10.5 inches. Wing 5 inches. Beak 0.63 inches.

The Indian Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senegalensis

cambayensis (Gmelin).

A fairly uncommon bird which is found in small numbers in the northern

half of the island during the period June to January. Most birds however

are seen during the month of October.

*The Southern Grey Partridge [vancolinus pondicerianus

pondicerianus (Gmelin).

A fairly uncommon bird which has however not been recorded by me

during the periods March to May and again in the months of September and

October.

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Port Officer at Pamban shot three partridges on 5-6-1929 and one

of them was only half grown, showing that these birds breed on the island.

The Banded Crake Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera (Jerdon).

A rare bird on the island as only one was seen on 3I-I-1930 near a

dense screwpine thicket adjoining a large pool of water.

Reported as a rare but constant migrant to Ceylon during the _ period

October to February.

The White-breasted Waterhen <Amaurornis — phoenicurus

phoenicurus (Pennant).

A fairly uncommon bird seen during the month of June on two occasions.

and again during the period December to February. Usually found in the

northern and central portions of the island near pools which have dense

cover adjoining.

Reported as a resident bird in Ceylon.

The Indian Moorhen or Waterhen = Gallinula chloropus indicus

(Blyth).

An uncommon bird seen in small numbers during the months of June,

December and January. Usually found in the same areas as the previous bird.

The Indian Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus indicus

(Salvadori).

An uncommon bird which is only found on the island during the period

June to October and then only in very small numbers in the area where

babool trees and scrub jungle is found. Six birds were seen together in a

patch of scrub jungle on 17-6-1929. One was shot on 23-7-1929 for identification.

It is believed to be a resident bird in Ceylon.

The Great Stone Plover Esdacus recurvirostris (Cuvier).

A fairly common bird on the island although it was not observed by me

during the months of February, May and November. More birds were however

seen during June and the period October to December.

Usually seen along the sea-shore at the southern end of the island, but

not always confined to this area, as birds have been seen in the sandy scrub

covered tracts in the centre of the island adjoining the railway line. Usually

only two birds are seen together.

Iwo birds were shot at different periods for identification and on examining

the stomach contents it was found to consist almost entirely of small sea

crabs which had been broken up and swallowed. Even the large clippers of

the crabs had been swallowed by these birds.

I have a note of a nest with two eggs having been found on the island

in June 1928, but cannot say that the information is correct as I did not

examine the eggs.

The Great Black-headed Gull Larus ichthyaétus (Pallas).

A very uncommon bird seen during October and December on the island.

One bird was shot for identification on 1-10-1930. A party of twenty was seen

near the coast on 5-12-1929.

It is reported as an occasional storm-driven visitor to Ceylon during the

north-east monsoon.

The Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus (Jerdon).

A very common bird seen on the island along the coast, at the southern

end, during the period September to March. Only a few birds are seen

during September and October, but in November the numbers increase until

in December, January and February thousands are seen on the shallow lagoons

on both sides of the line near Dhanushkodi.

A few birds were shot for identification on 18-12-1929 and were found to

be feeding on small prawns which collect in considerable numbers in the

shallow lagoons at this season.

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 251

When the birds arrive in August many still have the brownish black heads

of the breeding season and again by the end of March many birds are seen

to be assuming the breeding plumage.

The Yellow-legged Herring Gull Larus argentatus cachinnans.

A fairly common bird which is found on the island duirng the period

September to March. The numbers gradually increase until a few hundreds

are seen during the period October to December. The numbers are greatly

reduced in February and March, but my notes show a return of these birds

on 10-3-1931, which is a late date to see more than a few stray birds. Found

in the same locality as the preceding species.

The Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin).

A fairly common bird which is found during the period July to March.

The numbers gradually increase, most birds being seen during the period

October to February in the same area of the island as all the gulls. It is

reported that some of these terns remain all the year in Ceylon.

The Indian Lesser Crested Tern Thalasseus bengalensis

bengalensis (Lesson).

A common bird which has been seen on the island in all the months of the

year except November. The greatest number of these birds is seen during

the months of June and July and it is presumed that they are then breeding

on the drier sandy portions at the southern end of the island.

Eggs have never actually been taken by me at the time the eggs of the

Little Tern were found, but the shell of a typical Tern’s egg, which was

larger than the Little Tern’s, was picked up in the same area. This egg

had been opened at one end by a crow or rat and emptied.

The White-cheeked Tern Sterna repressa (Hartert).

A very rare bird on the island, only seen on two occasions in October 1929.

The Little Tern Sterna albifrons (Sub-sp. ?).

A common bird which has however not been recorded during the months

of September and November. Found in large numbers all along the coast

line of the island and in the breeding season on the drier sandy plains at

the southern end. The numbers increase conisderably during the months of

June and July, when practically all the birds are breeding.

Particulars of nests found are as follows :—

10-6-1929. 1 egg, fresh, no nest but merely a depression in the sand.

19-6-1929. 1 egg, slightly set, no nest but only a depression.

21-6-1929. 1 egg, fresh, no depression in the sand and egg almost covered

by drifting sand.

29-6-1929. 1 egg, hard-set, the depression containing the egg was amongst

a collection of bleached bones of a cow.

9-5-1930. Birds appeared to be considering laying and could be seen leaving

the sand singly or in pairs. No birds had laid at this time.

13-6-1930. 2 eggs, fresh, no nest but only depression in the sand.

13-6-1930. 2 eggs, slightly set, no nest, only the usual depression in the sand.

It is interesting to note in 1929 that in the case of four nests found only

a single egg had been laid, whereas in 1930 both nests found had two eggs

each.

Many more nests could have been found in the same area without any

difficulty.

*The Turnstone Avenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus).

Although this bird is a migrant some non-breeding birds are seen during

every month of the year. The period during which these birds are most

numerous is August to March. The birds seen and shot in July and August

were in their summer plumage, while all those shot in December were in

their winter plumage. By May most of the birds were assuming their summer

plumage.

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Hume records this bird from the island in March 1875.

Always seen in the southern half of the island along the sea-shore in

company with other waders. A few birds are however occasionally seen on

rocks in the Pamban Pass.

*The Eastern Grey Plover Squatarola squatarola squatarola’

(Linnaeus).

Although a migrant some non-breeding birds are seen during every month

of the year. The period during which these birds are most numerous is

October to January. Many of the birds have changed into their darker,

or breeding, plumage by the beginning of May and in September the change

back to their winter, or lighter, plumage is observed. By the first week of

October only one bird was seen in its darker plumage.

The Kentish Plover Leucopolius alexandrinus alexandrinus

(Linnaeus).

A very rare bird that was seen on only two occasions, along with Sand

Plovers, during September 1930. As the birds were not shot for identification

it is not possible to say if they were of the sub-species legge?.

Jerdon’s Little Ring Plover Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge).

A fairly common bird which was not observed in July and November.

As however observations of their breeding on the island were recorded in June

it must be assumed that the birds were on the island with their young in

July. - ,

These birds are reported to breed in Ceylon in June. Although they breed

on Rameswaram Island in June most birds are seen in the period December

to February. The numbers appear to increase somewhat in May.

Two nests were found on 10-6-1929. One nest had one and the other

‘two eggs; the eggs in both nests being fresh.

The Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus atrifrons

(Wagler).

A fairly common bird seen usually near the coast at the southern end of

the island. Most birds are seen during the periods September to March and

again in June and July. Some non-breeding birds are resident on the island

the whole year. -

The Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaulti (Lesson).

This bird is seen in small numbers throughout the year. Usually found

along with the preceding species, but are really uncommon on the island.

No more than six birds were ever seen on a single day.

The Eastern Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin).

A fairly common bird which visits the island from September to March

each year. Usually found at the southern end of the island, but not entirely

confined to this area, as they are seen in small flocks on the grassy moist

areas in the centre and western side.

I have noticed birds with the darker summer plumage on their arrival in

September, but the change to the breeding plumage has not been noticed

before they leave the island.

These birds evidently stay longer in Ceylon as they are reported to arrive

in August, when some bear traces of the summer plumage, and leave again

in April, having a large amount of black on the breast.

The Yellow-wattled Lapwing Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert).

A fairly uncommon bird -which was seen during the months of January

and February, July and August and October and November. Usually seen on

the eastern side of the island, between Pamban and Rameswaram town, on

large flat sandy plains covered with a light growth of grass and some scattered

thorn bushes. The largest number seen on a single day was fourteen, but

it was usual to see only from two to four birds.

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 253

The Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus).

A fairly uncommon bird which is seen in the south of the island, near

the coast, during the period January to March. A few stray birds have

however been recorded in July and November and may be resident birds from

Ceylon which had come over to Rameswaram Island.

These birds are reported as resident in Ceylon and breed from April to

June in large colonies round certain lagoons along the east coast. Some birds

are also reported to breed in India.

Most birds are seen on Rameswaram Island during February and I have

a record of seeing over a hundred on 27-2-1930.

Very little has been said about this bird being found in the Presidency

in the report of the Vernay Scientific Survey.

The Avocet Recurvirostra avocetta (Linnaeus).

A rare bird which was recorded on one occasion on 2-9-1930. When about

eighty were seen in a shallow sheet of water along the railway line at the

southern end of the island, near Dhanushkodi. The birds were observed for

some time and no mistake was made in their identification.

It is stated in the report of the Vernay Scientific Survey that further

evidence, to that recorded in it, is required before this bird can be admitted

to the Presidency list.

This information, together with the record of September 1930, should be

sufficient to admit this bird, as an uncommon migrant, to the list of birds

of the Madras Presidency. .

Wait, in The Manual of Birds of Ceylon, refers to the Avocet as a rare

straggler, in winter, which has been obtained near Jaffna.

The Easten Curlew Numenius arquata (Linnaeus).

A fairly common bird which is found throughout the year on the island. The

numbers seen. during the period of the north-east monsoon do not appear to

exceed by very much those seen at other times of the year. Perhaps

the smallest numbers seen are in the period April to July, although I have

records of having seen twenty-five and twelve on two days in June 1929.

There must however be a large number of non-breeding birds which remain

on the island each year to account for the birds seen in the dry season. Curlews

are confined to the southern area of the island and are usually found along

the coast line.

*The Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus).

A fairly common bird which is seen during the period September to

February in the same areas of the island as the Curlew. As I have records

of stray birds in June and July it points to the fact that certain non-breeding

birds remain on the island all the year, or else that some birds arrive at

least three months in advance of the usual migrants.

The Green Sandpiper Tvinga ochropus (Linnaeus).

A moderately uncommon bird seen during the period October to March

by the side of shallow borrow pits along the railway line in the northern and

central areas of the island. The maximum number seen on any single day

was six, two or three being the usual. .

[] The Marsh Sandpiper Tvinga stagnatilis (Bechstein).

A fairly common bird seen during the period September to March in

the same areas as the preceding species and also in the southern half, where

it is commonly found in small flocks along with other waders. Very few

birds are seen in September and October, but the numbers gradually increase

until in January thirty to forty birds may be seen in a day.

The Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos (Linnaeus).

A fairly uncommon bird seen during the period September to March and

usually confined to the northern coast line of the island. Only a few birds

were seen on any single day, the majority were seated on the sandstone

rocks alongside the railway bridge over the Pamban Pass,

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Tha Wood Sandpiper T'ringa glareola (Linnaeus).

A fairly common bird seen during the period October to March almost

throughout the island where there are pools of water. The greatest number

was observed during January and February.

The Redshank Tvinga totanus (Linnaeus).

A fairly uncommon bird seen during the period September to February

along the south coast of. the island on the margins of the shallow lagoons

on both sides of the railway line. Most birds were seen during the months

December and January.

Birds were shot in September and December for identification.

The Spotted or Dusky Redshank Tinga erythropus (Vroeg).

A very rare bird only once seen on the western side of the island, in a

backwater, on 18-g-1929. Eight birds were seen on this occasion.

This bird has been reported from the Jaffna Peninsula in Ceylon.

The Greenshank Tvinga nebularia (Gunnerus).

A moderately common bird seen during the period September to March in

the southern half of the island along the coast and on the margins of the

shallow lagoons in the same area. I find one record in my notes of having

seen three of these birds on 12-7-1929, which seems an unusually early date.

Most birds are seen during the period December to February.

Wait, in the Manual of the Birds of Ceylon, mentions that a good many

immature birds remain in Ceylon during the south-west monsoon.

The Sanderling Cvrocethia alba (Vroeg).

Although this bird has been reported to be rare in Ceylon, only one

specimen being obtained, it can be said to be common on Rameswaram Island

as I have records of it for every month of the year.

Baker and Inglis refer to the bird as a rare winter visitor and quote

Jerdon as having obtained it on the sea coast at Nellore. The account of

the Vernay Scientific Survey gives the same reference, but states that Jerdon

reports it as tolerably abundant on the Nellore coast.

My notes show that the season when these birds are found in large numbers

is August to February, when on occasions more than a thousand have been

seen in flocks along the sea coast and flooded sand flats at the southern end

of the island. Usually seen along with Little Stints and Curlew Stints, but

also found in large flocks consisting of Sanderlings alone.

A bird was shot as early as 10-6-1929, which shows that certain non- -breeding

birds remain on the island the whole year.

The Little Stint Evolia minuta minuta (Leisler).

A very common bird which is seen in large numbers during the period

September to March. Confined to the southern end of the island and found

in the same areas as the preceding species.

Non-breeding birds remain on the island during the other months of the

year and have been shot for identification during these months.

Reported to be a common bird all round the coast of Ceylon, a few

immature birds staying on the island during the summer.

The Eastera Little Stint Evolia minuta ruficollis.

This bird is found on the island along with the preceding species, as a

bird shot along with a big flock on 30-9-1930 proved on identification to be

the Eastern Little Stint with black legs.

I am unable to say if this species is more uncommon than the preceding

as a sufficient number were not shot to arrive at any correct estimation.

The Curlew Stint Evolia testacea (Pallas).

A very common bird which is seen on the island throughout the year.

The period during which the greatest numbers are recorded is August to

March, but numerous birds are seen at other times.

THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 255

Two birds were shot on 10-6-1929 which still retained their winter plumage,

although all birds shot early in August were in their summer or breeding

plumage. Twelve birds were shot on 18-12-1929, all being in their winter

plumage.

Wait reports that these birds are abundant all round the coast of Ceylon

and that immature birds in considerable numbers stay on the island during

the summer. .

The Pin-tailed Snipe Capella stenura (Bonaparte).

An uncommon bird seen in small numbers in the month of January, in

the northern area of the island where there are marshes with undergrowth,

such as screw-pine and other shrubs.

It is presumed that some of the snipe that usually visit Ceylon during

the north-east monsoon occasionally rest on Rameswaram Island for a_ short

period.

A Snipe was shot by me on 20-1-1930 and identified as belonging to this

species.

The Open-bill Stork Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert).

A fairly uncommon bird which was recorded from the northern half of

the island, where there are some swamps and tanks, during the period October

to January. One stray bird was recorded on 10-7-1929 in the southern half

of the island and may have been blown over from Ceylon, where they are

reported as resident, by the south-west monsoon winds.

The Eastern Gray Heron Ardea cinerea rectirostris (Gould).

A very rare bird which was recorded on only one occasion, on 31-1-1930,

when a single bird was seen seated near a pond in the north of the island

near Pamban.

The Indian Smaller Egret Egretta intermedia intermedia

(Wagler).

A very rare bird which was recorded on only one occasion, on 31-1-1930,

when seven birds were seen together, on a sand flat, on the western side

of the island.

The Indian Reef Heron Demiegretta asha (Sykes).

A rare bird seen on two occasions on the western coast of the island

where they were feeding in shallow sea water just off the coast. Six birds

were seen together on 6-12-1929 and eighteen in one batch in the same area

On 3I-I-1030.

It is recorded that this heron has been found breeding, near Chilaw on

the Island of Ceylon, about the end of May. The birds seen on Rameswaram

Island may possibly be from Ceylon. These herons are reported as_ being

rare in Ceylon.

The Common Pond Heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes).

A fairly common bird on the island, found during the periods October to

March and May and June, in the northern half of the island where there

are pools of water or marshy areas. Fairly large numbers are seen during

the north-east monsoon period, whereas only one or two birds were recorded

in May or June.

The Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham).

An uncommon bird seen usually on the western side of the island, along

the backwaters, where there are dense screw-pine and mangrove thickets. Usually

only seen singly, seated on the twisted mangrove roots or flying across the

narrow backwaters.

The months during which I have records are June, July, September and

December, so that it is possible that this bird is resident and breeds on the

island as it is suited to its requirements both as regards food and cover,

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

The Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas).

A fairly common bird seen on the island during the period November to

March each year. Only found at the extreme southern end where shallow

lagoons are formed on both sides of the railway line. Most of the birds

frequent the lagoons along the eastern shore, but some parties cross over

to the western side later in the season.

They usually arrive at the end of November, when a few hundred birds

are suddenly seen one morning. The numbers rapidly increase until it is

estimated that about three thousand birds gather in this area.

The winter of 1929-30 apparently suited the birds better than that of

1930-31, as they were very numerous and never left the island for short periods

once they arrived. They finally left on 12-3-1930.

In the winter of 1930-31 the birds arrived on 13-11-1930, but left after

a week and only returned again during the first week of December. On

8-1-1931 three or four hundred birds were seen to have collected and _ this

number was not exceeded that season. All the birds again left about 31-1-1931,

when the lagoons almost dried, but returned once again in much _ smaller

numbers about 16-2-1931. Only about fifty birds remained on 10-3-1931 and

these left shortly after.

When these flamingoes leave the island they usually fly north and spend

some days near Mandapam Camp and are finally seen in fairly large numbers

on a tank at Ramnad.

Wait reports that flamingoes are migrants to Ceylon, arriving in October

and leaving in April. He states that some birds must loiter as they have

been. seen near Trincomalee in June. He also refers to a tradition that they

are supposed to breed in the extreme south of the Eastern Province, but

states that this has not been verified.

The Little Grebe Podiceps ruficollis capensis (Salvadori).

An uncommon bird which is only seen during January and February on

the island at the northern end and in the centre. Usually found in the

borrow pits adjoining the railway line and in smaller ponds and swampy

areas to the north-east. More birds are seen in January than in February,

but not more than five birds were seen on any single day.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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Metanastria hyrtaca Cram.

(For explanation see end of article).

—

NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM.

i BY

T. V. SUBRAMANIAM, B.A.

AND

K. P. ANANTANARAYANAN, B.A. (Hons.)

(Madras Agricultural Department)

(With a Plate)

INTRODUCTION.

Of the members of the family Lasiocampid@e very few are serious

pests of cultivated crops in South India. Taragama_ siva and

Trabala vishnu are the only two, appearing occasionally in large

numbers and doing appreciable damage to economic plants; and

even these are rather rare. Metanastria hyrtaca probably comes

third in the list. In the year 1934 this insect appeared in large

numbers and the caterpillars almost completely defoliated a few

Sapota plants in the orchard of the Central Farm of the Agricultural

Research Institute at Coimbatore. The following is a short account

of the observations made by the authors at that time.

THE MotTH.

‘The adult moth is fairly big with grey brown wings and rather

thick-set body. The male is smaller than the female, has pectinate

antennz and has a black patch on the forewing with a white spot

in the centre of it. The abdomen is long and slender and extends

behind beyond the wings and has a brush of long hairs at its end.

In the female the wings are longer and broader and have short

wavy lines or bands across them; the black patch on the forewing

is absent. The antennz are thinner and smaller. The moths are

sluggish and do not fly.

Hampson in Fauna of British India, ‘Moths’, Vol. I. gives the

following description of the moth on page 410:

‘Male: Pale or dark red brown; palpi dark below. Forewing

with two ante-medial pale lines and two post-medial angulated lines,

with an almost black patch between the upper part of the ante- and

post-medial lines crossed by the pale veins and with a white lunule

on it; a lunulate sub-marginal line. Underside of the hind wing

with two pale lines.

‘Female: Forewing with the two ante-medial and the two post-

medial lines more distinct and without the dark patch and white

lunule; the sub-marginal lunulate line very indistinct. Hind wings

with an indistinct pale line,’

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Moore’s Lepidoptera of Ceylon, Vol. II, page 148 has the

following description of the moth:

‘Dark purplish ferruginous. Male: Forewing with a transverse

ante-medial and a post-medial slightly waved ferruginous-grey line,

and two similar medial lines, the outer one being convexly angular

beyond the cell; between the two lateral lines is a dark purple

brown patch extending from the costa to the lower median vein,

this patch being marked by a pure white lobate spot; exterior

border darker, crossed by a very indistinct submarginal row of

dark brown speckled spots. Female: Forewing with four similar

transverse ferruginous grey equidistant lines; the basal area between

the medial lines, and the outer border darker coloured, the sub-

marginal row of spots more distinct and grey speckled. Front of

thorax, head, palpi and antennz greyish ferruginous. Expanse:

Male 1% in. Female 3 in.’

LIFE HIsTorRY.

The moths copulate the very next day after emerging from the

pupz and the female lays eggs in groups or rows on the surface

of the leaves or twigs of the food plant. Each female is capable

of laying about 140 eggs, which it does in several batches in the

course of two or three days. The eggs hatch in nine to twelve

days. The caterpillars are active from the second day and lead a

gregarious life. They move about on the leaves and stem in single

file. They feed on the tender leaves by scraping the surface for

three to five days and then undergo the first moult. There are

generally six or seven moults during the caterpillar stage, though,

in exceptional cases, the number may go up to ten or be reduced

to four; but there is no marked change in them after the fifth

moult. Just before moulting the caterpillars remain motionless on

the stem or the leaf, having ceased feeding a day or two earlier.

In the actual process of moulting the head shield is first pushed

forward by the formation of fresh growth below and gradually

gets detached; this is followed by the rupture of the outer skin

all along the body and the caterpillar emerging out of the larval

skin, which is often left almost entire. The new larva is smaller

in size but regains the normal size in a short time. The caterpillars

feed voraciously, and become full grown in 45 to 60 days. The

larval period may be reduced to 43 and increased to over 100 days

in rare cases. A few prolong their larval period by cessation of

growth for a long time after the fourth moult, so that in the same

brood some caterpillars grow in advance of others, a good number

lagging behind. The full grown caterpillars construct loose cocoons

of silk inter-woven with hairs from their bodies and pupate inside.

The cocoons are generally attached to the stem or leaf; and often

two or more cocoons are found grouped together. The pupal period

varies from 9 to 18 days. Thus, the whole life cycle from egg

to adult takes 75 to tog days depending on weather and other

conditions.

Egg: The egg is spherical in shape and about 13 mm.. in

diameter, i.e., about the size of a mustard seed. It is dull white

A NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. 259

in colour with two big brownish black round markings and a

smaller one between. It is covered with dirty grey irregular faint

markings making the colour appear ashy grey at a distance. The

shell is hard and finely sculptured on the surface.

Larva (1st stage): The newly hatched larva is about 2} mm.

long with the head 7/10 mm. broad. The segments of the head

and the thorax are slightly bigger than the remaining segments

so that the body appears to taper slightly towards the hind end.

The head is black and covered with minute hairs. Segment I is

blackish with a dorsal prothoracic chitinous shield bounded by a

thin greyish white area. This is separated from segment II by

a double ring, greyish pale white in colour with a black transverse

streak in the middle. The three thoracic segments have a fairly

broad dorso-median longitudinal blackish grey band with a central

whitish area or streak which broadens towards the third segment.

Fach segment has on the ventral side a pair of well developed

black legs covered with minute velvety hairs. The abdomen is

black with the dorsal side of the first three segments slightly greyish

as a continuation of the thoracic longitudinal streak. The greyish

colour is interrupted by the inter-segmental rings which are dirty

pale white. On the ventral side are the four pairs of brownish

black slender prolegs on the third to the sixth abdominal segments

and a fifth pair on the last or anal segment. The whole body of

the caterpillar is covered with numerous hairs arising singly or

in tufts from black tubercles. On the prothorax are a large number

of long hairs directed forwards and sideways. The spiracles are

seen as small dots on the sides of the body on segment I and the

first eight segments of the abdomen, the first pair being slightly

bigger than the rest. The caterpillar leads a very active and

gregarious life, feeding on the tender leaves for three to five days

and attains a length of nearly 6 mm. Then it ceases feeding and

undergoes the first moult.

Larva (2nd stage): The caterpillar is now about 8 mm. long.

The thoracic segments are only slightly broader than the rest of

the body and the anterior portion appears a little tapering as the

head is narrower than the thoracic segments. The head is blackish

with three slight ashy grey bands extending from the prothoracic

region down to the clypeus. There are a large number of short

hairs arising from the head near the jaws. The dorsal side of

the prothorax is black with a pair of light grey longitudinal bands

on either side of the median line. The black chitinised area is

bounded by greyish brown patches in front and behind; and there

are more irregular patches on the sides. The prothoracic processes

are short, thick and black with numerous short soft whitish hairs

extending forward. Some of these hairs are black or brownish.

In the prothorax are also numerous isolated smaller and thinner

brown hairs along the middle frontal fringe, the sides and the

posterior edges. The mesothorax is black with greyish brown

mottlings; the dorsal tubercle on each side of the median line is

bluish black covered with short irregular hairs; two small erect

groups of hairs are found on the dorsal side of the segment marking

the position of the transverse groove. Segment III is greyish

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

brown with irregular black spots and patches and with bluish black

tubercles. Towards the posterior end of the segment a transverse

slit is visible, its inner sides are lined with very minute shining

velvety hairs of a brick red colour. In the abdominal segments

the mid-dorsal double line of the previous stage is broken up into

irregular ash coloured mottlings and the lateral whitish bands are

continued behind upto the eighth segment. The first two segments

appear greyish brown and the rest are darker. The eighth, ninth

and tenth segments are black with white thick intersegmental

transverse patches or rings. The abdominal tubercles are bluisi:

black and more prominent with blackish hairs arising from them.

One sub-dorsal and one ventro-lateral row of tubercles are seen on

each side of the body, the latter row being on short blunt protuber-

ances of the skin on the sides. The whole body is covered with

irregularly distributed short brown hairs. The hairs on the sub-

dorsal tubercles arise erect while those on the ventro-lateral tubercles

are directed sideways. They are directed forwards in the anterior

segments and backwards in the posterior or anal segment. The

prolegs which are more conspicuous than in the previous stage are

slender, long, pale red, and are beset with numerous small hairs.

The caterpillar during this stage is more active and feeds

voraciously. It grows to a size of 10 or 11 mm. in. the course

of 4 to 6 days and then undergoes the second moult.

Larva (3rd stage): The average caterpillar is about 16 mm.

long. It is black grey with reddish and brown dots and pale

white streaks irregularly distributed over the body. The newly

moulted caterpillar has its head as broad as the thorax so that

there is no tapering towards the head as in the previous stage.

The head, the first and second segments of the thorax, and the

eighth, ninth and tenth abdominal segments are black and separated

from their neighbouring segments by whitish double transverse

bands. The three whitish grey bands of the first thoracic segment

are continued into the head region. The prothoracic processes are

more pronounced with tufts of hairs. Over the second thoracic

segment the paired tufts of small hairs on the mid-dorsal line, one

behind the other, enclose between them a transverse depression

which is lined black. The third thoracic segment has the red

streak more pronounced and the posterior border of the segment

is whitish as a _ distinct transverse band. Similarly between

segments 4, 5 and 7 and 8 whitish transverse bands appear borne

on the posterior border of the one and the anterior border of the

following segment. Segment 8 is black and bears a somewhat

conspicuous pair of dorsal tubercles more prominent than others.

Segments g and 10 and the legs are black. The prolegs are

yellowish with a black patch on the outer side. The spiracles

are white vertically oval spots with black borders situated in a’

line on the sides of the body wall. The ventro-lateral processes

from the body wall are more prominent with denser and longer

hairs. The hairs are of varying length, shape and shade; they are

at first whitish turning brown or brownish black later on. The hairs

on the dorsal side of the body are generally shorter than the rest.

The ventral side of the body is blackish or of cement colour,

A NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. 261

The caterpillar feeds gregariously and grows to about 20-22 mm.

and,.as it grows, the head appears a little narrower. than the

body. The white central band in the region of the head bifurcates

near the front and three more parallel.lines of whitish tinge on

each epicranium extend down to the ocellar region the one next to

the central streak being more prominent than the others. It is not

uncommon to find caterpillars at this stage reaching a length of

30-40 mm.

Larva (4th stage): Immediately after emerging from the moult

the caterpillar is 25-40 mm. long. The brown colour of the hairs

on the surface of the body becomes more pronounced. Secondary

hairs appear all over the body, the base of the legs, the prolegs

and the head, making the tubercles rarely visible. The erect comb-

like hairs over segment II and the lateral hair groups on the

ventro-lateral processes on the body are more prominent than in

the previous stage. Besides the soft hairs there are also whitish

or yellowish brown shorter flattened spatulate hairs arising in the

midst of the ventro-lateral tufts. Segment III is the biggest and the

thoracic segments are progressively smaller anteriorly, with the

head appearing smallest. The dorsal bands on the thorax are

darker and are continued into the head region. The general colour

is greyish brown with irregular mottlings, simulating the bark of

the stem of the food plant. Beyond this stage the caterpillars

show no marked changes except in size. They remain on the

stem in groups closely packed together. Some of the larvz moult

at the end of 5 to 7 days and reach a size of nearly 40-50 mm.

But the length of this stage and the size of the larva at the end

of it vary greatly.

Larva (5th stage): This is generally the last stage in the growth

of the larva, the caterpillar becoming full grown at its end.

Beginning with a size of nearly 4o mm. it finally reaches about

65 mm. The body is stout and hairy and is cylindrical though

slightly flattened on the ventral side. The head is small when

compared with the other segments of the body, and black with

whitish, brownish and dark bands. A dorso-median brownish band

extends from the erect mid-dorsal tufts on segment II over the

thorax into the head region and merges with the colour pattern

of the head. The ad-frontal area is whitish and is in continuation

of the central white streak on the cranial suture. The front is

small and black. The ocelli are black and surrounded by brownish

black patches at the sides. Numerous small brownish soft hairs

are found over the head and mouth region. The skin of the body

is tough and leathery beset with various kinds of hairs. The

general colour varies, being greyish black or greyish dark brown.

The hairs are of different colours and sizes. The longest hairs

found in bunches rising from the vento-lateral body processes are

soft and brownish. Some of the hairs rising from bluish black

tubercles on the dorsal surface are fairly long and spike-like, are

easily detached from the body and run into the fingers of the

operator when the caterpillars are handled. Thinner, shorter and

greyish dark hairs are seen in the region of the thoracic segments,

legs, prolegs, lateral processes and posterior ends. A few yellowish

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELY, Vol: XL

white spatulate hair-like structures arise in front of the dorsal tuft

in segment II and-irregularly in the midst of the lateral tufts in

all the segments. Several groups of very soft minute hairs are

found in the dorsal transverse grooves in segments II and III and

in the intersegmental areas on the dorsal side. The ventro-lateral

processes from the body wall are more prominent and the tufts of

hairs are directed forwards in thoracic segments, horizontally over

the sub-stratum in the abdominal region and backwards in the

posterior segments. The latero-ventral processes on the prothorax

are very long and thickset with hairs. These processes simulate

prolegs and hide the true legs when viewed from above. The

dorsal setae are comparatively small and reduced. In segment II

the transverse cleft of skin placed dorsally about the middle of the

segment exposes a jet black area bounded in front by a short

tuft. of whitish yellow hairs and behind by a shorter erect

tuft of black hairs. In segment III the transverse slit placed

about the posterior third of the segment, is broader and longer,

extending to the sides and exposes a crimson red surface with a

black streak in the middle. The skin in the slit is lined by very

minute hairs and is smooth. The slit is exposed to view with its

vivid colouration when the caterpillar is disturbed. The legs are

black, well chitinised and covered with numerous hairs. The

abdomen is long and stout with tufts of hairs on the sides. The

dorsal hairs and setae are reduced in number and size. There

are two pairs of bluish black tubercles on each segment; the

front pair are subdorsal and the hind pair posterior-lateral in

position. In the mid-dorsal region two blackish brown bands begin

to appear in some specimens and this band is produced into

angular projections outwards in segments III to VIII. In some

specimens a lateral pale grey streak contined from the first to

the eighth abdominal segment appears as a faint band and persists

during the later stages of the caterpillar. The prolegs are long

and slender with the crotchets biordinal and arranged in meso-

series. The spiracles are clearly seen as long vertical slits, more

or less oval in shape, whitish in the centre and bounded by a

thick black rim enclosing a thin black streak in the central line;

the spiracle in segment I is the biggest and that on segment VIII

bigger than the rest; they are located on the sides, just above

the region of the ventro-lateral processes.

Pupa: When full grown the caterpillars construct loose cocoons

of silk interwoven with ‘hairs detached from their bodies and

pupate inside. The cocoon is generally attached to the stem or

leaf and often two or more are found grouped together. The

pupa is dark brown and covered with numerous. short hairs

irregularly distributed in front, but in rows round the pupa behind.

The moth emerges by splitting open the pupal skin at the dorso-

median anterior end. The pupal period lasts from 9 to 18 days.

OTHER Foop PLANTS.

The caterpillars which are characteristic in their appearance and

habits and are easily distinguished from others have been recorded

to breed on Guazuma tomentosa H.B. & K., Terminalia catappa

A NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. 263

Linn. (Country almond), Mimusops elengi Linn., Nyctanthes

Arbor-tristis Linn. (Tam. Pavizha mall), Bassia longifolia Linn.

(Tam. [luppai), Schima Wallichii Choisy, Eugenia Jambolana Lam.,

Acacia arabica Willd., Albizzia stipulata Boiv., and Anthocephalus

morindaefolius Korth.

REMEDIAL MEASURES.

As already pointed out the insect has not been noted to be a

serious economic pest and as such no elaborate arrangements are

necessary for its control. But if and when it becomes a pest, the

gregarious nature of the caterpillars makes it easy to handpick

and destroy them. In more severe cases a stomach poison may

be tried.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,

Moore.—Lepidoptera of Ceylon, vol. ii, p. 148.

Hampson.—Fauna of British India—Moths, vol. i, p. 410.

Elwes.—Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xiii, p. 407.

Fletcher.—Some South Indian Insects, p. 409.

. Fletcher.—Report of the Proceedings of the Second Entomological

Meeting, Pusa, pp. 38 and 249.

6. Fletcher.—Report of the Proceedings of the Second Entomological

Meeting, Fusa, vol. iil, pp. 103 and 564.

7. Fletcher.—Catalogue of Indian Insects—Lasiocampidae.

8. Fletcher.—Bulletin 59 of the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute,

Pusa, p. 25.

g. Lefroy.—Indian Insect Life, p. 497.

MB Owe

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

A leaf showing eggs on it.

One egg magnified.

A young caterpillar.

A full grown caterpillar.

The anterior portion of a grown up caterpillar showing the hairs.

Cocoon on a leaf.

Pupa.

Moth (female).

Moth (male).

0 OMNI AmB) DN &

THE -MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA.

|... 2 GAIUS; Soles.

The EUPHORBIACE2 represent almost all habits of growth, and

exhibit a high degree of adaptability to varying environments. This

large family includes 220 genera, and about 4,000 species distributed

all over the world, except in arctic and antarctic regions. About

half the species inhabit equatorial America; they are much rarer

in temperate America. In the Old World they are more abundant

in the Mediterranean region and in temperate Asia than between

the tropics.

The properties of the spurgeworts are as distinctive as their

botanical characters, and the ancients had so accurately recognized

this, that all plants with a 3-coccus fruit were regarded by them

as hurtful and suspicious. The members of the family secrete a

very acrid milky juice, varying in. strength with the species, the

organ of the plant, and the climate. In some this juice is one

of the most deleterious of poisons, in others its acridity is so

far neutralized by mucilage and resins as to reduce it to a simple

purgative and diuretic. Some species are slightly narcotic-acrid,

others aromatic. The albumen usually contains a fixed bland oil,

without the acridity which is found in the embryo and the integu-

ments of the seed. It is to a liquid resin and a volatile principle

that all the properties of the spurgeworts are due; they are thus

strongest in alcoholic tinctures, but are dissipated or weakened

by the application of heat. The root of the Manihot offers a

remarkable example: there is scarcely a more poisonous juice than

this, yet the action of fire converts the plant into very wholesome

food.

Enormous though it be, the research work purporting to deal

with the juice has not yet been crowned with success, and the

literature regarding the toxic principles isolated from spurges is

but one great mass of confusion.

The medicinal and poisonous spurges of the world belong to

76 genera :—ACALYPHA (tropics and subtropics of both hemispheres) ;

ALCHORNEA (all tropics); ALEuURITES (Asia and Pacific); ANDRACHNE

(tropics and subtropics); ANrHosTEMA (Madagascar ; tropical Africa) ;

ANTIDESMA (palaeotropics); APoRosA (tropical Asia); BALIOSPERMUM

(Indo-Malaya); BiscHorira (Indo-Malaya, Pacific Islands); BREyNtIA

(Africa, Asia, Polynesia); BripELia (Africa, Asia, Australia); Buxus

(temperate regions of the Old World); CHRozopHoRA (Mediterranean

region, Asia, Africa); Cicca (Asia); CLEristantTuus (Africa, Indo-

Malaya); CNesmMonE (India, Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra);

Croton (tropics and subtropics); DALECHAMPIA (tropics); DapPHnti-

PHYLLUM (tropical Asia); DICHOSTEMMA (tropical Africa); DRYPETES

(Africa, Indo-Malaya, tropical America); ELAEOPpHORBIA (tropical

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 265

Africa); ERemMocARPUS (California); ERYTHROCOCCA (tropical Africa) ;

EUPHORBIA (subtropical and warm temperate regions); EXCOECARIA

(Old World tropics); FLUEGGEA (Old World tropics); GELONIUM

(Asia, Africa); \GLOCHIDION (tropical); Hevea (Brazil, Guiana) ;

HIPPOMANE (warm America, West Indies); Homonora Indo-

Malaya); Hura (tropical America); HyMENocarpiA (Indo-Malaya,

Africa); ICHTHYOTHERE (Brazil); JATROPHA (America, Malaya);

JonanneEsia (Brazil); JULOcROoTON (Central and South America) ;

Masea (Central America, Brazil, Guiana); MacaRANGa (tropics of the

Old World); Marsosotrya (tropical Africa); Matiotus (Asia,

Africa); Manihot (South America to Mexico); MANNIOPHYTON

(tropical Africa); Maprounea (Brazil, Guiana, West Africa) ;

Mareya (tropical Africa); MERCURIALIS (Europe, Western Asia,

Japan); Micropesmis (Asia, Africa); NECEpsiA (tropical Africa) ;

OLDFIELDIA (tropical Africa); OOMPHALEA (tropical Africa and

America); OPHTHALMOBLAPTON (Brazil); Paris (Europe, northern

Asia); PEpiLantHus (Central and South America, West Indies) ;

PETALOsTIGMA (Australia); PHYLLANTHUS (tropics); PSEUDOLACHNOS-

TYLIS (tropical Africa); PuTRANJIVA (India); Pycnocoma (tropical

Africa, Comoro Islands, Madagascar); RICHERIA (tropical America) ;

RICINODENDRON (tropical Africa); Ricinus (tropical Africa); SAPIUM

(all tropics); Sauropus (Indo-Malaya); SEBAsTIANIA (America,

Africa) ; SPONDIANTHUS (tropical Africa); STILLINGA (America, Africa,

Mauritius, Madagascar, Fiji); SyNapEniuM (tropical and South

Africa, La Reunion); TETRACARPIDIUM (tropical Africa); TETROR-

CHIDIUM (tropical America and Africa); ToxICODENDRUM (South

Africa); Tracia (Asia, Africa); TRewia (India); TRIGONOSTEMON

(Indo-Malaya); TRitaxts (Indo-Malaya); Uapaca (tropical Africa,

Madagascar).

The medicinal and poisonous spurges of India belong to 36

genera :—ACALYPHA, ALCHORNEA, ALEURITES,’ ANDRACHNE, ANTI-

DESMA, APOROSA, BALIOSPERMUM, BISCHOFIA, BREYNIA, BRIDELIA,

Buxus, CHROZOPHORA, CICCA, CLEISTANTHUS, CROTON, EUPHORBIA,

EXCOECARIA, FLUEGGEA, GELONIUM, GLOCHIDION, HIPPOMANE,

HomonoliA, Hura, JATROPHA, MAcCARANGA, Matiotus, MantHot,

MICRODESMIS, PHYLLANTHUS, PUTRANJIVA, RIcINUS, SAPIUM, SAURO-

PUS, SEBASTIANIA, TRAGIA, TREWIA.

A. Cells of ovary 2-ovuled.

{. Male flowers of one pedicelled stamen numerous sufround-

ing a single-pedicelled female, all enclosed in a cup-

like involucre me am bes ... EUPHORBIA.

II. Flowers apetalous; sepals 4 in male, imbricate; sepals

4 or 6 in female.

a. Leaves alternate... “a oe veer ELUIRAS

b. Leaves opposite ea wie at ie DUxUS,

III. Sepals 1-2-seriate. Petals minute or absent. Stamens

1-2-seriate. Ovary 2-many-celled; cells 2-ovuled.

a. Leaves. alternate, undivided, quite entire. Flowers

petaliferous. Stamens 3-6.

1. Calyx valvate, stamens in a column.

i. Fruit a drupe; ovary 2-celled i. DBRIDELIA

ii. Fruit capsular; ovary 3-celled ... CLEISTANTHUS.

2. Calyx imbricate, stamens free. Flowers small.

Disc of 10 glands. Herb a --» ANDRACHNE.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

b. Leaves alternate, rarely eae eae undivided, quite

entire. Sepals imbricate. etals absent. Stamens

3 or more. Flowers See or in axillary fascicles.

1. Fruit dry capsular of 3 bivalved cocci.

i. Herbs, shrubs or trees; styles free or united

below ; disc present, of scales or a ring

li. Shrubs or trees; styles long united in a

column, rarely free; disc absent

2 rat Of i6..cocci epicarp fleshy white

3. Fruit baccate of 3 10, 6 hard cocci 4inwa fleshy

epicarp.

i. Sepals 4; stamens 4; fruit large; tree

ii. Male flowers turbinate or hemispheric, lobes

minute ; fruit small; shrubs or treelets

ili. Male flowers rotate or discoid, lobes minute ;

fruit medium; shrublets

c. Leaves alternate, undivided, entire or serrate. Sepals

imbricate. Petals absent. Stamens few or many.

Styles or stigmas 2-3, dilated. Fruit a drupe.

Stamens 2-3. Ovary 2-3-celled. Drupe_ 1-celled

d. Leaves alternate, trifoliolate. Sepals imbricate.

Petals absent. Fruit a berry.

Sepals. .5., otamens. 5 sisi oe Bh

Leaves alternate quite entire. Styles or stigmas

usually very minute. Fruit various.

1. Fruit drupaceous; disc circular pulvinate or

conic; seeds laterally flattened reticulate;

filaments long ae a ve

2. Fruit capsular dehiscent; flowers in catkins;

filaments long

B. Cells of ovary 1-ovuled.

I. Perianth double, of calyx and corolla.

filaments free. Ovary 1-3-celled.

Flowers . in axillary panicles.

Stamens 5-10 En

II. Perianth single, or of the male, or of both sexes, double:

Stamens 1-2-seriate. Ovary 2-3-celled. Inflorescence

terminal or axillary.

Stamens 4-10;

Petals

a. Flowers in terminal 2-3-chotomous cymes; cymes

unisexual, or with the central flower female,

petaliferous.

1. Leaves digitately merved or lobed. Stamens

many. Fruit capsular ah te

2. Leaves palmilobed. Juice usually milky. Sta-

mens 10 in two whorls $66 ae

3. Leaves digitately nerved. Stamens 8-20. Fruit

a drupe ‘ ; i

b. Flowers wm terminal androgynous spikes « or racemes.

Petals usually villous. Stamens strongly incurved

in bud alternate with the sepals. Capsule of 3 cocci.

c. Flowers in axillary racemes. Stamens erect in bud.

Petals present. Sepals valvate. Anther-cells con-

nate. Styles bifid. Fruit cies gies)

tomentose herbs or shrubs :

_d. Flowers in axillary rarely terminal spikes | racemes or

panicles, apetalous. Calyx valvate in bud.

1. Filaments free; anthers erect, 2-celled, cells

united by their base only. Styles very long

fimbriate or lacerate. Female flowers in large

bracts

2. Filaments free; anthers 2-celled or 4-locellate ;

cells oblong or globose, laterally attached by

a narrow or broad connective.

Stamens 4 to to. Anthers 2-celled. Fila-

ments slender, anther-cells oblong parallel.

Fruit a small drupe.

imbricate.

Viol. wore

PHYLLANTHUS.

(GLOCHIDION.

FLUEGGEA.

CICCA:

BREYNIA.

SAUROPUS.

PUTRANJIVA.

BISCHOFIA.

ANTIDESMA.

APOROSA.

MICRODESMIS.

JATROPHA.

MANIHOT.

ALEURITES.

CROTON.

CHROZOPHORA,

ACALYPHA.

ALCHORNEA,.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 267

ii. Stamens very numerous. Anthers 2-celled.

t Leaves opposite. Anther-cells parallel.

Fruit fleshy or capsular one ... DREWIA.

tt Leaves opposite or alternate. Stamens very

many, central in the flower; anther-cells

usually globose, adnate to the often

broad connective 8 we) MALLOTUS.

ili. Stamens one or more central; anthers 3-4-

locellate; anther-cells subglobose. — Styles

entire. Fruit capsular ... ... MACARANGA.

3. Filaments variously connate in bundles.

i. Male and female flowers in axillary spikes.

Staminal bundles indefinite. Capsule un-

armed — a ass ... HOMONOIA.

ul. Flowers in terminal panicles. Leaves palm-

ate, serrate. Staminal bundles indefinite .... RICINUs.

e. Flowers in axillary or leaf-opposed clusters, rarely

panicled or racemed, apetalous. Sepals of male

imbricate or calyx shortly toothed. Stamens numer-

ous, central in the flower.

1. Male-flowers fascicled. Sepals 5. Fruit smooth,

indehiscent vas See ... GELONIUM.

2. Male-flowers in panicled cymes. Sepals 4-5.

Capsule of three 2-valved cocci ... BALIOSPERMUM.

f. Flowers in axillary spikes or racemes, apetalous.

Male calyx valvate. Styles connate. Fruit

capsular.

Racemes androgynous. Male calyx 3-5-partite ;

female calyx of 5 sepals. Stamens 1-3. Styles

spreading above TRAGIA.

[IIl. Perianth single. Calyx of. male minute and open in

bud, or obsolete.

a. Herb with very short leaf opposed bisexual spikes.

se SEBASTIANIA.

Annual

b. Trees or shrubs.

2. Racemes lateral or terminal. Calyx terete, 3-

partite. Stamens 3 a ae oe

3. A tree. Flowers monoecious. Male calyx 2-3-

lobed at sis

EXCOECARIA.

HIPPOMANE.-

ACALYPHA.

The genus includes 320 tropical and subtropical species.

The following species are used medicinally in the Philippine

Islands—A. indica Linn.—; in Madagascar—A. spiciflora Burm.

f.—- in La Reumion—A. indica Minn., A. integrifolia Willd.—+* in

Zululand—A. peduncularis Meissn.—; in Southern Rhodesia—4A.

petiolaris Krauss—; in Gold Coast and Nigeria—A. ciliata

Forsk.—; in Oubanghi-Chari—A. ornata Hochst.—; in Indo-China

—A, Evrardu Gagnep., A. indica Linn.—; in the Malay Peninsula

—A. siamensis Gage—; in India—A. fruticosa Forsk., A. hispida

Burm., A. indica Linn., A paniculata Migq.—.

A. Herb. Leaves long-petioled, ovate or rhombic-ovate,

crenate-serrate 8 3. A.. indica,

B. Shrub.

a. Leaves ovate-acute or subacute, crenate, glabrous

and glandular beneath 2 ons mee) ts Ae Jvilicose,

b. Leaves broadly rhombic-ovate, at the base shortly

cuneate, at the apex cuspidate-acuminate, sub-

acutely and coarsely serrate ays fo 2a. ispida,

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL

c. Leaves long-petioled, ovate-acuminate 3 -4.-A. panrveulata:

d. Leaves sub-coriaceous rhomboid narrowed to blunt

base, bluntly serrate, tip blunt Be engl See A eStanven sass

1. Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. occurs in the Deccan Peninsula,

Ceylon, Pegu, Martaban and Ava... It extends to Arabiay and

tropical Africa.

The leaves are attenuant and alterative, and an agreeable

stomachic in dyspepsia and other ailments. The dose of the in-

fusion of the leaves as ordered by the Vaidyas in Southern India

is half a teacupful twice in the day.

The leaves are a Chinese remedy for colic and diarrheea.

In Arabia the leaves are macerated in water, and children with

pustules washed in the liquid.

Arabic: Bortam—; Canarese: Chinni—; Chinese: Tch’a Iang—; Deccan:

Chinni—; French: Ricinelle—; Hadie: Defran—; Surdud: Shohat—; Tamil:

Sinni— ; Telugu: Chinni—; Uahfat: Ansthat—; Yemen: Bortom, Defran—.

2. Acalypha hispida Burm. is cultivated in Indian gardens.

The leaves are beaten up with green tobacco leaf and an in-

fusion of rice, and applied to inveterate ulcers.

The flowers, boiled in water or administered in the form of a

conserve, are said to be specific in diarrhoea and similar disorders.

Malayalam: Vattattali—.

3. Acalypha indica Linn. occurs throughout the hotter parts

of India and Ceylon. It extends to the Philippine Islands and

tropical Africa.

The plant is used as expectorant as a substitute for senega.

It has also a diuretic action. It is a useful remedy for bronchitis,

asthma and pneumonia; also for rheumatism. It was formerly

employed as a purgative and anthelmintic.

The root, bruised in hot water, is employed as a cathartic,

and the leaves as a laxative in decoction mixed with common salt.

The leaves are used in scabies and, mixed with lime, in other

cutaneous diseases.

The powder of the dry leaves is given to children in worm

cases, also a decoction prepared from the leaves with the addition

of a little garlic. The juice of the same part of the plant, together

with that of the tender shoots, is occasionally mixed with a small

portion of margosa oil, and rubbed on the tongues of infants for

the purpose of sickening them and clearing their stomachs of

viscid phlegm.

The expressed juice of the leaves is in great repute, wherever

the plant grows, as an emetic for children, and is safe, certain and

speedy in its action. Like Ipecacuanha, it seems to have little

tendency to act on the bowels or to depress the vital powers, and

it decidedly increases the secretion of the pulmonary organs.

A decoction of the leaves is given in ear-ache; a cataplasm of

the leaves is applied as a local application to syphilitic ulcers, and

as a means of relieving the pain of snake-bite and the irritation

caused by the bite of the centipede.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 269

Fresh leaves ground into a paste, made into a ball to the size

of a large marble, and introduced into the rectum, are very useful

in relieving obstinate constipation of children.

The plant is used in congestive headaches: a piece of cotton

is saturated with the expressed juice and inserted into each nostril,

relieving head symptoms by causing hemorrhage from the nose.

The powder of the dry leaves is used in bed sores and wounds

attacked by worms.

The leaf of this plant is said to be a parasiticide and is applied

externally, ground with common salt or quicklime or lime juice.

A paste of the leaves with lime juice was prescribed for cases

of ringworm (different varieties of cutaneous tinea). In chronic

cases it had no effect, but in recent cases it did some good

(IXoman).

Caius and Mhaskar have had nothing but disappointment with

the plant. They found it quite ineffective as an anthelmintic; and

the leaves proved useless as an external application in the treatment

of snake-bite.

Arabic : Harram-ed-dhibbel—; Bengal: Kanda-amadu, Muktajari, Murk-

anta, Shwetbusunta—; Bombay: WKhokali, Khokli, Kuppi—; Canarese:

Chalmari, Kuppi—; Chinese: T’ie Han Ts’ai—; English: Indian Mercury— ;

French: Bois queue de rat—; Godavari: Murkandachettu, Murukonda— ;

Gujerati: Vanchhikanto—; Hindi: Khokali, Khokhla, Khokli, Kuppi—; Indo-

China: Tai tuong xanh—; Malay: Rumput lislis—; Malayalam : Kuppamani— ;

Marathi: Khajoti, Khokli, Kupi—; Mauritius: Herbe chatte, Ortie de 1l’Inde—;

Philippines: Bugos—; Porebunder: Dadro—; Sanskrit: Arittamunjariye— ;

Sinhalese: Kupamenya, Kuppamaniya, Waelkupamenya—; Tamil: Kuppaimeni,

Kuppamani— ; Telugu: Kuppaichettu, Kuppintaku, Murkandachettu—; Uriya:

Indramaris—.

4. Acalypha paniculata Miq. is found in the Deccan Peninsula,

from Malabar southwards, and in Ceylon; it ascends to 3,000 feet.

It is distributed over to Java and tropical Africa.

It is often used as a substitute for A. indica.

Aguku: Odukwe—; Ibo: Odukwe—; Yoruba: Ilewu—.

5 Acalypha siamensis Gage is found in sandy open country

on the east coast and in the north of the Malay Peninsula, whence

it spreads over Siam.

The Malays use the leaves for making tea.

Malay: Tumput—.

ALCHORNEA.

The genus numbers about 50 tropical species, rarest in Asia.

A. cordifolia Muell.-Arg. and A. hirtella Benth. are used

medicinally in tropical West Africa.

The root of A. floribunda Muell.-Arg has properties similar to

those of Indian hemp and is much used in the Belgian Congo as

~a stimulant and narcotic.

Alchornea rugosa Muell.-Arg. is found at Amherst in Burma,

in the Andaman Islands and Malacca, extending eastwards to

China, the Malay Archipelago and Bouton Straits,

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. “SOCIELY, Wolke

The seeds are used as a purgative in Indo-China.

Indo-China: Bo met, Bo net, Chua mot, Dat mot, Muoi, Soi giai—; Lao:

Khang poi—.

ALEURITES.

The genus consists of 6 species, inhabiting warm Asia.

A cordata Steud. is used medicinally in China; A. moluccana

Willd. in India, the Philippine Islands, Madagascar, Brazil and

Guiana.

Aleurites moluccana Willd. is typically a seashore plant. It

is found wild and planted in the Malay Peninsula, on the sea-coasts

and on limestone rocks at 1,000 to 1,500 feet altitude. It is

distributed over the Malay and Polynesian islands. The tree is

cultivated in India, and very much so in South India.

The oil obtained from the kernels by expression, has been

found, in doses from one to two ounces, to act as a mild and sure

purgative, producing in from three to six hours after ingestion

free bilious evacuations. It was found to approach nearly to

castor oil in the mildness and certainty of its operation, but

superior to it as having neither taste nor smell, and as producing

its cathartic action without any nausea.

In Madagascar and La Reunion the leaves, heated with a flat

iron, are applied several times in succession to articulations in cases

of acute rheumatism.

Arabic: Jouzebarri, Khasifehindi—; Bengal: Akola, Akrot, Jangliakrot—;

Bombay: Akrod, Jaiphul, Jangliakrot, Janglieranda, Japhal, Jelapa—; Brazil:

Noz de Bancoul, Noz da India—; Burma: Tosikyasi—; Canarese: Akroda,

Natakrodu Caroline Islands: Raguar—; Chinese: Shih Leih—; Cutch:

Akrota—; English: Belgaum Walnut, Bengal Walnut, Camiri Nut, Candleberry

Tree, Candle Nut, Indian Walnut, Singapore Nut—; French: Aleurit des

Molluques, Bancoulier—; Guam: Lumbang, Raguar—; Gujerati: Akhoda,

Jangli-akhroda— ; Hawaii: Eboc, Kukui—; Hindi: Akola, Akrot, Jangliakrot— ;

Hova: Bakoly, Savoga, Savokara—; Ilocano: Balucanag—; Jamaica: Country

Walnut—; Kemirih-Malay: Buaktas—; La Reunion: Bancoul, Bancoulier— ;

Madagascar: Mofotra—; Malay: Buahkeras, Kanieri—; Malayalam: Akrottu,

Akshotam, Karankolam—,; Marathi: Akhod, Japhala, Ranakhrot—; Mauritius :

Bancoul—; Persian: Chaharmaghz-e-hindi, Girdagan-e-hindi—; Samoa: Lama

—; Sanskrit: Akharota, Akhota, Akshota, Asphotaka, Gudashaya, Kandarala,

Karparala, Kaureshta, Madanabhaphala, Parvatiya, Phalasneha, Pritakchhada,

Bekhaphala, Svadumajja, Vrittaphala—; Shan: Kanyin, Mak man yau, Mak

yau. lik—; Sinhalese: Kakkuna, Ratakekuna, Tel-kekuna—; Tagalog:

Baguilumban, Balocanad, Balucanad, Calumban, Capili, Lumban, Lumbang— $;

Tamil: Nattakkar-ottu—; Telugu: Natakrotu, Uduga Urdu: Akharut—;

Uriya: Akuroto—; Visayan: Rumbang—.

ANDRACHNE,

This genus consists of 15 species, broadly distributed over the

tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres.

A. ovalis Mill.-Arg. is used in South Africa as an anthelmintic

and insecticide.

Andrachne cordifolia Miill.-Arg. is found at altitudes of 5,000-

8,000 feet in the Central and Western temperate Himalaya, from

Nepal westwards to Murree and Afghanistan,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 271

The plant is poisonous, and the twigs and leaves are said to

kill cattle when browsed in the early morning on an empty stomach.

Beas: Chirmutti, Mutkar, Pin—; Chenab: Barsu—; Garhwal: Bhatula—:

Jaunsar: Bharti, Bhartoi—; Jhelum: Gurguli, Kurkni—; Punjab: Gurguli,

Kurkni, Kurkuli—; Ravi: Barotri, Madare—; Sutlej: Tsatin—.

ANTIDESMA.

This genus includes 90 palaeotropical species.

A. madagascariense Linn. is used medicinally in La Reunion ;

A. membranaceum Muell.-Arg. in Liberia; A. venosum E. Mey.

in South and tropical West Africa; A. zeylanicum Lam. in Ceylon;

A. ghaesembilla Gaertn. in Cambodia; A. bunius Spreng, in India.

A. Ovary tomentose or pubescent —... oe wa 2. A. ghaesemobilla.

B. Ovary glabrous.

a. Leaves 3-6 in. Spikes stout often 4-5 in. Sar Aa buns.

b. Leaves 1-3 in, Spikes slender 1-14 in. ... i. 3- A. geylanicum.

1. Antidesma bunius Spreng. is a small evergreen tree found

throughout the hotter parts of India, from the Nepal and Sikkim

Terai and Assam, southwards to Singapore and Penang; and

from Parusnath in Behar to Ceylon. It extends to the Malay

Islands and China. .

The acid leaves are used in snake-bites; and, when young,

they are boiled and used in syphilitic cachexia.

Mhaskar and Caius have demonstrated that the leaves are not

an antidote to snake venom.

Burma: WKywepyisin—; Canarese: Nayikute—; Lepcha: Kantjer—; Malay-

alam: Cherutali, Nulittali—; Marathi: Amati—; Nepal: Himalcheri— ;

Pampangan: Bignay—; Philippines: Bubbugnay—; Sinhalese: Karawellake-

bella—; Tagalog: Bignai—; Tamil: Nolaidali—; Telugu: Anepu, Janupolari— ;

Visayan: Bugnai—.

2. Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. is a small tree found in the

tropical Himalaya, from Simla to Bhutan and southwards to Ceylon,

Singapore, Perak and Penang. It extends to Siam and. China,

the Malay Islands, Australia and Africa.

The bark, the leaves, and the wood are used medicinally in

Cambodia. The bark is considered astringent and tonic. The

leaves are finely crushed in a mortar and applied to the fontanel

of newly-born babes, and to the head of children suffering from

dengue or from a cold with cephalalgia. The wood, or better the

young stems with their bark, are used as an emmenagogue.

Cambodia: Dangkiep kdam—j; Canarese: Pulimpurase, Pullampurasigida— ;

Central Provinces: Jhondri—; Malay: Balng ayam, Gunchiak—; Malayalam :

Cheriyannatam—; Mundari: Koetang, Koetangnuetasura, Matasuradaru—;

Telugu: Janupulisaru, Kondapolari, Lona, Nallaballi, Polari—; Uriya:

Nihanahari—.

3. Antidesma zeylanicum Lam. occurs in the southern Deccan

. Peninsula, and is common in Ceylon.

A decoction of the leaves is used as a snake remedy; but

Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that it is useless

as an antidotal as well as a symptomatic treatment.

Sinhalese ; Hinembilla—; Tamil: Nolaidali—,

“I

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Volw xe

APOROSA.

The genus consists of 35 Indo-Malayan species.

Aporosa lindleyana Baill., a much-branched evergreen tree,

occurs in the Deccan Peninsula from the Konkan southwards, and

is abundant in Ceylon.

A decoction of the root is given in jaundice, fever, headache,

insanity, and seminal loss.

Canarese: Sarali—; Malayalam: Kotili, Vetti, Vittil—; Sinhalese:

Baranaembilla, Kebella—; Tamil: Kotili, Vittil—; Tulu: Sarali—.

BALIOSPERMUM.

This genus consists of to Indo-Malayan species.

Baliospermum montanum Mill.-Arg. (=B. axillare Bl.) is a

stout subherbaceous leafy shrub. It is found in the tropical and

subtropical Himalaya, from Kashmir to Bhutan; in Assam and

the Khasia Hills down to Chittagong, Pegu, Tenasserim, Burma,

and Penang; in the Deccan Peninsula, from Berar and the Konkan

to Travancore. It also occurs in Siam and Java.

This plant is much used in Hindu medicine, where purgation

is indicated, the root being generally prescribed. This is described

as ‘pungent, heating; purgative, anthelmintic, diuretic, alexiteric;

useful in pains, diseases of the skin and of the abdomen, piles,

wounds, enlarged spleen, itching, inflammations, anzmia, leucod-

erma, jaundice’.

The seeds are used as a drastic purgative, but in overdoses

are an acro-narcotic poison; they are sometimes used as a substi-

tute for Croton Tiglium. ‘They are also used externally as a

stimulant and rubefacient. The oil is a powerful hydragogue

cathartic, and is useful for external application in rheumatism.

Madden states that to the east of the Sutlej the leaves are in high

repute for wounds, and the sap is believed to corrode iron. The

root is considered cathartic, and is used in dropsy, anasarca, and

jaundice.

A decoction of the leaves is said to be useful in asthma.

Caius and Mhaskar have found the root equally useless in the

treatment of snake-bite and of scorpion-sting.

Arabic: WHabbussalatinebarri, Habbussalatinesahrai—; Bengal: Danti, Hak-

um, Hakun—; Berar: Boa—; Bombay: Dantimul, Jamakgota—; Burma:

Natcho—; Canarese: Danti, Kaduharalu—; Cutch: Dantimul, Jamalgota—;

Gujerati: Dantimul, Jamalgota—; Hindi: Dante, Danti, Hakum, Hakun—,;

Lepcha: Poguntig—; Malayalam: Dantika, Katalavanakku, Nakadanti, Ner-

valam, Niratimuttu—; Marathi: Danti—; Melghat: Danti, Jangli jamalgota—;

North-Western Provinces: Janglijamalgota—; Persian: Bedanjirekhatai— ;

Sanskrit: Amukheti, Anukula, Bhadra, Danti, Dantika, Erandapatri, Eranda-

phala, Gunapriya, Jayapala, Kumbhi, Madhupushpa, Makunaka, Nagadanti,

Nagasphota, Nepala, Nikumbhi, Nishalya, Nishkumbha, Pratyakparni, Rakta:

danti, Rechani, Ruksha, Shighra, Shwetaghanta, Shyenaghanta, Taruni,

Udumbaraparni, Upachitra, Varahangi, Vishalya, Vishodhini—; Tamil:

Kattamanakku, Niradimuttu, Nirettimuttu, Peyamanakku—; Telugu: Ettadun-

diga, Kanakapata, Kondamudamu, Nelajidi—; Uriya: Donti—.

BISCHOFIA.

The only species of this genus, B. javanica BI., is a large

evergreen tree occurring in the sub-Himalayan forests and outer

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF. INDIA 2

hills, spreading over Chota Nagpur, Assam, Burma, Chittagong,

and the Western Peninsula. It is found in the Malay and the

Pacific Islands.

In Assam the juice of the leaves is considered a cure for sores.

Assam: Uriam, Uriana—; Bombay: Bok—; Burma: Aukhyu, Pogaungza,

Yepadauk— ; Cagayan: Toogan—; Canarese: Gobranerul, Goparimgurulle.

Govarnellu, Nigurulle, Nile, Nilimara—; Dehra Dun: Paniala—; English:

Java Cedar, Vinegar Wood—; Formosa: Ka-tang—; Garhwal: Kaen, Kan}},

Kot semla—; Haldwani: Pankoen—; Hindi: Bhillar, Irum, Kain, Kein,

Kotsemba, Paniala, Pankain—; Igorrote: Tuel—; Ilocano: Quitaquita—- ;

Kadir: Naunal, Nira, Tirippu—; Kumaon: Koen—; Lepcha: Sa-nong kung—;

Malayalam : Nira, Tirippu—; Malkot: Billar—; Mundari: Daruhajam, Hajam— ;

Nilgiris: Red Cedar—; Oudh: Irum—; Philippines: Canarem, Dueg, Tua—;

Santali: Pader—; Saora: Panta—; Tagalog: Dampol, Toa, Toob, Tooc,

Toog—; Tanul: Madagirvembu, Milachadayan, Milachittyan, Tondi—; Telugu :

Nalupumushti— ; Tharu:; Areng—; Uriya: Dingiri—; Visayan: Tooc—.

BREYNIA.

This. genus consists of 12 species, found in Africa, Asia and

Polynesia.

Calyx greatly enlarged in fruit... 3 ee le Bn POLens.

Calyx not or scarcely enlarged in fruit... ... 2. B. rhamnoides.

1. Breynia patens Rolfe is found in the tropical Himalaya from

Nepal to Mishmi, in Assam, Chittagong, Burma, the Western

Peninsula, and Ceylon.

The plant is astringent to the bowels. The juice of the stem

is given in conjunctivitis.

Gujerati: Kamboi, Kedakamboi, Khedakamboi—; Hindi: WKalamahomad.

Kambhi— ; Malayalam: Peruniruri—; Marathi: SKalichikali—; Porebunder :

Kali-kamboi, Kamboi—; Sanskrit: Bahupraja, Bahupushpa, Devadaru, Kam.

boji—; Saora: Kintaipude—; Telugu: Devadari—; Uriya: Deulopohora,

Jajan, Medhokotahotoru—.

2. Breynia rhamnoides Miill.-Arg. is found throughout tropical

India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula; extending to the Malay

and the Philippine Islands, and China.

The bark is astringent. In Behar the dried leaves are smoked

like tobacco, in cases in which uvula and tonsils are swelled.

Canarese : Bamari, Gandupachcheri, Huli, Kadunugge, Karisuli, Kempehur:,

Kempuhili, Suli—; Ceylon: Manippulanti—; Hindi: Surasaruni—; Malay:

Suruyian—; Malayalam: Chuvannaniruri, Kattuniruri, Pavilappula—; Oudh:

Tikkar—; Sanskrit: Aruin—; Santali: Kadrupala, Karki—j; Sinhalese:

Gaskayila— ; Tamil: Kattuniruri, Manippulanji, Pavalappul, Pavalappula, Pamari.,

Sigappuppula—; Telugu: Ettaballi, Ettapurugudu, Nagalipachchari, Pagadapu,

Pagadurugudu, Vellari, Yellari—; Uriya: Jajan—.

BRIDELIA.

This genus includes 60 species, spread over the tropics and

subtropics of the Old World.

B. cambodiana Gagnep. is used medicinally in Cambodia, B.

schlechteri Hutch. in South Africa; B. atroviridis Muell.-Arg., B.

ferruginea Benth. and B. micrantha Baill. are used in Nigeria and

in Gold Coast; B. montana Willd. and B. retusa Spreng, in India.

Leaves membranous “aes ges .. I. B. montana.

Leaves rigidly coriaceous a re a 2. Peruse,

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 2b;

1. Bridelia montana Willd. is found in the sub-Himalayan

tract from the Jhelum eastwards; it also occurs in the Khasia

Hills, the Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, and Upper Burma.

The root and the bark are much used as an astringent medicine

in Bombay and Goa.

The plant has been credited with anthelmintic properties.

Assam: Kaisho—; Bombay: Asano—; Canarese: Kittoe, Sidigulige— ;

Cutch: Asana—; Garhwal: Gaya—; Goa: Faturfoda—; Gujerati: Asano—;

Hindi: Geia, Gondni, Kargnalia, Khaja, Kusi—; Nhond: Balli—; Kumaon :

Kurgnulia—; Marathi: Asana—; Mundari: Karakadaru—; ‘Nepal: Geio-—-;

Saharanpur : Gondni— ; Tamil: Vengaimaram—; Telugu: Gundubigalu, Pancha-

voni, Pantangi, Pantegi, Pantiga, Patunga, Sannakodari, Tellavegisa—; Uriya:

Marda, Nuanali—.

2. Bridelia retusa Spreng. is found throughout India, and

Ceylon, Burma and Malacca.

The root and the bark are valuable astringents.

Hindu practitioners in Western India use the bark for the

removal of urinary concretions.

The bark is used as a liniment with gingelly oil in rheumatism.

Ajmere: Lamkana—; Assam: Kohir—; Banswara: Angnera—; Bengal:

Kasai, Kosai—; Betul: Kasai, Sankana—; Bhil: Asana, Gunjan, Katiain-— ;

Bhunij : WKarika—; Bombay: Asauna, Assana, Phatarphod—; Burma: Seikche,

Seikchi, Seikgyi, Tseichyi—; Canarese: Asana, Garige, Goje, Gojji, Guju.

Gurige, Gworgie, Havugandha, Kogyamunji, Maguva, Muljane, Mullahonne,

Mullubenga, Mulluhonne, Nasinagandha, Nasinage, Phatterphodi, Siruhonne— ;

Central Provinces: Warka, Kassei, Kassi—; Chittagong: Kamkui—; Deccan:

Sun—; Dehra Dun: Gaya, Khaja—; Garhwal: Gauli, Gaya, Khaja—; Garo:

Kashi— ; Gond: Kassei—; Gujerati: Asana, Ekalakanto, Monj—; Hindi: Gauli,

Kaj, Kajja, Kassi, Khaja—; Ho: Kaka—; Kalagarh: Goli—; Kharwar: Kaj,

Kaji, Kanj—; Khond: Rugendi—; WKolami: Kaka, MKharaka—; Konkani:

Kongy—; Kurku: Karka, Karkha—; Lambadi: Makhiro—; Lepcha: Pengji—-;

Malayalam: Chalaru, Komanji, Mullukayani, Mulluvenya, _Mulluvenna—- ;

Mandevi: Haklo—; Marathi: Asana, Asanakutgi, Gunjan, Kantakauchi, Kati-

ain, Katiyen, Kutki, Palapasana, Patharaphoda, Phatharaphoda—; Matheran :

Asana, Hasana, Palehasan, Phatarphod—; Mechi: Katakuchi—; Monghyr:

Kuj—; Mundari: Karaka—; Nepal: Geio—; Nimar: Kasai, Sankana—;

Portuguese India: Bentka—j; Punjab: Mark, Pathor—; Rajbanshi: Nanda— ;

Rajputana: Angnera, Lamkana—; Ramnagar: Goli—; Reddi: Annemu—;

Saharanpur: Ekdania, Gondni—; Sanskrit: Asana, Ekadivi, Ekavira, Mahi-

vira, Sakridvira, Suvarika—; Santali: Kadrupala—; Saora: Annemu—;

Sinhalese: Kattakaala, Ketakala, Ketakele—; Tamil: Adamarudu, Asuvai,

Kadugai, Komanji, Malaivengai, Mullumarudu, Mulluvengai, Mulvengai, Sem,

Singattan, Siruvengai—; Telugu: Annemu, Bontavegita, Duriyamaddi, Etta-

pattaka, Kodaratti, Koramaddi, Koramanu, Kosengi, Peddayanemu, Poramanu,

Selaka—; Tharu: Khooj—; Tinnevelly: Adamaradu—; Tulu: Mullugunje—;

Uriya: Kasai, Kasi, Kosai, Kosi, Panikasi—.

BUXUS.

The genus consists of 25 species, inhabiting the temperate

regions of the Old World.

B. balearica Lam. is used medicinally in Majorca, B. semper-

virens Linn. in Europe and North America.

Buxus sempervirens Linn. occurs in the temperate Himalaya,

from Kumaon to Simla and Bhutan at 5,000-9,000 feet, and on

the Salt Range in the Punjab. Westwards it extends to North

Africa, and to western and southern Europe, where it abounds in

DHE IMEDIGINAE, AND. POISONOUS SPURGES OF “INDIA 275

limestone districts. Northwards it extends to western Siberia,

Turkestan, China and Japan.

Yunani practitioners use both the leaves and seeds :—‘The leaves

are good for headache, pain, prolapsus ani. The seeds are bitter,

astringent, tonic to the heart and brain; used in stomatitis, to dry

the bad humours of the liver’.

The wood in its native countries is considered diaphoretic, being

given in decoction as an alterative for rheumatism and secondary

syphilis. It is used as a substitute for guaiacum in the treatment

of venereal disease when sudorifics are considered to be the correct

specifics.

Boxwood has been found narcotic and sedative in full doses;

emetico-cathartic and convulsant in overdose. The tincture was

formerly used as a bitter tonic and antiperiodic, and had_ the

reputation of curing leprosy.

A volatile oi] distilled from the wood has been prescribed in

cases of epilepsy. The oil has been employed for piles and also

for toothache.

The leaves, which have a nauseous bitter taste, have sudorific,

alterative, and cathartic properties; they are given in powder, in

which form they are also an excellent vermifuge.

Various extracts and perfumes were formerly made from the

leaves and bark. A decoction was recommended as an application

to promote the growth of the hair.

Dried and powdered, the leaves are still given to horses for the

purpose of improving their coats. The powder is regarded by

carters as highly poisonous, to be given with great care. In

Devonshire, farriers still employ the old remedy of powdered Box

leaves for bot-worms in horses.

In some parts of Europe Box is one of the active ingredients

in a cure for the bite of a mad dog.

Camels readily eat the leaves; but they are poisoned by them.

The bark of the root is officinal in Portugal.

Afghanistan: Shandalaghune—; Arabic: Bakas—; Catalan: Boix—; Dutch:

Boxboom, Palm, Palmboom—; English: Box Tree, Dudgeon, Evergreen Box—:

French: Bois bénit, Buis, Buis commun, Ozanne—; German: Buchsbaum— ;

Greek: Pyxos—; Italian: Bosso, Bossolo, Busso, Buxo, Mortella—j; Jaunsar :

Papri, Sansadu—; Kashmir: Chikri—; Kumaon: Papri—; Mashudi: Sham-

shath—; North America: Box-tree, Bush-tree, Common Box, ‘'Dudgepn—;

North-Western Himalayas: Chikri, Papri, Poppar, Sansadu, Shamshad— ;

Persian: Shamshad—; Portuguese: Buxo—; Punjab: Chikri, Papar, Paprang,

Papri, Papur, Shamshad, Shumaj—; Roumanian: Cimisu, Cimsu, Merisor

tureesc—; Russian: Buksus, Samshit—; Spanish: Boj—; Swedish: Buxbom— ;

Urdu: Shamshad—.

CHROZOPHORA.

This genus consists of 11 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region, tropical Asia and tropical Africa.

C. plicata A. Juss. is a poison with acrid properties. C. senega-

lensis A. Juss. is used medicinally in Northern Nigeria.

A prostrate herb. Stamens 15 in two whorls. Ovary

and capsule with stellate tomentum and silvery scales. 2. C. rottlert.

A procumbent stellately woolly herb. Ovary and capsule

with stellate tomentum but without silvery scales ... I. C. prostrata,

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISE SOCIED Y= Vol. ocr

1. Chrozophora prostrata Dalz. is found throughout India:

the Punjab, the Upper Gangetic Plain, Bihar, Gujerat, Konkan,

Deccan, North Kanara, Sind, Central and South India. It extends

westwards to North Africa and Spain.

The ashes of the root are given to children for cough. The

leaves are considered depurative. The seeds are used as purgative.

The Santals mix the root with that of Carissa Carandas for

blistering purposes.

Bengal: Khudiokra—; Chinese: Pa Teou Nan—; French: Bancoulier— :;

Gujerati: Betookharada, Okharada—; Hindi: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali--;

Punjab: Nilakrai, Nilkhanti, Putkhanda—; Sanskrit: Suryavarta—; Santal:

Pangonari— ; Sind: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali—; Tank: Nealboti—; Telugu:

Guruguchettu, Lingamiriyam—.

2. Chrozophora rottleri A. Juss. occurs through the whole

of India. It extends to Afghanistan and thence to the Mediter-

ranean region.

The plant has emetic, drastic, and corrosive properties. The

seeds are used as a cathartic. .

Afghanistan : Kapochist— ; English: Turnsole—; French: Morelle a indigo— ;

Gujerat: WKalookharad—,; Hindi: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali—; Marathi:

Suravarta—; Punjab: Kukronda, Nilan, Tappalbuti—; Sanskrit: Suryavarta—:;

Sind: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali—; Spanish: Tornasol—.

CICCA.

C. disticha Linn. (=Phvllanthus distichus Miull.-Arg.) is culti-

vated in India and the Malay Peninsula. It occurs in the Malay

Islands and in Madagascar.

The,.root and the seed are cathartic, Ihe fruit is acid and

astringent.

The juice of the root-bark is used as a poison, often for

criminal purposes. It produces headache, sleepiness, and death

accompanied by severe abdominal pains.

Bengal: Hariphal, Hariphul, Loda, Noari—; Bombay: Harparawri, Rais-

vala—; Burma: Thimbawzibyu, Thinbawniyu, Thinbozihpyu—; Canarese :

Aranelli, WKarinelli, Kirinelli, Kirunelli, Rayaranelli—; English: The Country

Gooseberry, Star Gooseberry—; French: Brignolier—; Goa: Cherambola— ;

Hindi: Chatmeri, Harfarauri, Nuree, Nurphal—; Konkani: Rojanvalli, Rosan-

valli— ;_ La Reunion: Cherimbelier—; Malay: Chermela—; Malayalam:

Arinelli, Nellipuli— ; Mauritius : Chérimbolier—; Pampangan: Iba—; Sanskrit :

Ghana, Komalavalkala, Lavali, Lavalippala, Lavani, Pandu, Skandhaphala,

Srigdha, Sugandhamula—; Sinhalese: Ratanelli—; Tagalog: Bangquiling, -Ban-

quilin, Iba, Yba—; Tamil: Arunelli, Sadadaram, Sadagam—; Telugu:

Rachayusirika, Ratsavusiriki—; Tulu: Karinelli—; Urdu: WHarpharuri—;

Uriya: Aurakuli, Bungarada, Narokoli—; Visayan: Bangquiling, Layohan,

Poras—.

CLEISTANTHUS.

The genus includes rio African and Indo-Malayan species.

Cleistanthus collinus Benth. occurs in Bihar, Chota Nagpur,

the Satpura Range, the Chanda District. and the Western Peninsula.

It is rare in Ceylon.

The plant is poisonous. An extract of the leaves and fruit

acts as a violent gastro-intestinal irritant,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA

In Chota Nagpur the fruit and bark are employed to poison

fish; the latter is also considered a useful application in cutaneous

diseases. For severe headache, the head and upper part of the

body are bathed in water in which the leaves have been steeped.

The Mundas throw the leaves, dried and pounded, into pools and

ponds to kill fish.

Berar: Ghara—, Canarese: Badedarige, Bodadaraga, Kadagargari, IKoda-

sige—; Central Provinces: Ganari, Garar, Garari—; Gond: Garari—;

Hasada: Parasudaru—; MHindi: Garari, Garrar, Karla—; Ho: Pasu—;

Kharwar: Wargali, Kergali—; Khond: Kadise—; NKolami: Larshuter, Parasu,

Pas, Pasu—; Malayalam: Nilappala—j; Marathi: Garari—; Mundari: WKarge.

lung, Parasu—; Nagurt: Wargelodaru, Kargelungdaru—; Sanskrit: Indrayava,

Kaudigam, IXutaja, Nandi—; Santali: JNargali, Iargalli—; Tamil: Nilaippalai,

Odaichi, Odan, Odishi, Odu, Odugu, Oduppai, Oduvan—; Telugu: Iadise,

Kkorshe, Korsi, Vadise—; Uriya: Karada, WKoroda, Korora—.

CROTON.

This genus includes 600 species, inhabiting all tropical and

subtropical countries.

_ The ‘Crotons’ of gardens do not belong to this genus, but to

the genus Codiaeum of Papua and Polynesia.

The following species are used medicinally in China, Malaya,

the Philippine Islands—C. Tighum Linn.—; in Indo-China— C.

argyraius Bl., C. Cumingu Miull.-Are., C. maieuticus Gagnep., C.

oblongifolius Roxb., C. poilanei Gagnep., C. Vighum Linn., C.

tonkinensis Gagnep.—; in North America— C. californicus Miull.-

Arg.—; in Mexico — C. dioicus Cav., C. draco Cham. and

Schlecht., C. niveus Jacq., C. vulpinus Sesse and Mog.—; in

Venezuela and Colombia— C. leptostachyus H. B. and K., C.

mdlasubo Karst.—; in Peru— C. suberosus H. B. and K.—; in

Brazil— C. antisiphiliticus Mart., C. campesiris St. Hil., C. fulvus

Mart.—}; in Guiana— C. origanifolius Lam.—; in the West Indies—

C. cascarilla Benn., C. eluteria Benn., C. flavens Linn., C. glabellus

Linn., C. lucidus Linn.—; in Gambia and Nigeria— C. amabilis

Muell.-Arg., C. lobatus Linn.—; in Gold Coast— C. lobatus Linn.,

C. penduliflorus Hutch—; in East Africa— C. elliotianus Baill.,

C. gubouga S. Moore; in Southern Africa— C. gratissimus Burch.,

C. gubouga S. Moore, C. sylvaticus Hochst.—; in Madagascar—

C. macrobuxus Baill.—.

A. Inflorescence lepidote.

a. Leaves densely lepidote beneath

1. A tree ee aad ae ie te Ce Gyeyrarus.

2, A) shrub.

i. Petiole 3-13 in. Stamens 15-18. Capsule 3} in.

long, broadly oblong = abe Ge reltculatus,

ii. Petiole 3 in. Stamens 12-15. Capsule 3 in.

long, scaly a re vs 3. C. Camingi.

b. Leaves glabrous when old 8 Be a. 4. C. oblongifolius.

B. Inflorescence stellately tomentose or glabrous.

a. Leaves 3-§-plinerved at the base, scabrid or softly

pubescent with stellate hairs beneath .. 2° C. catidatus.

b. Leaves strongly triple-nerved ees are, 100 C,, Lagiium.

1. Croton argyratus Bl. is a small evergreen tree, common

in the forests and woods of Burma, Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and

Borneo, 7

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

In Indo-China the leaves are infused for a digestive tea.

Indo-China: Bac la, Day mang—; Malay: Cherit badak, Mungke, Sim-

mungke—.

2. Croton caudatus Geisel is found in the Eastern Himalaya,

in Assam and Bengal down to the Deccan, Malacca, and Ceylon;

extending to Java and the Philippine Islands.

The leaves are applied as a poultice to sprains.

In Lakhimpur the young leaf buds are powdered with the

leaves of Caesalpinia sappan and used for liver diseases.

Bengal: Nanbhantur—; Lakhimpur: Latamahundi—; Lepcha: Tackcha-

brik—; Malay: Akar guroh periat, Akar tuku takal—; Uriya: Pholancokriti,

Sanaushnota, Wusta—.

3. Croton Cumingii Miull.-Arg. is a straggling shrub found

on rocks, usually limestone, throughout the Malay Peninsula,

Siam, Indo-China, and the Philippine Islands.

The plant is used medicinally in Annam.

Indo-China: Co chu lon—.

4. Croton oblongifolius Roxb. is found in Sylhet, Bengal,

Chota Nagpur, the Central Provinces, Burma, the western Penin-

sula, and Ceylon.

The seeds and fruits are purgative.

The Goanese and the inhabitants of Southern Konkan administer

the bark in chronic enlargements of the liver and in remittent fever.

In the former disease, it is both taken internally and applied

locally. As an application to sprains, bruises, rheumatic swellings,

etc., it is in great request.

In the Southern Konkan, it has a reputation as a remedy in

snake-bites.

The Santals use the bark and root as a purgative and as an

alterative in dysentery.

The roots enter into the composition of pills used by the Mundas

of Chota Nagpur for chronic rheumatism. The root bark is given

in small doses as a purge; a larger quantity is said to be poisonous.

The leaves are used externally in Cambodia for liver complaints

and scabies. The leaves are often boiled in water, and the liquid

applied hot to the itch.

The root, bark, and seeds are equally useless in the antidotal

and symptomatic treatment of snake-bite; the root is useless as

an external application (Mhaskar and Caius).

Assam: Burmaparokupi—,;, Bengal: Baragach, Putri—; Bombay: Ganasuar,

Gunsur— ; Burma: Theyin, Thityin—; Cambodia: Trapung—; Goa: Gonsur—;

Hindi: Buragach—; Indo-China: Cui den, Tra poung—; Kharwar: Bhain

swan—; Koderma: Maisonda—; Kolami: Konya, Kuli, Kurti, Kutikonyer,

Poter—; Lohardugga: Putri—; Malay: Kote, Putol—; Mal Paharia: Putol—;

Marathi: Ganasura, Gunsur—; Mundari: Kuti, Kutidaru—; Nepal: Ach—;

Oudh ; Arjunna—; Patna: Chucka—; Sanskrit : Bhutankusa— ; Santali : Gote—;

Tamil: Milgunari—; Telugu: Bhutalabhairi, Bhutankusamu—; Tharw: Mah-

son—; Uran: Poter—; Uriya: Masundi—. ja

5. Croton reticulatus Heyne is found in the Deccan Peninsula,

from the Konkan southwards. It also occurs in the Central

Province of Ceylon. |

tHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDid 279

The bark is used as a bitter stomachic.

bombay : Panduray—; Marathi: Pandhari, Pandharisala

Pandhri, Fandurai—.

Matheran:

6. Croton Tigiium = Linn. is found naturalized and cultivated

in Bengal, Assam, and southwards to Burma, Malacca, and Ceylon.

It extends to the Malay Islands and Ceyion.

According to Ayurveda the fruit and the seed are purgative;

and the oil from the seed is purgative, carminative, useful in

diseases of the abdomen, mental troubles, convulsions, fever,

insanity, inflammations, bronchitis.

According to Yunani practitioners the seeds have a bitter bad

taste, causing a burning sensation; cathartic, expectorant, emetic;

good in sore eyes, excessive phlegm, leucoderma.—The oil is

cathartic, tonic; removes pus and bad matter from the body.

The seeds and the oil are officinal and their properties are

well known: irritant, rubefacient, cathartic. The seeds are officinal

in Finland and Portugal; the oil is officinal in Austria, Belgium,

Beazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, Mexico,

Norway, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, the United States, and

Yugoslavia.

In Lakhimpur the seeds are ground in water, and the infusion

is used to kill insect pests.

The fruits are employed by Dayaks in Borneo to poison fish.

The root is used in Kelantan as an abortifacient.

On account of their drastic purgative properties the seeds and

oil are regarded by the Chinese as entirely poisonous. The bark

is used as a tonic in Annam.

Caius and Mhaskar gave two adult males one minim of croton

oil in one dose. The patients had several motions, but passed no

worms though they were ultimately found to have been harbouring

356 hookworms. These same workers found that the seeds are

not an antidote to snake venom, and that they are useless as a

collyrium in the treatment of snake-bite or as an external applica-

tion to the sting of the scorpion; they also demonstrated that the

leaves have no action when applied externally to the site of the

bite from a poisonous snake.

Annam: Ba dau—; Arabic: Batu, Dand, Datun, Habbussalatin—; Bengal:

Jamalgota, Jaypal, Jhayal, Rechuk—; Bombay: Jaipa, Jaipal, Jamalgota— =;

Burma: Kanako—; Canarese: Danti, Japala, Jayapala, Nepala—; Chinese:

Pa Teou, Pa Teou Seou, Pa Tou—; Deccan: Jamalgota—; English: Purging

Croton—; French: Bois des Mollugues, Bois de Pavana, Bois de Pavanna,

Pois purgatif, Graine de Tilly, Graine de Moluques, Petit pignon d’ Inde—;

Gujerati: Nepal—; Hamadan: Habb-el-salatin—; Hindi: Jamalgot, Jamal-

gota— Indo-China: Ba dau, Ba tau, Bat khlot, Cong khoi—,; Italian:

Grana tiglio—; Japan: Hazu—; Java: Cheraken—j; Lakhimpur: Kanibhi— ;

Malay: Chemkian, Chengkian—; Malaya: Bori, Pai Tow—; Malayalam:

Dantibijam, Katalavanakku, Nirvalam—j; Marathi: Jamalagota, Jepal, Jeya-

pal— ;x Mauritius: Croton tilly, Tilly—; Persian: , Badanjirekhatai, Bidend-

jirehkhatai, Dund, Habbdilmaluk, Habbelkhatai—; Portuguese : Croton tiglio— ;

Sanskrit: Danti, Jayapala, Nepala—; Sinhalese: Jayapala, Nepalam— #;

Tagalog: Camaisa, Tuba, Tubacamaisa—; Tamil: Kattukkattai, Naganam,

Nagandi, Nervalam, Nigumbam, Nirvalam, Sambari, Sayabalam, Sevalangottai,

Siduram, Sittudu, Tendi—; Telugu: Nepalamu, Nepalavemu—; Tulu: Berada,

Pyaribittu—; Uriya: Jaipalo Joyopalo, Konika—; Visayam : Camarandag,

Macasla,- Tubasabuquid—. :

2830 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

EUPHORBIA.

The genus comprises 750 species, inhabiting chiefly subtropical

and warm temperate countries. It is very various in habit. Some

species have a fleshy angular stem, furnished with _ spines,

resembling that of a Cactus; these species yield by incision a

resinous juice which is strongly drastic, and used externally as a

vesicant. The other Euphorbias, which have a normal stem and

leaves, have a purgative milky juice; some are considered efficacious

in syphilitic cachexia; others are emetic, or slightly astringent

and aromatic, or astringent and slightly narcotic. :

The following species are used medicinally in Europe— E£,

amy gdaloides Linn., E. Chamaesyce Linn., E. Characias Linn., E.

Cyparissias Linn.,’ E. ~Esula Linn, 22.0 Gererdiana = \acqun 2:

hehoscopia Linn.,. E. hyberna Linn,, EB. Lathyas Minng 22 Morse

nites Linn., &. palustris Linns,H. Peps Linn Es Peplus winne

E. resinifera Berg., E. serrata Linn.—; in the Mediterranean

region— E. aleppica Linn., E. Apios Linn., E. dendroides Linn.,

E. Peplis Linn., E. spinosa Linn.—; in Arabia— FE. antiquorum

Linn., E. officinarum Linn.—; in China— E. adenochlora Morr. and

Dene., E. helioscopia Linn., E. humifusa Willd., E. ‘Lathyris Linn.,

E. pekinensis Rupr., E. Sieboldiana Morr. and Dene.—; in Indo-

China: E. antiquorum Linn,., E. Atoto Forst., E. Chamaesya Linn.,

E. edulis Lour., E. hirta Linn., E. hypericifolia Linn., E. neriifolia

Linn., E. parviflora Linn., E. rosea Retz, E, thymifolia Linn., E.

Tirucalli Linn.—; in Malaya— FE. Lathyris Linn., E. pekinensis

Rupr., E, Sieboldiana’ Morr. and Dcne——; in the Philippine

Islands— E. hirta Linn:, E,-nernfoha Linas, Ef. Tirucaih aime.

in Australia— E. Drummond Boiss.—; in Fiji— E. hirta Linn.—;

in North America— £. albomarginata Torr. and Gray, E. coral-

loides Linn., E. corollata Linn., £.. hirta Linn., E. humistvaia

Engl., E. Ipecacuanha Linn., E. Lathyris Linn., E. maculata

Linn., E. marginata Pursh., E. ocellata Durand, E. Preslii Guss.,

E. serpyllifolia Pers.—; in the West Indies— E. buxifolia Lam.,

E. linearis Retz, E. pulcherrima Wild.—; in Mexico— E. glypto-

sperma Linn., E. prostrata Ait., E. pulcherrima Willd.—; in Peru—

E. laurifolia Lam., E. pulcherrima Willd.—; in Chile— E. portu-

lacoides Linn.—; in Brazil— FE. brasiliensis Lam., E. caecorum

Mart., E. cotinifolia Linn., E. heterodoxa Muell.-Arg., E. hyperici-

folia Linn., E. papillosa St. Hil., E. phosphorea Mart.—; in

Guiana— E. cotinoides Miq., E. hirta Linn., E. hypericifolia Linn.,

E. punicea Sw.—; in the West Indies— E. hirta Linn., E. pulcher-

vima Willd.—; in the Canary Islands and in Guinea— E. balsamifera

Ait., E. canariensis Linn.—; in West Africa— E. aegyptiaca

Boiss., E. balsamifera Ait., E. convolvuloides Hochst., E. hirta

Linn.,: EF. kamerunica Pax, E: lateriflora Schum: sand ‘honns.e

leonensis N. E. Br., B. Potssoni Pax, &. polycnemoides Hochst.—;

in Abyssinia— FE. cerebrina Hochst.—; in Ethiopia— E. officinarum

Linn.—; in Madagascar— FE. anagalloides Bak., E. Bojeri Hook.,

E. emivnensis Bak:, E. erythroxyloides Bak. Eo mirta Winn.) see

splendens Boj., E. trichophylla Bak.—; in La Reunion— E, dissi-

milis Cordem., E. goliana Lam., E. heyneana Boiss., E. hirta Linn.,

THE-MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES ‘OF .INDIA 281

E. hypericifolia Linn., E: Peplus Linn., FE. prostrata Ait., E.

thymifola Burm., E. Tirucalli Linn.—; in Southern Africa— E.

abyssinica J. F. Gmel., E. basutica Marl., E. bupleurifolia Jacq.,

E. clavarioides Boiss., E. helioscopia Linn., E. ingens E. Mey.,

E. mauritanica Linn., E. procumbens Mill., E. restituta N. E. Br.,

E. sanguinea Hochst. and Steud., EF. striata Thunb., FE. truncata

N. E. Br., E. virosa Willd:—.

E. Candelabrum Tremaut, E. mauritanica Linn., E. striata

Thunb., and FE. virosa Willd. are used as arrow poisons by the

Bushmen of Southern Africa; E. sapini de Wild. is similarly used

by the tribes of Oubanghi- -Chari.

The latex of E. canariensis Linn. is officinal in Portugal and

Spain; that of E. resinifera Berg. in Austria, Belgium, Brazil,

Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Norway,

Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and

Yugoslavia.

A. Herbs, rarely shrubby below; prostrate or ascending.

Leaves all opposite. Glands 4-5, usually furnished with

a membranous petaloid limb.

I. Erect or decumbent ‘branching herbs or shrubs, with

leaves 4-3 in. long or thereabouts. Involucres in

axillary and subterminal cymes or crowded in the

uppermost leaves. Limb of gland conspicuous

though small.

a. Glabrous. Stem stout swollen at the nodes... 2. E. Atoto.

b. Glabrous or sparsely pubescent

1. Annual. Seeds smooth or with broad shallow

transverse pits i ee) ww. J &E. hypericifolia.

2. Perennial. Seed rugose se 12. H. rosea.

c. Hispid with copious crisped hairs... na 6. E. hirton

II. Prostrate, sa erect plants, with leaves }-4 in. long,

rarely more. Involucres solitary, or in very short

subsessile cymes, usually crowded along one side of

the stem, or of short lateral branches. Limb of

gland obscure or absent.

a. Stems hispidly hairy. Capsules pubescent or

hirsute.

1. Leaves crenulate. Capsules pubescent. Seeds

furrowed sis aoe ves 16. B. thymifolia.

2. Leaves entire. Capsules hirsute. Seeds

pitted {ae a .» 4. E&. granulata.

b. Stems glabrous. Capsules glabrous.

1. Leaves nearly as broad as long. Seeds

smooth .. 9. E. microphylla.

. Leaves from a very “unequal base, elliptic-

rhomboid, very obtuse sla .. 14. 4. sanguinea.

Cotes glabrous or short-hairy - .. Ig. E,. turcomanica,.

B. Shrubs or trees with fleshy terete ribbed angled or

’ flattened stems and branches. Leaves absent or

alternate or the upper opposite.

I. An erect unarmed shrub or tree. Branches spreading,

cylindric, scattered, whorled or clustered. Leaves

absent or few small linear-oblong be ee ages Legiicaiin.

II. Erect shrubs or trees, with stout angled ribbed or

winged branches that are crenate or nodose at the

angles or wings, and there provided with 2 or 3

stipular prickles.

a. Pairs of stipular spines on tubercles or swellings

of the branchlets ee er .. 10. E. nertifolia.

282

C,. .Herbs, rarely .shrubby below, usually erect. Leaves

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL

b. Pairs of stipular spines on flat brown or black

corky areas, not on swellings of the branchlets. 11. E. nivuiia.

c. Pairs of stipular spines in the sinuses of the thick

Sinuate, Wings! «-...... . 1. KE. antiquorum.

d. Pairs of stipular spines on the margins of the

thick obtuse undulate wings « 13. E. Royleana.

e. Pairs of stipular spines on the lobes of the lobu-

late wings oe oe ne 3. 18: Es trigona.

alternate, upper opposite.

Involucral glands transversely oblong with rounded |

margins. |

a. Perennial herbs. |

1. Capsule smooth. Plant quite glabrous... 15. E. Thomsoniana.

2. Capsule warted. Plant glabrous or sparsely |

hairy sie a ee .. 8. E. longifolia. |

b. Annuals. Capsule smooth. Seeds pitted sas De. La, HeEloscopia, |

Involucral glands truncate retuse or 2-cornate.

Annuals. Seeds oblong leprous se ... 3. E. dracunculoides.

Euphorbia antiquorum Linn. occurs throughout the hotter

parts of India and Ceylon, in dry places, ascending to 2,000 feet.

It is common all over Burma, being often cultivated for hedges.

It is found on the limestone rocks of the Malay Peninsula, where

the plant is also cultivated occasionally.

In the Nighantas the plant is described as purgative, pungent,

digestive, bitter and heavy, and is said to be useful in constipation,

flatulent distention, tumours, swellings, abdominal enlargements,

rheumatism, spleen, leprosy, mania and jaundice.

A plaster, prepared from the roots and mixed with asafcetida,

is applied externally to the stomachs of children suffering from

worms. The bark of the root is purgative, and the stem is given

in decoction in gout.

The juice, which flows from the branches, is used as a purgative

to relieve pain in the loins. It is an acrid irritant in rheumatism

and tooth-ache. When taken internally, it acts as a drastic pur-

gative.

It is also employed in nervine diseases, dropsy, palsy,

deafness and amaurosis. It is a popular application to warts and

other cutaneous affections.

The juice is prescribed as a purge and deobstruent in those

visceral obstructions and dropsical affections which are consequent

long-continued intermittent fever. Externally, mixed with

margosa oil, it is applied to limbs which have become contracted

from rheumatism.

In Bombay the root is mixed with country liquor to make it

more intoxicating, and the juice is used to kill maggots in wounds,

and is dropped into the ear to cure earache, a practice common

to many parts of India. In the Konkan the stem is roasted in

ashes,

and the expressed juice, with honey and borax, given in

small doses to promote the expectoration of phlegm.

The Mundas of Chota } Nagpur use the milky juice to poison and

catch fish. The juice is also used as a purge: mixed in a raw ege

it gives as many stools as there are drops of the juice in the

mixture,

A preparation from this plant is given as a cure for cough by

the -Santals:

THE MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 283

The hard woody part of the stem is used medicinally by the

Malays.

In Cambodia the latex is used as an emetic; the core of the

plant is administered in dysentery and in febrile conditions.

Throughout Indo-China the milky juice is reputed emetic, purgative,

and hydragogue.

The Hindus employ the root mixed with black pepper as a

medicine for the cure of snake-bites internally and_ externally.

Mhaskar and Caius have experimented with both the root and the

milky juice, and they have found that, whether given internally or

applied externally, those drugs are seless in the treatment of

snake-bite.

Annam: Xuong rong—; Arabic: Zaqqum-e-hindi— ; Belgaum : Tindarisend— ;

Bengal: Bajvaran, Lariyadaona, Nagri, Narasij, Tekatasij—; Burma: Pyathal,

Shasoung-pyathal, Shazanoji, Tazaung—; Cambodia: Chanlat day—; Bombay:

Bontakalli, Bontegalli, Bontekalli, Chaturagalli, Jadekalli, Mundugalli— ;

Ceylon: Chaturakkalli—; Deccan: ‘Tidharisend, Tindharisend—; English:

Spurge Cactus—; Gujerati: Tandharisend—; Hasada: Siddaru—; Hindi:

Narashij, Sayord, Tidharasend—; Indo-China: Chan leat day, Thanh long,

Xuong rong—; Malayalam: Chaturakalli, Kalli, Ratakkali—; Marathi: Naraseja,

Narsej—; Michi; Shidu—; Mundari: Eteke, Etete, Siddaru, Marangeteke— $;

Persian : Zaqqum-e-hindi, Zaqunniya-e-hindi— ; Sadant : Sid—; Sanskrit : Sihunda,

Simhunda, Snuhi, Tridharaka, Vajra, Vajrakantaka, Vajri—; Santal: Etke,

Etkec’-—; Sinhalese: Daluk—; Tamil: Amudangam, Kalli, MKandiravam,

Kaniravam, Kodiravam, Mavirukkam, Murittargalli, Sadurakkalli, Saduchi,

Sunakkudam, Tiruvargalli, Vachiram, Vachirangam, Valangalli—; Telugu:

Bommajemudu, Bontajemudu, Bontakalli, Peddajemudu, Simhundumu—; Tuluw:

Darekhalli— ; Urdu: Zakum—; Uriya: Dokahanasiju, Dokanasij, Lohasiju— ;

Yemen: Gholak, Kelah—.

2. Euphorbia Atoto Forst. is found on the Malabar Coast, from

Canara southwards. It is common on the sandy seashores of the

Malay Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, and Ceylon. It is distri-

buted to the Malay Archipelago, China, Australia, and the Pacific

Islands.

In Indo-China women use the milky juice as an emmenagogue,

and also as an abortifacient. According to Sallet, when prepared in

a certain way and cooked with honey over the water bath the

latex is a good remedy for tuberculosis.

In New Caledonia sea-water in which the plant has been soaked

and malaxated is very much used as a purgative.

Indo-China: Thuoc doi—.

3. Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. is met with throughout

India in the plains and low hills. It extends westwards to Arabia

and tropical Africa.

- The fruit is used to remove warts.

Bengal: Chhagulpuputi, Jychee—; Hindi: Chagulputputi—; Punjab: Kangi,

Richni, Sudab—; Rajputana: Bamburi—; Santal; Parwa—; Telugu: Tillalk-

ada—.

4. Euphorbia granulata Forsk. inhabits the Western Peninsula,

Chota Nagpur, Malwa, the Rajputana Desert, the Punjab, Sind,

Afghanistan, Arabia, Egypt, and the Canary Islands,

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS? SS OCIETL Verio nae.

-In Las Bela the plant is said to purify the blood.

Arabic: Lebbaejde, Lebbejn, Libbein, Melachene—; Jhalawan: Gwandar— ;

Kharan; Shirgonah—; Las Bela: Khirwal—; Rajputana: Dudeli—; Santali:

Kantha arak—. 2 BE ake i. 2 me

5. Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. is a common field-weed in

spring throughout the Punjab plains and. the - Siwahk-~---tract,

ascending to 7,000 feet in the outer Himalaya. iIt has--been

introduced into the Nilghiris. It spreads over Afghanistan, and

westwards to the Atlantic. It also occurs in Japan.

The plant is used as a hydragogue cathartic,. and-the juice is

applied to remove warts. The juice is sometimes, though im-

properly, used to cure sore eyelids, causing in many _ instances

intolerable pain and inflammation.

In the Punjab the milky juice is applied to eruptions, and the

seeds are given with roasted pepper in cholera. In Waziristan

the juice is used in herpes.

In Sind the juice is used in the form of a liniment in neuralgia

and rheumatism, and the root is employed as an anthelmintic.

The latex is successfully used for the removal of warts in South

al tie (erste

Afrikaans: Mellxbos, Melkgras, Wolfsemelk—; Arabic: Rumude, Ssaade— ;

Baluchistan: Gurbagund, Sohrbulok, Zahrihk—,; Catalan: Lletera, Lleterola,

Mal d’ulls—; Chinese: Tse Ch’i—; English: Cat’s milk, Churn-staff, Sun

Spurge, Wartwort—; French: Lait de couleuvre, Omblette, Réveille matin,

Tithymale Hindi: Hirruseeth, Mahabi—; Iraq: WKhannaq-ad-dijaj, Um-al-

halib—; Italian: Esula, Titimaglio, Titimalo, Tutumaglio Kharan: Gur-

bagund—; Malta: Cat’s Milk, Spurge, Sun Spurge, Erba calenzuola, Teng-

houd—; Punjab: Chatriwal, Dudal, Gandabute, Kulfadodakak—; South

Africa: Milkweed, Spurge—; Spanish: Lechetrezna, Mirasol—; Wasiri:

Sagergotiae—. oa Sie al

6. Euphorbia hirta Linn. (=£. pilulifera Linn.) is a common

weed in waste ground, found throughout the hotter parts of India

from the Punjab eastwards, and southwards to Ceylon and

Singapore. It inhabits most of the tropical and subtropical

countries. pate a ae

The. dried herb is stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic. _ It has

been frequently reported useful for bronchitis and asthma affections.

The juice of the plant is given in dysentery and colic, and the

milk applied to destroy warts. A decoction is used in asthma and

chronic bronchial affections.

The plant is chiefly used in the affections of childhood, in

worms, bowel complaints, and cough. It is sometimes prescribed

in gonorrheea.

The root is given by the Santals.to allay vomiting, and the

plant to nursing mothers when the supply of milk is deficient or

fails. a

The plant is widely used in West Africa as a medicine. In

Gold Coast it is ground and mixed with water for use as an

enema for constipation. The white juice is used by women to

increase the flow of milk. The leaves are used in curing sorés;

their juice is sometimes squeezed into the eyes to cure eye trouble.

RHE MEDICINAL. AND” ROTSONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 285

Similarly in Liberia the plant is given along with lime juice as

a laxative, and the latex is applied for conjunctivitis; a thorn or

other foreign body is extracted with the help of the latex, which

is also applied locally as an antidote to arrow poison or to assist

extraction of the head.

The herb is very much used in La Reunion as an astringent

in chronic diarrhceas and dysenteries. It is also applied topically

to, ulcers: oedemas,, and *phicomons. The juice js* -siven» for

aphthae. It is considered tonic, narcotic, and antiasthmatic.

A popular astringent and haemostatic in the Philippine Islands.

It is used in the treatment of dysenteries in Annam.

The plant is much used in Guiana as a febrifuge. As a poultice

it is applied to abscesses and inflamed glands.

The plant is known in Australia as ‘Queensland asthma herb’.

It is used there as a remedy for coughs, bronchial and pulmonary

disorders, but more especially in paroxysmal asthma.

There is no doubt that an extract of this plant has a sedative

effect on the mucous membrane of the respiratory and genito-

urinary tract. It has been found by me very beneficial in cases of

asthma. I have been using a tincture of it in my private practice

in diseases of the genito-urinary tract and in chronic bronchitis

and asthma. The result has been very satisfactory (IKoman).

According to Dikshit and Kameshwar Rao experiments conduct-

ed on cats, dogs, and rabbits, with and without anaesthesia; show

that the drug has got a fairly marked action on the respiratory

system, depressing the respiration and producing a well marked

dilatation of the bronchioles. The drug produces a local irritation

of the stomach when given by mouth in larger doses and produces

nausea and vomiting. If injected intravenously in animals, how-

ever, it has got a depressant action on the movements of the

intestines. There is an immediate cessation of the automatic

movements of the intestines and a relaxation of the tone of the

muscle. The cardiovascular system is depressed, and an intravenous

injection leads to a fall of blood pressure chiefly due to the

depression of the heart. Perfusion experiments show a depression

of the heart. Other systems of the body like the genito-urinary

system are not markedly affected (18th Ind. Sc. Congress; Nagpur,

1931).

Australia: Queensland Asthma Herb—; Awuna: Ahinkodze, Notsigbeng— ;

Bengal: Barakerui, Burakeru, Burokeruee—; Betsileo: Aidinono—; Bombay :

Nayeti—; Canarese: Achchegida—; Central Provinces: Gordon—; Ceylon:

Madduppachcharichippillu, Palavi—; English: Asthma Herb, Asthma-weed,

Australian Asthma Herb, Euphorbia, Pill-bearing Spurge, Snake Weed—; Ewe:

Notsigbee— ; Fiji: Do ni osi—; French: Euphorbe a globules, Euphorbe a pilules,

Herbe 4 Jean Renaud, Herbe Jean Robert, Herbe a serpents, Madelone plat,

Mal famée, Malnommée, Pilulier, Poil de chat—; French Guiana: Grande

malnommée, Petite malnommée rouge, Malnommée—; Guam: Golondrina— ;

Gujerati: Dudeli, Dudh, Nagladudheli, Ratidudheli— ; Hausa: Nonankurchiya— ;

Hindi: Bahidudhi, Dudhi, Laldudhi—; Indo-China: Co sua lon la, Ka ta, Phi

duong thao, Vu sua—; Kolami: Pusitoa—; Konkani: Dudurly—; Kwang Tung :

Yu Tchou Ts’ao—; La Reunion: Jean Robert—; Lepcha: Sung-gryong muk— ;

Majay: Ambin jantan, Gelang susu, Kurumak susu—; Malayalam: Nelapalai— ;

Mano: To a gbondo—; Marathi: Dudhi, Dudnali, Govardhan, Mothidudhi,

Nayati— ; Mauritius: Jean Robert—; Mundari: Kodasing—; Nztma: Akubaa— ;

Oloke Meji: Emi-ile, Emile—; Pampangan: Bolobotones, Magatas, Malismhalis,

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ AIST... SOCIELY.. Vols ox

Sisiohan, Sisiwhan—; Philippines: Batabotonis, Botobotones, Golandrina— ;

Porebunder: Mothidudheli, Motodakardumaro, Ratodakardumaro—; Sanskrit :

Nagarjuni, Pusitoa—; Sinhalese: Budadakiriya, Dadakiriya, Kiritala—; Susu:

Boxeforotai, Nyalefoxe, Nyayafoke—; Tagalog: Batobatonis, Gatasgatas, Sayi-

can— ; Tamil : Amumpatchaiyarissi, Patchaiyarissi— ; Telugu: Bidarie, Nanabala,

Nanabiyan, Reddinanabrolu—; Timne: Ebit, Yankara-ebit—; Twi: Ahin-

kodge—; Visayan: Bovi, Buyayava, Gatasgatas, Tavava—; Wolof: Homgue-

lem—; Yoruba: Egele, Ege-ile, Emi-ile—.

7. Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn. is common throughout the

hotter parts of India and Ceylon, and occurs up to 4,000 feet on

the Himalaya. It is found in the tropics generally, with the

exception of Australia and Pacific Islands.

An infusion of the dried leaves is a remedy in dysentery,

diarrhoea, menorrhagia, and leucorrhoea, and it affects the system

as an astringent and feeble narcotic.

It is given with milk to children in colic.

In Guiana cataplasms of the plant are applied in cephalalgia.

In La Reunion the plant is considered drastic, but rarely used as

such; it is better known as an astringent and styptic.

In Annam a decoction of the plant is used in measles and in

gravel.

Arabic: Melachene—; Bombay: Nayeti—; Brazil: Erva de Santa Luzia— ;

French Guiana: Marie claire—; Gujerati: Dudheli—; Hindi: Dudhi, Dudhi-

kalava, Hakshardana—; Indo-China: Chanleat, Co sua, Vu sua—; La Re-

union: Herbe Saint-Jean, Jean Belan—; Marathi: Dhaktidudhi, Dudhi,

Dudhmogra—; Mauritius: Herbe colique, Herbe mal lévé—; Porebunder:

Dhakradunmaro, Dudheli—; Punjab: MWHazardana—; Rajputana: Dudeli— ;

Sansknt: Dugdhika—; Sinhalese: Eladadakiriya—.

8. Euphorbia longifolia D. Don has been reported from

Thoucote in Nepal. It is also reported that the juice is applied

to fistulous sores in Kashmir and the Punjab. |

Euphorbia microphylla Heyne is found in Bengal, Bundel-

khand, Southern India, Burma and Java.

In Chota Nagpur, a preparation of this plant, along with that

of Cryptolepis Buchanani is given to nursing mothers when the

supply of milk fails or is deficient. |

Bengal : Chotokeruee— ; Gujerati: Dudhi—; Marathi: Dudhi— ; Porebunder :

Ekphulidudheli— ;_ Santali: Dudhiaphul—.

10. Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. is common in rocky places

throughout the Western Peninsula. It is cultivated elsewhere in

India, as also in Ceylon, Burma, Baluchistan and the Malay Islands.

The plant is a reputed Ayurveda medicine. The Nighantas

describe it as ‘bitter, pungent; laxative, carminative, alexipharmic ;

improves the appetite; useful in abdominal troubles, bronchitis,

tumours, loss of consciousness, delirium, leucoderma, piles, inflam-

mations, enlargement of the spleen, anaemia, ulcers, fevers.—The

milk is pungent, laxative; good for abdominal troubles, tumours,

leucoderma.—The leaves are heating, carminative; improve the

appetite; good for tumours, pains, inflammations, abdominal

swellings.

The Yunanists consider it a good substitute for E. Tirucalli.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES Of INDIA 287

The milky juice is used as a purgative and a rubefacient. It

is prescribed as a cathartic and deobstruent in visceral obstructions

and dropsical affections consequent on long continued fever. It

enters into the composition of most of the drastic purgatives.

The juice is empolyed in earache; mixed with shoot it is applied

to the eye in ophthalmia; mixed with margosa oil it is used as

an application in rheumatic affections. |

On the Western coast the bark of the root, boiled in rice water

with the addition of arrack, is considered useful in dropsy.

In the Rajputana Desert the milky juice is used as a cure for

coughs, and is applied to the skin as a blister.

The leaves are used as a diuretic in Indo-China.

The juice of the leaves is a popular cure for earache in the

Philippine Islands.

A succus consisting of equal parts of the juice of this plant

and simple syrup was prepared and administered in doses of 10

to 20 minims three times a day in cases of asthma, and was found

to give relief to the fits of that disease (Koman).

The milk and the root enjoy an almost universal repute as

remedies in snake-bite. Mhaskar and Caius have, however, found

the two drugs useless in the antidotal and symptomatic treatment

of snake-bite and scorpion-sting, and equally useless when applied

topically to the bite or the sting.

Annam: Xuong rong rao—; Arabic: Wurzizuker—; Bengal: Hijdaona,

Mansasij, Patashij, Shij—; Berar: Thuar, Thuhar—,; Bombay: Minguta,

Newarang, Thor—; Burma: Shasaung, Shasoung, Shazawnminna, Zizaung— ;

Canarese: Elegalli, Yalekalli—; Deccan: Kuttekijibhkapatta, Kuttekijibhkasend.

Newrung, Putteunkesaynd, Thoor—; Goa: Nevulkanta—; Gujerati: Thor,

Tuaria—; Hindi: Munsasej, Pattonkisend, Putteun, Sehund, Senhur, Sij,

Thohar, Thor—; Ilocano: Carambuaya—; Indo-China: Giang lam, Xuong

rong, Xuong rong rao, Xuong rong ta—; Kolami: Etke—; Konkani: Nival-

kantem, Nivalkanti Malay: Sesudu—; Malayalam: Ilakalli, Kalli—;

Marathi: Mingut, Nevagunda, Newrang, Niwarung—; Nimar: Thuar, Thu-

har—; Pampangan: Bait, Sorogsorog, Sorosoro—; Philippines: Lengua de

perro—; Portuguese: Cardeira—; Punjab: Gangichu—; Rajputana: Thor— ;

Sanskrit: Patrasnuhi, Pattakari, Snuhi, Svarasana—; Santali: Etke—; Sind:

Minaguta, Nivadunga, Thohur, Thoor—; Sinhalese: Paluk, Patuk—; Tagalog :

Bait, Sorogsorog, Sorosoro—; Tamil: Ilaikkalli, Kalli, Manjevi, Nadangi,

Naynakki—; Telugu: Akujemudu—; Tulu: TIrekalli—; Urdu: Zakum— =;

Uriya: Siju—. pe

11. Euphorbia nivulia Ham. is found in dry rocky places

throughout Bengal, South India, and Bengal. It is often planted

for hedges.

The Yunanists use the plant as a substitute for FE. Tirucalli.

The juice of the leaves is used internally as a purgative and a

diuretic; mixed with nim oil it is applied externally.in rheumatism.

The warm juice is a good cure for earache, and it is occasionally

rubbed over the eyes to remove dimness of sight.

On the Western Coast the root bark is boiled in rice water and

arrack, and given in dropsy.

The pulp of the stem, mixed with green ginger, is: given to

persons bitten by mad dogs.

Bengal: Sij—; Berar: Thuar, Thuhar—; Burma: Shasoung—; Canarese :

Dubbakalli, Dundukalli, Gutagalli, Yellakalli—; Deccan: Patteoon—; Dehra

Dun: Thor, Thuor—; Gujerati: Thorkantalo—; Hasada: Eteke—; Hindi:

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIEEY Vol Or

Katathohar, Senhur, Sij, Thor, Thuhar, Thura—; Jaunsar: Suru—; Kolami:

Etke, Etki—; Lambadi: Motataria—; Malayalam: IMlakalli—; Marathi:

Kaudenivdung, Newrang, Nivdung, Niwarung—; Mundari: Burueteke—;

Nimar: Thuar, Thuhar—; Porebunder: Kautalio, Thorkantalo—; Rajputana:

Raj, Tor—; Sanskrit: Patrasnuhi, Sehuda, Svarasana, Vajradruksha, Vajri—;

Santali: Etke—; Tamil: Makalli, Manjevi, Nanangalli—; Telugu: Akujemudu,

Akukall, Bonthajamudu—; Urdu: Zakum—; Uriya: Kolosiju, Siju—.

12. Euphorbia rosea Retz is found in the Deccan Peninsula,

from the Carnatic to Tranquebar, on the coast. It is common

near the sea in Ceylon and Indo-China. It also occurs in

Afghanistan. :

The plant is used as a drastic purgative in Indo-China. The

leaves and seeds are considered to be a good worm remedy.

Indo-China: Co sua, Nohn la—.

13. Euphorbia Royleana Boiss. is common on dry rocky

hillsides of the outer Himalaya from the Indus to Kumaon,

ascending to 6,000 feet. It occurs also on the Salt Range.

The acrid milky juice possesses cathartic and anthelmintic

properties.

Beas: Chu, Chunga, Surs—; Chenab: Chula—; Dehra Dun: Thor, Thuor— ;

Garhwal: Surai—; Hindi: Senhur, Shakarpitan, Thar, Thor—; Jaunsar:

Suru—; Jhelum: Suli—; Kumaon: Sihund, Sohund—; Punjab: Shakarpitan,

Thar, Thor—; Rajputana: Thor—; Ravi: Chun—; Salt Range: Tordanda— ;

Sutlej : Suro, Tsui—.

14. Euphorbia sanguinea Hochst. occurs in Baluchistan,

spreading over to Afghanistan, tropical Arabia and Africa.

When used for medicinal purposes it is prepared like ‘bhang’

(Hotson). |

The Sutos use it as an application to sore nipples in suckling

mothers.

Brahui: Meshir—; Pretoria: Spurge—; Suto: Kxamamaswana,_ Selwe,

Tatampoi-e-nyenyane—.

15. Euphorbia Thomsoniana Boiss. is found in Kashmir

between 10,000 and 12,000 feet.

The crushed root-stocks are employed by the natives of Kuram

as detergents for washing the hair, and, when boiled, are given

as purgatives.

Kashmir: Hirtiz—.

16. Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. is common in paths and

gravelly spots in the plains and lower hills of India, Ceylon, and

the Malay Peninsula; ascending up 5,500 feet in Kashmir. It is

found in all hot countries except Australia.

The dried leaves and seeds are slightly aromatic and astringent.

They are given in worm cases and in certain bowel affections of

children in the Tamil country. In Northern India they are con-

sidered stimulant and laxative. They are commonly used as a

purgative in Sind. ;

The Santals use the root as a remedy for amenorrhcea.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA — 289

In the Konkan the juice is used to cure ringworm. Among the

Mundas of Chota Nagpur it is employed to stop diarrhoea; half a

handful of the whole plant being pounded and drunk in a mixture

with water and sugar-candy.

In Indo-China the plant is used as a cathartic; the seeds and

leaves are considered anthelmintic. |

In Arabia the juice of the plant is made into a paste with

wheat flour, and administered as a purgative in the form of pills.

The bruised plant is applied to wounds.

In La Reunion the herb is used as an astringent in diarrhoea

and dysentery.

The expressed juice or the powdered plant is administered

internally with wine as a remedy for snake-bite, and it is applied

externally to the part bitten; but whether given internally or applied

externally the plant is equally useless in the treatment of snake-

bite (Mhaskar and Caius).

Arabic: Rummid—; Bengal: Dudiya, Shweetkeruee, Swetkerua, Swetkirui— ;

Bombay: Nayata, Nayeti—; Ceylon: Ammanpachcharichippillu, Chittirapalavi— ;

Gujerati: Nahanidudheli—; Hindi: Chhotidudhi, Chothaduhi—; Indo-China :

Co sua, Nhon la—; La Reunion: Rougette—; Malay: Segan padang— =;

Marathi: Ghakdidudhi, Lahandudhi, Mothidudhi— ; Mauritius : Petite rougette— ;

Mundarni: Kdoasingjaite—; Nasirabad: Khiri—; Persian: Gazardanah— ;

Porebunder: Jhinkidudheli, Jhinkodhakardhumaro—; Punjab: Baradodak,

Dhoduk, Hazardana—; Sanskrit: Laghudugdhika, Raktavindachada—; Santali :

Nanhapusitoa, Nanhapusituar—; Sind: Dhoduk, Hazardhana—; Sinhalese :

Bindadakuriya—; Tamil: Chinamampatchaiyarisi, Sittrapaiadi—; Telugu:

Bidurunadabiyam, Reddivarimanubala—; Yemen: Rummid—.

17. Euphorbia Tirucalli Linn., a native of Africa, has become

naturalised in the drier parts of Bengal, the Deccan, South India,

and Ceylon; elsewhere it is largely cultivated for hedges, and in

Rerar is much grown to shelter young mango plants from direct

sunlight.

According to Yunani practitioners the juice of this plant is

purgative, carminative; useful in gonorrhoea, whooping cough,

asthma, dropsy, leprosy, enlargement of the spleen, dyspepsia,

jaundice, colic, tumours, stone in the bladder.

The fresh milky juice is applied to warts and used as a

rubefacient embrocation in rheumatism. It is good alterative in

syphilis, and a good application in neuralgia. In the Konkan it

iS given as a purge; and the charcoal, which is very light, is used

in making pastilles. In Goa it is used to poison fish. The milky

juice is a dangerous drug to handle, causing severe and tenacious

conjunctivitis.

In Cambodia the plant is used to stupefy fish.

The root is used in La Reunion as a vesicant, more rarely as

an emeto-cathartic. |

The bark is used as a vesicant in Java, and is also applied to

fractures.

In some parts of India a decoction of the root is given in

certain cases of colic, and the milky juice mixed with melted

butter is prescribed as a purge. The juice is also applied topically

in neuralgia. a

290 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) 3S OCI Yet Viol. CL

In Malaya the latex is inserted into cuts in bullocks to form

the elevated recognition marks.

Annam: Cay san ho, San ho—; Arabic: Azfur-zukkum, Zaqqum-e-hindi— ;

Baluchi: Dedar Bengal: Gul, Lankasij, Latadaona—; Bombay: Niwal,

Sehund, Seyr, Shera, Tej, Thor, Thora—; Burma: Shashoungleknyo, Shasoung-

leknyo, Tazaunglekhnyo—; Canarese: Bontakalli, Bottugalli, Kadunevali, Kalli,

Kodukalli, Kolugalli, Kolukalli, Nandugalli, Pachanegalli, Yellegulla—; Cochin-

China: Cay san ho xanh—; Deccan: Barkisend, Karikisend, Send—; English :

Milk Bush, Milk Hedge, Indian Tree Spurge—; Goa: Nival—; Gwujerati:

Dandalithora, Pardeshithora, Thordandalio— ; Hindi: Konpahlsehnd, Sair, Sehud,

Sehund, Sendh, Shirthohar, Sij—; Indo-China: Ramok, San ho xanh, Thanh

san ho, Thap nhi, Xuong kho—; Java: Kayoo-oorb—; Lambadi: Taria—; La

Reunion: Laine sans feuilles, Tirucalli—; Malayalam: Guda, Katerumakkali,

Kolkalli, Tirukalli—; Marathi: Nevli, Nirval, Nivla, Niwarung, Seyr, Seyrteg,

Shar, Shera, Tej, Thuvar, Vajraduhu—; Mauritius: Calli—; Melghat: Thuar,

Thuhar—; Nimar: Thuar, Thuhar—; Persian: Shirtothar, Zaquniya-e-hindi— ;

Porebunder: Kharsanithora, Thora—; Sanskrit: Bahukshira, Dandasruha,

Ganderi, Snuka, Trikuntaka, Vajradruma—; Santali: Siju—j; Sind: Sair, Sij,

Thora—; Sinhalese: Navahandi, Thovar—; Tagalog: Catuit—; Tamil: Kalli,

Kiri, Kombukkalli, Pachankalli, Parchanu, Tirukkalli, Tiruvatti—; Telugu:

Chemudu, Jemudu, Kadujemudu, Kalli, Kanjiemudu, Sannajemudu, Tirukalli— ;

Tigrinia: Qoutscheh—; Tulu: WKodukalli—; Urdu: Zakum—; Uriya: Lonk-

asiju—; Yemen: Dahan, Rummid—; Zulu: uMunde, umIululu—.

18. Euphorbia trigona Haworth inhabits dry. rocky hills in

the Deccan, and probably other parts of India. It is found in the

Andaman Islands and the Moluccas.

The fresh milky juice is a direct irritant both when taken

internally and applied externally. Taken in very small quantities,

it is a drastic purgative.

Telugu: Kattimandu—.

19. Euphorbia turcomanica Boiss. is found in Baluchistan,

whence it extends to Persia and Mesopotamia.

In Baluchistan the plant is boiled and used as a medicine for

gripe.

Brahui: Meshir—.

EXCOECARIA.

The genus consists of 30 species, inhabiting the tropics of the

Old World.

A deciduous shrub ee ae ae .. I. E. acerifolia.

A small evergreen tree... oa “2 oo 2. Ee agallocha,

1. Excoecaria acerifolia Fr. Didrichs. is found at 5,000-6,000

feet in the western and central Himalayas from Nepal to Kumaon.

It also occurs in the Khasia Hills.

The Bhutias of East Kumaon use the leaves as a remedy for

rheumatism.

Garhwal: Dudhila—; Kumaon: Basingh—.

2. Excoecaria agallocha Linn. is a common small evergreen

tree of the Coast and tidal forests of India, Burma, the Malay

Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, the Malay Archipelago, North

Australia, New Caledonia to Tonga.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 291

The milky juice, which exudes from the bark of this tree when

green and fresh, is very acrid and injurious to the eyes, hence it

is called ‘the blinding tree of India’.

A decoction of the leaves is occasionally given by Hindu doctors

in epilepsy, in the quantity of a quarter of a tea-cupful twice daily.

This decoction is also used as an application to ulcers.

From the lower part of the trunk and roots, a soft, light, reddish

suber is obtained, which is sold by the itinerant medicine men of

Western India, under the name of Tejbul, as an aphrodisiacal tonic.

The natives of Eastern Australia, as well as those of New

Guinea, use the milky juice to cure certain ulcerous chronic diseases,

e.g., leprosy.

In Fiji, it is employed for the cure of leprosy, its mode of

application being very singular. The body of the patient is first

rubbed with green leaves; he is then placed in a small room and

bound hand and foot, when a small fire is made of pieces of the

wood of this tree from which rises a thick smoke; the patient is

suspended over this fire, and remains for some hours in the midst

of the poisonous smoke and under the most agonizing torture,

often fainting. When thoroughly smoked, he is removed, and the

slime is scraped from his body; he is then scarified and left to

await the result. In some cases he is cured, but frequently the

patient dies under the ordeal.

The milky latex obtained from the bark when it is green is

used by Malays as an irritant poison; it is so acrid when fresh

that it blisters the skin. In Kelantan it is given internally as a

poison. .

Andamans: Yekin—; Australia: Blind-your-eyes, River Poisonous Tree— ;

Bengal: Gangwa, Gengwa, Geogheria, Geor, Geria, Goria, Uguru—; Bombay :

Geva—; Burma: Kayau, Kayaw, Tayau, Tayaw—; Canarese: Hara, Haro—;

English: Blinding Tree, Milky Mangrove—; Jiji: Sinu-gaga Formosa :

Hsiang shu—; Hindi: Gewa—; Igorrote: Ali—; Indo-China: Gia, Ngai, Soen

gia, Tia mu, Va, Ya—; Malay: Aquila, Baboeta, Babooter, Bebuta, Bubuta,

Butabuta, Garamataboeta, Noto—; Malayalam: \Katappala, Karmmatti,

Komatti— ; Marathi: Geva, Phungali, Suran, Surind, Surund—; Marinduque :

Diladila—; Pampangan: Butabuta, Himbabao—; Queensland: Balavola_ kar-

ping—; Samoa: Toto—; Sanskrit: Agaru, Uguru—; Sinhalese: Talakiriya,

Telakiriya, Tellakwiya—; Spanish: Arbol del ciego, Buta de _ Filipinas— ;

Tagalog: Botabota, Buta, Butabuta—; Tamil: Agadil, Agi, Ambalatti,

Ambalavirukkam, Tillai, Perundillai—; Telugu: Chilla, Tella, Tilla—; Uriya:

Ghona, Gowan—; Visayan: Alipata, Himbabao, Lipata, Siac—.

FLUEGGEA.

The genus consists of 6 species, found in the tropics of the

Old World.

Branchlets stout ending in spines bee ve. I. df. lewcopyrus.

Branchlets slender unarmed a a. Zel Avinosa,

tr. Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. occurs in Sind, the Punjab

Plain, Burma, the Western Peninsula from Canara southwards.

It is abundant in Ceylon.

The juice of the leaves, or the leaves made into a paste with

tobacco, are used to destroy worms in sores,

3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. SL

The plant is said to be a fish poison.

Afghanistan: Perapastawane—; Canarese: Bilchuli, Gudahale, - Huli—;

Central Provinces: Challamanta, Salemanta—; Goa: Parpo—; Gujerati :

Shinavi— ;_ Hindi: Suffaidmahommad—; Malayalam: Perinklavu—; Marathi:

Kandekuvana, Pandharphali— ; Matheran: Pandharphali—; Merwara: Halepan,

Salipan—; Nepal: Achal—; North-Western Provinces: Aintha, Hartho—;

Porebunder : Tumari—; Punjab: Bata, Bhathi, Gargas, Girk, Girthan, Kakun,

Vanuthi— ; Rajputana: Halepan, Salepan—; Sanskrit: Apiyadruma, Bhuriphali,

Panduphali, Svetakamboja—; Sind: Kiran—; Sinhalese : Hinkatupila—; Tamil ;

Irubulai, Mudbulanji, Mulluppulatti, Pula, Pulanji, Varadbul, Varadbula,

Vedbula, Vellaippula, Vellaippulanji—; Telugu: Challamunta, Mekarayi, Puli,

Tellapulisaru, Tellapuliyudu, Tellapurugudu—.

2. Flueggea virosa Baill. (=F. muicrocarpa BI.) occurs

throughout India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. It extends

to the Malay Islands, China, Australia, and tropical Africa.

The juice of the leaves, or the leaves made into a paste with

tobacco, are used to destroy worms in sores.

The West Ashantis use the roots to cure gonorrhcea. They

boil the whole plant in water and wash themselves in the water

to ‘become strong’. ;

In Rhodesia the root is used as an aphrodisiac.

The Ewe people of Togoland use the leaves to cure constipation.

For this purpose they are boiled and the water is drunk.

In Indo-China the astringent bark is used to stupefy fish.

Arabic: Dabalab, Hamrur, Hemmele, Hennet-el-bagar, Kartjikartji— ;

Ashanti: Nkangnaa—; Bedde: Zandanu—; Bombay: Kantepuwan, Pandhar-

phali— ; Buldana: Pittor—,; Burma: Konchiny a—; Canarese: Belahuli, Bilisuli,

Gudahale—; Chindao: Umsosoti—; Dagomba: Susuwuluga—; Dehra Dun:

Rithoul—; Ewe: Esre, Hesre, Hlese—; Fulani: Chamal, Chambe, Chame— ;

Ga: Ghekebii able-tcho—; Goa: Papo—; Gujerati: Shaunavi—; Hausa: Gussu,

Gwiwar kare, Tsa, Tsugawun kare, Tswa—; Hindi: Dalme, Patala—; Indo-

China: Bong ne, Bong no, Cang pa, Mai ten, Nhat giep thu, Xeur nam—;

Kumaon: Athaina—; Kanuri: Shimshim—; Laimbadi: Jarigaro—; Lepcha:

Hik-ti bi—; Malayalam: Perinklavu—; Marathi: Wodarai—; Melghat: Pith-

ondi—; Merwara: Halepan, Salipan—; Nimar: Jhonri—; Sanskrit: Apiya-

druma, Bhuriphala, Dhusara, Nilishila, Panduphali, FPatali, Vrittabijaka— ;

Saora: Jungjang—; Sierra Leone: Tigwi—; Sokoto: Tsa, Tswa—; Tamil:

Irubulai, Pula, Varadbula, Vedbula, Vellaippula—; Telugu: Mekarayi, Sula-

munta, Tellapuli, Tellapurugudu—; Uriya: Janjingi, Kanilehya—; Yoruba:

Tranje—.

GELONIUM.

The genus includes 20 Asiatic and African species.

Gelonium multiflorum A. Juss. occurs in Bengal and_ the

Circars, reaching northwards to the foot of the Sikkim Himalaya.

It extends from Chittagong to Tenasserim and Malacca, and is

found in the woods of Upper and Lower Burma, and the Malay

Peninsula. It is distributed over the Malay Islands, Siam, and

. China,

The bark is considered a good tonic for the gums, and is

prescribed for gingivitis in Cambodia; it is also used as a purgative

in hepatic troubles.

Burma : Setahanbaya— ; Cambodia: Tromung sek—; Hindi: Ban naringa—;

Malay: Buah_ punei, Lampun_ hitam, Mingantok, Ruas-ruas 75 Telugu:

Sarugata—. . Say

LHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES .OF INDIA 293

GLOCHIDION.

The genus includes 160 species spread over tropical Asia and

Polynesia.

G. rubrum Bl. is used medicinally in Indo-China.

Leaves 2-4 in. thin. Anthers 3 sei ue eG. HoOhenackers.

Leaves 4-8 in. coriaceous. Anthers 5-6 én on 2. G. Zeylanicunr.

1. Glochidion hohenackeri Bedd. is found in Chota Nagpur

and Orissa, and in the Western Peninsula; it is very common in

the Konkan.

The bark is given medicinally when the stomach revolts against

food.

Canarese: Banavara, Nirchalli, Nirchelli, Nirjani, Sullai—; Malayalam :

Kuluchan—; Marathi: Bhoma—; Uriya: Banialkandhum, Chilni, Kalchia—.

2. Glochidion zeylanicum A. Juss. occurs in the Western

Peninsula.

The bark is used as a stomachic.

Canarese: Banda, Savregidda—j; Malayalam: Nirvetti—; Tamil: Iumba-

lam—; Telugu: Itepulla—.

HIPPOMANE.

H. mancinella Linn. is a native of tropical America, introduced

into Indian gardens.

The bark and the berries yield a highly poisonous milky acrid

juice. It is a violent irritant and powerful cathartic, diuretic, and

vesicant. The least drop applied to the eye will cause blindness

for some days; the smoke from the wood when burnt will also

seriously affect the eyes.

The juice is much used in Cuba for tetanus and in Guiana for

worms in children. Indians use it to poison their arrows.

Cayenne: Figuier—; Cuba: Manzanillo—; English: Manchineal Tree— ;

French: Arbre de mort, Arbre poison, Bois de lait, Figuier vénéneux, Man-

cenillier, Noyer vénéneux—; German: Manzenillerbaum—.

HOMONOIA.

The genus consists of 4 Indo-Malayan species.

Homonoia riparia Lour. is a small rigid evergreen shrub, found

on the rocky and stony river-beds of the Sikkim Himalaya at

an altitude of 1,000 to 2,000 feet; also in Assam, the Khasia Hills,

and southwards to Burma, Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, the

Andaman Islands, and Bundelkhund; and in the Deccan Peninsula

from the Konkan southwards. It is also common in Ceylon up

to an elevation of 2,000 feet. It extends to Siam, Cochinchina,

Sumatra, Java, and the Philippine Islands.

The root is given for ulcers. It is laxative and diuretic, and

a decoction is given in piles, stone in the bladder, gonorrhoea and

syphilis.

In Cambodia an infusion of the wood is given in paludism. The

whole plant is considered depurative.

Burma: Momaca, Yactagyiben, Yactakyee Cambodia: Rey tuk—; Gond:

Sundeh—; Indo-China: Bo song, Rey tuk, Ri ri—; Wonkan: Sherana

294 JOURNAL, OMBAY NATURAL HIST: “SOCIETY. Vol xe

Kumaon: Kandayar—; Kurku: Jeljambu—; Lao: Kai—; Lepcha: Mongthel,

Mung-thel kung—; Malayalam: Katalluri—; Mundari; Garahuri, Garahuru— ;

Nepal: Kholaruis—; Philippines: Lumanaja, Mimbre—; Sanskrit: Kshudrapa-

shanabheda, Pashanabedaka—j; Santali: Gurjor, Sunukui—; Tagalog: Agoyoy,

Agucuc, Balanti, Dumanai, Lumanai—; Telugu: Cheppunjerinjal, Taniki— ;

Uriya: Jamla—; Visayan: Mayagos, Mayoyos, Miayos.

Hora.

The genus consists of 2 tropical American species.

Hura crepitans Linn., indigenous in tropical America, has

been introduced into India from Jamaica. oe

The juice of the bark is a Brazilian remedy for leprosy. It

is considered caustic and irritant in Guiana and Mexico, and is

said to cause blindness. At Guadas the latex is used as a fish

poison.

In Mexico and Guiana the leaves are much used for chronic

pains; the fresh seeds are emetic and purgative and in great

demand; the oil from the seeds is said to be a useful though

very drastic purgative.

The bark and the latex are officinal in Portugal.

Canarese: Retidani—; English: West India Sandbox Tree—; French:

Arbre du diable, Sablier, Sablier élastique—j; French Guiana: Maman cacao,

Sablier, Sablier élastique Indo-China: Ba dau tay, Diep tay, Ngo dong— $;

Mauritius ; Sablier—; Portuguese: Assacu, Oassacu—; Surinam: Postentree— ;

Tamil : Mullarasomam—; Telugu: Simaburuga—; West Indies : Sandbox Tree— ;

Youri-Taboca : Oassacu—.

JATROPHA.

This genus includes 160 tropical and subtropical species, chiefly

American,

The following species are used medicinally in Arabia— J.

glandulifera Roxb.—; in Cambodia, Indo-China, the Philippine

Islands and Guiana— J. Curcas Linn., J. multifida Linn.—; in

Mexico— /|. macrorhiza Benth.—; in South America and the West

Indies— |. Curcas Linn., J. gossypifolia Linn., Jf.. multifida

Linn.—; in Gold Coast— J. Curcas Linn., J. gossypifolia Linn.—;

in West Africa, Madagascar, La Reunion— Jf. Curcas Linn.—;

in South Africa— J. capensis Sond., J. hirsuta Hoch., Jf. Zeyheri

Sond.—.

A. Evergreen tree or large shrub

1. Leaves simple and ovate or 3-5-lobed : as

2. Leaves long-petioled, orbicular-cordate or 3-5-lobed

or angled bof

B. Shrubs

1. Leaves entire or 3-lobed, base cuneate, lobes entire.

2. Leaves 5-lobed or -partite, lobes glandular-serrulate ...

3. Leaves long-petioled, orbicular, palmately cut into

many narrow entire or lobulate caudate acuminate »

segments om he wa fool. anelionda.

glandulifera.

i. |, eureas:

. nana.

. J. gossypifolia.

1. Jatropha Curcas Linn. is an evergreen shrub, indigenous

to America, but cultivated in most parts of India, especially on

the Coromandel Coast and in Travancore. It 1s a common hedge-

plant in the Konkan, and in the Malay Peninsula. ,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 295

According to Ayurvedic practitioners ‘the fruit and the seed are

anthelmintic; useful in chronic dysentery, thirst, urinary discharges,

abdominal complaints, biliousness, anemia, fistula, and diseases of

the heart’. The oil is reckoned a valuable external application to

itch, herpes, chronic rheumatism, and sores or wounds.

The leaves are applied as a rubefacient and discutient, and a

decoction of them is said to excite the secretion of milk in women.

The viscid juice which flows from the stem upon incision is painted

over cuts and wounds to check bleeding and promote healing.

In Goa the root-bark is applied externally in rheumatism. | In

the Konkan it is rubbed with a little asafoetida and given with

buttermilk in dyspepsia and diarrhoea; the fresh stems are used

as a tooth brush to stop bleeding from the gums.

The roasted nuts are used as a purgative by the Mundas, one

nut producing three or four stools.

In Cambodia the leaves are considered insecticidal, the latex

styptic, the oils from the seeds abortive.

The leaves are extensively used in the Cape Verde Islands, in

the form of decoction and cataplasm to the mammae, as a

lactagogue. The Bakwiri of Cameroons add a decoction of the

young leaves to beer as a diuretic for rheumatism.

In Nigeria a decoction of the leaves with native natron is used

by women as a wash for a month before childbirth. In Gambia

the leaves are used to make a mouth-wash. In Southern Nigeria

they are a remedy for jaundice, applied by rectal injection.

In West Africa the sap of the plant is used to cure toothache.

It is also used as a styptic, for stopping bleeding. It is said to

blind the eyes. The bark of the roots is ground and used as a

dressing for sores.

In Western Ashanti the leaves are burned and the ashes applied

to guinea worms, which are said to come out quickly in consequence.

The seeds are used in native Hausa medicine; the oil extracted

from them is used as an application for sores in domestic stock.

In Gabon the seeds are ground and mixed with palm oil to kill

rats.

The oil from the seeds is applied topically in Guinea in rheu-

matism, herpes, and pruritus. The juice of the plant and _ the

pounded leaves are applied to wounds and refractory ulcers.

In Gold Coast the leaves are ground and used with pounded

palm nuts to make a mixture which is used as an enema for

weak babies to strengthen them. They are also used for smoking

bedbugs out of a house. They are often crushed in water and

used as an enema. The juice of the leaves is squeezed into water,

lemon or lime added, and the liquid used as a bath for curing fever.

When the young leaves are boiled, the liquor is drunk to cure

fever also. The seeds are commonly used as a very effective

purgative. Sometimes they are used in curing eye trouble.

Indians in Natal use the seeds as a purgative.

The wood is used in Madagascar and Guiana as an anti-

diarrhceic; the latex is applied to decayed teeth and to wounds,

and is used as a styptic; the roots are given as emetic and

purgative.

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. “SOGIEPY, Vol.

The seed is a Brazilian anthelmintic; the principle is contained

in the embryo.

The blacks of Rio Nunez saponify the oil with the ashes of the

Papaw, and use the preparation to heal the wounds caused b

) yi

circumcision.

A toxalbumin, curcin, is present in the seeds.

Ada: Kwadidicho— ; Agolo: Ubolu, Ubwolu—; Agona: Kaneadua—; Akim:

Nkrangye dua—; Akwapim: Aborotortor—; Anang: Mbubok—; Antilles: Feve

d’enfer, Herbe du Bon Dieu, Herbe du diable, Mancenillier bénit, Médicinier

bénit, Médicinier des Barbades, Noix américaine, Pignon de Barbarie, Pignon

d’Inde—; Antsianaka: Valavenola, Voanongo—; Arabic: Dandebarri, Dande-

nahri,, Habb el meluk—; Ashanti: Akanedua—; Awka: Elu—; Awuna:

Krorti— ; Bambara: Baga-ni, Iridingue—; Baoule: Propo—; Bengal: Baghba-

rinda, Bagbherenda, Bonbheranda, Erandagachh, Paharierand, Safedind—; Benin :

Aru-ebo—; Bete: Badaguigui—; Betsimisaraka: Kizika—; Bhil: Ratan—;

Bobo-Dioula: Manan-naga Bobo-Fing: Daya-naga—; Bombay: Irundi,

Jaiphal, Jepal, Kurikarlu, Maraharalu, Mogalieranda, Yerand—; Brazil: Figo

do inferno, Mandubiguasu, Munduyguasu, Pinhao do Paraguay, Pinhao de purga,

Pinhao paraguay, Pinheiro do inferno, Finheiro de purga—; Burma: Kesugi,

Thinbankyekku, Thinbaukyeksu, Thinbawkyetsu—; Cambodia: Lohong khvang

sa—; Canarese: Adaluharalu, Bettadaharalu, Bettaharalu, Doddaharalu, Dundiga,

Kadandla, Kaduharalu, Karnochchi, Maraharalu, Maraharlu, Maraharuli,

Marayavudula, Parangiharalu, Turukaharalu—; Cape de Verde: Pulguiera— j;

Ceylon: Kaddamanakku—; Chinese: Ma Fong Chou—; Cuba: Pifion botija—;

Deccan: Ehanduejot, Erundi, Jangli-yarandi— ; Efik : Eto-mkpa—; Egypt : Habb-

el-meluk—; English: Barbados Nut, Physic Nut, Poison Nut, Purging Nut—;

Ewe: Babatsi, Gbomagboti, Kpoti, Krorti—; Fanti: Aburokyiriaba, Adadze— ;

Formosa: T’ung yu-shu—; French: Grand médicinier, Grand pignon d’Inde, Gros

ricin, Haricot du Pérou, Manioc batard, Médicinier, Oignon d’Inde, Pignon des

Barbades, Pignon d’Inde, Pourghére, Pulguere, Purghére, Ricin d’Amérique— ;

I'rench Guiana: Médicinier—; French Guinea: Barané—; Fulani: Kidi, Kola-

debbe, Kolakolaje, Kwolkwolaje—; Ga: Kplukacho—; Gaboon: Ogombo—;

Gbari: Kwotewi—; German: Purgirnuss, Schwarzelrechnuss—; Golunga Alto:

Mupuluca—; Guam: Tubatuba—; Guyjerali: Jamalgota, Jangliarandi, Ratan-

jota—; Hascda: WKulaiaradaru—; Hausa: Binidazugu, Chinidazugu—; Hindi:

Bagberenda, Bagbherenda, Baghrandi, Bhernda, Jangliarandi, Pharierand, Safeda-

rand, Safedind—; Hova: Tanantanambazaha, Tanantanamposy, Tanantananki-

soa—; Ibibio: Etomkpo—; Jbo: Buluolu, Okweni, Olulu-idu, Owulu-idu— ;

Ilocano: Tavatova, Tawatawa—; Indo-China: Ba dau me, Ba dau nam, Coc

dau, Dau me, Dong thu, Kuang, Lohong, Vao, Vong dau ngo—; Java:

Dijarak—; Kolani: Kulajara, Kulejera, Totkabendi— ; Konkani: Erond, Erondd,

Jemphal—; NKontagora: Binidazugu— ; Krepi: Abrortorto—; Krobo: Kitigblaicho,

KKutugblaicho—; Lambadi: Ranniarendero—; La Reunion: Pignon d’Inde—;

Madagascar: Kinampotsy, SKinanafotsy, Kinapotsy, Kinopotsy—; Malay:

Jarak b’landa—; Malayalam: Kattavanakku—; Malinke: Bagha, Baha—;

Mandingo: Baga, Bagauro, Bagha—; Marathi: Mogalieranda, Ranayerandi— $;

Mauritius: Pignon d’Inde—; Melghat: Mogali yerand—; Mende: Katawi,

Kata-wului— ; Mexico: Avellanes purgantes, Sangregaod— ; Misahohe : Wabati— ;

Mozambique: Sassi—; Mundari: Jadabindi, Totkabindi—; Naguri: Kulabindi-

daru, Totkabindidaru—; Nepal: Kadam—,; Nzima: Taprika, Tapuleka—; Ibu:

Okwata, Ubwolu—; Orissa: Baigab—; Pahouin: Ofossn tang—; Panama:

Arbol santo, Coquillo, Jaquillo, Pifion de purga, Tapate—; Persian: Dandebarri,

Dandenahri— ; Philippines : Bolongcauit, Casta, Cator, Kator, Tavatava, Tuba—;

Porto- Rico: Tartago— ; Portuguese : Grao malucco, Grao muluco, Pinhao de

purga, Pulza, Purgheira, Purgueira, Ricino maior—;. Quittah: Abrortorto—;

Sakalave: Savoa, Valavelo, Voanongo—; Samoa: Puavai—; Sanskrit:

Chitra, Dravanti, Kananeranda, Mushikaparni, Nyagrodhi, Parva-

Akhuparnika,

teranda, Pratyakshreni, Randa, Shanbari, Sutashreni, Vrisha—; Santali:

Bhernda—; Saora: Peddanepalemu—; Serere: Tabanani—; Sierra Leone:

Bagauro—; Sinhalese: Endaru, Erandu, Rata-endaru, -Velendaru—; Soussou:

Barané, Barhane, Baxane—; Spanish : Ar Kol de los Binonse de Indias, Pifoncillo— ;

Tagalog: Tatataba—; Tamil: Adalai, Kadalamanakku, Kaitta, Kattamanaklu,

Kattukkottai, Kuribaravuni, Naligadi, Nikkurottam, Tiravadi, Vellaiyamanalk-

ku—; Yelugu: Adaviyamudamu, Katiyamudamu, ‘Kondamudamu, Nepalemu,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 297

. ne beg td

Peddanepalemu, Pepalemu—; Timne: Esigororopetr—; Tivi: Igadam—,; Tulu:

Kadalambudu— ; Twi: Aborotortor, Akanedua, Nkrangyedua—; Uriya: Baigoba,

Norokokalo—; Visayan: Casla—; Wolof: Tuba—; Yoruba: Botije, Botuje,

Botuje-ubo, Lobotuje, Olobontuje, Shenrijun, Ubo—.

2. Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. is common near villages in

Bengal, Burma, the Northern Circars, and the Deccan, rare in

Oudh and the Punjab. One of the most abundant of hedge plants

in the lower provinces, but also prevalent on village waste lands.

The juice of the plant is used in various parts of the country

as an escharotic to remove films from the eyes.

The root brayed with water is given to children suffering from

abdominal enlargements. It purges, and is said to reduce glandular

swellings.

The fixed oil from the seeds has purgative properties. It is

applied to sinuses, ulcers, foul wounds, ringworm, and also in

rheumatism and paralysis.

Arabic: Abab, Kharub—; Bengal: Lalbherenda—; Bombay: Janglierandi,

Undarbibi— ; Canarese: Kariturukahalugida, Totlagida—; Hindi: Janglierandi,

Undarbibi— ; Kolami: Verendi—; Konkani: Ranerandi—; Malayalam: Atala,

Nakadanti— ; Marathi: Jangliarandi—; Persian: Baide anjira—j; Sanskrit :

Nikumbha—; Tamil: Adalai, Eliyamenakku, Erikkaraikattamanaku, Kattam-

anaku, Puliyamanakku—; Telugu: Dundigamu, Dundigapu, Nelaamida, Nela-

nepalemu, Nepalemu, Nelayamudamu, Vettiyamudamu—; Urdu: Jangli eranda

Uriya: Simanorokokalo—.

3. Jatropha gessypifolia Linn. is a native of Brazil naturalized

in many parts of India. It is now established in Burma and

Singapore.

A decoction of the bark is used as an emmenagogue.

The leaves are applied to boils and carbuncles, eczema and

itches. :

The seeds act as an emetic; but they are said to cause insanity.

‘In the pith of the oid thick stems a yellowish-brown substance

is found which is sold in Gold Coast medicine markets. It is

put into a clean cloth and squeezed into the nostrils, causing the

patient to sneeze and effectively curing headache.

In Gold Coast the leaves and the seeds are used as purgatives.

The leaves are boiled and used in the bath to cure fever.’ Their

juice is used to cure sores on the tongues of babies.

Antioquia: Tua-tua—,; Ashanti: Kaagya—; Bambara: Baga, Bagha, Baha,

Santanan—; Bengal: Lalbherenda—; Benin: Oru-ebo—; Canarese: Warituru-

kaharalu—; Ewe: Babatsi, Gbomagboti, Nakrakpoti—; Fanti: Aburokyiraba,

Akandedua—; Ga: Engmelbii, Kpitikpitsho—; Hindi: Bhernda, Verenda—;

Ibo: Akimbogho—; Kolami: Bhernda, Verenda—; Lagos: Lobotuje pupa— ;

Malayalam: Simayavanakku—; Malinke: Baga, Bagha, Baha—,; Mandingo :

Baga, Bagha, Baha—; Mende: Katawi, Kata-wului—; Oloke-meji : Olobontije-

pipa—; Panama: Frailecillo, Frailejon, Purga de fraile, Purga de Huane— =;

Santali: Bhernda, Verenda—; Tamil: Adalai, Kattamanakku, Simaiyamanak-

ku—; Telugu: Nepalemu, Simanepalemu—; Uriya: Rangakalo— ; Venezuela:

Tua-tua—; Yoruba: Botuje pua, Lapalapa pupa, Lobotuje, Olobontuje—.

4. Jatropha multifida Linn. is a native of South America,

cultivated and naturalized in various parts of India. a

The seeds are regarded as a powerful purgative. In French

Guiana they are used fresh as a purgative and emetic. a

298 ‘jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

In Cambodia the leaves, the latex, and the oil from the seeds

are used medicinally. The leaves are used in scabies; the latex

is applied to wounds and ulcers; the oil is used both internally and

externally as an abortifacient.

In Indo-China the dried root is given as a decoction for indi-

gestion and colic; it is also prescribed as a tonic, in orchitis and in

oedema.

Benin: Iboisa—; Brazil: Flor de coral, Pinhoen—; Cambodia: Lohong

khvang kraham—; Canarese: Sime auvdala, Vilayatiharalu—; English: Coral

Plant, French Physic Nut, Purging nut, Small Physic Nut—; French: Arbre

corail, Médicinier batard, Médicinier d’Espagne, Noisetier purgatif, Petit

médicinier— ; French Guiana: Bouquet corail—; Ilocano: Mana—; Indo-China :

Bach phu tu—; Lagos: Ege—; Mauritius: Arbre corail—; Sanskrit: Bhadra-

danti, Brihaddanti, Dugdhagarbha, Guchhphala, Jayavaha, Jyotishka, Virechani,

Vishabhadra— ; Spanish: Avellana purgante de Santo Domingo, Pifiol de

Cumana, Purgante de Espaha—; Tagalog: Mana, Tuba—; Tamil: Kattuner-

valam,. Malaiyamanakku—.

5. Jatropha nana Dalz. is found in the Deccan, in stony places

near Poona, Bombay, and throughout the Konkan.

The juice is employed as a counter-irritant in ophthalmia.

Marathi: Kirkundi—.

MACARANGA.

The genus includes 180 species, occurring in the tropics of the

Old World.

M. huraefolia Beille is used medicinally in tropical West Africa.

Leaves deltoid-ovate, peltate, entire. Evergreen tree,

50-60 {t. cae ae ao i Vi aindica:

Leaves peltate, entire. Small resinous tree wo. 2: WL. peliata:

1. Macaranga indica Wight is found in Sikkim up to 3,000

feet, the Mishmi and Khasia Hills, the Deccan Peninsula, the

Andaman Islands, and Ceylon.

The gum is applied to sores.

‘Kumaon: Ramalo—; Malayalam: Puthatamara

Sinhalese: WKenda—-; Tamil: Vuttuttamara—.

; Malkot: Papri—;

2, Macaranga peltata Muell.-Arg. is found on the hills of

Orissa and the Circars, and on the Ghats from the Konkan to

Travancore. It is abundant in Ceylon, up to 3,000 feet.

The’ gum, powdered and made into a paste, is reckoned a good

external application for venereal sores.

Bombay: Chanda—j; Canarese: Chandakanne, Chandkal, Chenthakanni,

Chinthakanni, Jatiyuppalige, Kanchupranti, Kanjupparanti, Upaligi, Uppalige,

Upparanti—; Ceylon: Vaddakkanni—; Kadiy: Pimugam—; Kanara: Chand-

kal—,; Konkani: Chandori—; Malayalam : Pattavanni, Uppila, Vatta—; Marahi :

Chanda, Chandoda, Chandora, Chandwar—; Matheran: Chandara—; Mayur-

bhanj: Tabhari—; Mysore: Chenthakanni—; Sinhalese: Bukenda, Kenda,

Patkenda—; Tamil: Vatta, Vattikanni, Vattittuttim; Telugu: Boddi, Konda-

japhara, Kondatamara, Pulichinjalamu—; Uriya: Gondaguria, Piania—.

MALLOTUS.

The genus includes 120 species, found in, the tropics of the Old

World.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 299

M. apelta Mill.-Arg., M. cochinchinensis Lour., M. furetianus

Mill.-Arg., M. philippinensis Miull.-Arg. are used medicinally in

Indo-China; M. japonicus Mill.-Arg. is used in Japan; M. philip-

pinensis Mill.-Arg. in the Philippine Islands; M. oppositifolius

Miull.-Arg. in Nigeria and Gold Coast.

Capsule echinate or woolly; stamens 45 to 100... 1. M. cochinchinensis.

Capsule not spiny; stamens 4o to 50... .. 2. M. philtppinensis.

1. Mallotus cochinchinensis Lour. is very common in_ the

secondary jungle and woods of Burma, the Malay Peninsula, the

Malay Islands, Cambodia, Indo-China, and China.

The root and the fruit are applied topically to bruises in Indo-

China.

Indo-China : Bai bai, Bet, Bo, Bong bet, Giay, Plan—; Malay: Balik

angin—.

2. Malletus philippinensis Miull.-Arg. is found throughout

tropical India; along the foot of the Himalaya from Kashmir

eastwards, ascending to 5,c0o0 feet; all over Bengal and Burma,

Singapore, and the Andaman Islands; and from Sind southwards

to Ceylon. It is distributed to China, the Malay Islands, Neiv

Guinea; and Australia. . |

The leaves are bitter, cooling; give appetite; cause flatulence and

constipation. The glands on the fruit are pungent, heating;

purgative, anthelmintic, vulnerary, detergent, maturant, carminative,

alexiteric; heal ulcers and wounds, tumours, stone in the bladder;

useful in bronchitis, diseases of the abdomen, enlargement of the

spleen (Ayurveda). : |

The glands and hairs on the fruit are bitter; anthelmintic,

styptic; lessen intestinal pain; useful in scabies, ring-worm, and

other skin diseases (Yunani). a

Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the root, well ground, 1s

rubbed on the painful parts in articular rheumatism. The root is

used internally by the Arabs for leprosy, and in solution to remove

freckles and pustules.

The leaves, fruit, and rcot with honey are applied to poisoned

bites, bruises, ring-worm, pimples and freckles.

In Katha, Burma, the seeds are ground to a paste, and applied

to wounds and dah cuts.

The powder prepared from the fruit is used as an anthelmintic,

vermifuge and purgative medicine. It is also said to possess

cathartic properties. This powder, which is known as ‘Kamala’ and

consists of the small glands and hairs on the ripe fruits, is officinal

in Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Portugal, and

Switzerland.

_..In most European and American works it is stated that Kamala

has long been used in India in the treatment of tapeworm; but

neither literature nor tradition bear this out. It would appear from

results obtained recently under controlled conditions that the

value of the drug as apm anthelmintic has been greatly overrated.

As .for: its antidotal .propérties ‘they have been experimentally

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xt

disproved by Mhaskar and Caius in the case of cobra and daboia

venoms.

Akola: Kunkumphal—; Almora: Roli—; Arabic: Kampileh, Kinbil—;

Assam: Gangai, Jaggaru, Fuddum—; Banda: Kamela, Reoni, Roli—; Bengal :

Kamalagundi, Kamila, Tung—; Berar: Kuku, Sendri— ;_ Betul: Kunkuma,

Rauni, Rori—; Bhil: Shendrya—; Bijnor: Kamela, Ruinia—; Birbhum:

Dholasinua— ; Bombay: Kamala, Kamela, Kapela, Kapila, Ruhin, Shendri—;

Bundelkhand: Rori—; Burma: Tanthieden, Tawtheeteng, Tawthidin—;

Canarese: Chandrahittu, Ettunalige, Honne, Hullichellu, Kapila, Kesari,

Kesarimavu, Kunkuma, Kunkumada, Kunkume, Munnaga, Punnaga, Purusha-

tunga, Surahonne, Suraparni, Suvarnakesari, Vasare—; Central Provinces : Cha-

margular, Ningur, Rauni, Rori—; Ceylon: Kamalama, Kapila—; Darjeeling : Sin-

duri— ; Deccan: Kambhal, Kamila, Ruin, Ruli, Wussunthagunda— ; Dehra Dun:

Raini— ; English: Monkey Face Tree, Spoonwood—; Garhwal: Rohni, Roini,

Ruina— ; Garo: Chinderpang, Machugan—; Gond : Koku—; Gujerati: Kapilo—;

Haldwani: Roli—; Hindi: Kamala, Kambhal, Kambila, Kamela, Kanula,

Kamud, Raini, Rauni, Rohni, Roini, Roli, Rora, Ruin, Ruli, Rulu, Wassan-

thaganda— ; Ilocano: Buas, Vuas—; Indo-China: Aloang lay sa lang, Ba bet,

Bae thau, Buom, Canh kién, Du ma thich, Ema da, Giay rung, Skuoi—;

Jaunsar: Kambel—; Kadir: Manjanai, Maunana, Ponni—; Kashmir: Kaim-

bil—; Kharwar: Rori—; Kolami: Garasinduri—; Kumaon: Rauni, Rert,

Riuna, Roli, Ruen—; Lambadi: Dholo—; Lepcha: Numboonghor, Puroa,

Purva, Tukla—; Lohardugga: Rori—; Malayalam: Chenkolli, Kapila, Kura-

matukka, Manjana, Maunana, Piponnakam, Ponnakam, Ponni, Poonagam,

Punna, Tavitu—; Mal Paharia: Daosindra—; Marathi: Shendri, Shindur— =;

Matheran,: Asli, Rohen—; Melghat: Kuku—; Merwara: Senduria—; Michi:

Baraiburi, Sindurpong—; Mundari: Garisinduri—; Nepal: Safedmallata, Sin-

duria—; Nimar: Kunkuma, Rauni, Rori—; North-Western Provinces:

Purvahung, Sinduria—; Oudh: Rohni—; Persian: WKampileh, Kanbela—;

Peshawar: Kambalia—; Punjab: Kamal, Kambal, Kamela, Kumila, Reini,

Reun, Rulya—; Queensland: Poodgee-poodgera—; Ramnagar: Roli—;

Sénskrit: Bahupushpa, Chandra, Kampilla, Kampillaka, Kapila, Karkatha,

Kesara, Laghupatraka, Lohitanga, Madhuka, Nadivasa, Pikaksha, Punnaga,

Punnagakesara, Punnama, Raktachurnaka, Raktanga, Raktaphala, Ranjaka,

Rechanaka, Rechani, Rechi, Rochana—; Santali: Rora—;° Shan: Tawthadin— ;

Sinhalese: Hamparandella, Hamparila, Kamala—; Tagalog: Banato, Sala—;

Tamil: Avam, Kabilam, Kabilappodi, Kamala, Kambosam, Kapila, Kopilapodi,

Kungumam, Kurangumanjanatti, Manjanai, Suvanagesari, Tavattai, Tiruch-

alai—; Telugu: Adavigubbatuda, Benduruppu, Chendiramu, Kunkuma, Naga-

rakta, Sinduragunda, Sinduri, Tunga, Vasantagandhamu, Veligarapu—; Tulu:

Ponne—; Urdu: Kalileh—; Uriya: Bosontogundi, Kunkumo, Kopilogundi,

Punango, Sinduri, Sindurogundi—; Visayan: Sala—; Zambales: Apuyot—.

MANIHOT.

The genus consists of 150 American species, mostly Brazilian and

Mexican.

M. loureirii Pohl, a native of Cochin-China, is used medicinally

in China; M. ulttlissima is used in Brazil, Guiana, and Cambodia.

Manihot ultilissima Pohl is cultivated in various parts of India.

In Cambodia the pounded tuber is applied to ulcerated wounds.

It is considered antiseptic in Brazil, and is used to preserve meat;

as an ointment it 1s reputed useful in ulcers of the cornea.

The juice is very poisonous. In Guiana it is boiled down to a

syrup and given as an aperient. The fresh rhizome is made into

poultice and applied to ulcers.

The fruit is used as a fish poison in California and in Brazil.

The starch is officinal in Holland. |

Ashagti: Bankye—; Bajo: Makwamba, Ngaho, Ngawa, Sanagal—.

Bahamas: Bay Rush, Bitter Cassava, Cassava, Manioc, Tapioca—; Bakundu:

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 301

Kasara— ; Bakwiri : Mionde— ; Balondo : Ewa—; Balong : Sanagal—; Bambara:

Bananiku—; Banda: Ngali—; Basari: Banking, Kambohando—; Batanga:

Ewa—; Bemoba: Jangbwanguyuya—; Benin: Bobozi, Ebobozi, Igari, Igari-

makole, Ikeripia—; Betsileo: Balahazo, Mangahazo—; Betstmisaraka: M”’

Bazaha—; Bota:. Makwamba—; Brazil: Mandioca, Maniba, Manioc, Manira—;

Cambodia : Kdouch— ; Canarese : Kadugenasu, Maragenasu—; Central America:

Yuca—; Dagomba: Bankye, Kambonjule—; East Africa: Mhogo—; Ebrie:

Bede— ; Efik: Ibo iwa, Iwa unenge, Okpo ofop iwa—; English: Bitter Cassava,

Brazilian Arrowroot, Cassava, Tapioca Plant—; Ewe: Agbeli—; Fanti:

Bankye—; French: Mandioc, Manioc, Manioc doux, Manioque, Pain des

négres—; French Guiana: Manioc, Manioc amer, Manioc petit Louis—;

Fufulde: Mbai—; Fulani: Bantara, Nyambe—; Ga: Duade—; Gold Coast:

Bantshi, Duaday— ; Guam: Mandioka, Mandiuka, Mendioka, Mendiuka, Yuka— ;

Hausa: Baushin kurege, Doyar kundu, Kandirin \beguwa, Karaji, Karaza,

Rogo—; Hindi: Sakarkanda—; Hova: Vomangahazo—; Ibo: Abacha, Abaja,

Akbo, Akbonkono, Akbunkolo, Akpu, Akpu-ji, Ji-akpu, Ji-gbo, Oi-akpu—;

Jamaica: Cassada—; Java: Hoci dangdua—; Kabure: Mbaumhae—; Kano:

Rogo—; Kanuri: Garisa—; Kissi: Yambale, Yambale fulalei—; Konkomba:

Akombanul—; Konno: Tanga—; MJKoranko: Banake, Tankaso—; Krept:

Gbedi, Gbeli—; NKrobo: Agbeli—; Limba: Kopintan—; Loanda: Quisaca— ;

Lokko: Bororanga—; Losso: Bondoronde—; Madagascar: Kajaha, Kazaha,

Matreoka, Ropotra, Tsiveritelo, Vihazo—; Malinke: Bananku, Bananku gue,

Bara bananku—; Mamprussi: Kukulajo—; Mandingo: Mandioca, Nyambo— ;

Mano: Bai, Bei—; Mauritius: Manioc—;.Mbonge: Kasara—; Mende: Tangei,

Rande, Nguwo—; Mexico: Huacamotl—; Mundari: Edelsangga—; Nigeria:

Bara banankou—; North America: Brazitian Arrowroot, Cassava, Manioc,

Tapioca Flant—; Nupe: Rogo, Reso dzurugi— ; Nzima: Bairdair—; Portuguese :

Mandioca, Pau de farinha—; Roumanian: Manioc—; Russian: Manioc—;

Sakalave: Ambazaha, Balafanapaka, Mohogo—; Sherbro: Yeke—; Shuwa

Arabic : Baghut, Nagasha—; Sinhalese : Manyokka— ; Sobo : Madaka, Medaka— ;

Spanish: Mandiiba, Maniba del Brasil, Manihot amarga, Manioc amarga,

Mondioca, Yuca. Vuca amarga, Y'ca brava, Yuca casave de las Antillas, Yuca

casavi de las Antillas, Yuca mortifera—; Susa: Yoka, Yoka-fore—; Tagalog:

Caomtingcahoy—; Timne: Ayoka Batsanka, Ekanda, Erogbo, Nafange, Yoka-

ibi—; Tivi: Rougou, Vambeyon—; Tschandjo: Kungola—; Twi: Bankye— ;

Vai: Dumbai—; Visayan: Camotingcahoy—; Uruguay: Mandioca—; West

Africa: Mandioca—; West Indies: Yuca—; Wolof: Gniambi, Nyambe—;

Yalunka: Kunde, Kunde-ghrabi-na—; Yoruba: Ege—.

MICRODESMIS.

The genus consists of 2 species, one Asiatic, and one African.

M. caseariaefolia Planch. is used medicinally in Indo-China; M.

puberula Hook. and M. Zenkeri Pax. in tropical West Africa.

Microdesmis caseariaefolia Pianch. ccurs in Tenasserim, and

is found in woods and forests all over the Malay Peninsula. It is

distributed to Borneo and South China.

The fresh sap is used in Indo-China for caries of the teeth.

Indo-China: A luan te he, Chanh oc, Dock ko bang—; Malay: Chateng,

Chereh rambeh, Kenidei badak, Sigoniah—.

PHYLLANTHUS.

The genus includes 500 species, temperate and tropical, absent

from Europe and northern Asia.

The following species are used medicinally in Indo-China— P.

elegans Wall., P..Embhca Linn., P. Niruvt Linn., P. veticulatus

Poir., P. urinaria Linn.—; in China— P. Emblica Linn.—; in the

Philippine Islands— P. Niruri Linn., P. reticulatus Poir., P. urinaria

Linn. ;— in Colombia— P. ichthyomethius Rusby, P. salviaefolius

H.B.K.—; in Brazil— P. conami Sw., P. lathyroides H.B.K., P,

302 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY Vole Ge

Jighl fet : ;

Nirurt Linn.—j; in Guiana— P. conami Sw., P. epiphyllanthus

Linn., P. guyanensis Klotsch, P. Niruri Linn., -P. wrinaria Linn.—;

in the West Indies— P. Niruri Linn.—; in Lagos and Gold Coast—

P,.-amarus Schum. and Thonn.,° P.: discoideus Muell.-Arg., ‘P:

floribundus Mill.-Arg., P. Niruni Linn.,.P. pentandrus Schum. and

Thonn., P. reticulatus Poir., P. Wildemanni Beille—; in Mada-

gascar— P. casticum Soy.-Will., P. madagascariensis Muell.-Arg.— ;

ing La Reunion— “P. -casticum ~Soy--Wills (Ps Nirvan Pini ae.

phillyreaefolius Poir., P. urinaria Linn.—. ;

A. A large deciduous tree; bark flaking conchoidally ;

branchlets. slender, pubescent. Leaves equal and

symmetrically set <a ee Ss i. 22-2. -Eemoblica.

B. Shrubs or small trees; leaves 1 in. or more long.

I. Capsule small .1 in. through or less, fieshy. Pedicels

slender rather long at rin ohn Pat retieulatwss

II. Capsule long-pedicelled, dehiscent, .1 to .5 in. long.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate glaucous beneath, 4 in. long. 1. P. elegans. —

C. Herbs, occasionally wiry at base; leaves distichous

small.

I. Quite herbaceous; leaves oblong or elliptic obovate ;

capsule smooth nae Ses ‘

II. Slightly woody at base; leaves linear-oblong ; capsule

echinate aa a ae

III. Nine inches to 2 ft. tall with long branches, leaves

close set very narrow.

a. Leaves linear or oblong-linear; flowers pedicellate.6. P. simplex.

b. Leaves cuneate-obovate ; flowers sub-sessile 2. G2 Eseinaderas-

patensis.

Aes INIPUTL.

7. P. urinaria.

1. Phyllanthus elegans Wall. is found in Tenasserim, at

Mulmein, Mergui, and Amherst; in the Malay Peninsula, on stream

banks in Pulau Adang islands and Rawei.

In Indo-China the roots are considered antiperiodic. The juice

of the pounded leaves is given to children with aphthae.

In Tongking the leaves are made into a salad and given for

fatigue.

Indo-China: Bo ngot, Bu ngot, Hac rien than—.

2. Phyllanthus Emblica Linn. is found, wild or planted,

throughout tropical and. subtropical India; from the base of the

Himalaya, from Jummu eastwards, and southwards to Ceylon and

Malacca; whence to the Malay Islands and China.

This plant occupies an important place in Hindu Materia Medica,

and the medicinal properties of its various parts are described at

length in the Nighantas: ‘The fruit is acrid, sour, bitter, sweetish;

cooling, alexiteric, carminative, alterative, laxative, tonic, anti-

pyretic; useful in burning sensations, vomiting, biliousness, urinary

discharges, thirst, leprosy, constipation, inflammations, erysipelas,

piles, anaemia, strangury; used in biliousness, thirst, sweats, anura,

poisoning, ophthalmia, incipient blindness.—The leaf is used in

opthalmia and incipient blindness.—The seed is acrid, sweet; aphro-

disiac, antipyretic; useful in biliousness, asthma, bronchitis,

leucorrhoea, vomiting.’ :

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS. SPURGES OF INDIA 303

~ Mohammedan physicians esteem the plant equally with the

Hindus. According to Arabic and Persian authors; ‘The flowers

are cooling and aperient.—The fruit is acrid, sour, cooling; astrin-

gent, tonic, expectorant, vulnerary, laxative, improves the appetite;

useful in diseases of the heart, liver complaint, cold in the nose,

thirst, piles, biliousness, eye troubles; stops nasal haemorrhage ;

purifies the humours of the body.’

The root, the bark, and.the ripe fruit are astringent. ..The

flowers are refrigerant and aperient.

The unripe fruit is cooling, diuretic, and laxative. The exudation

from the incisions on the fruit is used as an external application in

inflammation of the eye. ;

In the Konkan the juice of the fresh bark with honey and

turmeric 1s given in gonorrhcea.

The leaves are, in Baroda, used as an infusion with fenugreek

seeds in cases of chronic dysentery, and are also considered a bitter

tonic. In the same locality the milky juice is considered a ‘good

application to offensive sores.

The leaves enter into the composition of a Mundari expectorant.

In the Tamil country the calcined fruit is powdered with an

equal weight of flower tops of Mollugo nudicautis Lam., made into

a paste with milk, and given for uterine hamorrhage during

pregnancy. i

In Cambodia the leaves are used in the preparation of antithermic

lotions and baths, and the decoction of the roots 1s given in myalgia

following upon some febrile condition.

Arabic: Ambliy, Amlaj—; Assam: Amlaki, Amluki, Sohmyrlain—; Bengal:

Ambolati, Amla, Amlaki, Amlati, Amlika, Amulati, Aonla, Aunlah, Yeonlah— ;

Betul: Aonla—; Bombay: Amla, Avala, Avalkati, Avla—; Burma: Hziphyu,

Shabju, Siphiyusi, Tasha, Zibyu, Ziphiyusi—; Cambodia: Ngop—j; Canarese :

Amalaka, Chattu, Dadi, Dhanya, Dhatri, Nelli, Sudhe—; Central Provinces :

Amla, Anla—; Canton: Yeou Kan Tse—; Chinese: An Mo Le—; Cuttack:

Alathanda—; Deccan: Amla, Owla, Ownla—; English: Emblic Myrobalan

Tree—; Garo: Ambari—; Gond: Aunri, Lalla, Milli, Nalli, Nilli, Usir—;

Gujerati: Amali, Ambala, Ambri, Amla, Bhoza, Bhoza amali—; Hindi:

Amalachi,. Amla, Amlaki, Amlika, Anola, Anuli, Anvula, Anvurah, Anwerd,

Aola, Aonla, Aora, Aungra, Aunra, Aunwered, Daula—; Indo-China: Bong ngot,

Kam lam, Kamlan ko, Yem ma lac—; Khond: Durga—; Kol: Miral

Kolami: Aura, Miral—; Konkani: Anvallo, Dogranvalli, Dogranvallo— ;

Kumaon: Aonla—; Kurku: Aunre—; Lambadi: Ambla—; Lao: Ma kam

paum—; Lepcha: Pa-om kung, Suom—; Malayalam: Amalakam, Nelli— ;

Marathi: Anvala, Aola, Aonli, Avala, Arola, Awla, Bhuiawalai—; Mauritius :

Embélic— ; Mundari: Meraldaru—; Nepal: Amla—; Nimar: Aonla—; North-

Western Provinces: Amla, Aoula—; Perstan: Amelah, Amuleh—; Portuguese:

Mirabolano emblico—; Punjab: Ambal, Ambli, Ambul, Amla, Aonla—;

Sanskrit: Adiphala, Akara, Amalaki, Amamalakam, Amlika, Amraphala,

Amrita, Amritaphala, Bahuphali, Dhatri, Dhatrika, Dhatriphala, Jatiphala,

Karshaphala, Kayastha, Pancharasa, Rochani, Shanta, Shiva, Shriphala,

Shriphali, Tishya, Tishyaphala, Triphala, Vayastha, Vrishya, Vrittaphala— ;

Santal: Meral—; Saora: Peddavusirika—; Sinhalese: Awusadanelli, Nelli,

Nellika—; Tamil: Amalagam, Andakoram, Indul, Kattunelli, Nelli, Perunelli,

Sirottam, Tattiri, Toppunelli—; Telugu: Amalakamu, Amalaki, Nelli, Pullayu-

sirika, Triphalamu, Usirika, Usirikaya, Usiriki—; Tulu: Nelli—; Urdu:

Anwala—; Uriya: Aura, Khondona, Onola—.

3. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn. is met with throughout

the drier parts of India, from Banda through the Deccan Peninsula

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE. HIST, SOCIETY> Vol. (XE

to Ceylon. It occurs also in tropical Africa, sArabial. lavas wand

Australia.

In Southern India an infusion of the leaves is given for

headache. ;

The seeds are used medicinally on account of the mucilage

which they afford when soaked in water.

Arabic: Cholf, Marur—; Gujerati: Kanochha—; Hindi: Hazarmani,

Kanocha, Kanochha, Niruri, Sadamanni—; Matheran: Wanocha—; Persian:

Marurshatu—; Porebunder: Bakrado—; Sind: Niruri, Sadamanni—; Telugu:

Nalausereki— ; Urdu: Kanochha—.

4. Phyllanthus Niruri Linn. is found throughout the hotter

parts of India, from the Punjab eastwards to Assam, and southwards

to Travancore, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula, ascending the

hills to -3,6co. feet. It ‘inhabits the-~ tropics generally, vexcept

Australia.

Hindu physicians credit the plant with the same therapeutical

properties as P. urinaria; they, moreover, use the leaves-as a diuretic

and in menorrhagia.

According to Mahommedan physicians the plant is stomachic,

good fer sores and in chronic dysentery; the fruit is bitter, useful

for tubercular ulcers, wounds, sores, bruises, scabies, and ringworm.

The plant is much used as a diuretic in dropsical affections,

gonorrhoea, and cther troubles of the genito-urinary tract. It is a

South Indian diuretic and antidysenteric. In Indo-China it is reputed

to be diuretic, depurant and antisyphilitic. In La Reunion ‘it is

very much used in blennorrhagia, dropsy, and diarrhoea.

The fresh root is said to be an excellent remedy for jaundice.

{n the Konkan it is rubbed down with rice water and given as a

remedy for menorrhagia. Bruised with a little water and administer-

ed internally with milk, it is a popular Tamil galactagogue. In

the Rajputana Desert the root, pounded and mixed with Commiphora

mukul Engl., is given to camels suffering from indigestion.

The leaves are stomachic. A poultice of the leaves with salt cures

scabby affections, and without salt may be applied to bruises and

wounds; made with rice water the poultice lessens cedematous

swellings and ulcers.

In Gold Coast’ the leaves are pounded and “used ‘to ctire

gonorrhcea. Parts of the plant are used to cure constipation. The

leaves are boiled and the liquor drunk to stop acute pains in the

stomach. The chief use of the plant is to allay griping in cases

of dysentery.

The milky juice is a good application to offensive sores.

The bark is used as a purgative and in the treatment of various

diseases, and yields a bitter principle ‘phyllanthin’, which is a fish

poison.

An infusion of the young shoots is given in dysentery.

The infusion of the root and leaves is a good tonic and diuretic,

when taken cold in repeated doses.

The decoction of the root and leaves is very bitter and is a

favourite remedy among the natives of Santo Domingo and Porto

Rico, for the cure of intermittent fevers, I have myself many

THE MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 305

times proved its efficacy in preventing the expected paroxysm. I[

was accustomed to employ a tincture made by myself with the whole

plant, the dose being two drachms in the morning. Sometimes I

repeated the dose, which acted upon the bowels as a slight purg-

ative and this is very useful in inveterate intermittents with infracts

of the spleen and liver. The infusion of the root and leaves is a

_ good tonic, and a diuretic when taken cold in repeated doses (A. J.

Amadeo; Pharmaceut. Journ., April 28, 1888).

A decoction of the bitter root and leaves is given in Haiti for

stomach-ache.

An aqueous extract or a decoction of the fresh roots. stem, and

leaves is given internally in snake-bite (Roberts); but the root,

stem, and leaf, are all useless as an antidotal treatment (Mhaskar

and Caius).

Arabic: Mekatkata, Meneckete—; Ashanti: Bommaguwakyi—; Bengal:

Bhujamla, Jiraneli, Sadahazurmani—; Bombay: Bhuiavala—; Brazil: Erva

pombinha—; Burma: . Miziphiyu—; Canarese: Kiranelligida, WKirinelligide— ;

Ceylon: Vellaikkilkaynelli—; Chinese: So Cheu—; Deccan: Bhuinavalah— $;

Efik : Oyomo-ke-iso-amon-ke-edem— ; French : Herbe du chagrin— ; Ga : Ombato-

atshi— ; Guam: Maigo-lalo, Maigu-lalo—; Gujerat?: Bhonya anmali—; Hindi:

Bhonya abali, Bhuinanvalah, Jangli amli, Jaramla, Niruri, Sadahazurmani— ;

Ibibio : Oyomo-ke-iso-amon-ke-edem— ; Indo-China: Cho de—; Java: Aijlaun-

-mahaij— ; Krobo: Ofobiokpab—; La Reunion: Petit tamarin blanc—; Malaya-

lam: Wirganelli, Kizhanelli, Kizhkkayinelli—; Marathi: Bhui avali—;

Mauritius: Curanellie blanche, Herbe au chagrin—; Mundari: Muikoa kantara,

Pirikantara— ; Nupe: Ebogi, Ebo zunmaggi— ; Philippines : Hierba de San Paulo,

Hierba de San Pedro—; Porebunder: Bhonya anmari—; Portuguese: Erva pou-

binha—; Rajputana: Gugerati bawal—; Sanskrit: Adhyanda, Ajata, Ajuta,

Amala, Amlika, Amrita, Aphala, Bahupatra, Bahupatri, Bahuphala, Bahupushpi,

Bhudatra, Bhudhatri, Rhumyamalaki, Bhuparva, Charati, Chorata, Dalaparshini,

Dridhapadi, Hilolika, Jada, Jharika, Jhatamala, Kshetramali, Mala, Nilolika,

Putrashronika, Shiva, Sukshmadala, Sukshmaphala, Uchchata, Vishaghni, Vishva-

parni, Vitunnaka, Vituntika, Vrishya—,; Seychelles: Herbe au chagrin—; Sind:

Niruri— ;_ Sinhalese: Pittawaka—; Spanish: Yerba de quinina, Yerba de

quinono—; Tamil: Kilanelli, Kilkkaynelli—; Telugu: Nelausirika, Nelavusari— ;

Twi: Bommaguwakyi—; Urdu: Bhui amla—; Uriya: Bhui aola—; West

Indies: Petit tamarin blanc, Quinine créole, Yerba de quinino—; Yemen:

Mekatkata, Meneckete—; Yoruba: Yoloba—.

5. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. is common throughout tropical

India, Burma, Malaya, and Ceylon. It extends to the Malay Islands,

China, and tropical Africa.

The fruit is astringent to the bowels; useful in inflammations,

and diseases of the blood (Ayurveda).

The bark is considered alterative and attenuant, and is prescribed

in decoction in the quantity of four ounces or more twice daily.

The leaves are employed as a diuretic and cooling medicine in

Sind.

The juice of the leaves is used medicinally in the Konkan. It is

made into a pill with camphor and cubebs, which is allowed to

dissolve in the mouth as a remedy for bleeding from the gums. _ It

is also reduced to a thin extract along with the juice of other altera-

tive plants and made into a pill with aromatics; this pill is given twice

a day, rubbed down in milk, as an alterative in heat of the blood.

In Lakhimpur the juice of the leaves is used for diarrhoea in

infants,

306 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol. XL

In Ashanti the leaves are mixed with palm nuts (Eleis guineensis)

and made into a broth, which is given to newly delivered women to

relieve them.

In Gold Coast the stems are used to cure sore eyes, the juice

from them being blown into the eyes.

The Rongas and Europeans of East Rirics use the powdered

leaf as a local application to sores, burns, and suppurations,

and chafing of the skin. The Rongas also apply it to venereal

sores.

In Indo-China the plant is used in the treatment of smallpox

and syphilis.

Akola: Pithor, Pittur—; Assam: Amluki—; Bengal: Panjuli—; Bombay:

Pavana—; Canarese: Anamsula, Chippulinellu, Huli, Karesuli, Karihuli,

Sannahagesoppu— ; Deccan: Buinowla, Kalemadhkajhar—; Fanti :- Nkokobro— ;

Gorakhpur: Sikat—; Gujerati: Datwan—; Hausa: Alambu, Alambu na tudu,

Bak’, in) alamba, K’alambu—; Hindi: Buinowla, Kalemadhkaper, Makhi,

Panjoli, Panjuli—; Indo-China: No kang pa, No phen den—; Katagum:

Tsah—; Konkani: Kaili—; Lambadi: Kombhoiro—; Malayalam: Kattu-

niruri, Kilanelli, Nirnelli, Niruri—; Marathi: Pavan—; Melghat: Pithor,

Pittur—; Merwara: Kabonan—; Nimar: Kamoi—; Punjab: Panjuli—; Raj-

putana: Kabonan—; Ronga: Tetenya Sanskrit: Bahupraja, Bahupushpa,

Kamboji, Kambojini, Krishnakambhoji— ; Sie Kamohi, Kamohijopun, Kamu,

Pikapiru—; Sinhalese: Welkyla—; Tagalog: Malaiba, Malatinta, Tinatinam,

Tintatintahan—; Tamil: Abirangi, Karuppuppilanji, Karunelli, Kattukkilanelli,

Melanelli, Nirppul, Nirppula, Nirppulanji, Pul, Pula, Pulanji—; Telugu

Nallapuli, Nallapurugudu, Nelapurugudu, Pandibarangi, Pulisar, Purugud—;

Timne: Egbeli—; Tulu: Kakesoppu—; Twi: Awobe—; Uriya: Bonotihudi,

Jojangi, Phajoli—; Visayan: Matangolang, Sungotolang—; Yoruba: Iranje—;

Zamboanga : Nipin—.

6. Phyllanthus simplex Retz is found in the plains and low

hills throughout India, from Kumaon to Assam and southwards to

Travancore, Ceylon and Malacca, ascending to 6,000 feet. It is

distributed to China, the Malay and the Pacific Islands.

The natives use the fresh leaves, flowers and fruit, with cumin

seeds and sugar, of each equal parts made into an electuary, for

the cure of gonorrhcea, a teaspoonful is given twice a day. The

fresh leaves, bruised and mixed with buttermilk, make a wash

to cure the itch in children.

The root is used in Chota Nagpur as an external application for

mammary abscess.

Gujerati: Motibhonya anmali— ; Indo-China: Vay oc—j; Marathi: Bhuiavali,

Motibhuiavali— ;_ Mundari: Otemeral, Pirimeral—; Porebunder: Motibhonya

anmari—; Santali: Tandimeral—; Telugu: Uchchiyusirika.

7. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. is met with throughout India,

from the Punjab to Assam, Burma, Malacca, Penang, pnd Ceylon ;

it is Common in Singapore and Selangor. It inhabits the tropics

generally.

The fruit and plant are acrid, sour, cooling, bitter, sweetish;

alexipharmic; useful in thirst, bronchitis, leprosy, anaemia, urinary

discharges, anuria, biliousness, asthma, hiccough (Ayurveda).

Thee plant is much used as a diuretic in dropsical affections, also

in gonorrhoea and other genito- ‘urinary troubles.

In Chota Nagpur the root is given to sleepless children,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES -OF INDIA 307

In La Reunion the plant is considered diuretic, sudorific, depura-

tive, and emmenagogue. It is given as a drink in dysentery and

cystitis.

In Cambodia the plant is used as a bitter, tonic, astringent, and

febrifuge. An infusion is given for liver complaint, diarrhoea and

paludism.

Bengal: Hazarmani—; Burma: Miziphiyuani—; Cambodia: Prak phle—;

Canarese: Kempukiranelli—; Ceylon: Chivappukkilkaynelli— ; Chinese: Ko

Cheu—; Gujerati: Kharsadabhonya anmali, Kharsadabhonya ansari—; Hindi :

Hazarmani, Lalbhuinanvalah—; Indo-China: Cho de, Giap ha chau, Kho ham,

Prak phle—; [Ia Reunton: Petit tamarin rouge—; Malay: Ambin buah—;

Malayalam: Chirukizhukanelli, Chukannakizhanelli—; Marathi: WLalmundajan-

vali— ; Matheran: Lalbhiuawali— ; Mauritius :Curanellie rouge, Curanellie urin-

aire—; Sanskrit: Adhyanda, Ajata, Ajuta, Amala, Aphala, Arudha, Bahupatra,

Bahuphala, Bahupushpa, Charati, Chotata, Dalasparshini, Drirdhapadi, Hilkolika,

Jada, Jharika, Thatamala, Mala, NiJolika, Putrashronika, Shiva, Sukshmadala,

Sukshmaphala Tali, Tamalika, Tamalini, Tamravalli, Uchchata, Vishaghni,

Vishvaparni, Vitunnaka, Vituntika, Vrishya—; Santali: Badarzhapi— ; Sinhalese :

Binnelli,, Ratpittaawka—; Tagalag: Ibaibaan—j; Tamil: Shivappunelli— ;

Telugu: Ettausirika, Yerrausereki—.

PUTRANJIVA.

The genus consists of 4 Indo-Malayan species.

Putranjiva Roxburghii Wall. is found, wild and cultivated,

throughout tropical India, from the lower Himalaya in Kumaon

eastwards and southwards to Pegu and Ceylon.

The leaves, the fruit, and the stones of the fruit are given in

decoction in colds and fevers.

In Siam a medicine for rheumatism is made out of the leaves

and fruit.

Bengal: Jiaputa, Putranjiva—; Bombay: Jewanputr, Jivputrak, Putajan,

Putrajiva—; Burma: Badibyu, Egayit, Taukyat, Toukyap, Toukyat—j;

Canarese: Amani, Menasinakale, Putrajiva, Putremjiva—; Chindwin: Badi-

byu—; Haldwani: Juti—; Hazaribagh: Piten—; Hindi: Jiaputa, Jivputrak,

Joti, Juti, Patigia, Patji, Putajan, Putijia, Putrajiva, Putranjiva—; Kumaon:

Juti—; Lambadi: Kalo—; Malayalam: Pongalam, Ponkolam—; Marathi:

Jewanputr, Jivputrak, Jiwanputr, Putajan, Putrajwa—,; North-Western Pro-

vinces: Jiaputa, Joti, Juti, Putrajiva—; Oudh: Patji—; Pegu: Daukyat—;

Punjab: Jiyaputra, Patajan—; Ramnagar: Juti—; Reddi: Veku—; Sanskrit :

Ardhasadhaka, Apatyajiva, Garbhada, Garbhakara, Jivanaputra, Kumarajiva,

Mavu, Pavitra, Putrajiva, Putranjiva, Shlipadapaha, Sidhida, Sutajivaka,

Sutrajiva, Yashtipushpa—; Santali: Pitoj, Pitonj—; Tamil: ITrukolli, Karupah,

Karupilai—; Telugu: Kadrojuvi, WKudrajinik, Iwudurujivi, IKudurujivir, Maha-

putrajivi, Putrajivika—; Uriva: Bholokoli, Pohunjona, Poichandia, Poitundia—.

RICINUS.

Ricinus communis Linn. is indigenous to tropical Africa, and

is found, wild or ‘cultivated, throughout the Tropics. By cultiva-

tion it has been distributed through not only all tropical and sub-

tropical regions, but also in many of the temperate countries of

the globe. In the south of England the plant ripens its seeds in

favourable situations, and it has been known to come to maturity

as far north as Oslo in Norway.

The root is sweetish, heating; carminative; useful in inflam-

mations, pains, ascites, fever, glands, asthma, eructations, bron-

chitis, leprosy, diseases of the rectum, and the head.—The leaves

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIELY, Vol XE

are useful in intestinal worms, strangury, night blindness, earache;

increase biliousness.—The flowers are useful in glandular tumours,

anal troubles, vaginal pain.—The fruit is heating and an appetiser ;

useful in tumours, pains, piles, diseases of the liver and spleen.—The

seed is cathartic and aphrodisiac.—The oil is sweetish; cathartic,

aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, alterative, useful in tumours, diseases of

the heart, slow fevers, ascites, inflammations, typhoid, pain in the

back, lumbago, leprosy, elephantiasis, convulsions; causes bilious-

ness (Ayurveda).

The roct bark is purgative, alterative; good in skin diseases.—

The leaves are galactagogue; good for burns.—The seeds and the

oil from them have a bad taste; purgative; useful in liver troubles,

pains in the body, lumbago, boils, piles, ringworm, paralysis,

inflammations, ascites, asthma, rheumatism, dropsy, amenorrhoea

(Yunani).

In Chota Nagpore the bark is ground and applied to burns by

the Mundas. A fibre of the bark is tied round the neck to stop

vomiting.

The leaf is arplied to the head to relieve headache, and is com-

monly used as a poultice for boils. It 1s said to possess considerable

power as a lactagogue, being applied warm to the breasts. The

fresh leaves are used by nursing mothers in the Canary Islands as

an external application, to increase the flow of milk. On the other

hand it is generally admitted in Indo-China that the leaves act as

an antilactagcgue, whether applied topically on the breasts or taken

internally.

In general the plant is credited with a number of peculiar

properties, and is said to be useful in difficult parturition, spasmodic

twitchings of the face, facial malformations, and cancer of the

stomach.

The seeds and the oil from the seeds are used as a purgative

wherever the plant is found growing. The Chinese use the crushed

seeds more frequently than they do the oil, the paste is applied to

relieve scrofulous seres. In some parts of West Africa a decoction

of the leaves is taken to purge.

In Las Bela the oil is expressed and used medicinally; and a

fomentation is made with the leaves to cure wounds. At Turbat

in Makran it 1s used as an ointment for sores. At Kotra in Kachhi

the leaves are used for fomentations; in Kharan they are bound

over boils, and are a good cure.

In French Guinea the leaves are boiled and used as a febrifuge.

In native medicine in West Africa the leaves are boiled to form a

lotion for fevers, and pounded for application as a poultice to

swellings. The leaf is sometimes tied on the forehead for head-

ache. In Togo the leaves of the larger-leaved variety are crushed

with cold water to form a useful eye lotion.

An infusion of the leaf is a Zulu remedy for stomach-ache. It

is administered orally or as an enema. The Zulus also apply a

paste of the root,in toothache. In South Africa the root is the

basis of several native remedies for toothache.

In Southern Rhodesia the bark is used by natives for stitching

up wounds, and as a dressing for wounds and sores. The Chewas

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 309

boil the root in water which has been previously boiled with the

ashes of maize stalks. The sediment from the second boiling ts

smeared on the teeth and gums to relieve toothache, the material

not being swallowed.

The Transvaal Sutos apply the powdered roasted seeds to sores,

boils, ete., in children. The foliage is considered emmenagogue,

the root-bark purgative, and the leaf useful as a local application

in rheumatism. The local application of the leaf to the mammae

is said to produce a powerful galactagogic action. In West Africa

a decoction is taken internally as a lactagogue and emmenagogue.

The bruised leaves are used fer caries of the teeth and given

with water for colic in Madagascar.

In La Reunion the leaves are considered lactagogue and are

given in infusion or applied to the breasts.

In Guiana the leaves are applied to the breasts to help the

secretion of milk. Soaked in vinegar they are applied to the

forehad in cases of sunstroke. They act as a powerful sudorific.

A treatment for chancre in Northern Nigeria consists in

fumigation by burning stems of Ricinus along with those of

Calotropis procera,

The oil, combined with citron ointment, is used as a_ topical

application in common leprosy.

In West Africa, castor oil is not used as a medicine internally,

but externally as an unguent alone or mixed with other substances,

such as groundnut or other oil. It is used as an application for

parasitic skin-diseases, craw-craw, etc., and as a dressing for

sores and parasitic conditions in domestic stock. In South Africa

a mixture of castor oil and kerosene is known as a cheap and

efficient culicide in the fight against malaria. Castor oil has been

found to be almost the only agent which prevents gad-flies from

attacking camels for any length of time.

Rendered soft and pulpy by heat, the leaves are applied to the

Guinea-worm sore to facilitate its extraction.

Ancient Sanskrit writers prescribed the seed in the treatment

of snake-bite and scorpion-sting; but Caius and Mhaskar have

shown experimentally that it 1s not an antidote to either snake or

scorpion venom.

The leaves and the seeds are cfficinal in Portugal; the seeds

and the oil in France and Italy; the oil in Austria, Belgium, Brazil,

Denmark, Finland, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, Japan,

Mexico, Norway, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the

United States, and Yugoslavia.

Afghanistan: Bazanjir, Buzanjir—; Afrikaans: WKasterolieboom—; Almora:

In—; Amboyana: Camiri—; Aowin: Ateende—; Arabic: Charua, Djar, Hurua,

Khirurwi, Khirwa, Tebscha, zaejt—; Assam: Eri—; Awuna: Dzonggdaleng— ;

Bafo: Bokuri—; Balong: Bokuri—; Bambara: Subarabana—; Behar: Anda,

Amar, Lenr, Renr—; Bengal: Bheranda, Bherenda—; Benin: Era ogi—;

Berar: Yerandi—; Betsileo: Winamena—; Bombay: Erendi—; Brazil:

Carapateiro, Figueira d’inferno, Mannona, Nhambuguasu—; British Central

Africa: Mbaliki—; Burma: Kesu, Kyeksu—j; Cambodia: Lohong preng—;

Canarese: Avudala, Avudalu, Chittuharalu, Eranda, Haralu, Manda, Vardha-

mana—; Catalan: Rici, Figuera infernal, Rissino—,;, Central Provinces:

Grundi—; Chinese: Pi Ma Coimbatore: Wotteimuttu—; Danish: Under-

troee—; Deccan: Erund, Ind, Rund, Yarand—; Qutch: Wonderboom— ;

310 :=fJOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Efik: Etighi-unenge, Eto-aran-ukebe—; Egypt: Kharwa, Kiki—; English :

Castor-oir Plant, Palma’ “Christi---*- we. Dzegbele, Dzongbati, Kasuwelti,

Kasuworliti, Longo—; Fanti: Abronkruma, Adedenkuruma, Esusonkuruma,

Sunsumnkuruma— ; French: Avanacoé, Avanacu, Bois de carapat, Carapat,

Grand ricin, Palma Christi, Paume Dieu, Pignon de Barbarie, Ricin, Ricin

commun, Ricin vulgaire—; French Guiana: Palma Christi—; French Guinea:

Diakoula—; siilan: Diakoula—; Fuiani: Derre, Diakoula, Kolakolaje gor’de,

Zurmaje—; Ga: Abromkruma, Adedengkuruma—; Genoa: Ricin, Ricinu—;

German : Wunderbaum— ; Gond: Nerinda—; Greek: Kiki—; Guam: Agaliya— ;

Gujerati: Diveli, Diveligo, Tirki—; Hamadan: Kercheng—; Hasada: Rang-

gajara, Risajara—; Hausa: Chika gida, ’Dan kwasare, Kulakula, Zurma— ;

Hindi: Arand, Arandi, Arend, Arind, Erand, Erandi, Erend, Ind, Rand—; Hova:

Tanantanankisoa— ; Hungarian: Ricinus—; Ibo: Obwa, Ogba, Ogili-obwa,

Ogili-ogba, Ogilisi, Ogiri-aro, Osisi-ogili— ; Ilocano: Tangantangan, Tavatavang-

sina, Tawatawasinga—; Indo-China: Dau dau, Du du, Huong thet, Khnhe,

Lohong, Miet ma, Thu du tia—; Iraq: Khirwa—; Italian: Caffee da’ olio,

Catapuzia maggiore, Erba venaria, Fagiolo d’ India, Fagiolo romano, Fava d’

India, Fico d’ inferno, Girasole, Mirasole, Palma Christi, Palmaperta, Ricino— ;

Kabure: Assimballo—; Wachhi: Harnoli—; Kalabari: Alamba-ngbole— ;

Kharan: Murghpad—; Nikuyu: Mubariki—; Kolami: Jarabindi—; Konkani:

Erendi—; Koranko: Maraban keyo barambe—; WKordofan: Hurna—; Krepr:

Atornggor, Kasuwelti, Kasuwoliti, Yevu-tongo— ;, Xxrobo : Kumenglo—; Kumaon :

Andi, Arandi, Indrendi—; La Reunion: Ricin tantan—; Las Bela: Hiranr—;

Lepcha: Hilk bu ruk-lop, Raklop—; Loanda: Bafureira— ; Lokko: Tawabawa—;

Makaran: Murpad—; Malabar: Tonda—; Malaya: Jarak, Pee mah—; Malaya-

lam: Anandam, Avanaka, Chittavanaku, Erandam, Gandharvahastakam, Kotta,

Panjangulam, Pantiyavanakku, Varddhamanam—; Malta: Castor-oil Plant,

Palma Christi, Ricino, Rionu—; Marathi: Erandi, Yarandicha—; “Masai:

Oldule—; Mauritius: Palma Christi—; Mbonge: Boku-balondu—; Mende:

Bonde, Ngele-bonei— ; Mentone: Ricinu—; Mexican: Tlaplatl—; Mozambique :

Ambona—; Mundari: Bindidaru, Ranggabindi, Ranggafara—; Naguri: Rangga-

bindidaru, Risabindi, Sutamranggabindi—; Nandi: Imanyet—; Nasirabad:

Harnauli—; Nepal: Alha, Areta, Orer—; Nimar: Arand—; North America:

Castor Bean, Castor Plant, Palma Christi—; North-Western Provinces: Arand,

Bhatreri, Rendi, Reri—; Nupe: Kpamfini gulu—; Pahouin: N’zoum—; Pedi:

Mokhura—; Fersian: beaanjir, Eedanjira, Garchak, Karchak, Tochme

kerchek— ; Portuguese: Carrapateiro, Mammona, Palma Christi, Ricino— ;

Portuguese Africa: Bafureira—; Potenza: Ricin—; Punjab: Aneru, Arand,

Arind, Bedanjir, Harnauli—; Pushtu: Arhand—,; Rajputana: Arend, Edia—;

Reggio: Rizoin—; Roumanian: Ritina—; Russian: Kleshtshexika—j; Sakalave :

Kinana, Tanantanamanga—; Samoa: Lama-papalangi—; San Remo: Ricin—;

Sanskrit: Amanda, Amangala, Bhanda, Chankuka, Chitrabija, Chitraka,

Dirghadantaka, Eranda, Gandharvahasta, Gandharvahastaka, Ishta, Kanta,

-anchangula, Panjangula, Ruvuka, Shukla, Shulashatru, Svehaprada, Taruna,

Triputi, Triputiphala, Tuchhadru, Vardhamana, Vatari, Vranaha, Vuka, Vyada-

tvaka, Vyaghradala, Vyaghrapuchha—; Santali: Eradom—; Sarawan: Bedan-

jir—;. Sardinia: Cacamengiu—; Sibi: Harnauli—; Sicily: Rigginu—; Sind:

Ayrunkukri, Heran—; Sinhalese: Eudaru, Telendaru—; South Africa: Castor

Bean, Castoroil Plant, Palma Christi—; Spanish: Higuera del diablo, Higuera

infernal, Palma Christi;. Ricino—; Sumatra: Jarak—; Susu: Limbiaxule,

Mbiakule—; Suto: Mokhura—; Swahili: Mbariki—; Swedish: Undertrard—;

Tagalog: Lansina, Lingasina, Tangantangan—; Tamil: Aimugi, Amanakku,

Andagam, Asaram, Attagam, Attamanam, Attugam, Erandam, Kottai, Kottai-

muttu, Muttukkottai, Peramanakku, Sanju, Sasambari, Sigandi, Sittaman,

Sittamanakku, Sittiram, Tabinjam, Urppulam, Vattamam—; Telugu: Amudamu,

Chittamudamu, Erandamu, Peramudamu—; Tigre: Kella—; Tigrinia: Vulleh— ;

Timne: An-fentoel, Lamirenda—; Tivi: Harev, Ihurua_ dzengo,. Ijija, Jija

Masev, Sherai jongo, Showara jongo—; Treviso: Rizin, Rizino—; Tschaudjo:

Dendelle, Sau— ;- Tuareg: Fueni—; Turkish: Hint—; Tuscany: Erba de latte,

Erba lattaria, Girasole maggiore, Girasole piccolo, Manoaperta, Meo, Scatapuzia,

Zecea, -Zeccha—; Twi: -Abronkruma, Adadenkuruma—; Urdu: Eranda—;

Uriya: Bheronta, Chitroko, Erondo, Gobo, Joda, Kalo, Monto—; Tindoko— ;

Uruguay: Ricino, Tartago—; Verona: Rizino—;. Waziri: Randanh—;. Xosa:

umiHlavuthwa—; Yemen: Jar, Febsha, Zeit—; .Yorubw: -lara;.Flarun,° -Laa,

Lapalapa adengteng, Lara—,; Zulu : umHdakuva—. :

SAPIUM

The genus includes 100 species, inhabiting warm countries.

See seovyermm Koxbt is=used medicinally in “China and Indo-

China, S$. Graham Prain in Gold Coast. The latex of S. ellipticum

Pax is in Kenya an ingredient in arrow-poison.

Leaves elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, crenate-

serrate ee ea Dat SPILe.

Leaves long-petioled, ovate, orbicular-ovate or — sub-

rhombic, quite entire, finely acuminate 3. S. sebiferum.

1. Sapium indicum Willd. is found in the Sunderbund and in

the tidal forests of Tenasserim and Ceylon. It occurs on the sea

coasts of the Malay Peninsula, and is distributed to the Malay

Islands and New Guinea.

The juice cf this tree is reckoned of a very poisonous nature.

The taste of the fruit is nauseous beyond description. The seeds

are used for intoxicating fish.

Bengal: Batan, Batul, Huru, Hurua—; Bombay: Hurna—; Borneo:

Booroo—; Hindi: Hurua—; Malay: Gurah, Guring—; Malayalam: Karm-

matti, Venkshiri—; Sinhalese: Wirimakulu, Wirrimakalu—.

2. Sapium insigne Vrim. is found in the sub-Himalayan tract,

from the Beas eastwards to Assam, Chittagong, Burma, and

Ceylon, ascending to 4,300 feet.

~The whole tree is full of an acrid milk which, when applied

to the skin, produces vesication.

Almora: Khin—; Anamalais: Garpathola—; Bombay: Dudla—; Canarese :

Kannupade, Kurda, Nanaka—; Dehra. Dun: Khindra, Khinna, Khinni,

Khirni— ; Garhwal: Khindra, Khinna, Whinni, Khirni, Kinna—; Hindi: Khina,

Khindra, Khinna, Khiria, Khirni, Khirun, Lendwa, Lienda—; Wadir: WKarup-

puchchulai—; Marathi: Dudla, Hure, Ura, Ure—; North-Western Himalaya:

Boddar, Khinna—; Punjab: Bilodar, Biloja, Dudla, Karalla, Ledra—; Telugu:

Garbhasula— ; Tulu: Kannupade—.

3. Sapium sebiferum Roxb., indigenous to China and Japan,

is found as a cultivated plant in various parts of India and else-

where in warm countries.

The acrid juice is a powerful vesicant. The oil is reputed

similar to castor oil.

In China the bark is used as a -tonic,. and the resin as a

purgative.

In Indo-China the root bark in decoction is given in dyspepsia.

The fat from the seeds is used in the treatment of skin diseases.

Bengal: Momchina—; Chinese: Pa Teou Seou, Wu Chiu—; Dehra Dun:

Tarcharbi— ; English: Chinese Tallow Tree—; Hindi: Bilaitisissu, Vilayatishis-

ham—;° Indo-China: O cut. moc, Sach, Soi, Soi tia u; kiu, Soi trang—;

Mauritius: Arbre & suif—; North America: Chinese Tallow Tree, Tankawang

Fat Tree, Vegetable Tallow Tree—,; Saharanpur: Pahari shisham—; Sanskrit :

Agaru, Toyapippali—; Uriya: Ronojita—.

SAUROPUS.

The genus consists of 20 Indo-Malayan species. -

Sauropus quadrangularis Miull.-Arg. is found in Bihar, Chota

Nagpur, and the Western Peninsula; it is common in Burma.

Si9' JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCInTY, Vor xr

The dried leaves are smoked in tonsilitis.

Matheran: Chickli—; Telugu: Tellavusirika—.

SEBASTIANIA,

The genus consists of 80 tropical species, mostly American.

Sebastiania chamaelea Miill.-Arg. occurs in Bihar, the Deccan

Peninsula, Ceylon, ~Burma, ‘and the “Malay- Peninstulae “it “is

distributed to China, the Malay Islands, tropical Australia, and

ATfriea.

The juice of the ‘plant ‘in. wine is used as” ane astiimeent\

decoction of the plant in clarified butter is considered to be tonic,

and is applied to the head in vertigo.

In Indo-China the plant is used in the treatment of syphilis

and diarrheea.

Konkan: Bhui crendi—; Sinhalese: Ratpitawakka—.

PRACTA,

The genus includes 55 tropical and subtrepical species.

T. volubilis Linn. is used medicinally in South America and

the West Indies. |

T. angustifolia Benth. and 7. cordifolia Benth. are considered

toxic in Madagascar.

Tragia involucrata Linn., a common stinging weed, is found

in dry places throughout India, from the Punjab and the: lower

Himalaya of Kumaon, eastwards to Assam and Burma, southwards

Travancore and Ceylon. It extends to China.

The root is considered diaphoretic and alterative; an infusion

is given in ardent fever and in itching of the skin.

In the Konkan a paste of the root 1s used to aid the extraction

of guinea-worm; mixed with the juice of Ocimum sanctum it is

employed as a cure for itchy skin eruptions.

In Chota Nagpur the root is given when the extremities are

cold during fever; also for pains in the legs and arms.

The root also ferms the basis of an external application in

leprosy.

The leaves enter into the preparation of an errhine which is

prescribed in cases of headache.

The fruit rubbed over the head with a little water is useful in

cases of baldness.

The root of this plant has diaphoretic property and is therefore

given in fevers to cause perspiration. A decoction of this roct

I in’ 10 was found to be useful in relieving bronchitis and the

attendant fever (IKXoman).

The fruit is not an antidote to scorpion venom (Caius and

Mhaskar).

Bengal: Bichati, Bichiti—; Bombay: WKanchkuri, Khajkhotii—; Canarese:

Dulagondi, Haligilu, WKiriberalu, Kiruberalu, WKiriturache, Sannaturachi, Tura-

chi—; Deccan: Kanchkure—; Hindi: Baraanta—; Ho: Jipenda—; WNolami:

Sengelsing—; Malayalam: Cherukodithuva, Chorinnanam, Choriyanam, Kotit-

tuva~; Marathi: Kanchkuri, Khajkolti—; Matheran: Katavi, Kulti—;

Sanskrit: Duralabha, Dusparcha, Dustaparisha, Grahini, Kachchura, Kasaghni,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 818

Samudranta, Virupa, Vrishchikali, Vrishchikapatri—; Santal: Sengelsing— ;

Tamil; Ambu, Cherukanjuru, Erumaikkanjori, JSanjori, Kandudi, Kannichi,

KKaruppukkanjori, Kunasagam, Kurundotti, Punaikkanjori, Samuttirandam,

Sendotti, Siruganjori, Tanavaiyadam, Turalobam, Turpparigam, Vellaikkan-

jori—; Telugu: ~ Chinnadulagondi, Dulagondi, Dulagundi, Peddadulagondi,

Kegadadula, Revatidulagondi, Telumani, Tigedulagondi—; Tulu: Pachcherengi,

Turuse—; Uriya: Bichati, Bichchuati—.

TREWIA.

The genus consists of 2 Indo-Malayan species.

Trewia nudiflora Linn. is common in the hotter parts of India

from Kumaon southwards and eastwards to Assam, Malacca, and

Ceylon. It extends to Sumatra and Java.

The plant is cooling, tonic, alexiteric; improves taste; removes

biliousness (Ayurveda).

The plant is used for the removal of swelling, bile, and phlegm.

The root in decoction is given to relieve flatulence and is applied

locally in gouty or rheumatic affections.

Bengal: Pitali, Pitoli—; Bombay: Bhillauri, Petari, Tumri—; Burma:

Setkadon, Thitmyoka, Yehhmyot, Yemyot—; Canarese: Kadukanji, Kadukere,

Kadukumbala, Kanji, Katkumbala, Katkumbla, Padye, Shillauri, Tumri—;

Dehra Dun: Gamhar, Tumri—; Haldwani: Gutel—; Hindi: Bhillaura, Gamb-

har, Gamhar, Khamara, Pindara, Pitoli, Tumri—; Kolami: Garalohadaru— $;

Kumaon: Khamara, Tumri—; Lepcha: Tungplam—; Magahi: Hruprukban— ;

Malayalam: Kanji, Kattukumil, Malankumil, Pamarakkumil, Pambarakmubil— ;

Marathi: Petari, Pitari—; Monghyr: Gamhar—; Mundan: Garalupung—;

Nepal: Gamari, Garum, Kurong—,; Oudh: Bhillaur, Bhillaura—; Saharanpur :

Dhaulpedda—; Sanskrit: Karahata, Karangaha, Pindara—; Santali: Gada

lopong—; Tamil: Attarasu, Attupuvarasu, Kanji, Naykkumil, Sannattuvarai— ;

Telugu: Eruponaku—; Tharu: Bilur—; Uriya: Monda, Panigambhar, Pitalu,

Pithaliya—.

REVIEWS.

THE BIRDS OF BRITISH SOMALILAND AND THE .GULF OF

ADEN. Their life-histories, breeding habits and eggs. By Sir Geoftrey Archer,

K.c.M.G. and Eva M. Godman. Vols. i and u. 68/-.

We feel that no apology is needed for bringing to the notice of the members

of our Society this beautiful book on the birds of British Somaliland and the

Gulf of Aden. There is a traditional connection between these areas and the

Society which is evident to anyone acquainted with the back volumes of the

Journal. No student of N.-W. India and the countries thereto contiguous can

afford to disregard Somaliland and the Gulf for the light which they can throw

on all problems and species connected with desert areas, for the fact that

many species are common to both areas, and because many of the summer

visitors and passage migrants of N.-W. India pass through or winter in the

countries round the Gulf of Aden.

Sir Geoffrey Archer is well known for his thirty years’ service in Africa.

He is a nephew of Sir Frederick Jackson, whose book on the birds of Kenya

and Uganda has just been published, and that relationship had its share in

developing his interest in Natural History, and particularly in birds. In May

1914 he became Administrator of the Protectorate of Somaliland and when the

status of the country was changed he became the first Governor, a post which

he held until August 1922. During those years in Somaliland his leisure hours

were largely given up to ornithology and by the time he left the country he

had made a collection of some 38,000 bird-skins and 1,000 clutches of eggs,

as well as the mass of field notes which have made this book possible. In

working up this material Sir Geoffrey Archer has had the active help and

collaboration of his kinswoman Miss Eva Godman who is a daughter of the

late Frederick Ducane Godman, so well known to an elder generation of

ornithologists.

The completed book is to consist of four volumes of which the first two

have now appeared together. These show that the book will be in format

an ornament to any library whether purely ornithological or more general

in scope. They are handsome in appearance and the printing and paper are

excellent.

The illustrations merit a few remarks. These consist of eighteen coloured

plates of birds and four coloured plates of eggs as well as a number of

beautiful photographs which illustrate the introduction. The plates of eggs

are by Mr. H. Gronvold and are executed with the fidelity for which that name

is a guarantee. The birds have been painted by the late Archibald Thorburn

and will bear comparison with the best of his work. It should be remarked

that this is the only book of non-British birds illustrated by Thorburn and

for that reason it is bound to hold a special place in any critical study of

his work. The backgrounds of the pictures, moreover, provide a good series

of pictures of the scenery in Somaliland and afford an eloquent testimony

to the careful collaboration between the authors and the artist which enabled

the latter to paint a country that he never saw.

To turn to the text of the book it is much fuller and more readable than

most faunistic works. The introductory matter is unusually interesting, occupy-

ing nearly a hundred pages. These include chapters on both the history of

the country and the history of its ornithological exploration and a very full

description of Somaliland and the Somali as they exist today with some very

graphic pictures of the bird life typical of certain areas. These make fascinat,-

ing reading, and make one long to visit a country that so far appears to have

escaped the devastating march of progress. An admirable map in colours. will

be found at the end of the second volume.

The main text follows the system of classification which starts with the

Stratheonida and ends with the Passeres. The authors admit 422 species and

subspecies to their list and out of these 170 forms have been found breeding

within the limits of the work. The account of each species is most ably

written. Sir Geoffrey Archer is not and does not claim to be an expert sys-

tematist and his work will here and there be found lacking on the scientific

REVIEWS 315

side. He has however a fluent pen and a wide knowledge of his birds in

the field and using these and the work of other writers in ~ happy combination

he has produced a text which is very interesting. From it the HEnglshman

in Somaliland will learn the points of interest about his birds and how and

where to find them. At the same time the worker in other areas and the

general reader will find this a book that helps him to appreciate the avifauna

of a country which he may never see. We can only hope that the remaining

tivo volumes will soon appear to join their most attractive predecessors.

H. W.

AUS DEM LEBEN DER VOGEL. By Dr. Oskar Heinroth. x+165 pp.,

with 98 insets of line drawings and photos. Berlin, 1938 (Julius Springer).

Price 4:8 RM.

This littl volume is the thirty-fourth of the series Verstdndliche Wissenschaft

or Popular Science, published by the well-known house of Julius Springer. ‘The

author, Dr. Oskar Heinroth, needs no introduction to students of ornithology.

His monumental work, in four profusely illustrated volumes, on Central

Iuropean birds—Die Végel Mittelewropas—is the record of practically a life-

time devoted to the most thorough investigation of the life-history of almost

evely species found on the continent of Kurope, most of which were reared,

photographed and studied by him from egg upwards. As the author remarks

in his Foreword, there is probably no other group of vertebrate animals about

whick so much has been written and yet such misconceptions prevail in the

popular mind, as Birds. The object of this booklet is not to go into such

purely technical matters as systematics and anatomy for which many good

manuals already exist. Neither is it a purely ‘popular’ book on birds in

general. It purports to discuss only a few aspects of bird hfe, but what a

wide range of topics it really does cover will be readily seen from the chapter-

headings in the list of contents, some of which are the following: The Chief

Characteristics of Birds—How Birds Sleep—Nesting Habits—Nest-building and

Breeding—The Laying of Hggs—Clutches—Does the Bird Know its Hgg?—

Does the Bird Recognise its Young ?—Does the Incubation Period Depend upon

the Size of the Hgg?—Does the Size of the Egg Correspond with the Size of

the Bird? Other subjects dealt with are: Cuckoo lore and Parasitism—The

Egg, Development of Kmbryo and Growth of Young—Moult and Colouration—

ing, etc.

From the concise nature of the discussions backed by the authoritativeness

one has a right to expect from an ornithologist of Dr. Heinroth’s calibre and

experience, the book is refreshing to read. in these days, when the spate of

ornithological literature has become physically impossible to keep abreast of,

even by a full-time ornithologist, one is otherwise lable to be left bewildered

as to what is and what is not the final answer to many of the questions

herein discussed.

This volume is bound to prove interesting and educative not only to the

man who studies birds as a hobby, but also to the more serious student. « Lt

is our misfortune, however, that it should be in a language that will perhaps

debar it to many bird- lovers in India. ‘The illustrations are carefully selected

and well reproduced and add greatly to the interest and attractiveness of the

book.

Se ABest,

THE COMPLEAT INDIAN ANGLER, by John Masters, well bound and

put together, covers some 115 pages of large spacious print, 34 pen and ink

sketches, and 16 plates. Price 10s. 6d.

It is not a thesis on Indian fishing in the sense that Thomas’ ‘Rod in

India’ was, or even an up-to-date Anglers Hand Book or Mighty Mahseer.

The author has cleverly dialogued in the shade of Isac Walton, his remini-

scences of Service in India woven round his favourite sport Angling. ‘I'he

book. makes good reading, but adds nothing new to past works. His keen

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST.”SOCIETY, Vol. XE

knowledge of the common Indian fishes, is given in a colourful story, supported

by pen and ink sketches and in order not to weary the reader he gives some

amusing anecdotes of every-day life that befalls the soldier or civihan during

his sojourn of service in India.

The sketches of the fish, in most cases, are excellent in outlne and _ pro-

portion, though the finer details of Fin Rays and scales set, so important in

the identification of fish, he has neglected. In the text the author has given

the scientific names and partly described the fish, but has not always supported

these in his sketches. This is unfortunate and defeats his own object. The

Boka (B. hexagonolepis) is just one example on page 26, he mentions the scales

in the L. Line as 28-31, but his sketch only shows 25.

On page 101 of his book the author gives an unusual setting for Butchwa

(Ha vacha). As far as I know Butchwa (EH. vacha) lke the broken water and

eddies of slow running rivers, round and about the piers of bridges, submerged

trees or where smaller streams join. They often feed in shoals when the surface

is considerably disturbed. JI have never seen or heard of them ‘sucking in air’

in the manner as set down by the author, this is surely exceptional.

He mentions 121 lbs. as the record Mahseer taken on Rod and line. Revitt

Carnac, so far as I know, holds the record with his fish of 119 lbs. taken in

Mysore on December 28, 1919, in the Cauvery.

His experience takes him from the North-Eastern [Frontier of Assam,

through Hyderabad, Sind, the Punjab and Kashmere, over to the barren N.-W.

frontier to the Tochi and Kabul.

The author wisely concludes his book with a paragraph warning the reader

of the names of the fish he gives as purely local to the text of his book, and

not general over all India.

Mr. Masters would have done well to have resurrected, instead, the Immortal

Thomas, and brought up-to-date that classic, The Rod in India.

y Neg wails

THE TRIALS OF A PLANTER, by Oscar Lindgren; printed by S. Mani

Pradhan at the Mani Press, Kalimpong; and published by the author in 1933.

Price Rs. 38.

This little book of 206 pages has 384 chapters. There are 7 illustrations

depicting some of the more exciting incidents and these will probably afford

the reader as much pleasure and amusement as the drawing of them no doubt

did to the, presumably, youthful artist.

The author was at Bloxham School, and being by nature a wanderer chafed

sorely at his hard lot of polishing an office stool in the city. Fortune, a bene-

volent uncle, and ready replies to a Board of Examiners saved him, so he

came out to India in 1877 at the age of 20 bound for the career of a Tea

Planter in Assam.

The voyage to Calcutta was uneventful except for frequent stoppages to

repair decrepit engines; and that up the Brahmaputra river in a paddle steamer

afforded plenty of mild incident. A Captain who was somewhat of a character

introduced the lad to various peculiarities of life in the Hast, and the sight of

muggers, buffaloes, wild fowl, the varied bird-life of the great river, and the

teeming human life at the various stopping places gave interest to the long

voyage of 383 days to Dibrugarh.

His first ‘trial’ was a Manager who was more fond of a whisky bottle than

tea, but he was kind to the author who became an independent Manager

through his recommendation.

In the early days of Tea ‘leaf rolling by hand was carried on in most of

the Assam Tea Gardens, it was a slow and tedious process and with a rush

of leaf it was a hard task to get a cooli man to roll his maund of withered

leaf’. The rolled tea was made up into balls and left to ferment, the process

being hastened by wet cloths. Firing was carried out on wire sieves over

brick fireplaces. It was long before these primitive devices gave way to methods

in use at the present day.

After six years the author discarded Tea and entered the career of sleeper-

cutter and sleeper-contractor for the Dibrugarh-Sadya Railway the construction

of which began in 1888, While working in this capacity he laid the founda-

REVIEWS 317

tions of the present settlement of Makum; and to this period obtain the tales

of ‘The Mad Mukna of Makum’, ‘A Romance of the Sabansiri River’, ‘A “Night

Encounter and its Sequel’, ‘The Dehing Saw Mills’, ‘A Man Hater’, etc. etc.

A return to Tea planting was made and in 1887 he was opening a new

tea garden in the Dibrugarh district on the Dehing river ‘in a howling muddle

of forests and undergrowth’; ‘a white woman was as scarce as a white elephant

and the less said about the way we dressed the better’. Malaria was bad and

the life a hard one. About this time he saw something of elephant keddah

operations and there were various fishing and shikar excursions with Miri

tribesmen, of whom he speaks well.

In the chapter ‘Some Snakes I have met’ we read of his escape from an

anery hamadryad which he afterwards shot. It measured 17 feet. A planter

saves himself from another of the species by holding his coat to the furious

snake. Then there was an attack on his boat by a big black snake which

might have been a king cobra except that its underside was a dull red. On

the wrapper of the book is a coloured picture of a large snake in typical

cobra attitude which is perhaps intended to represent a hamadryad; but it is

banded like a krait. The youthful artist drawing on his imagination? By the

way, is there such a weapon as ‘a smooth bore rifle’? And do domestic cattle

eat green tea bushes? This is not known in South India.

Some chapters are devoted to voyages and incidents unconnected with life

as a planter. There is ‘The Wreck of the S. 8. Delhi’ in 1911; ‘A Visit to

Canada’, etc. Then there is a description of the Darjiling earthquake of 1897,

and of a great flood one year which did much damage along the Rangeet and

Teesta rivers and in the Darjiling district.

The putting together of this small book of reminiscences has no doubt

afforded much pleasure to Mr. Lindgren and been of interest to his friends.

Tt is a great pity the proof reading was not more carefully done for every

page is full of misspellings and faulty annotation.

R. W. 5;

THE KANDY FLORA. Bv A. H. G. Alston. Pp. xvii+109. Colombo:

Government Record Office, 1938. Price Rs. 3-50.

This is a sure and safe guide to the identification of the flowering plants

found within easy walking distance of Kandy. Simple, reliable keys are given

for families, genera, and, when needed, for species; and there are 404 good

illustrations. The book opens with an excellent account of ‘formations’ or

‘associations’, and ends with a useful glossary of botanical terms.

The statement in the foreword that the book ‘has been prepared for the

use of the Schools’ and that its ‘price has been kept down as low as possible

in order that purchase may be within the means of every student’ invites

criticism from this side of Adam’s Bridge where Rs. 3:50 is an amount that

few school-going boys or girls could afford to pay.

We do not know the Ceylon Government rules about the spelling of

vernacular names, but the transliterations ‘ch’ and ‘chch’ in some of the

Tamil names leave us pensive.

5 eee tee OF

UGANDA GAME DEPARTMENT, Annual Report for the year 1937.

What should be the functions of a Game Department? This must imme-

diately occur to the mind of any Conservationist reading the Annual Report

of the Game Department of the Uganda Protectorate for 1937. TI do not think

that a correct answer can be found in this report.

Section I dealing with Administration gives some illuminating details regard-

ing the successful financial position of the department and discloses the fact

that a very large profit is made from the sale of ivory, chiefly obtained by the

destruction of elephants under an activity called ‘elephant control’.

The small amount of the total revenue which is placed at the disposal of

the Game Warden is significant.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL YVHIST. “SOCIETY. 2Vol. axes

An expenditure of £6,554 only out of a gross revenue of £21,072 seems to

be a poor percentage for what should be the chief work of a Game Warden,

i.e. the Conservation of Wild Life.

Detailed expenditure on such work is not given in the report, although

commercial statistics are given at considerable length. At two auctions held

in Mombasa during the year the average price of ivory per pound realized

Shs. 7/68 and Shs. 7/10, compared with Shs. 6 and Shs. 6/55 in 1986. The

price of ivory seems to be an important factor and is mentioned several times

in the report, but does not appear to help the Game Warden to obtain more

funds for Wild life Conservation. Here are one or two examples showing

how little of the large balances is given for the work of the Game Warden.

In 1926 the revenue of the Uganda Game Department was £12,316, ex-

penditure £6,691, leaving a balance of revenue over expenditure of £5,625.

In 1934 the revenue was £11,676, expenditure £5,111, leaving a balance

of revenue over expenditure of £6,565.

In 1937 the gross revenue was £21,072, expenditure £6,554, actually less

than in 1926, leaving a balance of revenue over expenditure of £12,818, after

deducting £1,700, estimated cost of internal and external transport of ivory.

Evidently in Uganda there is no relation between the money received from

wild-life resources and the expenditure to conserve the same resources. The

value of the yard-stick appears to be unrecognized.

It must be remembered that the revenue does not include the fees collected

from registration of sporting firearms, etc. Tt does include the fees from

Game Licences.

The magnitude of the business may be gathered from the fact that 44,577

nounds of ivory were sold during the year, as well as 314 pounds of rhino

horns and 8091 pounds of hippo teeth, realizing the sum of £16.507. We are

then given in paragraph 6 under Tvory, etc., statistics showing stocks in hand

at the end of the vear.

A chapter headed ‘Tllecal Killing of Game and Breaches of Game Laws’,

is quickly disposed of. No details here. No information regarding numbers

of prosecutions, amounts of fines, etc. But the market value of ivory comes

into the picture as affecting breaches of the law.

Commencing with paragraph 11 a chapter headed ‘Game Reserves’, which

one might imagine would be the most important and informative chapter in

the book, is colourless, sketchy and disappointing in the bareness of all

interesting detail.

In view of what I have written about ivory and lower down about ‘elephant

control’ JT should like to point out that in this chapter ‘Game Reserves’—it

only takes up about three-quarters of a page—no information is given regarding:

(1) Staff for the protection of the game reserves.

(2) Steps taken for the guarding of the reserves.

(83) Details regarding the expenditure on reserves.

But we are told that plenty of game was seen and observed. We are not

told how many reserves there are or what is their acreage.

A little food for thought is given to us about the Damba Island Reserve.

We are told that it is impossible to guard Damba Island effectively but we

are not told why, unless the effect of the inhabited island of Kome is the

excuse.. With a surplus of nearly £13,000 of revenue over expenditure such

an impossibility should be impossible.

A chapter headed ‘Game Trophies’ contains some interesting statistics regard-

ing the elephant trophies obtained. A total of 337 elephants were shot under

lieence. The price of ivory seems to be an influencing factor in the snort of

elephant hunting in Uganda acconding to paragraphs 15 and 18 in this chapter.

Incidentally it is mentioned that 2,627 tusks of ivory weighing 77,118 pounds,

valued at £27,046 passed mone Uganda from the Belgian Congo.

In Section II, ‘Elephant Control’, we find the report wetting down to the

real thing. Here perhaps is the chief activity of the Game Department and

if meticulous detail is a criterion it is the chief activity.

Paragraph 25 reads as follows:

‘Owing to the absence on leave of both Game Rangers during the greater

part of the year control operations in certain important localities “have become

somewhat disor ganised and this, combined with frequent restrictions on elephant

REVIEWS 319

hunting in rinderpest infected areas, has resulted in a considerable falling off

in the numbers killed under organised control. In spite of these drawbacks,

however, the results can be considered satisfactory. :

Satisfaction appears to consist in the numbers of elephants killed. The

absence of the Game Rangers appears to have saved us from accounts of

wonderful feats and paeans of hearty congratulations such as have appeared

in previous reports.

We are told that the reference to decreasing damage in certain District

reports is most heartening. We were told much the same thing in 1926, yet

the toll of increasing killings has steadily gone up until this year and this

falling off in 1987 is reported to be due to shortage of staff. We have a

plethora of statistics. Twenty-six African ‘control’ ouards were employed, and

in the control area 1,519 elephants were killed, mostly, I presume, by the guards.

In addition to this other elephants paid the extreme penalty because 298 tusks

were found in the control area which can, I think, be taken as from elephants

wounded by the operations of the control.

Of the first figure of 1,519 elephants about half of the number had tusks

weighing under ten pounds, which means that they were taken from immature

males and females. Of the second number of 228 tusks, about half came

within the same category. There are no details showing the proportion of

cow ivory but it is fairly evident from the figures shown that a large number

of smali elephants must have been killed by “the control. The African control

guards came in for their share of praise.

We then have under several chapters detailed accounts of damage by and

destruction of elephants in the different provinces. In these accounts it is

shown that licence holders obtained some fine trophies. Details are given of

incidents in connexion with the work of the control. It is to be presumed,

from lack of all information on the subject, that no other methods than

killing are undertaken to effect any control over elephant herds which cause

depredations.

In Section III we have ‘Notes on the Fauna’. Unfortunately practically

nothing appears in this report about Gorilla, although there has been, T believe,

considerable agitation to obtain a gorilla sanctuary in Uganda. If this sanctuary

is a fait accompli one would have expected to hear something about it; if not

one would expect to be told why nothing has been done. But there is always

a good deal to be found in this report “about the misdeeds of the fauna and

this section is no exception. Baboons, red monkeys, leopards, lions, buffaloes,

rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, giraffes, bush pigs and zebras, as well as elephants,

are all indicated.

The chapter on Birds is interesting and instructive. The list of recoveries

in Uganda during 1937 of White Storks, ringed in Europe, is no doubt of

great scientific interest.

Under reptiles we have a long reference to a crocodile known as Tutembe.

IT think the Game Warden presumes that Lutembe is as well known to the

rest of the world as it is to him, but as this report may be read by many

whose knowledge even of Uganda is somewhat vague, much more vague must

be their knowledge of Lutembe, and a little enlightenment on the subject

would have been useful. Crocodiles are not popular ‘and efforts were made by

the Game Department to deal with them by setting poison baits (phosphorus)

at Katebo which were believed to have been successful.

In Section IV ‘General’ under a chapter headed ‘Notes of General Interest’

we are informed that a party of eminent South Africans had a svlendid view

of Imtembe. On reading this for the first time I thought it referred to a

mountain! This chapter ends the references to mammals and we now turn

to. Section V, Fisheries.

The chapters in this section give very detailed statistics of the fishing industry

in Uganda. The mass of detail collected is a great testimony to the industry

of the Game Department. The economics of the business are thoroughly gone

into and much information of great commercial value is to be found in “this

section.

The fisheries, while being of vital importance to the natives are, one would

have thought, so far as a Game Department is concerned, a consideration

which should take a second place after the mammal fauna, especially the

larger fauna, which can, through lack of proper care and careful conservation,

very easily disappear.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SO CLE TVeVol male

The conclusion drawn from a study of this report is bound to leave the

impression that the dominating factor governing the major activities of the

Game Department is ‘control’. One cannot help coming to such a conclusion,

it may be a wrong conclusion but due to the meagre information regarding

the important work of conservation and the emphasis placed on the importance

of ‘control’ there is to my mind no alternative.

The numbers of elephants known to have been killed in Uganda during

the last ten years—there must have been other deaths—amount to over 14,000,

mostly killed by an organization especially formed to kill them. At least that

is what the Uganda Game Department’s Reports lead us to believe.

In the report for 1937 we have records of the killing of—

3387 elephants by licence holders.

1,519 elephants by the Game Department.

and approximately 120 elephants found dead, based on found ivory; a_ total

of 1,976 dead elephants.

Uganda is not a very big country, about 223,500 square miles, less than

twice the area of the British Isles. The continual drain on the elephant herds

is a heavy one.

Can they stand it? That is the first question.

Is it necessary? That is the second question.

Is the motive purely altruistic? That is the third question.

Is there no alternative? That is the fourth question.

No answers will be found in the report. because the information on which

to base such answers are not there.

We can, however, draw certain deductions. The large revenue from the

sale of ivory is not used for the conservation of wild life nor for steps to

counteract the depredations of wild life except on a basis of destruction. In

other words the killing of large numbers of elephants is, at present, a profitable

business.

If there was no profit, if elephants had no. tusks, would the official killings

reach these figures?

If this question can be answered in the affirmative it means that no important

significance attaches to the revenue obtained from the ivory sales? Therefore

one is led to ask why this large revenue is not used to conserve wild life,

utilized in research work, or expended on works to try to overcome the elephant

difficulty ?

If on the other hand the large revenue is appreciated as profit for general

expenditure, while at the same time it is clear that little money is allocated

to conservation work, then the elephant is being exploited for gain.

Many years ago an officer of a Game Department in Africa said words to

this effect:

‘The key note of successful conservation of wild life is the prevention of

killing for profit.’

with which sentiment every conservationist will agree.

Perhaps Government profit and individual profit are two different matters ?

That may be so; but the principle applies to both profits.

I believe that I am correct when I write that scientists in many parts

of the world view with alarm the destruction of wild life in Africa. The

present policy being followed in Uganda may or may not be necessary; we

cannot form a complete judgement from the accounts given to us by those

responsible for the destruction.

Some of the Annual Reports of the Uganda Government Game Department

have been disturbing to conservationists and distressing to many others. It

seems that the time has come when an impartial inauiry should be held by

persons expert in the art of practical conservation of wild life into this question

of the organized destruction of elephants and other large fauna.

It would take a long time to make a thorough inquiry. It would cost a

lot of money. But it would not cost as much money as the annual profit

the Uganda Government are making out of the sale of government ivory.

June 19, 1988, As He

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—PANTHER WITH ABNORMAL FEET.

Writing to the Society in connection with two panther skins

sent to them for mounting by H. H. the Maharao of Cutch, Messrs

Van Ingen & Van Ingen state “You might be interested to know

that one of these panthers has two extra phalangeal bones and

claws—twenty in all’. In vol. xxx, p. 909 of the Journal (1925)

the Mahara} Kumar Shree Vijayarajji of Cutch published a photo-

ereph and a note on a panther with an extra claw-bearing toe on

each hind foot, and in a recent letter H. H. the Maharao comment-

ing on the reference to his trophy made by Messrs. Van Ingen «&

Van Ingen says ‘This is the third one I have shot having the

same character. All three have been found in more or less the

same part of Cutch. Apparently the extra toe in some cases is

hereditary.’ The recurrence of these abnormalities within the area

appears to see ears His Highness’ suggestion is possibly

correct. In vol. xi, 734 of our Journal, Mr. 8. Eardley-Wilmot

refers to a panther ae by him in Oude, with five fully developed

claws and toes on each hind foot.

BomBay. S. HH: PRATER.

May 30, 1938.

TI.—JACKALS (?) AND A CAPTIVE PANTHER.

T have just recently read Mr. F. W. Champion’s book entitled

With a Camera in Tiger-land and was very much interested in

his remarks on leopards and hyaenas in the chapter entitled

‘Hyaenas and others’. In July 1936 IT came into possession of a

young male leopard some four months old and I kept this animal

which was perfectly tame until December of the same year when

I gave him to the Zoo at Trivandrum, Travancore. During the time

the animal remained in my possession he occupied a fairly large

cage in my compound with a bare earth floor, and on many occa-

sions on my visiting the leopard in the early morning T found that

holes had been burrowed ae the edge of the cage presumably

so that the burrowing animal could ste all scraps of food which had

been left. After keeping watch several times on hearing my dog

bark late one night I ran around to the cage and found ie pani

hiding behind a small box and a couple of animals engaged at

piece of meat which had been purposely given extra to the eee

in his evening meal. Tmmediately on hearing me the ‘raiders’

made off and as far as I could make out they were only ordinary

jackals or perhaps wild dog. I thought it rather amazing that the

aap should endeavour to hide from the marauders but did not

think it worth recording until T had read Mr. Champion’s book, It

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST @ SO Clb IY: "Viola

should be observed that, although on every occasion raids were

made holes were made which were big enough to let the leopard

walk out without any difficulty, he made no attempt to do so but

instead appeared next day very much cowed.

(UILON, TRAVANCORE,

SouTH INDIA. NOEL J. 8S. THOMPSON,

February 22, 1988. FLR.S.A., F.Z.S., ALAA.

IIT.—PANGOLIN AND SAMBAR: A CURIOUS BELIEF.

We publish below an extract from the Chief Forest Officer’s

Report of 11th February 19388 to the Administrator, Bastar State.

‘I may say that though I have not seen the Pangolin in this

State (Bastar) but I am certain that it does exist for the reasons

civen Het les

(1) That it is a nocturnal animal, and moves slowly and

hence the chances of locating it in forests are few and far between.

(2) That the bony scales of this animal are made into finger

rings and buckles by professional men in Jagdalpur and other vil-

lages and sold to the patients suffering from rheumatic diseases.

The writer of this note in his recent tour was seriously offered a set

of rings and buckles made of Pangolin scales at Ulnar camp to

relieve the nerve pains.

This harmless creature certainly requires protection, otherwise

it would be wiped off completely. I suggest a thorough survey

of this animal through §8.D.O. Tahsildars, $8.1. Range Officers and

Revenue Inspectors.

Incidentally I heard very curious story about this animal from

the aborigines. They believe that when a sambar comes across

al Pangolin it rears up on his hind legs and at the same moment

the Pangolin rolls itself into a ball a then Sambar comes down

—with all his w eight on to the back of Pangolin—delivers blow

after blow until the Sambar succeeds in dislodging a couple of

bony scales.

As soon as this operation is over, the Sambar picks up the

loose scales and swallows them.

In support of this story, the aborigines told me that, once the

Pangolin is on his defensive (i.e. rolls up), you may strike dozens

of blows with either butt end or sharp end of an axe it makes no

impression on the animal. On the other hand, a Sambar on many

occasions succeeds in killing the animal.’

EDITORS.

TV.—AN ALBINO SAMBAR.

Records of albino wild animals always have a certain amount

of interest, so the following note is submitted.

In the course of an evening stroll in the mixed sal and chir

pine forests at 1,500 ft, near Chaukhamb in the hills of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 323

Kohtri valley not far from Lansdowne, my wife and I saw a verv

conspicuous white object standing some 35 yards away and about

the same number of feet below us. For a moment we thought

we must be getting near a forest camp (we did not know the

country), and that we were looking at the rear view of a white

hill pony with phenomenally shortly docked tail; then that it was

only a barkless bleached stump of that shape. But after the

first moment, there was no question but that it was a sambhar

hind standing with its back to us, with head turned to watch us

through some thin scrub. We watched it with and without bino-

culars at the short range mentioned for as long as we wished,

for, despite our movements, it did not stir. Phe muzzle was

conspicuously pink and completely pigmentless as also were the

fleshy parts round the eyes; the eyes also appeared pink, but we

could not be absolutely certain of this; the ears with the light

showing through them appeared possibly very slightly pigmented,

Over the whole body the hair was definitely white, perhaps a bit

dingy as though in need of grooming, as sambhar mostly look to

be at this season, but impossible to describe as merely ‘pale buff’

or ‘pale fawn’. It seems surprising that so conspicuous an animal

could survive to maturity in forests with plenty of tiger and leopard,

not to mention poachers. .

NAT An. WP. Hy G. CHAMPION. tars...

April 1, 1988. Conservator of Forests,

Western Circle.

V.—THE MATING OF ELEPHANTS.

The manner in which elephants mate has long been a moot

point. Owing perhaps to the position of the generative opening

in the Cow it has been suggested that during congress she lies

on her back—some have held that she digs a hole. The question

if there yet remains any doubt as to the manner of fecundation

may definitely be set at rest by the authentic photograph which

IT enclose.

The female was purchased on the 18th February 1936 being

wild and just caught in a Khedda. Her age is about 30 years

and height 7 ft. 6 in. The tusker is aged 35-36 having been in

captivity for about 80 years, his height is 8 ft. 5 in. At the time

the snap was taken the female had been partly broken in—she

could carry a pad but did not know all the words of command.

The pair had been brought in from the hills where they are let

loose fettered and lead a semi-natural life often mixing with wild

herds. The snap was taken from a distance of 60 yards in an

open field with seores of villagers looking on. The tusker mounted

about eight times, but the female did not respond as she kept

crossing her hind legs. Subsequent to this the tusker mounted

on several occasions, either in the compound or in the hills. The

female is now in calf. The tusker has been getting musth for the

last 5 vears, the attack generally lasting from 10 days to a fort-

night when he is unapproachable, The attack comes on usually

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SHISd. SOCIETY Volo ak

in April or May. When in musth he always seeks the company

of a female, and mounts whether she is willing or not. <A point

to be emphasised is that he was not musth when the photograph

was taken. on

ComILuA, TIPPERA,

EK. BENGAL. PAUL-DE LAUNEBY,

April 1938,

[We have not published the photograph submitted by the

writer. There age a number of photos in existence which prove

that elephants copulate in the position usual to quadrupeds. In

the female elephant, the peculiar position of the female external

eenerative opening, which hangs down in much the same position

as the penis in the male, led to widespread doubts as to whether

the act of copulation was performed in the position normal among

quadrupeds. On plaques and in ancient Indian sculpture in which

elephants are sometimes represented in coitu, the female is

shown literally standing on her head. The weight and vigor of

the male may force the female to go down on her fore knees and

rest her forehead on the ground. Under sexual excitement the

generative opening in the female is raised from its pendant posi-

tion and assumes a situation more or less normal in quadrupeds.

The alteration in position has been observed by ancient anatomists.

Aristotle refers to it in his Historia Animalium. An interesting

note in the Oriental Sporting Magazine indicates that the animals

may at times take advantage of irregularities in the confirmation

of the ground and so ease the burden of weight. In the note

under reference the writer saw a pair of elephants mating. The

female was standing in a dry nullah which was not more than

five feet wide. The male rested his forefeet on either bank and

so relieved the cow of the weight of his body.—KEps. ].

VI.—A LARGE INDIAN ELEPHANT.

A Game Ranger on crop protection patrol shot a large tuskless

male elephant last December in the Bhamo District of Upper

Burma. The elephant which was a notorious man-killer, con-

tained 8 ball shot from 12-bore guns, along one side (it was im-

possible to turn the elephant over to find out what was in the

other side) and measured between pegs placed at the shoulder and

the fore-feet, 10 ft. 8 in. Jt is probable that the effect of lying

on its side, shghtly increased the height measurement as recorded

between the pegs but it would be interesting to learn whether

larger Indian elephants than this are on record.

Maymyo, Burma. Be J. MOST Ei:

February 11, 1938. Game Warden.

[The highest recorded measurement of an Indian elephant is

that of an animal from Ceylon which taped 10 ft. 8 in. at the

shoulder (EH. L, Walker, Rowland Wards Records of Big Game.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 325

8th Edition). In the same book the record measurement from

Burma is given as 10 ft. 6 in. (H. Shaw Dunn). In comparison

the record African elephant is 11 ft. 64 in. Extravagant estimates

of the height of elephants have been recorded from time to time.

Much amusing information is given in Sanderson’s classic work,

Forty Years among the Wild Beasts of India. Madras elephants

were at one time said to be 17-20 ft. high while an animal at Dacca

was said to be 14 ft. Sanderson went there to measure the monster

which he found did not exceed 10 ft. Sanderson, who knew as

much about elephants as any man is likely to know, was of opinion

that an elephant measuring 10 ft. at the shoulder does not exist in

India. The largest male he ever met measured 9 ft. 10 in. and

the tallest female 8 ft. 5 in. Cingalese elephants according to

Emerson Tennent seldom exceed 9 ft. According to Evans, another

ereat authority on these beasts, 300 male elephants measured in

Burma averaged 7 ft. 105 in. at the shoulder, a group of females,

7 ft. 53 in. A merchant ate had handled 2,000 of these animals,

only had one that reached 9 ft. 4 in.—Ebs. ].

VII.—BEHAVIOUR OF GAUR OR INDIAN BISON.

With reference to Col. C. G. Toogood’s note in the last Journal

on the curious behaviour of Bison: Gaur are apt to behave

strangely when concentrated on something which has aroused their

excitement, vide my recent note on two bulls attacking a third

fallen bull, while the cows stood around, in spite of the fact that

the wounded bull had been fired at twice, and we were in full

view within a few yards. |

On another occasion a bull’s attention was concentrated on a

bear close to it. I shot the bear but the bison never moved for

several minutes but stood staring at the dead bear, and finally

walked slowly away.

FlonnamMerti Estate,

ATTIKAN, Mysore P.O., R. C. MORRIS.

S. Inpia.

January 16, 1988.

VIIL—BEHAVIOUR OF GAUR OR INDIAN BISON

(BIBOS. GAURUS).

The note on tiger and bison on pages 852-53 of the December

issue is Interesting.

An incident in this connection occurred on 14th April last year,

when I was walking at sunrise along a forest track in the Nilgiri-

Wynaad.

I noticed a solitary bull bison (seen also on the previous day

grazing in a swamp) about 50 yards up the slope above the road,

standing at rest in thin tree jungle. I was in plain view but

although the bull turned his head to stare at me more than once,

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURALVAIST (SOCLELY; Vole x

he was not in the least alarmed. As I watched him through my

glasses, he slowly lowered his head and gave a deliberate long-

drawn snort at the long grass a few paces in front—whence I

heard a continuous cracking, culminating a few seconds later in a

fine tiger striding slowly out on to the road side fire line, eighteen

paces from me. The bison did not change his stance or seem in

any way alarmed, though in the confusion consequent on my

shooting the tiger, he of course, vanished.

The point is the entire absence of alarm shown by the bison

regarding both myself, my tracker, and the tiger, and my own

small experiences are to the effect that bison have not shown

shyness at least when seeing or hearing man.

On 17th May, last year, Major E. G. Phythian-Adams and I

were in the same locality after one of the local rogue elephants

(which we shot the same day). Karly in the morning we found

a bull bison with a small head grazing in bush jungle alongside a

wide open grass track. On our approach within 50 yards (there

was practically no wind) the bull walked out into the middle of

the path and came towards us, head up and snorting—he appeared

so truculent that 1 turned over my safety-catch. We walked

towards him and at less than 380 paces, he appeared to recognize

us and the trackers as men and galloped otf. Again in 1936,

while staying with Mr. R. C. Morris, I found a fine bull on the

Mysore-Coimbatore boundary, and although I was quite exposed in

waist-high grass, the bull could not apparently make me out at

70 paces, and walked off slowly into the forest. From ‘curiosity

I followed him, and noted that he halted several times at 30 paces

or so to stare at my tracker and myself.

I have had several similar experiences, notably in Coorg, many

years ago. On one occasion a bull and 1 were face- to face for

many minutes in forest, so close that I could watch the flies

walking on his face. Again one old grey bull (with -a row of

mynahs sitting on his back) did not even raise his head from

grazing In a swamp as we pushed through the noisy grass close

to him, only an hour after firing several shots from a -470 cordite

less than a mile away.

Mr. R. C. Morris’s opinion and experiences on this question

would be interesting. It almost appears as if bison on many

occasions cannot fully recognize men moving in the open at over

50. yards.

51 Ross Keppent Line,

PESHAWAR CANTT. H. G. ROSSEAS,

February 7, 1988. Major.

IX.—THE USE OF FIREWORK OR ROCKET CARTRIDGES

IN THE PROTECTION OF CROPS.

I have read with interest the article on page 855 of your

December i957 issue, entitled ‘The Use of Firework or Rocket

Cartridges in the Protection of Crops’. In Burma we tried out

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 327

similar cartridges during 1935 and 1936 but with little success.

This was attributed to the fact that crop raiding elephants in

many parts of the country had become accustomed to villagers

attempting to drive off the crop raiders by exploding green bamboos

and throwing flares, etc. <A further difficulty was experienced owing

to the fact that a lot of paddy field raiding takes place during

the rains and the damp atmosphere adversely affected the car-

tridges. Maroons, thrown by hand were also tried out, but as

this involved approaching the elephants to within 50 yards and

lighting the maroon with a match, generally at night, little success

attended these efforts. Wild elephants are now being controlled

under a definite scheme, which consists briefly in extermination

where the forest is unsuitable for retaining the elephants and

confining the remainder to large areas of forest where conditions

are more suitable. Extermination is being done by a combination

of kheddahs and armed Game Rangers, but it is also necessary

to post armed Game Rangers round parts of the permanent blocks

where crop raiding occurs. There is now some evidence that crop

raiders are realising the dangers which attend their visits to culti-

vation and it may be possible in the near future to try out fire-work

Caraces once more. For this reason I should be grateful if

Mr. Morris would send me the name of the German firm which

manufactured the cartridges used by him. No one regards with

favour the wholesale slaughter of wild elephants but in 1935 the

elephant population in Burma was conservatively placed at 10,000

animals and during that year only 45 animals were captured.

Under the present scheme it is expected that the elephant popula-

tion will be reduced by 3,000 animals, leaving a stock of about

7,000 animals.

Maymyo, BurMa. > He NUD Sis,

Hebruary 11, 1988. Game Warden.

X.—THE YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER

(CHELIDORYNX HYPOXANTHUM): AN EXTENSION

OF ITS RANGE.

I shall be glad if you can kindly tell me whether you have

Chelidoryna hypoxanthum, the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, noted

for this district (in winter only). I saw a pair of these birds in

a wood about 8 miles along the Jammu road in the first week in

March 1986. Last year I was at Home, so did not have any

opportunity of observing them. But this month I have again seen

two or three of these birds at places between here and Jammu. I]

see from the old Fauna that they do not appear to be noted west

of Simla, but possibly the new edition of the Fauna, of which

I have no copy, may give further information. As I was on two

oceasions able to get within a few feet of the bird (which was

hawking from a small bush) and examine it very thoroughly through

323 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. “SOCIETY, Vol, AL

my glasses, there can be no doubt about the identity of the

species.

SIALKOT, PUNJAB. HA. STORRS 4HOx

February 18, 1938.

XI.—THE STATUS OF THE KOEL

(HUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEUS lL.) IN SIND.

Since writing the article on this subject, which appeared in

Vol. xxxix, No. 2, of the Society’s Journal, dated the 15th April

1937, I had oceasion to visit Shikarpur in June last after a lapse

of several years.

I was in Shikarpur from the 4th to the 8th June 1987 and

found that the Koel had continued its movement north and

arrived there. I heard several Koel call repeatedly on the early

morning of the doth. The day following I paid a flying visit to

the mango topes and gardens round about the town and both

heard and saw several birds, both male and female, in the short

time that I had at my disposal.

From the 6th to the 8th, the date of my departure, I heard

birds calling daily, early mornings, and a pair daily visited some

fig trees in the Rest House garden, where I often saw them at

very close range.

Purbia malis and others in the P.W.D. garden, Shahi Bagh

and other gardens told me that the Koel had made its first

appearance in Shikarpur only two summers previously (1985) and

that it had been there regularly every summer since.

As the Crows had not then commenced their domestic affairs

I was unable to obtain first-hand knowledge of its breeding in

Shikarpur, but a Purbia mali in Shahi Bagh told me that the

year before (19386) he had seen a pair of crows feeding a young

{Soel which was just able to fly. 1 have no reason to doubt this

information as the Purbia of the U.P. knows the Koel only too

well.

Karacuu. Kk. BATES.)

January 27, 1988. F.Z.8., M, Bir.

XIT.—SOME INTERESTING RECORDS OF BIRDS IN THE

PUNJAB. -A- CORRECTION.

In my note under the above heading on page 861 of vol. xxxix

it was stated that ¢ Q Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus sultaneus

were obtained on 24th and 26th February, 19386. I have now

been informed by Mr. Hugh Whistler that, by an oversight, the

2 was wrongly identified. It is Dinopicum shorei (Gould,) the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 329

Himalayan Golden-backed Three-toed Woodpecker, which also is

new to the Punjab List. :

RAWALPINDI, H, W. WAITE, m.B.0.v.,

PUNJAB. Indian Police.

April 3, 1938;

XITI.—CUCKOO PROBLEMS.

It is already April and so rather late to ask for the following

observations to be carried out this year, but I am going to make

a start myself and I would ask for co-operation from all those

interested in the cuckoo.

It is desirable to find out what are the reactions exactly, if

any, betrayed by those species of small birds that habitually

foster the cuckoo, when they find a strange ege in their

nest.

I suggest that a light bamboo hide be constructed which is

easily portable. This can be set up near such nests and observa-

tions can be carried out from it.

A suitable egg must be chosen for the experiments. It should

be either a cuckoo’s egg, or some other bird’s egg about the size

of a cuckoo’s egg, and the greater the contrast between it and the

eges of the nest-owner the better. I am starting with a bulbul’s

ege on which I have painted a startling, wide zone of white—in

white enamelled paint. This is in violent contrast to the eggs

of the Burmese Stone Chat and Blyth’s Pipit—species of common

fosterers I am experimenting on this year.

Some authorities on the cuckoo maintain that the nest-owners

frequently ‘eject’ cuckoo’s eggs which contrast too violently with

their own. They do not suggest how this feat is accomplished

and have not as yet proved that it takes place. They are however

convinced that it does happen. On the face of it it would appear

to be physically impossible for such small birds to remove a

cuckoo’s egg from their nests unless they first broke the egg

in their nest and then carried off the fragments in their

bili.

To try and clear up this lttle problem I have suggested that

experiments be conducted as I have described. These experi-

ments must be of course carefully recorded in a note-book and

the data published in due course when a_ sufficient number of

experiments have been carried out.

To avoid unnecessary bother in waiting in the hide I suggest

that the hide be set up and left unoccupied for a few hours till

the nest-owners are used to it. If it is then occupied the birds

will return at once to their nest and the observation can then

be made in the least possible time. Many hundreds of such

observations are necessary before we can form an opinion, but

these observations are quick and easy enough to conduct and

should afford interest, if not amusement, while they are being

carried out, and so I hope those interested in the cuckoo will

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. GE

help. and later record with full data the results of — their

experiments.

TaunaGyi, S. SHAN STATES,

BurRMaA. Tt Rab eS hie

Apr i, 1958:

XIV.—STRANGE ACCIDENT TO A VULTURE.

(With a photo).

A young friend of mine took three photos of a vulture which

attacked a dying calf a few miles out of Bone but apparently

was too venturesome and was caught by the head in the calf’s

mouth. Both were found dead together. He wants to know if

it ig a Common occurrence.

21, RAVELIN STREET,

Bomsay. J. A. C, GREENWOOD.

March 16, 1988.

| Most unusual we believe.—Ebs. }.

XV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER ORANGE-BREASTED

SREEN PIGHON (DENDROPHASA BICINCTA BICINCT. 4)

: AT KEAMARI, SIND.

On the 3rd January 1988 a Green Pigeon was shot at Keamari

by D. Lyons, son of Lieut. G. Lyons, p.1.A.8:c.

The bird, thanks to Major W. J. Dixie, R.1.4.s.c., was brought

to me by Lieut. Lyons himself the same day for identification

and proved to be an adult female of the species named above

The bird was very fat and its plumage was in perfect condition.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331

It was obviously no ‘escape’. The crop contained a number of

freshly eaten pipal berries. The pigeon when shot was seated at

the top of a pipal tree. The young shikari, who was using a :22

air gun, did not think at the time of looking carefully in the tree

for other birds but says that a couple of days later he saw another

bird in Keamari sitting at the top of a pipal tree.

About the 4th or 5th, yet another Green Pigeon, species not

known, was seen seated at the top of a leafy tree in Karachi by

a lady. So far as I am aware no others came to notice.

The Society very kindly examined the skin of the bird shot by

young Lyons at Keamari and informed me that it had been

correctly identified as Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta.

Regarding its occurrence in Sind the Society writes, ‘With

regard to its distribution we can find no reference to its occurring

so far west as Karachi. The Fauna gives its north-western distri-

bution as follows:—‘Northern India from the United Provinces

along the Terai through the foot hills and adjoining plains to Kastern

Assam, north of the Brahmaputra; Bengal and Bihar, but replaced

in the extreme east by praetermissa.

It is difficult to ascribe any real reason for its occurrence at

Karachi, but it is quite possible that the bird may have been driven

southwards by the prevalent cold wave.’

KKARACHI. K. R. EATES,

February 2, 1988. F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

XVI.—WOODCOCK, WOOD SNIPE, PINTAIL SNIPE AND

JACK SNIPE IN ONE DAY!

{

The enclosed photograph may be of some interest, as showing

the relative sizes of Woodcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail Snipe and

Jack Snipe. The respective weights were 113, 5$, 42 and 2 oz.

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ist. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

-2 Ttis very doubtful if all four species have ever been shot on

the same day on these hills, prior to this... They were shot by

me on the 16th February 1988, not very far from Ootacamund,-

‘LANSDOWN’, OOTACAMUND.- | aii

Afarch 25, 1988... . RK. Fa STONEY.

XVI.—PHE SNIPE-BILLED GODWIT :

GU LD SE CEM UES, (Y RIOR SNS) I

ORISSA. | ae

The head and legs of a Snipe-Billed Godwit were sent to the

Society by Mr. R. 8. Clough. The bird was shot at the Chilka

Lake, Orissa, in December 1987. There are a few previous records

of the occurrence of this winter migrant within Indian- limits.

But as Mr. Stuart Baker indicates it doubtless occurs far more

often than it is recognised and _ shot.

Bompay. 5. Ho PRAT:

May 31, 1988.

XVITI.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TURNSTONE, THE

RED-NECKED PHALAROPE, THE FALCATED TEAL .-

AND THE SHELDRAKE AT PATNA.

On 28rd September 1937 a young male Turnstone (Arenaria

interpres Li.) was brought to me by a local bird-catcher who

declared it was trapped on a Jheel in the outskirts of the town.

It had a wing measurement of 149 mm. The same man also

brought me on 6th November 19387 a female Red-necked Phalarope

in winter plumage. Its legs were black but the lobes of the web

between the inner and middle toes were bright orange and the

tibia was pale orange.

An adult male Falcated Teal (Hunetta falcata Georgi.) was

also brought to me on the 80th January 19388 being trapped along

with Widgeons and Shovellers. The Sheldrake (Tadorna

tadorna Oy is a rare visitor to these parts. Thirty years ago I

once noticed a solitary bird on the Ganges which would not let

me get within range though it could be distinctly identified

through classes, Last year, ‘in December, I noticed a small flock

and again came across a flock of eight birds on 5th January 1938

which were probably the same birds. Two attempts were made

to get within range but they were too shy and would not let me

eet “anywhere Salhi range,

Parwa.- E. A. D’ABREU.

February 10, 1988. ji

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 333

XIX.—BEWICK’S SWAN (CYGNUS BEWICKI YARRELL)

NEAR DELHI.

I enclose a snap of myself holding up a bird shot on the 26th

instant by Mr. R. E. Grant Govan of Delhi at Sutana about

45 miles north of Delhi.

There seems to me to be little doubt that it is a Bewick’s

Swan (C. bewickii). The upper part of the beak. upto the eye-was

vellowish and the beak and legs jet black. Other particulars are

neck 2 ft. long, spread 6 ft. 6 in., base of neck to tip of tail 2 £.;

lees 1 ft. 6 in. The bird appeared to be slightly immature for

though the feathers were white, there were a few slightly grevish

feathers on the neck and wings.

It was sitting in a piece of water about 2 ft. deep and

100 x 800 yds. in extent. The water or jhor was not far from a

village. It was clear in the centre with the ordinary reeds and a

few weeds near the edges. When shot the bird was alone and

appeared on the whole to be confiding. The Manager of the

Manton’s, to whom this bird was given, intends to preserve the

skin and send it to Bombay.

_ There appears to be no previous record of Swan near Delhi and

perhaps some of your other readers would be interested to see this

and possibly supply useful information. |

DELHI. BE. 8. LEWIS.

December 29, 1987

[The bird was sent to the Society’s Museum. It is an example

of Bewick’s Swan (Cygnus bewickii Yarrell). There are two previ-

ous records of the occurrence of this swan within Indian lmits.. One

is a specimen shot at Jacobabad, Sind, by Mr. B. L. McCulloék

on the 2nd December 1907, and the second is a female shot by

Captain: P. C. Elliot-Lockhart near Mandan, N.-W.E.P.,.on-the

80th December 1910. Both these specimens are in the Society’s

collection.—EDs. ]. | |

XX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE LONG-TAILED DUCK

(CLANGULA HYEMALIS LINN.) NEAR QUETTA.

Perhaps it may interest your Society to eon ‘that a female

specimen of the Long-tailed Duck in full. plumage was shot on

Khush Dil Khan Lake, 40 miles from here on the 2nd January

19388. <A flight of about 6 have been observed in the lake. 1]

believe this variety must be very rare in India. Vaem home is

near the Arctic Circle. :

‘This year very many more Red-headed Pochard heats been. -shot

than formerly. 7

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

On 16th January a male and female Smew were shot. They

too are uncommon up here.

STATION STAFF OFFICE,

QUETTA. M. B. P. REEVE,

January 21, 1988. Major.

This is the fourth recorded instance of the occurrence of this

duck within Indian limits since the publication of the record of

the specimen shot by Capt. A. E. L. Dredge at Chaman, Baluchis-

tan, in October 1933 (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvii, p. 549).—Eps. ].

XXI.—SHELDRAKE (TADORNA TADORNA LINN.)

IN ORISSA.

Since I wrote to you on the 17th December a friend of mine

here has been down to the Chilka Lake and tells me that he saw

hundreds of Sheldrake (Tadorna tadorna Linn.) there; one of which

he shot to show to the boatmen, as they were unfamiliar with the

species. This seems to be a particularly interesting record in view

of the fact given recording the distribution of this duck by Stuart

Baker in Indian Ducks and Their Allies and subsequently in the

New Fauna, vol, vi. Chilka Lake is, as you know, 320 miles

south of Calcutta,

1, CLIVE STREET,

CALCUTTA. RK. J. CLOUGH.

January 1, 1938.

XXII.—A HYBRID: COMMON TEAL AND BAIKAL TEAL.

-I do not know whether the following note is of any interest.

When shooting Duck on the Mirgund Reserve in the main

Kashmir Valley, I shot an unusual duck. It was in general

appearance rather like a drake Teal, but much larger and heavier.

It had two markedly pointed tail feathers. It weighed 1 lb. 4 oz.

Tt was flying in company with ordinary Teal. Date, 29-12-37.

It was skinned by Mr. F. Ludlow and sent to the British

Museum (Natural History) for identification.

I have since heard that it is unlike any bird that they had

previously received and after a number of people had looked at

it, it was decided that it was a cross between a common Teal

(Nettion creca) and a Baikal Teal (N. formosum). The visits of

the Baikal Teal to India are extremely rare.

Tne Resipency, Kasumir,

SRINAGAR. J. W. THOMSON GLOVER.

April 1938.

339

NOTE

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(eeQ ‘d ‘UIAXxx ‘joa wouf ponuiju0))

TIMOH CQTIIM HO NOLEVYDOIN— TIIXX

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL CAIST.£ SOC TY nol. oar

XXIV._THE FOOD OF THE MUGGER

(CROCODILUS PALUSTRIS).

With reference to Mr. MeCann’s note on the crocodiles of Powai

Lake feeding on beetles (which habit I have independently con-

firmed), I am informed by a usually reliable local authority, that

these ‘degenerate’ animals feed on the fallen fruit of the ‘Oomber’.

(I’icus glomerata).

ANDHERI. HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

November 25, 1987.

XXV.—THE HEAD SHIELDS OF THE HAMADRYAD [NAIA

HANNAH (CANTOR)|]: AN ABNORMAL EXAMPLE.

I append a drawing of the head of the King Cobra [Nata hannah

(Cantor)| I shot in 19386 showing a peculiar characteristic in the

form of a small scale imposed between the parietals and the two

occipital shields as shown shanked in the sketch.

After a perusal of various works on Indian snakes I find that

this feature is not noted or illustrated in drawings of this snake’s

head. I therefore conclude that it must be a variation from the

normal with this particular specimen. Another feature is the

divided left-hand occipital, the left lobe having the appearance of

a body scale, also the unequal size of the temporals from each

other on either side.

It will also be seen that the right parietal has a kink in the

side. I note that. Wall mentions in his ‘Poisonous Terrestrial

Snakes’ that he has never seen a ...... scale in the Hamadryad.

Two exist on either side of the lower jaw of this specimen.

Napuar Estate,

VALPARAI P.O., R. N. CHAMPION-JONES.

S. Inpra. |

March 1, 1988.

[The snake described by the author is an aberrant specimen.

None of the Hamadryads in our collection show the characters indi-

cated.—Eps. |.

XXVI.—TWO CATERPILLARS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

NOT RECORDED BEFORE FROM 8. INDIA.!

At the previous session of the Congress the author submitted

a paper on the cultivation of the Koorkan plant (Coleus parviflora),

as a vegetable crop in Malabar, and in that paper a passing

? Paper read at the Indian Science Congress, Calcutta, 1988.

MIS CE LILANE OW SiN OES 337

reference was made to two leaf-eating caterpillars causing some

damage to the crop. Further studies were since made on these

two insects and in this short paper an attempt is made to present

the data collected, on the bionomics of these insects and _ their

proper identification. There is no previous record of these insects

as pests from any part of India. The insects have been identified

as (1) Pycnarmon cribrata F. and (2) Phostria piasusalis W. both

belonging to the family Pyralidae.

PYCNARMON CRIBRATA F.

The adult insect is a medium-sized moth with the cream white

wines, speckled with brownish patches. It is similar in appear-

ance to P. jaguaralis G. Though nine species of the genus Pycnar-

mon (Aripana of Moore) are recorded by Hampson in his Fauna

volume this species is not one of them.

The life history of the moth is passed on the Coleus plant

itself. The eggs are laid on the tender leaves and the caterpillar

feeds from inside a longitudinally folded leaf. The two lateral

halves of the leaf are brought over and folded inwards and having

eaten the leaf it folds another and feeds from inside of this sheath,

A full-grown caterpillar reaches an inch in length. It is slender

and elongated and slightly compressed dorsoventrally. General

colour is olive green above and paler below. Head pale brown;

prothorax dark grey, all the body segments from behind the pro-

thorax have each a transverse row of shining black tubercular spots

each giving rise to a pale white set; while on the meso- and meta-

thoracic segments there are two such black spots on each side of

the middorsal line, all the abdominal segments have only one on

each side of the middorsal line. All these segments have also a

lateral smaller black spot on each side. The lees are grey and

the pro-legs transparent green. The pupa is reddish brown and is

found inside the leaf fold itself. The pupation period occupies ten

to twelve days. :

PHOSTRIA PIASUSALIS W.,

This caterpillar, though a leaf feeder,- exhibits a slightly

different habit. Instead of folding a single leaf longitudinally like

Pycnarmon this larva selects the top shoot leaves of the plants

and webs them together and remains feeding inside this fold

made of more than one leaf. In general coloration the caterpillar

of Phostria is pale green uniformly and has no series of black spots.

The moth also has sombre pale brownish wings with no conspi-

cuous spots. No species of Phostria is recorded by Hampson in

his fauna volume.

During the breeding of these moths, the leaf folder caterpillar

Pycnarmon was found heavily parasitised in the fields by a small

stout built braconid wasp Microgaster psarae WW. previously recorded

as parasitic on the brinjal leaf webber Psara bipunctalis F. in

Malaya. The parasitic cocoons are pure white in colour and the

parasite is a small shining red and black active insect measuring

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY -NATURALSAIST SSOCIE LY. olen xen

about 1/6 in. in length. It appears possible that this parasite

plays the part of a fairly efficient natural enemy of the pest.

MADRAS. T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, B.A., pPh.p.,

Government Entomologist (Retd.).

XXVII.—NOTES ON THE EARWIG

(DICRANA KALLIPYGA DOHRN.).

Original specimen, 9, caught in room at night, 28-11-87.

When kept under observation was seen to feed on small insects,

such as small grasshoppers, soft caterpillars, etc., by seizing

them with the forceps, which are used for this purpose with as

much dexterity as the callipers of a crab. The abdomen is then

flexed and rotated to enable the object held in the forceps to be

readily eaten by the earwig. Sometimes the victim is firmly held

in the forceps for some time before feeding operations begin.

The face of the insect is often eaten first, and the grip may be

shifted from time to time to facilitate feeding; when only part

of the meal remains the grip may be relaxed and the remains

eaten without the help of the forceps. In the case of small and

helpless insects also seizure may be effected directly by the

mouth parts. When hungry, small insects may be pursued ener-

getically and seized with the forceps with great dexterity. On

one occasion when another specimen of the same species was

placed in the tin it was bitten in half and the thorax and abdomen

sucked empty.

On December 26th sixty-four eggs were found to have been—

laid on pieces of bark and moss. These have not yet hatched

out and may be infertile. Oviposition was not witnessed. The

eges are oval, dull white, and are neatly stuck by one end to a

flat surface.

So far this specimen has been kept alone and it feeds regularly

on small grasshoppers.

Four new specimens; two ¢ and two @. These were found

under the bark of eucalyptus trees after rain. They are of the

same species as the above and this appears to be the common

species up here; I have so far only found one other species living

in similar places. These specimens feed in the way already

described and are very aggressive, threatening each other and

sparring with their forceps and when possible seizing each other;

but opposite sexes treat each other in a much more friendly way.

The males are readily distinguished from the females by their

comparatively smaller abdomen and by the appearance of the

last dorsal segment, which is very broad and produced laterally

into strong crested folds; in the male also the penultimate ventral

segment is broad and rounded, while in the female it is triangular

and rounded at the apex. The male forceps is also distinctive,

being stouter and more aggressive looking. The average length

of the body appears to be about 20 mm. and the forceps 5 mm.

The two female specimens are definitely larger than the males.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 339

Reproduction.—The two couples have been seen im coitu on

various occasions, the penultimate ventral segment of the ¢ being

apposed to that of the Q and remaining attached in this posi-

tion for several hours. The ¢ has usually to rotate its

posterior half of the abdomen for this purpose, while the front

part of the body usually remains unrotated. The act of copu-

lation is preceded by the stroking and tapping of the dorsal surface

of the terminal segments of the 9, and the dg finally insinuates

its forceps under the penultimate ventral segment of the 9.

28-1-388. Twenty-four eggs were found stuck to the side of the

bottle, and two days later fifteen additional eggs had been laid

in the same place. On the Ist and 8rd of February a couple

was seen ‘in coitu’ for several hours.

Though powerfully attracted by bright lhght at night, these

specimens appear to have poor vision, but very acute sense of

touch. They spend a good deal of time on their toilet, the

antennae, the feet, the forceps and other parts of the body being

severally cleansed during moments of leisure by drawing the part

through the mouth organs in order to remove excessive moisture,

dust, ete.

My specimens tally well with the description of Dicrana

kallipyga given in the Fauna. There are certain differences. The

head is not brick-red but blackish brown; the Q is definitely

larger than the ¢ particularly as regards the abdomen.

AUCHINDOON, SIR FRANK CONNOR,

OOTACAMUND. Major-General,

February 3, 1938. IS Ons BARC ssesulaNl ice

[A previous note on the function of the ‘Forceps’ in the

Earwigs (Forficulidae) written by Sir Frank Connor was published

in vol. xxvi, p. 688. It refers to a specimen taken by him at

Amara in Mesopotamia in 1918 and subsequently associated by

Mr. P. A. Buxton with Labidura riparia (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxvii,

p. 963). In the introduction to the Volume on Dermaptera (Ear-

wigs) in the Fauna series, Mr. Malcolm Burr refers to the use

of the forceps by these insects as weapons of offence and defence.

They are not used in copulation but, as the present note indi-

cates, may be used for holding the food and conveying it to the

mouth. Occasionally they are used to fold and unfold the wings

and lift up the wing cases or elytra.—Eps. ].

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The Annual General Meeting of Members of the Bombay

Natural History Society was held on Thursday the 24th March,

1988, at 6-15 p.m. in the Prince of Wales’ Museum (New Wing),

Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.s. presiding.

AGENDA.

1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the

past year.

3. Election of the Committee.

The Honorary Secretary announced the election of the following 28 new

members since the last meeting held on 25th August 1937 :—

Mr. G. R. Nicolaus, F.R.G.s., F.z.s., London; Mr. Mohamed Etzad, Rasul

of Jehangirabad Raj, Colvin Taluqdars College, Lucknow; Mr. Ravendra

Ramanuj Singh, I.M. Academy, Premnagar, Dehra Dun; H. EH. Sir Roger

Lumley, G.c.I.E., D.L., Bombay; Mr. Charles A. Osborn, Bombay; Mr. EK. T.

Osborne, Kirkee; Capt. P. M. McSwiney, 1.mM.s., Muttra; G. D. Lake Esq.,

England; Mrs. W. Ll. Clements, Bombay; Mr. A. J. E. Howey, England;

H. H. Maharaja Shri Vijaysinhji of Rajpipla; Dr. H. J. Slocum, U.S.A.; The

Superintendent,- State Museum & Zoo, Trichur; Mr. P. G. Burden Jubbulpore,

C.P.; Capt. F. L. Roberts, Loralai; The Mess Secretary, Officers’. Combined

Mess, The Burma Rifles, Maymyo, Burma; Mr. C. P. J. De Haas, Java; Mr.

W. E.°Popple, Bombay; Mr. D. J. Emerson, Malabar; Mr. A. D. Vincent,

Mundakayam, §.I.; The Director of Agriculture, Baghdad, Iraq; Mr. G. E.

Turnbull, B.F.8., Rangoon; Mr. Carr A. Martin, Rangoon; The Business

Manager, Marine Biological Laboratory Library, Woods Hole, Mass., U.S.A.;

Mr. R. C. Jackman, Fort Sandeman; Capt. F. G. Anderson, Calcutta; ° Mr.

J. A. C. Greenwood, F.R.En.V. Soc., Bombay; and Mr. A. de- B. Adam,

Jubbulpore, C.P.

“BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Orrick BEARERS—-1938.

Patron.—H. E. The Viceroy of India.

Vice-Patrons.—H. H. The Maharaja of Travancore, -«G.c.1.£.; H. H. The

Maharao of Cutch, a.c.s.1., G.c1E.; H. H. The Maharaja of Jodhpur,

G.C.1.E., K.0.8.1:, K.c.v.0.; H. H. The Maharaja of Rewa, x.c.s.1.; H. H. The

Maharaja of Bhavnagar; Ee H. The Nawab of Junagadh, G.c.1.E., K.C.S.1.;

Sir David Ezra, xt., F.z.s.; F. V. Evans, Esq.; A. 8. Vernay, Esq.; Lt.-Col.

KG Gharpurey, I.M.8. (Retd).

The following gentlemen were elected to serve on the Managing Committee

for the ensuing year :—

President.—H. KE. Sir Lawrence Roger Lumley, G.C.1.E., D.L.

Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.B.; Rev.

Father J. F. Caius, s.J., F.u.8.; and Rt. Rev. R. D. Acland, m.a.

Ezecutive Committee.—Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha; Mr. A. Forrington; Mr.

J. B. Greaves, M.t.A.: Mr. ‘M, J. Hackney: Ma DD. 4G. alls Min ae ie

Shoveller; Lt.-Col. W. C. Spackman, 1.m.s.; Lt.-Col. 8. 8. Sokhey, 1.m.s.; Dr.

S. A. Wilkinson, M.R.c.s., L.R.c.P.; Mr. F. Wadia; Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson,

B.z.8. (Honorary Secretary); Mr. H. M. McGusty (Honorary Treasurer).

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 341

- Advisory. Committee.—Dr.. C.- F. C. -Beeson, D.sc.,. M.A., 1.F.8.3- Lt.-Col.

R..W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.); Mr. C..H. Donald, r.z.s.; Dr. F, H. Gravely, D.sc. ;

Vi JC. Me Inglis, Br. M.8.0.U., F.z.8.; Mr. R.:.C. Morris: :8:G.8., F-Z-8-5

Major: : G. Phythian-Adams, F.z.s., 1.4.. (Retd.); Dr.-Baini -Prashad,. D.sc-;

Mires ie (Ce Bomivh ciel S.5- lubCol.. C,- G,, Voogood, oi. B.5 DsS.0.5. Mare J- E.

Williams. —

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER 1987.

ADMINISTRATION.

President.—H. HE. Sir Roger Lumley, G.c.1.B., D.L.

Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s8.1., G.c.1.u.; Rev. Fr.

a. Hs Caius, 8.3.5 Feuessg Mt. Revd. BR. D. Acland, M.A.

Executive Committee.—Mr. H. D. Ash; Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha; Sir

Alwyn FEizra, kt., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.; Mr. A. Forrington; Mr. C. G. Freke, ¢.1.2.,

1.0:8.; Mr. J. B. Greaves, M.L.A.; Mr. D. G. Hill; Lt.-Col. §. §.- Sokhey,

1.M.8.; Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood, p.s.o.; Dr. 8. A. Wilkinson, M.R.c.5., L.R.c.P.;

Mr. P. M. Sanderson, F.z.s. (Honorary Secretary); Mr. H. M. McGusty

(Honorary Treasurer), Bombay.

Advisory Committee.—Dr. C. I. C. Beeson, D.sc., M.A., LF.S., Dehra Dun;

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.), Coonoor; Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s.,

Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, pD.sc., Madras; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.n.,

M.B.0.U., F.Z.8., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.s., F.z.s., Coimbatore;

Major EH. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Dr. Baini Prashad, p.sc.,

Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, 1.¥.s., Maymyo; Mr. F. Wadia, Poona; Mr. J.

Williams, Coimbatore.

Staff.—sS.. H. Prater, M.u.A., J.P., o.M.zZ.8. (Curator); C. McCann, F.x.s.

(Assistant Curator)...

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR 19387.

The Society's Journal.—Three parts of Volume XNXNIX of the

Journal were published during the year.

MAMMALS.

Mongooses of British India.—My. Pocock’s paper is based

mainly on the collections made by the Society’s Mammal Survey

and on such material as was available at the British Museum.

The Survey material was previously reported on in the Journal by

Messrs. Oldfield Thomas and Wroughton. Pocock agrees with the

view accepted by both Thomas and Wroughton that the Brown

Mongoose of Ceylon, hitherto recognised as a distinct species under

the name Herpestes fulvescens, is a race of the Brown Mongoose

(H. fuscus) of the South Indian hill ranges. The author disagrees

with Wroughton’s recognition of the Small Nepal Mongoose

(H. nepalensis) and the Ceylon Mongoose (H. lanka) as distinct

species, and regards the former as a racial form of the Small

Indian Mongoose (H. javanicus auropunctatus), and the latter, of

the Common Indian Mongoose (H. edwardsi). The author thus

reduces the total number of species occurring in British India to

six. A reduction’ is also made in the number of sub-species.

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST] SOCIEDY 1 Vole exe

Wroughton, Thomas and Miss Riley, from their study of the

splendid material provided by the Survey, differentiated a number

of races which cannot be recognised as such. The variations indi-

cated in many of these so-called sub-species may be attributed

to changes in coat and colour due to season. The author gives

reasons for his conclusions and, following the methods adopted

in his previous papers on Indian Carnivora, gives detailed descrip-

tions of the individual species examined’ by him. :

Measurements of Tigers.—Mr. G. H. L. Marshall publishes

records of tigers shot by him in the Naga Hills, Assam. Out of

a total of 59 animals (27 tigers and 82 tigresses) the average

length of 18 full grown males is 8 ft. 7 in. and of 25 full grown

females, 7 ft. 9 in. Only one tiger exceeded 9 ft. It taped

9 ft. 6 in. and was exceptional. Mr. Marshall suggests that the

tigers of the Naga Hills are definitely smaller than those recorded

from other areas in India. It would be interesting to obtain

similar data from other parts of India. We have Sir John

Hewett’s record of tigers shot by him in Garhwal and Naini Tal.

Hight males ranged between 10 ft. } in. and 10 ft. 54 in., while

seven females were between 9 ft. and 9 ft. 38 in. Unfortunately

Sir John’s records from Naini Tal and Garhwal all relate to large

animals. We do not know whether smaller animals were shot by

him in this area and have therefore no means of arriving at a

conclusion regarding the average size of tigers in Garhwal. Average

measurements, arrived at from records such as Mr. Marshall has

kept, if obtained from different provinces, will help us to arrive

at more definite conclusions regarding the size attained by tigers

in different parts of the country.

Man-eating Hyaenas in the United Provinces.—Reports have

appeared from time to time in the press of Hyaenas attacking

human beings in the United Provinces. Investigations made by

the Society through responsible district officers revealed two

instances in which children were reported to have been killed by

hyaenas and one authentic case in which the hyaena was actually

seen carrying off a child which was subsequently rescued. Hunger

induced by shortage of the natural food may have been the contri-

butory cause. It is suggested that man-eating, once established

in an individual, may become a tradition passed on from a mother

to her offspring; hence attacks on human beings may recur within

a particular area over a number of years, till the particular stock

which has acquired this trait has been exterminated.

Birbs.

Scientific Surveys.

Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats. —With the pubh-

cation of parts XV and XVI dealing with the waders and ducks,

Messrs. Whistler and Kinnear bring to a close their reports on the

Eastern Ghats Survey which commenced in the year 1983. The

survey of this area, undertaken in the year 1929-80, was made

possible by the generous assistance of Mr. A. 8S. Vernay. who

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 343

contributed a sum of Rs. 14,800 towards the expenses. 1,777 birds

and 1,621 mammals were collected in the districts traversed by

the Eastern Ghats. The mammal collections were reported on by

Mr. Pocock and Mr. Fry, and the bird collections by Messrs.

Whistler and Kinnear. Previous to this survey, little was known of

the Ornithology of the Madras Presidency; while, as regards

mammals, the Hastern Ghats area had not been worked by the

Mammal Survey. The ornithological reports on the results of the

survey have been written in the form of an account of the Birds

of the Madras Presidency. The reports include all the species

hitherto recorded from the Madras Presidency, whether collected

by the Survey or not and thus provide an up-to-date account of

the avifauna of the Province. Apart from this, the authors have

dealt with each species from the standpoint of its general distri-

bution within the boundaries of British India, supplementing and

frequently correcting the data recorded in the new Fauna. The

work thus provides us with more precise knowledge of the range

and movements of various species. Further, by meticulous labour

and research they have helped to unravel the existing confusion

in the nomenclature of many species and, from a careful study

of all published records and of the collections made available by

the survey and through other sources, they have been able in

many instances to revise what has hitherto been recorded regarding

the geographical races of species dealt with.

Ornithologists in India owe a deep debt of gratitude to Mr.

A. 8. Vernay whose generosity made this survey possible and to

Mr. H. Whistler and Mr, N. B. Kinnear for their labours. The

painstaking thoroughness and the care that they have devoted to

the preparation of the report have made the work the most im-

portant contribution to Indian Ornithology of recent years.

Surveys of Travancore and Cochin.—These surveys were

undertaken on behalf of the Society by Mr. Salim A. Ali in the

year 1933, to Lnk up with surveys made in the Eastern Ghats and

Hyderabad State. The expenses were met by grants made by the

States for this purpose. The material obtained was reported on by

Mr. Salim A. Ali, assisted by Mr. H. Whistler. Publication com-

menced in 1935; and with the issue of parts VII and VIIT during

the year the series has been concluded. What was known _ pre-

viously of the ornithology of Travancore was based mainly on the

papers written many years ago by Hume and Fergusson. The

present surveys, and Mr. Ali’s reports on the collections made by

him provide a considerable extension of our knowledge of the

ornithology of this interesting area. The value of Mr. Ali’s papers

is enhanced by the ecological notes made by him while collecting

in the field. The work reveals what can be done by a collector

with an understanding of what work in the field implies. System-

atics provide the basis of Biological Science but, if we are to

advance beyond the foundations, there are other roads upon which

this advance must be made, and one of them is the study of the

living animal in relation to its environment. It is work, whose

importance is being increasingly recognised and which offers

abundant opportunity to students in this country, The thanks of

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST. SOCIETY, Vol“ XE

the Society are due to Mr. Ali for the very thorough manner in

which he has carried out these surv eys and for the aallnetolts contri-

butions he has made to Indian Ornithology

Norru-WeEstEeRN INDIA.

Sind and the Punjab.—Mr. K. R. Eates wrote on the distri-

bution and breeding of the Koel (Hudynamis scolopaceus), the

Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), the Large Indian Paroquet

(Hupatria nepalensis), the Northern Yellow-fronted Woodpecker

(Leiopicus mahrattensis blanfordi) and the Roeck-Horned Owl

(Bubo bubo bengalensis) in Sind. The notes supplement the data

provided in Ticehurst’s work on the birds of the Province. The

drying up in Sind, within the last fifty years, of many lakes and

swamps has accounted for the disappearance or comparative scar-

city of many species which were once abundant. The Samaro

Dhand, once the breeding ground of hundreds of Cormorants, is

now bone dry. Another species affected is the larger Spotted

Eagle which, when Hume wrote about it 64 years ago, was the

commonest species in Sind and which, as Mr. Eates shows, is now

being replaced in the drier tracts by the Indian Tawny Eagle

(Aquila vindhiana). On the other hand, the extension of culti-

vation and the planting of trees along natural and artificial water-

Ways is attracting other species, among them the Koel which,

unknown in the Province fifty years ago, first localised itself in

Karachi and its environs, and’ which has now extended its perma-

nent territory as far north as Nawabshah. The occurrence of this

bird in towns and villages along the Pinyari Canal, which runs

from Kotri to the southern boundary of the Province, suggests

that its line of advance into Sind has been from Cutch and the

Kathiawar States. The Large Indian Paroquet (Eupatria nepalen-

sis) is another species which is extending its range in the Province.

The great perennial canals now made possible by the Sukkur

Barrage and the impetus given to cultivation and the planting of

trees is radically affecting the fauna and flora of the Province

whose physical features are undergoing so great a transformation

under the agency of Man. Fortunately, ornithologists of the

future in computing the nature, and extent of these changes, will

have as the basis for comparative study Dr. Ticehurst’s work on

the birds of the Province. The value of such work to future

students is emphasised in the paper on the Birds of Lyallpur,

contributed by Messrs. M. Afzal Husain and Hem Raj Bhalla of

the Punjab Agricultural College, Lyallpur. The area about which

they write is particularly interesting as within the last forty years

it has been transformed by intensive irrigation from a_ barren

wilderness with typical desert vegetation into one of the

most highly cultivated parts of the Punjab, where a_ rota-

tion of crops and an increase of fruit and ornamental trees

now provide food and shelter for an abundant bird life. The

authors remark they had unfortunately no data as a_ basis for

comparative study and were unable to indicate the extent to

which the environmental changes had effected the bird life of the

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 345

area. Besides providing a list of the birds of Lyallpur the authors

deal especially with the food of the birds listed by them. This is

a question of importance to agriculturists in India where so little

is known about the significance of various species of birds in the

control of insect pests of crops. Such scanty notes as existed were

published by Mr. Mason in his paper on the Food of Birds in India

(Agri. Dept. Memoirs EHntom. Series, Vol. III). Mr. D’Abreu has

carried out parallel investigations in the Central Provinces, and the

present paper on the Birds of Lyallpur is a useful addition to the

literature on the subject. Three years ago the Society made a

representation to the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research in

support of Mr. Salim Ali’s proposal to carry out a systematic investi-

gation into the food of birds in this country. The proposal received

the support of the Bombay Provincial Committee, but a final deci-

sion on this question has been relegated to the nebulous future.

We take this opportunity for stressing once again the need for

the survey which cannot but be beneficial to the progress of agri-

culture in this country, and would draw a parallel to the intensive

investigation into the food of birds carried out by the Board of

Agriculture in the United States where the value of such research

1s “appreciated.

The Revd. E. A. Storrs Fox’s paper on the Birds of Murree

is based on observations made in the hill station between the years

1932 and 1935. As the author’s notes cover the cold weather, the

paper forms a useful supplement to the previous articles on the

birds of this area by Rattray (1903-4, vol. xvi, pp. 421, 675) and

Magrath (1908, vol. xix, p. 142).

Mr. H. W. Waite reported the occurrence of some rare and

hitherto unrecorded species in the Punjab; additions to the Punjab

list are the Bronze-winged Jacana (Metopodius indicus), the

Broad-billed Roller (Hurystomus orientalis), and Hodgson’s Golden-

backed Woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus sultaneus).

PENINSULAR INDIA.

Bombay and Salsette.—Parts I] and LI of the serial on the

birds of Bombay and Salsette were published. The authors,

Messrs. Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali, aim at providing a

handbook of the birds of these islands based on all the available

records. Their notes on field identification, breeding habits, ete.

enhance the interest and value of the work which, when completed,

will be issued with the series of pamphlets on the Fauna of the

Islands of Bombay and Salsette published by the Prince of Wales’

Museum.

Southern India.—Mr. Edward G. Nichols contributed a paper

on the Birds of Kodaikanal, a popular hill station in the Palm

Hills, Madura District. The paper is confined to the birds observed

in the station between April and June, and is intended especially

as a guide to visitors who come there for the hot weather. Notes

on field identification, haunts and song are included as a help to

the recognition of the various species, 90 of which are listed 1

the pork

346 LO CNG, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

Mr. J. Williams wrote on the Game Birds of Anaimalai Hills

and the South Coimbatore District. His paper deals with the

game and semi-sporting birds occurring in the Valparai Planting

District, the sholah country above it, and also in the low country

around the foot hills of the Anaimalais. Deforestation in the deve-

loped areas has led to a distinct increase in the number of Fantail

Snipe.

Mr. F. N. Betts contributed a well illustrated paper on the

Birds of a South Indian Tank in the Province of Coorg. Ecological

notes of this description covering bird life in relation to a particular

environment deserve encouragement and indicate a line of study

which might with advantage be followed by others in the country.

Mr. C. H. Biddulph supplements the information provided by

the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats in relation to

the distribution and breeding of the White-bellied Sea-Kagle

(Haliaclus leucogaster) and the Short-toed Eagle (Circactus ferozx).

Major Phythian-Adams records the occurrence of the Bittern in

South Mysore marking an extension of its southernly range.

BurRMA.

Mr. P. F. Garthwaite, assisted by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, contri-

buted observations on birds collected by him in the plains and

foot hills of Burma. His notes supplement or correct the informa-

tion provided in the new edition of the Fauna regarding the status

and distribution of the species hsted by him,

Mr. J. K. Stanford contributed notes on some rare birds of

Northern Burma. Among the species mentioned are the White-

collared Ouzel (Turdus merula aibocincta), the Hen Harrier (Circus

cyaneus) and the Scaup (Nyroca marila marila) which have not

been recorded previously from Burma. |

Birds and Ants.—In Vol. xxxviii, No. 8 of the Society's

Journal Mr. Salim Ali referred to previous observations on the

curious habit of birds introducing ants into their plumage. Many

species indulge im this behaviour; some, like the crows and starlings,

not only stick ants among their feathers but literally bathe in

swarms of ants. In response to Mr. Ali’s note further contri-

butions were made to this interesting question by Capt. R. 8S. P.

Bates, who describes how he saw a Song Thrush bathing in a

swarm of red ants issuing from the ground; the crushed bodies

of the ants could be seen adhering to the plumage. Mr. Bainbrigge

Tletcher describes similar behaviour on the part of a Drongo which

picked up ants with its beak and, before swallowing them, rubbed

them on the root of its tail and also under its wings. The sug-

gested explanation is that the birds employ the ants. to rid them-

selves of parasites. Formic acid, which is well known for its

antiseptic properties, emanating as it does from the crushed bodies

of ants, might well have the effect of ridding the plumage of

parasites. This is theory. How far the conclusion is correct

further observation and experiment can alone decide. One interest-

ing aspect of the question is that the habit is shown to be instine-

tive in as much as young birds taken from the nest, which could

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 347

not’ have had a similar experience before, behaved exactly in the

same way, though their plumage showed no trace of parasites.

Mr. Lowther’s beautifully illustrated article on Nightjars

deserves special mention. His camera studies of Indian Birds are

delightful and their interest is enhanced by the well written

narrative of his experiences with his subjects.

REPTILES.

Mr. A. G. L. Fraser completed his papers on the Snakes of

Deolali. Part II dealt with the osteological characters of the

snakes. Part IIT records the species obtained in the area. The

author is to be congratulated on an extremely well written and

interesting paper involving considerable original research in a fresh

field of investigation.

The variation in the structure of the hemipenis in the Green

Pit Viper, known as Trimeresurus gramineus, first indicated by

Mr. and Mrs. Pope led them to recognise four distinct species:

gramineus, albolabris, steyjnegert and occidentalis. Gramineus was

restricted by them to the Indo-Chinese region, the westernly limit

of its range being Darjeeling and the hill ranges of Assam; while

the species occurring in the Indian Peninsula was given the name

occidentalis. Dr. Malcolm Smith however indicates that the type

locality of gramineus is Vizagapatam, and as such this name is

more applicable to the Indian form. For the Indo-Chinese species,

Dr. Malcolm Smith provides a new name Trimeresurus popeiorum.

In the same paper, Dr. Smith gives reasons for applying

Aaumenti’s name nepa to the viper hitherto known as Ancistrodon

hypnate.

A new species of Agamid Lizard (Japalura kaulbacki) is describ-

ed by the author. The type is based on an immature male

obtained by Mr. R. Kaulback in the Nyum Tamai Valley and

Burma-Tibet Border.

Mr. C. McCann contributed an interesting article on the

Common Agamid Lizard (Calotes versicolor) usually known as the

Bloodsucker, in which he gives a detailed account of the breeding

habits of the species.

FISHES

During the year we commenced publication of a_ serial,

illustrated in colour and black and white on the Game Fishes of

India by Dr. S. L. Hora. It is being written more or less in the

lines of Stuart Baker’s popular paper on Game Birds. Three parts

were issued. They deal with the Indian Trout [ Barilius (Opsarius)

bola], the Bachhwa (Hutroptichthys vacha), and the Garua

(Cluptsoma garua). Since Thomas wrote his classic ‘The Rod in

India’ progress has been made in our knowledge of Indian Fishes,

but unfortunately, as the author points out, the scientific nomen-

elature of the various forms is in great confusion and it is difficult

without much. research to fix the precise generic and specific

limits of even such common species as the Mahseer, generally

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WISTS SOCIETY itor me

known under the name of Barbus tor. While Dr. Hora’s researches

add considerably to the scientific value of these articles, his paper

also includes such data as were available regarding the habitats

and habits of the fishes described. These notes will be of parti-

cular interest to anglers and an appeal is here made to all those

interested in the subject to send notes on fish and fishing to the

Journal of the Society.

Fishes of Deolali—Apart from his interest in Snakes, Mr. Fraser

during his stay in Deolali carried out a. systematic survey of the

Fresh Water Fishes of the area. Between June 1935 and May

1936, he collected some 4,468 specimens from different localities

in and around Deolali and supplemented his collection with profuse

ecological notes on fish life in various types of habitat. These

collections form the basis of four papers by Dr. Hora. Part I

gives the hst of species with the description of the localities in

which they were obtained. Part I], written by Fraser, contains

his notes on the ecology of the fishes of the area. Parts III and IV,

which will be published in 19388, will contain descriptions of new

species and will discuss the geographical relationships of the fish

fauna of Deolali with special reference to its affinities with that

of the Deccan. The thanks of the Society are due to Mr. Fraser

for the excellent manner in which he has carried out his survey,

and to Dr. Hora and Mr. K. 8. Misra for their work on these

collections which will form an important contribution to Indian

Ichthyology.

INVERTEBRATES.

Two articles of particular economic interest issued during the

year are Mr. N. K. Panikar’s article on the Prawn Industry of

Travancore and Cochin, and Mr. C. McCann’s paper on the Land

Crabs of Bombay and Salsette. Mr. N. K. Panikar draws atten-

tion to the great possibilities of development of the Prawn fisheries

in the backwaters of Travancore. He describes the history of the

industry and the methods under which prawns are captured and

marketed. He indicates that the marked deterioration in the

industry is due in a large measure to various remediable handicaps.

There is the lack of any scheme of planned production, secondly

imperfect methods of preparation of the product, which lmit the

area of consumption and prevent successful competition, and

finally the absence of any organization for marketing the produce.

The author indicates methods by which the yield may be increased,

and stresses the need for an investigation into the feeding, breed-

ing and migratory habits of the prawns, and proposes improve-

ments in methods of preservation and marketing.

Mr. McCann describes the life history and habits of the Land

Crab (Paratelphusa guerini). Land Crabs, the genus Paratelphusa

in particular, are generally considered as serious pests of paddy

crops in certain districts. The author’s conclusions regarding

P. guerint in Salsette are that the damage done to rice crops is

negligible. There is no general invasion of the fields by these crabs

and such nipping of the leaf blades before transplanting as takes

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 349

place is generally done by crabs living within the field. The

damage is not severe. The author holds that the only real damage

5 e ro)

the crabs are responsible for is the riddling of the bunds between

the fields with their burrows, thereby weakening them and causing

their collapse. Damage to plant life is negligible.

INSECTS.

Afghanistan.—Collections made in North Afghanistan by N. N.

Umnov in 1930 provide the basis of a paper on the Blattodea,

Mantodea, Phasmodea and Orthoptera by Leo Misthenko. Such

data as were available on the fauna of this httle known area have

been included in the paper. Several species are recorded for the

first time and five new species of Acridodea are described.

Chinese Turkestan.—A paper on the Butterflies and Moths of

Chinese Turkestan was contributed by Lt.-Col. J. W. 'Thomson-

Glover. It is based on collections made in the Tekkes Valley,

Tian Shan Mountains and the Bashi Valley, 80 miles south of

Kashgar, and from Bostan Terek. The moths were mainly col-

lected in the Residency gardens at Kashgar. The paper also

includes a list of species collected on the journey from Srinagar tc

Kashgar and is supplemented with a list of the Lepidoptera col-

lected by Stolickza within the Province in 1878 and 1874.

Aphids of the Deccan.—Mr. V. G. Deshpande of the Agricul-

tural College, Poona, published a preliminary account of aphids

collected by him in Poona during the last four years. Though

these insects occupy a place among the major pests of agricultural

crops in India, we have little knowledge about them and the only

literature dealing with Indian species is the Aphididae of Lahore

by Das (Mem. Ind. Mus., Vol. vi, No. 4, 1918). A more complete

knowledge of the life and habits of these insects is a necessity

both from the economic and academic standpoints.

Interesting papers on the life history and habits of a Carton-

Building Ant “(Crematogaster dohrni artifer) and the Marriage Flight

and Colony Founding habits of our Common Black Ant ‘(Campo-

notus compressus) were contributed by P. N. Krishna Ayyar.

Botany.

In his paper on the Mosses collected in the Balipara Frontier

tract in Assam by Dr. N. L. Bor, Mr. H. N. Dixon makes an

important contribution to the bryology of the Province. The lite-

rature on the mosses of this area was limited so far to the work of

Griffith and Mitten published in the Musci Indiae Orientalis and

to the author’s previous work on the mosses collected during the

Abor Expedition (Rec. Bot. Survey Ind., vi, pp. 57-78). The

present paper is exceptionally welcome, dealing as it does with a

particularly interesting area which has never been explored

botanically. 40 species new to Science are described and 1 new

genus.

Rev. Fr. Caius continues his series of articles on the Medicinal

and Poisonous Plants of India. The orders dealt with are the

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY" NATURAT? HIST, SOCIERY, Volo XE

Spiderworts (Commelinaceae), the Campions and Pinks (Caryophyll-

aceae) and the Crowfoots (Ieanunculaceae). The last family is

one of the most important as there is searcely a single plant

throughout. the order which can be regarded as harmless while

some are deadly. Fortunately most crowfoots lose their acrid

qualities when cooked or dried.

PUBLICATIONS

Beautiful Indian Trees, by the late Rev. E. Blatter and Mr.

W. 5. Millard, which appeared originally as a serial in the Society’s

Journal, was published during the year. The book has been very

favourably reviewed both in England and in this country. Its

beautiful illustrations and the attractive manner in which the

subject has been handled by the authors make it a work welcome

to students and laymen. It maintains, as indicated by one of

its reviewers, “‘the broad educative outlook which is known to be

the pohey of all the works of the Society.’

THE MusEuM.

The Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales’ Museum

where the Society’s collections are now shown has been closed to

the pubhe since 1956 owing to the transfer of the collections to

the New Wing. Work on installing the collections has been carried

out since that time and three oalleries—Mammals , Birds, Reptiles

and Fishes are ready and will be opened by H. E. “the Governor of

Bombay on the 1 7th of March 1938. It is proposed to issue in the

Journal a descriptive account of these galleries which are among

the finest to be seen in any country; they indicate the advance

which has been made in museum methods and technique during

recent years.

REVENUE ACCOUNT.

This shows a deficit of Rs. 2,262-5-5 as compared with

Rs. 835-10-5 last year.

Membership is down by 385 and the loss under this head is

accounted by the fact that 44 members have not yet paid last

year’s subscription.

We have been fortunate in enrolling a new Vico- Patron—H. H.

The Nawab of Junagadh, whose support is greatly appreciated,

and we start 1988 well with a cheque for Rs. 5,000 from the

Prince of Wales’ Museum in repayment of work carried out and

financed by the Society.

EXPENDITURE.

This shows a small increase of Rs. 1832, compared with 1936.

Salaries and wages are up by Rs. 766, due to the restoration

of the cut of 4 per cent, and it is satisfactory to note that other

items of expenditure have been reduced,

= ee

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 351

MEMBERSHIP.

During the year 1937, 42 new members and 2 Life Members

joined, 4 members died and 74 resigned.

The total number of Members on the Roll of the Society

(excluding 186 Life Members) was as follows :—

sist December 1936 a ... 964

i. ies 1937 He .. 929

TAXIDERMY.

The Society's Taxidermy Department will close down at the end

of April.

Mr. Johnson, our Taxidermist, has secured a promising appoint-

ment with the Singapore Museum, and will be leaving us when

the work which he has in hand is finished. We wish him all

success in his new appointment.

STAFF.

The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the good

work done by the Curator and his staff during the past year.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18, CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EDITORS: P. M. D. SANDERSON, S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN, 6, APOLLO STREET,

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- GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, en & CEYLON.

E C. STUART BAKER, C.LE., 0.B.E., F.LS., ELS. M.B.0.U., H.F.A.O.U.

Imperial ovo. =Half bound:

VOL. Ill. =

PHEASANTS AND BUSTARD- QUAIL.

About 320 pp. With 12 Coloured Plates and

numerous Black and White Plates.

Price to Members who have not purchased ,

Wools. lac: PR or ... £ 1-15-0O=Rs. 23

Members who have purchased one

of the above Volumes ... 4 1-10-0O=Rs. 20

Members who have purchased

both the above Volumes ... £ 1- 5-O=Rs. 17.

Price to Non-members. : Two Guineas—Rs. 28

Packing and postage extra.

COMMON INDIAN BIRDS.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR. |

ALBUM.

Coloured illustrations of 196 Common Indian Birds

neatly bound in soft rexine as a Volume of reference.

Size 11 x 94 inches.

Price to Members Jaks. 32 ! paleee

Packing extra.

,. Non-members ... Rs. 40

| : Apply to:— 2

The Bombay Natural History Society,

| 6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY.

SOME BEAUTIFUL | |

INDI A N i R E E S-

The late Rev. E. BLATTER, SJ. PhD. i .

and |

W. S. MILLARD.

With 31 Coloured and 37 Black and White Illustrations.

Extract from Introduction

Tae book consists of the description in popular

_ language of some of the Beautiful Indian Trees, of

which 31 coloured and 37 black and white illustrations

are riven.

It . is been prompted by the many inquiries which are

constantly being made as to the correct names of the —

trees so conspicuous when in flower, and it is hoped

that it will prove of assistance to those who take an

interest in these beautiful trees and wish to know not

only their correct names, but also something about

their Py : |

These trees are not all indigenous as the majority have

been introduced into oa = = sty

Price to Members __ Rs. 10 Se a ee

: See Postage extra. |

Price to Non-members Rs. 15 i eS

Apply to: —

The Bombay Natural History Society, : :

6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY.

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