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UJ

JOURNAL

of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

VoL 75, No. 3

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

DECEMBER 1978 Rs. 40

75tfi Jubilee &ear

1886-1979

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ-

ing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other

journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be

submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only,

and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be underlined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica-

tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collect-

ed.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast.

Prints mijst be of a size not smaller the:: 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brov/nie) and on

glossy glazed paper.

t ,

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably

on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha-

betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or

periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type),

thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers

should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s

name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,

clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge.

In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed

among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi-

ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed

of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage

and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem-

ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society .

DIAMOND JUBILEE ISSUE

VOLUME 75 (3) : DECEMBER 1978

Date of Publication 22-10-1979

CONTENTS

Page

Editorial i

Bombay Natural History Society — The Founders, the Builders and the

Guardians — Part I. By Salim Ali. ( With four plates ) . . 559

Changes in the bird fauna of a forest area: Simlipal Hills, Mayurbhanj Dis-

trict, and Dhenkanal District, Orissa. By S. Dillon Ripley . . 570

Forest Days. By Tom Norman . . 575

How Man modifies climate. By Anna Mani .. 580

Recent advances in inland aquaculture in India. By V. G. Jhingran. {With

five plates ) . . 589

A COMPARATIVE FIELD STUDY OF THE INDIAN AND NEW ZEALAND REPRESENTATIVES

of the Genus Ruppia Linnaeus. By Charles McCann. {With three plates and

three text-figures) . . 600

The shape of the shell of ti-ie chambered Nautilus. By Nathaniel Grossman.

{With a plate) . . 611

Emotive kinships in the study of mammals. By M. Krishnan .. 613

Moth migration in Mombasa — 1955/1977. By D. G. Sevastopulo .. 618

Microarthropods and soil ecosystems. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan . . 625

The changing Wildlife of Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji. {With four

plates) . . 632

The present status of mahseer (fish) and artificial propagation of Tor

khudree (Sykes). By C. V. Kulkarni and S. N. Ogale. {With two plates and two

text-figures) . . 651

Oceanographic research in India — past, present and future. By S. Z. Qasim.

{With a plate) .. . . 661

The status of Gharial {Gavialis gangeticus) in U.P. and its rehabilitation.

By V. B. Singh. {With two maps and a plate) .. 668

Rare and threatened flowering plants of south India. By A. N. Henry, K. Vivek-

ananthan and N. C. Nair . . 684

Bilateral symmetry in the reproductive structures of some palms. By T. An-

tony Davis and C. Bhattacharya. {With twelve figures) . . 698

On factors governing the distribution of wild mammals in Karnataka. By S.

Narendra Prasad, P. Vijayakumaran Nair, H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav

Gadgil. {With five plates and seven text figures) . . 718

The birds of Great and Car Nicobars with some notes on wildlife conserva-

tion in THE islands. By Humayun Abdulali. {With four plates) . . 744

Ecology of the black-and-orange flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon) in

southern India. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan. ( With two plates and a text-

figure)

773

Rodent research in India. By Ishwar Prakash . . 792

Proto-fiddlers and fiddlers: Pathways to waving in Indian Brachyuran crabs.

By Rudolf Altevogt. ( With four text- figures ) . . 800

Competition and co-existence in Griffon vultures: Gyps bengalensis, G. indicus

AND G. fulvus IN Gir Forest. By Robert B. Grubh . . 810

Distribution and status of the Nilgiri Tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) — 1975-78.

By E. R. C. Davidar. (With two plates ) . . 815

Peregrine falcon. By S. M. Osman. ( With a plate ) . . 845

Notes on the Green Keelback snake (Macropisthodon plumbicolor) . By Thomas

Gay . . 854

Population change of the Hanuman Langur ( Presbytis entellus), 1961-1976, in

Dharwar area, India. By Yukimaru Sugiyama and M. D. Parthasarathy . . 860

The Nanda Devi Sanctuary — 1977. By Lavkumar Khacher. (With a plate and five

maps) . . 868

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjacent areas. By V. S. Vijayan . . 888

New Descriptions:

A new species of lmpatiens Linn. (Balsaminaceae) from south India. By M. Chandra-

bose. (With nine text-figures) . . 901

Two new species of spider of the genus Tharpyna Koch from India (Family: Thomi-

sidae). By B. K. Tikader and Bijan Biswas. (With six text-figures) .. 903

A new species of Peliococcus Borchsenius from India (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) .

By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi and Shaikh Adam Shafee. (With fifteen text- fi-

gures) . . 905

A new species and a new record of the interesting genus Smicromorpha Girault (Hy-

menoptera: Chalcididae) from oriental region. By T. C. Narendran. (With six

text-figures) . . 908

Studies on the scarab beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of north-eastern India:

A new species and notes on other Indian species of subgenus Strandius, genus

Onthophagus. By S. Biswas. (With three text-figures) .. 911

Reviews: .. 914

1. The Tiger (J. C. Daniel) .. 914

2. Field Guide to the birds of the Eastern Himalayas (Biswamoy Biswas) . . 915

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Occurrence and observations on Tadarida aegyptiaca (E. Geoffroy, 1818)

(Molossidae: Chiroptera) : The wrinkle-lipped bat in East-Nimar District, Madhya Pradesh

(India). By S. K. Kashyap (p. 917); 2. Observations on ecology and behaviour of the

Rhesus monkey Macaca mulatto, in Asarori. By S. C. Makwana (p. 919); 3. A note on the

breeding and longevity of the Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) in captivity. By L. N.

Acharjyo and S. Mohapatra (p. 921).

Birds: 4. The bronzewinged Jacana Metopidius indicus (Latham) in Saurashtra at Jamna-

gar. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 923); 5. On the occurrence of the black-naped green wood-

pecker, Picus canus hessei Gyldenstolpe (Piciformes: Picidae) in Orissa. By N. Majumdar

(p. 924); 6. Sighting of the Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura in Pakistan. By Kamal Islam (p.

924); 7. A new bird for Nepal and notes on other scarce species. By lohn Geoders (p. 925);

8. On the phenomenon of nocturnal flights of some resident birds at Lunglei, Mizoram,

N.E. India. By K. R. Rao and R. Zoramthanga (p. 927).

Reptiles: 9. Notes on distribution, sexual dimorphism and growth in captivity of Geoche-

lone elongata (Blyth). (With a text-figure) . By S. Biswas, L. N. Acharjyo and S. Mohapatra

(p. 928); 10. Hearing ability of brown tree snake ( Dendrelaphis tristis) . By Shaeque Ahmad

Yahya (p. 930).

Insects: 11. Record of Pteromalus puparum Linn. (Pteromalidae : Hymenoptera) from the

pupa of lemon butterfly, Papilio demoleus Linn, at Ludhiana, Punjab (India). By M. Ramzan

and Darshan Singh (p. 931); 12. New record of Dimeromicrus vibidia (Walker) (Hymenop-

tera: Torymidae), a parasite of the Gall Fly Procecidochares utilis (Stone) (Diptera: Tephri-

tidae) from Nepal. By V. C. Kapoor and Y. K. Malla (p. 932).

Araclinida: 13. Uroctea indica Pocock (Family: Urocteidae) as a new record from Rajas-

than, India. (With five text-figures). By U. A. Gajbe and S. Bhadra (p. 933).

Botany: 14. Records of plants growing at high altitudes. By N. C. Shah and D. P. Badola

(p. 934); 15. Additions to Poaceae of Karnataka State. By R. S. Raghavan, N. P. Singh,

U. R. Deshpande and B. G. Kulkarni (p. 935); 16. The genus Ophioglossum in Rajasthan.

By O. P. Sharma, T. N. Bhardwraja and C. B. Gena (p. 938); 17. Taxonomical notes on

a few species of Adiantum. By N. C. Nair and S. R. Ghosh (p. 939); 18. Additions to the

flora of Bihar and Orissa-II. By H. O. Saxena and M. Brahmam (p. 941); 19. Notes on

distribution of some plants. By P. K. Hajra (p. 942); 20. Dispersal in some Loranthaceae

of the Nilgiris. By Priya Davidar (p. 943); 21. A note on some Entomogenous fungi attack-

ing preserved dragonfly collections. By Brij Kishore Tyagi and Vijay Veer (p. 946).

.

EDITORIAL

The editorial to the Golden Jubilee issue of

the Journal volume 50(4) described the his-

tory of the first fifty issues of the Journal

published between the years 1886 to 1952. The

Journal then had four issues per volume and

hence the additional 16 years to complete

fifty volumes.

With this issue and 26 years later we com-

plete the 75th volume of the Journal. The

comments made in the introductory para-

graphs of the 50th issue editorial apply equally

well today and are quoted below.

“For a natural history publication conduct-

ed by a private society purely out of re-

venues derived from its membership sub-

scriptions, with practically no financial aid

from Government or extraneous sources,

this is indeed a praiseworthy achievement.

Add to this the general lack of interest in

natural history in India that had to be

contended with for keeping up the Society’s

membership strength, also the fact that con-

tributions for publication were gratis and

voluntary and therefore not always to be

depended on — -and the achievement be-

comes doubly creditable.

The contributions to the Journal at first

consisted largely of sporting and popular

articles written mostly by members of the

Society who were generally observant

sportsmen and field naturalists — ‘amateurs’

it is true, but in the best sense of the term.

The scope of these contributions has steadily

expanded, and serious scientific papers by

acknowledged experts have now become a

regular feature of its pages.

Finally, the fact that throughout the years

the editors of the Journal have all been en-

tirely honorary — business or professional

men with plenty of enthusiasm but limited

time at their disposal is not the least not-

able feature of this remarkable achieve-

ment.”

It would also be useful to quote the objec-

tives of the Journal as published in the 1st

volume dated January 1886.

“In accordance with the character which

this Society has assumed from the begin-

ning, the aim of its journal will be, as far

as possible, to interest all students of nature,

ever remembering that there are many natu-

ralists, in the highest sense of the term, who

have not such a technical knowledge of any

particular branch of science as to be able

to enter with interest into questions of

nomenclature and the discrimination of

closely allied species. The Secretaries of the

Sections would therefore invite sportsmen

and others to communicate anything inte-

resting or worthy of note, which comes

under their observation, bearing on the

nature and habits of animals and plants.”

Today perhaps only the miscellaneous notes

meet these objectives. The Journal has become

more technical for the methods of enquiry

have become more sophisticated. Apart from

technical papers the Journal today leans more

towards conservation and ecology of wildlife.

Hunting as a sport has almost no room in

present day conditions and the members pre-

fer to look at nature through the camera than

over the sights of a gun. The natural history

notes are equally rewarding, however, and the

photographs are a better trophy as witness the

works of Loke Wan Tho, E. P. Gee and M.

Krishnan which have appeared in this last

i

1

EDITORIAL

quarter of the Journal's history.

This issue of the Journal blends the old and

the new not only subjectwise but also in the

authors. Several contributions being from per-

sons trained at the Society.

It would pertinent to list the editors who

had, with the same zeal as was exhibited by

their predecessors of the first 50 volumes

maintained its high standards.

The Editors’ Who’s When

Vol. 51 (1952-53) Salim Ali, S. B. Setna,

H. Santapau

Vol. 52-56 (1954-59) Salim Ali, H. Santa-

pau

Vol. 57-59 (1960-62) H. Santapau, H.

Abdulali

Vol. 60-61 (1963-64) H. Santapau, Z. Fute-

hally

Vol. 62-63 (1965-66) H. Santapau, D. E.

Reuben, Z. Futehally, J. C. Daniel

Vol. 64-67 (1967-70) H. Santapau, Z. Fu-

tehally, J. C. Daniel

Vol. 68-70 (1971-73) Z. Futehally, J. C.

Daniel, P. V. Bole

Vol. 71-75 (1974-78) J. C. Daniel, P. V.

Bole, A. N. D. Nanavati

The Editors’ Who’s Who

I. Humayun Abdulali

One of India’s leading ornithologists and

author of two regional checklists. He was the

Society’s Honorary Secretary from 1954 to

1962 when there were many changes in its or-

ganisation. It was the period when the Society

cut its umbilical chord with Phipson & Co.

and the Natural History Section of the Prince

of Wales Museum. His most notable contribu-

tion was the successful negotiation with the

Government of India and the Prince of Wales

Museum for the building to house the Society’s

offices — Hornbill House.

2. Salim Ali

Salim Ali has had a long and active asso-

ciation with the Society. Elis chief interest is

birds, particularly the field aspects of their

study, and he is the author of several books

on Indian birds. He served as one of the edi-

tors in 1927-28 (vols. 32 and 33), and resum-

ed his connection with the Journal in 1944

(vol. 45), collaborating with S. H. Prater and

C. McCann. Upon their leaving India, Salim

Ali took over as General Editor assisted by

Dr. S. B. Setna for a year, when Fr. H. San-

tapau joined the board. His editorial asso-

ciation with the Journal terminated when he

commenced work on the 10 vol. handbook

OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. He

continues to serve the Society as its President

and Doyen.

3. P. V. Bole

Professor of Botany at St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay is actively associated with the Blatter

Herbarium and the Society for almost 30

years. He has contributed papers on floristics

of W. India, plant ecology and survey of eco-

nomic plants as well as on ethnobotany. In-

terested in conservation of natural habitat and

propagation of indigenous plants for breeding

purposes.

4. J. C. Daniel

Studied at the Madras Christian College

and the Madras University Zoology Research

Laboratory. He joined the Society as a Re-

search Assistant in 1950. Joined the Natural

History Museum at Darjeeling as Curator in

1955 and returned to the Society as its Cura-

tor in 1960. His interest in natural history are

eclectic, with a leaning towards reptiles and

wildlife conservation.

n

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

5. Zafar Futehally

Took over from Humayun Abdulali as

Honorary Secretary. An avid birdwatcher,

Zafar has the ability to communicate his en-

thusiasm to others. It was during his steward-

ship that the Society stopped being introspec-

tive and widened the scope of its activities.

Zafar has been the founder of the Birdwat-

chers’ Field Club of India and editor since

its inception in 1960 of the Newsletter for

Birdwatchers’ now in its 19th volume.

6 . A. N. D. N a n a v a t i

Was the first medical man to take over the

administration of the Society. A virologist,

he was Asstt. Director of the Haffkine Insti-

tute at Bombay till his premature retirement

in 1974. Dr. Nanavati’s dispassionate assess-

ment of issues has strengthened the Society’s

handling of problems that arise.

7 . D. E. Reuben

An ex member of the ICS who retired as

Chief Justice of Bihar before settling in Bom-

bay. Mr. Reuben’s meticulous hand was of

considerable help when Salim Ali retired as

Executive Editor. Mr. Reuben though his

name was on the editorial board only very

briefly was a de facto editor of the Journal

over several volumes.

8 . H. S a n t a p a u

Studied at the Imperial College of Science

| and Technology, London, and in Kew Gardens

and specialized in Plant Taxonomy. He was

particularly interested in the botany of Wes-

tern India and has done intensive explorative

work in Khandala, Purandhar, Mahableshwar

and in Saurashtra. He was director of the

Biology Department of St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay. Fr. Santapau was later the Director

of the Botanical Survey of India.

9. S. B. Setna

Studied under Dr. J. Gray, Professor of the

Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge University,

where he obtained his Ph.D. degree. He was

the Director of Fisheries, Bombay State, since

the inception of the department in 1945. In

this capacity he was responsible for the deve-

lopment of freshwater and marine fisheries in

the State and also for the maintenance of the

Taraporevala Aquarium. He was elected a

Fellow of the National Institute of Science of

India in 1947 and was awarded the first

Chandra Kala Hora Memorial Gold Medal

in 1950 for conspicuously important contribu-

tions to the development, of the fishing

industry.

Costs then and now

In 1891 four issues of the Journal with 6

coloured plates printed in England cost

Rs. 4316.

In 1900 the Journal cost including 10 colour

plates was Rs. 6338.

In 1930 the cost of a volume with 10 colour

plates was Rs. 15562.

In 1952 the cost was similar approximately

Rs. 15000 but without any colour plates.

In 1960 a volume of three issues cost Rs.

20,811.86.

In 1970 the cost of volume of three issues

was Rs. 34,773.

In 1977 the cost was Rs. 60,117.73.

iii

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1978 DECEMBER Vol. 75 No. 3

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY —

The Founders, the Builders and the Guardians

Part 1

Salim Ali

(With jour plates)

On the eventful completion of the 75th

volume of the Society’s Journal after an un-

broken run of publication since its inception

in 1886, it is pertinent to look back and take

stock of the men who contributed to the

building up of the prestige it now enjoys as

a scientific periodical within the country and

abroad. For a small private Society started

by a tiny group of eight nature loving resi-

dents of Bombay in 1883 for ‘exchanging

notes, exhibiting interesting specimens, and

otherwise encouraging one another’* to have

risen to its present stature is a saga of achieve-

ment for gratification and pride. All the more

praiseworthy is the success when it is remem-

bered that the Society never was an affluent

institution and has always had a hand-to-

mouth existence, dependent more or less en-

tirely on the modest annual subscriptions de-

* ‘The Founders of the Bombay Natural History

Society’ by W. S. Millard, Vol. 35: 196.

rived from its regrettably meagre membership.

How then was the Society able to achieve so

much? This was surely due overwhelmingly

to the sagacity and foresight of its dedicated

Founders, Builders and Guardians — the men

who were directly responsible for the conduct

of its affairs over the years — and those who

nurtured it with their pioneering attainments

in the field of natural history, and with their

original scientific contributions to its develop-

ing publication. All honour to these men, but

who were they? To answer this question, and

at this distance of time, I felt it would be worth-

while to research the obituaries that have been

published in the Journal from the earliest

days. Between the year 1903, when the first

obituary appears in Vol. 14 (there are none

in the preceding 13 volumes), and the latest

in 1973 in Vol. 70 — 104 in all, though we

know of some others who have escaped men-

tion. They are notices chiefly of men who in

various ways contributed significantly enough

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

to the reputation of the Society and the

Journal to be remembered with special grate-

fulness. Apart from the persons responsible

for the material well being of the Society, the

Founders and the Builders, I have selected a

number of others, the Guardians — scientists,

field naturalists and sportsmen — who by their

researches and their experiences and writings,

or by their prowess as hunters, or their zeal

as nature conservationists have aided substan-

tially in the evolutionary process of the Soci-

ety. Fortunately this category is not strictly

confined to the names in the obituaries: we

still have many living amongst us today who

by their diverse benefactions are helping to

add lustre to the Society and scientific prestige

to its journal and thus to keep its image

shining.

First priority in this Roll of Honour must

of course be accorded to the Founders, and

the Builders who followed them. The excerpts

here culled from the obituary notices in the

Journal deal mainly with the nature of their

respective associations with the Society, but

I have included such additional information

as was readily available from other sources.

For more biographical particulars the interest-

ed reader is referred to the Journal, (volume

and page indicated in brackets after each

name).

The Founders

Edward Hamilton Aitken (‘eha’) 1851-1909

(Vol. 19: 540) by T. R. B(ell)

The son of a Scottish missionary, born in

Satara and educated in Bombay. He served

first in the Education Department and later

in the Customs. He retired to Edinburgh in

1906 and died two years later of Bright’s

Disease.

EHA was one of the eight original foun-

ders of the Society in 1883 and co-editor with

R. A. Sterndale of the earliest issues of the

Journal. He was interested in all branches of

Zoology, but particularly so in birds and

insects, chiefly butterflies. For many years he

was in charge of the Society’s Entomological

Section, a position which he took over from

Lionel de Niceville on the latter’s death in

1901. He had a special genius for seizing the

striking and characteristic points in the appear-

ance and behaviour of individual species, and

a happy knack of translating them into print

so as to render his descriptions unmistakable.

He was a shrewd observer of humanity too

as his book behind the bungalow testifies.

This book is an Anglo-Indian classic and will

remain a lasting monument to the memory

of the author. His first literary venture was

entitled the tribes on my frontier describ-

ing the animals ordinarily met with in and

around an Indian bungalow. Another book of

his is THE COMMON BIRDS OF BOMBAY which

treats of the birds met in the town of Bombay

and its vicinity in a manner that makes it

easy for anyone to recognize each individual

when he sees it. A less known book the na-

turalist on the prowl written when he was

in Kanara and ‘full of the scent of the jun-

gles’ is perhaps less generally known. All his

books are full of accurate knowledge pleasant-

ly imparted, and with a quaint humour which

cannot but appeal to the reader, and the joy-

ousness of living which expresses so well the

nature of the writer. Aitken was the first

Honorary Secretary of the Society and conti-

nued as such till his departure from Bombay.

The first number of the Journal was produced

in January 1886. It met the need for putting

on permanent record whatever was of value or

interest transacted at the Society’s meetings.

In introducing the first number the editors ex-

pressed the hope that “The introduction of

this Journal will stimulate lovers of Nature

560

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

to record and communicate their observa-

tions.” This hope has been more than realiz-

ed, and the papers published in the Journal

since its commencement have borne splendid

testimony to the debt owed by naturalists in

India to Messrs Aitken and Sterndale.

The late Sir Norman Kinne-ar related to me

(SA) an amusing story connected with EHA’s

death. The parish newspaper of the obscure

little Scottish village to which EHA’s father

had belonged, thought it its duty to publish

a fitting obituary of such a distinguished son

of the village. The editor had probably never

heard of the man or his interests and writings

until his death got reported in outside news-

papers. However, not to be outdone by his

city confreres he ingeniously added to EHA’s

laudatory qualifications that “Mr. Aitken who

had lived all his life in India was an expert

on Frontier Tribes and Bungalow Economy.”!

A surprising detail I also gleaned from Sir

Norman was that inspite of his humorous and

seemingly effortless style EHA was in fact a

slow writer and usually had to do a lot of

laborious scratching out, re-writing, and meti-

culous chipping, changing and polishing be-

fore he was satisfied with his compositions.

Col. Charles Swinhoe M.A. (Oxon) 1836-

1923 (Vol. 29: 1042) Anon.

Another of the 8 founders of the Society

in 1883. He reached India just after the Mu-

tiny of 1857 and served with the Bombay

Staff Corps, evidently largely in Sind, till his

retirement in 1893. He went through the Af-

ghan War and was with Lord Roberts in

Kandahar. Col. Swinhoe was a man of many

parts: a keen shikari of the old school who

had accounted for between 50 and 60 tigers,

and a devotee of most outdoor sports. He

was interested in birds. A collection of 70

skins made by him in Sind and presented to

the Society is listed in Vol. 2: 56. There is

an incredible statement by E. C. Stuart Baker

both in the fauna of British India, Birds

(Vol. 5, p. 268) and in his game birds of

INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON (Vol. 2, p. 269)

that Col. Swinhoe obtained three specimens

of the Coronetted Sandgrouse {Pterocles co-

ronatus atratus) at Dhar in the Mhow area of

Madhya Pradesh, which is entirely out of the

bird’s distributional range. An examination of

the original collector’s label still intact on one

of these skins (now in the British Museum col-

lection) shows that the specimens were actu-

ally obtained by Col. Swinhoe at “Maiwund”

[near Kandahar] in February 1881, therefore

evidently during the campaign in Afghanistan.

However, it was as an entomologist that he

attained international fame. He published on

“The Lepidoptera of Karachi and its Neigh-

bourhood” in Volumes 2 and 3 of the Jour-

nal. On the death of Frederick Moore, Col.

Swinhoe was entrusted with the completion

of that magnificent work on Indian butterflies

lepidoptera indica; the portions dealing with

the Lycaenidae (Blues), Hesperidae (Skip-

pers), and a part of the Pieridae (Whites)

were compiled entirely by him. But, the He-

terocera or Moths is the section in which he

excelled; of these he had amassed a collec-

tion of 40,000 specimens comprising 7000 dif-

ferent species. It included no less than 400

types of the new species described by him.

He remained active to his 87th year, just be-

fore which he had completed “A revision of

the genera of the family Liparidae” covering

some 1130 detailed entries. Col. Swinhoe was

universally recognized as an expert on all

matters connected with Lepidoptera and was

the recipient of many international honours

for his services to entomology. He was well

known as a lecturer on such subjects as mi-

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

micry. A paper of his on “Mimicry in Butter-

flies for Protection” appears in Vol. 2: 169.

John Coussmakf.r Anderson 1851-1930

(Vol. 35: 185) by W.S.M.(illard)

Son of General William Coussmaker Ander-

son; born at Dharwar, Bombay Presidency.

Read at Inner Temple and was called to the

Bar. Came out to India in 1878 and practised

in the Bombay High Court for 25 years. Re-

tired from India in 1901.

J. C. Anderson was one of the eight origi-

nal founders of the Society. “He was a keen

lover of Nature and helped the Society in

many ways.” In Vol. 4(1) 1889 there is an

interesting paper by him entitled “Sporting

Rambles round about Simla”, and he pre-

sented to the Society’s museum a large num-

ber of specimens of birds and mammals col-

lected by him in the Simla neighbourhood.

Herbert Musgrave Phipson 1850-1936

(Vol. 39: 152) Anon.

Son of T. W. Phipson, Q.C. of Lincoln’s

Inn. First came out to India in 1878. Estab-

lished the firm of Phipson & Co., Wine Mer-

chants, in 1883; left India in 1906. He was in

England when the eight original founders of

the Society met at the Victoria & Albert

Museum, Bombay, on 15 September 1883.

He joined the Society on his return from Eng-

land in the same year, and in January 1884

offered a room in his offices at 18 Forbes

Street as a more central place for the Socie-

ty’s meetings and for keeping its collections.

The removal of the Society’s offices to a central

situation in the city, and Phipson’s enthusi-

astic association with it, gave an astonishing

impulse to its growth. The need for finding

better accommodation for its rapidly increas-

ing collections becoming urgent, Phipson again

provided the solution by offering the Society

part of the larger premises he had acquired at

6 Apollo Street (now Shaheed Bhagat Singh

Road). The Society’s collections and offices

were transferred there in 1886, and remained

until 1958, when the gracious old single- storey-

ed colonial type building (the former residence

of the Chief Justice of Bombay) was due to be

pulled down to give way to an ugly ‘modern’

concrete monster. Phipson’s interest in natu-

ral history and his zeal for the Society were

contagious. He interested his numerous friends

in the Society’s work and imparted his de-

votion to the young men who came out to

India to assist him in his business. His advice

to the young European in India was ‘develop

a hobby’, and to him there was no finer hobby

than natural history. Thus commenced, and

thus continued, the long association of the

Society with the Company which bears Phip-

son’s name. His successors in business took

over his post of Honorary Secretary and Edi-

tor of the Journal and have each in their time

made their contribution to the Society’s pro-

gress.

Fom March 1886, when he took over the

office of Honorary Secretary from E.H. Ait-

ken — more familiarly known from his books

as EH A — to April 1906 when he left India,

Phipson was the heart and soul of the Society.

Initiating and directing its early activities he

brought it to vigorous maturity. Through

these twenty years he edited the Society’s

Journal — for a year in collaboration with

Robert Sterndale, then as sole editor for 15

years, and finally jointly with W. S. Millard,

his immediate successor in office.

His business and the management of the

Society’s affairs left Phipson little time for

contributing in print the wide knowledge he

had acquired of the Indian natural history of

562

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Salim Ali : BNHS

Plate I

Herbert Musgrave PMpson

1850-1936

Plate II

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Salim Ali : BNHS

Walter Samuel Millard

1864-1952

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

which his favourite branch was Snakes. His

rare contributions to the Journal centre round

this subject, and among them is a paper on

‘Poisonous Snakes of the Bombay Presidency’

(Vol. 2, p. 244). In his day Phipson was the

presiding genius of the Society, which had

come to be known as ‘Phipson’ s Museum’.

He welcomed visitors great and small and

taking them round the collections would treat

them to a wealth of interesting facts and anec-

dotes drawn from his wide fund of knowledge

and experience. He was charming: always in-

teresting and ever ready with shrewd and

amusing comment. The numerous offers of live

animals which the Society was receiving gave

Phipson the idea of establishing a zoological

garden conducted and managed by the Soc-

iety. What at first seemed a promising venture

failed because the Municipality were unwill-

ing to allow the use of the site selected by

Phipson for the purpose. In his ambition to

provide Bombay with a really fine natural

history museum Phipson was more success-

ful; the admirable Natural History section of

the Prince of Wales Museum is largely the

fruit of his initiative and exertions. Phipson’s

name as a naturalist is fittingly commemorated

by zoologists describing several new discover-

ies after him, e.g. the sea snake Hydro phis

phipsoni (-H. cyanocinctus) , the earth snake

Silybura phipsoni (= Uropeltis rubrolineatus) ,

the scorpion Isometrus phipsoni, the whip

scorpion Phrynicus phipsoni and the galeod

spider Rhagodes phipsoni. The beautiful fly-

ing squirrel Petinomys phipsoni, though dis-

covered by the Society’s Mammal Survey long

after his departure from India, was also nam-

ed in his honour to perpetuate the memory

of his dedicated association with the Society

and with Indian natural history. The Society

owes a tremendous debt to Phipson for its

growth and prosperity, and the prestige it now

enjoys. Few men have striven more earnestly

and more continuously to advance such a

purely unselfish cause, and few have laboured

for the advancement of science and for the

general good in a more self-effacing and un-

obtrusive spirit. Phipson was always ready to

help anyone, and as one friend with whom he

lived observed ‘He monopolized the self-de-

nial of the whole house!’

Walter Samuel Millard 1864-1952 (Vol.

50, p. 910 — photo) by N. B. Kinnear

Seventh son of Rev. J. H. Millard of Hun-

tingdon, England. Came out to Bombay as

assistant to Herbert Musgrave Phipson in his

wine business in 1884, by which time Phip-

son & Co. along with Bombay Natural His-

tory Society had shifted to 6 Apollo Street.

To reach his office it was necessary to pass

through the Society’s museum which, in addi-

tion to various stuffed animals and jars con-

taining fish and reptiles, generally housed a

live cobra or two and a large python. Millard

joined the Society soon after his arrival and

in 1893 was made assistant editor of the Jour-

nal though he had doubtless been helping

Phipson with the work of the Society for some

time previously. On Phipson’s retirement from

India in 1906, Millard took his place in the

Society and as editor of the Journal which,

under Phipson’s editorship, had become the

most important scientific publication east of

Suez. The Society’s journal remained unique

among scientific publications in the East since

it not only published important scientific

papers but also natural history and shikar

articles of general interest to readers. It was

through Millard’s personal interest, and under

his careful supervision of details when on leave

in England, that Stuart Baker’s serial on

‘Indian Ducks and their Allies’, which had

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

started in the Journal as long ago as 1897 was

published by the Society in book form. It

proved an immediate success, and ran out

of print faster than anticipated. He followed

up the success of this first major venture of

the Society by the publication of the two

other volumes on Game Birds by Stuart

Baker, the palms of India by Fr. E. Blatter

and beautiful Indian trees by himself and

Fr. Blatter. The title of the last is slightly

misleading since it includes a number of trees

that are not Indian. Though Millard took in-

terest in natural history generally, his parti-

cular hobby was gardening, especially the cul-

tivation of flowering trees and shrubs. The

grounds of the bungalow where he lived on

Malabar Hill, Bombay, were soon developed

into a beautiful garden with a great variety

of trees and shrubs and a large fernery full

of foliage plants, orchids and other tropical

flowers. It was the most important private

garden at the time, and “guests staying at

Government House were frequently sent to

inspect its treasures”. He took a deep and

active interest in beautifying the city by in-

troducing attractive flowering trees in differ-

ent localities. Among the more outstanding of

his introductions are the Burmese Cassia re-

nigera and the Padauk Pterocarpus indicus

with fragrant yellow flowers which, inspite of

its name, is also a native of Burma. One tree

of the latter species he had planted in the

grounds of Bombay University, and such was

his continuing interest in his introductions that

years after he had left India for good in 1920,

he wrote to the Society enquiring how this

particular tree was thriving! Millard, on the

goading of R. C. Wroughton, a retired Indian

Forest Officer, was instrumental in launching

the much needed Mammal Survey of India,

Burma and Ceylon, 1910-14, when it had to

be terminated on the outbreak of World War

I. The vast collections made by the survey in

different parts of the erstwhile ‘British Indian

Empire’ provided the basis for the publica-

tion of the standard volumes on the mamma-

lian fauna of the subcontinent by Pocock and

Ellerman. The starting and success of the

Mammal Survey was entirely due to Millard,

and only those who were in close association

with him at the time have any idea of the

amount of time and work he spent in the

raising of the money and the organizing of the

survey. All this was done in addition to at-

tending to the Society’s other business and

editing the Journal, to say nothing of looking

after his own business of Messrs Phipson and

Co. and the many other honorary social and

charitable activities in which he was involved.

Every visitor to the Society’s rooms in

Apollo Street will remember the Great Indian

Hornbill, better known as ‘William’ or the

‘Office Canary’, which lived in a cage be-

hind Millard’s chair in Phipson & Co.’s office

for 26 years and died in 1920, soon after

Millard left India. It is said that death was

caused by swallowing a piece of wire, but

in the past William had swallowed a lighted

cigar without ill effects and Millard’s obitua-

rist— a colleague — firmly believed that the

loss of his old friend was the principal cause.

By nature Millard was of rather a shy and

retiring disposition, but all that vanished when

he had anything to do on behalf of the Society.

His wife Sybil assisted her husband in many

ways, and her presence at the meetings of

the Society was always welcome, where her

charming personality made the shy visitor

feel at ease.

It was the routine in BNHS during Millard’s

secretaryship that every afternoon at 2.30,

after the lunch hour, the accountant Baburao

(?) would bring up his Day Book, ledger and

vouchers to be checked. Baburao, loaded with

564

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

the books, would first timidly push the spring

door ajar and peep in. Then, on a nod from

Millard he would nervously tiptoe in. As soon

as he got to his desk, Millard would look up

and over his reading glasses straight into the

man’s eyes and with mock solemnity declaim

“Baburao I suspect you! Whenever you are

making an entry in your cash book say to

yourself ‘Mr. Millard suspects me!’ That will

keep you out of temptation.”

I (SA) personally have very special cause

for gratefulness to Millard for the inordinate

amount of interest he took in that diffident

little schoolboy who once approached him

with the mangled carcase of a Yellowthroated

Sparrow for identification, in the year 1906

or thereabouts. It was largely the fatherly en-

couragement I received from him at the time,

and continuingly thereafter, that set me off

on a lifetime of enjoyable and rewarding bird

study.

Norman Boyd Kin near 1882-1957 (Vol. 54:

928 — photo) by S. H. Prater

The son of C. H. G. Kinnear an Edinburgh

architect, he started his natural history car-

eer as a voluntary worker in the Royal Scot-

tish Museum at Edinburgh under the expert

guidance of Dr. Eagle Clarke, the Director,

and a distinguished ornithologist. He came

out to India in 1907 as the Society’s first sti-

pendiary Curator to organize and look after

the considerable zoological collections, parti-

cularly of vertebrates, that had been amassed

by its enthusiastic amateur members from all

over the erstwhile ‘Indian Empire’ during the

first quarter century or so of the Society’s

progress and development. Till then this mass

of material, housed in the Society’s rooms at

6 Apollo Street, was looked after and main-

tained by several keen and devoted amateurs

who gave up their evenings after office hours

to this work — and one callow youth fresh from

school who served as a general factotum!

Kinnear gave invaluable service to the

Society by placing the whole of its museum

on a sound scientific basis through the re-

arrangement, labelling and cataloguing of the

collections. His gift for organization and

meticulous attention to detail not only bene-

fitted the museum as a whole but also con-

tributed substantially to the training of the

small staff working under him. He also pro-

vided more effective assistance to members

of the Society who sought his help, and gene-

rally guided the work in directions which pro-

duced greater scientific gains. Kinnear threw

himself wholeheartedly into the direction and

control of the systematic survey of the Mam-

mals of India, Burma and Ceylon which the

Society had started with the preliminary spade-

work of Millard. He identified the geographi-

cal areas that needed to be worked by the

collectors with special coverage of those

where earlier mammalogists had obtained

Types but which were missing, with a view to

replacing them by Topotypes. To him fell the

arduous task of assembling the enormous col-

lections obtained by the Mammal Survey; of

provisionally identifying and cataloguing them

and arranging for their despatch to the British

Museum in London. The great advances in

systematic mammalogy through the medium

of the Survey were largely due to Kinnear’s

organization and the painstaking care with

which the preliminary work was carried out.

During World War I when Kinnear was at-

tached to Brigade Headquarters in Bombay

as Intelligence Officer, he constantly encourg-

ed members of the Society serving with the

Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia to make

collections of mammals, birds, reptiles and

insects for the Society and kept up a volumi-

565

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

nous and painstaking correspondence of help-

ful instructions, advice and guidance with

them. He found time to prepare a pamphlet

on the ‘Animals of Mesopotamia’ for circu-

lating among the officers and men and thus

provided an invaluable reference book for all

those who were collecting specimens. The

scientific results of the large zoological col-

lections so accumulated appeared in a series

of papers in the Society’s Journal between the

years 1918 and 1923 and are a fitting tribute

to Kinnear’s intimate involvement in the en-

terprise. To his building the Society owes the

progress and development of its museum on

sound scientific lines, and the staff the train-

ing which stood them in such good stead in

after years. Kinnear, who during his tenure

as Curator also served as one of the editors

of the Journal, resigned his post in 1919 to

take up a special appointment as assistant in

the Bird Department of the British Museum

where he steadily rose to become Assistant

Keeper of Zoology and then Keeper, finally

ending up as Director of the Museum in 1947.

He had contributed outstandingly to the pro-

gress of the Society and is remembered by

all who knew him as a kindly and generous

helper and friend. Since Kinnear’s resignation

the Society had undertaken the Vernay Scien-

tific Survey of the Eastern Ghats, an area

whose ornithology was very imperfectly

known. The important bird collections ob-

tained by this Survey were worked out by him

in collaboration with Hugh Whistler, another

distinguished ornithologist, and the results are

published in the Society’s Journal under their

joint authorship. Kinnear was knighted in

1950.

Philip McDonell Sanderson 1884-1957

(Vol. 54: 930 — photo) by R. A. Spence

The son of Launcelot Sanderson a former

master of Harrow School. He came out to

India in 1905 to join the firm of Phipson &

Co. the partners in which, H. M. Phipson and

W. S. Millard, were responsible for the nurture

of the Society’s Journal and museum. With

Phipson and Millard as co-workers, it was

natural that Sanderson took an interest in the

Natural History Society’s affairs, and this was

increased when Norman Kinnear came out to

work in the Society’s museum in 1907. He

joined up on the outbreak of World War I

in 1914 and saw service in Mesopotamia

where he was badly wounded during the

trench battles for the relief of Kut. He was

a popular officer, and “Because he was so

thin he was known among his men as ‘Pull-

through’ and to us, from the resemblance of

his nose to the Great Hornbill in Phipson’ s

office, as ‘The Bird’.”

When W. S. Millard left India in March

1920, Sanderson joined R. A. Spence as Joint

Honorary Secretary of the Society and, with

Norman Kinnear, the three edited the Journal.

In 1934 he became the sole Honorary Secre-

tary and edited the Journal with the help of

S. H. Prater and later, Salim Ali. Sanderson

was very keen on Prater’s work to make a real

Museum of Natural History in the Prince

of Wales Museum, and he had the privilege

of running the arrangements for the Golden

Jubilee of the Society in 1933 and the formal

opening of the Natural History section. He

left India in 1939 on the outbreak of the

Second War, and later took over from Mil-

lard as the Society’s representative in England.

Sanderson was a good natured extrovert,

hail-fellow-well-met with all visitors to the

Society’s rooms, and in many ways a useful

public relations man for the Society. But his

uninhibited light-hearted banter sometimes un-

wittingly landed the Society in awkward situ-

ations, as for instance in the case of the long

566

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Salim Ali : BNHS

Pi ait III

■■HI

Philip McDonell Sanderson

1884-1957

Reginald A. Spence

1880-1961

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate IV

Salim Ali : BNHS

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

forgotten review of a pot-boiler shikar book

published in the Journal which led to the

Society and the reviewer having to pay con-

siderable legal damages to the allegedly ag-

grieved author years afterwards! He was a

keen yachtsman and small game hunter, but

left no significant mark as a naturalist or in

his capacity as Honorary Secretary since he

left the running of the Society largely in the

able hands of the Curator, S. H. Prater.

Stanley Henry Prater 1890-1960 (Vol. 57:

637 — photo) by Salim Ali

Born in the Nilgiris, died in London, the

son of William Prater, a coffee planter in S.

India. From his early schooldays in Khandala

he came under the influence and tutelage of

such distinguished Jesuit naturalists as the

Rev. Fathers Dreckmann (snakes), Assmuth

(termites) and Blatter (plants), who fostered

his interest in natural history. Prater joined

the Society’s service in 1907, first working

under the guidance of E. Comber and later as

assistant to the first stipendiary Curator, N.

B. Kinnear. After a 4-years’ probationary

period following the latter’s resignation in

1919 Prater was confirmed as Curator of the

Society and of the Natural History Section

of the Prince of Wales Museum which was

then under its management. To qualify him

for the stewardship of a really first class na-

tural history museum, which the Prince of

Wales aimed to become, he was deputed by

the Board of Trustees in 1923 to the United

Kingdom to learn the art of modern taxider-

my, and in 1927 he was again sent abroad

I to study the techniques of modern natural

history museum exhibition and management

in England and America. The fruits of all

the skill and aptitude he thus acquired are

evidenced by the artistically designed exhibi-

tion galleries and the superb dioramas, in the

Natural History Section, acclaimed to be the

finest in the East. The outstanding progress

made by the Society between the years 19

and 1937 was due entirely to the dynamic

combination of two dedicated personalities,

namely Sir Reginald Spence and S. H. Prater,

the former as Honorary Secretary of the

Society and Chairman of the Board of Trustees

of the Prince of Wales Museum, and the latter

as the versatile Curator. He possessed the gift

of transmitting the knowledge and experience

gained abroad to his co-workers and staff in

a way that extracted their whole-hearted co-

operation and helped to achieve the highest

results. The Natural History Section is a stand-

ing monument to Prater’s genius. He was for-

tunate in having as his lieutenant an excep-

tionally competent naturalist and skilful crafts-

man in the person of Charles McCann. Mc-

Cann readily lapped up the imported techni-

ques, adapted them to local needs and con-

ditions, and put them into masterly execution

in the museum’s galleries.

For nearly a quarter of a century prior to

his retirement in 1948 Prater’s name was al-

most synonymous with the Bombay Natural

History Society. For the last 27 years of his

service he was the executive editor of the

Journal and was largely responsible for the

high standard and international recognition it

earned as the foremost natural history perio-

dical in Asia. He was a voracious reader,

particularly of natural history books and

journals, and had a flair for guzzling through

heavy scientific literature, then picking out the

essentials of what he read and translating the

substance into simple jargon-free language for

the layman. He was blessed with a remark-

ably retentive memory and could usually lay

his hands on anything he had read on a sub-

ject, maybe years before, without hesitation

567

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

or fumbling. Prater’s forte was compilation —

an art in which he excelled. He wrote in a

readable, easy and often humorous style, and

his many contributions in the Journal convey

an idea of the wide range of his natural his-

tory interests and his versatility. The familia-

rity he acquired with the Society’s natural

history collections during his long stewardship

gave him a wonderful all round grasp of

Indian animals. Though his own leanings

were more particularly towards mammals,

birds and snakes he was equally at home with

almost all other groups, and could not only

name straightway practically any specimen

brought in by members, but usually also give

something of their distribution and habits.

His intimate involvement with mammals dur-

ing the Society’s Mammal Survey between

1911 and 1923, both as a field collector and

while handling specimens as they came in

from the field or back from the British

Museum after identification, accounts largely

for the authenticity and success of his book

of Indian animals, first published by the

Society in 1948 and now in the 4th edition.

The crying need for wildlife preservation in

India was brought home to the public and

the government largely by his able exposition

in the Introduction to the admirable series

on ‘Wild Life Preservation in India’ which he

initiated in the Journal in 1935, and by his

constant ‘plugging’ of the problem through

numerous well-informed editorials, and news-

paper articles before and since. Prater was

in truth a remarkable man — capable, versa-

tile, sociable, ambitious, and a striver after

perfection as many of his handiworks clearly

show. His sociable disposition, keen sense of

humour and considerateness for his subordi-

nates and staff endeared him to all who came

in contact with him. He will deservedly en-

joy an honoured place in the annals of the

Society as one of its most stalwart and cap-

able builders.

Reginald A. Spence 1880-1961 (Vol. 58:

776) by Editors, JBNHS

Came out to Bombay in 1901 as assistant

in the firm of Phipson & Co. then under the

management of H. M. Phipson and W. S.

Millard. From the very beginning of the

Society Phipsons have been closely associated

with it. In keeping with this tradition Spence

took an active interest in the Society’s wel-

fare, and on Millard’s retirement from India

in 1920 took over as Honorary Secretary, con-

tinuing to serve in this capacity until he left

India in 1934. During this period the Society

expanded its activities in several fields includ-

ing the establishment of the Natural History

Section in the Prince of Wales Museum. This

was achieved predominantly through the un-

tiring efforts of Sir Reginald Spence who was

also Chairman of the Board of Trustees of

the Prince of Wales Museum. The negotia-

tions begun by his predecessors H. M. Phip-

son and W. S. Millard for the transfer to the

Government of Bombay of the financial res-

ponsibility for the housing and proper care

of the Society’s collections were finalized by

him, and detailed plans for the beautiful n

Natural History wing of the Prince of Wales

Museum were drawn up before he left India

though he was not here to see them actually

carried out. Spence’s genial personality won

him many friends, and the esteem in which

he was held by the public and the Government

was of immense value to the Society. Spence

was one of the editors of the Journal from

1907 to 1933. Towards the end, owing to the

increasing demands on his time by business

and public-spirited social work he had to

leave much of the actual editing to his col- l

568

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Salim Ali : BNHS

Norman Boyd Kinnear

(1882-1957)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Salim Ali : BNHS

Stanley Henry Prater

(1890-1960)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

leagues. His outstanding contributions to the

Journal , both written jointly with S. H. Pra-

ter, are ‘The fish supply of the west coast

of India’ (Vol. 34: 973, 35: 77) and ‘Game

fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the neigh-

bouring districts of the Bombay Presidency’

(Vol. 36: 29). He was knighted in the year

1926 and left India to settle in England in

1934.

{To be continued)

CHANGES IN THE BIRD FAUNA OF A FOREST AREA:

SIMLIPAL HILLS, MAYURBHANJ DISTRICT, AND

DHENKANAL DISTRICT, ORISSA

S. Dillon Ripley1

In this world of uncertainty, nothing is more

certain than the fact that no single state of

nature ever quite stays the same. Ecological

studies have shown over and over the fallacy

of surveying a spatial area of land or water,

documenting the population composition of

species, and from those terms of reference as-

suming that stability can be proved to have

been the rule at a later period of time. Such

fallacious assumptions have been developed

in the past in surveys by government agencies

for the setting up of parks or reserves.

As no accurate method seems to have been

devised for measuring the amount of space

which a complex of interacting species in

nature need to survive in balance, and to main-

tain a reproductive minimum critical size,

aside of course for some classic laboratory

observations, it seems likely that the study of

parks or reserves and their creation, is far

more complicated than previously thought,

and requires much further refinement. Biolo-

gical and ecological research, coupled with

the development of mathematical models

would seem to be a priority in assessing the

future of species themselves as well as the

preservation of suitable habitat.

A case in point may be the observations

made by Dr. Salim Ali, my wife and myself

in Mayurbhanj District, in the Simlipal Hills

of Orissa in February, 1975 and southwards.

Here we were fortunate enough to spend

three weeks of observation from Chahala in

1 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

20560, U.S.A.

the north, south to the Mahanadi River and

the adjacent Dhenkanal District. During this

visit we were the guests of the Government

of Orissa, whose forestry service, under then

Deputy Secretary Shri D. K. Chatterjee I.A.S.,

Mr. Jee, Chief Conservator of Forests, Mr.

Das, the Department Wildlife coordinator, all

were kindness itself. Our special thanks are

due to Shri Saroj Chaudury, the special Con-

servator of Wildlife and the great tiger autho-

rity, for his generosity and help to us during

our visit.

Dr. Salim Ali and I had both visited and

made observations in the hills of northern

Orissa in 1947, twenty-eight years before. We

thus, in perhaps a somewhat crude way, were

able to compare observations of the occurrence

of bird species in the same area over a quar-

ter century apart. Obviously these notes are

perhaps of only marginal significance, but it

seems worthwhile to write them here, due to

the paucity of field observations in this inter-

esting area. It is to be hoped that Salim Ali’s

collections of 1947 will eventually be at least

listed with localities, and published in order

to give a baseline against which to judge later

collecting and field observations. In my own

case observations alone must suffice.

Once we entered the reserved forest areas

of the Simlipal Hills of Mayurbhanj on Feb-

ruary third, 1975, it became rapidly appar-

ent that we were in a virtual monoculture

situation. The tropical dry deciduous or moist

deciduous forests of these areas are comple-

tely dominated by a monotonous planting of

570

CHANGES IN THE BIRD FAUNA OF A FOREST AREA

sal, Shorea robusta, which has been rigorously

cultivated as a dominant forest product. Rela-

tively mature plantations of these trees ranging

in age from 25-60 years occupy the landscape

as an exercise in silviculture. The understorey

in these vast stretches of plantation is similar-

ly monotonous with strobilanthes, ferns and

grasses present being dominant, presumably

due to fire and man-made clearing. As Cham-

pion and Seth state (1968:121), “Planned

forest management has intensified its (sal)

dominance in many areas by selective remo-

val of other competing species.” However,

these authors do not speculate on the conse-

quences of this enforced dominance.

Here and there one can still find small irre-

gularities, nullahs where sal has not been

planted. In these nullahs depending on steep-

ness and general size, may be found patches

of so-called “miscellaneous forest,” in the

forester’s term, and here remnant samplings

of tropical moist deciduous forest species

occur. Here we found rattan and pandanus,

examples of Terminalias, Bombax, Cassia fis-

tula, Adina, Erythrina and Dillenia as ex-

amples.

Whether these patches represent original

forest or are secondary, the result of shallow

stony soil conditions, exposure, erosion and

cutting through activities of the Kohl and

Khariya people is hard to say. Some of each

tribal group have now been employed for two

generations in the promotion of these forest

reserves, and the forests are continually be-

ing seasonally burned and cleared of under-

growth. In any case, here and there one had

at least a temporary impression that in the

thickest parts of these clumps along a stream

bed, there still occurs a microclimate approa-

ching the tropical semi-evergreen type of

vegetation, especially in the presence of a few

stands of climbers like rattan. Calamus ssp..

Pandanus, and bamboos, including the thorny

B. arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus, and

Imperata grass.

In 1947, these stands of sal were less pre-

valent in the sense that much less of the plan-

tation form was in evidence, more mixed

jungle remained, and consequently there was

a different, less parklike, less artificial situa-

tion. Both of us were struck by the extreme

paucity of birds in the thick stands of sal. We

were impressed by the occurrence of birds

along the stream beds and remnant patches of

miscellaneous forest. Only here and there

flowering bushes, W oodfordia or Indigofera

were left along the roadside, might one see

small birds such as sunbirds or honeyeaters

attracted to feed, passing through the sal

plantation enroute.

A good deal of current literature concerns

the important observation that, “the diversity

of bird species increases with increasing vege-

tation diversity,” (Mulsow 1977), although

most of the current studies are being under-

taken in temperate Western Europe and North

America. Bezzel (1974, 1976, 1977) has stu-

died breeding bird populations with grid-

mapping and has shown clearly that uncheck-

ed economic expansion affects bird popula-

tions directly. Therefore “the quality of an

environment can be measured by its birdlife,”

and ecological planning as well as impact

assessment can be developed through bird

study. This is paralleled in the work of Rei-

chholf (1973-1976) on butterflies, Egloff and

Brakel (1973) on stream pollution and a

diversity index, Tramer and Rogers (1973) on

fish population in streams, and Woodwell

(1974) on biotic impoverishment, and numer-

ous other papers such as Lack and Lack

(1951).

In our own case we had fourteen days of

observations in these areas of reserved forest.

571

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

In the sal plantation areas, we found on the

average only the following species working

their way through the mid-storey of the forest

below the closed leafy canopy (for in this area

sal has only a two to three week period of

being deciduous at the end of the dry season) :

I. Species observed in sal plantations.

Number (from synopsis, 1961)

501. Treron bicincta

987. Sturnus malabaricus

1067. Tephrodornis virgatus

1070. Tephrodornis gularis

1091. Pericrocotus cinnamomeus

1264a. Turdoides striatus (flocks pass through sal

plantations)

1419. Muscicapa westermanni

1448. Culicicapa ceylonensis

1503. Prinia hodgsonii

1590. Phylloscopus inornatus

1838. Sitta frontalis

1892. Dicaeum agile (flowering bushes, e.g. Wood-

fordia )

1917. Nectarinia asiatica „ „ „

1927. Aethopyga siparaja „ „ „

1933. Zostero ps pal pebrosa

1949. Petronia xanthocollis

II. Species observed in “miscellaneous

forest”, i.e. tropical dry deciduous and patches

of tropical moist deciduous, perhaps the clos-

est to “moist peninsular valley sal” of Cham-

pion and Seth (1968). I exclude open coun-

try species observed during our visit such as

waterbirds including lapwings, owlets such as

Athene brama, bush-larks, jungle crow, com-

mon bulbuls, migrant shrikes, pipits and wag-

tails, seen frequently along streams in winter.

The following list then is essentially of the

closed forest:

1 Picus canus gyldenstolpei represents a new re-

cord for Mayurbhanj District, another example

of the presence in the northern Orissa hills of

Himalayan foothill species such as the bulbul,

Pycnonotus melanicterus flaviventris, or such

II. Species of patches of closed forest

138. Accipiter badius

211. Falco peregrinus

278. Galloper dix lunulata

299. Gallus gallus

504. Treron phoenicoptera

511. Ducula badia

542. Chalcophaps indica

557. Psittacula cyanocephala (on flowering

trees)

617. Otus scops

631. Bubo zeylonensis

636. Glaucidium radiatum

642. Ninox scutulata

67 1 . Caprimulgus indicus

682. Caprimulgus affinis

709. Hemiprocne longipennis

710. Harpactes fasciatus

775. Anthracoceros coronatus (heard locally

but now increasingly rare due to human

predation for medicinal purposes.)

780. Megalaima zeylanica (forest patches in

Mayurbhanj)

784. Megalaima lineata (forest patches in

Dhenkanal dist. possibly replacing zeyla-

nica?)

792. Megalaima haemacephala

799. Picumnus innominatus

810. Picus canus 1

813. Picus flavinucha

814. Picus chlorolophus

830. Dryocopus javensis (seen in Dhenkanal

dist.)

847. Picoides mahrattensis

851. Picoides nanus

861. Chrysocoiaptes lucidus

972. Dicrurus remifer

973. Dicrurus paradiseus

1009. Acridotheres fuscus

1017. Gracula religiosa (only in Dhenkanal dist.)

1032. Dendrocitta vagabunda

1065. Hemipus picatus

1083. Pericrocotus flammeus

babblers as Stachyris ruficeps and Dumetia, and

Macronous gularis implying a recent distribution

since the last colder, pluvial period with no sub-

specific or recognizable differentiation.

CHANGES IN THE BIRD FAUNA OF A FOREST AREA

It is possible to state unequivocally that the

bird species enumerated above preferred the

“miscellaneous forest”,, tended to be confined

there, and would be found in sal plantations

only enroute from one preferred patch of

habitat to another, or if, occasionally an iso-

lated older climax forest tree should be for

some random reason left isolated amidst the

sal, and at the same time be in fruit or in

flower. This would be an accident if it occurr-

ed. Thus our observations showed that some

fifty-five species of forest birds in their habi-

tat in Orissa are now confined to strips or

2 The record of Phylloscopus tytleri in forest near

the Mahanadi River in Dhenkanal District is an

interesting one as it extends the winter range

considerably east from the Tapti River in M.P.

ribbons of forest preserved by accident in so-

called “reserved forest”. This represents a

factor of more than three to one in abundance

of species compared to the sal plantations.

Their presence is not a function of the reserv-

ed forest itself. Thus reserved forest in the

sense of the term is a human artifact and not

a habitat for wildlife except by accident.

Forest cultivation can therefore not be des-

cribed as being in the first instance beneficial

to wildlife, and an important lesson in the

future survival of wild species has still to be

learned. How much “miscellaneous forest” or

preferred habitat for species diversity must be

maintained to prevent the gradual erosion of

native fauna and flora in the Indian subcon-

tinent? Research in this subject is a priority,

for it implies preservation of far more than

merely obvious species such as birds, but

rather all the elements in the food chain which

make for natural diversity including soil con-

stitution chemistry, and the entire web of in-

teractions between rock, soil, bacteria, inver-

tebrates and lower plants.

Meanwhile what of the birds we did not

see? In open country vultures and kites were

notable by their absence. Cuckoos were scarce,

certain owls (our search for Athene hlewitti

was unavailing, Ripley 1976) were not seen,

small kingfishers, and of course many passe-

rines of numerous families and subfamilies

which might occur seasonally or merely be

overlooked. The net impression, however, was

one of scarcity, with little if any song, and

small aggregations of feeding flocks. These

observations indicate the importance of field

work which would include grid mapping,

range plotting and extensive sampling to deter-

mine biotope health and prospects for conti-

nued environmental health all over India.

573

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

References

Bezzel, E. (1977) : Zur Zusammensetzung von

Landvogelgesellschaften in der Agrarlandschaft.

Journ. /. Ornith. 118 (3): 307-8.

(1976) : Vogel als Bewertungskriter-

ien fur Schutzgebiete-einige einfache Beispiele aus

der Planungspraxis. Natur und Landschaft 51 (3) :

73-78.

— and Ranftl, H. (1974): Vogelwelt

und Landschaftsplanung. Eine Studie aus dem Wer-

denfelser Land (Bayern). Tier und Umwelt 11/12,

92 S. (English Summary 1974 Verlag Detlev Kurth,

Barmstedt: 86-87).

AND Reichholf, J. (1974): Die Di-

versity als Kriterium zur Bewertung der Reichhal-

tigkeit von Wasservogel-Lebensraumen. Journ. f.

Ornith. 115 (1) : 50-61.

Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. K. (1968): A re-

vised survey of the Forest Types of India, Delhi:

Govt, of India Press.

Egloff, D. A. and Brakel, W. H. (1973) : Stream

pollution and a simplified diversity index. Journ.

Water Poll. Control Fed. 45:2269-2275.

Lack, D. and Lack, E. (1951) : Further changes

in bird-life caused by afforestation. Journ. Anim.

Ecol. 20:173-179.

Moss, D. (1978) : Song-bird populations in For-

estry Plantations. Quart. Journ. Forestry 72: 5-14.

Reichholf, J. (1973): Die Bedeutung nicht be-

wirtschafteter Wiesen fur unsere Tagfalter. Natur

und Landschaft 48 (3) : 80-81.

(1975) : Vogel als Bioindikatoren.

Jahres. Deutsch. Orn. Ges. Wien, Kurz. d. Vort:

34-35.

Ripley, S. D. (1976) : Reconsideration of

Athene blewitti (Hume). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

73 (1) : 1-4.

Tramer, E. J. and Rogers, P. M. (1973): Diver-

sity and Longitudinal Zonation in Fish Populations

of Two Streams Entering a Metropolitan Area.

Amer. Midi. Nat. 90:366-374.

Woodwell G. M. (1974) : The Limits of Im-

poverishment. Amer. Assn. Assoc. Sci. Symposium

on Endangered Species. San Francisco, Feb. 28.

FOREST DAYS

Tom Norman1

For fourteen years from 1947 to 1961 my

wife and I had the privilege of living beside

the forest that used to form a continuous belt

between Naga Hills and the Assam Valley.

Much of this forest was outside the Naga

Hills District inner line, belonging administra-

tively to the appropriate Assam Valley Dis-

tricts, and covering both plains areas and the

lower foothills. Like all the rain forests of

S. E. Asia it teemed with a huge variety of

wildlife, from elephant and sambar, birds and

magnificent orchids, down to innumerable in-

vertebrate species. Being a continuous belt,

often many miles broad, it formed a corridor

within which wildlife had free movement for

several hundred miles, and was a self-sufficient

eco-system. Now, alas, much of the forest has

been cleared for cultivation from both sides

of the inner line, and in the narrower parts

of the belt the two clearances have met, turn-

ing the former corridor into a series of forest

islands and causing the isolation of wildilfe

populations. We must be thankful for what

little remains, however much we may regret

what has been lost. Sadly we must accept that

for the present unfettered evolution in the

world’s rain forests has come to an end, to

be replaced by a quite different form of evo-

lution in isolated populations: it has been

well worked out with regard to oceanic islands

in particular that this sort of isolation leads

to a rapid reduction in the total number of

species and eventually to a high degree of

specialisation amongst many of those that

remain. Even if the Assam Government had

1 The Old Rectory, Winterborne Houghton,

Blandford, Dorset DT11 OPD.

been years ahead of world thinking on con-

servation, and had been able and willing to

prevent forest destruction within its adminis-

trative boundary, breaks in the forest belt

would still have occurred as a result of the

Nagas pushing outwards and eventually tak-

ing over (and destroying) what were former-

ly Reserved Forests belonging to the plains

Districts. Not only has evolution been inter-

rupted: we shall now never see and record

many species, some at least of which would

have been of the greatest taxonomic and gene-

tic importance. Even in a group as well known

as butterflies, as late as the fifties and in an

area as accessible as the forests of Sibsagar

District, I was able to find very distinct spe-

cies new to science.

Nostalgia and sadness for the happiness of

past days and for so many losses in the con-

servation battle have nearly diverted me from

what I had planned to be the theme of this

article — the pleasantness and above all the

safety of India’s north-eastern rains forests,

a fact which one cannot take for granted in

many other parts of the world. For the four-

teen years we were in Assam my wife and I

spent every available spare hour in the forest.

Given reasonable weather, we spent the whole

of Sunday there and one afternoon a week,

as well as our annual holiday of two weeks;

and since my practice lay for 20 miles along

the forest belt I was frequently able to have

my lunch in the forest on working days. In

all this time I can remember only two inci-

dents of real fright and perhaps half a dozen

others when the adrenalin began to circulate

rather too fast for comfort. Normally, un-

575

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

we certainly never gave it a thought.

Of the minor nuisances, leeches and mos-

quitoes were always with us. Liberal appli-

armed and unescorted, we felt as safe as in

our own compound. Such safety from attack

at all levels is taken for granted in India, and

cations of di-methyl-phthalate (which has the

unfortunate property of dissolving nylon) kept

most of the attacking hordes at bay, but a few

always got through our defences and we sel-

dom returned without blood dripping from

our feet and ankles. Nothing looks more cosy

than a leech comfortably embedded between

the toes! One very quickly learnt that the

quickest and easiest way to deal with an at-

tached leech was to lift it off with a finger

nail under the sucker. The bite is going to

go on bleeding in whatever way you may

remove the creature since it has already in-

jected anti-coagulant for this very purpose:

the story that the bleeding is caused by leav-

ing its mouthparts behind unless it has been

caused to release its hold voluntarily, by e.g.,

the application of a lighted cigarette end, is

a zoological myth. In previous times there had

always been the danger that a leech bite would

become infected and develop into a tropical

ulcer (“Naga Sore” in Assam), but this un-

pleasant disease virtually disappeared in the

late forties. When thinking of invertebrates

I am sure that we in India were never suffi-

ciently thankful for the absence of another

pest, the various species of Schistosoma, so

that we were able to wade or bathe in any

fresh water with no danger of contracting bil-

harziasis — the scourge of fresh waters in Afri-

ca and further east in Asia. Neither did we

have crocodiles lying in wait for us on mud-

banks, nor shoals of piranhas to tear the flesh

from our bones in deeper water. Scorpions I

only met once in the forest, in a pile of shingle

deposited by a prospecting oil company, a

man-made habitat in any case. The large spi-

ders which lurked in the tea and bit our

labourers, with such unfortunate results, were

never apparent in the forest, and we were

mercifully spared the horror of the Black

Widow and other lethally poisonous S. Ame-

rican and Australian spiders. On the same

plane of nuisance value as the leech was the

tree ant {Oecophylla smaragdina), whose first

reaction is to nip whatever comes in its way.

Brushing against one of its walk-ways, or re-

ceiving a cascade over one’s head after a high

shot for some choice Arhopala, were experi-

ences not forgotten in a hurry, even if, as

with spiders, our Indian ants are not a real

danger to man as are certain southern hemi-

sphere species. Possibly the worst and least

avoidable invertebrate menace was the danger

of walking into a hanging wasps’ nest when

pushing through thick under-storey or secon-

dary scrub. I did indeed do this on several

occasions and eventually developed a danger-

ous allergy, so that wasps became for me an

ever present anxiety and I had numerous near-

misses.

Have you ever heard of anyone dying from

snake bite in an Assam forest, or even receiv-

ing a serious bite? I have heard mythical tales

of people being chased by hamadryads, but

the fact that these tales do not end in disaster

speaks for itself. During nine months in North

Borneo (now Sabah) we saw more snakes in

the forest than during the whole of our 14

years in Assam, and had five narrow escapes

from poisonous bites whereas we had never

been near to being bitten in Assam — as far

as we knew!

One thinks of the plant kingdom as being

harmless, and in Assam we were only bother-

ed by a “nettle” (whose name I never knew)

with glabrous leaves. Contact with these large

but inconspicuous plants gave no immediate

576

FOREST DAYS

warning sting but for a week afterwards there

was the most intense burning irritation with-

out any visible skin reaction. I would very

much like to know the mechanism of this.

We were spared such horrors as the poison

ivy of America or the poison-dripping tree of

the Borneo forests. I keep an open mind on

natural phenomena, and whilst accepting ob-

served facts I find that the deduced cause is

not always correct, so I was distinctly curious

about this tree. The story went that a man

could take shelter under it during a rain

storm and would later develop a massive der-

matitis and die. Eventually I saw one such

case who was desquamating and ulcerating

over his entire body surface — fortunately he

was cured with modern drugs and good

nursing. These things can happen from nu-

merous causes, but he stated that he had in

fact been caught in a storm beneath the sus-

pected tree. I obtained a piece of the wood

and rubbed it on my forearm, giving myself

a blister and later a patch of dermatitis which

remained for many months; and it was only

then I realised that the itchy blisters around

my ankles were caused by dead leaves from

this same tree scuffed from the forest floor

into my socks.

Looking back on our times in the forest

I am sure we put ourselves in greatest danger

by the quietness of our progress. We were

both engrossed in our own pursuits — mainly

butterflies for me and birds for my wife and

did not talk much, and in any case did not

make unnecessary noise in order to avoid

disturbing the life around us. Our few real

frights were indeed due to this cause, and I

suppose we were fortunate never to round a

bend and find ourselves facing a tiger, as hap-

pened to a friend. Of the larger animals the

commonest and potentially the most dangerous

was the elephant. It was a common experience

to find ourselves close to or even in the midst

of a feeding herd, when the danger would

have been from a panic reaction if we had

been discovered suddenly. Much more fright-

ening, because of the lack of warning, was to

be moving quietly through the forest and

suddenly to realise that the stock-still shape

not far ahead was a lone tusker: a dignified

and unhurried retreat and avoidance of that

sector of the forest for the rest of the day

was sufficient on all but one memorable oc-

casion. On the day in question we had gone

with two friends and our dog for an evening

walk down our nearest forest track. This was

a time of day I usually avoided because my-

opes do not see well in the fading light, but

there was always the chance of something

unusual — there might be a crepuscular Hes-

periid, and it was at dusk along this track

that we had seen a peacock pheasant ( Poly -

plectron bicalcaratum) displaying to his mate.

We had turned towards home again when we

realised that a large tusker was occupying the

track — and we had no feasible alternative

route back to the safety of the land rover.

He appeared to be comfortably set to medi-

tate there all night, so we tried shouting, which

he gave no sign of hearing. Foolishly perhaps,

but the light was rapidly going and we had

a fair distance still to walk, we then lobbed

stones onto the track near him, and this sti-

mulated him into immediate action — in the

wrong direction! — for he began to chase us.

I have never had such a nightmare experience,

and just as in a true nightmare my legs seem-

ed to have turned to lead and refused to ans-

wer my will, but although they felt numb

they carried me round the next few bends,

by which time our pursuer had apparently

lost interest and left the track. There remained

the problem of what he was doing since he

was by now perfectly silent. In any case we

577

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

really had no alternative to returning quietly

back towards the land rover — with further

moments of panic when our dog slipped off

to investigate in the bamboos.

Leopards were as rare as tigers were plenti-

ful, and I always hoped that the latter would

not be lying up too near human or game

tracks or that their very keen senses would

alert them before we had approached too

close. We saw fresh tracks most days, but

this was the closest we ever got while on foot.

We were never on foot in buffalo country, but

our second major fright was caused by walk-

ing into the middle of a herd of resting gaur.

We were walking quietly along a game path

through moderately high grass between a salt

lick and the near-by river when there was an

upheaval like an earthquake all around us —

which ended before we fully realised what

had happened, leaving us with a fleeting im-

pression of the grass erupting with large dark,

white- stockinged, forms. We could have wish-

ed for a more leisurely view, from a slightly

safer distance, of the only herd of gaur in that

part of Assam! (This was, in fact, an import-

ant encounter, since it had not been certain

until then that the rumoured herd existed.)

The animals I have mentioned so far have

all been creatures one would treat with res-

pect because of their size and strength as com-

pared with man, but the one which the older

generation of tea planters warned us to avoid

like a bogey was, curiously, the wild dog. It

was said to be the most dangerous animal in

Assam, invariably attacking man on sight and

killing him by weight of numbers. This always

seemed to us most unlikely. The literature did

not support these stories, nor did contempo-

raries intimately familiar with forest life, such

as E. P. Gee. His experience was the same

as ours: on the few occasions when we met

the wild dog face to face it was just as anxious

to escape from the proximity of man as is any

other forest animal.

The most potent cause of fear is the un-

known: the crashing in the forest around you

no longer causes panic when you know that

it is nothing worse than elephants, which you

have met many times before and with which

you are familiar. Quite different are the

noises one cannot place, and of these I can

recall two very clearly. On the first occasion

we were going up a yard wide dry nadi in

heavily forested hills near Moreh on the

Manipur-Burma border. Ahead of us we could

hear something moving over the dry leaves,

and then we realised that it was steadily ap-

proaching. By this time I had made a personal

rule never to go back, whatever was heard in

the surrounding forest — it would generally be

harmless or minding its own business, but

meanwhile, whatever was approaching us?

There had been talk in the bazaar the previ-

ous evening about a tiger which had taken

a cow — or could it be a bear? It grew ever

larger in imagination as the noise of trampl-

ing on the dry leaves increased in volume,

magnified explosively by the -surrounding still-

ness and the narrow cleft in the hillside. Final-

ly we stood still and awaited our fate — and a

couple of otters bounded into view! On

another occasion we were nearer home, walk-

ing along a small tributary of the Jhanzi

River. In front of us there was a screen of

thick bushes obscuring the approach to a large |

rock which ended a couple of feet from the

stream. From the hillside above the bushes

there was a ponderous tread coming slowly

towards us — again it was the dry season and

the hillside and the dead leaves exaggerated

sounds. We froze, and waited for what seem-

ed an age — to be rewarded by nothing more

578

FOREST DAYS

alarming than the snout of an outsize monitor

lizard appearing past the rock on its way to

the stream.

Of all the forest noises of our earlier years

the two most characteristic were made by

Man and his relations. The echoing call of the

hoolock gave us a cheerful welcome on each

visit to the forest, and in those days could

often be heard from our bungalow. Man him-

self, in the form of parties of Nagas going to

and from the local markets, made a sort of

low-pitched antiphonal grunt with a remark-

able carrying power. These parties of bare

breasted loin cloth’d Nagas ceased after the

start of the Naga War, just as the hoolocks

became much scarcer at about the same time.

Looking back, this was really the turning

point of our life in Assam. For obvious rea-

sons we could no longer obtain an inner line

permit for the nearest hills, nor for the very

exciting and relatively little known (in the

natural history sense) Angami country around

Jhakama and the high peaks of Japvo and

Tentpo. We had numerous friends amongst

the Nagas, some of whom turned up at my

hospitals in moments of medical crisis, and

I also employed most knowledgeable Ao and

Angami collectors. Quite suddenly all this

changed. The local Nagas no longer came to

the plains bazaars, and any parties we met

were likely to be armed and from the interior,

neither side being quite at ease at these forest

encounters. Perhaps we were foolish to con-

tinue our forest walks as before, but one has

to take life as it comes. We knew there was

no animus against us personally and that any

harm would be accidental, and unlikely — al-

though a party came down on one occasion

with the intention of kidnapping the manager

of the tea estate on which we lived, possibly

as a hostage.

Wherever we have lived we have always

seemed to be at the forest edge. We saw it

retreating fast in Assam, and even faster in

Borneo. Now here in England the fight con-

tinues for the small patches of woodland and

downland, wetland and heath that yet remain

“unimproved”. May you in India be able to

continue the magnificent work begun with

Kaziranga, the Gir Forest and other specific

sanctuaries, where individual species have al-

ready been saved from extinction, extending

the principle of conservation now to whole

ecosystems. Large areas of the old province

of Assam call for this treatment before it is

too late, and it would be a happy thought if

the proposed enlargement of the Manas Re-

serve could be regarded as the first step to-

wards such an extended reserve. This would

indeed be a fitting tribute to our loved and

distinguished past President, Dr. Salim Ali,

who more than any other person has made

wildlife conservation respectable in India and

India’s achievements known and respected

overseas, and to the late E. P. Gee to whom

the same words equally apply, particularly in

the context of Assam.

HOW MAN MODIFIES CLIMATE

Anna Mani1

Introduction

Large forests, vast expanses of water and

desert, and fertile soils are the products of

the general climate of the earth over which

man normally has no control. But man in the

process of reshaping his environment has

modified these features, by the destruction of

forests over large areas, the conversion of

arable land into pastures and agricultural

tracts, the drainage of large swamps, the con-

struction of large scale irrigation works, mani-

1. Contaminants

(a) condensation nuclei and particles

(b) gaseous admixtures

2. Cloudiness

3. Fog, winter

4. Precipitation

5. Relative Humidity

6. Radiation, global solar

7. Air Temperature, annual mean

8. Windspeed, annual mean

9. Sunshine duration

pulation of surface and ground water, and

urbanization and industrialization. Such acti-

vities have changed the physical and atmos-

pheric environment and affected its suitability

for human habitation and for agricultural

pursuits. The question which arises is whether

these activities of man have changed or will

change the climate of the locality or the re-

gion or even perhaps the climate of the whole

globe.

There is no doubt that whenever man chan-

1 Raman Research Institute, Bangalore 560 006.

ges the landscape he modifies the microcli-

mate of the area. Winds, air temperature and

humidity and soil moisture around a build-

ing or a ploughed field are different from those

in its natural surroundings. In a city or town

consisting of buildings, roads and paved areas,

the local climate is quite different from that

of surrounding areas. The effect or urbaniza-

tion on local climate is well documented and

the average changes in climatic parameters

caused by urbanization has been given by

Landsberg (1970) as follows: —

10 times more

5 to 25 times more

5 to 10 per cent more

100 per cent less

5 to 10 per cent more

2 per cent more

15 to 20 per cent less

0.5 to 1.0°C more

20 to 30 per cent less

5 to 15 per cent less

These climatic changes are caused by the

increased surface roughness, the changed al-

bedo, the accelerated run off of water and the

changed heat storage capacity in a city or

town, resulting from the replacement of forest

and fields by buildings and roads .But the

influence of these processes does not extend

significantly beyond the built-up areas.

Man’s activities influencing climate

The climate of a locality is usually defined

by the long term statistics of the variables

that describe the weather at the locality, such

HOW MAN MODIFIES CLIMATE

as temperature, rainfall, cloudiness, winds and

so on. Climate is conveniently represented by

the mean values and the variances of these

variables, provided such statistics are based

on records for at least 30 years (SMIC, 1971).

Man’s activities which can modify climate

are many. To the extent man destroys or

conserves forests, pollutes air and water, alters

the land surface and manipulates surface and

ground water and improves or exhausts soil

fertility he does control climatic factors local-

ly. Thousand of years before the Industrial

Revolution in the West and in countries where

industrialization is yet to take place, agricul-

tural and animal grazing practices have exer-

cised a profound influence on large regions of

the world.

Effect of deforestation

The earliest and most widespread modifi-

cations of the climate by man has thus been

quite inadvertently achieved by the conver-

sion of natural vegetation into arable land and

pastures. During the last eight thousand years

dense forests of the mountainous areas in

Europe and Asia have been cut down to meet

his agricultural needs. And the savannah grass-

lands of the tropics are entirely man-made.

Increasing areas have been converted from

steppe and forested steppe into arable land,

and grazing by domestic animals especially

goats have reduced parts of Africa and South

West Asia to semi-deserts. In India the con-

version of forests into arable land has predo-

minated and now covers at least 107 square

Km. In North West India an original steppe

has been changed into a semidesert without

any appreciable recent variation of precipita-

tion. Bryson (1971) has argued that the Raj-

putana desert is man-made. Noting that the

vertically integrated water vapour content is

comparable with that over some tropical forest

regions, he suggests that the tropospheric dust

loading from the desert has increased atmos-

pheric subsidence, this inhibiting precipitation.

Archaeological and pollen studies indicate that

the desert was relatively fertile several

thousand years ago and that it contained a

fresh water lake that supported an early civi-

lization. Deserts are apparently spreading with

speed of about 1 to 2 km per year depending

on the density of the population.

The problem is equally acute in the Hima-

laya, Western Ghats and the Nilgiris, where

the widespread use of wood for fuel and de-

forestation without adequate replanting has

led to permanent damage to the landscape,

water systems and normal patterns of run-off

and caused widespread erosion. Vast areas

of the Himalayan foothills have been stripped

of forest and only fragments remain. The

plains and lower hills are almost bare of vege-

tation of any kind. The only exception is in

northern Assam where the problem is less

severe on account of the smaller populations

and the immensity of the rain forests. The

natural cycle of precipitation, percolation,

evaporation and transpiration have been dis-

turbed by the drastic alteration of the vege-

tation cover, humidity and temperature of the

Western Ghats and Nilgiris which play a vital

ecological role affecting the climate and the

water regime of a vital hinterland.

It is even more acute in the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, whose unique tropical rain

forests are its richest natural endowment. The

removal of forests in the tropics where there

is considerable rainfall and where the vege-

tation depends for its existence on retaining

the essential minerals in a relatively thin layer

of humus can be disastrous. Surface run-off

under nonforest conditions may often result

in severe soil erosion and in flash floods down-

stream. The forests of the Andaman and Nico-

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

bar Islands are the only Indian forests that

have escaped the withering effect of interfer-

ence by man, fire and cattle till very recent

times. The introduction of colonisation since

independence had led to large-scale clearance

of dense forests in the Andaman group of

Islands and partly in the Nicobar group of

Islands. Due to the peculiar geological strata,

the sandy soils of the islands have no water

holding capacity and drainage is very rapid.

The extensive clearance of the dense forests

would naturally result in severe soil erosion

and expose the cleared areas to its ravages

and transformation into grasslands or barren

desert, after one or two growing seasons when

the highly weathered soils are devoid of their

ground cover and when the humus layer is

washed away.

Tropical Rain forests are a non-renewable

resource and the Government of India realis-

ing the importance of preserving this unique

heritage, appointed a multidisciplinary com-

mittee to carry out a comprehensive land use

capability survey and suggest measures to

protect and conserve these forests for future

generations. The Government also enforced a

moratorium on forest felling for settlement or

plantation agriculture in 1975. It is hoped

that legislation action will be taken to ensure

that substantial areas of the remaining virgin

forests are set aside and regarded as inviolate

and all offshore islands which have not suf-

fered substantial interference through tree fel-

ling or settlement are declared as nature re-

serves.

We should mention here that the destruc-

tion of a rain forest is almost an irreversible

process. Soil moisture is no longer retained

and in addition the soil dries rapidly and may

release clouds of dust into atmosphere chang-

ing the regional radiation balance.

Modification of the natural vegetation af-

fects several significant climatic parameters,

the surface roughness, the surface albedo and

the apportionment of the available net radi-

ation into sensible and latent heating of the

atmosphere. In the Rajputana Desert formerly

covered by vegetation, the ration of sensible

to latent heat is 2.0 to 6.0, while it is about

0.3 over tropical jungles. Destruction of forests

thus causes the replacement of large latent

heat sources by large sensible heat sources and

might have a significant effect on the gener-

ation and dissipation of tropical easterly

waves. This deforestation might also affect the

dynamics of the general circulation through

a series of non-linear interactions (SMIC

1970).

Forests modify climate, not only in the area

they occupy, but also around them. Within a

forest, the air and soil mean temperature are

lower, humidities higher, light intensities 50-

90 per cent less and precipitation as much as

25% higher, evaporation 1/3 to 1/2 that in

the open and winds 70-90% less depending

on its penetration.

More than the actual effect in precipitation

the effect on its destination by forests in great-

er. By breaking the violence of rain, increas-

ing the absorptance capacity of the soil cover,

preventing erosion and checking surface run-

off, forests increase underground seepage in

general. Forest soils have great water holding

capacity and precipitation, which without the

forest cover is rapidly disposed of by surface

run off, is retained in the soil. The connec-

tion between forests and groundwater needs

to be emphasized. Forests being much less

compact than comparable grassland or open

soils, it absorbs all available rainfall during

the wet months and releases the water slowly

during the dry months. The Famine Commis-

sion of 1880 had referred to many areas, where

several streams which had been extant for

582

HOW MAN MODIFIES CLIMATE

decades had dried up, because of the cutting

down of forests in surrounding regions. Forests

may not increase total precipitation but cer-

tainly help to dispose of it more economically

and more fruitfully than does land devoid of

forest.

The influence of forests on local climate is

best illustrated by shelter belts placed at right

angles to prevailing winds, which reduce winds

on both the wind and leeward sides, resulting

in reduction of evaporation, lowering of tem-

perature, increasing humidity and soil mois-

ture.

Although statistical evidence on the effect

of deforestation on climate is lacking, it has

been observed that temperature is 1-2°C lower

in the forest than over denuded areas, average

wind speeds 7-10 times as great on denuded

areas in winter and 30-40 times greater in

summer and precipitation 17-18% greater. The

climate differences except in precipitation can

be attributed definitely to forest denudation.

The disastrous effects of floods have also

been observed in two watersheds, one of which

retains its protective cover and the other is

burnt. Both watersheds had the same preci-

pitation during one storm; while flood waters

swept out of the burnt valley and through a

town destroying 200 homes and taking 34

lives, in the unburnt valley, just a few kilo-

metres away, the storm was easily handled by

the existing channel and there was neither

flood nor water damage.

Effect of air pollution

One of the most clearly evident influences

of man on his environment is his direct cont-

amination of the atmosphere, by injecting

gaseous and solid affluents into the air. The

increase in the particulate load of the atmos-

phere arises from both industrial activity, trans-

portation and the burning of waste crops and

vegetation, a practice in many tropical area for

many thousands of year. Particles scatter and

absorb solar radiation and also have an effect

on the outgoing infrared radiation from the

surface. So these man-made products will in-

fluence the heat balance over wide areas.

The primary contributions to atmospheric

dust are soil and rock debris from the arid

regions of the world, which have their greatest

expanses in the mid-latitudes of the northern

hemisphere. Man has played a part in creat-

ing this source of dust, particularly in the de-

serts of northern Africa and south west and

central Asia. In India, measurements over the

Rajasthan desert have shown the dust to ex-

tend to heights of 10 km over north and central

India in summer and the particle concentration

to be as high as 1200 /*g/ cm.3 The dust was seen

to be mostly silica or sand on analysis. Meas-

urements of atmospheric turbidity at a num-

ber of stations in India during the last two

decades have shown a two to four fold in-

crease in the particulate load, particularly in

more highly industrialised regions (Mani et al.

1971). A measurement -of condensation nuclei

and dust content have also shown a seven fold

increase since 1930 (Mani & Huddar 1972)

at Poona.

It is also well known that the carbon diox-

ide content of the global atmosphere has been

rising due to the burning of fossil fuels such

as coal, petroleum and natural gas and it is

expected that it will go up by another 20%

by 2000 A.D.

Surface transportation of people and foods

contributes to the modification of the climate

in two ways, first by emission into the atmos-

phere of particulate and gaseous exhaust pro-

ducts that can impact on radiation fields and

precipitation and second by the modification

of the reflective and thermal properties of the

land surface by highways. The land surface

583

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

covered by roads in a developed country such

as the United States is 1% of the whole coun-

try, a not insignificant quantity.

Automobiles contribute approximately half

of some air pollutants observed in US cities

and the same is true of other industrialized

countries. In India the number of automobiles

is a small fraction of those in the West but

the exhausts from vehicles on Indian roads

are many times those of the automobiles in

the West, where strict laws on exhaust control

and air quality are enforced. Internal com-

bustion engines are a major source of aerosols

such as lead particles and of gaseous precur-

sors of photo chemical smog.

Another rapidly escalating activity of man

is air transportation, unique in that most of

its products are injected directly into the at-

mosphere at levels well above the surface, in

the high troposphere and the lower stratos-

phere. For the first time in the history of man,

he can now put material directly into the stra-

tosphere in the form of combustion products

such as water vapour, nitrogen oxides and

other gases and particles. The potential effects

of supersonic aircraft on climate and on the

ozone layer in the stratosphere which shields

life from harmful ultraviolet radiation are well

known. It has been estimated that commercial

aviation will double its fuel consumption every

five or six years in the next decade or so. With

the expected increase in aircraft flights, we

may expect at least a threefold increase in the

pollution from aircraft by 1985. There are in-

dications that jet traffic has already caused

a small increase in cirrus cloudiness in heavily

travelled areas and this will have a small ef-

fect on the heat balance of the atmosphere.

Since the supersonic transports fly in a region

where the average residence time of their ex-

haust products is one or two years, there is

a chance for the concentration to build up.

The danger of injection of radioactive ma-

terial into the stratosphere from nuclear ex-

plosions is equally great. With the enforce-

ment of the nuclear test ban treaty there has

fortunately been a decrease in the amount of

radioactive debris in the stratosphere.

Another danger is that from the debris

from hundreds of satellites that orbit the earth.

This is comparatively less significant but like-

ly to increase in future.

The chief pollutants that can react with

atmospheric ozone and cause a reduction in

the amount of ozone present in the stratos-

phere are oxides of nitrogen, chlorine and

bromine as well as chlorofluoromethanes such

as CFCls and CF2C12. While the currently

planned supersonic aircraft may not signi-

ficantly affect the ozone layer, a large fleet of

SST flying at greater altitudes will have a

noticeable effect. So also the increased pro-

duction of nitrous oxide at the surface by the

increased use of agricultural fertilizers and of

nitrogen fixing vegetation leading to an increase

of NOx in the stratosphere and the increased

release into the atmosphere of chlorofluoro-

methanes, leading to rapidly increasing amo-

unts of CLOx in the atmosphere. Since the re-

moval rate of CLOx concentration is very

slow, the stratospheric CLOx will continue to

increase for several years, even after all emis-

sions of chlorofluoromethanes into the atmos-

phere ceases, due to the slow rate of difusion

through the stratosphere. Thereafter, the re-

covery rate would be of the order of a few

decades.

The possible destruction of ozone and the

danger of increased solar ultraviolet radiation

penetrating to the earth’s surface and causing

adverse biological effects on man, animals and

crops and adverse climatological consequences

has been a matter of great concern to every-

one involved. Since solar ultraviolet is very

584

HOW MAN MODIFIES CLIMATE

strongly absorbed by ozone, the temperature

of the stratosphere is largely maintained by a

balance between absorption of solar radiation

by ozone and emission of infrared radiation

by ozone, carbondioxide and water vapour.

Any change in the stratospheric heating rates

will directly affect the temperature distribution

in the stratosphere and possibly in the tropo-

sphere. And these temperature changes will

effect the patterns of the general circulation

and the weather and climate.

An average temperature decrease of up to

10°C in the upper stratosphere is expected to

result from reduction of ozone due to man’s

activities. Calculations indicate the correspond-

ing temperature change at ground level of only

a fraction of a degree. Because of the comple-

xity of stratosphere-troposphere interactions it

is not possible to infer with any reliability

what the full consequences will be on the

earth’s climate.

The potential threat of a considerable de-

pletion of ozone having been established, the

World Meteorological Organisation is now

conducting an experiment for the continued

long-term monitoring of ozone and other

trace gases in the atmosphere, as well as ozone

destroying radicals such as N20, chlorofluo-

rothanes and other halogen compounds. By

the end of the next decade we should be

nearer finding scientifically sound answers to

questions concerning the role of anthropoge-

nic pollutants in reducing the quantity of

ozone in the stratosphere and on the possible

impact of changes in the stratospheric ozone

content on climate.

Thermal pollution or the release of heat in-

to the atmosphere from industrial, transporta-

tion and domestic sources, rivers, lakes and

oceans is a matter of importance to be consi-

dered with the escalating demand by man for

more and more power. With the doubling of

the present world population by the year 2000

A.D., coupled with an expectation of more

energy to be used per capita, the production

of energy of all kinds will rise by a factor of

five by 2000 A^.D. There may eventually be

industrialized zones extending for thousands

of sq. km. the additional input of energy may

equal the net radiation from the sun. The

main effect of this heat input on the local scale

is the creation of a stationary 3 -dimensional

heat island. The intensity of this heat island

reaches a maximum at night time when the

air temperature is a minimum, when the sur-

rounding rural areas are cooling under the

effect of the net outgoing radiation. The mini-

mum intensity occurs shortly after noon when

the sensible heat flux of the surrounding areas

is more or less equal to the input of artificial

heat. Under stable conditions with light winds

the effect is restricted to a shallow atmosphe-

ric layer five hundred metres in thickness, the

surface warming being of the order of 2 to

6°C. Measurements in Bangalore, Bombay

and Poona have been shown the existence of

such heat islands less intense in Bangalore

(1-2°C) and most pronounced in Bombay

(4-6°C).

Changes in climate due to alterations of the

earth's surface

Man has been changing the landscape in

many ways for thousands of years ever since

the creation of a shepherd-farmer culture. His

impact on the environment has been some-

times for the better as in the draining of

swamps and often for the worse as by scarring

the country side by urban and industrial spr-

awl and creating semideserts and arid regions

by destructive agricultural practices and over-

grazing by animals, and mining and drilling

for oil and gas even in the oceans.

Urbanization and industrialization in prin-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ciple influence the parameters determining

climate although they are difficult to quantify

at present. Any process that changes the heat

balance of the atmosphere can influence cli-

mate at least locally and surface albedo

changes, heat injection and material injection

do just that. The changes in climatic para-

meters due to urbanization have already been

listed in para 1.

Manipulation of surface and underground

water

Another influence of man is his manipula-

tion of the surface waters by building dams,

creating lakes, draining swamps and directing

rivers. River flows have become so regulated

by the building of dams such as the High

Aswan Dam on the Nile that the large an-

nual flooding of the Nile delta has been re-

duced to a small fraction. Some of the lakes

are so large such as Lake Nasser as to appear

on maps of the world.

All this has its influence upon the atmos-

phere. Open water has an albedo substantially

lower than that of other surfaces. It has a

much greater heat capacity and it adds water

vapour to the air. Both the amount and the

seasonal distribution of absorbed solar heat

can thus be changed by altering the area cov-

ered by water. Since the water surface may

have a temperature quite different from that

of land at the same location, the distribution

of heat among longwave radiation, sensible

heat and evaporation will be significantly dif-

ferent. This is particularly true of a water

body in an otherwise arid area such as Lake

Nasser in Egypt. In this case the heat absorb-

ed by the surrounding dry area is indirectly

used to increase evaporation. Downwind the

water vapour content of the air is increased,

creating effects on the radiation balance and

eventually on precipitation itself. Measure-

ments at Aswan have shown this is actually

so, there being an increase in cloudiness and

a decrease in solar radiation since the cons-

truction of the High Aswan Dam.

Another process modifying climate is irri-

gation. Much of the irrigation water evapo-

rates and the 1700 km3/ year of nonreturned

irrigation water represents a change of about

5 per cent in the run-off of the land areas and

2 per cent of the total annual evaporation of

land areas.

The direct influence of the energy used for

evaporation of irrigation water is to speed

the hydrological cycle. All the heat used in

evaporation is returned to the atmosphere

where condensation occurs. Apart from local

effects which are large, the global climatolo-

gical impact will depend on such indirect in-

fluences as changes in cloud cover and result-

ing effects on the radiation balance.

One indirect effect is quite significant. An

irrigated area grows vegetation that has an

albedo significantly lower than the ground

cover it has replaced. The interesting conse-

quence is that while the local temperature is

lowered by irrigation because of the increas-

ed evaporation, global temperature is raised

because of the decreased reflection of incom-

ing solar radiation. Budyko (1971) has cal-

culated that present day irrigation leads to an

increase of earth’s mean surface temperature

by 0.07°C.

With the estimated five fold increase in irri-

gation, industry, energy production and water-

works, the amount of evaporating water will

be three times higher. The total effect of irri-

gation on global albedo and the effect of

man’s activities on the hydrological cycle must

be expected to increase substantially.

Another important by product of man’s acti-

vities is the effect of mining underground or

fossil water that has accumulated in climatic

586

HOW MAN MODIFIES CLIMATE

eras when there was more precipitation than

now. For example agriculture in Sahara is

made possible by tapping subterranean reser-

voirs of fossil ground water preserved to a

large extent from the last ice age with a radio

carbon age of 20,000 to 25,000 years. The

fossil water below the Rajasthan desert has

been carbon dated to be 8000 years old. The

observed drop of twenty to thirty metres of

the groundwater level in Gujarat and Tamil

Nadu in the last decade can only interpreted

as a consequence of the overexploitation of the

ground water and the increasing imbalance of

the actual water budget caused by the exploi-

tation of fossil water reserves at a faster rate

than can be replenished under present climate

conditions. The groundwater stored in the

pores and fractures of soil and rock constitute

about 5% of the total free water in the world

and at the rate at which this essentially irre-

placeable source of water is consumed and

salt water moves in to replace fresh water

along sea coasts, man is changing the natural

balance of the earth, though not necessarily

its climate.

Weather modification

Sustained weather modification in seeding

clouds with freezing nuclei such as silver iodide

crystals or salt particles will change the cli-

mate over a period of time, but there is no

general agreement of the success in attempts

in many countries including India to modify

the weather. There is no doubt that seeding

can modify clouds but whether it increases

precipitation depends on many factors. Arti-

ficially induced rain might largely evaporate

leading to an intensification of the exchange

rate in the hydrological cycle. Or most of it

may run off, resulting in a redistribution rather

than net increase in rainfall.

Hail suppression experiments in the USSR

and Switzerland have been considered to be a

success as well as fog dissipation trials else-

where. Such experiments and efforts at con-

trol of cyclones or hurricanes will offer man

the opportunity to exert a considerable in-

fluence on climate. All such measures must be

carried out with great care and with consi-

deration for more than local and immediate

effects. Considering the military uses to which

weather modifications has been put in the

past, the United Nations have recently passed

a resolution which precludes the use of wea-

ther as a weapon of war.

The World Meteorological Organisation, a

specialized agency of the United Nations has

organised Precipitation Enhancement project

which is expected to serve as a rallying point

for the scientific efforts in weather modifica-

tion.

Conclusion

There can be little doubt that man in the

process of reshaping his environment in many

ways has changed the climate of large regions

of the earth and he has probably had some

influence on the global climate as well, exact-

ly how much it is we do not yet know. While

we do not know how to predict man’s impact

on climate, the distinct possibility that it could

occur as a result of man’s activities warrants

every effort to understand the mechanisms

that govern climate and climatic change.

(Kellogg 1975).

Considering the profound implications of

climate modification, the World Meteorolo-

gical Organisation has organised a Climate

Dynamics programme for the study and un-

derstanding of the physical basis of climate.

While the ability to predict natural fluctua-

tions of climate is valuable, a knowledge of

587

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the longterm climatic effects due to human

activities may well be even more important

since human activities are perturbing the at-

mosphere in ways which have no analogue in

the earth’s history. The programme will in-

clude enhanced global observations of key

physical qualities and increased intensive

efforts at climate modelling and numerical ex-

perimentation, with the hope that we shall be

R E F E

Bryson, R. A. (1971) : Climate Modification by

air pollution. Conference on Environment Future,

Helsinki.

Budyko, M. I. (1971): Climate and Life. Hydro-

logical Publishing House, Leningrad.

Kellogg, W. W. (1975): Climate change and

the influence of Man’s activities on the global en-

vironment. The changing Global environment pp. 13.

Edited by S, F. Singer, Roidel Publishing Company,

Dordrecht, Holland.

Landsberg, H. E. (1971) : Climates and urban

thus nearer an understanding of the fluctua-

tions of climate and the response of climate

to the increasing inadvertent influence of

mankind on the environment.

“ Samudra Mekhale devi parvatha sthana

mandale pada sparsam Kshmaswa me"

“Oh Mother Earth, girdled by the oceans

and the mountains, pardon me for trespassing

on you”

e n c e s

planning. Urban climates. World Meteorological

Organisation, Geneva.

Mani, A. and Huddar, B. B. (1972): Studies of

Surface Aerosols and their effects on atmospheric

electricity parameters, Pure and applied Geophysics

100: 154-166.

, Chacko, D. and Iyer, N. V. (1971):

Atmospheric turbidity over India from solar radi-

ation measurements. Solar Energy 14: 185-195.

SMIC, (1971): Report of the Study of Man’s

Impact on climate. Massachusetts Institute of

Technology.

RECENT ADVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE IN INDIA

V. G. Jhingran1

( With five plates)

The inland aquaculture resources of India are

estimated as 1.6 million ha of freshwater

ponds and tanks, 2.0 million ha of brackish-

water lagoons and impoundments, 0.72 mil-

lion ha of natural lakes and 2.0 million ha of

man-made reservoirs. India is perhaps one of

the few countries in the world which have

vast inland aquaculture resources. Unfortu-

nately, a significant part of this potential re-

source is unutilized and even the part that is

in use is under-utilized. The contribution of

inland fish production in India is about 40%

of the total fish production of the country, of

which at least 50% is contributed by aqua-

culture resources alone. It is unfortunately not

realised that the potentials of aquaculture re-

sources are so great that, if properly develop-

ed and exploited, these could contribute 15 to

16 times more than their present yield. In the

following pages I outline some of the import-

ant achievements in inland aquaculture in

India in the last few years.

1. Fry/fingerling production

The first research programme undertaken

after independence was increasing the survival

rate of spawn and fry of cultivable carps

( Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus

mrigala) during their nursing. The mortality

rate of spawn in nursery ponds was as high as

97% which was almost reversed as a result

of detailed researches conducted at the Central

1 Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research In-

stitute, Barrackpore.

Inland Fisheries Research Institute and a sur-

vival of about 50% made easily possible under

field conditions with the application of the new-

ly developed techniques. Further improvements

have been effected in the technology in recent

years. The rate of stocking in nursery ponds

initially was 1 million spawn /ha which has

now been increased to ten times, i.e. 10 mil-

lion/ha. The concept of well-manured, pre-

dator— and weed-free, nurseries, with abun-

dance of natural fish food (zooplankters)

which is simultaneously supplemented by pro-

tein rich organic feed of vegetable origin, has

been developed. Great emphasis is now laid

on the water quality (pH, DO, ammonia, alka-

linity, phosphates and nitrates). Despite such

a high rate of stocking, a survival of over

66% is possible with the addition of cobalt

(0.01 mg/fish/day) in the feed. This techno-

logical development enables production of a

very large number of fry /unit area which is es-

pecially advantageous in view of the paucity

of nursery space in the country.

Similarly, the development of a three-tier

system of culture, i.e. growing the fry obtain-

ed from nursery into another set of ponds

called rearing ponds, before finally stocking

them in larger water sheets for production of

table-sized fish has proved itself to be greatly

advantageous in handling the young ones and

increasing survival rates. Fingerling rearing

techniques have been developed and a survival

of over 80% is now obtained in such opera-

tions when the stocking density is as high as

350,000 fry/ha. A 3-month rearing gives a

589

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

crop of fingerlings which in terms of weight

is of the order of 3,000 kg/ha, each individual

fish growing to 100-150 mm which is a suitable

size for stocking larger sheets of water. A sur-

vival of over 90% from well-prepared stock

ponds can be expected in all cases where large-

sized fingerlings are stocked.

2. Pond preparation

Considerable work had to be done during

the course of rearing experiments on develop-

ing the techniques of pond preparation and

fertilization. As the import of derris-root pow-

der, which was used as a fish toxicant for

eradication of predatory and weed fishes at

the research farms, was stopped, the need to

find a suitable indigenously available substi-

tute was felt. A large number of plant toxins

were screened and the root and bark of Bar-

ringtonia acutangula, seed of Milletia pachy-

carpa and M. piscida, and Croton tiglium

found quite effective. However, non-availabi-

lity of these products on a commercial scale

resulted in the popularisation of the use of

mahua oilcake ( Bassia latifolia), despite its

requirement in large quantities as an efficient

piscicide at 2,500 kg/ ha-meter and a longer

detoxifying period. The fish killed by the appli-

cation of mahua oilcake is fit for human con-

sumption unlike certain chemical piscicides.

Ammonia (15 ppm N) too is an effective pis-

cicide, weedicide and a nitrogenous fertiliser.

Studies on the effect of various types of or-

ganic and inorganic fertilizers and their dos-

ages indicated that an application of univer-

sally available cowdung at 10,000 - 20,000 kg/

ha results in an abundant growth of fish food

organisms in nursery, rearing and stock ponds.

In acid soils, this application is preceded by

treatment with lime at 300 kg/ha. Use of poul-

try manure has been found to be very effec-

tive and much smaller quantities than cowdung

constitute an effective dose. In recent years,

utilization of inorganic fertilisers has also

found a place in pond preparation. Urea for

slightly acidic to neutral and ammonium sul-

phate for alkaline soils are suggested for pond

preparation. Calcium-ammonium nitrate is an-

other suitable fertiliser for acid soils which

provides both calcium and nitrogen at the same

time. For stock ponds, liming followed by an

initial high dose of cowdung (5,000-10,000

kg /ha) or mahua oilcake (2,500 kg/ha-m) fol-

lowed subsequently by alternate application of

inorganic and organic fertilisers every month

is generally recommended in systematic fresh-

water carp culture.

3. Fish breeding

The cultivable carps of India namely catla

(Catla catla), rohu ( Labeo rohita) and mngal

( Cirrhinus mrigala) breed annually in flooded

rivers and contiguous fields during the mon-

soon months. Naturally, these resources there-

fore constitute the collection grounds for the

young ones of these species. Natural collec-

tions from the rivers and flooded fields are

but a mixture of both desirable and undesir-

able species of fish as most of the predatory

and weed fishes also breed during the same

season. This results not only in wastage during

collection but also during subsequent handling,

rearing and transport where the undesirable

fish seed is either responsible for large-scale

predation or competition for food, space and

oxygen. It was, therefore, necessary to deve-

lop a technique whereby the cultivable carps

could be bred exclusively for their seed and

at will. The practice of breeding these fishes

at will by creating semi-natural conditions is

already known for a long time in certain dis-

tricts of Bengal and Bihar. This technique.

590

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Jhingran: Fish Culture

Plate I

Glass Jar hatchery.

( Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Jhingran: Fish Culture

Plate II

Bumper catch from a composite fish culture Pond.

Haul of healthy magur fed on dried marine trash fish.

( Photos : Author)

ADVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE

known as bundh breeding, has now been con-

siderably improved and extended to various

parts of the country.

However, of the two types of bundhs, wet

and dry depending upon the availability of

water either throughout or a part of the year,

the dry type yield better quality seed and are

more dependable than the wet ones. The ge-

neral unsuitability of the site and construc-

tion, maintenance and operation costs have

been the main impediments in the multiplica-

tion of dry bundhs in seed production. The

technique, wherever possible, is certainly ad-

vantageous for mass production of fish seed

and has also been successfully used for expe-

rimental spawning of the Chinese major carps

(grass carp and silver carp) which are now in

great demand in India.

An important landmark in the history of

freshwater aquaculture research and develop-

ment has been the spawning of cultivable

fishes by administration of fish pituitary gona-

dotropins known as induced breeding or

hypophysation. The technique of induced breed-

ing was first developed in India in 1955 and

not only the indigenous carps but also the

exotic carps as well as several species of cat-

fishes, air-breathing fishes and mullets can now

be spawned within a 2 x 1 x 1 m box-like cloth

chamber, hapa, fixed half or three-fourths sub-

merged in water. Mature males and females

when injected with the pituitary gland extract,

ovulate and spermiate either naturally or by

application of gentle pressure on the abdomen

of the brood fish after a lapse of a few hours

of injection. The dosages for the different spe-

cies have been standardised and the technique

is increasingly being used for the production

of fish seed for aquaculture in the country.

The techniques for hatching the eggs were

also very poor and generally resulted in heavy

mortality. However, the use of double-walled

3

.

cloth hapas (the outer one of muslin cloth

and the inner one of round-meshed mosquito

netting) which is a sort of an open box with-

in a box, has helped in increasing the hatch-

ing and the survival rate of the young hatch-

lings. Yet another development during the last

five years has largely done away with the va-

garies of nature as the hapas have to be fixed

in ponds where high temperatures, heavy

winds or fluctuating water levels, algal blooms,

crabs and trash fish, generally create havoc

resulting in mass mortalities or poor survival.

The new technique makes use of continuous-

ly running water through a series of glass jars,

where the eggs are kept, virtually buoyant,

and provided with sufficient aeration. The

hatchlings, drifting out through the jar spout

on to an open conduit, are collected in a se-

parate receptacle where again a continuous

shower provides adequate aeration. Since the

glass jar hatchery is put on land under a shed,

the field hazards to which hapas are exposed

are largely done away with as also the recur-

ring expenditure on cloth hapas which hardly

last a season.

4. Composite fish culture

Considerable attention has been paid in re-

cent years to increase the per hectare pro-

duction of table fish from stock ponds. Expe-

riments in this direction conducted from the

early sixties initially gave productions of 3,000-

4,000 kg/ha/yr. However, in course of time

further experimentation resulted in higher and

higher rates of fish production so much so

that production as high as over 9,000 kg/ha/

yr was obtained in experimental ponds. This

technology involving the use of indigenous

(C. catla, L. rohita and C. mrigala) and exotic

( CtenopharyngGdon idella, Hypophthalmich -

thys molitrix and Cyprinus carpio) major

591

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

carps coupled with a set of management prac-

tice is termed as composite fish culture. Stock-

ing densities from 3,000 to 10,000 fingerlings/

ha have been used and densities around 5,000

to 7,500 fingerlings /ha found easily manage-

able. As in the case of nursery and rearing

ponds, the concept of well-manured, predator-

free ponds with a natural abundance of fish

food organisms is also the rule in composite

fish culture. In order to achieve high produc-

tions, periodic fertilisation of the ponds and

daily feeding of fish with supplementary food

items like groundnut oilcake and rice bran

(1:1) at 2-3% of the body weight of the

fish stock is necessary. The various species

stocked in the pond are so proportioned that

the natural food is utilised without much com-

petition between the different species. These

proportions have been carefully worked out

in the course of a decade of experimentation.

Surface feeders (catla and silver carp) con-

stitute about 35%, followed by mid-feeders

(rohu and grass carp) which account for about

30%. The bottom feeders (mrigal and com-

mon carp) constitute another 35%. Since silver

carp feeds on the primary producers (phyto-

plankton) which are always in a greater abun-

dance than the secondary producers (zoo-

plankton), a higher percentage of silver carp

(25%) than catla (10%) is stocked in a pond.

Of the mid-feeders, rohu browses on a wide

variety of planktonic algae and organic debris

and constitutes 20% of the stock as against

grass carp which forms 10% of the total

density. As grass carp can be raised on aqua-

tic or land weeds resulting in economy of sup-

plementary feed, a variety of aquatic or land

vegetation, cattle fodder and various vegetable

wastes, are provided in a floating enclosure

in the pond for its consumption. Supplemen-

tary feed in the form of a dough is provided

on feeding trays, hung \ to 1 m below the

water surface, only after the grass carp are

satiated. The bottom feeders, mrigal (15%)

and common carp (20%), obtain their natu-

ral feed from the bottom detritus, decaying

organic matter and semi-digested faecal mat-

ter passed out by the voraciously feeding grass

carp. The unutilised faecal matter of grass carp

acts as a fertiliser. This synergistic equation is

the crux of composite fish culture.

5. Domestic sewage/ livestock wastes as fish

pond fertilisers

The practice of utilising domestic sewage for

fertilising fish ponds is in vogue in several

parts of the world and also in India around

Calcutta for a very long time. Domestic

wastes are available in every village, town and

city. They pose a great problem in large cities

and are discharged into the river courses which

they pollute causing considerable damage to

the total aquatic life in general and fishes in

particular. Use of this waste is aptly made by

its introduction, either as such in the raw form,

or after dilution or as a supernatant effluent

after initial settlement, in large ponds. This is

one of the cheapest and the richest fertiliser

for fish ponds. Alternately, fish ponds afford

one of the simplest and cheapest means of

abating pollution due to domestic sewage. The

wastes are recycled in ponds and high quality

fish protein obtained. Rates of fish production

are also high without the use of supplemen-

tary feed in this system of culture. Productions

as high as 9,350 kg/ha/yr of Tilapia mossam-

bica have been obtained from ponds irrigated j

by sewage effluents. A production of 7,200 kg/ |

ha/yr has been obtained by carp culture in

these ponds. A very high stocking density is

also possible because of the abundance of the

natural fish food organisms and their repeated

regeneration. However, oxygen deficiency and

592

ADVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE

high BOD occasionally cause a havoc resulting

in mass mortality in such ponds. Diseases due

to parasites are also a common feature. One

has, therefore, to be extremely careful while

utilising sewage effluents for fish ponds.

Use of cattle / poultry / duckery / piggery

wastes is also made in fish ponds. However,

the techniques for their use are not yet stand-

ardised in India and attempts in this direc-

tion are being made at the Central Inland

Fisheries Research Institute. Preliminary re-

sults on the use of wastes from pig-sties and

duck-houses have resulted in high fish pro-

duction without fertilization and feeding. This

has a great future for India as the feed costs

in composite fish culture account for about

50% of the total expenditure.

6. New systems of culture

Some catfishes and air-breathing fishes are

in great demand in certain parts of India.

However, there has been no systematic culture

of these species until recently. Early attempts

made to culture murrels ( Channa sp.) result-

ed in a failure. In recent years, attempts to de-

velop a new system of culture — air-breathing

fish culture/catfish culture — have been made.

The important air-breathing species such as

singhi ( Heteropneustes fossilis ), magur (Cla-

rias batrachus) and murrels (sal, saul and

lata, Channa sp.) are now being cultured in

swamps, derelict waters, freshwater ponds and

cages in both swamps and freshwater ponds.

As the air-breathing species can withstand

poor oxygen conditions swamps and derelict

waters can be conveniently used for their cul-

ture. This is just one way of utilising the aban-

doned waters in the country. The techniques

}f mass breeding the air-breathing species by

lypophysation have been perfected and the

losages utilising the carp pituitary for the pur-

pose standardised. The difficulties in hatching

and rearing the young ones have also been

surmounted by use of nylon hapas which pre-

vent the entry of macroscopic planktonic forms

known to be preying on tiny hatchlings while,

at the same time, allowing a free exchange of

water. Supplementation both by choice food

organisms and artificial feed comprising boil-

ed egg powder further helps in increasing the

survival rate of the young ones.

The greatest difficulty experienced in the

past while culturing these either carnivorous

or piscivorous species was the provision of

large quantities of living organisms or fishes

throughout the year in culture ponds. This has

been solved outright by providing a diet of

dry, marine trash fish to the fingerlings of

these species on which they feed avidly and

grow well and fast. A production of 5,000 kg/

ha/ 5 months of magur and 4,042 kg/ ha/ 7

months of sal ( Channa marulius) has been

obtained under the new systems of culture in

swampy and derelict ponds. Magur and singhi

have also been cultured in freshwater ponds

in combination with carps or without them.

A production of 1,200 kg of magur/ha/4-J

months was obtained from a small shallow

pond under carp culture, the contribution of

carps being 2,108 kg/ha/9^ months.

Cage culture of singhi and lata (C. puncta-

tus) has also been done and a production of

9 kg/m2/ 7 months and 5.2 kg,/m2/6 months

respectively has been obtained. The fish in

these cages have been fed on a mixture of

cowdung + silkworm pupae + oilcake. Cage

culture of singhi in carp ponds and magur

culture in ponds with water changing facili-

ties are presently being experimented with for

high yields.

7. Control of aquatic weeds and their re-

cycling

Of the four methods of weed clearance viz .

593

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

manual, mechanical, chemical and biological,

biological methods are the cheapest. A weed-

eating fish of Chinese origin viz. grass carp

( Ctenopharyngodon idella) was introduced in

India in 1957 along with a planktivorous fish

viz. silver carp ( Hypophthalmichthys mclitrix)

for biological control of higher aquatic weeds

and algal blooms respectively. While it has

been possible to control submerged and float-

ing weeds of various types by introduction

of grass carp in various water sheets, silver

carp has not proved useful in the control of

algal blooms in fish ponds. A lepidopteran in-

sect larva ( Erastr aides curvi fascia ) has been

recently discovered to be a potent biological

control agent for the effective control of the

floating weed, Pistia stratiotes.

Manual methods of weed clearance are the

cheapest and perhaps the best for small water

bodies but for larger water sheets and dense

infestations, mechanical or chemical mefhods

are necessary. Mechanical methods have been

tried in India and several types of weed har-

vesters developed but the initial high cost

coupled with subsequent operational costs

have hindered the popularisation of these me-

chanical devices. Chemical methods thus re-

main the only solution. Several chemicals have

been tried in the course of the last 25 years

and effective methods of controlling the nox-

ious floating and emergent weeds like Eichhor-

nia crassipes. Nymphaea spp., Ipomoea carnea,

Pistia stratiotes , Cyperus sp. by use of sodium

salt of 2, 4-D without any adverse effect on

fish or fish food organisms developed. Aqueous

ammonia is equally effective in controlling the

submerged weeds. However, use of sodium ar-

senite, copper sulphate and simazine, though

effective, is not generally recommended as it

results in gradual accumulation of toxic ions

in aquatic animals and proves harmful to hu-

man beings in the long run.

8. Culture of fish food organisms

In ponds, fertilisation offers a means of in-

creasing the abundance of fish food organisms.

This, however, is a laborious, time consum-

ing and expensive process and may not always

result in the abundance of required organisms.

Moreover, excessive fertilisation might also

cause blooms which are detrimental to fish

life in culture ponds. Large scale culture of

choice food organisms is, therefore, necessary

in a separate environment wherefrom they

could be collected and fed to the growing

fish. Mass culture of Chloreila vulgaris and

Daphnia similis has been done and a simple

and inexpensive method developed using in-

organic fertilisers and poultry manure as nu-

trient source. Freshly-cultured Chloreila is used

as food for Daphnia similis. Mass culture of

Navicula cryptocephala, N. rynocephala and

Pinnularia acrosphaeria is done in polythene

bags containing water fertilised with urea,

single superphosphate and sodium silicate.

Culture of Moina dubia and Daphnia lumholtzi

has also been done. It is hoped that this deve-

lopment would result in establishing natural

fish food farms.

9. Freshwater prawn rearing

The two important species of freshwater

prawns vzz, Macrobrachium rosenbergii and

M. malcolmsonii have not yet been systema-

tically cultured in India despite their immense

export and domestic market. Both M. mal-

colsonii and M. rosenbergii can now be bred

in a confined environment. M. rosenbergii has

recently been bred and reared through its

larval stages in the laboratory. The young

prawns so produced were reared in ponds at

5,650 /ha and a production of 284 kg/ha/4

months obtained. Experiments on propagation

and culture of M. malcolmsonii at Badampudi

594

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Jhingran : Fish Culture

Plate III

A beginning in the establishment of fish food farms.

( Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Jhingran: Fish Culture

Plate IV

A view of the Brackish water fish farm, Kakdwip (West Bengal).

Selective stocking of mullet pays high dividends.

( Photos : Author)

/UJVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE

(Andhra Pradesh) and Cuttack (Orissa) have

been in progress for some time past. M. mal-

colmsonii, stocked at 50,000 and 75,000/ha

has given a production of 212 to 314 kg/ ha

and 94 to 270 kg /ha respectively in 10J

months. The survival rate has been very poor

being 7 to 51%. At Cuttack, however, net pro-

ductions have ranged from 285-380 kg/ha/yr

when stocked at a density of 20,000 juveniles/

ha. Attempts are also being made to rear and

culture M. birmanicum var. choprai which is

available in considerable abundance in some

streams draining into river Gaiiga in Bihar

and Uttar Pradesh.

10. Coldwater fish culture

Not much attention was paid in the past to-

wards the development of hill -streams and up-

land lakes in India except in a few cases where

trouts were introduced either in late last, or

early present century. Mirror carp, introduced

in certain regions, has well established itself

in the lakes but its large-scale propagation for

food still remains to be achieved. Establish-

ment of commercial trout farms in the upland

areas would not only provide a highly delicious

fish to the people of the region but also sport

at the same time. This aspect could also be

utilised for promotion of tourism and as a

source of foreign exchange.

The survival of trout through its various

stages of life history was, until recently, very

low in the farms of Himachal Pradesh and

Kashmir. Experiments conducted on determin-

ing causes of mortality have led to the deve-

lopment of techniques for obtaining higher

survival. Hatchery practices have now been

standardised and the survival from green egg

to swim-up fry stage increased to about 89%.

Malachite green, used as a fungicide in hatch-

ing troughs, results in increasing the survival

rate greatly. The mortality in fingerling trout

was found to be mainly due to poor feed.

Experiments with compound and pelletised

artificial feeds, with different levels of crude

protein (28-39%), gave a high production and

survival rate. A conversion ratio of 1.4 with

feed containing 35-39% crude protein and 1.7

with 35% crude protein was noted in rainbow

and brown trout respectively. Breeding of

brown trout in Uttar Kashi (Uttar Pradesh)

was taken up recently and an overall percent-

age of survival from green egg to fry stage

of about 58% achieved. Ensuring high survival

rates through use of modern techniques and

highly nutritive feed would result in making

trout culture a lucrative proposition in the up-

lands of India. Techniques for breeding and

rearing the mirror carp, which result in higher

survival rates, have also been developed.

11. Dangers of pesticide pollution

Pisciculture may be treated as an adjunct

to agriculture. Large-scale use of pesticides in

agriculture is likely to affect fish life in ponds

and tanks, beels and jheels and also in rivers/

estuaries. The latter form the main source of

fish seed of freshwater and brackishwater spe-

cies. Bio-assay studies on pesticides such as

Gammexane, DDT, Folidol, ethyl parathion,

Endrin, malathion and Rogor have been con-

ducted using freshwater fishes, zoopiankters

(rotiger, copepods and cladocerans) and ben-

thic organisms (oligochaetes, chironomids,

gastropods and bivalves) as test animals. In-

vestigations on pesticide pollution have indi-

cated that DDT is one of the most dangerous

pesticides which gradually accumulates in the

body of the fish and even in sublelhal con-

centrations is likely to affect human beings in

the long run. The fish itself may die when

the accumulated concentrations become lethal.

It has to be seen to that while intensive culti-

vation using high yielding cereal varieties in-

595

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

volving application of fertilizers and pesticides

continues, fish culture is not adversely affect-

ed by the use of chemicals in agriculture. Judi-

cious choice and use of pesticides would help

find a solution to the problem. Aquaculture

is to be treated as much a national activity as

agriculture.

. . Brackish water aquaculture

In brackishwater, fish culture technology has

not made the strides in India as in the case

of freshwaters though there exists a traditional

system of brackishwater fish and prawn culture.

1. Fish and prawn seed resources

Until recently, there did not exist a trade in

brackishwater fish or prawn seed. Numerous

seed collection centres have been located in

Hooghly, Rupnarayan and Matlah estuaries

and Chilka and Pulicat Lakes and in the vici-

nity of Brackishwater Fish Farms in a few

States. Investigations on artificial induction of

spawning in mullets (M. cephalus and Liza

macrolepis) have been made and experi-

mental success attained. M. cephalus could

be spawned in brackishwater and the induced-

bred spawn reared in the laboratory. At least

two specimens could be reared for varying

periods — one for 150 days (72 mm/ 6 g) and

the other for 325 days (100 mm/ 12 g) — for

the first time in India. It is expected that

techniques of hatching and rearing mullets in

confinement would be soon understood and

a breakthrough in brackishwater fish farming

in India soon achieved.

2. Culture of mullets

Mullets being the most important species of

brackishwater fishes, techniques of raising

them in ponds have been given utmost atten-

tion. Techniques of nursery rearing of L. par-

sia and L. fade have been developed. Mono-

culture of L. parsia, mixed culture of mullets

and polyculture of mullets and prawns have

been tried. A production 2,400 kg/ha/yr has

been obtained in monoculture of L. parsia.

In a six-species combination of prawns and

mullets (P. monodon, P. indicus and M. mono -

ceros and L. parsia, L. fade and M. cephalus )

a net production of 2,617 kg/ha/yr has been

achieved.

3. Prawn culture

Brackishwater prawns (P. indicus, P. mono-

don and Metapenaeus spp.) have a great ex-

port market. Rearing techniques of P. mono-

don and P. indicus have been evolved and

detailed methodology for the culture of P.

monodon developed. While three short-term

(100-120 days) crops of P. monodon have

been obtained giving a total production of

1,055 kg/ha in 320 days, attempts to raise

four crops by shortening the period of each

crop to 90 days have been made. A produc-

tion of 305 kg/ha/90 days was obtained in

the first rearing. Long-term (320 days) rear-

ing of P. monodon results both in lower pro-

duction (872 kg/ha) and poor survival rates

though in larger sizes. Polyculture of P. mono-

don and P. indicus and chanos, L. fade and

L. parsia gave a production of 2,580 kg/ha /9

months and P. indicus and chanos gave a pro-

duction of 1,396 kg/ha/6 months.

4. Culture of fish food organisms

A breakthrough has been achieved in labo-

ratory culture of Artemia salina which needs

to be imported for rearing the larval stages

of prawns and several species of brackish-

water fishes. Sustained culture of brine shrimp

has been possible in field conditions at water

temperatures of 26 + 2°C and a salinity of

596

ADVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE

35 ppt. Sun-dried eggs have been preserved

for future use.

Mass culture of certain phytoplankters

( Gyro sigma angulatum, Nitzschia closterium

and Navicula lanceolata ) has also been done.

Future programmes in aquaculture

1. Culture of Hilsa ilisha

Hilsa is an important fish both from the

point of view of taste and market demand.

It contributed sizeably to the fisheries of

Indian rivers and estuaries but the catches

have been dwindling for the last many years

due to dam conduction on the rivers. Experi-

ments on artificial propagation of hilsa con-

ducted with a view to stock the rivers with

the juvenile fish, though begun early in the

present century, were not very successful.

However, in recent years, a new concept has

developed that besides stocking the rivers, the

fish could also be cultured in freshwater

ponds. With this end in view, induced propa-

gation of hilsa was initiated in the mid-sixties

and it v,as possible to strip, fertilise and hatch

the eggs and rear the spawn in nurseries in

1968. The fish could even be reared in ponds

for over two years. Though the growth was

slow but the possibility of rearing the fish has

been indicated by these experiments. It is

necessary that the techniques of breeding,

hatching and rearing are soon developed to

make these valuable fish available to the con-

sumers.

2. Statistical and economical evaluation of

cultural operations

Both agriculture and animal husbandry have

advanced greatly as the experiments in the

related fields have been statistically designed

and economically evaluated. Paucity of a large

number of ponds has been the major hinder-

ance in experimentation on statistically based

designs in aquaculture. Aquaculture scientists

in India had to remain contented with the

meagre facilities that have been available to

them. To help solve this problem a large 150

ha Fish Farm is being constructed at Dhauli

(near Bhubaneswar) in Orissa where experi-

ments based on statistical designs on all as-

pects of freshwater fish culture will be con-

ducted. This farm will not only be useful from

the point of finding out a scientific basis for the

various results but also in conducting experi-

ments on several aspects of aquaculture which

have not been handled properly so far.

In order to be acceptable to the entrepre-

neurs, the profitability of fish culture opera-

tions together with detailed analysis of the

costs involved needs to be demonstrated. A

beginning in certain aspects of freshwater

aquaculture has already been made which

needs to be intensified in the coming years.

Economic evaluation of methods of spawn

production by various sources such as riverine,

bunclh breeding and induced breeding has

been done and it has been concluded that

though spawn produced through bundhs and

induced breeding costs more when compared

to riverine collection, the production strategy

needs to be planned in the context of regional

aquaculture development programme as a

comparison of spawn production economics

on a countrywide basis may be misleading.

Detailed analysis has been done in respect of

the cost structure of the experiments on the

new technology of composite fish culture. The

per hectare expenditure has been found to be

the maximum (Rs. 15,067/-) in the western

region (Maharashtra and Haryana) and the

minimum (Rs. 6,904/-) in the southern re-

gion (Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh). The

cost of fish production, however, has not been

found to vary greatly, being Rs. 2.38 in the

597

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 75

central region, Rs. 2.67 in the southern re-

gion, Rs. 2.73 in the western region and Rs.

2.93 in the eastern region. The feed costs con-

stitute the major share of expenditure (50-

60%) followed by labour costs. A study of

composite fish culture undertaken by fish far-

mers in West Bengal indicated that the index

of untapped yield reservoir from freshwater

fish culture source alone is of the order of

4.4 and the average production could be rais-

ed by 450% through adoption of the new

technology of composite fish culture. The

average gross profit per hectare of culturable

water area has been found to be as high as

Rs. 16,000/- at current price structure.

3. Fish diseases

High density, mono- or poly-culture of fin

fish and/or shell-fish, is bound to create pro-

blems of fish diseases which may even assume

epidemic proportions at times. Fish parasites

in freshwater and brackishwater fishes have

been studied in India for a long time but fish

diseases have been studied only from fresh-

water ponds. Treatment methods in respect

of several of these have been developed but

research efforts need to be intensified to un-

derstand the various bacterial and viral dis-

eases which are likely to be encountered in

future.

4. Fish nutrition

Oil cakes and brans (wheat and rice) con-

stitute the traditional items of fish feed in

India. While certain combinations of these

items are used to feed the fish both in fresh-

water and brackishwater aquaculture in asso-

ciation with, at times, some animal waste pro-

ducts, these have, strictly speaking, no scienti-

fic basis. Nutritional studies on the cultivable

species of fish need to be conducted and their

requirements in different stages of growth,

during different seasons of the year and at

different temperatures made known to enable

formulation of well-balanced, pelletised feeds.

5. Fish genetics

The role of genetics in agriculture and ani-

mal husbandry and its contributions in in-

creasing the crop, milk, egg and meat pro-

duction is well known. Fish genetics is so far

undeveloped. It is time that the genetic basis

of various culture systems of fin-fish and shell-

fish is understood, selective breeding and hy-

bridisation conducted to improve seed produc-

tion and fish yields in fresh and brackish-

water aquaculture.

Despite all shortcomings, aquacultural de-

velopments in India have been sufficiently

great during the past few years especially in

carp culture and it has put us on the thres-

hold of fish revolution or “aquaplosion”. With

the application of improved aquaculture tech-

nology, both in fresh and brackishwaters.

India can hope to produce over 6 million ton-

nes of fish from aquaculture alone as against

its estimated total requirements of 8.5 million

tonnes (see table below). It is not difficult to

obtain an average production of 4,000 kg/ ha/

yr from freshwater fish culture ponds. A pro-

duction of 500 kg/ha/yr can be easily obtain-

ed from the swamps and derelict ponds.

Though the present status of brackishwater

technology is not very high, a production of

1,000 kg/ha/yr of fish and prawns is not im-

possible. Aquaculture alone can thus contri-

bute 74% of the fish-protein requirement of

the country.

598

Plate V

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Jhingran: Fish Culture

Penaeus monodon has great export market potential.

Schematic representation of rural aquaculture using agricultural and animal wastes,

providing quality protein and gainful employment.

( Photos : Author)

ADVANCES IN INLAND AQUACULTURE

Production potential

A COMPARATIVE FIELD STUDY OF THE INDIAN AND

NEW ZEALAND REPRESENTATIVES OF THE GENUS

RUPPIA LINNAEUS

Charles McCann1

(With three plates and three text-figures)

Introduction

Botanists frequently encounter difficulty on

determining aquatic plants as the original des-

criptions are often based on dried herbarium

material with the essential characters distort-

ed. The delicate floral structures do not lend

themselves to ‘resurrection’, sufficiently to en-

sure accurate description. Again, figures made

from such material leave much to be desired,

more so if the artist lacks botanical know-

ledge. Ruppia as often defined and figured in

some works is a good example.

Ruppia presents some ecological phases in

the course of its development or growth in res-

ponse to the habitat. In specimens under

strong tidal influence (e.g. R. maritima), the

extent of variation is often well defined ac-

cording to the length of dessication due to ex-

posure between tides, and the vegetation it is

associated with (such as algae or some of the

higher plants). Ruppia makes a poor herbar-

ium specimen; its delicate membranes frac-

ture too readily. One of the main difficul-

ties with the genus appears, to me, to be the

correct interpretation of the floral organs. This

opinion I expressed in my previous paper

(McCann 1945) on the Indian species. The

floral organs are, at times, regarded as indi-

vidual florets or, at times, as hermaphrodite

flowers. This aspect will be discussed in fuller

18 Kiwi Street, Heretaunga, Upper Hutt, N. Z.

detail below.

In India, I had the opportunity of studying

the Indian species (R. rostellata ) in the field,

over several seasons: it was to be met with

in most of the salt-works. The results of these

observations were published, together with a

plate in this Journal in 1945. However, in that

paper I erroneously referred the Indian spec-

ies to R. maritima Linn— it is R. rostellata

Koch.

In New Zealand, I spent some time observ-

ing the species occurring in the lower part of

the North Island. This plant differed in many

respects from its Indian counterpart, marked-

ly in the prolongation of the spiral twisting of

the peduncle. This species I concluded was the

R. maritima Linn, of the temperate regions.

Ruppiaceae Linnaeus

Ruppia is the only genus in the family and

is included in the Order Potamogetonales, The

family and generic type is R. maritima Linn.

(1753). Distribution “Europae maritimis,”

[Linn. 1753].

There is a difference of opinion among

systematists as to whether there is a single

cosmopolitan species or several geographial

variations of a single species — or more than

one species. My own observations satisfy me

that there is definitely more than one species.

This view is supported by the morphological

and ecological differences between R. mariti-

600

FIELD STUDY OF THE GENUS RUPPIA

ma Linn, and R. rostellata Koch, but it is

doubtful if more than the two exist.

Before proceeding, it is important to clari-

fy some morphological points:

a) whether the floral elements (anthers and

pistils) are to be regarded as two clusters, re-

presenting two flowers on the peduncle, or

b) as individual, unisexual florets arranged in

two clusters. After much observation of both

species (R. maritima and R. rostellata) in the

field, I have adopted the view that the whole

is an inflorescence composed of two clusters

of stamens and pistils alone arranged as indi-

vidual florets on a common peduncle. This

view appears to be supported by the differen-

tial maturation of the individual elements in

both clusters.

In neither of the species discussed ( mariti-

ma and rostellata) have I observed the deve-

lopment of more than two clusters to each

peduncle, one on the opposite face to the

other.

The next point of interest is the develop-

ment of the peduncle. In R. rostellata, the

peduncle is short, seldom exceeding more than

7-9 mm.; it never becomes spirally twisted. In

R. maritima on the other hand, the peduncle

ultimately attains a length of 100 mm becom-

ing spirally twisted in the process of elonga-

tion, functioning like a ‘spring’ to carry the

floral elements up or down in response to the

variation in the depth and movement of the

water. This difference in contortion of the

peduncle in the two species may be partly due

to the nature of the habitat and partly ac-

counted for by the mode of pollination and

fertilization between the two. The points will

be referred to below.

Post (1883) stresses the difference in the

length of the peduncle and its contortion

between the two species ( maritima and rostel-

lata, noting that in the former (R. spiralis of

Post) the peduncle is spirally twisted but not

in R. rostellata. Cooke (1908) on the other

hand remarks that the peduncle may be

“strait or coiled” in rostellata. This view is

untenable.

Peduncle :

The formation of the spiral peduncle in

Ruppia maritima is apparently similar, super-

ficially, to that of the female flower of Vallis-

neria, but in reality the spirality is achieved

in very dissimilar ways. In R. maritima as the

peduncle elongates beyond the leaf-sheaths,

the position of the two floral clusters plays a

very important role, for, the oppositely situat-

ed clusters rotate on the peduncle thus bring-

ing about the twist of the spiral. The behavi-

our of the peduncle in this manner, not only

brings about the formation of the spiral, but

assists in the pollination of the florets at or

near the surface of the water. This point will

be referred to below.

In Vallisneria each female flower is solitary

on a spirally formed pedicle which forms into

a spiral before the flower matures. It uncoils

on maturation of the flower and raises it to

the surface of the water for a brief period, but

on pollination the pedicle re-coils, taking the

ovary to the bottom to fructify. The male

flowers are clustered on a short (non elongat-

ing) peduncle and when mature, the sheaths

open and the individual flowers rise to the

surface as round ‘balls’. At the surface they

open and drift raft-like till an anther is ‘trap-

ped’ by one of the ‘Venuses-flytrap-like stig-

matic divisions.

Before proceeding, it is perhaps worth ex-

amining some of the conflicting statements met

with in some authoratative works:

Post (1883):

“Flowers 2, perfect, in a spike, at first enclosed

in sheaths of floral leaves.”

I R • maritima & rostellata].

601

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Gray (1876) :

“Flowers perfect, 2 or more approximated on a

slender spadix, which is at first enclosed in the

sheathing, spathe-like base of the leaf, entirely des-

titute of floral envelops, consisting of 2 sessile sta-

mens, each with 2 large and separate anther-cells

and 4 small sessile ovaries with a single campylo-

tropus suspended ovule : stigma sessile, depress-

ed ***» [ft. maritima ].

Cooke (1908):

“Flowers minute, hermaphrodite, 2-6 together

within a leafsheath on an ultimately elongating

strait or coiled peduncle. Perianth O. Stamens 2,

anthers sessile, 2-celled. Carpals 4; ovules solitary

in each carpal, pendulous; stigma peltate. Fruit of

4 stipitate ovoid obtuse or beaked achenes.***”

[R. rostellata ].

Cheeseman (1925 — Oliver ed.)

“Flowers 2-6 together, at first completely en-

closed in the inflated leaf-sheath; but the spike gene-

rally emerges and is borne up to the surface of the

water by the usually conspicuously spirally coiled

peduncle.” [R. maritima ]

Black (Blake) [South Australian Flora]

“Flowers bisexual, naked, 2 on opposite faces of

the spike; anthers 2, sessile, 2 celled, pollen glo-

bular; carpels at first sessile, but becoming pedi-

cellate as the ripen and carried to the surface of

the water on a long spirally coiled peduncle.”

[ R . maritima ].

Johnson (1931)

“The flowers are borne at the surface of the

water, but after pollination they are drawn be-

neath the surface by the curling of the stems.”

\R. maritima].

The spirality of the peduncle is not wholly

in accord with the definitions of some of the

authors and needs some explanation. To com-

mence with, the spiral is developed only in R.

maritima. The twist may be dextrorse or sini-

strorse or yet again both turns may be present

in the same peduncle! Ruppia the spiralling

of the peduncle functions:

(a) as a protection for the inflorescence in

the rapidly changing and boisterous

habitat — tidal influence and wind.

(b) as a means of rotating the two clusters

on the opposite sides of the peduncle

and exposing the stigma to a chance of

pollination.

I shall refer to pollination under a separate

head.

Reppia Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. (1753): 127-128.

1 ruppia Hort. cliff. 436. It. wgoth. 186.

Guett. stamp. 2. p. 416.

Buccaferrea maritima, foliis acutissimis.

Mich. gen. 72, t. 35. Potamogeton maritimum,

gramineis longioribus foliis, fructu fere umbcl-

lato. Raj. angl. 3. p. 134. t. 6. f. 1.

Fucus folliculaceus, foeniculi folio longiore.

Banb. pin. 365. Habitat in Europae mariti-

mis”

Britton (1908)

“Flowers on a capillary spadix-like ped-

uncle, naked, consisting of 2 sessile anthers

each with two large separate sacs attached by

the beaks to the peduncle, having between them

several pistilate flowers in 2 sets on opposite

sides of the rachis, the whole cluster at first

enclosed in the sheathing base of the leaf. Stig-

mas sessile peltate. Fruit a small obliquely

pointed drupe, several in each cluster and

pedicelled.**** In the development of the

plants, the staminate flowers drop off and the

peduncle elongates, bearing the pistilate flow-

ers in two clusters at the end, but after ferti-

lization it coils up and the fruit is drawn be-

low the surface of the water.” [Gen. heading].

[/?. maritima].

602

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

McCann: Ruppia

Plate I

*** -mt?

m

A// . A'&rw.

Reproduction of Reichenbach Plate CLXXIV (1824)

306 Ruppia rostellata Koch, 307 Ruppia maritima Linn.

FIELD STUDY OF THE GENUS RUPPIA

Key to the species

R. maritima L.

$ florets 2-8

Anthers 4, sausage shaped,

encircling the peduncle.

Peduncle spirally coiling to maturity; 90 to 100 mm.

Stigma semihemispheric.

Ruppia maritima Linn. (PL I. fig. 307; PI. Ill)

The marked difference in the shape of the

anthers between these two species was drawn

attention to by Post (1883). “1. R. maritima

(L. sp. 184). antheranum succulis oblongis.

fructibus ovatis oblique erectus. In fossis et

paludosis at maris littora, (am Adriat. mere

d. Ost.-W. Nordsee, in Fiirstenth. Giittingen

in Denkenhauser Sumpfe.) Aug. in autumn.”

1753. Ruppia maritima Linn. sp. Plant.

1824. Ruppia maritima Koch in Reichb. Icon. PI.

Crit. 2:66; t. 174, fig. 306.

1827. Ruppia spiralis Dumortier [Florula Belgica:

operis majoris prodromus. Tornaci Nervio-

rum (Tournai, Belgium). J. Casterman,

1827, p. 164.]

1853. Ruppia Hooker, J. D., FI. N. Zelandiae I.

1862. Ruppia maritima Bentham, G. & Hooker, D.

H., Gen. Plant., p. 1014.

1864. Ruppia Grisenbach, A.H.R. FI. Br. W.

Ind. Isl. p. 89.

1875. Ruppia Eichlep, A. W. Bluthendiagramme.

1876. Ruppia maritima Gray, Man. Bot. : Bot N.

U.S. (Amer.) 5th ed. 8th issue, p. 484.

1878. Ruppia maritima Bentham, G., FI. Australen-

sis, VII: 174.

1883. Ruppia spiralis Post, G. E., Fla. Syria, Pale-

stine and Sinai, p. 824.

1904. Ruppia maritima Rendle, Classif. Fig.

Plants, Pt. 1:204.

1905. Ruppia maritima Britton, N. L., Man. FI.

N. States & Canada, p. 49.

1908. Ruppia maritima Fitch & Smith, 111. Brit.

FI. p. 231; ill. 957.

1925. Ruppia maritima Cheeseman, Man. N. Zeal.

Flora 2nd ed., Oliver, p. 129.

R. rostellata Koch.

$ florets normally 4 only.

Anthers 4, subglobose, not encircling the

peduncle.

Peduncle short, straight, not elongating nor spiral-

ly coiling, 7 to 9 mm.

Stigma peltate.

[C. McCann ].

1931. Ruppia Johnson, A. M., Tax. Fig. Plants,

p. 617, Veg. N. Zeal. p. 61, 2nd. ed.

1928. Ruppia maritima Cockayne, Die Vegetation

der Erde xiv.

1942. Ruppia maritima Oliver, W. R. B., Rec.

Dom. (Nat.) Mus. 1:10.

1950. Ruppia spiralis Mason, R. Post-prim. Schl.

Bull. 4(12); 240, pi. 8.

1967. Ruppia poly car pa Mason, R., N. Zeal. Journ.

Bot. 524: fig. 1, A. and fig. 2.

1967. Ruppia mcgacarpa Mason, R., N. Zeal.

Journ. Bot., 525: fig. 1 B, and fig. 3.

1970. Ruppia poly car pa Moore, L., and Edgar,

E., N. Zeal. Fla. ii: 14. figs.

1970. Ruppia megacar pa Moore, L. B. and Edgar,

E., N. Zeal. Fla. ii: 15, figs.

1971. Ruppia spiralis Adams, J. S., Wildlife — a

review, 3:23-25.

Description from a fresh specimen:

A flexuose aquatic plant forming tangled

masses beneath the surface of the water, the

extremities floating at the surface: stem slen-

der, filiform, 60 to 90 cm, leafy, except for

the lowest portions, much branched; inter-

modes 80 to 90 mm, shorter below; each of

the lowest nodes producing paired filiform,

root hairs well developed. Leaves opposite or

subopposite sheathing in the lower portion

with an involute lamina, ligulate, reaching 30

cm long, sheathing base 3.5 to 4.5 mm. In

floresence 5 to 7 by 2.5 mm excluding pedun-

cle); peduncle 9-10 cm when mature; florets

arranged in two clusters on opposite sides of

the peduncle near its extremity: each cluster

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. J5

composed of 4 male florets and 8 (9) female

florets reduced to large sessile or subsessile,

sausage-shaped 2-celled anthers embracing the

peduncle; pollen lunate, with large granular

contents, buoyant. Female florets reduces to

naked pistils, on very short pedicles (stipe)

elongating after fertilization, stipes reaching 12

to 20 mm; ovary somewhat urceolate, sur-

mounted by a dense globular stigmatic can-

opy; canopy furrowed and depressed towards

the centre, margined by a thick lip. Achene

2.5 by 1.5 mm, obliquely ovate, beaked,

mounted on the elongate stipe, black when

mature. [C. McC.]

Note: This description is based on plants col-

lected at Waikanae, New Zealand, 6.12.1947

and fresher material at the same locality and

at Lake Ferry, N. Zeal., 1974-1975.

Ruppia rostellata Koch. (PI. II).

1824. Ruppia rostellata Koch, ex Riechenb. Icon.

Plant. Crit. 2 (1824): 66; t. 174, fig. 306.

1851. Ruppia Griffiths, Notulae Plan-

tes Asiaticas PL iii: 196-203.

1851. Ruppia Griffiths, Icon. Plant.

Asiaticas, Pt. Ill, pis. CCLVII-CCLIX.

1883. Ruppia rostellata Post, G. E. Fla. Syria,

Palestine and Sinai : 824.

1893. Ruppia rostellata Hooker, J. D., Fla. Brit.

Ind. VI: 568.

1908. Ruppia rostellata Cooke, Fla. Bom. Pres.

2:839.

1939. Ruppia McCann, C., The Flamingo: Journ.

Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., 41:12-38.

1945. Ruppia maritima McCann (per errorum)

C., Notes on the Genus Ruppia (Ruppia-

ceae), 45 (3): 396-402.

“2. R. rostellata (Koch in Reichenb. Ic. 2, p. 66, fig.

306) antheranum sacculis subglobosis, fructus semi-

lunari-ovatis e base obtusa ad scendentibus. In

fossis litora maris et ad salinas, (an d. Ostsee in bei

Arten in magdab.) Aug.-Autum. R. maritima DD.

FI. p. 861. Robliqua G. F. Meyer, MSpt. R. rostel-

lata chlor. hanor. p. 527.”

Description from fresh specimen :

A submerged aquatic herb growing in brac-

kish water, forming dense masses of filiform,

leafy stems and branches, 15 to 75 cm. long.

Roots 20 to 70 mm arising in opposite pairs

at the nodes of the stolons and lower branches.

Stem a stoloniferous rhizome, dichotomously

branched; internoded 45 to 50 mm; nodes

slightly dilated. Leaves 70 to 90 mm, filiform

with hyaline sheathing bases, ligule present,

lamina involute. Flowers, minute, arranged in

two clusters, one on either side of the ped-

uncle, each cluster composed to 2 male and 4

female florets, reduced to anthers and pistils;

peduncle 4 to 5 mm, elongating 7 to 9 mm

in fruit. Male floret represented by 2 one-

celled anthers on a very short filament, an-

thers suborbicular dehiscing through the mid-

dle; pollen long-reniform, buoyant, pale yel-

low, exhibiting large granules within. Female

florets 4 in each cluster, reduced to pistils,

stipitate, stipe elongating to 25 to 30 mm

when mature, obovate-oblong, truncate, sur-

mounted by a dense discoid, peltate stigmatic

canopy; stigma mammilate, to one side, ting-

ed with light pink; ovule solitary. Fruit ovoid,

obliquely-ovoid or subreniform achene com-

pressed, beaked; pericarp subcartilaginous,

green, endocarp hard, black, bearing barbs and

excrescences. Seed solitary testa membrane-

ous. [C. McC.]

Note : This description is based on plants col-

lected at Mira Road, Salsette Island,

Bombay.

COMMENTS

Stem :

There is no remarkable difference in the

character of the stem between the two species

(R. maritima and R. rostellata) that I can dis-

cern. The stem is stoloniferous; in dense sandy

604

FIELD STUDY OF THE GENUS RUPPIA

loam the internodes are frequently short but

in more open sandy conditions the internodes

reach approximately 25 mm. Older stolons

become quite wiry ( maritima ). Two roots

appear at each node; one only frequently sur-

viving. Root hairs are well-developed.

Leaves :

A pair of subopposite leaves is developed

at each node; each leaf is composed of a hya-

linely margined sheath separated from the in-

voluted lamina by a hyaline, truncate ligule

Fig. M. Rhizome and branch (note ligule);

Fig. N. Leaf sheaths forming “capsule”.

(figure M). The “two parallel tubes” of

Cooke (1908). The paired sheath at each

node overlap to form a “capsule” within which

the early stages of the inflorescence is under-

gone and sheltered (figure N). Gases

given off by transpiration (?) and growth ap-

pear to escape between the opposing “funnel-

forming” ligules. These “capsules” appear to

remain viable, long after the breaking off of

the fragments from the parent plant; in this

way they not only appear to protect the young

floral elements, but are also capable of esta-

blishing themselves in fresh habitats, by the

production of new roots at the nodes thus as-

sisting, by drift, in the wider distribution of

the species. In this “capsular” form the plants

are often capable of withstanding the inclemen-

cies of the weather, and rigours of winter, if

not too severe and re-establish themselves

afresh in spring, by propagation by adventi-

tious shoots seeds and embedded stolons, (obs.

R. maritima). A narrow hyaline or sheath

bract subtends the peduncle.

Flowers :

In this paper I regard the anthers and pistils

as individual, unisexual florets arranged in two

groups on a short ( rostellata ) or long ( mari-

tima) peduncle according to the species. In

both species there are four anthers in each

cluster, but they are differently arranged. In

R. maritima each anther almost completely en-

circles the axis of the peduncle, like a tier of

flat cakes (fig. N.) whereas in R. rostellata

each anther is supported on the shoulder of a

short ligulate filament in pairs, above and be-

low the cluster of female florets (fig. D, PL

III).

In R. maritima the female florets appear as

small, long pearshaped bodies (ovaries) vary-

ing in number from 2 to 8(9) in different

stages of development between the anthers —

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the central anthers are adjacent. (Fig. N).

Pistil: The pistil is long pyriform varying

somewhat in shape in response to the compres-

sion surrounding it. It also varies in age from

its neighbours thereby accounting for the ap-

parent differential growth between the pistils

in each cluster. The stigmatic area is some-

what bun-like in R. maritima and canopy-like

in R. rostellata.

keep rotating at the surface of the water by

the movement of the wind and wave action.

Unlike maritima , in rostellata the pollen con-

tacts the stigmas under water for the greater

time but surface fertilization may also take

place.

Soon after fertilization the stipes begin to

elongate, they may be equal or unequal in

length depending on the degree of maturation,

however, they finally become subequal in

R. maritima Linn.

Cross section (diagramatic) through peduncle showing groups of stipes and mode of

rotation to form spiral.

Anthers : In R. maritima the anthers are

solitary and sessile arranged in a tier along

the peduncle whereas in R. rostellata the an-

thers are arranged in pairs on a short filament

above and below the female clusters (PI. II,

5). The anthers dehisce under water freeing

the sausage- shaped pollen. The pollen contacts

the stigmas on its way up to the surface and

also at the surface in R . maritima as the clus-

ters of florets on either side of the peduncle

length.

Pollination :

The pollination of the florets of the two

species of Ruppia presents some interesting

details. In the Indian species ( rostellata ) the

anthers release their pollen under water and

as it rises towards the surface of the water the

reniform granules are arrested by the stigma-

tic canopy and remain adherent to it, moving

606

j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

McCann : Ruppia

Plate II

Ruppia rostellata Koch

Fig. 1. Portion of plant; Figs. 2 & 3. Peduncle and florets; Fig. 4. Pistil; Fig. 5. Stamen;

Fig. 6. Dehesed achene (shell); Fig. 7. Node with roots; Fig. 8. Rhizome with shell

of achene attached; Fig. 9. Achene after decomposition of pericarp; Fig. 10. Pollen

grain; Fig. 11. Embryo; Fig. 12. Disposition of male and female florets.

[Del McCann (1945) ]

Plate III

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

McCann : Ruppia

Fig. A. A portion of stem (winter); Fig. B. Inflorescence (winter); Fig. C. Develop-

ing peduncle and inflorescence (summer); Fig. D. Female florets minus males; Figs

E. F. & G. Aspects of stigma; Fig. H. Pistil; Fig. I. Anther; Fig. J. Pollen grain;

Fig. K. Fruit; Fig. L. Disposition of male and female florets.

[Del McCann]

FIELD STUDY OF THE GENUS RUPPIA

round to the stigma with the occillation of the

water.

In the New Zealand species ( maritima ) the

mode of pollination is somewhat different. The

pollen is dispersed before the maturation of

the stigmas and rises to the surface of the

water, there to float about at the whim of the

wind and the currents like a sea of pollen dust.

The elongating peduncles carry the two clus-

ters of female florets to the surface. As the

peduncles elongate the clusters keep on rotat-

ing forming the spiral and keep the stigmas

in both clusters changing their position giving

all the stigmas a chance of pollination.

The coiling of the peduncle not only serves

to adjust the florets to the varying depth of

water with the rise and fall of the tides, but

its action assists in the rotation of the oppos-

ed female clusters to ensure complete polli-

nation of the florets.

The difference in the mode of pollination

between maritima and rosteilata is very signi-

ficant.

A point worthy of note is that, in maritima

the peduncle does not re-coil after pollination

as do the pedicels of Vallisneria, but with the

Stages in the development of the fruit

R. maritima.

4

aging of the tissue the spiral tends to close

in Ruppia.

Fruit :

After pollination the stipes begin to lengthen

either uniformly or unevenly according to the

interval of pollination between one floret and

the other, but eventually all stipes attain ap-

proximately the same length. During the pro-

cess of development the two clusters keep on

rotating increasing the coils in the spiral ( R .

maritima ). In R. rosteilata the stipes just elon-

gate till the fruit are ready to fall. At first the

fallen fruits float for a short while before

sinking into the ooze or being caught up in

other vegetation, particularly, drifting algae.

The shape of the achene varies slightly from

ovoid, obliquely-ovoid to subreniform, some-

what compressed. The seed is protected by a

submembraneous testa. On dessication the

stipe coils slightly in various ways and thus

forms a short prehensile tail to the achene for

a time, suitable to attach in the down of water

fowl.

Habitat :

Ruppia is essentially an aquatic plant ad-

apted to live in brackish or saline water, salt

marshes, lakes and lagoons, but it cannot with-

stand too rapid currents nor too high a degree

of salinity. Although brine soon destroys the

vegetative tissue, the seeds are capable of sur-

viving it.

Vegetative growth commences with the in-

flux of freshwater, winter rains in the case of

R. maritima or the monsoon rains in the case

of R. rosteilata, which inundate the habitat.

The induction of the freshwater encourages

growth, and eventual flowering and fruiting

until the increased salinity above the tolerance

level or a drop in temperature brings about

the cessation of vegetative growth till the next

season.

607

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The Indian species, R. rostellata, common-

est in tidal marshes around salt works com-

mences life with the break of the monsoon

rains when the habitat is diluted with fresh-

water (approx, middle June annually). The

residue of salt left in the soil of the works

from the previous salt-working season provid-

ed the necessary amount of salinity for favour-

able growth. The plants flourish throughout

the monsoon producing a prodigious amount

of vegetative growth followed by masses of

flower and seed. During this period the salt-

works are subjected to the rise and fall of the

tides, by way of the channels, and inundate

the area. It is with the advent of the mon-

soon that numbers of fish, particularly mullet,

locally known as bole, enter the area to breed

and feed on Ruppia and its seed. By the end

of the monsoon (September-October) the

migrant birds are on their way and the waders

and anserines find these Ruppia beds a haven.

It is about this time that the Benas River

floods the great Rann of Cutch and the hordes

of Flamingos find a suitable breeding ground,

(McCann 1935).

During the early development of Ruppia

vegetable feeders, accompanied by the chain

of predator come inshore to feed or breed

or both: among the hordes are crustaceans,

fish, sea-snakes, and some of the migrant birds

of prey which reap a harvest.

As the year advances and the salinity in-

creases by evaporation the plants die off leav-

ing much seed embedded in the mud. This is

but a very brief reference to the transition

that takes place during the life cycle of Rup-

pia rostellata.

In the New Zealand species R. maritima a

very similar pattern to that of R. rostellata

emerges, but with a change of the season and

the temperature. With the approach of the

winter and winter rains, R. maritima begins

to die off, leaving old stolons and seeds to fill

the gap in the spring. In the close mats of

vegetation growing in the loam bordering the

rise and fall of the tides in shallow water, R.

maritima mingles with species of small cyper-

aceous plants, Scirpus,? Selliera radicans Cuv-

(Goodeniaceae) ; Crantzia lineata Nutt. (Um-

belliferae) and a few other small salt tolerent

plants. In such situations the stolons of Rup-

pia become tightly matted in competition with

the roots and stolons of its associates. Under

such circumstances the plants themselves are

short, with short tightly coiled spiral pedun-

cles with or without florets or achenes. Much

green algae is also found tangled in the sward.

In the tidal lagoons small and large float-

ing ‘carpets’ of green algae often harbour

much Ruppia beneath them. In the summer

these carpets of algae may be found stranded

with the Ruppia under them. The fall in the

level of the water leaves the anchored Rup-

pia and its ‘umbrella’ of algae high and dry,

completely dessicated. During the winter

much of the algae (now brown and decom-

posing) tangled with Ruppia, may be found

drifting and stranded ashore after stormy

weather.

With the advent of spring migratory birds

commence arriving in New Zealand and those

which are resident in the country, change their

residence according to the climatic changes to

more favourable feeding and breeding grounds.

Seed dispersal :

There is little doubt that aquatic birds are

largely responsible for the dispersal of Rup-

pia throughout the world. The carriage of the

seeds or viable fragments of the plants may

be external, by attachment to the plumage by

the ‘hooked’ stipes or in clots of mud attach-

ed to other parts of the body: or, internally,

in the alimentary canal, by way of the food

608

FIELD STUDY OF THE GENUS RIJPPIA

(without the stipes) some of which may es-

cape the gastric juices and are voided a long

way from the original places of collection.

Sick birds dying by the way and those falling

victims to birds of prey which invariably

scatter the contents of the crop, stomach or

gut of the victims. The chain is almost end-

less. Thus the birds of prey, which are often

on the routes of migration followed by the

aquatic birds may also perform the role of

dispersal agents.

Distribution :

Ruppia is widely distributed throughout the

world, in salt or brackish water, in maritime

coastal regions. It is also able to survive in

freshwater (non saline) for a time. The ex-

tent of saline tolerance undoubtedly varies

with the species, and according to the time

of the year.

Ridley (1930) on seed dispersal writes:

“ Ruppia maritima is another world- wide

aquatic found on the coasts of Europe, Asia

(India, China, Formosa), Malay Peninsula,

Philippines, south Africa, Socotra, Canaries,

Madeira, Australia, New Caledonia, New Zea-

land, all America and West Indies, including

Bermudas, probably mainly dispersed by

ducks.” (p. 694).

Ridley refers to a single species, R. mari-

tima, but the extent of the distribution refer-

red to by him covers both the species mari-

tima and rostellata. The present status of the

various species believed to exist (beyond the

two mentioned above) is open to question and

needs careful scrutiny. So far I have been

unable to discern more than the two species

mentioned above from a comparison of the

numerous descriptions examined. In some in-

stances, I do believe, that the fine-foliaged

species of Potamogeton have been confused

with species of Ruppia and vis-a-vis, for the

species of both genera ( Potamogeton and

Ruppia) frequently co-exist in the same habi-

tat together!

Perhaps, Ruppia fili folia (Phillippi) of the

Andies, S. America is an example. This Rup-

pia was originally referred to as Potamogeton

filifolia by Prof. Phillippi but was not actual-

ly described by him; however, Skottsberg

(1916) transferred Phillippi’s P. filifolia to

the genus Ruppia as a new combination. My

interest in R. filifolia arose from a reference

to it in the Chester Zoo News (September,

1974:7 to 9) in connection with the aquisition

of rare Andean Giant Coots. In this reference

Mr. A. W. Johnson of Santiago, Chile, who

obtained the birds for the zoo on a small lake

at 14,000 feet above sea level and subsequent-

ly, with the aid of an Indian guide, at Lake

Cotacotani, a snow fed lake very much higher.

According to Mr. Johnson, the birds bred in

these areas making large floating nests or nest

rafts “built from the fibers of the same aqua-

tic plant Ruppia filifolia, which also forms

part of the coots’ diet and each platform was

anchored beneath the surface.” (p. 12) Giant

Coot — Fulica gigantea.

Of the two species discussed here R. mari-

tima is the more widely distributed than R.

rostellata; the former appears to be the tough-

er of the two occurring in the more maritime

and colder conditions than the latter.

In New Zealand the all pervading maritime

species, Ruppia maritima is associated with

Potamogeton pectinatus, a very similar look-

ing plant, in some respects, and plays an im-

portant role in the farming of game birds,

such as ducks and geese as well as the major

feed for migrant waders whether from over-

seas or birds subject to ‘local’ migration in

response to the climate conditions. The move-

ments of the Godwits ( Limosa lapponica ) are

a good example of the exotic migrants and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the Oystercatchers ( Haematopus spp.) and

the Wrybill ( Anarhynchus frontalis) are suit-

able examples of internal migrants. To carry

these observations further, Ruppia probably

contributes to the coastal fisheries — the chain

is almost infinite.

Ruppia is closely associated with the mol-

lusc, Melanops trifaciate Gray which feeds and

breeds in large numbers in the tangled masses

of the plants. Likewise many small and minute

Crustacea (copepods) find a haven in the

shelter of Ruppia. A small coleopter (or dip-

terous) larva lives in the achenes possibly feed-

ing on the contents, while the fruit is still on

the plant; this may account for the hole so

frequently seen in the dried seeds and in illus-

trations. There is much to be gleaned from a

closer study of the microcosm.

In India, Ruppia rostellata frequents the

tidal marshes and the adjacent salt-pans.

These pans and marshes are the annual re-

sort of numerous species of migrant waders

and anserines as feeding grounds.

The Great Rann of Cutch is perhaps the

best example where thousands of Flamingos

( Phoenicopterus ruber) go during suitable

years to breed in the marshes formed by the

blind Benas River diluting the salt of the

Rann. The Rann is for a brief period cover-

ed with Ruppia rostellata.

During the early part of the monsoon, the

saltworks are inundated and the coastal water

becomes diluted and suitable for the growth of

Ruppia. During this period vast hordes of

Mullet ( Mugil sp.), the wellknown kboie’

of the local fishermen around Bombay, enter

the channels around the works with each tide

to breed and feed on the escape of debris and

Ruppia in the area. Along with the mullet

come numerous other fishes, crustaceans, cep-

halopods (cuttle-fish) and sea-snakes. This

chain of natural resources is forged annually

and will continue if not interfered with by

‘modern’ fishing devices and the animal life

given a short respite to breed and not sub-

jected to capture and pollution throughout the

year. By the end of the monsoon the avian

migrants are on their way to renew the cycle.

Ack nowledgements

My thanks are due to: Prof. P. V. Bole of

the Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, India, for

copies of Griffith’s Plates cclvii-cclix; Dr. J.

C. Yaldwyn, Assistant Director, and Mr. B.

Hamlin, Botanist of the National Museum,

Wellington, New Zealand, for copies of lite-

rature relating to the New Zealand flora; Dr.

Roland Moberg, Uppsala University Institute

for Systematic Botany, Sweden, for a copy of

Carl Skottsberg’s description of Ruppia fUU

folia ; the Director, Indian Botanical Gardens,

Howrah, India; and Miss K. Rattue, Assistant

Librarian, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Eng-

land for references to literature. I am also in-

debted to Dr. F. M. Climo, Concologist,

National Museum, Wellington, New Zealand,

for the determination of the molluscs.

610

Transverse view of a chambered Nautilus ( Nautilis sp.) showing the various chambers

and the margin of the shell that forms a beautiful logarithmic spiral.

(Photo : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Grossman : Nautilus

Plate

THE SHAPE OF THE SHELL OF THE CHAMBERED

NAUTILUS

Nathaniel Grossman1

{With a plate)

Of all the natural beauties, one of the most

acclaimed is the shell of the chambered nau-

tilus {Nautili s spp.). Painted, drawn, and

photographed innumerable times, saluted in

poetry, its graceful shape appeals to all view-

ers, even the artistically ungifted. Scientists too

have fallen under its spell and have speculated

at length on reasons why the animal builds

its shell in one particular shape, a shape that

is found also in shells of other molluscs, living

and extinct, in ram’s horns, in saber teeth,

and in other animal structures, as well as in

various botanical settings.

After discussing differences in the develop-

ment of animals and plants displaying a spiral

structure, D’Arcy Thompson asserts: “It fol-

lows from all this that there cannot be a phy-

sical or dynamical, though there may well be

a mathematical law of growth, which is com-

mon to, and which defines, the spiral form in

Nautilus, in Globigerina, in the ram’s horn,

and in the inflorescence of the sunflower”

(1971). From all the properties of the loga-

rithmic spiral, he selects as the key one its

continued similarity with itself as it grows.

This is assuredly a beautiful and unique

property of the logarithmic spiral, but it asks

a lot of the animal that builds the shell. The

creature must constantly be surveying the

whole of its past shell-work to keep its current

addition in line with the global requirement

of self-similarity. We prefer to give a local

1 Department of Mathematics, University of Cali-

fornia, Los Angeles, California 90024.

explanation for the shape and we offer one

that is biologically simple and plausible and,

moreover, does not require the animal to know

any mathematics. The basic hypothesis cer-

tainly can be experimentally tested in a num-

ber of different situations. Our explanation is

biologically dynamic and not merely descrip-

tive and numerological, as phyllotaxis is.

We suppose that, as the shell is enlarged,

the shape of the rim (or tube cross-section)

remains similar to itself. We suppose that the

animal deposits new shell material at the rim

at a rate proportional to the circumference of

the rim. (There is, furthermore, some mechan-

ism to keep the shell attached to itself as it

coils.) Finally there is a condition, to be ex-

plained later, for which we can think of no

name better than “embryological predisposi-

tion”.

Using polar coordinates, express the equa-

tion of the shell coils as r = f (0) Because of

the similarity of cross-sections, the circumfer-

ence of the rim is proportional to a characte-

ristic length, say the “height” of the tube:

_ f(0 - 2^). Since the rate of deposit of

shell material is then proportional to that

height, there is a constant k so that

f'(O)-f'(0-27U= -kffi0)-f(0-27u)].

It is easy to verify that f(0)=f(o) exp 10 is a

solution of this differential-difference equation.

It is crucial to note that, under a suitable

condition, the solution just found is unique.

To see this, suppose f to be a specified dif-

ferentiable function when -2tt < 0 < o. Then

the equation can be thrown into the form

611

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

This can be treated as a linear differential

equation with known forcing function on the

interval o< 0 < 2^ and the solution, which

is unique, can be written out explicitly if de-

sired. The process can be repeated on the

next interval 2vr < 0«< 4 and so on. Hence,

it is enough to specify f for -2tt< 0 < o and

this the animal does in some still unknown

way. This is what we referred to as the “cm-

R E FE ]

D’Arcy Thompson, (1971): On Growth and

Form (Abridged Edition, J. T. Bonner, ed.), Cam-

bridge University Press, pp. 173-174. This edition

bryological predisposition”. (It is, of course, a

mystery of science but, we think, a genuine

and biologically relevant mystery in contrast

to numerological ones such as phyllotaxis.)

The foregoing applies as well to other gas-

tropods. Furthermore, it covers the ammo-

nites, an extinct genus of cephalopods, which

do not spiral inward toward a point but in-

stead toward a limit circle.

EN CES

has references to recent work on phyllotaxis. For

a survey of older work on phyllotaxis, see the earlier

editions of Thompson’s book.

612

EMOTIVE KINSHIPS IN THE STUDY OF MAMMALS

M. Krishnan1

The pursuit of knowledge begins with names.

Shakespeare himself, and thousands after him,

seem to have missed the true significance o\

his much-quoted line, “a rose by any other

name would smell as sweet” — its point, of

course, is that it must have some other name

if we do not call it a rose, to be recognized

at all, that the human mind needs tags and

labels to apprehend and remember things.

Naturally, the study of animals was much con-

cerned, in its early stages, with distinguishing

them apart from one another, sorting them

out, and giving them generic and specific

names, with anatomy, morphology and taxo-

nomy.

That is still going on. Among some animals

(insects, for instance) diversity is so profuse

that lists are still being extended and revised.

Further, deeper studies in palaeontology, more

precise morphological descriptions, and simi-

lar enhancements of knowledge have led to

revisions and realignments of taxonomy. How-

ever, it is true that concurrently with the cog-

nizance of different animals, there were also

assessments of their habits and “character”,

usually at entirely anthropomorphic levels —

something inevitable when we consider that

the utility of animals as providers of food,

pelts and assistance to humanity (anthropo-

logists have said that without the domestica-

tion of the dog and cattle, human civilization

could never have progressed beyond a more

or less feral stage) was something constantly

investigated even prior to the systematic study

of other animals by men. While the overwhel-

12/ 14 Edward Elliot Road, Madras-600 004.

ming majority of such early studies was cer-

tainly unscientific by modern standards, it is

necessary to note that bits and pieces of quite

accurate and reliable observation were not

lacking in this vast, conglomerate mass of

highly anthropomorphic and imaginative

natural history and legendary lore. Three ex-

amples may be cited to make this point. Fear

and avoidance of men, an almost universal

reaction of wild mammals, was strangely

lacking among dolphins and replaced by an

almost friendly tolerance, as noticed very

early by the Greeks. The oldest extant Tamil

poetry (which bears ample evidence of an

earlier body of literature now irretrievably

lost to us) is about 18 centuries old. In it are

two poems which refer to bird migration as

something well known. One of these describes

the White Stork unmistakably and vividly, and

its turning home northwards after its winter

sojourn in the south: the other poem refers

similarly to the flamingo flying northward

after sojourning in the lagoons near Kanya

Kumari, and mentions in a terse but quite

specific line its habit of feeding on micro-

organisms in the silt of the shallows — how

many centuries later did Western science

comprehend the marvel of bird migration, and

realise that the flamingo’s beak is specially

adapted for feeding on minute prey!

Such rare, fragmentary nuggets of truth in

early natural history should not blind us to

its overwhelmingly romantic and imaginative

(and at the same time quite callously utilita-

rian!) bias. There were good animals and bad

animals, the noble lion and the shifty and

cunning jackal, in that lore, and the ferocity

613

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

of most wild animals was much exaggerated.

Only in the early decades of this century (and

somewhat earlier) did natural history develop

more factually informed, investigative and ob-

jective trends, but these were rapidly develop-

ed and along many lines of inquiry.

Meanwhile, right from the middle of the

19th century to almost the middle of the 20th,

human interest in wildlife was dominated by

the desire to encompass its end. Shikaris of

various descriptions were the main sources of

information about wild animals, and while

some of them were knowledgeable naturalists

and keen observers, the fact remains that

when their chief interest in their quarry lay

in bagging it, they learnt only enough about

it to do so expeditiously and effectively. In the

preface to his wild animals in central

India, a book that achieved renown as much

as a natural history as a text on shikar, Dun-

bar Brander himself says this.

The great renaissance in natural history was

in the first half of this century, when much

carefully verified knowledge on diverse ani-

mals and their lives was gained and integrat-

ed: though these various investigations were

often channelled along particular lines, since

all of them were scientific studies of animals

they complement and supplement one another

to form a whole, and are not merely isolated

and disconnected fragments.

During the present century, taxonomical and

habitat evaluations have been carefully revis-

ed; instinctive urges and inhibitions, respon-

ses and reflexes, have been recognized as of

vital importance in animal life, and closely

studied; spectacular advances have been made

in the field of animal senses and sensibilities

by means of meticulously planned investiga-

tions, and their vast variations from our own

sense-perceptions and from those of one ano-

ther have been appreciated; the study of ani-

mal behaviour has been extended to free-liv-

ing subjects in a wholly natural environment,

with the realisation that captive specimens

may not provide reliable material except in

limited ways, and that their behaviour might

even be misleading; the complex and vital re-

lationship between wildlife and environment

and the importance of revising our ecological

knowledge have been better appreciated; with

advancement in other fields of scientific know-

ledge and technological improvements, biolo-

gical studies have also gained precision and

reliability by utilising these advances. This is

no summary of how and in what fields natu-

ral history has gained considerably during the

past 50 years or so, but only a list of illus-

trative examples. More theoretical researches,

not always marked by consensus of opinion,

have also been undertaken or achieved in this

period, as in the fields of genetics and evolu-

tion.

On the whole the trend has been towards

the employment of scientifically planned in-

quiry that will, to the extent possible, mini-

mise human errors in assessments, and the

use of mechanical instruments of record, and

statistics of all kinds. Undoubtedly such means

are of considerable value and validity, but

since the exploiters of all such means are

human and therefore fallible, perhaps less has

been achieved than is generally conceded. The

quality of the in-put, and the dependability of

skill in utilising instruments of record, will

naturally materially affect the conclusions

reached by mathematical and mechanical

means, but we need not go into this question

here.

All that I wish to point out here is that this

increasing reliance on mechanical means, sta-

tistics, and modern ‘methodologies’ (i.e.,

methods!) seems to reflect a revolt from the

anthropomorphic and romantic natural history

614

EMOTIVE KINSHIPS IN THE STUDY OF MAMMALS

of the past. By no means does modern

science reject or deny means of information

or comprehension that are not purely intellec-

tual, and the work of great naturalists of our

own times, like Tinbergen and Lorenz, proves

again and again that to treat live, sentient

subjects as a mass of conditioned reflexes and

instinctive responses is utterly futile, and that

we cannot really understand animals by me-

chanical means and statistical columns.

Anyone who has known a dog well (and

not merely owned it) will know that although

its colour blind world of smells is something

we cannot even begin to understand except

on an arid, intellectual plane, we can certainly

be sure that it shares many emotions with us.

A dog may be frightened, angry or happy (in

high spirits), in emotional states distinct from

purely physical or physiological states also

known to us personally, such as being fatigu-

ed, sleepy or hungry. Those who have had

closer associations with animals will also have

sensed the need for reassurance (as by means

of physical contact or proximity even) that

develops at times in such relationships, even

on occasion the provision of such reassurance

or support by the animal to the man.

Our sense-perceptions are very different

from those of most animals, both in range and

reach — some animals even go by perceptions

quite unknown to us. When this is so, it may

seem difficult, and impossible at times, for us

to apprehend their expressions of moods and

emotive urges, especially as it is reasonable

to assume that their intraspecific communi-

cations would be along the senses best deve-

loped in them. No doubt this impediment to

our comprehension of animal communica-

tions is there, and is less easily got over than

the majority of naturalists seem to realise, but

it is a real handicap only in human under-

standing of social and personal animal com-

munications, when these are interpreted in

terms of our own perceptive capacities. An

example will clarify this difficult sentence: it

is well known that animals of the dog tribe

can hear sounds pitched high above our audi-

tory reach : the evening chorus of jackals

(little heard these days with the decline of the

animal in most places), often described in

detail in highly humanised terms, possibly

features overtones we are unable to hear but

which may hold specific meaning to other

jackals which can sense subtle variations in

the call, but so long as we do not make the

mistake of presuming that jackals hear the

call of their kind precisely as we do, we are

on sound ground in assuming the purpose of

the chorus is mainly a social location an-

nouncement, and at times perhaps an assem-

bly summons.

It is specially with regard to olfactory per-

ceptions that we are handicapped, because on

this frontier our own sensibilities are singu-

larly blunted, while in most animals they are

exquisitely perceptive and also capable of

selective apprehension. However, smells and

scenting abilities are of importance to animals

mainly in locating others of their kind, in

hunting, as territorial markings, and in per-

sonal relationships (as in seeking and find-

ing mates or in the mother-young association),

and are seldom featured in emotive expres-

sions. As the manifestations of emotional

states are mainly visual, tactile or audible, it

is possible for us to have a fairly reliable un-

derstanding of such tokens, provided our ob-

servation is adequately informed by experi-

ence.

Attitudes, bodily movements and gestures,

and visually manifest excitement or lethargy

are highly expressive of an animal’s mood.

Dogs wag their tails in friendly overtures and

tuck their tails between their hind legs when

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

frightened, cats arch their backs, raise their

tails vertically and bristle their hair in coun-

ter-threat, and cattle and horses indulge in

nuzzling and nudgings in expression of confid-

ing affection — licking, which is mainly a tac-

tile expression of reassurance, is also freely

indulged in by many animals and is something

that can be seen. These are emotive expres-

sions well known to us because we have

known domestic animals long and intimately,

but similar postures, movements and activities

by wild animals, typical of emotional states or

moods, are no less symptomatic.

Wild elephants, for example, are contented

and in an equable frame of mind when flap-

ping their ears casually, flicking their tails,

and moving around or feeding in a leisurely

manner; when the ear movements are accele-

rated, the tail curled tight over the rump, and

they pace about more actively, they are in a

boisterous mood, in high spirits; when stand-

ing immobile without any swaying movements

of the body, with the ears held flat against

the sides of the neck they are in a rage, and

it is time to take oneself far away swiftly and

unostentatiously! A peculiar token of elephan-

tine uncertainty or puzzlement, distinct from

fear or anger, is that when aware (mainly by

sight) of the proximity of something distrust-

ed, as a man in the offing, the trunk is looped

over the tusks (in bulls) or its tip taken to

the lips or ears, often in a scraping or scrat-

ching movement, — they may also indulge in

the movements of feeding then, without

actually feeding — this indulgence in familiar

actions in a purely formal manner is a form

of displacement activity characteristic of most

mammals when uncertain or uneasy but not

yet frightened or provoked, and serves to re-

assure them.

A mistake the observer is prone to when

insufficiently experienced is to take these

manifestations of mental states or moods as

unvaried and invariable expressions — that is

very far from being so. For instance, as a man

who has been chased and charged by wild

elephants and who has provoked a charge to

demonstrate it to others, I may say that the

preliminary pawing of the earth with the fore-

legs and the orientation of the body to face

the cause of provocation, often characteristic

of a charging elephant, may not be indulged

in at all — the charge may be launched with

no preliminary indications (especially when an

elephant has sensed human presence by smell)

and may not be in a straight line but in an

in-curved arc — it may be made in silence (as

it is usually) or may be accompanied by

bloodcurdling screams — the tight curling up

of the trunk prior to charging, so often des-

cribed as typical of elephants, may not be in-

dulged in at all and the trunk may hang loose

and sway with the impetus of the charge. A

more significant point is this. It has long been

known that elephants (both cows and bulls)

often put on a threat display or demonstration

to scare away human intruders. At times (pro-

bably because of the response of the intruder

to the demonstration) this mock charge, in-

stead of being averted at the last minute, may

be pressed fully home and result in a killing

— it is hardly possible to determine what

sparks off an aggressive display motivated by

fear or uncertainty to a : panic reaction of

hostility.

Such visually perceptible indications of

moods and emotive states are, obviously, in-

voluntary and not intraspecific only in their

communication but also inter- or extra-speci-

fic. Vocalisations or other audible sounds in-

dicative of an animal’s feelings are mainly of

the nature of intraspecific communications,

but may also be involuntary and extraspecifi-

cally comprehended — for example, snarling

616

EMOTIVE KINSHIPS IN THE STUDY OF MAMMALS

and roaring by some animals and the -alarm

calls of others.

Few aspects of animal life are more fasci-

nating to study or more rewarding than this

attempt to understand their emotive expres-

sions, but at all times the human observer

must not fail to keep two things in mind:

first, even visually communicated tokens may

be differently apprehended by the animals

than by us and, second, these expressions,

being conditioned by many variables, are not

to be interpreted too narrowly or definitely.

617

MOTH MIGRATION IN MOMBASA— 1955/1977

D. G. Sevastopulo1

The use of Mercury Vapour light in East

Africa has, as elsewhere, increased our know-

ledge of the Heterocera considerably; num-

bers of new species have been discovered, spe-

cies previously considered to have been extre-

mely rare have proved to be common (the

strange Syntomid Paramelisa lophura Auriv.

in Kampala, for example), and, furthermore,

it has shown that the migration of moths is

probably more frequent, and covers even more

species, than the more spectacular and more

widely publicised migration of butterflies. I

have only once witnessed an actual migration

of moths, a flight of the noctuid Achaea cato-

caloides Guen. in Kampala in March 1954,

which was crossing the lawn in my garden in

countless numbers at dawn, during the day

the moths rested on and in a well-clipped

Macrocarpus hedge, giving it the appearance

of an English Beech hedge in winter.

It is often possible to make an intelligent

guess about a migration by noting a sudden

increase in the numbers of day and dusk feed-

ing Sphingids visiting flowers, or by the in-

creased numbers of certain species being dis-

turbed from grass or rough herbage, but mig-

rations by many species cannot be detected in

this way and can only be revealed by the re-

gular use of a mercury vapour lamp.

I consider that a migration can be assumed

as having taken place when a species, pre-

viously absent or present in very small num-

bers, suddenly appears in large numbers at

m.v. light and then, equally suddenly, disap-

pears. The assumption is strengthened when

1 P. O. Box 95026, Mombasa, Kenya.

captive females, with known larval food-plants

(our knowledge of the food-plants of East

African Heterocera, except those recorded as

attacking agricultural or horticultural crops, is

still woefully meagre) refuse to lay, and which

are subsequently found by dissection to have

the ovaries undeveloped and the abdomen

full of fat. I can, in fact, only recall four oc-

casions when I have found larvae of known

migrant species in numbers large enough to

pre-suppose them to be the progeny of mig-

rants— larvae of Spodoptera exempt a Wlk.,

the notorious Army Worm of East Africa, on

Mombasa Island in December 1955 /January

1956, larvae of Plecoptera hypoxantha Hamps.

and Achaea lienardi Bsd. in a coastal forest

south of Mombasa in April 1971, and of

Cambogia grataria Wlk. in the Shimba Hills

in July 1973.

I can think of only two references to moth

migration in Africa, the very specialised work

of the late Eric Brown and his team on fore-

casting outbreaks of Army Worm ( Spodop-

tera exempta Wlk.) in East Africa and a

paper by D. F. Owen (1969, Species diversity

and seasonal abundance in tropical Sphin-

gidae, Proc. R . ent. Soc. Load. (A) 44:162-

8).

Most migrations on the Kenya coast take

place during the rainy season, the ‘long rains’

normally from late March to late May or early

June, and the ‘short rains’ in October /Novem-

ber. The prevailing winds during the long rains

are from the south east and from the north

east during the short. Of recent years, how-

ever, the long rains have tended to start late

618

MOTH MIGRATION IN MOMBASA

or finish early, and the short rains to fail more

or less completely.

During the last ten or twelve years migra-

tions appear to have become more frequent,

or what is more likely to be the case, have

become more obvious. There has been a con-

siderable decline in the numbers of resident

moths, both species and individuals, during

this period, probably due partly to the reduc-

tion of uncultivated bush through building,

and partly to the dry cycle through which the

coast has been passing. Whatever the cause,

species that used to come regularly month-in,

month-out, to my m.v. lamp now appear in-

frequently or not at all, so that small migrant

influxes, which previously merged more or

less unnoticed in the resident population, now

stand out conspicuously.

A study of the details below will show that,

in many species, migration is not a once and-

for-all affair each season but occurs in a series

of waves, which may overlap or be separated

from each other by intervals of a few days.

Furthermore there is very strong evidence

from the variation in the proportion of the

various forms in di- and polymorphic species

that these waves originate from different areas.

From 1956 to late 1959 the lamp was situ-

ated on Mombasa Island itself but, to avoid

annoying neighbours, was usually switched off

at about 10 p.m. From April 1960 onwards

the lamp has been situated in Nyali, a resi-

dential area on the mainland, immediately

north of Mombasa Island, and has been left

on from dusk to dawn, except for brief periods

of furlough or illness, these, except for a

period from 5.v. to 25.V.71, have been during

periods of minimal migratory activity.

I propose dealing with the question, family

by family, in the order adopted by Seitz in the

MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE WORLD.

CASTNIIDAE, ZYGAENIDAE, HETEROGYNIDAE

and syntomidae — I have no evidence of mig-

ration by any Zygaenid or Syntomid, the only

families of these four that occur at the Coast.

arctiidae — The only two species that ap-

pear to be regular migrants are the Hypsids

Digama aganais Feld, and D. africana Swinh.,

both species usually taking part in the same

migration. Migrations have been recorded in:-

11/1 3.xii.58 (many aganais, few africana).

21/29.xii.62 (both species in equal number).

2/4. i. 65 ( africana only).

I. iii.68 (two africana only).

21/22.iii.72 (both species).

24/27.xi.72 (both species).

II. xii.73 (three aganais only).

l.iv.74 (both species, few only).

8/10.iv.75 (both species, few only).

21.111.77 (one africana only).

27.111.77 (two aganais only).

Two species pose a bit of a problem, a

female Godasa sidae F., orientis Brtl. appear-

ed at the light on 4.viii.76 and another on

20.iv.77, and a female Caryatis hersilia Druce

on 6.vi.75, these are the only records for these

two species over the whole period under re-

view. Presumably they should be classed as

occasional vagrants.

pterothysanidae — Does not occur at the

Coast.

lymantriidae — Only two species have

shown any signs of migration. On the morn-

ing 23.viii.68 vast numbers of Cropera testa -

cea Wlk. were seen settled on the walls and

ceiling of the airport lounge at Port Reitz, the

Mombasa Airport. On my return from Nairobi

that same evening, even greater numbers were

flying round the airport lights. This grass-

feeding species is decidedly scarce on Mom-

basa Island and does not occur at all in Nyali.

The second species, Sapelia tavetensis Hoik,

appears every now and then in fair numbers

for a few days, and then disappears. Dates of

such occurrences are as below: —

619

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

18.vii.66

18/20.X.72

10/1 l.vi.7 3

The great majority of visitors are males. I

have only once found larvae of this species,

in April 1975 a small number were found on

an unidentified tree belonging to the Bomba-

caceae, almost certainly non-indigenous.

lasiocampidae — Lasiocampids, with their

inability to feed and the unwieldy, egg-filled

bodies of the females, appear unlikely mig-

rants. One species, Trichopisthia monteiroi

Druce, has on several occasions in recent years

appeared suddenly in considerable numbers

and then equally suddenly, disappeared. The

females lay without hesitation, and it appears

to be far more likely that these mass appear-

ances are the result of simultaneous emergen-

ces, the larvae feeding gregariously on Sclero-

carya caffra Sond. ( Anacardiaceae) . For the

record, mass appearances have occurred on

the following dates: —

30.iv/2.v.73

15/ 16.iv.74

16/ 17.iv.75

bombycidae and drepanidae — No evid-

ence of any migration in these two families.

eupterotidae — The general remarks made

under Lasiocampidae apply to this family also.

There has been no evidence of any migration,

but there is one mysterious singleton appear-

ance. A male Sabalia picarina Wlk. appeared

at m.v. light in October 1972, presumably a

rare vagrant.

saturniidae — No evidence of migration,

but on 22.iv.75 and 25.iv.76 single male, and

on 4.V.77 a single female Usta angulata Roths,

appeared at my m.v. light. Also on 12.iv.77, a

single male Epiphora mythimnia Westw. ap-

peared. All, presumably, to be classed as oc-

casional vagrants from upcountry.

brahmaeidae — Does not occur at the

Coast.

sphingidae — This family includes a large

number of the migratory species. Although

food-plants of all the species listed below

grow either in my garden or in the adjacent

bush larvae, except for an occasional singleton,

are rarely found, nor have I ever observed any

signs of extensive damage from larval feeding.

There is, however, one exception — larvae of

Daphnis nerii L. occur not infrequently in late

May and early June, presumably the progeny

of the first immigrants, pupae do not diapause

and imagines emerge in July, but there is no

subsequent generation of larvae.

Agrius convolvuli L. — 29.xi/8.xii.65 : 21.1.66:

9/20.X.66 : 9.xii.66 : 17/19.iv.67 : 25.X.67 :

1 1 / 24.xi.67. There was no noteworthy migration

in 1968, a particularly wet year. 13.iv/6.v.69 :

8 / lO.x.69 : 17 / 26.iii.70 : 23/24.i.71 : 23/24.iii.71

: 31 .iii / 3.iv.71 : 6/9.iv.71 : 28.iv/4.v.71 : 14/

19.iv. 72 : 8/16.V.72 : 24/25.xi.72 : 3/4.iv.73 :

14/18. iv.73 : 24/29.iv.73 : 11/14.V.73 : 4/7.xi.73:

4/7.xii.73 : 6/17.iv.74 : 20/26.iv.74 : 29.iv/

3.V.74 : 17/20.V.74 : 29/31.V.74 : 10/17.xi.74 :

6/18.iv.75 : 25/28.iv.75 : 1/22.V.75 : 3/14.vi.75:

29. x/24.xi.75 : 6/9.xii.75 : 15/17.xii.75 : 23.iii.76:

26 / 28.iii.76 : 31.iii.76 : 3.iv.76 : 9.iv.76 : 12/

16.iv.76 : 18/31.iv.76 : 3.V.76 : 8.V.76 : 14.V.76:

30. v/17.vi.76 : 19.vi.76 : 30.vi/3.vii.76 : 21/

22.vii.76 : 30.x/29.xi.76 : 23/25.iii.77 : 27.iii.77:

29.iii/6.iv.77 : 8/ll.iv.77 : 14/18.iv.77 : 21.iv.77:

23/25.iv.77 : 27/29.iv.77 : 5.V.77 : 12/13.V.77:

17/18.V.77 : 21.V.77 : l.vi.77 : 6/8.vi.77. Local-

ly bred specimens occur occasionally all through

the year, and can be distinguished by being smal-

ler and with the dark and pale markings on the

forewing of the male being considerably less con-

trasty.

Callosphingia circe Fawc. — 25.iii.68 : 4.iv.68:

2.iv.74. All singletons. My friend, Dr. R. H. Car-

casson, classes them as ‘vagrants’ and states that

there are no previous records from the Kenya

coast.

Poliana witgensi Strd. — 23/26.iv.73 : 29.iv.73:

17.iv.75 : 19.iv.75 : 30.iv.75 : 2.V.75 : 22.V.75:

29.v/8.vi.75 : ll.vi.75 : 22/27.iv.76 : 30.iv.76:

l.v.76 : 4.V.76 : l.vi.76 : 30.vi.76 : 2/4.vii.7 6:

16/23. iv.77 : 26.iv.77 : 29.iv.77 : l.v.77 :4.vi.77 :

620

MOTH MIGRATION IN MOMBASA

10.vi.77 : 13.vi.77. No migrations were noted

prior to 1973, but they may have gone unnotic-

ed amongst, the then, not uncommon resident

population.

Pemba favillacea Wlk — 29.v/3.vi.75 : 8.vi.75:

1 1 / 12.vi.75 : 8.xi.75 : 22/24.iv.76 : 30.vi.76:

31.vii.76. Migrants were first noted in 1975, prior

to which there had been a small resident popu-

lation.

Nadiasa contraria Wlk. — 10/ll.viii.66. Not nor-

mally a migrant, but appeared in large numbers

on these two nights.

Likoma crenata R. & J. — 20/21.V.75 : 25.V.75:

30.V.75. The only year in which this species has

occurred.

Lophostethus demolini Angas — 15.iv.70. A sing-

leton, another vagrant.

Cephonodes hylas L. — 5.iv.67 : 3.iii.68 :5.iv.75 :

25.111.76 : 15/ 16.iv.76 : 23/24.ii.77. Frequently

accompanied by Leucostrophus hirundo Gerst.

Daphnis nerii L. — 25/28. iii.69 : 8/15.iv.69 :

18/22.iv.69 : 24/29.iv.69 : 29.iv/4.v.70 : 29.v|

14.vi.70 : 29.iv/4.v.71 : 21.iii.72 : 24/26.iii.72:

2.iv.72 : 18/19.iv.72 : 6/9.vii.72:4.iv.73 :28.iv.73 :

13.V.73 : 24/30.V.73 : 24.vi.73 : 14.xi.73 : 8/

15.iv.74 : 22.iv.74 : 2.V.74 : 6.iv.75 : 28.iv/

26.V.75 : 30.v/16.vi.75 : 3.xi.75 : 28.xi.75 :

6.xii.75 : ll.xii.75 : 24.iii.76 : 5.iv.76 : ll.iv.76:

17 / 30.iv.76 : 7.V.76 : ll.v.76 : 17/18.V.76 :22.v/

8.vi.76 : 13/17.vi.76 : 21.vi.76 : 25.vi.76 : 30.vi.76:

6/ 8.vii.76 : 16.vii.76 : 21/22.vii.76 : 7.X.76 : 19/

23.111.77 : 25.iii.77 : 27.iii.77 : 7.iv.77 : 9.iv.77:

13/16.iv.77 : 19/27.iv.77 : 4/7.V.77 : lO.v.77 :

13.V.77 : 13.V.77 : 16/18.V.77 : 23/30.V.77 : 5/

8.vi.77 : 13.vi.77 : 19.vi.77. The June/ July moths

are almost certainly the progeny of the earlier

migrants, but they do not produce a further

generation.

Nephele argentifera Wlk. — 24.xii.66 : 3.iv.67:

25.X.67 : l.iii.68 : 27.iv.68 : 10.iii.69 : 8/30.iv.69:

3/6.V.69 : l/18.i.70 : 5/7.iii.70 : 15.iii.70 : 17/

19.iii.70 : 21.iii/8.iv.70 : 29.iv/7.v.70 : 29.V.70:

2/6.vi.70 : 23/25.i.71 : 22/24.iii.71 :27.iii|2.iv.71 :

6/9.iv.71 : 28.iv/4.v.71 : 21.iii.72 : 24/26.iii.72:

3/8.iv.72 : 14/20.iv.72 : 8/16.V.72 : 25.iii|4.iv.73 :

6.iv.73 : 16/18.iv.73 : 24/29.iv.73 : l.v.73 : 24/

25.vi.73 : 22.iii/17.iv.74 : 30/31.iii.75 :2| 15.iv.75 :

17/24.iv.75 : 28/29.iv.75 : 2/3.V.75 : 6.V.75 :

8/10.V.75 : 12/21.V.75 : 23/24.V.75 : 29|30.v.75:

I / 10.vi.75 : 13/18.vi.75 : 29/30.X.75 : l|4.xi.75:

11. xi.75 : 12.xii.76 : 22/25.iii.76 : 28.iii.76 :

2.iv.76 : 4/5.iv.76 : 7.iv.76 : 10.iv.76 : 19/

28.iv.76 : 30.iv/8.v.76 : 15/16.V.76 : 18/21.V.76:

25. v/5.vi.76 : 8/ll.vi.76 : 13/14.vi.76 : 16|

20.vi.76 : 22.vi.76 : 24.vi.76 : 26/27.vi.76 : 29/

30.vi.76 : 3.vii.76 : 6.vii.76 : 13.vii.76 : 15/

16.vii.76 : 19720.vii.76 : 22.vii.76 : 21.viii.76 :

7.X.76 : 19'/29.iii.77 : 4/26.iv.77 : 29.iv.77 :

7/8.V.77 : 11/23.V.77 : 25/26.V.77 : 28.V.77 :

2/4.vi.77 : 8.vi.77 : 13.vi.77. Migrations of A.

argentifera are usually accompanied by small

numbers of A. funebris F. and A. bipartita Btlr.,

a few A. comma Hpffr. and an occasional single-

ton A. aequivalens Wlk.

Atemnora westermanni Bsd. — 15.vi.59 : 24/

26. V.60 : 4.viii.65 : 12.V.66 : 17.iv.67 : 28.ii.68:

I I / 22.iii.68 : 25/29.iii.68 : 5/ll.iv.68 : 13.iv.68:

16/24.xi.69 : 18/20. v.70 : 13.V.73 : 31.iv.74 :

31.iii.75 : 14/19.iv.75 : 22.iv.75 : 29.V.75 : 6/

9.vi.75 : 30.X.75 : 31.xi.75 : 12.iv.76 : 16.iv.76:

6.V.76 : 12.V.76 : 18.V.76 : 7/8.vi.76 : 10.vi.76:

12/15.vi.76 : ll.vii.76 : 3.xi.76: 18.xi.76 :29.iii.77 :

21.iv.77 : 30.iv.77 : 21.V.77 : 23.V.77 : 25.V.77.

Leucostrophus hirundo Gerst. — 5.iv.67 : 3.iii.68 :

4/8.xi.73 : 4.xii.73 : 23 / 24.ii.77. Migrations of

this species often accompany those of Cephono-

des hylas L.

Hyles lineata L., livornica Esp. — lO.v.61 :21.iv.69 :

8.iv.75 : 15.iv.75 : 4.V.75 : 15/16.v.75:31.v.75:

9.xii.75 : 24.iv.77. This well known migrant is

only an occasional visitor to the Kenya coast and

usually occurs as singletons.

Hippotion celerio L. — 7.iv.63 : 21.i.66 : 27.iv.68:

11/ 24.X.69 : 29/31.iii.69 : 8.iv/3.v.69 : 5/7.iii.70:

29.iv/7.v.70 : 29.v./6.vi.70: 16.xi.70 : 23/24.iii.71 :

31.iii/3.iv.71 : 6/9.iv.71 : 28.iv/4.v.71 : 21.iii.72:

24/27.iii.72:18/20.iv.72 : 8/11.V.72 : 13/16.V.72:

4.iv.73 : 24/29.iv.73 : 1 l.v.73 : 14.V.73 : 24/

26.vi.73 : 14.xi.73 : l.iv.74 : 5.iv/31.v.74 : 10/

15. xi.74 : 5/15.iv.75 : 17/22.iv.75 : 28.iv.75 :

3/26.V.75 : ll.iv.76 : 16.iv.76 : 18.iv.76:20.iv/

2.V.76 : ll.v.76 : 16/22.V.7 6 : 24.V.76 : 26/

28.V.76 : 30.V.76 : l.vi.76 : 3/9.vi.76 : 14.vi.76:

16/28.vi.76 : 30.vi/l.vii.76 : 6/7.vii.76:9/10.vii.76:

16. vii.76 : 19/22.vii.76 : 27/28.vii.76 : 3.viii.76:

12. viii.76 : 16.viii.76 : 21/22.viii.76:24/25.viii.76:

28.viii.76 : 21.iii.77 : 26.iii.77 : 29/30.iii.77 :

621

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

l.iv.77 : 6.iv.77 : 9/ll.iv.77 : 14/15.iv.77 : 17/

21.iv.77 : 23.iv/l.v.77 : 6.V.77 ' : 11/13.V.77:

16.V.77 : 18/25.V.77. Migrants can be distin-

guished from locally bred specimens by being

rather larger. Migrations of /f. celerio are usu-

ally accompanied by fair numbers of 77. eson

Cr. and occasional H. osiris Dalm.

Centroctenema imitans Btlr. — Singletons occur

rarely throughout the year, but on 7/8.xi.64 and

14/15.xi.66 comparatively large numbers visited

the lamp.

uraniidae and THAU metopoeidae — Nei-

ther of these two families has shown any sign

of migratory activity.

notodontidae — No member of this family

has given any indication of being a migrant

with the following exception. In October 1972,

a few larvae of Simesea orestes Kiriakoff

were found feeding on Terminalia catappa

(Combretaceae) in my garden, and a few im-

agines visited the lamp the following month.

This is the only occasion when the species has

appeared.

megallopygidae — I have not found any

member of this family on the Kenya coast.

LIMACODIDAE, CIIRYSOPOLOMIDAE, PSYCHIDAE,

THYRIDIDAE, ME TARBELIDAE, AEGERIIDAE and

cossidae — No member of any of these fami-

lies has shown any sign of migratory activity.

agaristidae — Members of this family are

not usually migrants, the normal pattern is

for occasional singletons to visit the lamp, but

in 1975 there was distinct evidence of mig-

ration. On 10.iv.75 considerable numbers of

Aegocera trimeni Feld., including a few speci-

mens of the white hind-winged form, not seen

previously, visited the lamp and continued in

some numbers until 19.iv.75. On 17.iv.75 a

single specimen of Schausia daria Druce, a

species not seen before or since, appeared, and

on 5.V.75 large numbers of Schausia coryndoni

Roths., normally a rare species, came to the

lamp and continued, sometimes in uncount-

able numbers, until 23.V.75. During this period,

the species swarmed at Lantana flowers in the

Shimba Hills.

noctuidae — A number of species, be-

longing to different sub-families, have been

recorded as migrating.

Cirphis loreyi Dup. — Normally an occasional

visitor to the lamp, but occurred in considerable

numbers on 23/28.V.62. Recorded as a migrant

in Europe.

Spodoptera exempta Wlk. — 13/15.iii.61 :

2.xii.63 : 17.vii.65 : 13/ 15.xii.65 : 15/20.xi.66:

29.xi/4.xii.66 : 3/5.V.70 : 17/30.xi.70 : 24/

27.xi.72 : 23.iii.74 : 20.iv.74 : 31.iii.75 : 20.iv.75 :

23/24. ii. 77 : 16/18.iv.77 : 20.iv.77 : 26.iv.77.

Apparently not a resident species.

Euterpioides spec, nov., nr. pienaari Dist — Has

occurred on three occasions, viz. 9 / 10.xii.64 :

9/10.iv.65 and 31.iii.75, on all occasions in some

numbers.

Ilattia octo Guen. — The local population is

periodically re-inforced by migration. 2/4.i.65:

6/7.iv.67 : 28.ii.68 : 16/18.xi.70 : 17 / 18.ii.73.

Amyna punctum F. — A major migrant, the

varying proportions of the nomino-typical form

and f. spoliata Wlk. indicating different origins

for the flights: 13/ 17.iv.59 : 20/24.xii.62 :

27.xii.62 : 29.xii.62 : 10.i.63 : 2/4.i.65 : 21/

23.iii.65 : 3/4.iv.65 : 17.iii.66 : 6/8.i v.66 : 17/

20.V.66 : 21.X.67 : 24/25.X.67 : 28.ii.68 : l.iii.68 :

20.111.68 : 23/26.iii.68 : 29.iii.68 : 18.V.68 : 14/

18.111.69 : 24/31.iii.69 : 9/29.iv.69 : 2/5.V.69 :

12 / 1 3.ii.70 : 15 / 19.iii.70 : 21/28.iii.70 : 30.iii /

l.iv.70 : 3.iv.70 : 5/6.iv.70 : 8/9.iv.70 : 21/

22.iv.70 : 29.iv/5.v.70 : 23/27.iii.71 : 30.iii/

4.iv.71 : 7/9.iv.71 : 17/24.iv.71 : 20/21 iii.72 :

24.iii.72 : 7/8.iv.72 : 14/20.iv.72 : 8/15.V.72 :

24/27.xi.72 : 17/18.ii.73 : 25.iii.73 : 3/4.iv.73:

18/20.iv.73 : 27/29.iv.73 : 24/26.vi.73 : 11/

12.xii.73 : 22/26. iii. 74 : 31 .iii /2.iv.74 : 9 / 16.iv.74 :

20.iv.74 : 24/30.iv.74 : 2.V.74 : 10/13.V.74: 19/

20.V.74 : 31. iii/ 18.iv.75 : 21/24.iv.75 : 30.iv/

24.V.75 : 24/25.iii.76 : 6.iv.76 : 9.iv/l.v.76 :

7/8.V.76 : 11/12.V.76 : 19.V.76 : 8/9.vi.76 :

14.vi.76 : 16/17.vi.76 : 23/24.ii.77 : 17/ 1 8.iii.77 :

21.iii.77 : 23/27.iii.77 : 29.iii.77 : 9/1 l.iv.77 :

622

MOTH MIGRATION IN MOMBASA

14.iv.77 : 16.iv.77 : 18/27.iv.77 : 29.iv.77 : 6/

8.V.77 : 21/23.V.77.

Blenina quadripuncta Hamps. — A fairly regular

migrant. 21 /24.xii.62 : 27.xii.62 : 29.xii.72 : 2/

4.i.65 : 3/4.iv.65 : 17/18.iv.65 : 3/5.xii.65 :

17.iii.66 : 21.X.67 : 24/25.X.67 : 16.iii.68 : 14/

18.iii.69 : 29/30.iii.69 : 9/ll.iv.69 : 13/15.iv.69:

18/22.iv.69 : 26/29.iv.69 : 2/5.V.69 : 29.xi/

8.xii.69 : 10/24.xii.69 : 16/17.iii.70 : 27.iii/

3.iv.70 : 5/8.iv.70 : 24.iii/3.iv.71 : 7/9.iv.71 :

20/21. iii.72 : 24.iii.72 : 7/8.iv.72 : 18/20.iv.72:

24/27.xi.72 : 25.iii.73 : 3/4.iv.73 : 7/9.xii.73 :

l/2.iv.74 : 2.V.74 : 25.V.74 : 30.iii/18.iv.75 :

21/24.iv.75 : 2/24.V.75 : 23/25.iii.76 : 9.iv.76:

12.iv.76 : 17/18.V.76 : 20/25.V.76 : 4/5.vii.76 :

25.iii.77 : 27.iii.77 : 29.iii.77 : 8/ll.iv.77:14.iv.77:

25.iv.77 : 27.iv.77 : 6/8.V.77 : 22.V.77.

Chlorozada metaleuca Hamps. — An occasional

migrant. 22.iii.68 : 24 / 25.iii.68 : 27/28.iii.70.

Maurilia arcuata Wlk. — Very occasional mig-

rations augment the local population. 5.vi.71 :

31.v/5.vi.76 : 7/8.vi.76.

Attatha ethiopica. Hamps. — Singletons have ap-

peared on four separate occasions, viz. — 19.V.75:

l.v.76 : l.v.ll : 24.V.77.

Cyligramma latona Cr. — A fairly regular mig-

rant. ll.iv.63 : 21/23.iii.65 : 3.iv.65 : 29.xii.65:

6/8.iv.66 : 3/7.iv.67 : 17/18.iv.67 : 17.iii.68:

20.111.68 : 29.iii.68 : 5/ll.iv.68 : 10.iii.69 : 23/

27.111.69 : 29/30.iii.69 : 13/14.iv.69 : 19.iv.69:

8.iii.70 : 28.iii.70 : 30.iii/3.iv.70 : 6.iv.70 : 23/

28.iii.71 : 30.iii/5.iv.71 : 14.iv.72 : 18/20.iv.72:

25.iii.73 : 27/29.iii.73 : 1 1 / 12.xii.73 : 22/26.iii.74 :

31.iii/2.iv.74 : 10/14.iv.74 : 24/26.iv.74 : 30.iii/

l.iv.75 : 6/18.iv.75 : 2.V.75 : 4.V.75 : 17.V.75 :

24 / 26.iii.76 : 6.iv.76 : 15/22.iv.76 : 17/19.iii.77:

21 / 27.iii.77 : 5/6.iv.77 : 13/15.iv.77 : 21/

26.iv.77 : 4.V.77.

Cyligramma fluctuosa Drury — A very occa-

sional migrant, ll.v.63 : 21 /22.V.75.

Achaea lienardi Bsd. — A very regular migrant

appearing in vast swarms. 14.iii.63 : 23.iii.65 :

17.iii.66 : 6.iv.66 : 20.X.67 : 24/25.x.67:28.ii.68:

l.iii.68 : 20.iii.68 : 22.iii.68 : 30.iii.68: 5/ 11. iv.68:

15/16.iii.70 : 26/28.iii.70 : 30.iii/3.iv.70:29.iv.70:

23.iii/2.iv.71 : 20/21.iii.72 : 24/25.iii.72: 3.iv.72:

6 / 10.iv.72 : 3/4.iv.73 : 23.iii.74 : l.iv.75 : 7/

14.iv.75 : 12.V.75 : 23/26.iii.76 : 16/18.iv.76 :

22.iv.76 : 24/28.iv.76 : 28.x/4.xi.76 : 17/18.iii.77:

21.111.77 : 25.iii.77 : 27.iii.77 : 5/6.iv.77 : 10/

ll.iv.77 : 14.iv.77 : 21.iv.77.

Achaea praestans Guen. — Migrations of the

previous species almost invariably include a very

few specimens of praestans. The following are

occasions when it has been on its own, 22.iv.74 :

29.iii.77.

Grammodes stolida F. — Occurs rarely all

through the year, only twice has it appeared in

numbers indicative of a migration. 28.xii.76/

1.1.77 : 23/24.ii.77.

Phytometra acuta Wlk. — Always present at the

Coast, but sometimes migrates in considerable

numbers. 21/24.xii.62 : 27.xii.62 : 29.xii.62:

29.xi/6.xii.65 : 17.iii.66 : 19.iv.69 : 21.iv.69 :

24/29.xi.70 : 27.iii.70 : 30.iii/4.iv.71 : 15/

16.iv.72 : 18/20.iv.72 : 3/4.iv.73 : 17/18.xi.73:

20/26.iv.74 : 6/18.iv.75 : 21/25.iv.75 : 2/24.V.75:

l.iv.76 : 10/15. iv.76 : 18/20.iv.76 : 22/24.iv.76:

26 / 30.iv.76 : 4.V.76 : 7/8.V.76 : 10/15.V.76: 19/

23.V.76 : 23/24.ii.77 : 29.iii.77 : 1 l.iv.77 :24.iv.77.

Phytometra limbirena Guen. — A singleton on

15.xi.66. Presumably a vagrant from upcountry.

Sphingomorpha chlorea Cr. — Occurs occasion-

ally all through the year, rarely appearing in

numbers indicative of a migration. 6.iv.63 :

31 .iii.7 1 : 2.iv.71.

Calesia zambesita Wlk. — A fairly regular mig-

rant from upcountry. 27 / 29. iv. 70 : 2/3.V.70:

28/29.xi.70 : 23/27.iii.71 : 10.V.72 : 24/27.xi.72:

9/12.iv.75 : 15/18.iv.75 : 6/8.V.75 : 25.iii.76:

7.V.76 : 1 l.iv.77 : 20.iv.77 : 24/25.iv.77.

Anomis sabulifera Guen. — Present all through

the year, sometimes appearing in larger numbers,

presumably the result of migration. 20/24.xii.62:

27.xii.62 : 29.xii.62 : 29.xi./6.xii.65 : 28.xi/

l.xii.66 : 10.iii.67 : 5/7.iv.67 : 12/13.iii.70 :

16/19.xi.70 : 27/29.xi.70 : 24/27.xi.72 : 4/

6.xii.73.

Plecoptera hypoxantha Hamps. — Present all

through the year, but has recently given indi-

cations of migratory activity. 17/23. iv.71 : 20/

22.iii.72 : 22/30.iv.74 : 24/27.vi.74 : 26/27.iv.75:

30.iv/3.v.75 : 7/24.V.75 : 12/14.iv.76 : 16/

17.iv.76 : 19/22.iv.76 : 7/8.V.76 : 41/12.V.76:

18/19.V.76 : 2/4.xii.76.

623

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Bomolocha jussalis Wlk. — An occasional mig-

rant. 6/7.iv.67 : 16/18.xi.70.

Bomolocha obsitalis Wik. — A more frequent

migrant than the previous species. 21 /24.xii.62:

27.xii.62 : 29.xii.62 : 16/18.xi.70 : 27/28.X1.70:

24/27.iii.71 : 7/8.iv.72 : 18/19.iv.73 : 23.xi.73:

20.xi.74 : 15/18.iv.75.

Hyblaea euryzona Prout — A fairly regular mig-

rant. ll.iv.62 : 18/22.iv.62 : 21 /23.iii.65 : 3/

4.iv.65 : 17/18.iv.65 : 20.iv.65 : 3/6.iv.66 : 15/

17.iv.67 : 22.iv.67 : 20.iii.68 : 12.iv.68 : 20/

22.iv.70 : 31.iii/l.iv.71 : 7/9.iv.71 : 27.iv.72:

l.iv.74 : 9.iv.74 : 30.iii.75 : 12.iv.76.

Hyblaea flavipicta Hamps. — Often associated

with the previous species, ll.iv.62 : 18/22.iv.62:

12/ 14.iv.63 : 2/4.i.65 : 21/23.iii.65 : 3.iv. 65:

17/ 18.iv.65 : 20.iv.65 : 3/6.iv.66 : 15/17.iv.67:

22.iv.67 : 12.iv.68 : l.iv.70 : 9.iv.74 : 2.V.74 :

8 / 18.iv.75 : 21/28.iv.75 : 8/10.V.75 : ll/13.iv.76:

15 / 16.iv.76 : 21.iv/2.v.76 : 11/13.V.76 : 20/

21.iv.77 : 23.iv.77 : 25.iv.77.

geometridae — There is no evidence of any sort

of mass migration in this family. Two species have

produced singletons at widely separated intervals,

namely — Euexia percnopus Prout on 8.iv.56,

25.iv.57, 6.xii.57, and 24.iii.68 and Neopitthea prin-

glei Care, on 14.i.66 and 22.xi.69.

pyralidae — Four species of this family have

been found to migrate.

Macalla sp. — l.iii.68 : 16.iii.68. The British

Museum (Natural History) consider it to be an

underscribed species.

Hymenia recurvalis F. — 20/24.xii.62 : 27.xii.62 :

29.xii.62 : 2/4.1.65 : 29.xi./2.xii.66 : 6/7.iv.67 :

29 / 30.iii.69 : 30.iv/l.v.69 : 14/17.xi.70 : 17/

18.ii.73 : 18/19.iv.76.

Marasmia trapezalis Guen. — 13/ 14.iv.59 :

17.iii.66 : 25 / 27.iii.69.

Margaronia unionalis Hbn. — 20/24.xii.62 :

27.xii.62 : 29.xii.62 : 2/4.i.65 : 17/18.vii.65 :

l.iii.68 : ll.iv.69 : 13/15.iv.69 : 19.iv.69 :

21.iv.69 : 28.iii.70 : 23/27.iii.71 : 30.iii/l.iv.71 :

12/13.V.73 : 10/13.V.74 : 19/20.V.74 : l.iv.75 :

6 / 18.iv.75 : 21/26.iv.75 : 8/24.V.75 : 9.iv.76 :

1 1 / 12.iv.76 : 14.iv.76 : 30.iv.76 : 4/8.V.76 :

1 1 / 15.V.76 : 18/24.V.76 : 9/ 1 l.iv.77 : 24/25.iv.77.

P.S.: Since completing this paper, the

Mombasa district has experienced a spell of

unprecedented wet weather. Between the 16th

September and 18th October 1977, normally

a fairly dry period, rainfall of only a fraction

short of 10" has been recorded. This has re-

sulted in exceptional migratory flights.

The two Arctiids, Digama aganais Feld, and

D. africana Swinh., appeared in small num-

bers between 18/20.ix.77, neither species has

previously been recorded in September. Most

of the regular Sphingid migrants — A grins

convolvuli L., Pemba favillacea Wlk., Poliana

witgensi Strd., Daphnis nerii L., Nephele arg-

entifera Wlk., Atemnora westermanni Bsd. and

Hippotion celerio L., appeared spasmodically

over the whole period, usually in ones and

twos, but unaccompanied by their usual mig-

ratory companions Nephele junebris F., N.

comma Hpffr., N. bipartita Btlr. and Hippo-

tion eson Cr.

Amongst the Noctuids, A myna punctum F.

and Blenina quadri punctata Hamps. occurred

in fair numbers between 18/20.ix.77, whilst

Achaea lienardi Bsd. appeared in vast swarms

between 16/23.ix.77, accompanied, as usual,

by occasional A. praestans Mab.

During this period, the usual resident spe-

cies occurred in their usual numbers, both

when compared with previous years and with

the immediate preceding period.

624

MICROARTHROPODS AND SOIL ECOSYSTEMS

T. N. Ananthakrishnan1

The decisive influence of soil microarthro-

pods, not to mention of other invertebrates in

the establishment of diverse patterns in the de-

composition of organic matter and the succes-

sion of fauna therein involved cannot be un-

derestimated. Results achieved in this direc-

tion in many countries sufficiently indicate the

need for active cooperation between soil bio-

logical and peaological research in determin-

ing the fertility of the soils. It is being increas-

ingly realised that many soil microarthropods

play a useful role as indicator organisms in

relation to soil fertility. The contributions

made in edaphic studies through the publica-

tions of monographs and books by Kubiena

(1955), Haarlov (1960), Nielsen (1955), Kuh-

nelt (1961), Gisin (1952), Doeksen and Van

der Drift (1963) in Europe, Murphy (1955),

Kevan (1955), Macfadyen (1962), Edwards

(1962), Burgess and Raw (1967), Wallwork

(1970, 1976) in England and Morikawa

(1957) and Yosii (1955) in Japan are among

the most outstanding and a beginning has

been made over the last decade in this direc-

tion in India as well. With its variety of soil

and climate excellent opportunities exist for

extensive soil faunal studies particularly with

reference to their population dynamics, verti-

cal migrations and a possible correlation of

abundance of certain indicator species with

soil fertility.

The soil is a complex of physico-chemical

and biotic factors and the great diversity of

1 Zoological Survey of India, 34 Chittaranjan

Avenue, Calcutta-700 012.

organisms found therein, combined with the

physical difficulties of studying them, not to

mention the patient, laborious and time con-

suming task of isolation and identification of

the multitude of forms are no doubt factors

responsible for the slow progress of this

science in this country. All the same one can-

not ignore the importance of ecological pro-

blems pertaining to the soil, an investigation

into which may demand a preliminary explo-

ratory work involving qualitative studies or

an inquiry concerning the relative abundance

of a wide range of species over a wide range

of habitats or the determination of the absolute

abundance of some species in a single habi-

tat. Investigations on the edaphic community

may lead to the discovery of “life-forms” or

“lebens-formen”, so characteristic of the soil

dwelling Collembola wherein we come across

similar modifications even within diverse forms

according to the depth or layers of edaphon

they inhabit. Thus for example, Tullbergia,

Isotomodes, Folsomides, etc. are euedaphic

living in the depth of soil. All of them are

Characterised by their elongate body

facies small size (at most 1 mm long), similar

segmentation, musculature and easily flexible

non-pigmented or feebly pigmented bodies,

reduction or the total absence of ocelli and

with short and simple hairs and smaller ap-

pendages. Brachystomella, Hypogastrura,

Friesea, etc. are hemiedaphic, including forms

living on water surface (neustonic), moss,

bark or lichens (xeromorphic) characterised

by moderately long antennae, well developed

625

I

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

pigment and ocelli. Epigeic forms (living on

vegetation or upper surface of litter, combin-

ing both hyperedaphic and epiedaphic forms)

are characterised generally by eight ocelli, well

developed pigmentation, long antennae and

furcula, e.g., Orchesella, Bourletiella, Callynt-

rura, etc. In addition are the Troglomorphs

(e.g., Cyphyoderopsis, Trogolaphysa, etc.),

characterised by the absence of ocelli and pig-

ment, long antennae and modified unguis and

Synecomorphs living in the nests of ants and

termites, characterised by the absence of ocel-

li and pigment (cf. Troglomorphs), modified

mouth parts, well developed furcula and legs

and the development of unusual scales and

setae (e.g. Delamarerus, Pseudocyphoderus,

Calobatinus, etc.). Even among cryptostig-

matid mites life forms exist, the hemiedaphic

forms often showing further modifications in

relation to their subdivision into hygrophilous,

mesophilous, xerophilous conditions and in-

cidental correlation of the form of the pseu-

dostiginatic organ with the moisture gradient

of the environment. Marked specialisation for

inhabiting particular depths and associated

morphological adaptations are shown by the

geophilids, symphylids, pauropods and other

microarthropods and such microhabitats with-

in a major community have also been termed

‘synusia’.

Preliminary qualitative studies on the com-

position of the microarthropods inhabiting the

surface litter (L layer), decaying organic

matter (F layer), pasture soil and manured

soil are essential aspects of soil microarthro-

pod investigations. Murphy’s classification of

the fauna into the microfauna (.001-1 mm),

meiofauna (0.1 -1.6 mrn) and the macrofauna

(1.6 to several mm) appears a useful measure,

the majority of the meiofauna lying at the

3-4 cm level, of which a good number occur

in the F layer, 1-2 cm below the surface. In

pasture soil, F layer is absent due to the fact

that the rate of the decomposition at the sur-

face is sufficiently high to prevent its forma-

tion and this kind of soil is usually with a

low humus content; during the rainy season,

soluble bases are leached out; during the dry

season iron and aluminium compounds are

oxidised giving the soil a characteristic red or

yellow colour. These soils are more correctly

called “Latosols” or “Feralitic soils”. The

dominant microarthropods are the Collem-

bola, mites, symphylids and to some extent the

pauropods thrive well in the upper layers.

Below this in the mineral soil, the microca-

verns or pore spaces are not suitable for the

existence of all microarthropods in addition

to the absence of sufficient organic matter.

Therefore there is a preponderence of these

dominant microarthropods in the upper layer

of soil and particularly during the hotter

months when there is a danger of exposure

of the litter to strong sunlight, the fauna mig-

rate to the lower layers. As such the princi-

pal factors inducing the vertical migration are

the nature of the microcaverns, food, tempera-

ture, humidity and predation at the surface.

Many symphylids like Scutigerella sp., Sym-

phylella sp., Symphylellopsis sp. show seasonal

vertical migrations in soil in response to soil

temperature and moisture. Such vertical mig-

rations are also known to occur in response

to feeding, moulting and reproductive cycles

(Ovipositional). This is also the case with

mites and collembola and even the possibility

of a diurnal rhythm in vertical movements

has been suggested.

Data regarding the vertical migration of

microarthropods in Indian soils are very me-

agre. However Choudhuri & Roy (1971), in

their studies on the vertical distribution of

some species of Collembola in the gangetic

alluvium, observed that Sphaeridia, Proisoto-

626

MICROARTHROPODS AND SOIL ECOSYSTEMS

ma, Alloscopus, Isotomurus and Sminthurinus

were all more concentrated in the middle layer

(5-10 cm), while the maximum number of

individuals of Seira occurred in the lower

layer (10-15 cm).

Symphylids and pauropods are noticeably

absent from the L layer (though mites are

more abundant), while their number is very

meagre in the F layer below it. They are in

sufficiently large numbers in the pasture soil

and manured soil as has been observed in

banana plantation soils. The Collembola of

the ‘L’ layer such as Callyntrura, Lepidocyr-

tus, Entomobrya, lsotoma, Salina and Dlcra-

nocentrides are large sized, pigmented, with

well developed eyes and spring and extremely

active and can often be seen to penetrate the

soil to a limited extent, while those in the F

layer are totally different, being small, slen-

der, unpigmented with reduced eyes and spring

as in Tullbergia, Onychiurus, Xenylla, Isoto-

modes, Folsomina, Folsomides and Folsomia

which move along the walls of the soil micro-

caverns. The most important single factor

governing the distribution of Collembola is

moisture and the possibility of the Collem-

bola acting as indicators of soil water condi-

tion has been suggested. In other words the

water content of the soil could reflect the

species composition of the population. For

instance, the mesophil fauna such species of

Collembola as Folsomia brevicauda, Friesea

mirabilis, lsotoma sensibilis occur, as against

the only Xerophil species Tetracanthella wahl -

greni (Flale 1963). The mite fauna are present

both in the L and F layers in considerable

numbers, the Oreibatid mites being more

abundant in the L layer than the F layer. The

Tyroglyphid and Tetranychid mites however

are generally recorded only in meagre num-

bers. Some of the dominant species of soil

mites, collembola etc. characteristic of grass-

land, forest and cultivated soils from India are

represented in Table I.

Considerable specificity of microarthropods,

particularly amongs the collembola exists in

accordance with the different ecotopes. Mitra,

et al. (1977) observed the specificity of Col-

lembolan species in accordance with six eco-

topes (including five vegetational sites) at the

Eden gardens, Calcutta. The existence of both

qualitative and quantitative population diffe-

rences in three sites, viz., forest, new clearing

and tea fields and the total absence of the

litterine genera of Collembola like Lobelia ,

Lepidocyrtus , Dicranocentrus, Callyntrura,

Salina , Dicyrtoma, etc. at the newly cleared

sites, were indicated by Prabhoo (1976) who

also observed a similarity of fauna in the

forest and tea field soils.

The species composition of the litter may

be said to indicate the soil edaphon of the

future, because on the litter fauna depends the

widely varying degree of decomposition neces-

sary for the enrichment of the soil. It pro-

vides a typical instance of what can be called

a metabiotic process wherein one series of

organisms provide favourable conditions for

the next. The role of Collembola in the ini-

tial break down of litter followed by the mil-

lipedes and the earthworms is well known.

They are known to actively remove material,

ingesting them into the gut and produce fae-

cal pellets which are added to the soil, thereby

providing readily available material to the de-

composers. The mechanical effect of the

breakdown of litter by the millipedes is enor-

mous and as a result of frequent migrations

up and down the soil profile, they are said to

effect a mixing up of the mineral and organic

portions of the soil. Under neutral and slight-

ly alkaline conditions, the millipedes, isopods

and annelids establish themselves and play an

important role in modifying and mixing the

627

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

surface litter with the lower horizons of the

soil. Under acid conditions such species are

inhibited and mites, dipteran larvae and Col-

lembola typify the fauna which do not signi-

ficantly change the character of the horizon.

It was on the basis of the millipede, isopod

and insect larval activity in the soil that Kubi-

ena (3955) introduced the ‘moder’ and ‘mull-

like moder’ concepts of the humus forms ac-

cording to which forms inhabiting sandy, base

deficient soils constitute the moder species

(mites, collembolans and insect larvae), while

the base rich clayey soils form the ‘mull-like

moder’ species of which the millipedes form

the largest proportion followed by enriched

earthworm and isopod population. However

the actual number, the biomass and relative

efficiency of each group is dependant more

upon the basic features of the soil as mention-

ed above, as well as of the diverse factors

which tend to modify the soil environment.

It is because of such variable interactions that

reliable estimates pinpointing the effective role

of each group of soil animals have not been

possible, though in general it has been esti-

mated that animals consume 10-20% of the

total organic matter supplied to the soil. A

moderate temperature and moisture, with the

availability of decaying organic matter on the

soil surface constitute the optimal conditions

for the growth and multiplication of such

microarthropods as symphylids. To cite an

example, at a temperature of 36°C and 65%

RH the average population of SymphyteUa

sp. for 110 c. of soil was 420, while at tem-

peratures of 29-32°C and 86-90% R.H. the

average population was found to be 2935 and

in between these ranges of temperature and

humidity the population range was 1194-2080

individuals. (Ananthasubramanian & Anan-

thakrishnan 1962). The study of the abund-

ance of the microarthropods in a variety of

soils is considered significant because it is seen

that fertilising the soil with organic manure

increases the edaphic composition tremend-

ously, in particular the collembolans and the

symphylids. The Collembola are very abun-

dant in the surface manure and helps in its

decomposition after which, the manure fauna

changes into a true soil fauna through the

compost fauna. It has been estimated that the

collembolan fauna of compost is 1,30,000 per

metre2 surface upto a depth of 10 cm.

The forest floor in Tropical forests pro-

vides a good example of surface litter zones

Ananthakrishnan (1973) has sufficiently em-

phasised this aspect in relation to mycopha-

gous thrips. In litter, thrips are usually con-

fined to the uppermost layer on entire leaves,

and in the lower layers are mites, collembola,

beetles etc. and only a few thrips. Leaf litter

provides a more or less uniform semiperma-

nent habitat and thrips are never common in

wet litter and are abundant in litter resulting

from diverse tree and shrub flora which are

very characteristic of the Western Ghats. The

movement of microarthropods between the

different horizons of the mineral soil and litter

is influenced by the graded series of relative

humidities. Species of Cryptostigmatid mites

of the fauna Steganacarus, Oppia, Platyno-

thrus, Adoristes etc., mesostigmatid species of

Trachytes, the predatory Pergamasus, Macro-

cheles sp. are more common in surface litter.

Assessment of the relative efficiency of each

group of organisms in term of litter decom-

position is a difficult problem since animal

activities may alter litter in such a way as to

effect the species composition.

The major contributors to the litter in such

forest areas as of the Western ghats involve

species of Mesua (Guttiferae), Ternstroemia

(Ternstroemiaceae), Dipterocarpus (Diptero-

carpaceae), Pterospermum (Sterculiaceae),

628

Table 1

Some dominant microarthropods in grassland, forest and cultivated soils in India

MICRO ARTHROPODS AND SOIL ECOSYSTEMS

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629

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

x

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- 00

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Pterocarpus (Leguminosae), Terminalia

(Combretaceae), Syzigium (Myrtaceae) Bar -

ringtonia sp. (Lecythidaceae), Tectona (Ver-

benaceae), Dalbergia (Leguminosae), Mallo-

tus (Euphorbiaceae), Lager stroemia (Lau-

raceae), Kigelia etc. (Bignoniaceae). Many

Tubuliferan thrips species inhabit this fungus

infested litter and these mycophagous species

are important members of this specialised

niche. The dominant species inhabiting the

litter are Gastrothrips karnyi, Nesidothrips

alius, Kleothrips gigans, Elaphrothrips pro-

ductus, Hoplandrothrips flavipes , Hoplothrips

fungosus, Diceratothrips usitatus, Nanothrips

parviceps, Azaleothrips amabilis and Stigmo-

thrips limpidius. Ananthakrishnan (1973)

provides a detailed account of the various

species inhabiting the saprophytic fungal- zone.

The conspicuous polymorphism in leaf pro-

duction and the constant non-synchronus leaf

fall make available abundant litter which pro-

vides an ideal microenvironment constituting

a saprophytic fungal zone. The destruction of

forests naturally limits litter production and

interferes with the process of litter decom-

position through the agency of micro-orthro-

pods.

Therefore, regular examination of the litter

and F layers in a variety of habitats should

reveal an ever increasing and abundant popu-

lation of diverse microarthropods which

should be correlated with the nature of the

litter and in view of the largely saprophagous

and fungal feeding habits there is ample scope

for research into the role of these fauna in the

sequential breakdown of organic mattter as

well the changes in the fauna such as the Col-

lembola and mites associated with plant suc-

cession. Further the catalytic action of the

animals on soil metabolism appears to be a

new line of investigation, the dead bodies.

630

MICROARTHROPODS AND SOIL ECOSYSTEMS

exuviae and most important of all the faecal for other organisms in the process of develop-

matter of soil animals providing enriched sites ment of mature soils.

References

Ananthasubramanian, K. S. and Ananti-ia-

krishnan, T. N. (1962) : Microarthropods of the

pasture soil. Bull. Ent. 3: 18-21.

Ananthakrishnan, T. N. (1973): Mycophagous

Tubulifera of India (Thysanoptera : Insecta) Occ.

Publ. No. 2 Ent. Res. Unit. Loyal. Coll. Madras,

pp. 144.

Burgess, A. and Raw, F. (1967): Soil Biology.

Academic Press. London and New York.

Choudhuri, D. K. and Roy, S. (1971) : Seasonal

fluctuation and vertical distribution of the genus

Lepidocyrtus (Collembola: Insecta) in some uncul-

tivated fields of gangetic West Bengal. Rev. Ecol.

Biol. Sol. 8(2) : 253-259.

Doeksen, I. and Van der Drift, J. eds. (1963):

Soil organisms, North Holland, Amsterdam.

Edwards, C. A. (1962) : Springtail damage to

bean seedlings. Plant Pathol. 77:67-68.

Gisin, G. (1952): Oekologische studien uber die

collembolen des Blattkomposts. Rev. Suisse Zool.,

59:543-78.

Hale, W. G. (1963) : The Collembola of eroding

blanket bog-soil organisms (ed. J. Doeksen & J.

Van der Drift): 406-413.

Haarlov, N. (1960) : Microarthropods from

Danish soils, ecology and phenology. Oikos, suppl.,

5:1-165.

Kevan, D. K. McE. (1955) : Soil Zoology. (But-

terworths, London).

Kubiena, W. L. (1955): Animal activity in soils

as a decisive factor in establishment of humus

forms. Soil Zoology, 73-82. (Butterworths, London).

Kuhnelt, W. (1961): Soil Biology. 1-395 (Fa-

ber & Faber, London, 1961).

Murphy, P. (1955): Ecology of the fauna of

forest soils. Soil Zoology, 99-124. (Butterworths,

London) .

Macfadyen, A. (1962): Extraction techniques

for soil arthropods. Advan. Ecol. Res., 7:1-34.

Morikawa, K. (1957): Terrestrial fauna of Ka-

shima Islets in the Bay of Tanbe, Wakayama Pen-

fecture. Publ. Seto mar. biol. Lab. 6:233-234.

Mitra, S. K., Hazra, A. K. and Sanyal, A. K.

(1977) : Ecology of Collembola at the Eden gar-

dens, Calcutta. Ecol. Bull. ( Stockholm ) 25: 539-544.

Nielsen, C. D. (1955) : Survey of a year’s re-

sults obtained by a recent method for the extraction

of soil-inhabiting enchytrarid worms. Soil Zoology:

202-214. Butterworths, London.

Prabhoo, N. R. (1976): Soil micro-arthropods

of a virgin forest and adjoining tea fields in the

Western ghats in Kerala — A brief ecological study.

Ori. ent. Ins., 76(3) :435-442.

Wali work, J. A. (1970) : Ecology of soil ani-

mals. McGraw-Hill, pp. 283. London and New

York.

(1976) : Distribution and diver-

sity of soil fauna. Academic Press. London and

New York, pp. 355.

Yosii, R. (1955): Meerinsekten der Tokara in-

seln VI. Collembolen. Publ. seto marine Biol. Lab.,

2-3, 379-401.

631

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji1

{With four plates)

In this Jubilee Journal I intend to review some

of the changes I have seen in wildlife of Ka-

thiawar since my early days and give import-

ance to some of my reminiscences and inte-

resting happenings I have noted in the past

almost fifty years. Kathiawar in Western India

was unique in having most of the peninsula

under the rule of Princes of which the three

largest states were, Junagadh, Nawanagar and

Bhavnagar having territories of over 2800 sq.

miles. The Baroda State had enclaves in Am-

reli and Okhamandal and many states had

isolated villages scattered throughout Kathia-

war. British India lands were also woven into

this fabric of Princely states with the

British Agent placed at Rajkot. Some of the

states had their Military and separate Judi-

ciary. I shall not go into details of adminis-

tration but all Princes had the prerogative

rights of hunting in their own states. These

rulers maintained a Shikar department or

staff, thus shikar (all type of hunting) was a

part and parcel of the Princely Order in which

the State Administrators (Dewans) normally

did not interfere. Although most princes en-

joyed shikar not all indulged in it. Neverthe-

less, wildlife, specially game species were jea-

lously guarded, not always under legislation

but under rules of game management. The un-

written code was that no animal life should

be killed without permission of the ruler and

that the game habitat should be totally pro-

tected even against cutting of roadside trees.

The shikar-cum-forest departments existed in

1 Dil Bahar, Bhavnagar- 364 002.

the larger states and since the Junagadh state

had the largest forest in the Gir and Girnar,

it commenced to employ a qualified retired

Forest Officer and roads were made to ex-

ploit teak and miscellaneous dry deciduous

and bamboo forests. But the main importance

of the Gir was for the protection of the vani-

shing Asiatic lion, its prey and its habitat.

From 1928 to 1938 the position of wildlife

in Kathiawar was of tremendous interest. In

1928 I had returned from England after

schooling, in which country I knew more

about British birds than those of India. The

impact on me of seeing an immense number

of birds and game animals in Kathiawar was

tremendous and I started game shooting in

earnest. Bird life in Kathiawar was abundant

and more trusting than what I had seen in

England and I was interested in identification.

My early recollection of seeing the now ex-

tinct Grey Hornbill in Gir forest revealed to

me the new type of bird life of India. My

earliest sighting of the great Indian bustard

was when a 4 Vaghari ’, one of my late father’s

trappers, brought a bird during the monsoon

for the Palace table. Even before my father’s

time this bird was considered a delicacy by

many princes in India. I had enquired

about the trapped bird and was told that

it could not survive in captivity, but I

think no attempt was made, and the bird

found its way to the kitchen. Later when

my brother became the ruler, he put a stop to

the practice and no more bustards were snared

thereafter. To me as a young boy large birds

stood out conspicuously, and among these

the Sarus Crane and the Bustard impressed

632

Plate I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Dharmakumarsinhji : Wildlife of Kathiawar

Above : Girnar (north aspect).

Below : Asiatic Lion — Gir Forest. (Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Dharmakumarsinhji : Wildlife of Kathiawar

Plate II

Above : Thom Forest, Sihor Hills (almost pure Acacia Senegal ).

Below : A stream in Gir Forest. (Photos : Author )

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

me most. The then Dhrangadhra Ruler had the

largest and best preserve of the ‘Ghorad’

(great Indian bustard) and he had made rules

to inflict heavy penalties on those who killed

this bird. Many states had grasslands where

this grand bird was found, infact it was found

all over Kathiawar, except the Gir, Girnar,

Barda and smaller hill forests. Large tracts

of grasslands, some of it ideal savanna were

seen in Okhamandal, Junagadh, Nawanagar,

Bhavnagar, Jasdan, Wadhwan, Rajkot, Vir-

pur, Bagasra, Bhadwas Wankaner, Morvi and

smaller owners of “Vidis” (grasslands), also

contained bustards at various times of the

year.

In many of these areas during the mon-

soon season the lesser florican ( Khad-Mor )

was seen frequently but was unfortunately shot

indiscriminately during the breeding season.

The conspicuous pied males were the most

shot.

The Princes of Kathiawar were a hospitable

lot, and many were most generous and by and

large, big and small rulers offered shikar when-

ever we visited them. At home, I had the sin-

gular advantage of learning more about game

birds from the Fauna volumes by E. C.

Stuart-Baker, and from listening to old shi-

karies including some of my father’s contem-

poraries and from an Englishman who had

been Vice-President of the Bhavnagar State

Minority Administration Council, Mr. A. H.

E. Mosse, who was a Sportsman who had

not only shot big game in Somaliland, Africa,

but also had considerable experience in India

and was a noted Lepidopterist. When I iden-

tified the first Marbled Teal, a rather rare

species of duck in Kathiawar in a Duck Bag,

Mosse was surprised, and congratulated me

and gave me encouragement. Since then I

had always made it a point to examine all

ducks shot. In those days, 1928 to 1938, there

were not many large tanks in Kathiawar and

I recollect that the winters were colder and the

hot weather more severe. The cold winters

attracted huge masses of waterfowl and these

were unmolested in the small village tanks

until a few weeks in winter when duck shoot-

ing was in vogue, but most tanks were left

untouched. In the well-known duck tanks, the

ducks were abundant and Shoveller, Pintail,

Pochard and Teal were conspicuous. Coots

were almost in equal numbers, if not more,

in the larger tanks. Most princes encouraged

by Englishmen, indulged in organizing ‘Duck

Shoots’. The best shoots I have seen were

those organized by Maharaja Raj Saheb Shri

Ghanshyamsinhji of Dhrangadhra, who could

tell every species on the wing and who was a

jovial hospitable host. Maharaja Maharana

Raj Saheb of Wankaner, Shri Amarsinhji, who

had some of the best ‘Jheels’ for ducks ar-

ranged duck shoots on a grand scale. Both

the States were in Jhalawar prant in N. E.

Kathiawar.

A famous ‘Jheel’ nearer than Lakhtar for

duck was Chandrelia where the real big shoots

were organized. In earlier times Maharaja

Ranjitsinhji, the Jam Saheb of Nawanagar the

famous Indian Cricketer-Administrator orga-

nised duck-shoots in which early records of

the Common Sheldrake, Greylag Geese and

other birds were shot near Balambha on the

northern Kathiawar border. I was a young

boy of 12 when I shot my first duck, a shovel-

ler drake in the duck shoots of January 31,

1929 at Wankaner, on the occasion of the

marriage of the present Raj Saheb Shri Pra-

tapsinhji of Wankaner. This day was the cold-

est day I have ever felt in Kathiawar. There

was a layer of frost on the pool of the Palace

when we went out for the duck shoot wrap-

ped in woollens and overcoats. On the way to

the duck jheels I saw a pair of great Indian

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

bustards. At this early age I clearly remember

noting some of the duck in the duck bags.

Most of these contained Common Teal, Gar-

ganey. Shoveller, Common, Tufted and White-

Eyed Pochards, Gadwall, Wigeon, and Pin-

tail. I also noticed a few pairs of Mallard,

Comb duck and Redcrested Pochard, and

realized later how rare the Comb duck was

then. Although I did not notice then but Les-

ser Whistling Teal must have been shot too.

Teal and Shoveller were doubtless the most

common duck shot followed by Common

Pochard.

As small game was so abundant in those

days shooting days were many. Most of the

shooting was done by organizing beats in

which Partridges (Painted & Common Grey),

and Hare were the main species shot with a

sprinkling of Quails. Sandgrouse was not shot

at the waterside but by walking up. No small

game was shot from a car. In fact, migratory

crane which were seen on the roadside while

driving were left untouched as the guns were

still in their cases. Walking up cranes is not

easy and flight shooting of cranes had not

begun, until the fifties, so the cranes had an

easy time. Occasionally an Englishman shot

the Thick-knee or the Goggle-Eyed Plover for

the table. Green Pigeon in South and East

Kathiawar where the birds were found, were

occasionally shot for the table. In the early

thirties I once remember seeing Greylag Geese

at Bhavnagar, but these birds could not have

been so rare as they are mentioned in the old

Kathiawar Gazetteer as being found in the

Gheds, a type of lagoons in S.W. coastal area:

on the Little Rann of Kutch geese have been

shot. Snipe shooting was common in some

states specially to please the English sports-

men and even birds such as the Painted Snipe

(which is really a rail) and the diminutive

Jack Snipe were also shot. Large bags of

snipe were never made and ten or twenty

couple was considered a good bag, with two

or three guns. As there was so much scrub

and brush cover for small game in fallow land,

the need to shoot in ‘Wadis’ (irrigated farms)

was not necessary. Therefore, the countryside

was full of small game. Most of the beaters

were trained to pick up fallen and wounded

game and gun dogs were seldom used. Col.

D. S. Bedi, who was District Magistrate at

Rajkot always used dogs and was a keen fal-

coner. Later my brother always used gun-dogs.

Generally all small game shoots commenced

at dawn and ended before breakfast and some-

times before lunch. Whereas, duck shoots

started just before or after breakfast. Some of

these grand shoots went on the whole day and

for days, with breakfast, lunch and tea being

served in the butts or at a ‘rendezvous’ site.

When tanks were placed far from each other,

ducks returned to them regularly during the

shoot. As there were so many ducks in the

larger tanks, they got used to gunfire and were

reluctant to rise. The cease fire bugle was

sounded when most ducks had departed or

were flying too high and blown again when

the shooting was allowed after most ducks

had realighted. When I look back at these

duck shoots I feel that they were really a

great slaughter in which the birds had no

chance of escape except by keeping out of

shot range high in the air. When birds did

not take wing in the middle of a tank, boats

were sent out to flush them. Notwithstanding

these, I would not have recognised so easily

the ducks in the hand or in flight, but for

the duck shoots. Field Guides to Birdwatch-

ing had not been invented. In fact most of the

so-called birdwatching was in quest of game

shooting, in which the shikaries were experts.

I learnt to see the squatting hare or Partridge

in cover with the help of shikaries and vagha-

634

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

ries. Later this ability was useful to us when

coursing hare with Australian and English

greyhounds. From the 1930s onwards I wit-

nessed the best shikar period in Kathiawar and

game species seemed abundant and inexhaust-

ible. It was an age of sport in which. Cheetah

hunting. Caracal hunting. Falconry, Fox hunt-

ing with hounds plus long dogs. Pig-sticking,

and game shooting was indulged in. There was

never a case of not bagging what one wanted.

Blackbuck, Chinkara, Nilgai and Wild Boar

were abundantly scattered all over the penin-

sula and the ubiquitous Opuntia and Eup-

horbia (Cacti) afforded ideal cover to small

game and even to the wild boar, panther and

lion. Pig-sticking was indulged in by Princes

and cavalry officers in which I have seen the

best of sport. Capt. Ravubha B. Gohel, win-

ner of the Salmon Cup from the Bhavnagar

Lancers was as good as any. My brother,

(Krishnakumarsinhji) used the spear with

great courage and accuracy and he had mas-

tered killing the boar with one spear in the

heart, a technique which required great skill.

He organized a Zulu Spear Hunt by getting

the lancers to surround a sounder of wild

pigs and spearing them on foot in which he

himself participated. On another occasion

when a large 35" high boar was unyielding

to beaters in a sugar cane brake, he dismount-

ed and speared him on foot inside the brake

and luckily escaped being gored. The boar

was flushed and speared soon after. The

Nawanagar and Jasdan Princes also did pig-

sticking. Kumar Shri Jiva Khacher of Jasdan

being known for his elan in this sport.

Amongst the larger states, Junagadh, per-

haps, had the largest number of wild boar in

the Gir hills, and boar were abundant on the

outskirts of the Gir and Girnar hills. At Ma-

huva, (Bhavnagar State) I remember seeing

sounders of over 500, the master boars gnash-

ing their tusks with foaming mouths and red-

shot eyes, raising their crest and displaying side

whiskers aggressively when approached. There

were at least 2000 to 4000 wild boar in the

Coconut-cum-Mango plantation at Ranbag

(Mahuva). These animals were a serious cause

of grievance to farmers whose crops they ra-

vaged. The Dewan had to intervene and re-

quest the ruler to mitigate this evil by reduc-

ing their numbers. At one or more occasions,

the Military were called to slaughter them,

but later owing to the inadequacy of the men

and type of arms used, the control measures

were taken over by members of our family

and friends. I joined these summer parties in

which beats were arranged during which ani-

mals were shot and speared. Gunning the

pigs when resting during day time was also

done as was the practice in the Victoria Park,

Bhavnagar when pigs were overabundant.

Most of the wild boar took refuge in Babul

thickets and Opuntia hedges. At Dholera, pigs

in flat country were found in marshy seacoast

as well as in the Opuntia clumps whereas in

the scrub hills the Euphorbia cacti and ravines

harboured the most. In Junagadh State, and

parts of Barda Hills, the muslim forest guards

did not eat pig flesh and so the wild boar in-

creased in huge numbers. In the Hindu States,

the Nilgai, was a great nuisance to farmers,

as the people considered it a cattle-species and

hence it was seldom killed. Nilgai was over-

abundant in many states and it afforded sport

when shooting in the hills or scrubs. In both

these species control measures were wholly in-

adequate to suit farmers. I often shot wild

boar from horseback and from motor car,

less often nilgai which I liked to stalk. It was

not a difficult animal to bag if you knew where

to place the first shot, the neck or shoulder

but gave considerable trouble once wounded.

A buffy-white Nilgai bull was shot by the Tha-

635

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ltore saheb of Palitana.

Of Blackbuck, Bhavnagar and Nawanagar

had the largest herds. Junagadh had large herds

near Veraval. In fact, this antelope was found

in most States. During the rule of Jam Ran jit -

sinhji, Blackbuck and Chinkara were abun-

dant. In the Nawanagar, Baradi sector, and in

the Baroda Okhamandal, large concentrations

of Blackbuck were seen. Small enclaves such

as Atkot near Jasdan, one saw small herds

of antelope because of Ranji’s strict game pre-

servation. The Bhal area, part of it Bhavnagar

state, had huge herds of blackbuck and one

could see them in thousands. This part had

the richest grassland in kathiawar where great

Indian bustards and florican bred regularly.

There were many such but smaller areas in

kathiawar. The largest blackbuck head of 29"

length was shot in Morvi, whereas, quite a

number of 27 and 28 inchers have been mea-

sured from Bhavnagar and Datha areas. These

horn lengths are good as any in India.

When we were guests of the Nawab Moha-

batkh-anji of Junagadh, the Dewan took us by

special train to Veraval. During the journey

the instructions to the Guard was to stop the

train when herds of blackbuck were seen close

to the line so that my brother could fire from

the Royal saloGn. This shows how undisturbed

the antelope were. I saw much of antelope

and gazelle in the states of Junagadh, Nawa-

nagar, Bhavnagar, Virpur, Jasdan, DhroL

Lakhtar, Limbdi, Wankaner, Morvi and even

in Mangrol. Very few were seen in Gondal

state whose wise ruler (Maharaja Bhagwat-

sinhji) did not tolerate any damage to crops

by game animals and owing to the state’s rich

cotton soil the farmers prospered, and were

not hampered by damage of crops by game

species. British territory contained game but

in less quantity as roving officers shot game

regularly and had no shikar staff. Mangrol-on-

the Sea had a fine coastal forest of Euphorbia

in which small game and panther were found

and in the forties even lions strayed into it.

So large were the Euphorbia clumps that ‘ma-

chans’ could be built in the centre, from which

I have watched panthers at the kill. This

jungle was known as the ‘Qada’, some of it,

extended into the golf links in which Chinkara

bedded, and spoilt some of the 'Browns . The

Sheikh of Mangrol, Abdul Khaliq, was a keen

wild life preserver, and he even introduced the

Red Spur Fowl in the ‘Qada’. The birds did

quite well there. He was also a keen falconer

and I often took our team of hawks to com-

pete with his: The climate on the Bhader

river is peculiar in having morning mists on

warm winter days, but soon after, the weather

becomes quite cool and we found our hawks

in better fettle during these days.

In the thirties. Marsh Crocodiles Crocodylus

palustris were to be seen in most tanks and

rivers of kathiawar in which they regularly

bred. All tanks contained many kinds of fish

and species such as Mahseer, Murrel, Mullet

and carps were also seen in rivers and streams

and afforded good fishing. In the estuaries the

Sea Perch ( Lates calcarifer) and Rawas or In-

dian Salmon gave anglers good sport. At Jas-

dan, I first came across the Glass Fish (Ambas-

sis) which the Durbarsaheb Ala khacher had

kept in his aquarium for me. On the seacoast,

marine Turtles, mostly Ridleys were a com-

mon sight, although some eggs were taken by

fisher folk and many often dug up and devour-

ed by jackals. Watching Turtles come out from

the sea to lay eggs was great fun on moonlit

nights at high tide. The months of May to

July were the best. On the kathiawar seaboard,

many beaches were protected as temple

areas and no fishing or exploiting of marine

resources was allowed. These were the sanc-

tuaries where I saw most marine animal life

636

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

and sea birds. On certain coasts. Hyaenas liv-

ed in caves which were full of bats. I have

seen myriads of bats emerging from caves and

holes on the south-east coast of Kathiawar.

Hyaenas also lived in stone quarries in com-

pany of porcupines and it was amusing to

watch these animals in full moonlight.

The entire belt of the Little Rann of Kutch

from Kharaghoda on the east to Morvi-Maliya

on the west had thousands of Indian Wild

Asses. These hardy animals could stand

drought living in the hottest and driest parts

of Kathiawar. They were safe from predators

although occasionally a stray leopard or some

wolves v/ould take a few solitary animals. None

shot them as big game, although the flesh is

known to be excellent. Chasing of these ani-

mals from cars was a common practice and

became a regular practice later for those tak-

ing photographs. On the rann border and in

the Cappuris studded grasslands in Dhranga-

dhra, as well as in cotton fields, the great In-

dian bustard could be easily seen and near

Halvad, the Brahmins afforded much protec-

tion to Blackbuck, Chinkara and Nilgai. Simi-

larly, typical Antelope habitats contained

bustards in Okhamandal, the Panchal in the

central Kathiawar plateau where the last of

the Indian Cheetahs were killed, and in practi-

cally all low grassland hills. The game posi-

tion was so bountiful that one could come

across any of the big game anywhere in Ka-

thiawar except the Asiatic Lion, and Deer.

While out small game shooting with R. K.

Chandrabhanusinhji in the grass hills of Wan-

kaner we suddenly came upon a panther, a

lucky one that escaped as we had no rifle at

the time. The Wankaner hills were noted for

their grasslands where lesser florican, part-

ridges, peafowl, and rain quails were seen in

abundance not to mention chinkara, nilgai, and

panther. The similar Rajkot terrain was also

good but game was much persecuted there.

I have seen great Indian bustard from the train

near Wadhwan, and on the way to Jasdan and

Dwarka. I found that the noise of the train

did not disturb the birds if they were 100 yards

or more from the railway line. In fact the

bustard was found in small numbers every-

where except in the steep hill forest ranges.

Trapping and snaring of small game was under

control except for the ubiquitous Hare which

still is persecuted by one and all meat-eating

people of Kathiawar. Princes were not really

interested in shooting the great Indian bustard

but did so sometimes. Although muzzle-loaders

were quite common amongst rural people, most

of these arms were used to scare animals and

birds off crop fields but poachers did misuse

them occasionally. A landlord would also shoot

Antelope, Gazelle and small game on his land,

more for the taste of it than for sport.

The farming during the monsoon consisted

chiefly of cereals, such as Millet and Milo

often mixed with leguminous plants, and lin-

seed, chilli, onions, lucerne, sugar cane and

cotton. Ground nut farming was increasing

rapidly. During the forties, the Bhavnagar

ruler who had an establishment for hunting

with hawks and falcons and African Cheetahs

as a hereditary sport found the feeding of

hawks a problem, and therefore got Punjab

experts to catch and train Common grey

Quails as ‘callers’ so as to attract the migra-

tory birds to alight on certain fields where they

were netted. These quails were captured to

feed the hawks. Later, as the quails were so

good eating, they were captured in greater

quantity and fattened during the season. In the

trapping operations. Harriers were a great

nuisance as these hawks followed the quail

migration and were caught in the nets often

breaking them. They also disturbed the quails

before netting, but since much of the netting

637

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

took place before dawn, the harriers did not

always intervene. During this period October

to early December, I came across Hen Har-

riers which are seldom seen now. In the net-

ting, partridges and florican also got caught

but were released. Netting of house crows and

house pigeons was done to supply meat to the

Falconry Units. This was a period when Rap-

tors were seen in abundance, and one would

often see waves of Harriers, Kestrels, Eagles,

Laggar falcons and quite a number of Pere-

grine falcons on the seacoast from October to

December. Sakers were also regularly seen in

the more arid areas. The White-Eyed

Buzzard was the most abundant bird of prey

seen sitting on telegraph poles and one could

count it by the dozen in any train or motor

journey in Kathiawar. The Redheaded Merlin

though uncommon was seen in every country-

side. Kestrels arrived by the hundred but the

Black-winged Kite was not seen so frequently

as the other raptors nor the Shahin Falcons.

The Tawny and Bonelli’s Eagles bred often

close to towns, the latter even on old Palaces,

but it preferred the more hilly areas, where

game was more plentiful.

At Rozy near Jamnagar Port, the Maharaja

Ranjitsinhji had created a small game preserve

in which large number of grey and painted

partridges had been introduced for organized

Game Shoots. Later chital were introduced

and are protected till this day by the present

Jam Saheb. As artificial breeding of game

birds was not done in India, huge number of

netted birds were released in this small pre-

serve with hares. In the early thirties, I remem-

ber attending the grand Rozy shoot when

crates of game birds had been emptied pre-

vious to the coming Silver Jubilee of the Ma-

haraja Jam Saheb on 2nd April 1932. The

chances of running out of cartridges was the

risk one took, as it was the case in some of

the big duck shoots although many princes

supplied cartridges to guests who often fired

away at birds out of range or peppered the

beaters with lead to the embarassment of the

host. At the grand Rozy shoot the great Ranji

happened to be walking without his gun next

to me, and applauding a good shot to encour-

age me as I was the youngest sportsmen in

the party. What amazed me was that, in this

seaside preserve, the bag consisted of Chukor

and Black Partridges which are not found in

Kathiawar. Ranji used to have a lorry full of

grain which went round the roads for feeding

the game and I witnessed a sight which I had

never seen before, for when this truck went

round it honked and partridges and hares

would run to the road to be fed as a spray

of grains fell on the road like drops of water

from a road watering truck. He also had men

with guns shooting vermin day and night. The

abundance of blackbuck and chinkara and

small game in Nawanagar State was incredible.

In any direction from Jamnagar except towards

the sea, one could see any number of these

Antilopinae. Those were the days when one

got trigger-happy shooting small and big game

alike.

I shot my first Leopard at Kileshwar in the

Jamnagar Barda Hills sitting next to Ranji

and his nephews. A trained dog seemed to be

following the panther closely almost at its

heels which seemed extraordinarily unusual.

This dog was an expert in flushing the panther

from his lair and was the key agent in most

of these shikar hunts. (It reminded me of the

pied pariah dog of Ranbag (Mahuva) which

chased and halted wild boar by fixing its teeth

on the scrotum after they had been missed by

shooters from Machans so that they could

be despatched by the axe later.) No sooner

had I shot the panther, the dog retreated and

a beater ran in with an axe to give the spotted

638

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

cat its final blow. It was an amazingly well

organized show and Ranji himself a very keen

Panther hunter knew much about the habits

of the species and how to beat it. The pan-

ther, was found in most of the forest and scrub

areas of kathiawar although it had been over

shot during the early century but was now

rapidly coming back. The Panther was a game

which was seldom shot except by Princes and

their guests. The Gir forest had some very

large specimens reaching eight feet, (between

pegs). The panther population in the Gir was

evidently larger than that of the lion. And

many panthers were shot during the late thirt-

ies in all parts of Kathiawar. Some were even

killed in desert and fields by villagers, as the

species had multiplied in its habitat beyond

carrying capacity.

In the Gir forest, lions were judiciously pro-

tected by the Nawab of Junagadh with the

result that the population soon began to in-

crease when British Dewans, Sir Patrick Cadell

and G. E. Monteath were administrators. The

Nawab never was keen on lion shoots but there

was a constant demand from Princes and

guests to shoot lions. Most of these requests

were turned down. In 1929 special permission

was granted to Mr. Arthur Vernay, a vice-pat-

ron of the BNHS, to collect a pair for the

American Museum of Natural History, New

York. As the population of lions was increas-

ing rapidly. Princes and Viceroys of India were

invited for shoots. And the walls of the Hunt-

ing Lodge or Camp at Sasangir were fully

studded with photographs of VIPs standing

over dead lions with a retinue of aides, and

shikaries. My brother was invited to shoot a

lion but when the photographer was called to

take a photograph of the lion and the group,

he ordered that all rifles should be taken away

for the photograph as the lion shot from the

machan was not an act of bravery and an easy

animal to bag but he appreciated the invita-

tion of the Nawab Saheb to shoot a lion. This

was partly in token of a loyal officer of the

Bhavnagar State Lancers Colonel Sardarsingh

who had been loaned to the Nawab and had

rendered faithful service to the Nawab and to

whom was conferred the title of Tazmi-Sardar.

During those years, the Nawab’s hospitality

was lavish and he considered our family as

brothers allowing us to meet the Begum and

Rani sahebs who were under strict purdah.

When the Junagadh Gir lions had increased

beyond their carrying capacity and wandered

into neighbouring states, the adjoining states

took advantage and shot lions almost indiscri-

minately. This was most humiliating to the

Junagadh ruler but nothing could be done as

the ‘nomad’ lions killed cattle outside his ter-

ritory and the Nawab Saheb was not ready

to pay compensation owing to state rights and

lack of proper evidence. Many of the states

in Kathiawar were paying tribute to the Nawab

in cash, as a settlement of olden times, through

British guarantee. A very interesting event hap-

pened when I was in Junagadh Gir. Two well-

known Princes were invited in the early forties

to shoot a lion each at the same time. After

the senior ruler had shot his lion, he insisted

on watching the lion shoot of his brother prince

from another machan. When he saw that the

lion beaten out was larger than what he had

shot, he promptly intervened by firing at him,

killing him dead, before he reached the ma-

chan of his younger friend. This created dis-

satisfaction, to say the least and the younger

prince then asked the Nawab to allow him

to shoot two lions which permission was given

after the elder prince had left.

The game position in the gir was excellent.

Wild Boar specially, were seen in huge sound-

ers and were swarming in the forest but chital

were mostly found in fair numbers in the Jam-

639

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

wala forest division of the gir. The Sambar

and Nilgai being common. I have seen Four-

horned antelopes in groups of 4 and 5. And

as cars were seldom allowed on forest roads

all game animals allowed close approach,

standing motionless or crossing the roadside to

see what a car looked like. The wild boar

developed huge tusks living alongside with

lions and panthers and showed defiance when

approached on foot. Nilgai were found in all

thorn forests of Kathiawar and were the least

molested creating havoc to crops as did the

wild boar. A defiant Blue Bull was killed by

a Railway engine near port Albert Victor

(B.S.).

In the thirties, I know of no game species

which may have been considered as endanger-

ed. The lion was the only rare species threat-

ened with extinction in Asia, or rather India

but this carnivore was increasing rapidly. A

lion reserve at Mytiala (Bhavnagar State) had

been created to extend the range of the lion

and in which later discreet shooting of lions

was done. The great Indian bustard which

doubtless was restricted to certain habitats and

localities was not persecuted, and could be

considered uncommon and yet where it occur-

red it could always be seen easily even at close

quarters. Since the species does not breed ra-

pidly laying one egg and maturity taking some

years, the increase is very slow. The Grey

Hornbill of the gir forest was killed surrepti-

tiously for its medicinal value and there is no

doubt that it was rare in the gir forest at the

time. The population of sambar and wild boar

was nearing saturation point in the Girnar

hills and increasing rapidly in gir hills and

since serious working of forest had not begun,

the vegetation in both areas was dense and

conducive to the safety of game species : A

sort of wilderness area full of malaria and small

pox. In all areas of Kathiawar religious sites.

be they Hindu or Moslem, afforded special

protection to wildlife including marine life, and

freshwater animals. Such areas were conspi-

cuous for holding game species and respected

as sanctuaries by the princes and people alike.

The Gir forest, a sanctum sanctorum, yet had

more game close to the temples of Kunkesh-

wari, Banej, Kamleshwar, and Tulsishyam.

Hundreds of temple sites strewn all over the

province preserved wildlife, including croco-

diles. Thus these religious enclaves served as

wildlife sanctuaries and were a great asset.

At Sandhida Mahadeo near Sanosra, some 34

miles from Bhavnagar, blackbuck were tame

enough to drink from the temple ‘ kund ’ (water-

hole) and the bucks were seen to sleep on

their sides and turn over on their back in front

of the temple. Dr. S. Dillon Ripley II, the

famous American Ornithologist, was amazed

to see such a sight when he was my guest in

the forties. At this time a project to ring Les-

ser Florican in Bhavnagar State was launched

to study migration. Near Mithi Vidi, a fresh-

water pool on the seashore off Trapaj contain-

ed a huge Marsh crocodile which was worship-

ped by the local villagers as a Goddess, (Mata-

jee) and people bathed in the pool unmolested,

a sight I can never forget. The Vala Rajputs

near Mahuva, considered blackbuck sacred on

their lands, and the antelope enjoyed complete

safety until one police officer abrogated it for

supplying meat to sailors. Similarly the Muli

Prince did not kill the grey partridge in his

state since one of his ancestors had given re-

fuge to a wounded bird in his battle tent. The

Peafowl was always venerated by the Hindus

and enjoyed full protection by the people as

did the immense population of the blue rock

pigeon. Both these species therefore became

overabundant causing considerable nuisance to

farmers. House pigeons were frequently prey-

ed upon by house cats and by practically all

1

640

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

birds of prey. Yet the numbers never seemed

to have diminished. Shooting of pigeons was

not permitted and people did not shoot doves

as a sport. Both species were very common,

and still are. The panther took advantage of

the abundance of peafowl in forest areas and

also the jungle cats. The Langur Monkey

found in the Gir and Girnar forests was fully

controlled by panthers and was uncommon.

Soon after World War II broke out, the

position of wildlife did not take such a drastic

change as in some other parts of India where

Military were given ‘carte blanche’ to shoot

wild game, since most of the Kathiawar pen-

insula was under Princely rule. During the war

period, wildlife in general was still increasing

and as there was strict rationing of petrol,

people had less time to drive about after game.

Princely shoots nevertheless continued and

much entertainment to the services personnel

was extended. Most of the big game shooting

was directed on antelope and gazelle and wild

boar, and the big cats. The grow-more-

food campaign, restricted the widespread grow-

ing of ground nut as a cash crop, millets were

encouraged and thus during the autumn, large

number of Eastern Common Crane were seen

on the coastal areas, whereas Demoiselle crane

which feeds largely on left over ground nut

and grass seeds was seen in central Kathiawar

in good numbers. The former crane arrived

earlier in east Kathiawar but the latter were

the first to arrive in the Bhal sometimes as

early as August. During the war period, lions

and panthers had increased with an abundance

of natural prey. Near the cultivated tracts, the

panther fed much upon domestic animals but

as peafowl, hare, chinkara and wild boar were

common, this feline did prey on them: The

village pariah dog was always a choice food

for the panther though it usually preferred

goat meat. Wolves were not really rare but

seldom encountered.

What was interesting to note during

the thirties and forties was that farming

had not reached high intensity and chasing of

wounded antelope and chasing wild boar in

the open fields was possible with motor cars.

At Mahuva, for instance we captured a white

Indian antelope, a mutant which breeds true,

by tiring the animal down in stages by chas-

ing over rough flat country, an impossibility

now under present farming and soil conserva-

tion methods. A small herd of white blackbuck

had already been formed in captivity and was

doing very well at Bhavnagar. In Victoria Park,

Bhavnagar, chital were reintroduced and now

had large herds, and a variety of game species,

such as wild boar, chinkara, blackbuck, nilgai,

and the introduced. Hog Deer and red spur-

fowl which were seen breeding. Small game

was plentiful. At Jamnagar, Rozy Preserve,

Chital were doing very well and the African

Guinea fowl also in the Nawanagar Barda hills.

The entire Barda hills, contained some Sam-

bar, Chital, Wildboar, Nilgai, and Leopard

which had shown increase. I have seen half

dozen panthers in one evening drive there.

Crocodiles were found in the tanks and in

Okhamandal also. Drought was always a pro-

blem in Kathiawar, and therefore, irrigation

tanks and wells were being made in increasing

numbers. By the end of the forties, innumer-

able tanks with irrigation canals were seen

with the result that there was a greater distri-

bution of water and consequently an increase

in waterfowl throughout the peninsula.

A drastic change in wildlife conditions was

seen at the dawn of Independence when severe

famine threatened the people and gave way

for indiscriminate killing of wildlife, mostly

the abundant game species. Any holder of

641

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

arms could kill game and the shikar admini-

stration of the Princes came to a sudden halt

although certain exclusive rights of shooting

were given to the Princes. The Bhavnagar ruler

in particular did not much care for these

rights as the rights of protecting wildlife and

its habitat had been taken over by the Sau-

rashtra State forest department. With the end

of Princely rule one saw the tragic commence-

ment of the destruction of big and small game

species. Moreover, the establishment of the

Military station at Dhrangadhra was a great

blow to wildlife, as army personnel hunted

game freely and the great Indian bustard was

much endangered.

In Saurashtra, the Chief Minister ordered

game animals to be shot at sight in fields. Res-

trictions on arms was relaxed and the so-called

criminal nomadic tribes killed game indiscri-

minately. Some of these tribes were rehabilitat-

ed in central Kathiawar plateau where game

had been strictly preserved with the result

that it was soon depleted. Notwithstanding, it

was after Independence that important dams

on the rivers, Shetrunji, Bhader, Machoo, Sasoi

and some smaller rivers were constructed and

this enabled a more perennial source of water

for industrial towns, and irrigated a consider-

able command area of agricultural land

through canals. Cement and tar roads for bus

services were made and villages were well con-

nected by this service. Saurashtra as the State

Union was known became a land of lakes

and roads. It already had a network of

Railways. This improvement in wet land, en-

abled a large number of water birds to breed

and the fish supply attracted an enormous

number of fish-eating birds, from pelicans to

the smallest terns and kingfishers. Marsh areas

increased and water fowl of many species bred.

The Spotbill duck and Comb ducks were in-

creasingly seen and frequent sightings of Cot-

ton Teal were recorded. In contrast denudation

of forest had begun under scientific working

plans specially in the Gir and Girnar forests

whereas the Barda and Shetrunjaya hill ranges

were being cut heavily with the result that for-

est cover and its wildlife was being reduced

rapidly. Babul and Bamboo and clear felling

of teak and mixed deciduous trees caused for-

ests to be opened out on a large scale. Thus

the 1950-60 period was the most critical for

forest and wildlife. And yet until 1955 the lion

population had been increasing. In 1950, the

first lion census was conducted under the guid-

ance of Mr. Wynter Blyth a very competent

naturalist. The trend of lion increase was not-

ed until the second census in 1955, at which

time lion poisoning had just commenced. When

the Lion Show, for tourists commenced during

Bilingual Bombay state, lion poisoning by Gir

maldharies increased and the lion population

was on the decrease. The lion census of 1963

was suspect for the lion population had by

then somewhat crashed. Earlier widespread

poaching in the Gir forest was seen and da-

coits had made their home in the forests with

the result that Police were swarming over the

forests, often poaching game. This decade

(1950-60) was perhaps the worst for wildlife

of Kathiawar. Between the two lions censuses

in the fifties, the game position in the Gir forest

had slowly deteriorated and the Grey Hornbill

seemed to have become extinct. The redeem-

ing factor was creation of the new wildlife '

legislation based on the Bombay Wild Ani- i

mals & Birds Protection Act, 1951 under which

a State Wildlife Advisory Board was formed.

The Gir forest was not declared a sanctuary

but for a small scrub forest known as the Deo-

lia Sanctuary. Lions were shot by special in-

vitees of the Rajpramukh of Saurashtra with

a quota of two per year. Some very fine maned

lions were bagged each year. On one occasion

642

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

the increased annual quota of four lions was

exceeded and six lions, all good males were

shot by various Princes. The shooting of a few

lions had no significance to the growing lion

population although the best breeding speci-

mens were those that were killed. From 1959

onwards no permission was given to shoot

lions and this continued when the Gujarat

state was formed. Everywhere wild boar and

ungulates were slowly being reduced by poach-

ers including some ex-princes and landlords

and also government officers. Any one who

possessed a licensed arm and ate meat shot

game and clandestine game markets were open-

ed in some small towns. Despite this sad si-

tuation, there still existed big game, small

herds of blackbuck, chinkara, nilgai scattered

all over Saurashtra but the wild boar was

much reduced. And the widespread Opuntia

Cacti which gave it protection had been wiped

out almost completely in Kathiawar. Thus a

sizable cover for wild boar and small game

was lost. Leopards, however, were fairly fre-

quent in the hill ranges. During these years,

intensive farming had begun. Ground nut was

being planted on a larger scale and many vege-

tables such as onions and chillies were grown

extensively everywhere, with the result that

milo and millets were grown in smaller quan-

tity. Rice was grown during good monsoons

and sugar cane was spreading with the irrigat-

ed Tank and Well systems.

In the sixties, a drastic change in Kathiawar

wildlife was to be seen. All big game species

were reduced, specially wild boar, nilgai, black-

buck. and chinkara and even panther popula-

tions outside Gir forest. The Barda and Shet-

runjaya hills were much denuded and game

ungulates and their predators practically wip-

ed out. Habitat destruction in fallow and mar-

ginal land had grown: The low thorn bush

was being removed everywhere for making

hedges for protecting irrigated farms with the

result that partridge, hare and bush-quail

which nested in such cover were seeking re-

fuge in farms and had little chance to breed

in their restricted natural habitats. Sandgrouse

particularly were menaced by nomadic tribes

who killed incubating game birds. The ‘Daf-

fers’ who possessed illegal guns swept over

the peninsula killing game and selling meat.

No action was taken against this community

and it still continues its nefarious poaching.

The Green Pigeon in Eastern Kathiawar

so common in Mango and Fici groves was

poached and with the denudation of the Sihor

hills Forest, which apart from the miscella-

neous trees had a pure forest of Acacia Senegal

which produces gum of medicinal value and

the finest white honey in Kathiawar, (A simi-

lar forest existed in Wankaner state) the birds

were easily shot. The Green Pigeons of the Gir

were being poached for the same medicinal

purpose as the grey hornbill but since the “Ha-

rial’’ pigeon population was so large it had

little effect. More serious was the cutting down

of trees which opened the forest considerably.

Undergrowth in which small and big game

took refuge was removed by forest contractors

and poaching of game was rampant. The Gir-

nar was overcut as were the outer hills with

the result that Sambar were easily poached.

Large scale illicit cutting of forest in Gir com-

pelled the Forest department to mobilise a spe-

cial squad to deal with this menace. During

drought years, large number of domestic ani-

mals from other parts of Gujarat entered the

Gir forest causing serious disturbance to its

ecosystem. The Maldharies also were moved

to lop and cut trees to feed their animals. By

the end of the sixties the wildlife position in

Kathiawar was grave. Crocodiles had been re-

duced drastically and endangered. With inten-

sive farming came the widespread use of pes-

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ticides and insecticides and birds of prey com-

menced to be affected seriously. Although lion

poisoning had been controlled, animal life

which ingested poisoned or partly poisoned

food was eventually being reduced. Migratory

birds of prey. Harriers, kestrels, and eagles

and falcons were not seen in the same number

during migration. Resident raptors doubtless

were much diminished and I saw some being

electrocuted by alighting on high voltage

pylons. Ground nesting birds were menaced

either by roaming cattle or by pilferers of eggs.

Predators were able to find nests much more

easily owing to lack of natural nesting cover.

Civet cats succumbed to poisoned food as did

many raptors such as the common White-Eyed

Buzzard, Tawny Eagle, and Laggar falcons.

Denudation of typical grassland-scrub in hill

areas also affected the Short-toed and Bonelli’s

Eagles.

The situation in the seventies for wild life

seemed dismal with the paucity of birds of

prey, and birds in general were not seen in the

hordes as in the past. The Monitor lizard and

snakes so commonly seen everywhere now were

less seen except in the semi desert and arid

areas. There was, no doubt, a growing

change in the increase of waterfowl, for, dur-

ing good rainfall, most wet lands had enough

water and cover for birds to breed. The in-

crease in sighting of Cotton Teal and Ducks

such as Spotbills and Nuktas was a

sign of progress. Spoonbills, and a variety

of herons bred in urban areas and the

little brown crake had much extended its range

in the widespread marsh habitat. The Sasan-

Gir Forest Ecological Study team consisting of

young foreign biologists studied . conservation

and grazing problems of the Gir forest in in-

terest of serving the Asiatic Lion. A Gir Sanc-

tuary Project had been started and measures

to demarcate the lion habitat and give fuller

protection to it was launched. A rubble wall

with live hedges was constructed on the vital

periphery of the forest at a high cost so as to

prevent indiscriminate grazing in the Gir Lion

Sanctuary; later a National Park area was

established where no cutting or grazing of cat-

tle was permitted and a scheme to rehabilitate

the innumerable ‘Maldhari’ hamlets outside the

main Gir forest was underway. Unfortunately,

drought years intervened, and the rehabilitation

program had to go slow. Wildlife Department

in the form of a Wildlife Wing within the

Forest Department was created and this set-

up. helped the forest ungulates to recoup in

the Gir forest. So satisfying was the progress

that in 1974-75, the Gir National Park-cum-

Sanctuary was awarded the Trophy for the

best managed wildlife reserve in India. The

Lion Censuses of 1968 had shown a decrease

in the lion population but in 1974 it had reach-

ed to 180 lions. Owing to Revenue forest on

the Gir periphery having been thinned or plow-

ed for agriculture the lion habitat had further

shrunk. And yet Chital population had shown

an increase and the wild boar population

which had crashed was soon coming back.

Blackbuck had been seriously depleted through-

out Kathiawar and yet, in the Velavadar Sanc-

tuary for Blackbuck, the herds had grown until

in 1975 a cyclone destroyed nearly a thou-

sand. A Census taken in 1976 gave a total of

1676 animals. A National Park for the Indian

Antelope was established and a Lodge for vi-

sitors is being built. The adjoining Mithapur

grassland is now under the plow and has re-

duced Blackbuck habitat. Moreover, the inva-

sion of Prosopis juliflora endangers the grass-

land so vital to the blackbuck. Prosopis juli-

flora in Kathiawar is now conspicuous every-

where. With it, the stone curlew and small

game is seen in fair number. The population

of chinkara was so depleted that it has be-

644

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

come a rare animal and this also applies to

wild boar and even nilgai.

The Nal Sarowar, the largest ‘Jheel’ in Ka-

thiawar near Limbdi turns saline towards the

dry season and often goes bone dry in the hot

weather. This open shallow sheet of water is

a sanctuary in which water fowl are constantly

disturbed by poachers who live in villages on

its periphery. These people are professional

netters and snarers and are difficult to control

as their livelihood depends upon poaching. The

dual administration between the Forest and

Tourist departments is wholly inadequate and

the Watch Tower for birdwatchers is designed

against all principles of watching birds at the

waterside despite the advice from experts. And

yet, the Nal Sarowar an ideal waterfowl re-

fuge is a popular holiday resort for the Ahme-

dabad city folk. The best time to see Nal sar-

owar is in March when water recedes and

water birds of many kinds are in full plumage

for their return migration. But one hardly gets

a close view of the birds owing to constant

human disturbance.

On the Kathiawar Seaboard, innumerable

salt works now line the shore and these semi

saline compartments have attracted countless

waders and we now see Common Shelducks

formerly so rare. Flamingos of both species,

large and small, forage in the compartments

with many waders, gulls and terns and one

often sees Pelicans. These graceful flyers usual-

ly visit many of the larger drying tanks in

early summer. In rivers and tanks, fish have

been much depleted. Most tanks have small

fish with the result that, the Large Cormorant,

Fishing Eagles, River and BJackbellied Terns

are infrequent whereas little Terns so seldom

seen in the past are seen throughout Kathia-

war, breeding in salt works and tanks. Croco-

diles have disappeared except at Kamleshwar

tank in the Gir and in a few remote water

courses. Near Sasangir, a Crocodile Breeding

Project has been commenced. There are a few

temple areas where blackbuck and nilgai are

preserved owing to religious sentiments. Small

game close to towns has been much reduced by

poaching and the Military Stations at Jamna-

gar and Dhrangadhra have caused most game

to disappear in the nearby areas. The total

ban on hunting has not been a solution to the

widespread poaching by nomads and hunters

who are bent on killing game.

Although, there is now more understanding

amongst citizens that wildlife preservation and

photography holds more importance than kill-

ing wildlife, the people who kill game for

meat are still at large and the Forest-cum-

Wildlife Department is unable to control this

menace. There is no dedicated wildlife ser-

vice in the state department specially with

the transference of officers whose main duties

are in forestry. An additional Chief Conser-

vator of Forests for Wildlife (G.S.) is now

appointed and matters stand at that. Neverthe-

less, more sanctuaries are being planned. The

so called Sanctuary for the Indian Wild Ass in

the Little Rann of Kutch is so large and its

components so diverse and scattered that it is

like a jig-saw-puzzle and, the boundaries are

so interspersed with crop land and salt works

that it makes enforcement of regulations a

difficult problem. The last Wild Ass Census

1976 showed a population of about 720 ani-

mals in comparison with the thousands I have

seen in the thirties and forties. No one seems

to really know how the animals vanished so

rapidly unless perhaps by epidemic disease. An

aerial census in 1969 merely conveyed a num-

ber less than 400 animals although a small

herd had migrated to the Nal Sarowar and

stray animals are sometimes seen there.

When I surveyed typical habitats of the

great Indian bustard in 1970-71 for the World

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Wildlife Fund, I was struck by the paucity

of antelope and gazelle in those ideal biotopes

and as for the bustard it had become very

rare. The last stronghold of this species in

Kathiawar appears to be in the Jamnagar Dis-

trict close to Okhamandal, where the staunch

Iyer community allows no trespassing on their

lands and the birds seem to realise this pro-

tection where they are undisturbed. There is

also some waste land where birds breed. Scat-

tered birds may be seen in the Panchal plateau

and on the Rann border where formerly they

were not uncommon. The bird is certainly en-

dangered in Kathiawar where nomadic com-

munities poaching wildlife are at large.

With the establishment of a Wildlife Con-

servation Society at Bhavnagar, and World

Wildlife Fund Nature Clubs for Young Folks,

at Rajkot and other places, a new outlook on

education and conservation of nature has been

started. Nature camps at Hingolgadh near

Jasdan have been a great success and it ap-

pears that the area will get recognition and

protection by government. Much of this credit

goes to Sarvashri Shivarajkumar Khacher and

Lavkumar Khacher of Jasdan. But these bo-

dies have no right to enforce the Jaws for the

protection of wildlife. The Wildlife (Protec-

tion) Act, 1972, is exercised by the Forest De-

partment mostly through its CCF Wildlife and

Wing. Nature Clubs of the World Wildlife

Fund has central office at Rajkot and this

augurs well for the preservation of wildlife.

Owing to denudation of most thorn forests

and poaching of rare or uncommon animals

such as the Pangolin and Ratel these species

Lave become much rarer. These two species

were found in many hill areas of Kathiawar;

now it appears that their main stronghold is in

the Gir and Girnar forests and perhaps Barda

hills. Ratel pugmarks are quite commonly ob-

served on dusty roads of the Gir forest. The

Wolf, is now uncommon and even common

canidae such as the Indian Fox is much less

common. It is much persecuted by tribal hunt-

ers. The species endangered consist mostly of

Antelope and Gazelle, and the panther is rare

except in the Gir forest. Similar is the case

of the wild boar. The Blackbuck is doubtless

endangered and the great Indian bustard is

threatened with extinction. The common Paint-

ed Sandgrouse so common in the low grass

stony hills, is seen in less number except in

Gir forest. Local populations of birds such as

the Green Fruit Pigeon of eastern Kathiawar

is much threatened and any species can now

become endangered in areas where its biotope

is removed or upset. Even the common Sand-

grouse is not found as abundantly in the coun-

tryside owing to intensive farming and spoil-

ing of its low stony and marginal breeding

habitats and also to direct killing by nomads.

The conspicuous change in the countryside

is the intensive farming and with it the large

number of tanks and irrigated farms. The

spread of Prosopis juliflora is something to

be wondered at, for large belts of this plant

has created impenetrable thickets and is pro-

lific on roadsides. This has solved a problem

for supplying fuel and other purpose wood

to rural people everywhere. On the coastal

belt, it has been planted to stop the spread

of desert and sand dunes and acts as a buffer

to high winds. It seems to spread rapidly with

the movement of domestic livestock. With

water conditions being doubtless better than in

the past, water birds and birds visiting farm-

lands are now fairly commonly seen and even

nest. Roadside plantations are slowly coming

up but the proper drought resisting species or

those affording the best shade are not always

planted. In the seventies, the position of wild-

life is seen in a transitional stage. It is difficult

to say which species of wildlife will be seriously

646

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Dharmakumarsinhji : Wildlife of Kathiawar

Plate III

Above : Blackbuck in Velavadar Sanctuary (now National Park).

Below : Rosy Pelicans at Rajawadla Tank (near Jasdan). (Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Dharmakumarsinhji : Wildlife of Kathiawar

Plate IV

Biil»

Above : Crab Plovers at Ghogha spithead (Gulf of Cambay).

Below : Greenshank feeding. (Photos : Author )

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

affected owing to widespread spraying of in-

secticides and pesticides, repercussions of

which, have already reduced birds-of-prey, but

birds like the Blackwinged Kite which tend to

prey upon life which moves in a healthy man-

ner are those which have not been seriously

affected; the Blackwinged Kite for instance

has increased specially with rodent increase,

but on the whole raptors have shown decline

and species such as the Short-toed, Bonelli’s

and Tawny, Eagles have definitely diminished

to low numbers also the White-Eyed Buzzard.

General denudation of forests in the entire

Kathiawar peninsula except for vegetation in

farms and the juli flora has caused much of

wildlife to be reduced. The large stands of

Babul thorn and scrub forest have almost dis-

appeared. The many babul trees which during

the monsoon stood in ‘jheels’ affording nest-

ing cover to waterbirds are now scarcely seen.

There is a growing need to create habitats for

tree nesting waterfowl. The most drastic im-

pact on wildlife is from the conversion of grass-

lands into agricultural land. But for certain

grasslands covering hills, the plains grasslands

have almost totally been destroyed. And now

there is no room for the resuscitation of those

rich grasslands in which bustards, francolins,

quails, and larks bred and sought refuge. The

only large sizeable wildlife ecosystems that

have survived are those of the Gir and Girnar

forests and to some extent the Barda hills.

There is a move to save part of the Barda

hills by creating a new centre for the Asiatic

lion. Whereas, the much denuded Shetrunjaya

Hill, near Palitana needs reafforestation as do

many of the low thorn forest ranges such as

Alecha, Khokhra, Salemar and Lonch hills.

The population of goatherds and cattle own-

ers have increased so much that it is a real

threat to forest vegetation. Tourism in Gir

forest to see lions has become popular and

there is every possibility of creating more

tourism by improved management. The Gir

forest is now intersected by roads leading to

temples and traffic has increased. Although

this does disturb wildlife on the roadside, it is

not harmful unless poaching is done from

roadside, otherwise the roads afford excellent

view of wild animals and forest. The growing

population of the Langur monkey in Gir forest

needs careful watching. With human increase

and artificial feeding these monkeys can be a

menace to forest and cropland.

With proper fish introduction and turtle and

crocodile breeding projects under scientific su-

pervision the position of these threatened spe-

cies could improve. Control over insecticides

and pesticides using only those that are not

harmful to wiidlife should save our wildlife

from complete destruction. Then only will it

be possible to avert the drastic decline in wild-

life of Kathiawar but under present day con-

ditions it seems difficult to meet the crisis, as

many, if not most, food crops are dependent

upon spraying of pest killers. The migration

of cranes to their wintering grounds in kathia-

war depends much upon the food availability

during their stay. Ground nut provides the

main source of food and most of it is dug out

by the cranes specially those which have re-

mained unpicked. These nuts are now being

collected by poor people with the result that

the cranes find their food wanting and find

it difficult to sustain themselves. And yet

large number of Demoiselle cranes arrive in

autumn. They then do much trampling in

cropland without obtaining their food. Where-

as, the resident Sarus crane which feeds in

water as well as on land and is protected by

sentiment by the people is able to survive and

increase.

To summarise the changes I have seen in

the last five decades is as follows: (1) Habitat

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

destruction of Acacia and grassland and fici

trees and the removal of Zizyphus and under-

growth for making hedges. (2) Drastic decline

of big game species with fluctuation in lion

population. The species most affected are;

Blackbuck, Indian Wild Ass, Chinkara, Wild

Boar, Sambar, Nilgai and Panther. In small

game; Bustards, Quails, Fruit Pigeon and even

Sandgrouse and Painted Partridge; Hare and

all ground nesting grassland birds also. The

reduction in number of most reptiles is con-

spicuous. In small mammals; the Desert Cat,

Fox, Pangolin and Ratel are threatened. The

Wolf is holding its own in hills and marginal

land but is much less seen being considered

vermin by the shepherds and goatherds on

whose livestock it mainly preys.

Among birds, the Grey Hornbill appears to

be extinct as a resident bird of the Gir but

can be reintroduced. Birds of prey and most

insectivorous birds are less seen. However,

Cattle Egrets and the Herons and Storks seem

to be less affected, the latter two kinds feed

much upon unpolluted aquatic life, in the sea-

coast and tanks and swamps. In insects, the

Honey Bee is seen less. Plant life except juii-

flora in marginal and forest areas has dimi-

nished and it is difficult to say where and what

species has suffered most. The Gir Orchid is

threatened and many of the plant species of

the Barda and Shetrunjaya hills are depleted.

Most Eucalyptus plantations have failed. Al-

though much afforestation work is carried out

no substantial new forests have grown barring

that of Prosopis juiiflora. This is mainly be-

cause indigenous drought-resisting species are

not planted, nevertheless, roadside trees have

begun to grow. The increase in human popu-

lation in rural areas with its concomitant in-

tensified agriculture and domestic livestock has

been an indirect threat to ground nesting birds.

The animals often trample eggs or young and

with the receding of water levels in tanks, the

animals, etc. reach islets for grazing and des-

troy eggs and young. The increase in Crow

population also has had adverse effect on bird

life. In Urban areas crows have increased and

they enter forest or scrub areas and feed on

eggs and young of most bird species specially

during the breeding season.

The progressive change in Kathiawar has

been the increase in tanks, and irrigated farm-

land. As marsh and water habitats have spread

more water birds and waterfowl are seen breed-

ing in good rainfall years. Monsoon nesting

birds such as Weaver birds and ducks and

water-hens, including moorhens, crakes and

painted snipe are now more common. Farm-

land attracts many birds specially cattle egrets

lapwings and migratory birds and parrakeets

have shown marked increase. The spread of

Prosopis juiiflora throughout the peninsula is

amazing and one may see green belts of this

plant everywhere. Because of innumerable

tanks we see more of Pelicans, Flamingos,

Terns, Egrets, Ibises, Spoonbills, Darters, Lit-

tle Cormorants, Herons and Storks but not

so the Blacknecked Stork. In short more of

water birds specially of the migratory kind are

now seen plentifully on the shores of tanks

and sea. The salt work compartments attract

large number of birds such as Blacktailed God-

wits, Sandpipers, Stints, Shanks, Ruff, Plo-

vers, Gulls, Terns, Swallows, Avocets, Fla-

mingoes, Herons, and Brahminy ducks. White

Storks are regularly seen in marshy areas and

Painted Storks and Spoonbills are common

birds with various species of Ibises. On the

Coast, Crab Plovers are now frequently seen.

With the growing number of Birdwatchers,

new records of birds are added to my book

birds of saurashtra (1955). Birds such as

the Ortolon Bunting, Blackcapped Kingfisher,

Whiteheaded Thrush, House Martin, Black-

648

THE CHANGING WILDLIFE OF KATHIAWAR

throated Weaver bird, and many others, have

been added to the list of birds of Saurashtra.

This growing interest in birding will bring to

light, it is hoped, more new records ’and the

saving of vanishing and threatened species.

Bird Camps are being held in different parts

of Kathiawar. The farmer is also becoming

conscious to protect wildlife in his farm and is

aware of those species damaging his crops.

Although there is much persecution of the

Honey Bee by poor communities, private gar-

dens in urban areas have preserved beehives

despite depredation of the Crested Honey Buz-

zard whose population is not so seriously af-

fected by insecticides. With the increase in

House Crows, Koels are seen in greater num-

bers but are inadequate to control the grow-

ing crow population. Although there is a ge-

neral reduction of insect species the menace

of malaria is again raising its head. It is not

possible to say which species of insect life has

increased for the benefit of man. Insect life

affecting crops has been somewhat controlled.

Many students all over Kathiawar are now

taking interest in natural history and research.

The endangered Wild Life are of Grassland

and Scrub Ecosystems, and Marginal lands,

whereas, mixed dry deciduous forest in Gir is

slowly recovering.

All big game mammals, and predators such

as the Desert Cat, Wolf, and Civet Cat need

protection. The porcupine which was so abun-

dant in the past is not tolerated now by far-

mers and is much less but not yet seriously

endangered.

Most insectivorous and carnivorous bird spe-

cies have been threatened, either by habitat

reduction or insecticides and pesticides if not

both. Much of the game species have been

reduced by direct poaching, but small game

continues to thrive in farmland. The Eastern

Common Crane and migratory Quails are seen

in less numbers and the Blacknecked Stork

which fed on fish in shallow waters and rivers

has found survival more difficult except on

seacoast. Tall trees on which it nested are less.

The position of the Lesser Whistling Duck is

difficult to assess: Large congregations are

now not seen but its water habitat has defi-

nitely increased but nesting habitat appears

to have lessened with the result that its breed-

ing has been hampered and predators and

poachers have more chance of robbing its

eggs. Yet, as a whole, the population might

have increased. The last stronghold of the

forest wild life is the Gir, Girnar and Barda

hills and these ecosystems need proper conser-

vation for the perpetuation of the valuable

wildlife of Kathiawar. Fortunately, the people

of Kathiawar by nature are not destroyers of

wildlife but with lack of proper enforcement

of Wild Life Act and rules and general lack

of appreciation for the value of wild life owing

to ignorance, wildlife is bound to suffer.

In conclusion I would like to say that since

the Lion Shows began in 1959 the behaviour

of lions have changed. Owing to the frequency

of ‘baiting’, lions have become tame knowing

very well that man provides easy food for

them and young cubs when grown become so

acquainted with the Shikaries and visitors that

they permit very close approach on foot. To-

day the Gir lion is in the tourist limelight.

Moreover, thousands of people, young and old

have a chance to watch and photograph the

rare asiatic lion. Formerly before independ-

ence lions were shy and would not come to

the baited “kill” if they knew they were being

watched. I have often seen lions from Machan

and if by chance they discovered me they kept

away. Seldom did a lion attack livestock in

day time and the Maldhari could drive away

a lion from his kill easily. Tourism has also

brought people to see the Indian Wild Ass

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

from all over the world but with lesser enthu-

siasm. When salt works entered the Little

Rann, donkeys were brought in for work,

resulting in Wild Ass-Donkey hybrids. With

the increase of habitation, village domestic

cats in arid areas interbreed with Desert Cats

and one often saw a spotted hybrid which

seemed to supplant the wild species.

These are then the changes I have seen

during the years and I notice that the type of

crops grown, the rainfall and drought and pol-

lution not to mention party politics and popu-

lation growth play an important role in the

increase and decrease of wildlife populations

of Kathiawar.

650

THE PRESENT STATUS OF MAHSEER (FISH) AND

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF TOR KHUDREE

(SYKES)

C. V. Kulkarni1 and S. N. Ogale2

(With two plates and two text-figures )

Mahseer has long been a great favourite of the anglers and also constitute an import-

ant fishery in north India. Six different species of Mahseer occur in India. However,

the fishery has suffered a serious decline due to indiscriminate fishing of brood fish

and juveniles by unjustifiable methods. Some of the handicaps in their natural multi-

plication are the long hatching period of 80 hours and a still longer duration of six

days covering the semi-quiescent stage when the hatchlings remain clustered in corners

and crevices and away from light. Heavy mortality takes place during this critical

period. Hence, one of the methods to rehabilitate this group of fishes is to breed them

artificially and distribute the fingerlings into natural waters. For this purpose, a system

of catching the ripe brood fish from the spawning grounds, stripping them and ferti-

lising the eggs was followed in the case of Tor khudree (Sykes) at Lonavla, Dist.

Pune in Maharashtra. Large number of eggs were thus collected during breeding

seasons (July-August) and hatched in running water. After the hatchlings pass through

the quiescent stage, the fry are fed on zooplankton and then on artificial feed. They

take about eight months to reach fingerling stage, suitable for stocking. A new method

of transport of these eggs in moist cotton wool was tried and found successful.

Introduction

Mahseer, the noblest sport fish of India which

had been a great favourite of most of the

anglers, Indian as well as those hailing from

distant countries the world over, is now feared

to be in danger of extinction in some parts

of the country. One ardent angler (M. L.

Mehta) gave a vivid pen picture in the Times

of India — (6-6-1976) of the wanton destruc-

tion of Mahseer in the rivers near Dehra Dun

(U.P.) and appealed for a ‘Save Mahseer’

campaign.

The National Commission on Agriculture

(1976), in its report on “Fisheries” stated “It

has been reported that there has been a ge-

1 Present address : B/4, Shardashram, B. Shan-

kar Road, Bombay 400 028.

2 Tata’s Electricity Office, Lonavla, Dist. Poona.

neral decline in the mahseer fishery due to

indiscriminate fishing of brood fish and juve-

niles and the adverse effects of river valley

projects” and recommended “extensive survey

and detailed ecological and biological investi-

gations.” These statements are signifi-

cant, and necessitate remedial operations for

conservation of this group of fishes which was

at one time referred to as one species, the

mahseer ( Barbus tor). In the case of species

from an aquatic environment, waiting for

convincing proof of depletion may be danger-

ous as it may then be too late to retrieve. Me-

thods of rehabilitation and conservation have

therefore to be thought out in time and the

same are attempted in the present article.

Although references will be made to diffe-

rent species of mahseer and their fishery status,

the notes will deal largely with methods of

artificial propagation of Tor khudree (Sykes)

651

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

and transportation of its eggs packed in moist

cotton.

Several species of the Mahseer exist, the

principal ones being (1) Tor putitora (Ham.),

(2) Tor tor (Ham.), (3) Tor mosal (Ham.),

(4) Tor khudree (Sykes), (5) 7\ mussullah

(Sykes). They have their own areas of na-

tural distribution, ranging from the Lesser Hi-

malayan region (Kashmir) to Darjeeling hills

in the east, for the first species; the sub-Hi-

malayan range, Ganga and Narmada river sys-

tems for the second; the Mahanadi basin (and

also Burmese waters) for the third; the entire

Peninsular India south of river Tapi for the

fourth and the Peninsular rivers including

Krishna and Godavari for the fifth. T. khud-

ree has been reported from some parts of Nar-

bada, North Gujarat, U.P. and Orissa also.

Moreover, another large-scaled fish of Nepal

and the eastern Himalayan range, the Katli

or Bokar of Assam ( Acrossocheilus hexagono-

lepis McClld.) is also included by anglers in

this group and is designated as chocolate or

red mahseer. T. progeneius (McClld.) of

Assam and two sub-species, T. mosal maha-

nadicus (David) and T. khudree malabaricus

(Jerdon) have also been reported.

Present status of the mahseer

Mahseers are well known sport fishes of ri-

vers and streams in India and though their

capture on a commercial scale must have been

in practice in the past, only the catches made

by anglers as a result of sport fishing have

been recorded by some of the angler-authors.

Sport fishing has shrunk considerably in recent

years resulting in lesser competition, yet the

reports of anglers are disappointing both in

numbers and size (personal communication).

The commercial fishery of putitor mahseer in

Jammu, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

consists largely of individuals either ascend-

ing streams for breeding or the spent ones

returning to perennial pools in the plains

(Sehgal 1972). Though exact numerical state-

ments are wanting for proper comparison,

whatever figures and reports of anglers are

available, indicate considerable decline in the

fishery (Sehgal, loc. cit.), especially of large

ones. In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in the

Narmada river near Hoshangabad and in Tapi

near Barhanpur (Karamchandani et al. 1967)

tor mahseer figured prominently in the com-

mercial catches about 12 years ago but the

landings are reported to have dwindled re-

markably in recent years. In the lakes in Ra-

jasthan as well as in the Chambal river bet-

ween the Gandhi-Sagar and Rana Pratap Sa-

gar reservoirs, the tor mahseer does occur in

good numbers but their fishery status cannot

be determined in the absence of previous catch

data.

In Maharashtra also, the fish (T. khudree)

has been practically a rarity in rivers Bhima,

Krishna, Koyana, etc. except at a few temple

sanctuaries at Dehu and Alandi on the Indray-

ani river and in some reservoirs. In the south

also, the situation is in no way any brighter

as regards occurrence of mahseers (T. khud-

ree and T. mussullah). Kaveri (Cauvery) river

which was at one time a home of large mah-

seers has been reported to be practically de-

nuded of this anglers’ delight and had to be

stocked with fingerlings of the Deccan Mahseer

Tor khudree (Sykes) from Lonavla (Maha-

rashtra). A recent report appearing in the Dec-

can Herald (4-4-78), however, records a catch

of 12 mahseers including a 92 pounder (42

kg) from Kaveri river, 100 km from Banga-

lore, by a British Trans-World Angling Team,

but even this fish was caught only after an

intensive effort for about 2\ months by three

experts.

652

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF TOR KHUDREE (SYKES)

Studies on the biology and angling capabili-

ties of these species commenced with Thomas

(1897), Khan (1939), Hora (1943), McDo-

nald (1948), Nazir Ahmed (1948) and David

(1953); but more intensive work on different

species started only recently with the investiga-

tions conducted by Karamchandani et al.

(1967), Kulkarni (1971), Desai (1972 and

1973), Tripathi (1978) and Das et al. (1978).

Despite these studies, no steps for conserva-

tion and rehabilitation of mahseer have been

taken so far on a sizable scale except in the

lakes of the Tata Electric Companies at Lona-

vla (Maharashtra) and the efforts by the Wild

Life Association of South India and the Kar-

natak Fisheries Department in cooperation

with the above company.

One of the main reasons for the decline

of Mahseer, is the thoughtless destruction of

this fish by illegal means such as the use of

explosive and killing of brood fish in the

spawning season. Another serious handicap

the fish suffers from, is the change in the eco-

logical condition of our riverine systems where

several new multipurpose dams are being erect-

ed across numerous streams, large or small,

all over the country. Such dams are no doubt,

beneficial to the country in several ways; a

number of large impoundments which would

not have, otherwise, come into existence are

created by these dams. This expansion of

water bodies is advantageous to fish and fish-

eries in general but migratory fishes like Mah-

seer which used to visit clear water streams

for breeding can no longer undertake those

ascends unmolested, as human interference has

penetrated into most of the previously seclud-

ed streams. It must, nevertheless, be admitted

that Mahseer has, at many places, adapted

itself admirably to life in the lacustrine con-

ditions and manages to breed though on a

small scale. These adverse circumstances re-

duce the chances of survival of Mahseer in

large numbers in natural waters.

Biological constrains in natural breeding

The Mahseer requires specialised biologi-

cal conditions for its breeding and juvenile

development. These were not clearly known

so far. Observations on the early development

and growth of hatchlings of Tor khudree made

during past few years at Lonavla in Maharash-

tra (Kulkarni 1971) have focussed attention

on the fact that this Mahseer (Photograph 1)

suffers from several handicaps in its natural

breeding. Firstly, its fecundity is comparative-

ly low. Karamchandani et al. (1967) calculat-

ed fecundity of 30,420 ova for Tor tor of 625

mm in total length and Desai (1973) record-

ed 42,600 eggs for a 657 mm female of the

same species; we have counted 20,000 ova

from a 630 mm. T. khudree weighing 3.6 kg

from one of the Lonavla Lakes. This is very

low as compared to Catla (1,33,000 Av.)

Rohu (2,61,000 Av.) per kg of body weight

(Sukumaran 1969). Secondly, the hatching

period is as long as 80 hours in water tempe-

rature of 22 to 26°C (Kulkarni, loc. cit.).

This period is likely to be longer in colder

streams of sub-himalayan region which the

other species of Mahseer namely the T. pud-

tor a and the Katli Mahseer (AccrossocheUus

hexagonolepis) inhabit. Further the semi-

quiescent stage after hatching which is hardly

3 days in other carps is extended to as long as

six days in T. khudree. During this period the

hatchlings do not swim freely but remain at

the bottom mostly huddled up in large num-

bers in corners and crevices with their heads

tucked away from light, as if they are nega-

tively phototropic, with their tails vibrating

and jutting out (Fig. 2b). In this condition

they are subject to depredation in large num-

bers by predatory animals. Thus this semi

quiescent stage is the most critical stage of

653

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL KIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

their life and since it is prolonged, their mor-

tality is also heavy. In all probability T. puti-

tora and T. tor will have similar semi quies-

cent stage in their early life history, making

them equally vulnerable to infantile mortali-

ty. In the past, the number of streams unfre-

quented by men was large and a greater num-

ber of mature mahseers had the opportunity

to spawn unmolested and hence the critical

quiescent stage in their life history did not

matter very much. But with the increasing

number of streams being used for reservoirs

for multi-purpose development schemes, the

traditional breeding grounds of the mahseers

are lost to them. On top of this adverse situa-

tion, many of the streams which are excluded

from the developmental activities, are affected

by harmful industrial effluents which kill the

fish fauna, and especially the tiny fry or the

hatchlings in enormous numbers. All these

handicaps combined together are working ad-

versely on the fish fauna in general and on

Mahseer in particular, because no effort has

so far been directed towards rehabilitation or

salvaging this group of fish, their specialised

features in breeding and early development

working against them. Hence, the only remedy

to save them from this grave situation is to

assist the fish in their critical stages by closely

studying their breeding habits and by resort-

ing to artificial method of propagation as is

done in the case of the famous Salmon fishery

in parts of north America and Europe where

millions of fingerlings are raised by artificial

methods and then released into natural waters.

It is for this reason that methods of artificial

propagation of this noble fish of India were

studied and the details are given here under.

Breeding Habits : Different breeding seasons

of different species of mahseers and in diffe-

rent climatic conditions described by several

authors have been enumerated by the senior

author (1971). Detailed biological study based

on examination of a large number of specimens

obtained from the commercial catches of

mahseer from the Narbada river in Madhya

Pradesh was undertaken by Karamchandani

et al. (loc. cit.). The examination of ovarian

eggs and their maximum sizes in different

months enabled them to conclude that the

breeding season of Tor tor commences in July

or August and continues upto December,

the peak season being from July to Septem-

ber. Their observations tally, to some extent,

with those made at Lonavla, except that the

length of the spawning season is not as long

as recorded by Karamchandani et al. (loc.

cit.). Even the peak of the season is not long

enough at Lonavla, being only mid- July to

mid-August, where the spawning season was

determined not on the basis of maximum dia-

meter of ova found in the specimens examined,

as was done by Karamchandani et al., but on

actual collection of brood fish in real ripe con-

dition, stripping of eggs and their fertilisation.

In this respect, Codrinton’s (1946) statement

that ‘major spawning period of Mahseer is in

August largely agrees with the observations

made at Lonavla. Record of eggs collected

and fertilised at Lonavla during past eight

years is as under: —

I

654

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Kulkarni & Ogale: Mahseer

Plate I

Hatchery Tank with water being sprayed on the hatching trays.

( Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Kulkarni and Ogale : Mahseer

Plate II

Above : Eggs of Mahseer.

Below. Eggs of Mahseer in water. (Photos: A. V. Shukla )

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF TOR KHUDREE (SYKES)

This record will indicate that peak period

of breeding when the largest number of eggs

was consistently available was in August ex-

cept in 1977 and 1978 when there was heavy

rain in late July. Incidentally, the above re-

cords corroborates a similar forecast made

earlier by the senior author (1971). It was

seen that heavy collection of eggs usually

coincided with heavy downpour of rain caus-

ing the streams adjoinning the lakes to swell

and debouch large quantities of fresh rain

water into the lakes.

A rtifcial propagation :

As is common with most of the cultivable

species of carps, breeding of Mahseer with

pituitary hormones was attempted but with

limited success. This does not preclude the

use of this method for artificial propagation.

In fact, where the natural spawning grounds

are difficult to locate, this would be the only

solution. But its success would depend on the

ecological conditions of the stocking ponds,

the available food and the availability of suf-

ficient stock of healthy and ripe brood fish.

In Nainital hills (U.P.) stripping of ripe T.

putitora (H-am.) was attempted in 1976 and

eggs fertilised but heavy mortality during

development was reported (Tripathi, loc. cit).

However, our experience since 1970 indicated

that if fishery biologists can locate the prob-

able spawning grounds of Mahseer and can

determine the peak of the spawning period

with certain amount of exactitude so as to col-

lect the ripe brood fish the stripping and ferti-

lising the eggs artificially was more depend-

able. This latter procedure was followed in two

lakes near Lonavla (Pune Dist.) namely Wal-

whan and Shirawta (c. 18°.45' to 18°.40'N

and 73°.25' to 73°.29'E). They are respec-

tively about 6.14 and 13.10 sq. km in area

and 20 to 30 m deep. They are surround-

ed by hills all round and their source of sup-

ply is the seasonal streams flowing through

the adjoining hills. The hills being steep and

small, the flow continued only when heavy

showers prevailed. The brood fish were ob-

served to congregate at a short distance near

the inflow of these temporary streams into

the lakes. It was also observed that ripe fish

congregated more during early part of the

night say between 7 and 10 p.m. and again

from 4 to 6 a.m. Netting operations under-

taken during intervening period were com-

paratively less fruitful. Splashing of water or

any nuptial play was rarely seen. In fact,

actual natural egg laying (spawning) and ferti-

lisation has not been seen except the reports

of some observers, who describe the embra-

655

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

cing act being similar to that of Rohu but in

clear water and below the surface.

For the purpose of breeding operations, the

spawning grounds are visited when it is rain-

ing and the streams are running. Suitable

gill nets usually of 15 cm extended mesh

are laid at 6 p.m. and hauled at 11 p.m. and

4 a.m. Ripe males and females, their ripeness

judged by presence of milt in the male and

soft bulged abdomen in the female are freed

from the net by cutting some of the meshes.

Other sex-determining characters are the pecu-

liar obliquely protruding base of the anal fin

of the female out of the curve of the ventral

profile and the length of the pectoral fin in

the male which have been detailed earlier

(Kulkarni 1971). If the female is in the correct

stage of ripeness, some eggs can also be seen

extruding on slight pressure on the abdomen.

Such ripe females are then stripped by the con-

ventional method (dry process) in a suitable

enamel tray and the eggs fertilised by the milt

similarly obtained from the male. After two

or three minutes, the excess milt is washed by

adding and changing the water in the tray.

The eggs have a tendency to stick to the sur-

face of the tray but they can be carefully

detached with the help of cotton wool and

slight pressure. Water of the trays is then

changed every half an hour and the eggs allow-

ed to harden for next four hours. Thereafter

they are placed in wooden trays, with plastic

netting at the bottom and wooden sides (Fig.

2a). They are usually 55 x 35 x 12 cm high

and are kept floating in a cement hatchery

tank (photo 2) usually 2 x 1 x 1 m high

(fig. 1). Each tray can accommodate

about 30,000 eggs and being demersal they

remain well arranged on the plastic netting

about 4 cm below the surface of water. Clean

tank water is continuously sprinkled over the

eggs through perforated pipes running on the

sides of the tank wall (fig. 1). Dead eggs,

if any, are picked off with a pipette and the

eggs kept clean. Excess water of the hatching

tank overflows through a pipe having its open-

ing (mouth) at the bottom by a siphon system,

thus ensuring removal of less oxygenated bot-

tom water. The eggs are thus bathed in well

oxygenated water almost continuously al-

though no harm is expected if the water is

stopped intermittantly.

As mentioned earlier, it takes about 80

hours for the eggs to hatch out in water of

about 22° to 26°C. temperature, the hatchlings

remain in semi-quiescent stage for almost six

days. This critical stage has also been high-

lighted earlier. The eggs which are bright le-

mon yellow or orange in colouration and

measure 2.8 to 3.00 mm in dia. have already

been described by the senior author (1971)

along with other larval and post-larval stages.

On the seventh day the fry swim freely (Fig.

2c) and start feeding on minute zooplankters

like Moina, Daphnia, etc. After a day or two

they start taking powdered groundnut cake

and rice polish in small quantities. They are

then shifted to cement nursery tanks and fed

on zoo plankton as well as the artificial feed

(groundnut cake) soaked in water. After mak-

ing them accustomed to artificial feeding for

about three or four weeks they are released

into earthen nursery tanks for further growth.

At this stage, the fry are about 30-35 mm in

length and are suitable for transport over long

distances in plastic bags in water and oxygen.

Such consignments sent from Bombay to Ban-

galore showed no mortality. In about six to

eight months the fry reach the stage of finger-

lings and become suitable for stocking into

perennial lakes or streams.

Transport of eggs in moist cotton :

As one of the measures to facilitate propa-

gation of Mahseers into distant areas within

656

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF TOR KHUDREE (SYKES)

Fig. 1. Hatchery tank for Mahseer.

657

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the country and abroad, an effort was made

to pack fertilised eggs in moist cotton to as-

certain whether they would remain viable, the

idea underlying the experiment was to see

whether they can be transported without water.

Transport of “eyed ova” (fertilised eggs) of

trout even across continents for their propa-

gation in new environments is a well known

practice and it is in this manner only that

trout has been introduced in Kashmir, Nilgiris,

Sri Lanka and many other countries. However,

such effort has not been made so far with eggs

of any of our other Indian fishes. This is pro-

bably because the hatching period in most of

cur common fishes is of short duration and

the eggs are comparatively delicate.

To achieve the aforesaid objective of keep-

ing eggs out of water, in moist packing, a

small tray was selected and its bottom covered

with moist cotton wool. About 40 eggs ferti-

lised by the usual stripping method and water

hardened from 6 to 24 hours were placed on

moist cotton wool and covered by a layer of

similar type of cotton. The tray (Fig. 2d) was

kept in a laboratory room (air temp. 22°C)

and after 24 and 48 hours they were taken

out, released into water and hatched normally.

Results of these experiments conducted in

August 1977 were as under:

Observations in Batch II and ill above are

fairly satisfactory. The small variation in the

number of hatchlings obtained in these batches

after 24 and 48 hours may be due to the con-

dition of eggs at the time of fertilisation or

other factors commonly prevalent during the

process of hatching which is as long as 80

hours. It is, nevertheless, significant that in-

crease of period from 24 to 48 hours had no

adverse effect on the number of hatchlings

obtained, and indicated that 48 hour period

was equally safe. Moreover, six hours seems

to be an ideal period for hardening of eggs,

but the longer period of 12 and 24 hours gave

an opportunity to weed out unfertilised or

damaged eggs, if any. Leaving aside the small

variation, the results prove that eggs are cap-

able of being kept in moist cotton and remain

viable for at least 48 hours. As a field trial,

two consignments, each of 5000 eggs were

taken to Bombay Air Port from Lonavla, a

distance of 100 km and parcelled by Air Bus

to Bangalore unattended, in August 1978.

They were packed in two layers of moist cot-

ton in plastic baskets with an outer container

of tin. In the first consignment mortality of

eggs reached 8% upto Bangalore air port,

whereas in the second, the mortality came

down to mere 1.5%. About 75% of these

eggs hatched out successfully. This experi- j

ment is the first of its kind in India and

opens up new possibilities of transport of ferti-

lised eggs, instead of fry, by air and then

hatching them in the usual manner, thereby

saving considerable expenses on transport in

containers with water.

Further, if this method of packing of eggs ;

is possible in the case of Tor khudree, there:

is no reason why it should not succeed in the

case of T. tor, T. putitora, T. mosal and

others. It is desirable that efforts should be

made in their case also. If these experiments!

succeed, possibilities of exporting mahseer

eggs to foreign countries which need them for

purpose of culturing them as sport fish, can !

be ascertained and our esteemed Mahseer can

have new homes outside India.

658

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF TOR KHUDREE (SYKES)

659

. a : eggs of Mahseer in a tray; b : hatchlings of Mahseer congregating in

corners; c: free swimming fry; d: eggs of Mahseer in moist cotton.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Acknowledgements )

We acknowledge our earnest indebtedness

to the Tata Electric Companies for undertak-

ing Mahseer breeding, conservation and re-

habilitation activities for the first time in India

and for affording all the necessary facilities

Refei

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and early development of the copper Mahseer,

Barbus ( Lissocheilus ) hexagonolepis, McClld. Proc.

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David, A. (1953): Notes on the bionomics and

some early stages of the Mahanadi Mahseer. J.

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Cordington, K. de B. (1939) : Notes on the

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Das, S. M. and Pathani, S. S. (1978): Studies

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tora) Adaptation of the Alimentary tract to feeding

habits and body weight. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48

(6) : 461-465.

Desai, V. R. (1970): Studies on fishery and bio-

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Food and feeding habits. J. Ind. Fish. Soc. India,

2: 101-102.

(1973): Studies on fishery and bio-

logy of Tor tor (Ham.), Maturity, Fecundity and

Larval development. Proc. Ind. Nat. Sci. Acad. 39:

228-248.

(1972) : Notes on the early larval

stages of Tor putitora (Ham.). J. Zool. Soc. India

24(1) : 47-5 1 .

Hora, S. L. (1943): The game fishes of India.

XVI further observations on Mahseer of the De-

for conducting the studies described in this

paper, at Walwhan and Shirawta lakes near

Lonavla. Co-operation of Shri M. Jayaraj,

Director of Fisheries, Karnataka is also ap-

preciated for kindly arranging, receiving and

hatching of the eggs in Karnataka.

EN CES

ccan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 1-8.

Karamchandani, S. J. and Pisolkar, M. D.

(1967): Survey of fish and fisheries of the Tapti

river. Bull. Cent. Indl. Fish. Res. Instt. Barrack-

pore 4:1-29.

Karamchandani, S. J. Desai, V. R. and Pisol-

kar, M. D. (1967) : Biological investigations on the

fish and fisheries of Narbada river. Bull. Cent. Indl.

Fish. Res. Instt. 79:1-39.

Khan, H. (1939) : Study of the sex organs of

Mahseer ( Barbus tor). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

40: 653-656.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1971): Spawning habits, eggs

and early development of Deccan Mahseer, Tor

khudree (Sykes), ibid. 67:510-521.

MacDonald, A. St. J. (1948): Circumventing

the Mahseer and other sporting fish in India and

Burma. Bombay Natural History Society.

Sehgal, K. L. (1972): Cold water fisheries de-

velopment in India for sport profit. Silver Jubilee

Vol. Cent. Indl. Fish. Res. Instt.: 125-131.

Sukumaran, K. K. (1969): Growth, maturation

and fecundity of cultivated fishes. U.N.D.P. Regional

Semi. Indu. breed, cult. fish. Calcutta. 5:53.

Thomas, H. S. (1897): The Rod in India, Lon-

don.

Tripathi, Y. R. (1978): Artificial breeding of

Tor putitora (Ham.). J. Indl. Fish. Soc. Ind. 9:

161.

660

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN INDIA— PAST,

PRESENT AND FUTURE

S. Z. Qasim1

( With a plate and a text -figure)

Several physical characteristics of the seas

around India were known to our ancestors

since ancient times. Although they did not

have a proper understanding of the pheno-

mena like currents, tides and winds, they

utilized their emperical knowledge, based on

experience and visual observations, for practi-

cal purposes. For instance, the biannual re-

versal of the direction of winds has been known

to Indians and the Arabs for centuries. This

knowledge they cleverly used for crossing the

Arabian Sea for trade purposes. Similarly, as

early as the Indus Valley Civilization period,

our ancestors were fully aware of the pheno-

mena of ebb and flood tides. This is evidenced

by the remains of an excellent dockyard at

Lothal which the Harappans constructed to

receive ships at high tides. Studies carried out

on this dockyard suggest that the Harappan

Engineers possessed sufficient knowledge of

the tidal range, periodicity and the effects of

tides. The Indians also had some knowledge

about the animal life in the sea. This is clear-

ly reflected from the Ain-e-Akbari and the

Memoirs of several kings of the medieval

period which give information on the fish and

fisheries of Hindostan.

The origin of oceanography in India can be

traced as far back as 1871 when an officer

of the Indian Museum, Dr. J. Wood-Mason,

was sent to Andamans to explore the fauna

1 National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula,

Goa 403 004, India.

and flora of this region. He was perhaps the

first person to carry out biological work in

deeper waters off Andamans on board S.S.

Undaunted. Immediately afterwards the Ma-

rine Survey of India was inaugurated in 1872.

This was about the same time as H.M.S. Chal-

lenger sailed on her famous round-the-world

cruises. Stimulated by the great success achiev-

ed by the Challenger, the Royal Asiatic So-

ciety of Bengal persuaded the Government of

India to create a post of Surgeon-Naturalist

to carry out work in Indian waters similar to

that carried out by the Challenger. Thus in

1875, Dr. J. Armstrong was appointed as the

first Surgeon-Naturalist. In 1881, a 580 ton

survey vessel R.l.M.S. Investigator I was com-

missioned by the Marine Survey of India. On

the request of the Government of India, the

Admiralty agreed to give some of the equip-

ment used on board Challenger for its use on

Investigator I and thus the “oceanographic

studies” in India began. These largely includ-

ed biological collections, although occasional-

ly observations on sea water temperature and

bottom deposits were also made. Investigator

I was scrapped in 1908 and replaced by

Investigator II — a 1078 ton vessel, which was

capable of cruising at faster speeds. However,

it was not until 1910, when Col. R.B.S. Sewell

took over as the Surgeon-Naturalist, that some

observations on oceanography, other than

biological studies, were started. These included

the measurements of salinity and temperature

of sea water, and some meteorological para-

meters like barometric pressure, air tempera-

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ture using wet and dry-bulb thermometers and

velocity -and direction of the winds. Due to

the First World War, the work was tempora-

rily suspended from 1914 to 1921, before it

finally came to a standstill in 1926. However,

the surveys carried out in the Arabian Sea,

Bay of Bengal, Andamans and Laccadive Sea,

revealed a wealth of knowledge of the marine

animal and plant life in waters of the Indian

coast. These are described in excellent publi-

cations brought out by the Royal Asiatic

Society of Bengal.

Useful oceanographic data continued to be

collected by research vessels which crossed

the Indian Ocean during the course of their

global expeditions. These included the Dana

Expedition (1928-30), the John Murray Ex-

pedition (1933) and the Galathea Expedition

(1950-52). As a result of these expeditions

many interesting features of the Indian Ocean

became known.

After independence in 1947, the need for

maximum utilization of the resources of the

seas around India began to be realized. The

early efforts were evidently directed towards

“food from the sea”. Thus, the Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute was esta-

blished in 1947 to carry out researches related

to fish and fisheries. In the following years

analysis of sea water samples collected by the

various Naval and Merchant ships was also

included in the research programmes. The

Indian Navy established a Naval Oceanogra-

phic Laboratory at Cochin for researches on

defence-oriented problems. At the same time,

oceanography and marine biology started to

be taught in some universities at the post-

graduate level. Commendable work on physi-

cal oceanography and meteorology was car-

ried out at the Andhra University during the

period 1952-1958 and researches on some

more disciplines of oceanography such as

geology and geophysics began to be under-

taken for the first time in Indian waters. A

Physical Oceanographic Wing was formed by

the Central Board of Geophysics to carry out

work on the physical aspects of oceanography.

However, thus far, a systematic approach to

co-ordinate and expand the oceanographic

work in India, according to country’s needs,

was lacking. Therefore, in 1960, the Govern-

ment of India constituted the Indian National

Committee on Ocean Research (INCOR) to

meet some of the planning and coordination

needs.

The International Indian Ocean Expedition :

Of all the world oceans, the Indian Ocean,

even today, is the least studied. Most of the

countries bordering the Indian Ocean are the

most populous and at the lowest stage of eco-

nomic development. It was, therefore, con-

sidered important to start this expedition so

that new food and mineral resources could be

explored for the benefit of these countries.

Besides, the Indian Ocean poses several pro-

blems which are totally different from those

of the other oceans. The land-locked nature

of the Indian Ocean on its northern boundary

and the bi-annual reversal of the direction of

the winds known as the “monsoons” are the

unique characteristics of this ocean. These

considerations led to the development of a

multi-national project, “The International

Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE)” co-sponsor-

ed by the UNESCO and Intergovernmental

Oceanographic Commission (IOC). This ex-

pedition, in which 40 ships from 20 countries

took part, started in 1962 and came to an end

in 1965. A large amount of oceanographic

data was collected from different parts of the

Indian Ocean which helped in filling up the

gaps in our knowledge of the seas around

India. Because of the geographical position of

our country and the scientific man-power it

662

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN INDIA

possessed, India became one of the active par-

ticipants in the IIOE and played host to re-

search vessels and scientists from different

countries. Four ships from India took part in

the Indian programme of IIOE. These were

I.N.S. Ki stria, R.V. Varuna, R.V. Conch and

M.F.V. Bangada . However, the bulk of the

data from the Indian ships came from I.N.S.

Kistna, a 90 metre frigate of the Indian Navy

which was specially refitted for oceanographic

work. Scientists from different disciplines went

regularly on board Kistna. As a result of this

30

o

2CH

ICH

80

90

Dehro Dun

Delhi

A

BAY OF BENGAL

Fishery Science and Fishery

Management.

Fisheries Education

Fisheries Technology

Marine Biology

Marine Chemicals etc.

Oceanography ( Marine Science )

Flydrography

Marine Geology and Geophysics

Coastal/ Harbour Development and

Ocean Engineering

Naval Science and Technology

Meteorology

Miscellaneous

30

o

10

70

80°

90

Location of institutions / organizations in India engaged in different activities related

marine science and technology.

663

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo /. 75

expedition, the country became aware of

oceanography and developed a team of trained

young scientists by the time the expedition

came to an end. The expedition gave a firm

base for the future oceanographic work in the

country.

With the support of UNESCO and IOC,

the Indian Ocean Biological Centre (XOBC)

was established in 1962 at Cochin, for the

study of zooplankton collected during the

IIOE. The primary task of the IOBC was

sorting of about 2,000 zooplankton samples,

collected from the Indian Ocean, into various

taxonomic components to be studied by spe-

cialists all over the world and also to store

and maintain the archives of the samples.

These tasks were successfully completed and

the station data and displacement volumes of

zooplankton samples were published in the

form of several handbooks which also includ-

ed the associated environmental data and re-

search papers. The 10 atlases published by

the IOBC summarise the distribution of the

different planktonic groups in the Indian

Ocean. These have been in demand throughout

the world. The credit of most of the work

done during the IIOE largely goes to the late

Dr. N. K. Panikkar, who can be called the

founder of modern oceanography in India.

Present

The National Institute of Oceanography :

The scope of the Indian National Commit-

tee on Oceanographic Research, which was

initially set up by the Government of India

for planning and coordination of the Indian

programme of IIOE, was subsequently enlarg-

ed to cover all types of oceanographic activi-

ties in the country. This Committee strongly

recommended that it would be in the national

interest to consolidate the valuable experience

gained from our participation in the IIOE and

that an institute having the status of a national

laboratory be established in the country. The

Government agreed to this proposal and thus

the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO)

came into existence on 1st January, 1966 as

one of the national laboratories under the

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

(CSIR). With its temporary headquarters in

New Delhi, the NIO took over all the activi-

ties which were earlier functioning under the

Directorate of Indian Ocean Expedition. Over

the years, the NIO has grown into a very size-

able organization. It has its Headquarters in

Goa and three regional centres at Bombay,

Cochin and Waltair. Today NIO has seven

divisions which cover Physical Oceanography,

Chemical Oceanography, Biological Oceano-

graphy, Geological and Geophysical Oceano-

graphy, Marine Instrumentation, Ocean Engi-

neering and Planning and Data processing. It

has a staff strength of about 425.

The greatest impact on Indian Oceanogra-

phy came with the commissioning of the first

oceanographic research vessel of NIO R.V.

Gaveshani on 31st December, 1975. This ship,

has a displacement of 1900 tonnes and is

equipped with some of the most modern

oceanographic instruments. These include

salinometers, current meters, CTD systems,

proton magnetometer, sound velocity meter,

side scan sonar, survey sonar, submarine pho-

tometers, bathythermographs, continuous tem-

perature and salinity recorder and continuous

wave recorder, in addition to various types of

gears for the collection of water and sea bed

samples upto 6 km depth. Gaveshani is also

provided with most modern navigational and

communication systems including the Satellite

Navigational System (SATNAV) for accurate

position fixing. The ship has four well-equip-

ped laboratories on board. Gaveshani provides

664

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Qasim: Oceanographic Research

Plate

CLAY

BEDROCK

Vertical profile of the sea bed showing the main features obtained by a seismic equip-

ment installed in R. V. Gaveshani.

Picture of the sea bed taken by R. V. Gaveshani using a side scan sonar. Sediment

cover (sand and clay) is recorded in light-tone and rock outcrops in dark-tone.

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN INDIA

air-conditioned accommodation for 19 scient-

ists and 45 officers and crew and has an en-

durance of about 25 days.

To date, Gaveshani has completed 48 crui-

ses in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal re-

sulting in the collection of a large volume of

data and information on the seas around India

which have contributed a great deal to our

knowledge about the Indian Ocean. Uptill

June 1978, Gaveshani has surveyed more than

50,000 line kilometres in the sea and has

worked at 920 stations. These cruises have re-

sulted in the location of several potentially

rich fishing grounds in the Arabian Sea and

Bay of Bengal in addition to mapping of the

sea bed for mineral resources. Using this ship,

NIO has done a substantial amount of work

for the Oil and Natural Gas Commission

(ONGC) connected with the exploitation of

offshore petroleum.

During the last few years NIO has fully

utilized the expertise and indigenous techno-

logy available and has provided service and

support to a number of industries and public

sector undertakings in as many as 50 spon-

sored projects on such areas as resources sur-

vey, harbour development, submarine pipeline

surveys, pollution control and protection of

coast from erosion. These sponsored projects

are of direct interest to the user community.

Under the project “food from the sea”, NIO

has located several rich fishing grounds, has

mapped seaweed resources and has developed

sea farming technology. Under the project

“coastal development”, one of the most im-

portant contributions of NIO has been the

survey of 160 kilometre submarine oil pipe-

line route from Bombay High to Bombay for

the ONGC. This pipeline has already been

laid along the route given by NIO and the

crude from Bombay High has begun to flow.

Two other surveys for the submarine oil pipe-

line routes are underway. These are from

Bassein oilfields to Hajira (200 km) and from

Bassein to Tarapur (120 km). These surveys

are the first of their kind done by an Indian

agency and are entirely based on indigenous

technology. They have not only saved valuable

foreign exchange but have given confidence

and self reliance to the country.

Along the coastline, various activities such

as harbours, power plants, oil terminals, hotels,

tourist resorts and industries are fast develop-

ing. About 36 projects have been completed

by NIO for the coastal development program-

me including a number of projects for the

control of pollution in the sea. These have

been sponsored by private industries and pub-

lic sector undertakings. The work has been

extended to coastal areas of Gujarat, Bom-

bay, Goa, Karwar, Mangalore, Trivandrum,

Madras and Visakhapatnam. Recently NIO

has completed a large project on the disposal

of sewage in Bombay waters for the Bombay

Municipal Corporation.

The problem of oil pollution along the

coastline of India has also become alarming

in recent years. Large quantities of crude oil

are transported from the Middle East to the

Far East and other places across the Arabian

Sea. A part of this oil gets into the sea

due to accidental oil spills or due to the un-

lawful dumping of the residual oil or bilge

from the oil tankers into the sea. When the

volatile fractions of the crude oil evaporate,

the residue acquires a form of tar-like lumps

or balls. These tar-balls find their way to the

coast and adversely affect the recreational

value of our beaches. Since oil pollution is a

world-wide problem, it is essential for the in-

ternational agencies to develop proper con-

ventions so that suitable measures are taken

to curb this problem.

The international projects in which NIO is

665

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 75

involved are: (i) Marine Pollution (Petro-

leum) Monitoring Pilot Project (MAPMOPP)

under the framework of Integrated Global

Ocean Station System (IGOSS) of IOC and

(ii) Marine Environmental Monitoring and

Marine Living Resources Assessment for the

Indian Ocean Region under United Nations

Environmental Programme (UNEP).

At present most of the instruments used for

oceanographic research are being imported.

Efforts are under way to develop some of the

oceanographic instruments in the Institute to

attain self-sufficiency in this field as far as

possible. NIO has already developed instru-

ments like current meters, salinometer, electro-

nic sedimentation balance, bathythermographs

and tide and wave recorder. Several other in-

struments like salinity-temperature and depth

(STD) system are in advanced stages of de-

velopment.

Besides NIO, several other organizations are

also engaged in specific areas of research on

oceanography, meteorology, marine biology

and fisheries. Teaching -and training are being

done in the universities of Andhra, Annamalai,

Cochin and Kerala. Sea fisheries research is

being undertaken by the Central Marine

Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin.

In recent years, the India Meteorological

Department (IMD) has undertaken a series

of observations in collaboration with USSR on

the monsoon phenomenon. Preliminary studies

conducted in 1973, known as the Indo-Soviet

Monsoon Experiments (ISMEX), gave very

interesting results. These are now being fol-

lowed up by studies on a much larger scale.

This project, called as Monsoon Experiments

(MONEX), will help in understanding the

phenomenon of monsoon whose appearance

and disappearance have so far remained a

riddle to meteorologists. In 1977, India carried

out the Monsoon Experiment jointly with

U.S.S.R., but in the forthcoming MONEX-

1979, several countries are participating and

about 10 ships including Gaveshani will be

fully involved in the programme.

The Future

Oceanography, the collective entity of all

sciences, is relatively a young science for India.

Considerable work has been done within a

short period of about 12 years, during which

time most of the infrastructure and man-

power requirements have been built up. How-

ever, whatever has been done is a small frac-

tion of what remains to be achieved. With the

recent declaration of 200 nautical miles of

Economic Zone, we have added a very large

area, about 1/3 of the total land area of India,

to our economic limits in the sea. This area

needs to be intensively explored for the living

and non-living resources. India’s future ocea-

nographic programmes are being planned to

suit many urgent needs. With the discovery

of oil off Bombay, a new era of oceanogra-

phic exploration has started. The vast conti-

nental shelf off the Indian coast must be ex-

tensively explored to locate similar structures.

Search for offshore oil is likely to be intensifi-

ed in the near future. NIO, being fully con-

scious of its responsibilities, is going to be

actively involved in such studies. Major deve-

lopments in the offshore oil exploitation are

expected to be in the field of ocean engineer-

ing and technology. Offshore drilling platforms

and sophisticated buoy telemetering systems

for continuous data acquisition would have to

be developed indigenously for successful ex-

ploitation of offshore oil. Similarly, a consi-

derable amount of work will be carried out

on the design of foundations of the structures

to be built at sea.

Another field of potential importance is the

optimum utilization of marine mineral re-

sources. For this purpose, NIO is working in

666

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN INDIA

collaboration with the Geological Survey of

India (GSI) and the survey of almost the en-

tire western continental shelf has been com-

pleted. More intensive studies are planned in

the Bay of Bengal and in selected areas of the

Arabian Sea. Deeper regions of the Indian

Ocean are very rich in manganese nodules. It

is hoped that very soon the country will be

able to build up the necessary competence for

the exploration and exploitation of manganese

nodule.

The utilization of marine living resources

is another area in which considerable effort

will be put in, and for this, aquaculture or sea

farming technology is going to create the

greatest impact. Besides food, animals and

plants of the sea are going to be used for many

other purposes. Several important chemicals

are likely to be obtained from seaweeds and

marine animals such as corals, sponges, etc.

These organisms are known to possess very

interesting biologically active compounds

which are different from those obtained from

the land plants and animals so far. These che-

micals have a rich potential for being deve-

loped into important drugs and pharmaceu-

ticals. Realizing the importance of such stu-

dies, NIO has taken up a project on “drugs

from the sea” in collaboration with the Cent-

ral Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Luck-

now.

It is known that most of the conventional

sources of energy (fossil fuel) are exhaust-

able and hence many countries of the world

are now seeking alternate sources of energy

which will be unconventional and inexhaust-

able. Significant progress has been made in

several countries including India for the uti-

lization of energy stored in tides, waves, cur-

rents and temperature difference of water

column in the sea. Preliminary studies carried

out indicate that some areas of our country

are very promising for harnessing tidal energy.

Researches on this important aspect is likely

to draw more and more attention during the

forthcoming years.

The most significant contribution India will

make during the next decade or so would be

in becoming self reliant in undertaking the

different challenging tasks of exploiting the

sea and its resources for the benefit of its

people. India will also provide support and

expertise to many developing countries of the

world in the field of ocean science and tech-

nology. The oceans will thus continue to hold

the promise of meeting man’s evergrowing

needs for food, minerals, energy, chemicals,

water, living space and climate. The new age

into which we are moving in is not only the

age of atoms, the electron and space, it is also

the new age of the sea.

667

THE STATUS OF THE GHARIAL (GAVIALIS

GANGET1CUS) IN U.P. AND ITS

REHABILITATION

V. B. Singh1

{With a plate and two maps)

Introduction

Not very long ago, several rivers in U.P. had

a good number of gharials. In the course of

short period of about fifteen to twenty years,

there has been drastic depletion in their popu-

lation so much so that some of the rivers,

have been completely denuded. The situation

has become alarming and the gharial is almost

on the verge of extinction in this State.

A variety of causes contributed to the large

scale destruction of gharials. Some of these are

(i) Lack of enforcement organisation, (ii) In-

discriminate shooting and netting, (iii) Use of

nylon gill nets for fishing, (iv) Construction

of reservoirs and barrages and (v) Removal

of eggs by tribals and local people for use as

food.

A study of gharial population in Uttar Pra-

desh was initiated from Jan. 1975 onwards

and three main rivers namely Ganga, Sarda

and Ghaghra were surveyed. It was also de-

cided to construct hatchling ponds so

that eggs collected from nature could

be hatched and reared at the rehabilitation

centre. The intensive survey yielded solid re-

sults in the form of a clutch of 38 gharial eggs

which were collected in April 1975 from the

west bank of the river Girwa near Katernia-

ghat in Bahraich District. These eggs were

transported to Lucknow for artificial incuba-

1 Chief Wildlife Warden, U.P.

tion, hatching and rearing of the young.

Twenty one of the eggs hatched and these

were kept in two ponds constructed according

to our own design and plan. The centre was

visited by the FAO expert and we discussed

in detail the entire problem of gharial reha-

bilitation in U.P. and worked out a scheme,

incorporating the following main features:

(i) Detailed survey of the existing croco-

dilian population in the State.

(ii) Based on the information collected

through survey, to translocate isolated

populations; to protect the viable

populations and to locate nesting

sites.

(iii) Establishment of breeding Centres.

(iv) Essential research on the ecology of

crocodilians which will provide basic

data about their breeding growth,

food habits, population etc.

With financial aid from the Central Gov-

ernment for the execution of the scheme, not-

able progress was made towards achieving the

four objectives. We have surveyed our rivers,

located breeding populations and nesting sites;

collected eggs, hatched them and reared the

juveniles at our rehabilitation Centres. We

have at present (August 77) the largest gha-

rial population anywhere in the World. In this

paper, however, the results of the survey to

determine the status of gharial and the efforts

made to rehabilitate this species in nature by

rearing them at the Centres is reported.

668

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Singh : Gharial in U.P.

Plate

Above : Gharial breeding centre at Kukrail.

Below : Gharials in Kukrail breeding centre.

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN U.P.

II. Status Survey of the Gharial in the

Rivers of Uttar Pradesh

Methods

The survey team consisted of a surveyor,

two assistant Surveyors and 3 boatmen. Other

than the surveyor, the rest of the staff are

members of Mallah community, who are very

familiar with the habits and natural history

of river animals. The two Assistant Surveyors

have been employed under this scheme as re-

gular Government employees and the rest

worked on daily wages basis. Two boats were

constructed, one for the river Chambal and

the other to be used in Girwa river. Survey of

other rivers was done with the help of boats

taken on hire. Valuable information about the

location of gharials was obtained from local

fishermen through our staff.

Two 7 x 50 binoculars were used and census

figures are based mostly on day counts of ani-

mals seen. Day census is often as effective as

night census though hatchlings and juveniles

showed up mainly during night counts using

three-cell torches when they were feeding near

the shore, adults were never spotted during

the night.

Survey Reports'.

Narayani or Gaiadak river

The Gandak river (Narayani) after leaving

Nepal flows through the Doma forests of Nich-

laul Range in Gorakhpur district along the

U.P.-Bihar border. A large population of

Gharial used to be found here. Thomas W.

Webber in his book the forests of upper

India (1902) mentions seeing groups of 20 or

more basking in the mid-river sandbars. In

addition he also mentions that mugger used

to abound in jheels and tanks around Gorakh-

pur itself.

Two to three animals were reported seen

in 1975 near the Tailfall gate on the main

Gandak West Canal. Two gharials both with-

out nose humps about 2.5 to 3 metres in length

were seen in the canal itself but during a period

of high water, when the gate was open, one

had moved away.

The Irrigation department official who re-

sides near the gate sighted this remaining gha-

rial basking on the sand bank of the canal be-

tween 1100 and 1600 hours. During the lean

period of the river before the monsoon begins

in late May, Gharials are seen in the Gandak

river which then flows through a narrow chan-

nel on the Bihar side of the border. During

this period they are sighted in small numbers

(less than 5) at the Gahanu and Bhainsaha

ghats. There was one reliable report that the

area was visited by a gharial with a nose hump

during the first floods in June/ July but it has

not been seen recently.

Gharials in this area have become rare be-

cause of altered habitat conditions arising from

diversion of Narayani water in the East and

West Gandak canals. As a result of this, the

Gandak had become a spent force resulting

in the ‘Kunds’2 in the river gradually getting

silted up, thus greatly reducing the habitat

where most riverlife resides in summer.

It is worthwhile noting that the presence of

gharial in the canal represents normal high

water behaviour of gharial when they leave

the swollen main river and seek refuge in a

tributary in this case a canal connected to the

Narayani.

GfoagSira river — Enquiries from fishermen

at Ghaghraghat and Dohrighat revealed that

gharial which were formerly abundant have

now been depleted to the point of extinction

in the lower Ghaghra and no adult animals

have been seen here for more than a decade.

2 Deep pools in the river bed.

669

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fishermen at Dohrighat claimed that migrants

are seen immediately after the high water

season though the frequency of such sightings

have also gone down sharply in recent years.

That the Gharial is not yet completely extinct

is shown by the fact that the survey party was

able to acquire a 1.3 metre long juvenile from

a fisherman in October 1975. This animal died

after about 3 months in captivity being un-

able to adjust to captive conditions. Small

numbers of gharial used to be exhibited at

Dohrighat during the Kartik festival held there

each year. A superstition based ritual used to

be performed on these animals which were

later released in the Ghaghra. In 1975 it was

seen that turtles had replaced gharial as the

object of ritual due to the current rarity of

gha rials.

It is estimated that over the entire length

of Ghaghra there are possibly five isolated

gharials.

Girwa river — Girwa river which is known as

Karnali in Nepal before it enters the Indian

territory lies in Katerniaghat wildlife sanctu-

ary. From the point of its confluence with

Koriala downstream it is known as Ghaghra,

about which details have been given in the

para above. The stretch of 18 km of Girwa

river is at present the best gharial habitat in

the State as 5 km stretch of this river has the

largest population of gharial in the country.

The population of Girwa was surveyed be-

tween March and May 1975 when 14 gharials

including one hump nosed male were counted.

During surveys in 1976, 25 gharials including

3 hump nosed males and 7 adult females were

seen. The sudden increase in the population

observed since the receding of the river after

the monsoon season of 1975 is attributed to

migrants who have moved into the area from

the Karnali gorge, Cheesa Pani in Nepal due

to increasing disturbance there arising from

surveys for the Karnali Dam Project. Another

important reason could be less disturbed bask-

ing areas available in this part of the river due

to reduced human disturbance, as this year

there was no working for timber in the sur-

rounding forests and boats carrying driftwood

were absent.

Formerly the gharial was more widely dis-

tributed along the entire length of the Girwa

downstream of the Nepal border at Katarnia-

ghat. Gharial also occurred at the confluence

of the Kauriala and Mohan river and in the j

Mohan river itself. But at present they are !

mostly restricted to a 3-5 km stretch of the

Girwa adjoining compartment 2 from about

one kilometre above the temporary bridge at

Katerniaghat. Gharials occasionally show up

to the confluence of Girwa and Kauriala and

the Kauriala and Mohan rivers after the mon-

soons but there is a tendency to abandon these

areas during the subsequent months.

The details of the gharial population in the

Girwa is therefore as follows:

Total : 28

670

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN U.P.

mp

OP

? KATERNIAGHAT SANCTUARY

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Chambal river — The river Chambal forms

the border between U.P. and Madhya Pradesh

for over a length of nearly 250 kilometres.

During the period December 75 to January

76, nearly 200 kilometres of Chambal in Uttar

Pradesh was surveyed. The survey started by

boat from Samruna ghat just above the U.P.

Rajasthan border downstream to the pontoon

bridge at Sahson Ghat.

The Chambal is generally a deep river

flowing between high banks. There are numer-

ous bends where the river is over hundred feet

deep. The extensive river habitat of the Cham-

bal supported a large population of gharial

and other river life in the past. Indiscriminate

hunting and netting has brought the popula-

tion down to a stage where its survival has

been threatened.

A flayed body of an adult male was seen

on the banks of a Kund close to Ridauli vil-

lage on the right bank of the river which lies

in M.P. The carcass which had not yet begun

to decompose belonged to a 17 feet humped

gharial which had been stripped of its skinned

hump on the nose. Local people reported that

it was shot after 5th December by the Chawki-

d-ar of Ridauli village in M.P. Tracks of

gharial which had come out to bask belonged

to more than one gharial. Near Basauni village

in U.P. two small springs which originate in

small ponds flow into the river. Here gharials

below three metres in length were reported to

be trapped since the water receded from the

ravines after the monsoon flood. One of these

was killed with sticks when a farmer was sur-

prised by the animal as he was washing his

hands in the pond.

Several tracks of adults were seen on the

submerged portion of a mud bank above

Aterghat. Three (3) fresh tracks of juveniles

or sub-adults were seen on a mud-bank close

to Mau village in M.P. on the right bank. One

juvenile below 1.5 metres in length was seen

near Kasaua village on the right bank in M.P.

In the stretch of the river surveyed the num-

ber of adult gharials will not exceed 10. In

addition sub-adults and juveniles occur in fair

number. This is stated on the basis of infor-

mation collected from villagers working close

to the banks of the Chambal. However, the

gharials could not be sighted for the following

reasons:

(i) Gharials in Chambal come out of water

less frequently during December and January

and are seen more often before November and

after mid February to May.

(ii) Very intensive commercial fishing is

done in this river and as many as 25 boats

were found operating in the stretch of the river

surveyed. Gharials do not come out because

of this activity.

(iii) Old adults are very shy and do not

completely leave the water but bask by resting

their snouts only on land.

(iv) In many places mid river rocks are

used for basking and no tracks are left on

these.

The river still provides good habitat for

gharial, they have disappeared mainly due to

hunting. Numerous methods of hunting have

been adopted. The important ones are: a)

Shooting, b) netting, c) by hooks planted in

the sand, d) noosing of juveniles, e) spearing

by torch light.

They are also caught accidentally in fishing

nets and turtle hooks. A secondary reason may

be increasing human activity near the river as

indicated by the existence of greater number

of ferries on the Chambal than shown in the

earlier editions of survey of India maps.

The portion of the Chambal river upstream

of U.P. border between Rajasthan and M.P.

still contain breeding populations of gharial.

Our survey work continued in this part of the

672

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN U.P.

river as well but its details will form part of

another note.

It is however considered necessary to give

the abstract of results so that the actual status

of the gharial in the country may be assessed.

The following are the details of the population

observed in this portion.

The breeding population of gharial in this

part of the Chambal gave us during the 1977

egg laying season as many as 12 clutches of

497 eggs. It is therefore justifiably believed

that gharial will naturally increase in the U.P.-

M.P. portion if their hunting and extermina-

tion are completely eliminated.

Ramganga river — Ramganga river flows

through the Corbett Park. This river debouch-

ed into the plains at Kalagarh where a dam

has been constructed. It has created a reser-

voir of nearly 80 square kilometres, submerg-

ing the best gharial pools which existed in the

river in a stretch of 8 kilometres upstream of

Kalagarh. Till 1960, this river had a very

large gharial population which could be seen

basking on islands and sand bars. The census

carried out in 1965 indicated the presence of

atleast 15 adult gharials. The construction of

the dam, which involved heavy dynamiting of

the hills and river banks was responsible for

the destruction of the gharials. Now the total

population consists of 5 adults, of which two

are males and three females. All the gharials

live in the pools lying in the stretch between

Dhikala and Gairal, a length of nearly 25

kilometres. They share pools with muggers

which are more common in the river now.

Ramganga below Kalagarh is almost a dry

river on account of the Kalagarh reservoir.

Only a few isolated gharials have been report-

ed in Bedaun and Shahjehanpur districts.

Ganges river — The portion of the river

above Garh Mukteswar is not habitable for

gharial due to lack of deep pools and paucity

of water.

(i) Between Garh Mukteshwar and Kanpur

no gharials were observed but reports about

the occurrence of several isolated adults have

been received.

(ii) Between Kanpur and Allahabad — in this

portion gharial has been completely extermi-

nated and no reports about their existence

anywhere were received.

(iii) Between Allahabad and Mirzapur —

occasional reports of isolated adults have been

received till recently.

Jamuna river — Below its confluence with

Chambal river, some juveniles have been seen

occasionally. Sometimes migrants from Cham-

bal stray into Jamuna and isolated adults

have been seen in certain areas.

Betwa river — Gharial habitat has been badly

disturbed in this river due to the construction

of various hydel and irrigation projects. The

population is accordingly either extinct or

near extinction.

Ken river — Gharial is extinct in the portion

of the river in U.P. A few are reported to sur-

vive in the higher reaches in M.P. but they

are cut off from U.P. by an irrigation barrage.

Son and Tons rivers — Gharial is reported to

survive in the river gorges in M.P., but they

are almost exterminated in U.P. These rivers

used to have a good number of gharials some

years back. Only occasional migrants may

stray into the U.P. portion of this rivers.

Rapt! river — No resident population sur-

vives in the U.P. portion of the river. In the

673

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

portion in Nepal, there are several breeding

adults. Occasional migrants may stray into

U.P.

The following is the abstract of gharial,

populations in the rivers of U.P.

Gharial Rehabilitation Project

Less than 1% of all gharials hatched in

nature reach a length of two metres after

which they generally become immune to pre-

2 Sub-adults

5 adults (isolated)

2+9 adults

17 sub -ad ults & young ones

(i) Narayani

(ii) Ghaghra

(iii) Girwa

(iv) Chambal

(a) U.P.

(b) M.P./ Rajasthan

(v) Ramganga

(a) Corbett Park

(b) In the plains

(vi) Ganges

Conclusion — The results of the survey as

given earlier bear testimony to the fact that

gharial is uniformly rare to the point of being

extinct in most of the rivers in U.P. which not

very long ago supported a sizable population.

The only breeding population in the entire

State exists in the Girwa river of Bahraich

Forest Division. The resident population here

consists of nearly 30 individuals including 9

adult females and two (2) adult males, the

remaining being sub-adults or juveniles. So

far only a maximum of four females have par-

ticipated in nesting. In all other rivers, only

isolated individuals may continue to survive,

but these are not believed to be of breeding

status. Also in case where the upper reaches

of rivers lie outside the State boundaries and

in which gharial continues to survive, flux of

migrating individuals specially juveniles may

sometimes be observed after monsoon floods.

Reports of such remnant population continue

to be received from the river Ghaghra, Ganga

between Garh Mukteshwar and Kanpur, the

Ramganga, Chambal, and Jamuna rivers.

10 adults (isolated)

6+12 adults

65 sub-adults & young ones

5 adults (isolated)

4 adults (isolated)

4 adults

dation. One breeding female may lay eggs

from 20 to 100 in a clutch, which is a suffici-

ently large number to maintain a population

if a fair proportion out of them could survive

to reach the breeding age. But the eggs and

hatchlings fall victim not only to predators like

fish, jackals, monitor lizards, birds of prey or

even big gharials but also to egg eating tribal

communities. All odds were against the reha-

bilitation of gharials in nature with its rapidly

shrinking habitat, the fast flowing and deep

pooled rivers being favourite sites for dams,

barrages and reservoirs, and the ever present

threat of hunting by hooks, rifles, dynamite or

nets for their valuable hide. Also young and

old alike were being accidentally enmeshed in

huge nylon fishing nets and either drowned or

were clubbed to death to save the valuable

net. There was little hope of rehabilitating the

gharial without a crash programme to over-

come these difficulties and adverse factors. A

project which could take care of protection

and which could produce sufficient number of

gharial babies to repopulate the rivers was the

674

T t «

> IK13«l v00> nVH

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN U.P.

675

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

need. These objectives could be achieved by:

(i) Careful collection of eggs from the wild,

their artificial hatching combined with

captive rearing of the young till they

attained a length of nearly 2 metres

when they were strong enough to fend

for themselves and survive in nature

against most of the predators.

(ii) Creation of sanctuaries to protect the

existing breeding population.

Pilot Project: The Wildlife Preservation Or-

ganisation of Uttar Pradesh decided to start

a pilot project to construct breeding ponds and

to collect eggs, hatch them and rear the young

ones. It was decided to survey rivers to locate

breeding populations so that during the egg-

laying season likely nesting sites could be wat-

ched and eggs collected for our rehabilitation

centre. While the preliminary survey was be-

ing conducted from December 1974 to Janu-

ary 1975, information was collected about the

design and specifications of ponds.

Kukrail reserved forest, which covers an

area of nearly 2000 hectares and is located

12 km away from the State Capital Lucknow

was selected as the site for the location of the

rehabilitation centre. The river Kukrail is per-

ennial and can provide sufficient fish of all

sizes for most part of the year and was the

main attraction in addition to the closeness of

the place to Lucknow which made intensive

and frequent inspection of the centre possible.

In an enclosure of 12 x 6 metres which was

enmeshed on all the four sides and on the

roof, two ponds each of 2.25 x 1.90 x 0.4

metre size were constructed with inlets for

running water from a tubewell and drain pipes

to clean the ponds.

Systematic surveys carried out in February

1975 proved successful and atleast 14 animals

were enumerated in the Girwa river near Ka-

terniaghat in Bahraich district. Our staff

managed to locate a single nest of gharial

which yielded 38 eggs which were transported

in May 1975 to Kukrail for artificial hatching.

Twenty one (21) hatchlings emerged in the

first week of July out of which one died im-

mediately and the rest were released into the

newly built ponds. The centre was visited by

the crocodile expert of the FAO/UNDP on

the 5th August 1975 and at his suggestion 10 of

the hatchlings were sent to the Orissa Rehabi-

litation for rearing under his supervision. The

remaining 11 were kept at Kukrail. Proper

arrangements had to be made to protect the

hatchlings against winter. The entire enclosure

was covered by polythene sheets and jute mats

to ward off cold winds and to arrest sun’s heat.

Electric room heaters were provided for keep-

in the water in the ponds above 18°C below

which hatchlings in captivity tend to become

lethargic and susceptible to diseases.

Our experiment in artificial rearing proved

successful and at the end of the year 12 hat-

chlings had survived 8 in U.P. and 4 in Orissa.

Encouraged by this success we presented a

full fledged scheme to the State Govt, under

which the Central Government was requested

to meet the capital expenditure and the State

Govt, to pay the recurring expenses. This

scheme was sanctioned in October 1975 and

a planned total expenditure of Rs. 3.77 lakhs

spread over 2 years was allotted by the Central

Govt. Technical assistance is also being pro-

vided by the UNDP expert posted in the coun-

try. We decided to have one more rehabilita-

tion centre which was located at Katerniaghat

near the river Girwa. By June 1976, the con-

struction of 30 hatchling ponds with a capa-

city for 450 hatchlings and 4 yearling ponds

with a capacity for 80 yearlings was completed.

Ten of the hatchling ponds were located at

Katerniaghat centre. Meanwhile survey efforts

were stepped up and between December 75

676

STATUS OF GHAR1AL IN U.P.

and May 76, our survey team constantly sur-

veyed the Narayani, Son, Ghaghra, Ramganga

and chiefly the river Chambal and Girwa to

locate more breeding populations and nesting

sites of gharial. The efforts were well reward-

ed and we were able to locate 9 nests out of

which 3 were found on the Girwa and the

other 6 on the Chambal. These nests yielded

us 342 eggs (215 Girwa and 127 Chambal).

The Chambal eggs gave us nearly 95% hatch-

ing success while it was 71% in the case of

Girwa ones. The number of yearlings surviving

now (Aug, 77) out of these are 235, Girwa

eggs yielded weak hatchlings which suffered

from physical defects and their mortality was

high during the course of 12 months. Chambal

hatchlings, on the other hand were healthier

and sturdy.

It became necessary to increase the number

of yearling ponds to accommodate the 235

yearlings against our existing capacity for 80

yearlings only. Accordingly 4 yearling ponds

were added to the Kukrail complex and ano-

ther 4 ponds to the Katerniaghat. This raised

the total number of yearling ponds to 8 at

Kukrail and 4 at Katerniaghat which among

them could provide for at least 240 to 250

yearlings. No hatchling ponds were added as

we did not expect to collect more than 400

to 450 eggs during the 1977 summer nesting

season.

Efforts were intensified to locate maximum

number of eggs both along Chambal and

Girwa during the 1977 nesting season. Sepa-

rate survey parties were deputed to these two

rivers with adequate number of boats, trans-

port and men both local and our own staff.

They stayed in the area from February on-

wards till they located all the possible nests.

As many as 12 gharial nests were located on

the Chambal which yielded 497 eggs. These

eggs were brought to Kukrail centre in the

last week of May 77. On the Girwa 4 nests

were located with 166 eggs. While the eggs

from 3 nests were brought to Katerniaghat

centre one nest with 30 eggs was left at the

site to observe the hatching percentage in

nature. The hatching success came to 90 to

94% which yielded 599 hatchlings. The nest

which was kept undisturbed on the site at

Girwa yielded 30 hatchlings, but 7 died

immediately. The twenty three hatchlings

were collected and brought to Katerniaghat

centre for rearing. We had thus 553 hatchlings

from the 1977 eggs. Our existing hatchling

ponds, as indicated earlier, have capacity for

only 450 hatchlings. We had therefore to resort

to relative crowding and had to send 100

Chambal hatchlings from Kukrail to Katernia-

ghat as a measure of proper distribution of

space and work load.

The following table gives the existing stock

position of gharial hatchlings and yearlings at

our two centres. It also gives consolidated in-

formation about the number of nests, and eggs

collected during the last three years as also

their hatching percentages etc. (see p. 678).

Though this paper deals only with the work

done by us about gharial rehabilitation, we

also collected mugger ( Crocodylus patustris )

eggs which were found along the Chambal

river banks during the course of our survey.

We have the following number of muggar

hatchlings and yearlings also at our Kukrail

centre :

The above figures show that we have in

stock 247 gharials which will be big enough

to be released in the wild by the end of Fab-

ruary 1978.

Sanctuaries — As mentioned earlier, Girwa

river in Bahraich Forest Division has the larg-

est gharial population in the State. A five

677

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Year

egg source No. of

nests

No. of

eggs

created

No.

hatched

%of

hatching

No. of

surviving

of one

year age

!

No. of surviving

at 2 years age

No- % No. %

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN U.P.

kilometre stretch of this river has the highest

density of gharfals in the country. Along

with the artificial rearing of gharials and

their release in nature, their rehabilitation de-

pends on the protection afforded to the exist-

ing population as also to the artificially bred

young after their release. It was considered

necessary to give higher legal status to the

entire eco-system which held the largest sur-

viving population of gharials in the State.

The Girwa river and the forest around this

river were the obvious choice and an area

covering 400 square kilometres was constitut-

ed into a wildlife sanctuary in the year 1976.

In addition to the breeding population of gha-

rial this sanctuary contains rich wildlife includ-

ing Mugger, tiger, panther, swamp deer, black-

buck, chital, hogdeer, blue bull, pigs and

variety of birds including red jungle fowl, par-

tridges etc. The first five species listed above

are protected animals included under sche-

dule I of the wildlife Protection Act 1972. In

addition to the normal territorial and wildlife

staff posted in the area one Assistant Wild Life

Warden has been posted for the protection of

gharials. A scientific management plan is being

drawn for this sanctuary which will consider-

ably improve the habitat and environmental

conditions in the area after its enforcement.

There is a proposal to create another sanc-

tuary to cover the length of the river Chambal

which has a breeding population of gharials

or which has suitable habitat where gharials

can live and breed. This sanctuary will be

spread over the three states of U.P., M.P. and

Rajasthan. Government of India has accepted

our proposal in this connection and have ini-

tiated action for the early creation of this sanc-

tuary.

Corbett National Park is another protected

area in the State which has ideal habitat for

gharials in the form of river Ramganga.

Though this river has at present only 5 gha-

rial adults, it can provide a home for more

gharials.

The above three rivers have been selected

for the release of gharial young reared at our

two centres. The first lot of juveniles will be

released in February 1978. They will be in-

tensively protected and looked after. In due

course other areas which have suitable stretches

of gharial habitat, will be given the status of

sanctuaries for the release of captive bred

gharials.

This paper will not be complete without

details of techniques adopted in each operation

involved in the rearing of gharial. The different

operations are (i) location of nests (ii) Incu-

bation of eggs (iii) Transfer of eggs to cen-

tres (iv) Hatching (v) Rearing enclosures

(vi) Feeding and (vii) Protection against win-

ter and diseases etc.

Location of nests : Gharials have been found

to be regular nesters and the nesting season

does not vary by more than 10 days in any

year. Determination of the nesting season in

a particular region is vital for nest location.

It was interesting to note the nesting by all

the 12 females spread over a stretch of nearly

200 kilometres of Chambal which occurred

within a period of 7 days. Pre-nesting behavi-

ous consists of excavation of trial nests by the

females which they start about a month before

the actual nesting. The excavation of these trial

nests gives vital clues to the location of actual

nests. Each female gharial may excavate about

a dozen trial nests before laying her eggs in

one of these. The location of each trial nest

is marked by fixing a peg about 3 metres away

from the trial nest in parpendicular direction

from the waters edge. This ensures the location

of all possible nests. After all nesting activity

ceases each trial nest is excavated carefully to

check the presence of eggs. If the nest is still

679

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 75

not located, the entire nesting area is systema-

tically probed with a 4 mm thick steel road to a

depth of about 45 cm. This usually results in

the puncturing of a few eggs with the location

of every nest but an experienced prober can

bring the incidence down to a minimum.

Incubation : Ghari-als exhibit wonderful nest-

ing habits. Nesting sites are normally so chosen

as to give very high incubation success. The

incubation medium has the dual quality of

allowing good permeability of air as well as

proper humidity to meet the moisture require-

ments of the developing embryos.

This is achieved as a result of balance be-

tween the grain size of the sand and its mois-

ture content which varies between 4% to 7%

by weight. Furthermore, the eggs are laid at

a depth where steady conditions are maintain-

ed for the developing embryos. The tempera-

ture does not vary much throughout the day

neither does the humidity change with the

occurrence of rainfall during the incubation

months. The range of incubation temperature

varies between 25 degrees C (minimum) and

37 degree (maximum) but the range of opti-

mum incubation temperature is considered to

lie between 32 degree and 34 degree, which

reduces the incubation time and gives better

hatching success. In order to reduce the pos-

sibilities of mal-effects on embryos from hu-

man interference it is most advisable to allow

the eggs to remain in the nest for at least 40

days so that partial incubation is achieved and

the embryos are not damaged during transport

or movement. In no case should the eggs be

interfered with within 15 days of their being

laid. Some times on account of various reasons

females lay eggs in conspicuously bad nesting

medium. Such mediums are (i) over moist

sand in places susceptible to inundation by

the river water (ii) too dry sand (iii) sand

grains of too large a size and (iv) sand with

high humus content. In such conditions, eggs

should be transferred to better locations close

by so that the clutch may be saved from de-

composition.

A thumb rule for the testing of proper humi-

dity and permeability of the incubation me-

dium is to compress the sand in the hand. The

sand should be cohesive enough to form a

ball which when pressed lightly with a finger

should crumble again.

Transfer of eggs : As indicated in the pre-

vious para, the eggs are transferred after in-

cubation has been completed partially. The

transfer to the incubation and rearing centres

is done in boxes made of wooden planks (about

40 days after they are laid). The boxes

are filled with sand from the nesting area as

they provide an ideal medium not only for

transport but also for incubation.

The boxes should be sturdy and there should

be fine slits or holes to allow for the passage

of air into the transportation boxes. Several

layers of eggs may be transported in one box

which should not exceed the size 60 x 45 x 45

cm. Even smaller boxes are preferable.

When the nest is opened for the transfer of

eggs, each egg is marked at its highest portion

with indelible ink. During removal of the eggs

care is taken to retain the original orientation

of the eggs as found in the nest. An egg found

in horizontal position is removed in the same

position and is kept in the box also in the

same position. Similarly an upright egg is kept

upright without rotation on its axis. The aggs

are transferred to the transportation box and

kept so that the lowest layer of eggs is sepa-

rated from the bottom as well as from all the

sides of the box by a layer of sand 4 to 6 cm

thick. The eggs should be separated from each

other also by at least 1.5 cm. The eggs are then

transferred as quickly as possible to the incu-

bation centre by the fastest transport available.

680

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN U.P.

The importance of avoiding bumps and jerks

cannot be over emphasized. Care should also

be taken to eliminate chances of the egg boxes

overheating.

At the centre the eggs are transferred into

incubation cells built of half bricks such that

there are sufficient gaps between the bricks to

allow free passage of air. The recommended

dimensions of the brick cell are 70 cm cube.

The eggs are removed from the boxes and

kept in these cells with same precaution as

were observed in their transfer from the nest

to the box, in single layers after artificial in-

cubating medium has been prepared by mixing

together sand with the requisite amount of

water. Humidity is controlled until hatching

by keeping the bricks wet and by spraying

water with an atomizer on the top of the

incubation medium.

Hatching : The completion of the incuba-

tion is heralded by the croaking of the em-

bryos, signalling their readiness to hatch. After

initial croaking is noticed, a time period of 24

to 36 hours should be allowed to lapse before

sand is removed from the incubation cells. By

this time almost the entire clutch would have

started croaking. The hatchlings emerge al-

most immediately on dehumification and sever

their umbilical cord which attaches the egg

shell to them, a shortwhile after. When this

occurs the egg shell should be removed from

the incubation box for purposes of sanitation

and hygiene. After a period of about 48 hours

the hatchlings are ready for release into the

rearing pools.

Rearing enclosures : These are constructed

in sets of 10 hatchling ponds, five on either

side a central passage. The enclosure contain-

ing these ponds has a wall 1 foot high on all

four sides and is completely covered by chi-

cken meshwire of \ inch mesh size. Internal

dimension of each pond is 2 metres square.

Half of the area has a depth of 45 cm while

the other half slopes to zero. Each pond has

a 25 cm wide apron on all sides. A space of

80 cm is provided all around the pond in each

pond enclosure for the hatchlings to move

about and for planting palms, which provide

adequate shelter and hiding places for the

young.

Yearling ponds are built in sets of 4 ponds,

two on either side of a central passage. The

enclosure is covered with mesh wire as in the

case of hatchling pond enclosures. The size

of each pond is 4 metre square and depth one

metre, which can ideally accommodate 25

yearlings. The ponds are separated from each

other with insect proof mesh supported by

sawn timber scantlings and railings. A space

of 2 metres is provided between the pond and

the partition on all sides.

During the construction of the ponds, ar-

rangements are made by laying under ground

pipes with control manholes, both to fill water

to the ponds and also to drain them out. Ade-

quate number of palms, Salix spp and other

suitable shade plants are put in around each

pond to provide shade, shelter and hiding

space, climbers like Antigonum sp. are plant-

ed around the enclosures which spread out

on all the four sides and also on the mesh

wire roof and provide a mosaic of shade and

sunlight. This is necessary to keep the water

in the ponds cool and temperatures below 30

degree C. This climber should be either a spe-

cies that sheds its leaves during the winter or

should be cut back during the winter to allow

the maximum amount of sunlight.

Feeding : Considerable yolk matter is rapid-

ly absorbed through the umbilical cord of the

hatchling into its stomach just before hatch-

ing. The yolk further maintains the hatchling

for a period after its birth. Gradually nutri-

tion from the yolk matter is supplemented

681

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

with that obtained from feeding. Proper feed-

ing begins after a period of 15-20 days. Hat-

chlings register a gain in weight after this

period but they begin to grow in length

noticeably even before.

For feeding hatchling ponds should be ide-

ally stocked with live fingerlings and small

fishes between 2.5 mm to 5 mm in length.

Each pond which ideally contains 10 hatchl-

ings, should be stocked with atleast 400-500

such fishes to facilitate easy capture of prey

by the hatchlings. Rate of feeding increases

with the growth of the hatchlings but intially

five fishes per hatchling have to be added daily

to the ponds to replace those consumed. As

it may not be possible to meet the increasing

requirements of the live fish, after a critical

2 months post hatching period during which

they are delicate in health, feeding should be

gradually changed over to dead fish. Dead

fishes may be accepted by the hatchlings right

from the start but the growth is never as good

as when fed on live fish. Decomposing remains

of dead fishes also lead to undesirable hygenic

conditions. Non-spiny fishes like Chela and

Puntius are most favoured by the hatchlings.

The preferred fishes are: — (i) Puntius ticto

(Putia), (ii) Chanda ranga (Chanda), (iii)

Rasohora daniconius, (iv) Colisa fasciata, (v)

C henna punctatus (Girai), (vi) Chenna stria-

tus (Saur), (vii) Laheo bata (Bata).

Other fishes which were locally available in

Kukrail river and were given to the hatchlings

are:

(i) My st us my st us (Tengra)

(ii) Labeo rohita (Rohu)

(iii) Labeo calbasu (Kalabose)

(iv) Heteropneustes fossilis (Singhi)

(v) Clarias batrachus (Mangur)

(vi) Amphipnous cuchia (Bam)

Hygiene :

As gharial hatchlings defecate in the water

the ponds soon become dirty and have to be

scrubbed out every third day to maintain

good hygiene in the enclosures. The land sur-

rouding the ponds and the passage ways arc

also swept out daily. As an efficient and ade-

quate supply of running water is necessary,

both the centres have their own arrangements

with tube well and pumping sets. Terrapins

( Kaehuga tectum) are also kept and main-

tained in the ponds as they are useful scavan-

gers.

Winter Protection : In North India winter

temperatures fall as low as 4°C. In the restrict-

ed environment of the rearing ponds tempe-

ratures fall sharply during the night. Extreme

cold not only arrests feeding and growth but

may also lead to disease and mortalities. Fre-

quent change of water in the ponds with warm

tube well water (temp. 20°C) and covering

the enclosures have been found effective in

maintaining the pond temperature within a

tolerable range of 15°C to 20°C. As maxi-

mum amount of sunlight is required for bask-

ing during the day, thick transparent polythene

is fitted on wooden frames to cover the roof

permanently during the period mid-November

to mid-February. Heavy overlapping tarpaulin

curtains hung on the sides which are rolled up

during the day protect the enclosures from cold

winds during the night.

Electric room heaters hung about 75 cm

above the ponds provide supplementary heat-

ing. At least one heater (1000 Watts) per pond

is required before these are effective in a large

enclosure. Care is however taken to prevent

possible overheating and temperature is not

allowed to go above 20°C.

Diseases, their prevention and cure :

Most common and dangerous is the mouth

682

STATUS OF GHARIAL IN UP.

chancre which has been found to be extremely

infectious within a particular strain. The sym-

ptoms are rotting of the gums and falling of

teeth. Patches on the snout become discoloured

brown and the animals slowly grow weak due

to their inability to feed properly. Diseased

animals should be isolated. All articles leaving

or entering the pond as well as hands and

feet of all concerned staff are disinfected by

dipping in 10% solution of potassium per-

manganate. The importance of strict isolation

of diseased animals cannot be over emphasiz-

ed. The treatment of this disease consists of

scraping away the diseased parts with a steri-

lised knife or scalpel and then swabbring over

with 5% solution of Acroflavin. This is done

daily until the symptoms disappear. Another

ailment is the protrusion of the cloaca which

leads to possible difficulty in defecation.

Causes or the treatment of this malady is not

known but the protrusion may be swabbed

over by Acroflavin solution in order to pre-

vent infection of the exposed internal organ.

In a few cases intestinal cysts have also result-

ed in mortality.

Not much information is available about

other diseases and their treatment. Intensive

study is required in this direction.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I am most grateful of Sri D. Basu, Surveyor

and the staff of the Crocodile Rehabilitation

Project (U.P.) who carried out the status sur-

vey, who located breeding populations, collected

eggs and brought them to the Centres. But

for their hard work and devotion to the suc-

cess of the Project, we could not have made

any progress in the implementation of this

Project. I am particularly thankful to Basu

for assisting and providing field data for this

paper.

683

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

A. N. Henry, K. Vivekananthan and N. C. Nair1

A catalogue of 224 species of flowering plants presumably in danger of extinction in

South India is given, based on the information from the distribution of species avail-

able in MH and relevant literature. It is hoped that the list, which provides the

essential preliminary to any Nature Conservation programme in South India, will be

used by the Conservationists to select suitable biotic communities for the preservation

of flora and fauna.

The establishment of various international bo-

dies, like International Union for Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources, have initiat-

ed programmes for rational and prudent ap-

proach to the exploitation of natural resources

and conservation of biotic communities by

considering the status of rare and threatened

species of plants and animals and their habi-

tats. Tinker (1971) reports that “twenty thou-

sand plant species — in danger of extinction.

The essential preliminary to any conservation

programme is a precise catalogue of what

these species are, but so far only 68 are listed

in IUCN’s Red Data Book.”

About 14,000 species of wild flowering

plants have been reported in India, and the

great mountain chains of Himalayas, Western

Ghats, Vindhya and Satpura ranges. East-

ern Ghats, Khasi and Mizo Hills harbour

about 90% of them. Due to indiscriminate en-

croachment of forest areas for agriculture,

plantation crops and hydro-electric projects,

the “refugia” for the wild species have been

disturbed, and these no doubt pose a threat

to the very existence of the comparatively

1 Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore-641 002.

rare/endemic local plants which illustrate de-

finite evolutionary processes and potentialities.

As correctly pointed out by Subramanyam &

Nayar (1971) “there is no alternative to na-

tural habitats in the propagation of rare

plants, though botanic gardens and seed banks

are the only temporary answers to the solu-

tion of Conservation”.

In the Enumeration, 224 wild species of

flowering plants presumably in danger of ex-

tinction in South India are listed, based on the

information for the distribution of species

available in MH and relevant literature. For

each species the type locality including the

maximum known range of distribution and

habitats (if available) is given, followed by

remarks, if any, on its probable present status.

For easy reference, the species are grouped

under their respective families following the

classification of Bentham and Hooker, with

present day delimitation of certain families.

The list is by no means complete, and further

additions will be published in subsequent

series. It is our sincere hope that the list,

which provides the essential preliminary to

any Nature Conservation programme in South

India, will be used by the Conservationists to

select suitable biotic communities for the pre-

servation of flora and fauna.

684

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

ENUMERATION

Annonaceae

Desmos viridiflorus (Bedd.) Safford

Unona viridiflora Bedd.

Banks of Sholayar river, Anamalais, Coim-

batore Dt., Tamil Nadu; Udumanparai,

Anamalais.

Scarce.

Polyaltfoia rufescens Hook. f. & Thoms.

Cochin in Ernakulam Dt., Kerala; Travan-

core; Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu.

Scarce.

Popowia foeddoineana Hook. f. & Thoms.

Southern Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu and

Southern Travancore, in evergreen forests;

Attraymallay in Trivandrum Dt., Kerala.

Scarce.

Located in the evergreen forests of Agastya-

malai in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu in

1963.

VlOLACEAE

Hybanthus travancorices (Bedd.) Melch.

lonidium travancoricum Bedd.

Hills of Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu and Tra-

vancore.

Located along streams in Agastyamalai in

Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu in 1963.

Hypericaceae

Hypericum japonicum Thunb. var. major

Fyson

Nilgiris on western downs, Tamil Nadu.

Rare. No specimens in MH.

Guttiferae

Garcinia imberti Bourd.

Southern Travancore — in evergreen forests.

No specimens in MH.

Dipterocarpaceae

Valeria macrocarpa B. L. Gupta

Muthukulam, Bolampatty range, Coimba-

tore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Malvaceae

Decaschistia rufa Craib

Tiruvallur and Kambakkam hills in Ching-

leput Dt., Tamil Nadu and from the ‘Penin-

sula’ (without precise locality).

No specimens in MH.

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd.

Muthukuzhivayal, Kanyakumari Dt., Tamil

Nadu; Chimunji, S. Travancore.

Scarce and little known.

Located in the type locality in evergreen

forests in 1976-1977.

Balsam in aceae

Impatiens aliciae C. E. C. Fischer

Travancore; Munnar — Neriamangalam ghat

road, Idikki Dt., Kerala — along streams.

No specimens in MH.

I. anaimudica C. E. C. Fischer

Anaimudi, Idikki Dt., Kerala — in dense un-

dergrowth in sholas.

No specimens in MH.

L cocliinica Hook. f.

Kavalay, Cochin, Ernakulam Dt., Kerala —

near streams.

No specimens in MH.

I. coelotropis C. E. C. Fischer

Naimakad gap & Anaimudi slopes. High

range, Idikki Dt., Kerala — in sholas and

evergreen forests.

Located in the type locality during 1965.

685

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

I. concinna Hook. f.

W. Ghats in Malabar, Kerala (precise loca-

lity not known).

No specimens in MH.

I. dcndricola C. E. C. Fischer

Thandiadamolu, Coorg, Karnataka.

No specimens in MH.

I. johnii Barnes

Kalaar Valley, High Range, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala— in dense evergreen forest.

No specimens in MH.

I. laticornis C. E. C. Fischer

Kundahs, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu — on wet

rocks in deep shade.

Not located since the type collection.

I. macrocarpa Hook. f.

Devicolam in Idikki Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

I. niunnarensis Barnes

Near Munnar, High Range, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala — in streams and marshy places.

No specimens in MH.

I. nataliae Hook. f.

Kumsi in Shimoga in N.W. Mysore, Kar-

nataka.

No specimens in MH.

I. neo-barnesii C. E. C. Fischer

Kundahs, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu — on trunks

& branches of trees exposed to much rain

and mist from Malabar.

Located in Nilgiri Peak R.F., Kundahs,

during 1970.

I. nilgirica C. E. C. Fischer

Kundahs, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu — among

grass and on rocks.

Not located since the type collection.

I. pallidiflora Hook. f.

Devicolam in Idikki Dt., Kerala — among

grass on hill tops.

Located from Periakanal and Santanpara

areas in Devicolam, Idikki Dt., Kerala by

E. Barnes during 1931-37.

No specimens in MH.

I. pandata Barnes ‘

Anaimudi slopes, Idikki Dt., Kerala — on

wet rocks in tufts of moss and on cliffs at

high elevation; Karankulam, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala.

Located in the type locality during 1967.

I. platyadena C. E. C. Fischer

Anaimudi, Idikki Dt., Kerala; Naimakad

gap & Kadaiaar, High Range, Idikki Dt,

Kerala — in evergreen forest and wet sholas.

No specimens in MH.

I. rivulicola Hook. f.

Puriar Valley, Travancore — along the bor-

ders of streams.

Located in and near Munnar, Lockhart gap,

Periakanal in Idikki Dt., Kerala along

streams and rocky slopes by E. Barnes dur-

ing 1931-37.

No specimens in MH.

I. stocksii Hook. f.

Thandiandamolu, Coorg, Karnataka.

No specimens in MH.

I. verecunda Hook. f.

Periakanal and Devicolam, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala — on steep mossy embankments under

trees.

No specimens in MH.

Burseraceae

Boswellia ovalifoliolata Balak. & Henry

Tirupathi Hills, Chittor Dt., & Nallamalai,

Kurnool Dt., Andhra Pradesh.

Meliaceae

Aglaia canarensis Gamble

W. Ghats of S. Kanara, Karnataka.

Not located since the type collection.

A. maiae Bourd.

Ariyaukam and Colatoorpolay in Travan-

core,— in evergreen forests.

No specimens in MH.

686

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex gardeerlaiia Wt.

Sispara Ghat in Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

Scarce. No specimens in MH.

Celastraceae

Microtropis densiflora Wt.

Below Sispara at Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu — in

dense jungles.

Scarce. Located in Pykara, Nilgiris during

1971.

Hippocrateaceae

Loeseeeriella bourdillonfi (Gamble) Raju

Hippocratea hourdiUonii Gamble

Colatoorpolay, Travancore — in evergreen

forests.

No specimens in MH.

Salacia becMomei Gamble

Anamalai hills of Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu; Wynaad.

Not located since the type collection.

S. malabarica Gamble

S. Kanara, Karnataka and Travancore — in

plains and in moist forests.

Not located since the type collection.

Khamnaceae

Ventilago goughii Gamble

Coorg, and Coonoor ghat, Nilgiri Dt., Tamil

Nadu; Segur ghat, Nilgiris.

Located in Kunjapanai, Nilgiris and Thiru-

karungudi in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu

during 1972.

Anacardiaceae

Buchanania barbed Gamble

Nadarai in Travancore.

Not located since the type collection.

ill

Notiiopegia aureo-foSva Bedd. ex Hook. f.

Hills above Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

CONNARACEAE

Ellipantiius neglectus Gamble

Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu and Colatoorpo-

lay, Travancore — in evergreen forests.

Not located since the type collection.

Papilionaceae

Indigofera constricta (Thw.) Trimen

Ceylon; Kavalay, Cochin, Ernakulam Dt.,

Kerala, Nikund ghat, N. Kanara, Karnataka.

Rare. Located in Ranni R. F., Quilon Dt.,

Kerala during 1976.

Rhynchosia jacobil Chandr. & Shctty

Thulukkanparai — eastern slope of Mahendra-

giri hills, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Smltlila veiikobarowli Gamble

Peermade, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Caesalpiniaceae

Cynometra mlmosoides Wall.

W. Ghats in S. Travancore; Cannanore.

Apparently very scarce.

Hranboldtla laorifolia Vahl

Ceylon & W. Ghats in Malabar.

Apparently very scarce.

One collection (without locality) available

in MH collected during 1873.

Mimosaceae

Acacia hoSiesiackeri Craib

Kundah range, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

Located in Bimka Shola, Nilgiris, Tamil

Nadu in 1970.

687

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

A. wightii Baker

Travancore, and Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu —

on the sea coast.

No specimens in MH.

Myrtaceae

Eugenia discifera Gamble

Near Chimunji, Travancore — in evergreen

forests.

No specimens in MH.

Jambosa beddoniei (Duthie) Gamble

Trichnangudi, Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

J. hourdillonii Gamble

Merchiston, Ponmudi hill, Trivandrum Dt.

— in evergreen forests.

Not located since the type collection.

J. courtallensis Gamble

Courtallum, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu &

Ceylon.

No specimens in MH.

Meteoromyrtus wynaadensis (Bedd.) Gamble

Devala (Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu) South East

Wynaad.

No specimens in MH.

Syzygium benihamianum (Wt. ex Duthie)

Gamble

Sispara in Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

S. paighatense Gamble

Palghat hills, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

S. travancoricum Gamble

Low Country of Travancore — in swampy

places.

Not located since type collection.

Melastomataceae

Kendrickia waSkeri Hook. f.

Anamalai hills, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu. Ceylon.

Reported from Peninsular India based on

a single collection from Anamalai.

688

No specimens (from South India) in MH.

Meniecylon flavescens Gamble

Avalanche and Sispara, Kundahs, Nilgiris,

Tamil Nadu — in evergreen shola forests.

Located in shola forests in the type locality

in 1972.

M. lawsoni Gamble

South East Wynaad; Devala, Nilgiris, Tamil

Nadu.

Collections from the type locality, available

in MH.

M. madgolense Gamble

Madgol hills of Visakhapatnam Dt., Andhra

Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

M. sisparense Gamble

Sispara ghat, Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

Collection from the type locality available

in MH.

Sonerila barnesii C. E. C. Fischer

Nadugani, Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

S. nemakadensis C. E. C. Fischer

Naimakad gap. High range, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

S. pulneyensis Gamble

Pambar ravine, Pulney hills, Madurai Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

Subsequent collection from the type locality

made during 1901 available in MH.

S. wynaadensis Nayar

Wynaad, Kerala.

Not located since the type collection.

Lythraceae

Lagerstroemia rottleri Clarke

Deccan (exact locality not known).

Little known tree. No specimens in MH.

L. thomsonii Koehne

Mysore and Carnatic; probably W. Ghats.

Apparently very rare. No specimens in MH.

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

CUCURBITACEAE

Luff a umbellata (Klein) Roem.

Travancore, Kerala; Coromandel — (precise

locality not known).

Scarce. A single collection without precise

locality is available in MH.

Umbelliferae

Peucedanum anamallayense Clarke

Anamalai hills, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Pimpinellla pulneyensis Gamble

Near shola, Kodaikanal, Madurai Dt.,

Tamil Nadu — in damp and cool places near

sholas.

Not located since the type collections.

P. tirupatiensis Balak. & Subr.

Japalathirtha, Tirupati hills, Chittoor Dt.,

Andhra Pradesh.

Subsequently collected from the type loca-

lity during 1974.

Arauaceae

Schefflera bourdillonii Gamble

Near Chimunji, Travancore, Kerala — in

evergreen forests.

No specimens in MH.

Rubiaceae

Coffea crassifolia Gamble

Ayerpadi, Anamalais, Coimbatore Dt.,

Tamil Nadu & Peermade, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala.

Not located since the type collection.

Hedyotis anamalayana (Gamble) Rolla Rao

& Hemadri

Oldenlandia anamalayana Gamble

Anamalai hills in high ranges, Coimbatore

Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

H. barberi (Gamble) Henry & Subr.

Oldenlandia barberi Gamble

Agastyamalai peak, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu — in rocky places.

Located in the type locality in 1964.

H. beddomei Hook. f.

Oldenlandia beddomei (Hook, f.) O. Ktze.

Palghat hills, Kerala — in open grassy places.

Collection from the type locality available

in MH.

H. bourdillonii (Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hem-

adri

Oldenlandia bourdillonii Gamble

Travancore — in scrub forests.

No specimens in MH.

H. gamblei Henry & Subr.

Manjanamparai, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

H. ramarowii (Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hem-

adri

Oldenlandia ramarowii Gamble

Ponmudi, Trivandrum Dt., Kerala; Chi-

munji, Travancore; Kalakad, Tirunelveli

Dt., Tamil Nadu.

H. santapaui Shetty & Vivek.

Umaiyamalai, Anaimudi slopes, Devicolam,

Idikki Dt., Kerala and Anamalais, Coimba-

tore Dt., Tamil Nadu; subsequently collect-

ed from the type locality.

H. shuteri (Hook, f.) Rolla Rao & Hemadri

Oldenlandia shuteri Hook. f.

Near Madras — east coast, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

H. stocksii (Hook. f. & Thoms.) Rolla Rao

& Hemadri

Oldenlandia stocksii Hook. f. & Thoms.

Bababudan hills of Mysore (Malabar), Kar-

nataka— Growing among grass.

Not located since the type collection.

H. travancorica Bedd.

Oldenlandia travancorica (Bedd.) O. Ktze.

Hills of Travancore, and Tirunelveli, Tamil

689

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Nadu — in humus soil; Trivandrum, Kerala.

Located in Agastyamalai, Tirunelveli Dt,

Tamil Nadu during 1963 & 1964.

H. villostipulata (Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hem-

ad ri

Oldenlandia villostipulata Gamble

Muthukuzhivayal, Ranyakumari Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Not located since the type collections.

H. wynaadeissis (Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hem-

adri

Oldenlandia wynaadensis Gamble

Chambra peak forests, Wynaad, Kerala.

Not located since the type collections.

Ixora jolmsonl Hook. f.

Near Wenna Mala in Cochin. Ernakulam

Dt., Kerala; Travancore, Kerala.

Apparently scarce. No specimens in MH.

I. lawsoni Gamble

Mananthody, Cannanore Dt., Kerala &

Coorg, Karnataka.

Not located since the type collection.

I. mondcola Gamble

High Wavy mountain near Cumbum, Madu-

rai Dt., Tamil Nadu — in clayey soil.

Located from Sultan’s Battery, Calicut Dt.

and Karapara river side in Palghat Dt., Ke-

rala during 1969 & 1975 respectively.

I. saulierei Gamble

Pulney hills, Madurai Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

Keoxia linearis Gamble

Mahendragiri hills, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

Morinda reticulata Gamble

Murchison and Kulathurpolay, Travancore,

Kerala — in evergreen forest.

Not located since the type collection.

Opliiorrhiza barnesii C.E.C. Fischer

Kalaar Valley, High Range, Idikki Dt., Ke-

rala.

No specimens in MH.

O. caudata C.E.C. Fischer

Kalaar, High Range, Idikki Dt., Kerala — in

evergreen forests.

No specimens in MH.

O. isicarnata C.E.C. Fischer

Near Nadgani, Nilgiri Dt., Tamil Nadu (Wy-

naad)— in Pandanus swamp.

No specimens in MH.

O. munnareiisis C.E.C. Fischer

Munnar ghat road. High Range, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

O. pykarensis Gamble

Pykara falls, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

Plectronia pergraciSis (Bourd.) Gamble

Colatoorpolay, Travancore, — in evergreen

forests.

Not located since the type collection.

Psydiotria barberi Gamble

Udubanparai, Anamalai Hills, Coimbatore

Dt, Tamil Nadu & Pisga Camp, near Mun-

nar, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

Not located since the type collection.

P» globkephala Gamble

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

Compositae

Auaphalis barnesii C.E.C. Fischer

High Ranges, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Centraiitherum mayurii C.E.C. Fischer

Kemmangundi hills, Mysore, Karnataka.

No specimens in MH.

Melichrysum perlasilgerum Gamble

Anamalai hills, at higher elevations, Coimba-

tore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collections.

Vernonia analmeetiea Shetty & Vivek.

Rajamallay, — Anaimudi slopes, Devicolam,

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

Idikki Dt., Kerala.

V. anamallica Bedd. ex Gamble

Anamalai higher ranges, Coimbatore Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

Located from Pettimudi, Devicolam, Idikki

Dt., Kerala during 1965 & 1970.

Y. gossypiiaa Gamble

Between Naterik'al and Sengaltheri, Tirunel-

veli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Located from Singampatti, Tirunelveli Dt,,

in 1958.

V, heynil Bedd. ex Gamble

Travancore hills in Kerala.

Located from Mahendragiri hills, Kanya-

kumari Dt., Tamil Nadu in 1969.

Y« snembraraacea Bedd. ex S. Moore

Sispara, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu & Attraima-

lais, Trivandrum Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

V. multibracteata Gamble

Peermade, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Yc pelneyeusis Gamble

Banks of Pambar river at Kodaikanal, Ma-

durai Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

V. recorva Bedd. ex S. Moore

Anamalais, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

V. shevaroyesisis Gamble

Shevaroy hills, Salem Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Located in the type locality in 1966.

Seneclo kundaicus C.E.C. Fischer

Kundahs, Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

S. mayaril C.E.C. Fischer

Kemmangandi hills, Mysore, Karnataka.

No specimens in MH.

Yoesigia nilgiriensls Babcock

Sispara, Nilgiri Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Symplocaceae

Syeiplocos casidolleana Brand

Anamalais, Coimbatore Dt, Tamil Nadu;

Coorg, Karnataka.

Very little known. No specimens in MH.

Oleaceae

lasmisioEii wightii Clarke

Boluvampatty, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Asclepiadaceae

Brachystelma boerneae Gamble

Pulney hills, Madurai Dt., Tamil Nadu —

at low levels in eastern slopes.

No specimens in MH.

Re brevitufoislatum (Bedd.) Gamble

Vellore, North Arcot Dt., Tamil Nadu — dry

rocky hills.

No specimens in MH.

B, glabram Hook. f.

Hills of Cuddapah, Andhra Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

rangacharii Gamble

Hassanur, Mysore, Karnataka.

Not located since the type collection.

B. voSobile Hook. f.

Cuddapah hills, Andhra Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

Caffalliiina diffusa (Wt.) N.E. Br.

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu — arid rocky hills.

No specimens in MH.

C. mlagiriana Kumari & Subba Rao

Anaikatty to Ebanad, Nilgiri Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Ceropegia beddomei Hook. f.

Peermade, Idikki Dt., Cochin, Ernakulam

Dt., Kerala.

Located from Pachakkanam in Idikki Dt.,

during 1975.

691

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

C. brevicollis Hook. f.

Anamalai hills, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Marsdenia tirunelvelica Henry & Subr.

Agastyamalai hills, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Oianthus beddomei Hook. f.

Beigoor forests, Mysore, Karnataka &

(Wynaad).

No specimens in MH.

Streptocaulon kleinii Wt. & Arn.

Deccan Peninsula (exact locality not known).

No specimens in MH.

Toxocarpus beddomei Gamble

Attraimalai hills, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Not located since the type collections.

Tylophora zeylanica Decne.

Ceylon; Travancore.

No specimens in MH.

Boraginaceae

Cordia diffusa Jacob

Nanjundapuram, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu; in and around Coimbatore town.

Tournefortia wightii Clarke

Deccan Peninsula (exact locality not known),

probably Anamalai hills, Coimbatore Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia arakuensis Balak.

Araku Valley, Visakhapatnam Dt., Andhra

Pradesh — near a stream.

Gesneriaceae

Didymocarpus lyrata Wt.

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Hills, Tamil Nadu,

— in moist shady places.

No specimens in MH.

D. macrostachya Barnes

Ottaparai Ridge, High Range, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

D. wightii Gamble

Sivagiri Hills in Tirunelveli Dt.; Anamalai

Hills, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Apparently very rare. No specimens in MH.

Orobanchaceae

Christisonia saulierei Dunn

Kodaikanal, Madurai Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

SCROP H U LARI ACE AE

Adenosma malabaricum Hook. f.

Malabar, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Acanthaceae

Adhatoda beddomei Clarke

S. Travancore.

Located from Sengumal Estate (Near Pana-

gudi), Kanyakumari Dt., Tamil Nadu in

1972.

Andrographis beddomei Clarke

Nallamalais, Kurnool District; Lankamalai

hills, Cuddapah Dt., Andhra Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

A. nallamalayana Ellis

Ahobilam, Nallamalais, Kurnool Dt., An-

dhra Pradesh.

Subsequently collected in and around the

type locality.

Dicliptera beddomei Clarke

Nallamalais, Kurnool Dt., Andhra Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

Nilgirianthus circarensis (Gamble) Brem.

Strobilanthes circarensis Gamble

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

Hills of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

RostelSuSaria simplex Wt.

Justicia notha Clarke

“Station not known”; subsequently collect-

ed along exposed dry grassy slopes, Kuthi-

raivetti, Singampatti, R.F., Tirunelveli Dt.,

Tamil Nadu in 1963.

Santapaua madurensis Balak. & Subr.

Nallakulam, Alagar hills, Madurai Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

Stenosiphomum diandrum Wt.

Courtallam in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

S. setosum T. And.

Mysore or Carnatic.

No specimens in MH.

Strobilanthes dupeni Bedd. ex Clarke

Top of Nelliampathy Ghat, Palghat Dt.,

Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Verbenaceae

Premna glaberrima Wt.

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu;

Coorg, Karnataka.

Located in Mukkali Forest (Red gravelly

soil) in Palghat Dt., Kerala in 1966.

P. paucinervis (Clarke) Gamble

Anamalais, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

A very little known species.

No specimens in MH.

P. procumbens Moon

Ceylon, Mundanthorai in Papanasam R. F.

of Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Labiatae

Acrocephalus palniensis Muker.

Upper Pulneys, Madurai Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Dysophylla rugosa Hook. f.

Tirunelveli Hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Leucas mukerjiana Subba Rao & Kumari

Cherukonda, Visakhapatnam Dt., Andhra

Pradesh; subsequently collected from the

type locality and Galikonda (Araku Valley

side) in Visakhapatnam Dt.

Plectranthus bourneae Gamble

Pulney Hills (near Kodaikanal), Madurai

Dt. and near Coonoor, Nilgiri Hills, Tamil

Nadu — along streams especially in rocky

places.

No specimens in MH.

P. fruticosus Hook. f.

Pulney hills, Madurai Dt., Nilgiris, and Ana-

malais, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil Nadu —

along banks of lakes and streams.

No collections in MH.

P. lushopianus Gamble

Pulney hills at Kodaikanal, Mudurai Dt.,

Tamil Nadu — in shola forests.

No specimens in MH.

P. rivularis Wt. ex Hook. f.

Sispara in Nilgiris, and Anamalai Hills,

Coimbatore Dt., Tamil Nadu — in wet

places; Atraimalai Hills, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

P. suhincisus Benth.

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt., Dindigul,

Madurai Dt., and Ceylon. Scarce.

No specimens in MH.

Pogostemon nilagiricus Gamble

Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu — outskirts of woods

and in neglected broken ground.

No specimens in MH.

P. rofundatus Benth.

Deccan Peninsula (exact locality not

known); Anamalais in Coimbatore Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

PODOSTEMACEAE

Hydrobryuni johnsonii (Wt.) Willis

Malabar — in mountain streams.

No specimens in MH.

Aristolochiaceae

Apama barbed Gamble

Kannikatti, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Located in evergreen forests of Agastya-

malai, Tirunelveli Dt., during 1963.

PlPERACEAE

Piper barbed Gamble

Kannikatti, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

A little known species. Located in the ever-

green forests of Agastyamalai in Tirunel-

veli Dt., and Kilaviarumalai, Balamore in

Kanyakumari Dt., Tamil Nadu during

1963 & 1976.

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum gracile Hook. f.

Tirunelveli Hills and Anamalai hills, Coim-

batore Dt., Tamil Nadu; Travancore.

Located in Agastyamalai, Tirunelveli Dt.,

Tamil Nadu in 1963.

C. ripadum Gamble

Banks of Periyar river near Malayattur,

Ernakulam Dt., foot of Coorg ghats, Karna-

taka, and Udubanparai, Anamalai in Coim-

batore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collections.

C. travancoricom Gamble

Chimunji, Travancore (Kerala) in evergreen

forests.

Not located since the type collection.

Litsea mysorensis Gamble

Bisli ghat and Aglatti, Karnataka; Wynaad

in Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Euphorbiaceae

Aporusa fesiformis Thw.

Ceylon; Travancore hills.

Rather less so in Madras. Recently collected

from Anaimudi, Idikki Dt., Kerala in 1966.

Euphorbia santapaui Henry

Agastyamalai hills, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Macaranga Hexeosa Wt.

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Phyllanthus narayanaswami Gamble

Rampa Hills, Godavari, Andhra Pradesh.

Located in Cherukonda, Visakhapatnam

Dt., Andhra Pradesh in 1966.

Reidia beddomel Gamble

Chokampatti hills, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu, and hills of Travancore.

No specimens in MH.

R. gageaua Gamble

South Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, and Cola-

toorpolay, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

R. megacarpa Gamble

Devala, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

R. singampattlana Seb. & Henry

Kakachi, Singampatti R.F., Tirunelveli Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

R. stipulacea Gamble

Anamalai, Coimbatore Dt., along edge of

Pambar stream in thick undergrowth, Pul-

ney hills, Madurai Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Not located since the type collection.

Urticaceae

Debregeasia ceylasiiea Hook. f.

Ceylon; Anamalai Hills of Coimbatore Dt.,

Tamil Nadu; Hills of Travancore, Kerala.

Little known in South India.

Located in Pambanar, Velara-Near Neriya-

mangalam, Idikki Dt., Kerala in 1965.

694

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

Burmanniaceae

Haplothismia exaoeulata Airy Shaw

Parambikulam, Trichur Dt, Kerala (Tra-

vancore — Cochin State).

No specimens in MH.

Orchidaceae

Acampe congesta Lindl.

Malabar, Kerala; Ceylon.

No specimens in MH.

Anoectodillus rotondifolius (Blatter) Balak.

Odontochilus rotundifolius Blatter

High wavy Mountains, Madurai Dt., Tamil

Nadu — in evergreen forests.

No specimens in MH.

Bulfoophyllum mysoresise J. J. Smith

Hills of Mysore, Karnataka.

Apparently scarce.

No specimens in MH.

Chilochista pusilla (Willd.) Schlecht.

Cochin, Ernakulam Dt., Kerala. Nilgiris,

Tamil Nadu; Ceylon.

Located recently in Ponmudi, Trivandrum

Dt., and Peermade in Idikki Dt., Kerala.

Chrysoglossum halfeergii Blatter

High Wavy Mountains, Madurai Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Cirrliopetalum aeetifloriim Hook. f.

Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

Apparently scarce. No specimens in MH.

C. aureum Hook. f.

Wynaad, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

C. elegantuliim (Rolfe.) J. J. Smith

Coorg, Karnataka.

Located in Kudini, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

during 1972.

Coelogyne mossiae Rolfe

Nilgiri hills; Pulney hills, Madurai Dt.,

Tamil Nadu — epiphyte or lithophyte.

Located in Rajamalay, Idikki Dt., Kerala

in 1970.

Bendroblam haemoglossum Thw.

Ceylon; Wynaad.

Rare.

Located in Sultan’s Battery, Calicut Dt., and

Thekkady, Idikki Dt, Kerala during 1964

& 1972 respectively.

Eria pseudodavicaulis Blatter

High Wavy Mountains, Madurai Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Etilophia macrostachya Lindl.

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt., and Nilgiris,

Tamil Nadu; Ceylon.

Habesiaria dcnficulata Reichb. f.

Tamil Nadu in 1974.

ffabenaria denticulata Reichb. f.

Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu.

Very rare.

No specimens in MH.

H. flabellifomiis Summerh.

Anaimudi slopes, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

H. polyodon Hook. f.

H. fimbriata Wt.

Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Liparls biloba Wt.

Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

Located in Kollimund, Kundah range, Nil-

giris during 1972.

Paphiopedilum dniryl (Bedd.) Pfitz.

Kalakad Hills and Agastyamalai in Tiru-

nelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Recently reported to be collected from

Agastyamalai hills.

No specimens in MH.

Peristylus brachyphylhis A. Rich.

Bababudan Hills in Karnataka and Nilgiri

Hills in Tamil Nadu.

Located in grassland from Lakkadi — Kun-

695

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

dahs, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu during 1972.

Proteroceras holttumii Joseph & Vajravelu

Eastern slope of Vellingiri hills, Coimbatore

Dt., Tamil Nadu — epiphyte on moss clad

branchlets of trees of the evergreen shola

forests.

Taeniophyllum scaberulum Hook. f.

Kottayam, Kerala.

Very rare.

No specimens in MH.

Vanda wightii Reichb. f.

Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

Very rare. No specimens in MH.

Vanilla wightiana Lindl.

“Deccan Peninsula” — Travancore, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Zingiber aceae

Amoimim hypoleucum Thw.

Ceylon; Anamalai hills, Coimbatore Dt.,

Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea wightii Hook. f.

Courtallam; hills in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

Located in the evergreen forests of Agast-

yamalai hills in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil

Nadu, during 1963.

Pandanaceae

Pandanus canaranus Warb.

Near Mangalore, Karnataka.

Little is known of this plant.

No collections in MH.

Araceae

Arisaema attenuatum Barnes & C.E.C. Fischer

High ranges near Munnar, Idikki Dt.,

Kerala — in evergreen forests and shady

grassy places.

No specimens in MH.

A. auriculaia Barnes

Nilambur ghat, Malappuram Dt., Wynaad,

Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

A. pel tat um C. E. C. Fischer

Near Munnar, Naimakad, Pallivasal, High

Ranges, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

A. psittiacus Barnes

Chunduvurrai and Mannavan Shola, High

Ranges, Idikki Dt., Kerala.

Specimens from type locality available in

MH.

Theriophonum sivaganganum (Ramam. &

Seb.) Bogner

Esani forest, Sivaganga, Tamil Nadu.

Cyperaceae

Ascopholis gamble! C.E.C. Fischer

Ooty, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Fsmbristylis aggregata C.E.C. Fischer

Anamalai Hills, Coimbatore Dt., Tamil

Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Gramineae

Agrostis schmidii (Hook, f.) Bor

Calamagrostis schmidii Hook. f.

Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Chrysopogon velutinus (Hook, f.) Bor

Andropogon velutinus Hook. f.

Cuddapah, Andhra Pradesh.

No specimens in MH.

Cymbopogon travancoriensis Bor

Courtallam, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

696

RARE AND THREATENED FLOWERING PLANTS OF SOUTH INDIA

Dichanthium pallidum (Hook, f.) Stapf ex

C. E. C. Fischer

Fisch.

Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu.

No specimens in MH.

Dimeria bialata C.E.C. Fischer

Siradi, S. Kanara Dt., Karnataka.

No specimens in MH.

Eragrostis rottleri Stapf

Tranquebar, Tanjore Dt., Tamil Nadu.

Little is known of this grass which has not

been collected for well over 100 years

(Bor).

No specimens in MH.

Heteropogon polystachyos (Roxb.) Schult.

Andropogon polystachyos Roxb.

Deccan (precise locality not known).

A very obscure species.

No specimens in MH.

Isachne decanensis Bor

Ootacamund, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu — in

downs.

No specimens in MH.

I. fischeri Bor

Anaimudi, Idikki Dt., Kerala — along grassy

slopes.

Recently located in the type locality in 1965.

I. meeboldii C.E.C. Fischer

Mysore, Karnataka — apparently grows in

rice fields as a weed.

No specimens in MH.

I. setosa C.E.C. Fischer

Cochin, Ernakulam Dt, Kerala and Tra-

vancore.

Recently located in Lockhert gap, Devico-

lam, Idikki Dt., Kerala during 1963.

Linmopoa meeboldii (C.E.C. Fischer) C. E.

Hubbard

Coelachne meeboldii C.E.C. Fischer

Chalakudi, Trichur Dt., Kerala — in tanks.

No specimens in MH.

Ochlandra beddomei Gamble

Wynaad, Kerala.

No specimens in MH.

Zenkeria sebastinei Henry & Chandr.

Agastyamalai, Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.

References

Subramanyam, K. & Nayar, M. P. (1971): Plant

Taxonomy — its past role and future lines of action

in India. Bull. hot. Surv. India 13 (1 & 2) : 147-

151.

Tinker, J. (1971): New Scientist 50: 408.

697

BILATERAL SYMMETRY IN THE REPRODUCTIVE

STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

T. Antony Davis1 and C. Bhattacharya2

(With twelve figures)

Introduction

The alternate spiral phyllotaxis in palms re-

sults in the emergence of left- and right-hand-

ed crowns (Davis 1971). On account of their

spiral arrangement in the crown, the leaves

have turned asymmetrical bilaterally, the

number of leaflets on one half remaining

greater than that on the other half in most

species (Davis et al. 1971). As clearly demon-

strated by the giant inflorescence of Corypha

umbraculifera, the spadix has to be regarded

as a modified vegetative shoot. Therefore, the

spathes and bracts only represent leaves, and

they are distributed spirally on the peduncle.

As the spikes develop from the axils of spa-

thes/bracts, they also show spiral arrange-

ment. Secondary branches of spikes, where

present, invariably are placed spirally. Flower-

clusters, especially the triads, are distributed

spirally on the spikes, and so, a spike may be

regarded as left-handed or right-handed ac-

cording how the clusters are positioned. The

perianth of both male and female flowers show

bilateral symmetry in their aestivation. Some

of the associations mentioned above were ex-

amined and quantitative data recorded on the

following species:

Areca catechu,

1 Coconut Agronomist, LPTI, P.O. Box 4, Jin.

Siswa Barat 4, Manado, N. Sulawesi, Indonesia.

2 Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta-700 035.

Arenga pinnata,

Calyptrocalyx spicatus,

Caryota mitis,

Caryota urens,

Chrysalidocarpus lutescens,

Cocos nucifera,

Ptychosperma elegans, and

Ptychosperma macarthurii.

The comprehensive problem of levo- and

dextro-rotatory phenomena occurring in na-

ture, especially those manifested by plants and

animals is being investigated at the Indian

Statistical Institute, and the observations re-

corded in this paper form part of the pro-

gramme.

Presentation of data

1 . Ptychosperma macarthurii

This is an elegant clustering palm, general-

ly propagated by seed although multiplication

through suckers is no less frequent. The seed-

ling starts producing suckers only after about

a year, by which time, the main shoot stands

distinctly bigger than the suckers. Even in

fairly older clumps, this growth difference be-

tween the main stem and suckers is more or

less maintained for a couple of years. The

spirality of the main shoot and that of the

suckers were recorded in 13 clumps at the

Indian Statistical Institute and the Indian

Botanic Garden, Calcutta. The data are pre-

sented in Table 1.

698

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

Table 1

From data given in Table 1, it is obvious

that there is no significant association between

the spirality of the main stem and that of off-

shoots.

Association between stem and spadices

From the positions of individual spikes de-

veloping on the peduncle, it is not difficult

to recognise right- and left-handed spadi-

ces. The distribution of the two kinds of spa-

dices on the same stem is not random, but a

the association is significant statistically. The

chi square values to test the deviation from

equality are 3.86 and 13.89 respectively.

Handedness of spadix and spikes

The flower clusters (triads) are spirally

arranged on the spikes (Fig. 1), and left- and

right-handed spikes are distinguishable. Here

again, a positive association exists between

the spirality of the spadix and that of its

spikes.

Table 2

Ptychosperma macartfiurii : spirality of stem and that of spadices and spikes

699

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

PTYCHOSPERMA ARENGA

RIGHT LEFT LEFT LEFT RIGHT RIGHT

Fig. 1. Portions of flowering spikes of Ptychosperma macarthurii. A — flower

clusters (triads) arranged clockwise; B — with bloomed male flowers.

Fig. 3. Aestivation of perianth of male and female flowers of Ptychosperma

and Arenga triads.

700

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

B ill Fig. 2 have valvate petals. In such flow-

ers, the petals do not overlap even in bud.

The sepals in A and B as well as the petals

in C and D show imbricate aestivation (over-

lapping of perianth not in a regular order)

which is the most frequent type met with in

palms. The calyx in both male and female

flowers of most species of palms is imbricate.

Also the corolla in female flowers of many

species is imbricate. In this type of aestiva-

tion, of the three sepals /petals, one member

(outermost) is fully exposed, and the inner-

most one is overlapped on either side by the

other two perianth segments. Thus, one end

D

Fig. 2. Partial floral diagrams showing different

kinds of aestivation of perianth segments in palms.

of the third (middle) sepal /petal is overlap-

ped by the outermost segment, while its other

end overlaps the innermost member partially.

Two kinds of imbrications can be made out

from the manner how the middle segment is

placed. If the right end of this segment is free,

the aestivation is right-imbrication (A & C),

and if the left end is free, it is left-imbrication

(B & D). The third kind of aestivation is con-

tortion which is also spoken of as regularly

twisting (or merely twisting). Here all the

members of a whorl overlap in a uniform

manner. Only exceptional flowers of palms

have contorting calyx. A flower of Areca cate-

chu in Table 20 has contorting calyx. In many

species, the corolla of some flowers contort

while that of others imbricate. We have not

come across any species where all the female

flowers have only contorting corolla. Even in

flowers having contorting corolla, in one, all

the petals may rotate to the right (E) and in

another to the left (F). Thus, there are four

patterns of petal aestivation displayed by

many species. But some species like Ptychos-

perma macarthurii have only two types.

Aestivation of perianth of male and female

flowers

The flowers are arranged in clusters of

three of which the middle one is female and

the lateral two are males. When the spike is

held vertically with the distal end up, the three

flowers in each cluster will lie almost horizon-

tally. The male towards the left-hand side of

the observer is regarded (for the sake of des-

cription) as left male and that towards the

right-hand side as right male. It is most strik-

ing that the aestivation of sepals of one male

is a mirror-image of the other male. The

petals are valvate. The left male in P. macar-

thurii has invariably right-handed imbrication

and the right male, left-handed imbrication

(Fig. 3, see page 700). Only small exceptions

701

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

to this rule were noticed

given in Table 3.

It may be emphasized

either the spikes or the

fluence on the kind of

in male flowers. But the

a different picture.

The female flowers of

always imbricate sepals

as evident from data

that the spirality of

spadix has any in-

imbrication of calyx

female flowers show

P. macarthurii have

and imbricate petals

(Fig. 4). An interesting association was dis-

covered between the spirality of the spike and

the kind of aestivation of the female flowers.

That is, in a left-handed spike, a greater num-

ber of female flowers show left-handed im-

brication of sepals, and vice versa, in a right-

handed spike. Thus, the aestivation of calyx

is associated with the spirality of the spike,

(vide data in Table 4).

Table 3

Ptychosperma macarthurii : aestivation of male flowers in triads

Tree

Spadix

Spikes

male-flower

combination

RL

LL

RR

Total

Left

Right

Table 4

P. macarthurii : aestivation of female flowers

1472

969

1429

709

702

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

A mirror-image situation was met with bet-

ween the aestivation of sepals and that of

petals in the same flower. In a left-spiralling

spike, a greater number of flowers have their

sepals imbricated left-handed. But the petals,

on the other hand, show just the reverse pat-

tern. Therefore, the sepals are almost exactly

opposite to the petals for their imbrication/

contortion (Davis. 1974).

Fig. 4. Fruit of P. macarthurii and drawings of

imbricating calyx and corolla.

2. Ptycfaospemia elegans

This species, native to Queensland (Austra-

lia) is generally single-stemmed and possesses

a stem stouter than that of P. macarthurii.

The crown is also larger, and so, the leaves

and spadices are larger than those of P. ma-

carthurii.

Two spadices from a left-handed palm and

nine spadices from a right-handed palm were

studied. A small degree of positive association

between the spiralities of spadix and spikes

was observed as per data given in Table 5.

Table 5

Ptychosperma elegans : spadix and spikes

The flowers are arranged typically in triads.

A small sample of flower-clusters from a left-

handed and a right-handed spikes was exa-

mined for the aestivation of sepals. As in P.

macarthurii, the male on the left side has

counter-clockwise imbrication of sepals and

the right male has clockwise imbrication. In

Table 6

Ptychosperma elegans : aestivation of female flowers (calyx)

703

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

704

Fig. 5. Spadix of Caryota mitis with bloomed male flowers.

Fig. 6. Spadix of Chrysalidocarpus lutescens with young flowers,

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

six per cent of the clusters examined, the

males showed LL, RR and LR combinations

in their imbrications.

The female flowers from 16 left- and 9

right-handed spikes were examined for the

aestivation of calyx, and the data are present-

ed in Table 6.

There is a small degree of positive associa-

tion between the spirality of the spike and im-

brication (of calyx) in female flowers. The

petals invariably imbricate opposite to that of

the sepals. But the association is not as power-

ful as in P. macarthurii.

3. Caryota mitis

Two species of Caryota were examined for

the bilateral symmetry in their structures.

While one of them, Caryota mitis , is clustering,

the other (C. urens) is single-stemmed. C.

mitis is a profusely suckering, small-stemmed

palm commonly used as a tub-plant. But C.

urens is a large palm bearing massive spadices

which when young are tapped for a sweet sap.

Since both the species are monocarpic, with

the emergence of the first spadix which is ter-

minal, the palm continues to emit flower bun-

ches from leaf axils in basipetal succession

during the next 2-3 years.

Spadix of C. mitis (Fig. 5) is more compact

and shorter than that of C. urens. From 3 left-

handed and 5 right-handed shoots of Caryota

mitis, 1,887 spikes were examined for the as-

ymmetry. The samples revealed the existence

of a small degree of positive association be-

tween the spiralities of spadix and spikes.

But, there is a greater degree of negative asso-

ciation between the spiralities of the crown and

spadix. However, the data given in Table 7

are very limited to attach much significance to

the association.

The flower clusters of C. mitis as of Pty-

chosperma macarthurii show the striking phe-

nomenon that the left male has right-imbricat-

ing sepals while the right male always shows

left-imbrication. This situation does not de-

pend on the condition of the spike as per data

given in Table 8. The petals are valvate.

The female flowers of C. mitis also bear

valvate petals like the male flowers, but the

aestivation of the calyx (which is imbricate)

shows a higher degree of negative association

with the spirality of the spike, which pheno-

menon is just the reverse of the situation

noticed in P. macarthurii. The data are pre-

sented in Table 9.

Table 7

Caryota mitis : association between crown, spadix and spikes

705

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 8

Table 9

Cary ota mitis : aestivation of female flowers

Tree

Spadix

Spike

Left

Flowers

Right

Total

4. Caryota urens

A total of 15 spadices from three left-hand-

ed and three right-handed C. urens palms were

examined. As per data given in Table 10, out

of 933 spikes from 8 spadices of the left

handed palms, 503 were left-spiralled, which

is roughly in a one: one ratio. However, when

the left-spiralled spadices alone are consider

ed, there is an excess of left-spiralled spikes.

706

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

Table 10

The positions of male and female flowers

on the spikes are similar to those of Caryota

mitis or Ptychosperma macarthurii. It is also

striking that the calyx of the left male flower

imbricates always right-handed irrespective of

the spirality of the spike of its origin. Simi-

larly, the right male flower has left-handed

imbrication. The data are shown in Table 11.

Data on the nature of each female flower

for the aestivation of calyx were recorded in

the order of the distribution of the flowers on

the spikes (from base upwards). A critical

examination of the data suggested that a ma-

jority of flowers having the calyx imbricating

opposite to the spiral of the spikes appeared

to cluster more within the lower one-third dis-

Table 11

Caryota urcns : aestivation of male flowers

In female flowers, the calyx imbricates and

the corolla is always valvate. Right- and left-

spiralled spadices from right- and left-handed

C. urens palms were collected. Three left- spi-

ralled and three right-spiralled spikes from

each spadix were examined for the aestivation

of sepals of female flowers. In all spikes the

imbrication of the majority of female flowers

was found negatively associating with the spir-

ality of the spike. This situation in this species

is much more pronounced than in C. mitis as

per data presented in Table 12.

tance of the spike. Towards the tip, the flowers

invariably bore calyx whose direction of im-

brication matched with the twist of the spike.

5. Arenga pinnata

The spadix of Arenga pinnata more or less

resembles that of Caryota and Ptychosperma

by having the male and female flowers ar-

ranged in clusters of three throughout the

length of the spikes. But the following unique

features were noticed in this species. The first

spadix which is invariably the terminal one.

707

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 12

Cary ota urens : aestivation of calyx in female flowers

Female flowers (aestivation)

Arenga pinnata: spirality of spadix and spikes

708

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

Table 14

Arenga pinnata : aestivation of male flowers

Arenga pinnata : aestivation of female flowers

X — where spirality could not be determined.

were collected and the spirality of the spadi-

ces and spikes examined. A negative associa-

tion was found to exist. That is, left-spiralled

spadices produced more of right-spiralled

spikes, and right-spiralled spadices, a slight

excess of left-spiralled spikes (Table 13).

However, this is a clear departure from the

situation noticed in Caryota and Ptychos-

perma.

The calyx of both the male and female

flowers of Arenga pinnata imbricates while the

petals in both the flowers are valvate. The left

male in each cluster shows left-handed imbri-

cation and the right male, right-handed imbri-

cation. This arrangement is not influenced by

the spirality of the spikes. So it is spectacular

that the kinds of imbrication in the male

flowers of Arenga are exactly the reverse of

those of males in Caryota and Ptychosperma.

That is, a left male flower in Arenga is left-

handed, whereas the same in Caryota or

Ptychosperma is right-handed. Similarly, the

right male in Arenga is right-handed, but left-

handed in Caryota or Ptychosperma. The

cause for such a double enantiomorphism in

the aestivation of the calyx of male flowers

is yet to be known. Table 14 presents data on

the aestivation of male flowers of Arenga

pinnata.

The aestivation of the female flowers, how-

ever, associates negatively with the spirality

of the spikes. In a left spike, a great majority

of the females have right-imbricating calyx,

and vice versa in a right spike. Data obtained

from only one tree are presented in Table 15.

Thus, A. pinnata in this respect is opposed to

Ptychosperma species.

709

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol 75

Fig. 7. C. lutescens : Right- and left-spiralled spikes bearing

young fruits.

Fig. 8. Portion of coconut spike bearing 3 female flowers

having imbricate perianths.

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

Table 16

Chrysalidocarpus lutescens : association of characters

6. Chrysalidocarpus lutescens

Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, another elegant

clustering ornamental palm with arching leaves

and yellowish-green stem, shows a negative

association between the spirality of crown and

that of the spadix (Fig. 6). But between the

spadix and spikes, no significant association

was found among the specimens sampled from

17 shoots. The data are given in Table 16.

The flowers of C. lutescens are so small

that sorting out the flowers according to the

type of aestivation was very difficult. More-

over, the triads are not formed in regular

order, but are very much crowded. Hence data

on flower-clusters as well as flowers could not

be collected. But the young fruits reveal an

interesting asymmetry. In Fig. 7 are seen por-

tions of left-spiralled (L) and right-spiralled

(R) spikes from a spadix of C. lutescens. The

young fruits assume a peculiar shape. Out of

the three carpels (ovaries) in a fruit, general-

ly only one develops. In a right-spiralled

spike, the left-most carpel in each fruit deve-

lops. Due to this unilateral development, the

two abortive carpels and the common stig-

matic-end are pushed to the right side. Such

a picture is shown by all the young fruits on

the right-spiralled spike. A mirror-image form

is noticed on the left-spiralled spike since the

developed carpel in each fruit is on the right.

and the stigmatic-end is pushed to the left.

Such a pattern of development of the ovary

is not so far noticed in any other species. But

some species of Phoenix and Cocos nucifera

are likely to manifest a comparable picture.

7. Cocos nucifera

The coconut palm also displays some mir-

ror-image patterns between asymmetrical

structures in its reproductive organs.

108 spadices from 16 palms were examined

for the kind of handedness in spikes and spa-

dices. A small degree of positive affinity be-

tween a right-handed palm and a right-spiral-

led spadix, as well as between a right-handed

spadix and a right-spiralled spike. Data ob-

tained earlier by Ghosh (1978) on 9 trees, also

from Calcutta, gave almost similar results with

some affinity among right trees, right spadix

and right spikes. The combined data are pre-

sented in Table 17.

The male flowers of Cocos nucifera have

imbricate sepals and valvate petals. But in

about 50 per cent of them, the sepals remain

partially valvate and partially imbricate. In

the female flowers (Fig. 8), the sepals are

clearly imbricate, and the petals either imbri-

cate or twist regularly (contort) (Davis and

Basu, 1971). All available types of aestivation

of calyx and corolla in Cocos nucifera fruits

are shown in Fig. 9.

711

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 17

Cocos nucifera : asymmetry in the spadix

Fig. 9. Perianth types in coconut fruits.

There is a tendency for the calyx to asso-

ciate negatively with the spirality of the spike

on which they develop as per figures given

below:

Left-spiralled spikes (16 nos.) :

Left-twisting flowers . . 72,

Right-twisting flowers . . 106,

Right-spiralled spikes (16 nos.) :

Left-twisting flowers . . 61,

Right-twisting flowers . . 60.

Similarly, there is no strong association be-

tween the aestivation of sepals and that of

petals as per data summarised in Table 18.

In an abnormally large spadix of coconut

reported by Ghosh (1978), each spike bore

3-19 female flowers instead of the usual single,

flower. The terminal of the peduncle also bore

26 female flowers. Moreover, at the lower-

most position in 16 of these spikes, there were

twin female flowers (Fig. 10).

Table 18

Cocos nucifera : calyx-corolla association

i

The aestivation of calyx in the twin female

flowers is interesting as these flowers imitate

the situation prevalent in the male flowers of

Caryota or Ptychosperma. All the females on

the left side, irrespective of the spirality of

their spikes imbricate to the right, and all the

females on the right have left-handed sepal

imbrication. The petals, however, did not

show any distinct pattern.

Most of the male flowers in Cocos nucifera

appear in pairs throughout the spike above

the limit of female flower(s). Each female

flower is bordered by two males. Wherever

the calyx of both the flowers in a pair was

regularly imbricating their spirality was re-

corded. The data obtained from 223 twin

males unmistakably show that in coconut, the

712

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

Fig. 10. Spikes of a large coconut spadix, each bearing many female flowers. Each

spike bears a twin female flower at base.

Fig. 11. Two spadices of Calyptrocalyx spicatus.

Fig. 12. Portion of Areca catechu spadix. Male flowers arranged in two rows.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

male twins deviate from the unique associa- spike have left-handed imbrication. The

tion displayed by Caryota or Arenga as the small degree of deviation is noticed only to-

data in Table 20 reveal. wards the base of the spike as was observed

Table 19

Cocos nucifera : aestivation of twin male flowers

8. CalyptrocaSyx spicatus

Calyptrocalyx spicatus is characterised by

having a long, cylindrical and unbranched

spadix (Fig, 11) where the flowers, arranged

in clusters, are partially covered by semi-cir-

cular bracts. By following the arrangement of

the bracts, right- and left-spiralled spadices

can be made out. Unlike the Caryotoid/

Ptychospermate palms, a flower cluster in

Calyptrocalyx spicatus consists only of one

male flower and a female flower. An impres-

sive symmetry has been observed from the

positioning of the male flower in each cluster.

In a left- spiral led spadix, the male flower (in

each cluster) appears on the left side of the

female when viewed by holding the spike ver-

tically, and in a right-spiralled spike, the male

is on the right of the female.

The sepals of the male flowers of Calyptro-

calyx are imbricating but the petals are val-

vate. From the aestivation of calyx, two kinds

of male flowers can be distinguished, left-

handeds and right-handeds. A great majority

of male flowers of the left-spiralled spikes

have right-handed imbrication. Similarly, a

great majority of males on right-spiralled

in Caryota urens.

Since the female flowers in the spikes at the

time of observation were too immature to

observe their perianth, data for the aestivation

of the female flowers are not available.

9. Areca catechu

Of the species of palms included for the

present investigation, Areca catechu is the

least pronounced with regard to asymmetry

in the spadix. The peduncle of the spadix is

considerably flattened and compressed and the

main branches of spadix appear as though , the

flattened stalk has been split vertically. Hence

the spirality of the spadix cannot be made out

accurately. Again, the male flowers are ar-

ranged in two parallel rows throughout the

upper two-thirds the length of the ultimate

spikes (Fig. 12). Therefore the spikes also do

not display any spirality.

Although the aestivation of calyx of male

flowers is difficult to observe, careful obser-

vations have shown that all the flowers on one

row show the same kind of aestivation which

is opposite to that of flowers on the other row.

The condition of males in small portions of

two spikes is shown in Table 20.

714

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

Table 20

Aestivation of Arcca catechu male flowers

IR — Imbricating to the Right; IL — Imbricating to

the Left;

CR — Contorting to the Right.

Table 21

Arcca catechu : calyx-corolla association

imbricate and which side the left imbricate

flowers is difficult to decide. The perianth of

female flowers shows clear asymmetry in their

aestivation. Sepals are always imbricate, but

the petals in some flowers imbricate while in

others contort, a situation similar to that re-

corded for Cocos nucifera. Data obtained ear-

lier by Davis and Kundu (1967) on the calyx-

corolla relationship are presented in Table 21.

A perusal of the data in Table 21 suggests

that there is no association between the aesti-

vation of calyx and corolla. In this respect

Areca catechu resembles Cocos nucifera

closely.

Number of spikes per spadix

Among the 9 species of palms investigated*

Calyptrocalyx spicatus has an unbranched,

simple spicate type spadix. But Areca catechu

has the largest spadix each bearing over seven

hundred and fifty spikes. The figures relating

to the 9 species are given in Table 22.

In four of the above species, the average

number of spikes per spadix is more for the

22

Table

Data on spadices of 9 species of palms

Since the spike is flat and the rows of male

flowers occupy the margins of spikes, the spike

gives practically the same view from both the

surfaces. Therefore, which side bears the right

right-spiralled spadix, in four others, the left-

spiralled spikes have an excess of spikes and

one shows equality. Presumably, the spadices

examined from Arenga pinnata were very

715

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

much reduced in size as indicated by the small

number of spikes per spadix.

Summary

Biometrical studies made on the handed-

ness of reproductive structures of nine species

of palms revealed the prevalence of some very

important association between various organs.

The most striking phenomenon is that which

is perceivable in the aestivation of calyx be-

tween the two male flowers of each triad in

Ptychosperma sp., Caryota sp., and Arenga

pinnata. In each cluster of Ptychosperma or

Caryota, the left male flower has right-handed

imbrication, and the right male always shows

left-handed imbrication. Inexplicably, in Aren-

ga pinnata, on the other hand, the left male

in each cluster shows left-handed imbrication,

and the right male is always right-handed for

the aestivation of calyx. Thus, the asymmetry

of male flowers in each triad in Arenga is

mirror image to that in Ptychosperma I Car-

yota. Such a situation may be regarded as

double enantiomorphism. In Calyptrocalyx

spicatus, the only male in each cluster occu-

pies the left of female in a right-spiralled

spike, and on the right of female in a left-

spiralled spike. The aestivation of the male

here has more resemblance to that of Arenga

pinnata. The calyx and corolla in each female

flower /fruit of Ptychosperma macarthurii,

always show opposite kinds of imbrications.

However, in other species, this peculiarity is

either less prominent or it does not occur.

In Arenga pinnata, majority of the female

flowers borne on left-spiralled spikes have right-

imbricating calyx, and the majority on right-

spiralled spikes have left-imbricating calyx.

But the situation is reversed in Ptychosperma

macarthurii. P. elegans also maintains such an

arrangement. But most unexpectedly, both

Caryota mitis and C. urens imitate Arenga

pinnata in this regard by displaying positive

association between the spirality of spike and

the aestivation of calyx in a majority of female

flowers. It may be noted that Arenga and

Caryota behave differently with regard to the

aestivation of male flowers.

In the matter of handedness of spikes and

spadices also, striking association was noticed

in some species. P. macarthurii is the only

species so far investigated which shows a posi-

tive association between the handedness of a

crown and that of its spadices. Moreover, this

species also shows a positive association be-

tween the spiralities of spadix and its spikes.

P. elegans did not show any such association.

Both Caryota mitis and C. urens manifest a

degree of positive association between the

spiralities of spadices and spikes.

Another minor but curious association

noticed was with the development of carpel in

Chrysalidocarpus lutescens. The developing

ovary in a fruit always enlarges along the side

opposite the spirality of the spike pushing the

undeveloped ovaries and the common stigma-

tic-end towards the opposite side.

Acknowledgement

We thank Mr. S. K. De for making the

drawings.

716

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF SOME PALMS

References

Davis, T. A. (1971) : Right-handed, left-handed

and neutral palms. Principcs, J. Palm Soc., 15 :

63-68.

(1974): Enantiomorphic structures

in the ornamental palm, Ptychosperma macarthurii

(H. Wendland). Nicholson (Arecaceae). /. Planta-

tion Crops, 2 : 9-14.

and Basu, S. K. (1971); Aestivation

of perianth of palm fruits. Phytomorphologym, 21:

219-235.

Giiosh, S. S. and Mitra, A. (1971):

Asymmetry in palm leaves. /. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 68 : 204-231.

and Kundu, A. (1967): Aestivation

of perianth of Areca catechu Linn, fruits. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc., 63: 270-282.

Ghosh, S. S. (1978) : Biometry of a giant coco-

nut spadix. Indian Coc. J. (in press ) .

717

ON FACTORS GOVERNING THE DISTRIBUTION

OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

S. Narendra Prasad,

P. VlJAYAKUMARAN NAIR,

H. C. Sharatchandra and

Madhav Gadgil1

{With five plates and seven text-figures)

The forests of Karnataka are largely restricted to hill regions, and depending on the

precipitation the forest types range from the evergreen to scrub vegetation. An analysis

of food resources available in the various vegetation types shows that the evergreen

forests are particularly suited to frugivorous arboreal primates and squirrels, while the

deciduous forests offer the best habitat for larger grazing herbivores like the gaur and

the deer. Drought resistant ungulates, particularly antelopes are specially adapted to

the open dry scrub. The wild life bearing forests areas of Karnataka are divided into

six regions, namely North Kanara, Crestline, Malnad, Mysore Plateau, Kollegal Hills

and Maidan. Occurrence ratings for the major wild mammals over 86 forest ranges of

these six regions have been determined on the basis of field studies. An analysis of

this data shows that wild life can be considered abundant only on the Mysore Plateau

with Malnad, Kollegal Hills, North Kanara, Crestline and Maidan showing a pro-

gressive decline in that order. This decline seems highly correlated with the fragment-

ation of the habitat; hence it is critical to maintain the integrity of the remaining wild

life habitats.

Intoduction

With its great diversity of ecological condi-

tions, and its unique position at the confluence

of three biogeographical realms, the Indian

subcontinent can boast of a diversity of wild

life unequalled by any land mass of compar-

able size in the world. Tragically, the recent

decades, particularly since the beginning of

the British rule, have witnessed a rapid deci-

mation of our wild life heritage to the point

that a large number of species are now on

the verge of extinction. The situation obvious-

ly calls for serious efforts at conservation, and

these have in fact been launched, particularly

over the last few years. Very little careful do-

cumentation of the status of our wild life, and

the problems confronting us in our efforts at

its conservation is however available. There

are a few general accounts, the most import-

ant being those of Prater (1971), Gee (1969)

and Krishnan (1975), and a few detailed ac-

counts of specific areas such as those of Sch-

aller (1967) for Kanha, Berwick (1976) for

Gir and Nair et al. (1977) for the Bandipur-

Mudumalai-Nagarhole-Wynaad complex. We

also have accounts of a few endangered spe-

cies such as Daniel and Grubh’s (1966) sur-

vey of wild buffalo, Davidar’s (1978) survey

of Nilgiri tahr, Nair and Gadgil’s (1978) sur-

vey of elephants of Karnataka, and Kurup’s

(1977) survey of the lion-tailed macaque and

Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012.

718

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

Nilgiri langur. We however still lack careful

documentation of the status of wild life over

more extensive areas of the country. The pre-

sent paper is an attempt to furnish such an

account for the state of Karnataka. It is based

on field studies extending over a period of

four years in various parts of the state. It

documents the status of major wild life spe-

cies in a number of representative forest ran-

ges where wild life still persists. In addition

it makes an attempt to bring out the factors

governing this distribution. The rainfall pat-

tern over the state, determined by the topo-

graphy, governs the distribution of natural

vegetation. This vegetation has been consi-

derably modified by human interference. The

resulting vegetation types differ in the degree

of availability of different food resources on

which depend the populations of wild mam-

mals. This availability of food resources gov-

erns the natural distribution of wild mamma-

lian species, depending on the extent to which

the ecological requirements of each species

are met by a given vegetation type. This is the

distribution of wild mammals that prevailed

historically before its decimation in recent

times. To understand the present distribution,

we must additionally take account of man’s

deleterious impact in different regions and on

different species. This paper is an attempt to

present such an account. It is hoped that it

will provide a basis of information useful for

the future attempts at conservation of wild

life in Karnataka.

Materials and methods

This report is based on studies carried out

in Karnataka over a period of four years from

May 1974 — June 1978. We have maintained

continuous observations at Bandipur national

park over the four years, and fairly extensive

observations in North Kanara areas from

March 1976 onwards. This has been supple-

mented by an intensive survey of the Mysore

plateau from July to October 1975, a survey

of North Kanara areas from August 1976 to

January 1977, a survey of the rest of Western

Ghats and Malnad areas, and of Kollegal hills

from May to July 1977 and a survey of the

Ranebennur forest in May 1978. The methods

employed in these surveys have been described

in detail in our earlier publications, and need

not be repeated here (Nair et al. 1977, Nair

and Gadgil, in press).

These surveys have enabled us to arrive at

estimations of the occurrence of major wild

mammals in 86 of the forest ranges of Kar-

nataka— which covers substantially all of the

forest ranges with significant populations of

wild animals. The estimates were based on

actual sightings, evidence of droppings, signs

of feeding and other spoor and reports from

tribals and local field staff. In many places

the reports were cross-checked with actual

field data and were found to be reasonably

accurate. An attempt to arrive at estimates of

numbers was made only in the case of ele-

phant populations (Nair & Gadgil, in press). In

case of all other mammals the population

status was ranked on a five point scale: absent

— 0, rare — 1, present — 2, frequent — 3, and

very common — 4. This is admittedly subjec-

tive and is essentially a comparative statement,

comparing the different ranges for a given

species. The population of sambar to be rank-

ed very common will obviously have to be

much greater than the population of tiger to

be ranked very common! Such qualitative

ranking is nevertheless of value in giving a

clearer picture of the differences in occurrence

in various parts of the state and is adopted

here in that spirit. While computing occurr-

ence, we automatically note the presence or

719

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

absence. From this we shall derive the mea-

sure of frequency which is defined as the per-

centage of total forest ranges within a given

region in which a particular species is present.

Thus any region under consideration may be

characterized by the occurrence value averaged

over the constituent forest ranges and a fre-

quency of incidence value with respect to any

particular species.

The habitat of that region was further

characterized by the prevalent vegetation type,

extent of its degradation particularly in terms

of the canopy cover and the major plant asso-

ciations. In addition, the habitat was charac-

terized with respect to its extent of fragmen-

tation. This index was calculated by taking

an average of the following ratio for a number

of constituent ranges.

Df — Dn

Df

where Df = distance between the two farthest

villages or cultivation or mining

in the range.

Dn = distance between the two nearest

villages or cultivation or mining

in the range.

The ratio ranges from 0 to 1, increasing

with the extent of fragmentation of the forest.

Admittedly, this too is a crude measure, but

serves to indicate well different levels of frag-

mentation of the forest in different parts of the

state.

Topography

The state of Karnataka lies between latitudes

11°35' to 18°25'N and longitudes 73°40' and

78° 40'E with the states of Maharashtra to the

north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamilnadu

and Kerala to the south and with the Arabian

Sea to its west (Figure 1). Geographically it

is made up of three distinct regions; karavali

or a coastal strip on the west, malnad or the

hill region in the middle and maidan or the

plains of the Deccan plateau to the east. The

coastal strip varies in width from just a few

kilometres near Karwar in North Kanara to

50-75 kilometres in parts of South Kanara.

This coastal strip is flanked to its east by the

hill chain of Western Ghats which runs in a

north-south disposition parallel to the west

coast. In North Kanara the hills are broken

and low with an elevation around 1000 m.

South of Bhatkal, however the ghats are con-

tinuous and rise to an altitude of 1892 metres

in Kudremukh. The ghats rise precipitously

to their heights with steep slopes abruptly ris-

ing out of the coastal plain. To the east they

merge gradually with the Deccan plateau, with

a series of hills such as Bababudangiri and

Mahadeveshwara Malai rising to considerable

heights out of the plateau (Figure 2). The

Deccan Plateau is itself an undulating plain

at an elevation ranging from 500 to 1000

metres.

Precipitation

This lay of the land governs the pattern

of precipitation over the state of Karnataka.

The state receives almost all of its rainfall

from the southwest monsoon between the

months of June and September. This monsoon

depends on the moisture laden winds that

come from the Arabian Sea. The coastal strip

receives annual rains of 3000-4000 mm as

these winds come over land. The highest pre-

cipitation, however, occurs over the ghats be-

cause of the ascent of the air forced by the

orography. To the north, where the ghats are

low, the precipitation is around 4000-5000

mm, but reaches its maximum of around

8000 mm a year in the Agumbe — Kudremukh

region. The rainfall in this region is almost

720

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

18'

751

MAP SHOWING THE WILDLIFE

HABITATS IN THE STATE

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Fig. 1. A map of Karnataka State showing the six forest regions.

721

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

restricted to the four months from June-Sep-

tember. Further south in the Coorg region,

however, the fairly heavy rainfall of 5000-6000

mm is distributed over a longer period of 7-8

months from April-November. The rainfall

decreases sharply to the lee of the ghats on

the Deccan plateau. It ranges between 600-

1000 mm over most of the Deccan plateau,

except in the semi-arid belt stretching over the

Gulbarga-Bijapur-Raichur-Bellary region where

the rainfall is uniformly below 600 mm a year.

Vegetation

The pattern of natural vegetation over the

state of Karnataka is governed essentially by

the amount of precipitation, the temperatures

reaching a limiting influence only at the higher

elevations of the Western Ghats. The coastal

plains must in the past have been covered by

the mangrove forest near the coast and ever-

green forest in the interior plains where rain-

fall uniformly exceeds 3000 mm. The foot

hills of the ghats must also have been covered

by evergreen forest in earlier times. The cur-

rent occurrence of semi-evergreen forest in this

high rainfall zone (>3000 mm) seems to be

a result of human intervention; the degrada-

tion of the evergreen forest has permitted

penetration of deciduous tree species in it, im-

parting semi-evergreen character to the vege-

tation. The upper slopes and Crestline of the

ghats receiving precipitation of over 5000 mm

a year would have been covered everywhere

by evergreen forests. At higher elevations in

the ghats the evergreen forest is restricted to

hollows as evergreen sholas, with grassy downs

covering the exposed slopes. To the east of

the Crestline the rainfall decreases again, and

would support a belt of semievergreen forest

in the zone of 2500-3000 mm. The forest

would assume a deciduous character further

east where the rainfall falls below 2500 mm.

The forest would be of the moist deciduous

type over a broad belt where the rainfall

ranges from 2500-1500 mm a year. Much of

the Deccan plateau would under the natural

state be covered by a dry deciduous forest,

except for the semi-arid tracts with rainfall

below 600 mm. These tracts would be cover-

ed by a scrub forest (figure 2) (Champion &

Seth 1968, Legris 1963, Meher-Homji per-

sonal communication).

This pattern of vegetation has been drasti-

cally changed by human activity over most of

the state of Karnataka. The mangrove forest

has entirely disappeared from the coast, and

so has the evergreen forest of the coastal plains,

to be replaced by paddy and coconut cultiva-

tion. The dry deciduous and scrub forests of

the maidan area have also disappeared almost

entirely, to be replaced largely by cereal crops.

The Western Ghats and the adjoining hill

tracts, however, still retain some of their forest

cover, wherever it has not yet been replaced

by plantation crops or other cultivation. This

has been heavily exploited by man, generally

resulting in the disappearance of evergreen

elements from many forests which would ori-

ginally have been dominated by them. The

canopy has been opened everywhere, allow-

ing the forest floor to be invaded by exotic

weed species. Wherever rainfall exceeds 1500

mm, the opening of the canopy leads to an

invasion by Eupatorium; in the dry deciduous

forests, the weed species to dominate the vege-

tation belong to genus Lantana. In the drier

tracts, exploitation of deciduous forest has

often reduced it to the status of a scrub, if not

to secondary grassland. In the semi-arid re-

gions the scrub has all but disappeared giving

way to a very poor secondary grassland.

722

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

2

m

oc

0

X

IA

1

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or

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A schematic cross-section of the Karnataka region indicating the topography,

precipitation and climax and present day forest vegetation.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Food resources and distribution of

MAMMALS

The natural distribution of mammals is ul-

timately governed by the natural distribution

of the vegetation. As heterotrophs, the mam-

mals are dependent on the primary produc-

tion of the organic matter by the plants. The

productivity of the mammalian fauna of any

habitat would therefore be related to the pro-

ductivity of the vegetation. In addition, the

composition of the mammalian fauna would

depend critically on the specific form in which

the plant production is channelised. Thus graz-

ing herbivores would not be able to sustain

themselves in an evergreen forest with almost

no growth of grass on the forest floor. Frugi-

vores dependent on fleshy fruits would, on the

other hand, find abundant food in an ever-

green forest. It is therefore most instructive

to compare the three major natural vegetation

types of Karnataka with respect to the diffe-

rent components of plant production, as well

as the production of insects, frogs and lizards.

Evergreen Forest

Table 1 contrasts the distribution of food

resources in the pure evergreen, the evergreen

shola-grassy downs, deciduous and scrub vege-

tation in its original climax condition as well

as in the degraded form of evergreen, deci-

duous and scrub vegetation. The degradation

is assumed to be to the level at which the ca-

nopy is considerably opened but without loss

of the basic nature of the forest. The climax

evergreen forest has a complete canopy and

a fully shaded forest floor covered with leaf

litter with no grass and very little other herb

growth (See plate 1). Its canopy is at a con-

siderable height from the ground. In conse-

quence there is very little grazing or browsing

for ungulates or elephants in such a forest.

724

Bamboos, a favourite food of these animals

is also nearly absent from the evergreen

forests. The few herbs on the floor belonging

to families like Zingiberaceae all tend to have

underground storage organs like corms or tub-

ers which are therefore available to the dig-

gers like pigs though the leaves of these herbs

are by and large unpalatable. The plant pro-

duction available to the herbivores in such

forests is therefore the tree foliage at the high

canopy level and fleshy fruits such as jack-

fruit, mango and jamun which are so char-

acteristic of evergreen vegetation. Dry fruit

and seed are also relatively uncommon. The

rich leaf litter on the ground which supports

a high level of arthropod fauna, and the pre-

valent high humidity however supports a very

rich amphibian and reptilian fauna in the cli-

max evergreen forests.

An idea of the herbivore and omnivore

fauna that such a climax evergreen forest can

support can be had from Tables 2 and 3. Table

2 lists the major components of food of the

herbivorous and omnivorous mammals of pen-

insular India. A comparison with the avail-

ability of these components in Table 1 allows

us to deduce the capacity of the different vege-

tation types to support these mammals. (Green

& Minkowski 1977, Krishnan 1975, Prater

1971, Schaller 1967). It is evident that ever-

green forests are particularly rich in the food

for arboreal monkeys and squirrels which can

feed on fruit and leaves and insects and small

vertebrates high up in the canopy. The ever-

green forests may also support wild pigs and

sloth bear which are omnivores capable of dig-

ging up underground corms and tubers. The

climax evergreen forests are however a poor

habitat for larger herbivores which find little

to feed on the floor.

When, however, such forest is somewhat

degraded and openings are created in the ca-

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Prasad et al. : Mammals in Karnataka

Plate I

Above : A view of the evergreen forest from the Crestline region.

(Photo: H. C. Sharatchandra) .

Below : A view of the evergreen sholas and grassy downs of Kudremukh from the

Crestline region. (Photo: S. N. Prasad ).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Prasad et al. : Mammals in Karnataka

Plate II

Above : A view of the dry deciduous forest in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, Mysore

Plateau. (Photo: S. N. Prasad ).

Below. The composite weed Eupatorium which has invaded the moister forested

regions, Mysore Plateau. (Photo: H. C. Shar at chandra) .

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

nopy, palatable herbage can grow on the floor

| of the forest. The much larger younger crop

of saplings produced would also provide brow-

[ sing. Such degraded forest does therefore be-

come a better habitat for larger mammalian

I herbivores.

! Sholas and Downs

■

The higher reaches of the Western Ghats

are characterized by a juxtaposition of ever-

; green sholas lying in the hollows and grassy

downs on the more exposed slopes. These

grassy downs offer rich grazing grounds for

the larger mammals, while the evergreen sholas

provide them good shelter. The combination

therefore affords an ideal habitat for a rich

variety of mammalian species (See Plate 1).

Deciduous Forests

The deciduous forests offer a much more

balanced picture of the availability of food re-

sources for the mammalian species. In such

vegetation, the total amount of tree foliage and

fleshy fruits will be less than in the evergreen

forests, rendering it a somewhat less suitable

habitat for frugivorous monkeys and squirrels.

At the same time, the more open canopy will

allow growth of grass and other palatable her-

bage and shrubbery on the forest floor, as well

as a rich growth of bamboos rendering it a

much more suitable habitat for the larger her-

bivores such as deer, gaur and elephant (See

Plate 2). Moderate degradation of such forest

further encourages the growth of grass and

bamboo, improving it as a habitat for larger

mammals. As will be noted from Tables 1, 2

and 3, the deciduous forests are an excellent

habitat for a wide spectrum of mammals.

This is not to imply that indefinite degrada-

tion of deciduous forests will progressively im-

prove them as wild life habitats. Such forests

a.'e quickly invaded by Lantana and Eupato-

rium, the former favouring dry deciduous and

the latter moist deciduous habitats. Lantana

though largely unpalatable to wild mammals,

does provide fresh leaves, flowers and berries

which are consumed. The berries are a fav-

ourite food of birds as well. Eupatorium, on

the other hand, has no redeeming features. It

carpets vast stretches of forest floor, smother-

ing out all regeneration, posing a fire hazard,

and is absolutely unpalatable to wild animals

who never touch it (See Plate 2).

Scrub Forests

The scrub forest in its climax condition is

overall a less productive habitat than the de-

graded deciduous forest. The Acacias which

dominate it are nevertheless a good source of

palatable leaves and pods for many browsing

herbivores, particularly elephants. Under its na-

tural condition, the scrub forest can therefore

support a rich mammalian fauna as indicated

in Tables 1, 2 and 3. An important limiting

factor in these forests is water. Since antelopes

such as blackbuck and nilgai are much more

tolerant of drought than deer and gaur they

tend to dominate the community of grazing

herbivores in such habitats.

A degraded scrub is reduced to a secondary

grassland of very poor productivity (See Plate

3). Such habitat can essentially support only

blackbuck and chinkara and smaller mam-

mals such as hares.

Carnivores

Table 4 summarizes the expected pattern of

natural abundance of carnivores in different

vegetation types. Stalking predators such as

tiger and panther require a good population

of larger mammals plus good cover. They are

therefore at their best in deciduous forests.

Cheetah which depends on speed for pursuit re-

quires more open country and was once corn-

725

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 75

mon in scrub forests of India but is now ex-

tinct. The wild dogs and wolves depend on

their stamina, teamwork and speed to run

down their quarry. The former seems more

adapted to forest habitat and the latter to open

scrub.

Tables 3 and 4 thus summarize the pattern

of distribution of wild mammals that should

prevail in peninsular India in the absence of

a serious persecution of these animals at the

hand of man. Some species, such as elephant

and wild pig would be rather widely distribut-

ed, while others such as lion-tailed macaque

would be much more restricted in their distri-

bution. Nevertheless there would be an overall

high abundance of wild mammals throughout

the variety of wild habitats. This supposition

is supported by the available historical evi-

dence, particularly recorded in the early gazet-

teers. (Nicholson 1887, Stuart 1895, Francis

1904, Anonymous 1908). No more than a cen-

tury ago, a variety of wild mammals occurred

commonly throughout much of the state of

Karnataka largely conforming to the pattern

indicated in Tables 3 and 4.

There were of course tracts which had been

under intensive cultivation for a long time, and

from which wild mammals were largely ex-

cluded. Such, for example must have been

the case with paddy lands in the coastal plains

of South Kanara. There were however still

vast tracts of lands under natural vegetation,

and with large mammalian populations till a

century ago, their abundance essentially gov-

erned by the availability of resources required

by each of the various species in different types

of natural vegetation. The last century in par-

ticular has seen rapid changes and overall dras-

tic decline in the populations of wild mammals

of Karnataka due to mounting pressures of

persecution by man.

Human persecution

The degree to which the persecution by man

has affected the mammalian fauna has varied

considerably in different habitats and for diffe-

rent species depending on a variety of factors.

These factors include (1) accessibility of wild

life habitats to man (2) ease of hunting a spe-

cies (3) reproductive resiliency of the species

(4) religious protection enjoyed by a species

(5) commercial demand for trophy, presumed

medicinal value etc. (6) conflicts with human

interests because of crop raiding, killing of

livestock etc. (7) extent of demand for the

habitat of wild animals such as for mining.

It may be worthwhile reviewing the effect of

human persecution on the twenty two major

wild mammals of Karnataka listed in Tables

3 and 4. The lion-tailed macaque has always

been restricted to a few pockets of evergreen

vegetation. Its habitat is rapidly diminishing

and degrading, and this rare, essentially frugi-

vorous, primate is an endangered species. The

bonnet macaque enjoys wide religious protec-

tion and still lives in large populations through-

out the state in forests, scrub as well as in cul-

tivated tracts. The hanuman langur is a more

specialized leaf eating monkey, and has a more

restricted distribution than the omnivorous

bonnet macaque. It also enjoys religious pro-

tection and lives in good numbers in deciduous

forest tracts. The giant squirrel is essentially

restricted to evergreen, semi-evergreen and

moist deciduous forests where it occurs in

good numbers.

The elephant populations have suffered dras-

tically through loss and fragmentation of habi-

tat, persecution for ivory and killing for crop

protection. A good population nevertheless ex-

ists in the Bandipur-Nagarhole complex (Nair

and Gadgil, in press). Gaur are still widely dis-

tributed, particularly in deciduous forests.

726

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Prasad et al. : Mammals in Karnataka

Plate III

Above : A view of the scrub forest in the Kollegal Hills Region.

Below : Cultivation in the midst of forest, Haliyal Division in North Kanara

region. (Photos: P. V. K. Nair ).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Prasad et al. : Mammals in Karnataka

Plate IV

Above: An elephant herd in Bandipur Tiger Reserve.

Below: A tiger in Bandipur Tiger Reserve. (Photos: A. J. T. Johnsingh ).

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

though much reduced in numbers due to

poaching for meat and hide, Sambar very

much follow the pattern of gaur. Chital are

restricted to more open degraded deciduous

forests, where they survive in good numbers

where protected. Barking deer, a solitary spe-

cies with wide habitat tolerance is much hunt-

ed for meat and survives in thin populations.

Blackbuck, chinkara, nilgai, wolves and

cheetah once inhabited the open scrub

forests in large numbers. Living in accessible

plains, easily hunted in their open habitat, they

have been the main victims of persecution at

the hand of man. Cheetah has become totally

extinct and the others have nearly disappear-

ed too, surviving only in small pockets where

they are given special protection.

Blacknaped hare, wild pig and jackal are

the only three species still surviving in good

numbers. This is due to their ability to take

advantage of man-made habitats and cultiva-

tion, and their great reproductive resilience.

All three breed in sheltered places and pro-

duce moderate to large litters. This has enabl-

ed them to minimise persecution, and to rapid-

ly build up their populations in face of perse-

cution.

Porcupine, a solitary nocturnal animal is

hunted for meat with the help of dogs who

locate their burrows. It nevertheless survives

in scattered populations. The omnivorous

sloth bear, a denizen of evergreen — deciduous

forests, is not particularly persecuted, and prob-

ably survives in scattered populations.

Of the carnivores, tiger, panther and wild

dog are all much persecuted, the first two for

their valuable pelt and to avenge cattle kills,

and the third rather wantonly, even by the offi-

cial foresters as a competitor for herbivores

with man. The first two have declined drasti-

cally, while the wild dog seems to be holding

its own much better.

Present status

The, area under forest in Karnataka today

amounts to 28846 sq. kms, a mere 15.04% of

the total land area of the state. With the not-

able exception of the bonnet macaque, which

under the widespread religious protection ran-

ges throughout the state, the larger wild mam-

mals are entirely confined to the forest areas.

These forest areas, may, for our purpose be

divided into six different regions, each of

which is largely contiguous and has distinctive

ecological features. For convenience, we have

named these six wildlife regions: North Ka-

nara, Crestline, Malnad, Mysore Plateau, Kol-

legal Hills and Maidan (Fig. 1) (Nair & Gad-

gil, in press).

North Kanara

The district of North Kanara and parts

of Belgaum constitute the northernmost

sector of hill tracts of Karnataka (lati-

tude 13°45'N to 15°45'N, longitude

75°0' E to 75° 15' E). The hills are low,

but form a rather wide belt. The precipita-

tion varies from 6500 mm at the crest to about

1000 mm on the plateau, and the vegetation

consequently ranges from evergreen, semi-ever-

green, moist deciduous to dry deciduous types.

The proportion of deciduous forest computed

as the proportion of forest ranges predomi-

nantly deciduous in nature, is 0.52. At one

time, over 80% of this region was under for-

est cover. It has been, however, considerably

disturbed in recent years with rapidly multi-

plying human settlements, heavy exploitation

of forest for timber and softwoods and bam-

boo, manganese and iron mining, and above-

all the giant Kalinadi hydel project. Conse-

quently, the habitat is now very much frag-

mented, with the index of habitat fragmenta-

tion at a high value of 0.92 (See Plate 3).

727

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

74*| 15'

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10 20 30 “

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74° 1 30' 74“ 1 45' 75°| O'

WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION IN KARNATAKA

ABUNDANCE VALUES OF HERBIVORES

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NAGARGALI

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Fig. 3. A map of North Kanara region indicating the occurrence rating of larger

mammalian herbivores.

728

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

Table 7 lists the occurrence rating for 8 of

the major wild mammals of this region over

26 ranges. The data are further summarised

in tables 5 and 6 and figure 3. There are today

only five small herds of elephants over this

vast forested region, scattered in the semi-ever-

green and moist deciduous tracts. They cover

two-thirds of the ranges of the region. The

frequency of incidence of gaur is similar, and

it also occurs in small scattered herds with

larger herds surviving only in parts of Haliyal

division. Sambar is much more widely distri-

buted, occurring in 85% of the ranges, barring

the heavier rainfall areas. It also receives a

little better occurrence ranking. The spotted

deer occurs in little over half the ranges and

is in low abundance. This thick, moist forest

is obviously a poor habitat for it. The wild

pig occurs over almost all ranges and is the

most abundant of wild mammals. Its tolerance

of a wide range of vegetation types, its pen-

chant for crop raiding, and its high repro-

ductive rate are the reasons for its greater suc-

cess. Evergreen forests of North Kanara har-

bour some populations of lion-tailed macaque

in the Siddapur Range. The hanuman langur

is commonly found particularly in the semi-

evergreen and moist deciduous tracts. The car-

nivores, tiger, panther and wild dog all occur

in rather low populations but are distributed

over many of the ranges. They are commoner

in the dry deciduous ranges of Katur, Mund-

god and Kirwatti, and quite uncommon in the

evergreen forest.

The great forests of North Kanara are a

little too dominated by evergreen and semi-

evergreen types to be an optimal habitat for

larger wild mammals. However, its deciduous

forests too are very extensive and rich in bam-

boo— a prime fodder for large herbivores. The

very high frequencies of incidence coupled

with the low abundances suggest that the wild

mammal populations have been decimated

everywhere through human persecution. The

high value of habitat fragmentation bears out

this supposition of rather extensive human in-

fluence on the wild life.

Crestline

To the south of North Kanara, the Western

Ghats rise much higher, and narrower. The

rainfall in this region is very heavy reaching

6000 - 7000 mm. There is a rather narrow belt

of forests following this Crestline of the ghats

(latitude 11°30' N to 14°0' N, longitude

74° 15' E to 76°30' E). The vegetation is ever-

green on the steep slopes west of the Crest-

line. There is a belt of semi-evergreen and

moist deciduous forests at the foothills on the

west, as well as on the eastern slopes. The

proportion of deciduous forests is 0.27, and the

fragmentation index is 0.57.

Table 7 lists the occurrence rating for wild

animals in 21 of the forest ranges of this re-

gion, while tables 5 and 6 and figure 4 sum-

marise the data. As may be seen from these,

the wild mammal populations are on the

whole very poor, although most of the major

species do occur in this region. Only a few

isolated herds of elephants are found in these

evergreen forests, and even these have per-

haps been forced out by the deforestation of

the deciduous tracts to the east of the Crest-

line. The gaur and sambar have high frequen-

cies of incidence (85% each), but occur com-

monly only on the foot hills of Coondapur.

The spotted deer occurs only very sporadical-

ly and in low numbers. The wild pig, how-

ever, is present in all ranges, and is often quite

common. Again its adaptibility to evergreen

forests, to crop raiding, and its high repro-

ductive rate render it the most successful of

larger wild mammals. The lion-tailed maca-

que occurs in the evergreen forests of Sagar.

729

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

mammalian herbivores.

730

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

The hanuman langur is present as well. The

carnivores, tiger, panther and wild dog are all

present, but their occurrence rating is low in

conformity with the low occurrence rating of

their prey.

Only a small proportion, 0.27, of the sur-

viving forests in the region of the Crestline

are deciduous. As discussed above, this im-

plies a poor habitat for most large herbivores,

and consequently for carnivores. This is prob-

ably an important factor in the very low occur-

rence ratings of all the major mammals ex-

cept the wild pig. At the same time, the ever-

green forests provide the habitat for a most

interesting primate — the lion-tailed macaque.

There are in this region some tracts of inter-

spersion of evergreen sholas and grassy downs

which provide excellent habitats for many

mammals such as gaur and sambar. The low

abundances must then also relate to consi-

derable human persecution. This is the case,

even though the fragmentation index is re-

latively low, because the forests occur in a

rather narrow linear strip.

Malnad

This region lies to the east of the Crestline,

seperated by a wide belt of coffee and culti-

vation (13° 0' N to 14° 15' N lat. and 75°

0' E to 76° 0' E long.). The area, albeit

rather plain, owes its forest cover to several

large hills like the Shankar hills and the

Bababudangiris rising out of the plains. The

rainfall is around 1000 mm, and there are ex-

tensive tracts of dry and moist deciduous

forest. The proportion of deciduous forests is

0.64, and the fragmentation of the habitat is

on the low side, the index taking a value of

0.64.

We have estimates of occurrence ratings of

major mammalian species in 14 of the forest

ranges of Malnad region; and it is evident

that this region boasts of wild life populations

only second to Mysore plateau (Tables 5,6

and fig. 5). Almost all of the ranges support

elephant populations with a rather large herd

of 30-40 living by the Bhadra reservoir. The

gaur also occur extensively, being present

over 76% of the ranges. The sambar is pre-

sent in almost all the ranges, as is spotted deer

which finds its optimum habitat in the

rather degraded deciduous forests of this re-

gion. Wild pig, as in other regions is ubiqui-

tous. There are no lion-tailed macaques in

the absence of habitable evergreen tracts

which are all taken up by coffee plantations,

but the hanuman langur is common through-

out. The wild dog, panther and tiger are pre-

sent over most of the region, and their over-

all occurrence is also high in concert with the

higher populations of herbivores.

Overall, the Malnad region, with its open-

ed up deciduous forests is potentially an out-

standing wild life habitat. The tracts of forest

in this region are extensive with relatively

little human interference in the deeper forests.

The extensive coffee plantations, heavy ex-

ploitation of the forest by forest-based indus-

tries, particularly the paper mills, and the

disturbance caused by the construction of

Tunga and Bhadra reservoirs have however

largely decimated the wild life populations

which today are a pale shadow of their for-

mer self.

Mysore Plateau

The western edge of the Mysore Plateau,

flanked on three sides by the southernmost

ranges of Sahyadris proper, Nilgiris and the

eastern spur of hills towards Biligirirangans

is an undulating plain with a rainfall between

600 to 1000 mm a year (lat. 11°35'N and 12°

45'N and long. 75° 54' E and 77° O' E). The

plateau is covered by moist and dry deciduous

731

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 5. A map of the Malnad region indicating the occurrence rating of larger

mammalian herbivores.

732

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

forests, the proportion of the deciduous forests

being 1. The forest still maintains much of

its integrity though now split into two by the

Kabini reservoir, and the fragmentations in-

dex of 0.70 is relatively low.

This is undoubtedly the richest wild life re-

gion in the state and has been the subject of

an earlier detailed report by us (Nair et al.

1977). Table 7 lists the occurrence rating for

mammals for 13 forest ranges falling with-

in this region, and Tables 5 and 6 and Fig.

6 summarize the data. It is the only region

where certain wild mammals can still be con-

sidered to be abundant, albeit locally. It has

an elephant population of about 1300 ani-

mals, a gaur population which was very high

till a rinderpest outbreak in 1968, a sambar

and a chital population very good in pockets,

a good wild pig population, and a good popu-

lation of hanuman langur. The carnivores too

are reasonably common, particularly wild

dogs. Panthers and tigers also survive in rea-

sonable numbers (See Plates 4 and 5).

The richness of this wild mammal fauna

depends on the eminent suitability of the

habitat, which is entirely somewhat degraded

deciduous forest, and the protection from per-

secution over much of the region first as a

hunting preserve of Mysore maharaja and

then as wild life sanctuaries.

Kollegal Hills

This hilly area, lying between 11° 30' and

13° 0'N latitude and 77° 15' and 77° 45' E

longitude is an eastern spur of the ghats. The

rainfall is low, around 500 mm except on the

Biligirirangan hills where it exceeds 1000 mm.

Apart from the moist deciduous, or semi-ever-

green forest on these hills, the rest of the re-

gion is covered by dry deciduous forest, most-

ly degraded into scrub. The proximity of the

urban centre of Bangalore has been a major

factor in hastening the pace of degradation of

these forests. Because of this degradation, the

proportion of deciduous forests is low — only

0.4, and the forests are highly fragmented,

with a fragmentation index of 0.71.

Table 7 presents larger wild mammal oc-

currence ratings for 10 ranges of this region

(See figure 7). Elephants occur over most of

this region, and this highly adaptable species

still maintains a good population in this and

the adjacent Satyamangalam forests. The gaur

is restricted to areas where the forest remains

at the dry deciduous stage. Spotted deer, sam-

bar and wild pig occur throughout all the

ranges. The opened deciduous forest is of

course a good habitat for the deer, but the

persistence o fthe pig from evergreen to scrub

speaks for its versatility. The wild dogs have

a fairly extensive distribution, though pan-

ther and tiger are much more restricted.

Earlier accounts indicate that this was once

a quite rich wild life area in spite of the dry-

ness of the climatic regime. The current rather

low occurrence ratings are due to further de-

gradation of the vegetation, and persecution

by man in this highly fragmented habitat.

Maidan

Most of the forests of Karnataka, as men-

tioned earlier, clothe the hills of the Western

Ghats, or the adjoining hills in Chickmagalur

— Shimoga and Kollegal regions. There is

very little forest on the remaining maidan

areas on the Deccan Plateau, and what there

is of such forest is highly degraded, fragment-

ed and practically devoid of any wild mam-

mals. The proportion of deciduous forest in

this region is 0 while the fragmentation index

takes the value of 1.

One single range in this region, that of

Ranebennur is however notable for the oc-

currence of good herds of blackbuck, and re-

733

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

g

a

8

o

<Z>

<4-1

o

a

6

<

'S

E

734

mammalian herbivores.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Prasad et al. : Mammals in Karnataka

Plate V

ilililiiiis

tej

1111

m

' ' '

■;1 V'..':l ' ->:1 .;>::

■

’:p-s- rf’’

rnmmmMmmmmmmm

mmmmmmmmm

WasiSs;

fwim V :|; , ¥/ IpiJi

||H Wifi ■ :' ■ j

!|S#1P?:;;1|- ll;*;:' ;

flv '

••'••• ■'- ". • .. \1%1

■dkhii

HM

l^l!l|liilliiWlliiilli^iM®li^te|"'|iJteiili^^

:il Jggw^

lllll

m

/ j /;>/' '-' v • ..4v;tK ; :' IVll— '' " ~

' r ... .

WW^WM^ : :-•■ y 1 I

f v4; ... s *, - * ^ '

• ' ,'P ■ J'/: .' v... - " .'

Above: Sambar in Bandipur Tiger Reserve. (Photo: A, J. T. Johnsingh ).

Below: A view of the Ranebennur plains with Eucalyptus plantations in the

background. (Photo: S. N. Prasad ).

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

portedly a few wolves in the Ranebennur

sanctuary. This herd apparently built up from

a few blackbuck which received protection

when a Eucalyptus plantation was started in

the degraded forest of this range (Neginhal,

in press) (See plate 5). Such scattered remnants

of blackbuck also apparently occur in other

areas such as Raichur.

Much of this dry and open country once

supported good populations of antelopes —

blackbuck, chinkara and nilgai which have

vanished because of the ease of hunting in

the habitats of these animals. As stressed

earlier, this fauna of open scrubby plains has

suffered the worst at the hand of man, with

cheetah extinct, and wolf and blackbuck

threatened with extinction.

Conclusion

It is perhaps worth commenting on a few

of the significant points which emerge out of

this analysis. The maintenance of the integri-

ty of the habitat is critical to all our attempts

at nature conservation. The great decimation

of wild life in North Kanara in particular is

largely due to the extreme fragmentation of

this great forest, and a similar phenomenon

repeats itself in other regions of the state.

Apart from this immediately evident effect,

much evidence is now accumulating from a

number of ecological studies to show that

small, fragmented habitats cannot in the long

run sustain their original biological diversity,

though they may continue to do so in the

short run. It is therefore being stressed that

maintenance of large contiguous areas should

be a very important aim of all efforts at de-

signing nature reserves (Diamond 1975). We

must therefore strive to avoid any further

fragmentation of the wild life habitats, parti-

cularly in the few viable areas such as the

Bandipur — Nagarhole complex which still re-

main with us.

The second point that emerges is that the

situation is far worse in respect of the con-

servation of the fauna of the evergreen forests

and scrub when compared with that of the

fauna of the deciduous forest. As investiga-

tions of Dr. Pascal and his colleagues from

the French Institute have shown, very little

now remains of the once extensive evergreen

forests on the Western Ghats of Karnataka.

The one larger mammal — the lion-tailed ma-

caque— characteristic of the evergreen forests

of South India is thereby threatened with ex-

tinction. Much more importantly, a large num-

ber of amphibians and reptiles which are also

unique to this ecosystem are no doubt like-

wise disappearing, although this is hardly

realised because of our near-total ignorance

of this fauna.

As emphasized above, the fauna of the open

scrub has been decimated to a much greater

degree than that of the thicker forests, and

there is an urgency to step up efforts to con-

serve and replenish it. There are no sanctua-

ries representing this type of ecosystem in

Karnataka, except for Ranebennur. Rane-

bennur is however a Eucalyptus plantation

and as Neginhal (in press) has shown, is fast

losing its ability to sustain the blackbuck popu-

lation. It is imperative that a genuine scrub

vegetation be built up, its typical wild life

restocked and the ecosystem restored in some

reasonably large wild life sanctuary in the

semi-arid belt of the Deccan plateau.

735

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 7. A map of the Kollegal Hills indicating the occurrence rating of larger

mammalian herbivores

736

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

Table 1

On the distribution of food resources of mammalian populations in different types of

VEGETATION

O = absent, R = Rare, C = Common, A = Abundant.

Table 2

On the dependence of herbivorous or omnivorous mammals on different food resources

O = absent, R = Rare, C = Common, A = Abundant.

737

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 3

Distribution of herbivorous or omnivorous mammals in different vegetation types when

UNDISTURBED.

O = Absent, R = Rare, C == Common, A = Abundant.

* Now extinct in India.

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

Table 5

The proportion of forest ranges containing deciduous forest, the index of habitat fragment-

ation, AND AVERAGE OCCURRENCE RATING FOR HERBIVORES AND CARNIVORES FOR THE SIX DIFFERENT WILD

LIFE BEARING REGIONS OF THE STATE.

739

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 7

Lanther Tiger

1

2

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

“

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

SI. Name of Ele- Gaur Spotted

No. range phant deer

15 Puttur 0 0

16 Panja 1 0

17 Subramanya 2 1

18 Sulya 2 1

19 Sampaje 2 1

20 Bhaga-

mandala 2 1

21 Makut 3 1

Area No. 3 — Malnad

1 Hosanagar 0

2 Kalasa 2

3 Balehonnur 3

4 Muthodi 3

5 Hebbe 3

6 Lakkavalli 2

7 Umblebyle 2

8 N.R. Pura 1

9 Chickagrahara 1

10 Anandapuram 1

1 1 Shankar 1

12 Sacrebyle 2

13 Ayanur 2

14 Rippenpet 2

2

3

2

0

2

0

2

1

2

Area No. 4 — Mysore Plateau

1 Bandipur 4 2

2 A.M. Gudi 4 2

3 H.D. Kote 3 2

4 Kakankote 4 2

5 Begur 4 2

6 Hediyal 3 2

7 Nagarhole 3 3

8 Titimati 3 2

9 Kalhalla 3 2

10 Sunkadakatte 3 2

1 1 Anthrasanthe 2 2

12 Gundlupet 3 2

13 Murkal 3 2

Area No. 5 — Kollegal hills

1 Anekal 1 0

2 Sathnur 2 0

3 Mahadeswara-

malai 3 2

4 Ramapuram 2 0

5 Hanur 2 0

6 Kollegal 3 2

0

1

0

2

3

2

1

2

4

3

2

3

2

3

1

2

Sambar

0

1

2

Wild

Pig

2

Wild Panther Tiger,

dog

0 0 0

2 2 0

0

2 0 0

12---

12 111

2

3

2

3

2

1

0

2

1

0

1

0

1

2

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

2

1

2

0

1

0

1

0

1

3

2

3

2

3

2

3

1

2

3

2

3

0

2

3

2

3

2

3

2

0

2

3

2

0

2

0

2

2 1 1

0 0 0

2 0 0

2 0 1

741

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

4 = very common, 3 = frequent, 2 = present, 1 = rare, 0 = absent, - = no information

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of Kar-

nataka State Forest Department for their ge-

nerous co-operation in our surveys. We are

also thankful to the World Wildlife Fund and

the International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources for their sup-

port. We have benefited greatly from help in

the field and from many useful discussions

with A. J. T. Johnsingh and Rauf Ali. J. C.

Daniel, E. R. C. Davidar, Robert Grubh, V.

M. Meher-Homji, N. L. N. S. Prasad and

Indra Kumar Sharma made a number of help-

ful comments on the manuscript.

References

Anonymous (1908): Imperial Gazetteer of

India, Vol. XI. Oxford.

Berwick, S. (1976): The Gir Forest: An En-

dangered Ecosystem. Am. Scientist 64: 28-40.

Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. H. (1978) : A

Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Delhi.

Daniel, J. C. and Grubh, R. B. (1966): The

Indian Wild Buffalo Bubalus bubalis in Peninsular

India: A preliminary Survey. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 63(1): 32-5 3.

Davidar, E. R. C. (1978): Report on the Status

of Nilgiri Tahr. Coonoor.

Diamond, J. M. (1975): The Island Dilemma:

Lessons of Modern Biogeographic Studies for the

Design of Natural Reserves. Biological Conservation

7: 129.

Francis, W. (1904): Madras District Gazetteers:

Bellary. Madras.

Gee, E. P. (1969): The Wild Life of India.

London.

Green, S. and Minkowski, K. (1977) : The

Lion-tailed Monkey and its South Indian Rain

Forest Habitat, in Primate Conservation. New

York: 289-337.

Krishnan, M. (1975): India’s Wildlife in 1959-

70. Bombay.

Kurup, G. U. (1977) : Distribution, Habitat and

Conservation of the Rain Forest Primates in the

Western Ghats, in M. R. N. Prasad and T. C.

Anand Kumar (ed.) Use of Non-human Primates

in Biomedical Research. New Delhi: 62-73.

Legris, P. (1963): La Vegetation de l’lnde: Eco-

logy et Flore. Pondicherry.

742

■■ ■

DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS IN KARNATAKA

Nair, P. V. K. AND Gadgil, Madhav (1978):

The Status and Distribution of Elephant Popula-

tions of Karnataka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (In

press).

Nair, S. S., Nair, P. V. K., Sharatchandra, H.

C. and Gadgil, Madhav (1977) : An Ecological Re-

connaissance of the Proposed Jawahar National

Park. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(3) : 401-435.

Neginhal, S. G. (1978): Ecological Impact of

Afforestation at the Ranebennur Blackbuck Sanc-

tuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (in press).

Nicholson, F. A. (1887) : Manual of Coimba-

tore District in the Presidency of Madras. Madras.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay.

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the

Tiger. Chicago.

Southwick, C. M., Beg, M. A. and Siddiqui,

M. R. (1962) : A Population Survey of Rhesus

Monkeys in Villages, Towns and Temples of Nor-

thern India. Ecology 42: 528-547.

Stuart, H. A. (1895) : Madras District Manuals:

Manual of South Kanara District, Vol. II. Madras.

743

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

WITH SOME NOTES ON WILDLIFE

CONSERVATION IN THE ISLANDS

Humayun Abdulali

( With jour plates )

This is a report, mainly ornithological, of the writer’s seventh and eighth trips to the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Collections were made on Car and Great Nicobar and

the specimens obtained permitted the addition of a new species of owl, Otus magicusl

to the list of Indian birds, the description of new races of Amaurornis phoenicurus

from Central Nicobars, and of Macropygia rufpennis and Ninox affinis from Great

Nicobar. Attention has been drawn to the possibility of separating additional indi-

genous races of Spilornis cheela, another Amaurornis phoenicurus and Zosterops palpe-

brosa from Great Nicobar.

The Blacktailed Godwit ( Limosa lapponica) and the Sanderling ( Calidris albus )

obtained at Car Nicobar are additions to the list of birds recorded from the Andaman

and Nicobar Islands. 9 suedes are added to the list from Car Nicobar and 19 to Great

Nicobar. Field and other notes are included.

Every trip to the Andamans and Nicobars

produces material which adds something to

our knowledge of the birds and beasts of the

area. Taxonomically, particularly regarding

birds, the main reason is the fact that the first

collections were made in the last century be-

fore the recognition of subspecies, and the

type localities were just listed “Andamans”

or “Nicobars”, sometimes even “Andamans

and Nicobars”, ignoring the possibility of dif-

ferent forms having evolved in the 225 odd

islands far from the mainland, and strung out

over almost 500 miles. These islands form at

least five separate archipelagos or biogeogra-

phical units. Due to greater attention given to

collecting rather than to observation, little or

nothing has been recorded regarding the field

habits of the birds, and it will be quite some

time before we have information equivalent

to that pertaining to Indian species, which in

itself is far behind that available for other

parts of the world.

For these reasons I have been anxious to

make representative collections in the different

areas. Transport between the islands is diffi-

cult and irregular and trips aimed at one group

have on more than one occasion found me

in another. In 1966 I left with the hope of

covering most of the Nicobars, but as men-

tioned in my earlier report (1967) I lost 10

days on a small clearing on the shore of Great

Nicobar near Campbell Bay with the sea on

one side and the impenetrable forest on the

other. Movement was restricted to the beach

when the tides permitted, and a few hundred

yards inland.

I then obtained an owlet which I listed as

Otus scops nicobaricus (Hume). This was re-

ferred to in a foot-note in Indian handbook

(3 p. 265) and Dr. J. Marshall (Auk, January

1972) when reviewing the book drew atten-

tion to the wing being too large for any scops

owl. Further correspondence with him resulted

in his visiting Bombay to examine the speci-

men, but he was unable to identify it. His

inability to obtain permission to visit Great

744

Platf I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Abdulali : Great and Car Nicobars

The Andaman Pig and the Water Lizard (V. salvator) both in Schedule A of Wildlife

(Protection) Act 1972 are trapped in North Andaman and in the absence of refri-

geration taken alive to Port Blair, often with broken limbs and other injuries.

(Photo : Romulus Whitaker )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Abdulali : Great and Car Nicobars

Plate II

. . . And so to market.

(Photos: Romulus Whitaker )

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N ICO BARS

Nicobar led to his suggesting that I apply to

the Frank M. Chapman Memorial Fund ad-

ministered by American Museum of Natural

History, who readily helped.

In 1975 I corresponded with the Chief Com-

missioner and upon his assurance that all pos-

sible assistance would be available, arranged

for Rex Pimento, Field Assistant, B.N.H.S.

and Cyrus Toorkey, a Bombay undergraduate

and a promising bird man to get to Port Blair

by sea from Madras, where I was to fly in via

Calcutta and Rangoon. The sailings between

the islands were roughly fortnightly and when

I got to Port Blair on 18th March 1976, I dis-

covered that it would be possible for me to

get to Car Nicobar by a light-house ship

which was leaving on the 20th and touching

several out-of-the-way islands en route. T

therefore cabled the Deputy Commissioner to

off-load Rex and Cyrus at Car Nicobar and

let me meet them there on the 23rd. I was

aware that a formal permit to collect birds

would be necessary and saw the local Divi-

sional Forest Officer who was also act-

ing as Chief Wildlife Warden for the whole

State. He asked for a list of the birds which

I wished to collect and upon my attempting

to explain that it was hardly possible to pre-

pare such a list, for we hoped to find some

which had never been obtained before, he drew

attention to Section 12 of the Wild Animals

(Protection) Act 1972 which says (a) that the

licence requires the previous permission of the

State Government, and (b) that it should also

be restricted to hunting the animals specified

therein. The Chief Commissioner was away in

India, but the Chief Secretary appeared to

agree that a licence as asked for by me could

be issued, and I left my application assuming

that the formalities would now be completed,

and sailed by the light-ship Sagardeep. The

first stop was off Neil and Sir Hugh Rose Is.,

the latter bearing an automatic light-house.

I landed with the party entrusted with carrying

the gas cylinders to the top. The tide was in

and movement was restricted to half a mile

of sandy beach on the western shore.

Common Sandpiper and Lesser Sand Plo-

ver rested in the shrubbery near the beach.

I disturbed a pair of Great Stone Plover out

of the same cover and as they trotted out, I

sat on the sand to watch them. They moved

about and squatted occasionally, but were all

the time very curious to know what I was.

The slightly smaller female (?) trotted up to

within 15 yards, giving another example of the

lack of fear in places where man does not

exist, and how this has accelerated the des-

truction of many species, immediately upon

his appearance.

After lunch we rowed round the island and

saw a few Blacknaped Terns on a rocky pin-

nacle in the sea, a couple of dark Reef Egrets

and a pair of Whitebellied Sea Eagles on a

tree. The ship’s butler said that these birds

were tamed and kept as free-flying pets around

his home town, Goa. A party of dolphin sport-

ed some 50 yards from shore, turning over and

jumping clear out of the water, offering some

excellent shots for the camera.

On the 21st we arrived at North Cinque

Island, having earlier seen a Tropic Bird

( Phaethon sp.) in the distance. A pair of Great

Stone Plover, frequented the beach, and a few

more birds were seen, including several Jun-

gle Crows (one carrying a white pigeon (?)

egg), a Brown Flycatcher ( Muscicapa latiros-

tris ), and Bronze- winged Doves which appear-

ed darker than around Bombay.

On the ground under the trees I picked up

a 3 -foot snake which showed the most startling

array of greens and blues which I had ever

seen, and which I felt sure was something new

745

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

and yet unknown.* It lived with me till the

end of the trip but I did not have the courage

to try and bring it in by plane, and it was un-

fortunately lost in the alternative arrangements

made.

We reached Little Andaman just after sun-

set and at least two species of bats were hawk-

ing round the lamp-post near the pier. The

Forest Officer took me for a drive and we

saw a grey civet cat/linsang with dark spots

and a pale monocolorous cat, high on its legs.

Both animals need identification. Fireflies in a

conifer made it look like a huge X’mas tree.

The following morning I walked along the

road which did not exist when I had stopped

for a short time in February 1966. I saw some

25 different birds. This 400 square mile island,

has not yet been touched by any naturalist

and will certainly produce surprises.

The Sagardeep got to Car Nicobar late at

night on the 22nd and I was up at daylight (5

a.m.) to get ashore but could not make a land-

ing until almost 11. Once ashore however,

matters moved more quickly, a jeep having

been sent by the Dy. Commissioner, Mr. Sanat

Kaul, i.a.s., I drove to the Rest House at

the southern end of the island and then went

to see Mr. Kaul who was looking at some work

along the shore. While speaking to him, I

noticed a large wader in the mud and glasses

showed it to be a Blacktailed Godwit ( Limosa

lapponica). Nearby were a few Sandplovers

and Sanderlings. The Godwit and Sanderling,

specimens of both which were obtained, are

additions to the avifauna of the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands!

The sailing for Great Nicobar was not due

* A colour photograph of Ahaetulla cyanochloris

Wall exhibited by R. Whitaker in the course of a

talk on Andaman Reptiles was almost certainly the

same.

till the end of the month and with the jeep

at our disposal, we scoured fairly thoroughly

the whole island which is relatively flat and

open country.

House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus), no

doubt introduced, had built a large globular

nest in a tree, quite unlike what one usually

sees, but which has been noted, in India.

Our attention was drawn to a small under-

ground cave with two entrances at opposite

sides, flush with the ground. Entry was made

in a crouching position into pitch darkness,

perhaps 30 feet underground. Stalactites drip-

ped from the roof and the first attempt to-

wards the slimy bottom resulted in a slithering

crash. The roof of the cave was about 20 feet

high and torchlight revealed white nests of the

Greyrumped Swiftlets ( CoUocaUa juciphaga)

stuck in the small vertical crevices right from

the top to as low as 8 feet from the bottom.

Most of them contained eggs and fledglings.

While groping in the darkness we met a pit

viper ( Trimeresurus albolabris Gray)!

On the 26th, we drove along the circular

road right round the island. Several White-

breasted Waterhens were seen on this and

other trips, and the pure white heads, on the

basis of which I have described leucocephalus,

were prominent. The absence of the white

head in one no doubt indicated a juvenile

plumage. On one occasion, a gunshot started

these birds calling.

At high tide, 14 whimbrel were seen per-

ched on a tree about 100 yards from the

shore, and other water-birds, e.g. the Golden

Plover, were collected on the aerodrome. Five

watercocks were also put up from the grass

along the edges of the run- way, “beating” with

the jeep. A dark middle-sized rail was put

up in the same area but we failed to secure

it and it remains unknown.

Some of the coconut palms in plantations

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N1COBARS

held football-like protuberances 15 to 20 feet

from the ground which appeared to be made

by termites but some black ants collected in

one nest containing eggs have been identified

as Dolichoderus bitub erculatus Mayr. In

one place, the nests bore holes in the centre

which, together with the proximity of the White-

collared Kingfisher, suggested that they were

being used as nests by these birds.

The domestic pig was very abundant and

seen in villages, on the shore, and in the for-

ests. They were medium-sized animals, black,

brown and pied, the young also being of mix-

ed colour with none striped. No wild pig is

known on this island. We were told of a large

tract of grassland near Kakana Village which

I thought might possibly hold quail. Our guide

however persisted that such a bird did not

exist and the half-hearted beat after a long

trudge failed to produce anything.

On the 29th, we again got the opportunity

of stealing a two- day march on the ferry boat

and took off for Nancowry by the Safeena

belonging to the Nancowry Trading Co.

We were again among old friends, includ-

ing members of the above-mentioned organi-

zation, Benjamin, who had helped me during

the 1966 trip and Surgeon-Lieut. Maitra, a

member of the Society, who had corresponded

with me earlier and sent to Bombay a speci-

men of the Hawk Owl ( Ninox ). With their

assistance, we arranged for a trip to Trinkut

Island to look for the Bluebreasted Quail, of

which no specimen existed in Indian collec-

tions and the only record was of the type ob-

tained by Abbott & Kloss at the turn of the

century. The habitat which I had worked be-

fore was a large area under ‘elephant grass’

[ lmperata(l ) sp.] which is used for thatching

the domed huts in the Nicobars. The first bird

put up was a watercock but with an organized

effort it was not difficult to obtain 4 quail

which were put up as single birds, pairs and

one party of 5 or 6. They rise with a very

slight whirr and are really much too small

to afford any sport. Upon our return to Nan-

cowry, we received a message from Shri Kaul

relaying one from the Chief Conservator of

Forests at Port Blair in which it was said that

“no bird-shooting was allowed without per-

mission.” Mr. Kaul who had been acquainted

with the earlier negotiations, added that he

had cabled to the Chief Secretary and was

awaiting a reply. Hoping that the Chief Com-

missioner was now back in Port Blair, I sent

off a long wire to him but our work was at

a standstill.

Having already been away from my busi-

ness for over a fortnight, I decided to leave

the boys at Campbell Bay for the ferry-boat’s

next trip and to get back to Port Blair to see

what could be done. I was therefore at Camp-

bell Bay only on the 2nd April getting there

by the ferry Yarewa, and returning the same

night. Short walks along the new North-South

and East-West Roads revealed over 20 kinds

of birds (we found 4 nests of the Racket-

tailed Drongo) and stressed the necessity of

working the area under the changed and

changing conditions.

On the way back we landed at Katchal

where 10,000 acres of forest had been cleared

and planted with rubber which was now 8

years old and ready for tapping. Another area

had been cleared and put under the Nigerian

Red Oil Palm which was also bearing fruit,

but in both instances, the absence of labour

and other supplementary arrangements pre-

vented the tapping of rubber and the col-

lection of the nuts for oil. This is another ex-

ample of the unfortunate manner in which

natural resources are being literally murdered

747

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

;

by schemes and programmes prepared by

people who have no indication of how they

are to be completed and/or finalized.

Immediately upon arrival at Port Blair on

5 April I saw the Chief Commissioner S. M.

Krishnatry with whom I had corresponded

earlier and understood that he knew nothing

about my trip until he received my telegram

from Nancowry, which he had passed on to

the Chief Wildlife Warden who again

repeated that the formalities had to be com-

pleted and finally accepted an application for

100 specimens, consisting of not more than 5

specimens of any one species of bird or mam-

mal, only 2 megapodes and no sea-eagles. This

was still subject to the Chief Commissioner’s

endorsement but he agreed to my advising

the party at Campbell Bay to proceed with

the collecting.

While waiting for my plane to Calcutta, I

looked in at the Port Blair Zoo and saw ex-

amples of 2 species of Serpent Eagles ( Spilor -

nis cheela davisoni and S. elgini ) whose iden-

tity has been disputed. There was no doubt re-

garding their separateness and I will refer to

this in some detail later. The Zoo also con-

tained a few megapodes which had been cap-

tured on Megapode Island off Great Nicobar.

From the Rest House, I saw a snipe drop

into the grass on one side of the road. As I

watched, the bird scuttled across the road into

the grass on the other side — I must confess

that I had never before seen a snipe (except

perhaps a dead one!) on a macadamized road!

At Calcutta, I looked in at the Zoological

Survey and explained to Dr. K. K. Tiwari,

Joint Director, the difficulties regarding col-

lecting permits. Dr. Tiwari agreed to make

another trip with me the following year and

after much negotiation, we arrived together

at Port Blair on 17 March 1977, accompanied

by two assistants of the Survey, Messrs S. S.

Saha and B. Roy. The Chief Commissioner

was again away from town but an application

for a collecting permit was left with the Chief

Wildlife Warden.

The journey to Campbell Bay was relatively

uneventful. Not being in charge, 1 could now

afford to sit and watch. At Little Andaman,

the Divisional Forest Officer met us on the

boat and drove us about a mile down the road,

saying that he had instructions from Port

Blair to meet the party of the Zoological Sur-

vey, but made it quite clear that he would not

permit us to collect any birds. Four live Hill

Mynas (Gracula religiosa) were brought on

board in a cage and we saw scarlet minivets

building a nest. During our short stops at Kat-

chal and Camorta, a number of frogs, toads,

lizards and snakes were obtained. While wait-

ing for flying foxes ( Pteropus sp.) on the edge

of heavy forest at Camorta, I saw two young

men walk past with a 22° rifle. They said they

were looking for pigeons but had got nothing.

A gun in the same place would have got half-

a-dozen of the larger pigeons as they flew

over in the evening, sometimes 3 or 4 to-

gether.

We finally got to Campbell Bay on the 25th

and the party was divided into two, one at

the Rest House and the other in the village

further down.

We stayed here till 11th April and during

this time made trips along the North-South

and East-West roads. The former ended at the

Galatea River and the latter at Copenheit on

the west coast. On one trip southwards, we

found the road almost blocked by the top

half of a fig-covered tree, which had caught

fire, presumably by lightning, and fallen

across. It was being removed by blasting! On

another we got to the river to find a small

boat with one oar. The tide was coming in

and it was quite impossible to move the boat

748

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N ICO BARS

in any desired direction. We shouted for the

aboriginal Shompens who live on the other

side, but there was no response. Two trips

were made to the west coast by road, and de-

tails of one to “Hawabil” ( Collocalia Swifts)

Cave are given under the species. Chenappa

Bay and Laxman Beach were within easy

walking distance. A small island, about 200

yards off-shore in the Bay was reached

through waist-deep water at low tide. Pied

Pigeons were said to roost here in numbers,

but we only saw a few during the daytime.

This paper is mainly concerned with birds

and in addition to those obtained on the last

two trips I have, for the sake of completeness,

included such earlier records from Great and

Car Nicobars as I have been able to find.

When reporting on the birds of Narcondam

Island, I had referred to my party collecting

some birds in the Andamans which had not

yet been examined. The taxonomic and other

field notes are therefore split into three parts,

the first two dealing with the birds of Great

and Car Nicobar and the third being a miscel-

lany of notes from the Andamans which will

be published later.

On the first trip a dugong skull was obtain-

ed on Great Nicobar; this presumably extends

the recorded range of this animal. Crab-eating

macaques ( Macaca irus) were occasionally

seen, some with \ and | grown young. The

females showed a distinct toque on the fore-

head. I shot a few bats which along with a

fair number of frogs, toads, lizards and snakes

are being reported upon by members of the

Zoological Survey.

I have referred to difficulties created regard-

ing permission to collect specimens for scienti-

fic purposes and feel that some associated re-

marks are necessary. A note in this respect

is appended at the end of this paper.

Acknowledgements

Before I proceed with the list, I have

to place on record my indebtedness to the

American Museum of Natural History, who

contributed from the Frank M. Chapman

Memorial Fund and to the Bombay Natural

History Society for having made a grant from

the Charles McCann Field Work Fund, to the

cost of the first trip, the Zoological Survey of

India and Dr. K. K. Tiwari in particular, for

the collaboration which prompted the second

effort, and to Mr. Sana! Kaul i.a.s., Deputy

Commissioner at Car Nicobar whose sympa-

thetic co-operation prevented the first trip

from being a complete flop.

As in my earlier papers, the first number

refers to that in Ripley’s a synopsis of the

BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (1961) and the

10 volumes of the handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. The measurements,

unless otherwise specified, are in millimetres,

the wing being measured flat and the bill from

the feathers of the forehead.

PART 1

GREAT NICOBAR

The area covered includes Little Nicobar and

the several small islands in between and adjacent

to them.

37* Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen

(Philippines) Purple Heron.

1 $ Great Nicobar 29 March 1977.

One was shot off a partly submerged log in

a tidal stream along the North-South Road.

In my earlier note [JBNHS 64(2) p. 150] I

had referred to a female obtained at Trinkut,

Central Nicobars, with little rufous or black

* Birds not previously recorded from Great Nico-

bar are so marked.

749

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

i

on the underbelly and with slightly more ruf-

ous margins to the feathers of the upperparts.

This is in similar plumage. Neither appears to

be juvenile.

Mid toe &

( ) Ardea sumafrana sumatrana Raffles

(Sumatra) Dusky Grey Heron.

Abbott and Kloss (who also noted the Pur-

ple Heron) claimed to have seen them at Trin-

kut, Katchal and Great Nicobar. The species

is omitted in Indian handbook.

39 Butorides striatus subsp. Little Green

Bittern.

2 : 1 $ 1 $ Car Nicobar.

The additional specimens confirm the in-

crease in size from the Andamans southwards

through Car, Central and Great Nicobar

( JBNHS 64 p. 151). Sharpe’s spodiogaster

which was said to have the underparts “darker

sooty-slate colour, with a tinge of rusty on the

abdomen, and with the ear-coverts of the same

colour” appears to be found only in the Anda-

man Islands. They have very little white on

the chin and throat and measure: wing 161,

164, 167; bill from feathers 55.5-57.7.

Those from Car Nicobar (4) are slightly

larger (wing 170-176; bill 58.7-64.5), have

grey underparts, the ear-coverts whitish, and

the chin and throat largely white. In Central

Nicobars, the size is barely larger (wing 167-

179; bill 57.7-64.5) but the grey of the under-

parts and the throat is slightly darker, with

the ear-coverts of the same colour. There is

also a black streak down the throat. Though

several were seen in Great Nicobar, and noted

as larger than those seen further north, none

were collected, and the only measurements

available are the earlier ones from Little Nico-

bar ($ wing 184) and Great Nicobar (tf

wing 185). The former was presumably the

specimen referred to by Ripley (1944, Bull.

Mus. Comp. Zool. p. 319) when he said that

it agreed well with those from West Sumatran

Islands and identified it as actophilus Ober-

holser, which Peters (1931, 1:104) had syno-

nymised with amurensis Schrenck.

When listing the birds in the Bombay col-

lection (1968, JBNHS 65; 192/3) I followed

Ripley’s synopsis and accepted Indian birds

as javanicus, drawing attention to variations

in colour and size. In the Indian handbook

they are now said to be chloriceps (Bonaparte)

(Type locality: Hitauri, Chisapani Garhi dis.,

Nepal), but four adults (1 3 $ $) from

Bombay and Ratnagiri on the western coast

(wings 165-168) and a male from Ambala,

Punjab (wing 173) have dark underparts

(very different from the grey of chloriceps)

and can only be separated from spodiogaster

from the Andamans by their heavier bills. For

the moment, I can do no more than restrict

the type locality of spodiogaster to the Anda-

man Islands.

In 1976 I noted one on Car Nicobar with

symmetrical white patches on both wings and

another with white tips to both wings at Ca-

morta. BNHS cf 22266 collected at Camorta

on 25 March 1966 has the two outermost pri-

maries on both sides pure white.

42* Ardeola grayii (Sykes) (Dukhun)

Pond Heron or Paddy bird.

1 $ Great Nicobar — March 1977.

Wing 198; bill 61; tarsus 56; tail 62

This was one of four seen flighting in the

same direction over the East-West Road within

10 minutes about sunset. The species has not

been recorded in Great Nicobar before.

750

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Abdulali : Great and Car Nicobars

The forests form close impenetrable stands which have to be cleared completely, for

single trees can no more stand alone than can a single stem of grass.

(Photo: S. 5. Saha)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Abdulali : Great and Car Nicobars

Plate IV

Mechanical means of destruction have to be employed and much of the

timber is removed by burning. (Photo : S. S. Saha )

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N1COBARS

51 Egretta sacra (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Reef

Heron.

1 $ (grey) Great Nicobar 29.3.76; 2 $ $ (1

white, 1 grey) Car Nicobar 21.3.76

Wing Bill Weight

$ 273 84 —

9 $ 288,276 81,81 395,400 gm

In the course of several trips to these islands,

many dimorphic individuals of this species

were seen, but there was nothing to suggest

that the white and the dark forms hunt under

different conditions — see Ibis (1971) 113: 97-

99; (1972) 114: 552-555; (1973) 115: 419-

420.

The dark grey bill and bright yellow soles

to greenish yellow legs and feet increase in

flight the resemblance of the white form to

Egretta garzetta.

54 Gorsacttios melanolophus minor Ha-

chisuka (Katchal I., Central Nicobars) Malay

or Tiger Bittern.

I have some remarks on a single specimen

obtained on Great Nicobar earlier by the

Zoological Survey ( JBNHS 64 p. 153).

57 Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin) (China)

Yellow Bittern.

A cf and $ were collected on Great Nico-

bar (JBNHS 64: 143).

C. W. Benson, 1970, Bull . B.O.C. pp. 170-

171 refers to material from the Andamans and

Nicobars in London being relatively short-

winged.

Of the four now available in Bombay,

BNHS No. 22326 $ Bambooflats, Andaman

has it 125 mm. while the three others are <$

Andaman 134, 2 $ 9 Central Nicobars 120,

129 (Ind. Hand. 1:87 ejc Baker 129-136, one

143).

142* Accipiter foadius obsolete (Rich-

mond) (Katchal Island, Central Nicobars)

Nicobar Shikra.

In 1966, I had sent a specimen obtained

at Camorta, Central Nicobars, to Dr. B. Bis-

was, who was in London, with a request that

he try and determine its subspecific identity.

In his reply he referred to a 9 obtained by

B. B. Osmaston on Great Nicobar on 21

April 1905, with which my specimen agreed

and suggested that I should record it as A.b.

obsoletus with reservation, as was done.

The B.M. specimen was marked butleri,

presumably by Osmaston, who may not have

had access to Richmond’s description publish-

ed in America only three years earlier, but the

occurrence of the species in Great Nicobar

has been so far overlooked. The subspecific

identity requires further examination.

143 Accipiter soloensis (Horsfield) (Java)

Horsfield’s Goshawk.

Abbott and Kloss obtained 12 specimens on

Central, Little and Great Nicobar and noted

it as not uncommon, though a forest species

and wary. There are no recent records.

173 Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin) (Prin-

ce’s I., Indonesia) Whitebellied Sea Eagle.

Occasionally seen along sea-shore. One

adult with two young out of nest was seen at

Laxman Beach. Two large stick nests in large

trees within a couple of hundred yards of each

other -at Johnson’s Bay could only have been

of this species.

196a* Spilomis cheela subsp.? Serpent

Eagle.

3: 1 $ (juv. largely white) 31 March 1977. 2

9 9 1 (ZSI 33649 collected by P. K. Das) 22 April

1975, one, 2 April 1977.

Hume (1874, Stray Feathers 2:84) reported

seeing a “Harrier Eagle undoubtedly davisoni ”

on Kondal Island between Little and Great

Nicobar and Wimberley obtained a specimen

there on 10 July 1876, which is now at the

British Museum. Mr. Derek Goodwin while

751

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

examining this (BM 1885.8.19.1605) for me

discovered another 1885.8.19.1606 obtained by

Davison on Montschal Island, just off Little

Nicobar. Together with the specimen listed

above, the 4 adults have wings 347-356 mm.,

which is smaller than davisoni and too large

for minimus. In addition, all here are much

paler than any of the others, particularly on

the underparts, while Mr. Goodwin comparing

those at the British Museum with 9 minimus

available to him, says the same.

The two females mentioned above, both in

heavily worn plumage, show traces of ocelli

and barring on the breast and belly but the

total effect is much paler than in other sub-

species with marked breasts, e.g. melanotus

and davisoni and, except for the smaller size,

resembling some of the specimens of nominate

cheela from Northern India.

Two specimens each of S. c. bassus * (J. R.

Forster, Sumatra) and S. c. bido (Horsfield,

Java) (all with unmarked upper breasts) bor-

rowed from Leiden, permit the following com-

parative measurements :

In addition to the wing measurements, the

Great Nicobar birds have the claws on the

middle and hind toes larger than in the others.

They also differ in having the thigh coverts

finely barred, contra spotted in bassus, bido

and davisoni.

Incidentally, contrary to the notes in Swann’s

Monograph (1945) the two specimens of bido

have no white spots on their wing-coverts,

where they are quite numerous in both bassus

( malayensis ) .

My field notes from near Campbell Bay on

8 April, 1977, include the following: —

“Pale Spilornis with strongly barred tail”.

“Pair of largish Spilornis, circling together

on edge of, and over forest. Pale underparts

completely spotted. A local farmer described

an eagle which circled, whistled and took his

chickens”.

* Stresemann (1959) has dealt with this name and

recommended the dropping of bassus and replace-

ment by malayensis Swann for Malayan and Sumat-

ran birds.

752

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

The juvenile was shot seated in a tree with

the crest puffed out and presenting a most

remarkable appearance.

202 Spilornis minimus klossi Richmond

(Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar I.). Small Ser-

pent Eagle.

1 $ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Wing 262,

bill 32.7, tarsus 60, tail 175.

Peter’s Checklist accepts klossi as a sub-

species of minimus. We have no specimens of

nominate minimus for comparison, but this

arrangement, as in the case of elgini, simplifies

the acceptance of this form from Great Nico-

bar alongside the larger form of S. cheela

which has only recently been definitely record-

ed here.

( ) Function haliaetus subsp. Osprey

I saw one at Campbell Bay during my first

visit in 1969.

( ) Circus sp.?

I got a glimpse of a slim-winged bird of

prey over open fields which may have been

some kind of harrier. Circus pygarus, Monta-

gue’s Harrier has been recorded from the

Andamans.

226 Megapodius freycinet abbotti Ober-

holser (Little Nicobar Island) Megapode.

H. P. Singh, the Range Forest Officer took

us to see a megapode nest, some miles from

camp. It was some 30 yards from the shore,

about 5 ft high, roughly 44 paces in circumfer-

ence and 14 paces over the top. It was com-

posed entirely of sand with thin roots running

through and indicating some permanence.

Though two holes had been dug near the top,

there was no trace of dead leaves or eggs or

anything else to suggest a nest.

Another nest c. 24 km down the North-

South Road was visited on 8th April. This

was only 5 yards from the shore and generally

similar to that described above. We were told

that several hens had combined to build the

nest whence 20/25 eggs had been taken last

year, as also several birds. On the way back

to the road we glimpsed a reddish chicken-

like bird streaking through the undergrowth.

The R.F.O. had also visited Megapode I. to

capture birds for the Port Blair Zoo. Six

birds (2 $ $ and 4 $ 9) were trapped on one

of two nest mounds about 200 yards apart.

One female attacked the d1 which could be

distinguished by an orange patch near the

face. Both males died, and one snared female

was devoured by a monitor lizard. The sur-

vivors were fed on boiled rice and crabs. In

captivity, they drank fresh water though none

was known to exist on Megapode I.

( ) Amaurornis phoenicurus subsp.

Sharpe (1894) described insularis from the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands referring to

13 specimens, 9 from South Andaman and 4

from Camorta, Nancowry and Katchal in the

Central Nicobars. No material from Car Nico-

bar (now separated as leucocephalus) was

available to him, and when reporting on my

first collection from the Nicobars ( JBNHS

64: 159) I drew attention to birds from Cen-

tral Nicobars again differing from those from

Car Nicobar. It is necessary to restrict the type

locality of insularis to the South Andamans.

A re-examination reveals that the birds

along that line of islands can be divided into

four groups:

345 andamans: insularis Sharpe (South

Andamans) .

Adults darker than Indian birds, with the

white in front being restricted to a narrow

stripe down the centre and bordered by black.

The white on the forehead, 9-13 mm, is also

more than in Indian birds, but less than in the

next two forms southwards. The young bird

753

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

has less white on the forehead and the dark

underparts are grey rather than black.

345a car nicobar: leucocephaius Abdulali.

In addition to the all-white head, often in-

cluding the nape, and the wider white stripe

down the front, all five available have a vary-

ing extent of rufous on the edges of the rec-

trices, a character absent in others both from

the Andamans and further south. In dry spe-

cimens the bill, legs and feet are bright yellow

with the bill red at base. A single bird with a

non- white head was seen on 26th March 1976

and the type specimen (BNHS 21547) which

has a little black on the nape and whose under-

parts are greyer than in the others represent

phases through which they presumably pass

to adult plumage.

Ripley in rails of the world (1977) has

synonymised this with insularis, but I am not

aware of his having had access to any speci-

mens from Car Nicobar.

345b central nicobar: 2 $ S 2 9 2

As indicated before ( loc . cit.) these birds

differ from leucocephaius in the white of the

head extending only halfway over the top of

the head (about 15 mm), the more olive up-

per parts, their larger and heavier bills (from

feathers $ $ 43-45 contra 42.5-43 in insularis ;

$ $ 36.5-39.5 contra 36-37.5), and the lack

of rufous on the edges of the tail feathers. The

measurements of the legs, feet and bill are

similar to leucocephaius but the bills are

heavier and bulkier than indicated by the

length. They are quite different from those

from Great Nicobar (infra).

On these differences, I name them:

Amanrorms phoenicunas midnicofoaricus

Holotype : $ collected by Robert Grubh

and P. B. Shekar at Nancowry, Central Nico-

bars, on 23 March 1966 and bearing BNHS

Register No. 22444. Paratypes: 1 $ 1 $

Nos. 22572, 22445 ex Camorta and 1 $ 22571

Nancowry, Central Nicobars, all in March

1966. More material from U.S. National Mu-

seum was examined earlier.

345? great nicobar: 3: 1 c? 2 $ $

The three new specimens are, according to

the notes available, similar to the two from

this area referred to earlier (loc. cit.) having

smaller, greenish and less yellow bills, the

white on the forehead only 8-12 mm. and olive-

green legs and feet. Mr. Bond of U.S. National

Museum tells me that the three specimens from

Great Nicobar available to him have dark bills

and narrow white frontal bands, being in these

respects inseparable from their single speci-

men of insularis from the Andamans. The

rufous on the underparts is also darker than

in midnicobaricus. They are much larger than

javanicus (wing <$ $ 157-171 contra 148,

145) of which two specimens from E. Borneo

and Lanuza, Surigao del Sur, in the Philippines

were borrowed from the American Museum

of Natural History. Except that their upper-

parts are greyer and do not have an olive

tinge, the Great Nicobar birds are not sepa-

rable from nominate phoenicurus and chinen-

sis found in India, and may well be the same.

Adult skins kept for some time acquire the

olive tinge on the upperparts resembling that

in juveniles. These descriptions are generally

confirmed by the several single birds and pairs

seen during the trip.

While the four subspecies occurring in the

Andamans and Nicobars appear to be very

distinct, single specimens from Narcondam

Island (No, 23386 $ 30 April 1970), South

Andaman (23387 $ 28 April 1970) and Nan-

cowry (22571 $ 24 March 1966) with no

rufous on the underbelly, very little white on

the forehead, smaller bills and less brightly

coloured legs and feet are probably first year

or subadults of their respective resident races.

754

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N ICO BARS

A pair was noted feeding in a dry nullah at

dusk. One pecked on the ground, while the

other picked seeds off standing grass. When

alarmed they first opened and shut their wings

and then ran.

371* Plovialis sqeafarola (Linnaeus)

(Sweden) Grey Plover.

Noted at Copenheit on west coast with other

waders on 3 April 1977. I have also seen this

bird at Car Nicobar and at Trinkut, Central

Nicobars.

373 Fluvialis donilisica fsiSva (Gmelin)

(Tahiti) Golden Plover.

A single bird was noted on Great Nicobar

on 1st April 1977. Flocks of 30/40 were seen

on Car Nicobar on 23 March 1976 but in-

cluded none in breeding plumage.

374* Charadrios lescheoanltii leschenaultii

Lesson (Pondicherry) Large Sand Plover.

Seen at Copenheit, Great Nicobar on 3

April 1977.

A specimen obtained on Car Nicobar had

a 148 mm. wing.

384 Charadrius niosigolas atrifrons Wagler

(Bengal) Lesser Sand Plover.

2 $ $ Car Nicobar 23 March 1976; 1 $ Great

Nicobar 5 April ’77.

Wing 126-134; bill 18.5-20; tail 44, 50, 51; tarsus

30-31.

Birds seen in the Andamans and on Car

Nicobar in March 1976 formed very compact

flocks. Some had chestnut heads and one (1st

April) a rufous patch on the breast.

385 Nomenies phaeopas phaeopes (Lin-

naeus) (Sweden) Whimbrel.

386 Namenios pliaeopas variegates (Sco-

poli) (Luzon) Eastern Whimbrel.

Specimens were obtained on earlier visits.

As discussed in the Narcondam paper (1974

JBNHS 71 p. 497-8) the birds from this area

appear closer to the eastern than the nominate

form — or both races occur.

Whimbrel were seen at Copenheit, Great

Nicobar, on 3rd April 1977 and at Lax man

Beach on 13 April.

The bird was seen to plunge its bill into

the sand right up to its forehead, but nothing

was actually seen being pulled out. This spe-

cies was often seen close to the Common

Sandpiper.

394* Tonga tetanus subsp. Redshank.

Seen at Copenheit, Great Nicobar 3 April

1977.

A cf obtained on Car Nicobar on 23 March

1976 has the wing 168 mm. and bill 50 mm.,

both larger than any others here including

earlier specimens from Andamans (2) and

Car Nicobar (1). The present specimen also

has the breast more strongly marked than in

any other, and attention may again be drawn

to specimens from the Andamans in the Bri-

tish Museum, obtained in May, June, July

and September.

396 Tonga nebnlaria (Gunnerus) (Nor-

way) Greenshank.

Hume (1874, p. 299) had referred to a single

male obtained by Von Pelzeln on Great Nico-

bar on 23 March. The bird is no doubt rare

in this area, but there would appear to be no

reason for my treating it as doubtful (1967,

p. 161), having seen it myself on the Anda-

mans and recently on Car Nicobar.

401 Tonga hypoleucos fiypoleucos Lin-

naeus (Sweden) Common Sandpiper.

Occasional on shore. Often associated with

whimbrel.

402* Arenana interpret interpres (Lin-

naeus) (Sweden) Turnstone.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Noted at Copenheit on 3rd April, at Lax-

man Beach on 11 April and at Comorta on

12 April 1977.

406* Capella stenura (Bonaparte) (Sunda

Islands) Pintail Snipe.

2: 1 cf 1 $ . The fresh skins are appreci-

ably darker on their upperparts than older

ones which are rufous.

Common in short green grass land, border-

ed by Cy perns javanicus, once wet but now

mostly dry; and within a few yards of dwellings

and roads. A few were put up out of similar

sedge under bananas, where domestic poultry

were feeding.

434 Dromas ardeola Paykull (India) Crab

Plover.

Abbott noted them on Katchal and Great

Nicobar and Butler saw a flock of 60/70 on

Car Nicobar. None have been reported after-

wards.

443* GlareoSa pratincola maldivarum

J. R. Forster (open sea in the latitude of Mal-

dive Islands) Collared Pratincole.

A pair was seen on the beach at Galatea

Bay, with sandplovers on 6th April 1977 and

were markedly high on their legs.

468* Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles

(Sumatra) Blacknaped Tern.

6/8 on islet off Laxman Beach.

On 30 March 1976 at Nancowri small par-

ties were noted settled on bouys and rocks.

They fish in loose flocks, and occasionally

dive vertically with a splash, though usually

picking up their food off the surface.

478 Sterna toergi subsp. Large Crested

Tern.

Seen at Palu Bhabi, Great Nicobar on 8

March 1966 (JBNHS 64 p. 163).

i

500 Treron pompadora diloroptera Blyth

(Nicobars) Pompadour or Greyfronted Green

Pigeon.

3: 2 $ $ 1 $

Common in twos and threes. On both trips

several males and females were seen carrying

nesting material usually to a tangle of clim-

bers or into tufts of leaves, often a hundred

feet or higher.

I got the impression that the single wing

bar ( contra two in andamanica) is very clear-

ly visible in the live bird. The single female

(28th March) marked breeding has a grey chin

contra green in others from Central and Car

Nicobar and the Andaman.

508 Ducula aenea nicobarica (Pelzeln)

(Car Nicobar) Nicobar Green Imperial Pigeon.

1 $ 1 $ Campbell Bay.

A cf obtained on 28 March 1977 had en-

larged testes. Another was seen visiting a fair-

ly exposed sketchy crow-like nest 100 ft. or

more up. \ grown young out of nest and re-

ceiving food from adult seen on the same day.

At Car Nicobar (1976) where it occurred in

fairly open country, several different calls

were traced to this species. When calling

ghoom the throat swelled out. Is this a male

call? The more frequent kuk-kuk-coo was

accompanied by a jerking of the tail and

sometimes a baying action. The calling no

doubt attracts others. One ghooming was

joined by another smaller (cf?) bird which

settled next to it and uttered the same kind

of call. After some time the larger bird moved

along the branch and shoved him off.

Several got together on tall tree with bright

red jamun-like fruit. Only the ripe red fruit

was taken, and the birds had to walk along

the branches and hop around to reach ripe

fruit. A jump would sometimes take the bird

further than needed. The longish beak was

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N ICO BARS

useful for plucking the fruit, assisted by con-

tortionist movement, as in parakeets.

This species is believed to lay one egg, but

a young bird was seen to be fed by another

twice its size, and then hop on to a branch 5 ft.

away, where it sat near another of its own

size. No colour differences were visible between

the adult and the young.

The southern birds from Central and Great

Nicobar are slightly larger than the topotypes

from Car Nicobar and show a slight tinge of

green on the upperparts contra almost nil in

the latter.

509 Ducula bicolor (Scopoli) (New Gui-

nea) Pied Imperial Pigeon.

2: 1 $ 1 $ (77/9, 77/27) Campbell Bay.

None were seen on Car Nicobar but a caged

bird was said to have been trapped a couple

of months earlier. A male shot at Trinkut on

31 March 1976 had enlarged gonads, and a

pair was seen on Camorta on 1 April 1976.

On Great Nicobar they were occasionally seen,

and also on a small island c. 150 yards off

shore at Laxman Beach, where they were said

to roost in numbers. A visit at dusk, how-

ever, showed no birds or signs of nesting. On

another small off-shore island a bird appeared

to be sitting on a nest in a climber. The calls

include a “whoo-oom”, slightly but distinctly

longer than in aenea. The wings measured cf

240 and $ 233 mm.

525a Columfea palumhoides ssicobarlca

Walden (Trinkut, Nicobars) Nicobar Wood

Pigeon.

I had obtained a specimen at Great Nicobar

on my earlier trip.

527b Macropygia rufipennis Cuckoo-Dove

In 1969 ( JBNHS 64: 167) I drew attention

to differences between birds from Great and

Central Nicobars and later (1971, loc. cit. 68:

144) restricted the type locality to Central

Nicobars. This was really a clarification of the

earlier references to ‘Southern’ Nicobar in

which the term southern is relative to Car Ni-

cobar, where the species has not been recorded.

The additional material from Great Nicobar

confirms that though there are no differences

in size, the males differ from topotypical spe-

cimens in being:

1) darker, more blackish on the upperparts,

2) similarly, less rufous on the head,

3) more closely barred below and with less

rufous on the underparts and around the

‘face”, and

4) with the outer web of the first four pri-

maries showing a darker rufous and

forming a less distinct patch of rufous

in the closed wing (not rufipennis).

The single female appears more dusky and

less rufous. On these differences I separate

birds from Great Nicobar naming them after

Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Joint Director, Zoological

Survey of India, without whose assistance the

last trip would not have been possible:

Macropygia rofipennis tiwarii subsp. nov.

Holotype : cf GNB 77/38 obtained at

Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar on 8 April 1977.

Paratypes: 4 $ $ BNHS Col. No. 24210

collected on 8th April 1976; Z.S.I. Col. Nos.

33113 dated 2 April 1977, GNB 77/47 dated

7 April 1977, 33020 dated 4 March 1966 and

1 $ 33021 dated 4 March 1966, all obtained

around Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

In both nominate rufpennis and tiwarii the

bills are heavier and longer than in andama -

nensis from the Andamans.

Twelve specimens of the three subspecies

have been examined and they include only

two females.

A loud interrogative who s-up who s-up,

who-a-hoop, and kya-huwa, kya-huwa almost

certainly emanated from this bird. Following

757

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the first call, one was seen chasing another

from branch to branch. 40 attempts were

counted but no contact made. Twice when the

cf (?) failed to follow up, the $ (?) returned

to perch a few feet away and then sidled up

towards to him, but flew away when approach-

ed. The chased bird appeared duskier and

smaller.

Two of the males listed above had enlarged

gonads.

544 Gialcophaps Mica maxima Harter t*

(Golapabung, S. Andamans) Emerald Dove.

In the field, both in the Andamans and the

Nicobars, the birds were noted as darker and

with a shorter tail than in those from India,

(at least near Bombay), but these differences

are not confirmed by the skins available. The

only consistent difference is that the grey bands

on the lower back are usually fainter or mis-

sing and this may account for the impressions

mentioned above.

544a Calaenas nicobarica (Linnaeus) (Ni-

cobars) Nicobar Pigeon.

1 8 Great Nicobar.

The Zoological Survey have a skin from

Great Nicobar, but it was not seen on either

of the last two trips. It is well known to the

local shikaris as the large pigeon with a white

tail, which feeds on the ground.

553 Psittacula caniceps (Blyth) (Nicobars)

Blyth’s Nicobar Parakeet.

1 8 77/19, 1 $ 77/12. Upper bill red in $ and

black in $ .

8 with heavy moult in wing on 30 March 1977.

♦Mukherjee and Dasgupta of the Zoological Sur-

vey of India ( Proc . Zool. Soc. Calcutta, 28: 133-

135, published 25 June 1978) have referred to sex-

ual dimorphism and agewise differences in the spe-

cies and then revived Bonaparte’s augusta (1850)

from the Nicobars on the basis of 2 $ $ from Car

Nicobar!

Occasional. The loud kradn krctan, not un-

like a crow’s was often heard but the bird not

easily seen, possibly because it called when

seated in leafy trees. On 2 April 1976 a cf

with a red bill was bobbing his head up and

down before another. A pair with black chins

sat in a high tree biting off and dropping bits

of green leaves.

Though restricted to the Great and Little

Nicobar Islands, the earlier specimens (doubt-

less captive birds), were from Penang and

Wellesley Province in the Malay Peninsula and

from Car Nicobar (Blyth J.A.S.B. 1863 p. 5

and 1875 p. 54). It is certainly a very popular

cage bird in the surrounding areas.

556 Psittacula lougicaeda nicobarica

(Gould) (Nicobar Islands) Redcheeked Para-

keet.

77/3 $ Campbell Bay 26 March 1977. Iris white,

partly yellowish. Gonads enlarged.

cf with red of cheeks flowing into that of

bill, flew up to a female and kept bowing and

twisting, apparently trying to regurgitate. He

fed her 21 times before she flew to a hole in

a tree 20 ft away, clung at entrance and then

flew away. In the bowing movements, the

head is also turned in a circle.

Another was seen courting, moving his head

down to his feet in a circular movement, going

through a regurgitating (?) movement and

then touching her bill.

580 Ciiculus saturates saturates Blyth

(Nepal) Himalayan Cuckoo.

3:1# (wing 196) 2 $ $ (wing 179, 181) Camp-

bell Bay.

The base of the bill and the inside of the

mouth of the d were orange-yellow. One 9

shows a lot of rufous all over.

( )* Snrniculus lugubris subsp. Drongo-

Cuckoo.

In my earlier reports I had discredited the

758

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N ICO BARS

identity of a bird shot and lost by Kloss on

Katchal Island. At Campbell Bay one was

noted with some hesitation on 2 April 1976,

but another undoubtedly identified on 7 April

1977. It was feeding on caterpillars off the

branches of low open trees by roadside. The

tail had a very short fork, the bill was long,

thin and slightly decurved and there was a

white streak on the back of its head.

592 Eudynamis scolopaeea dolosa Ripley

(Barren L, Andamans) Koel.

1 $ 77/36.

Wing 224; bill 34.2; tarsus 33; tail 223.

Together with another male (wing 226, bill

34.4, tarsus 32, tail 216) obtained on an earlier

trip (BNHS 22654) the wings and tails are

appreciably longer than of the others from

Narcondam, Andamans and Central Nicobars.

Males were calling ku-ooo and koo-uk all

day and night but the kik-kik-kik of the female

was heard only once, and none seen on either

trip.

The testes of the male collected on 2 April

1977 were enlarged but there is no evidence

to show what species is parasitised here.

618b* Otas magfeos (?) subsp.

1 $ 77/40.

In the introduction to this paper, I have

mentioned how the 162 mm. wing of an owlet

obtained in 1966 led to a useful grant from

the Frank M. Chapman Memorial Fund for

the first of these two trips.

The present specimen has an even larger

(170 mm.) wing and Dr. Joe Marshall who

has been studying this in detail is sure that

it is an undescribed form but cannot decide

of what species.

The stomach contained a mangled 4 inch

gecko. Saha who collected the last specimen

said the call was ‘ooo-m’.

645* Ninox scutulata obscura Hume (Ca-

morta, Nicobars) Brown Hawk-Owl.

The very distinct coo-ook coo-oak was heard

near Campbell Bay at dusk on 4 April 1977.

This species has not been recorded from Great

Nicobar and the subspecies, at least, requires

verification. Hume described obscura from a

single bird obtained “near Camorta”, Central

Nicobars, and I have already drawn attention

[I BNHS 69(1): 116] to subsequent specimens

collected only from the Andamans which

though currently accepted as obscura, do not

agree with the original description in having

their lores, forehead and throat as dark as the

rest of the plumage and not yellowish /yellow-

ish white as described.

647a Niinox affinss subsp. Brown Hawk-

Owl.

7: 4 $ $ 3 $ $ Great Nicobar.

The 1976 trip obtained two specimens at

Oar Nicobar the type locality of isolata which

together with two borrowed from Z.S.I. can

be immediately separated from nominate

affinis (Andamans) by their larger wings (

205, 210, 211, $ 207 contra 3 $ $ 172, 177,

177), less heavily marked and whiter under-

parts.

The series from Great Nicobar can be dis-

tinguished from isolata by the characters given

in table on p. 760.

The single specimen ($ BNHS No. 24178

wing 208 mm) obtained by Dr. B. Maitra at

Camorta on 16 October 1975 is not very well

prepared and difficult to name.

Stuart Baker when describing isolata, from

Car Nicobar (1927, Bull. B.O.C. 47 p. 60)

referred to eight specimens from “Nicobars,

Trinkut, Camorta Island” and said that

“though the (Central? Nicobar — H.A.) birds

seem a little browner with less ashy tint on

the head and back, the difference is slight and

not of itself of subspecific value”. There is no

759

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

I

Comparison between Brown Hawk-Owl from Great Nicobar and the race Isolata

Great Nicobar

isolata

1) Head dark and almost concolorous with back,

which has no trace of rufous.

2) Very distinct dark barring on upper surface of

both webs of all primaries (except first).

3) Inner secondaries prominently barred yellowish

white on inner webs.

4) Smaller: Wing $ 194, 201, 202.

$ 194, 197, 198.

Tail $ 115, 116, 121, 124

$ 115, 116 (2).

Grey on head forming distinct cap; back with rufous

brown tinge.

Barring indistinct and barely visible.

Barring on only a few innermost feathers.

- !

5) Rufous wash over white of underparts More white visible

6) Though the feathers on the forehead of all the

specimens are ruffled to some extent, those from

Great Nicobar appear to show a larger patch

of white on the forehead.

7) In series, the dark bars on the tail contrast more

prominently against the rest of the background

than in isolata.

evidence that he had access to any from Great

Nicobar. The differences noted above appear

to be sufficient to separate those from Great

Nicobar from isolata and I name them:

Nieox afUnis rexpimenti subsp. nov.

Type: Field No. GNB 77/452 $ collected

by S. S. Saha at Magar Nulla, 8 km. from

Campbell Bay, on East-West Road, on 5

April 1977. Testes enlarged.

Holotypes. ZSI 1 5 No. 33162 dated 31

March 1977, 2 $ $ 33165 and 33167 dated

31 March and 4 April 1977. BNHS 2 d d

Nos. 24220/1 dated 7 April and 1 9 24219

dated 6 April 1976.

The bird is named after Rex Pimento, Field

Assistant, at the Bombay Natural History

Society, who has twice accompanied me to the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands and worked

assiduously in the field.

Two males obtained on 31 March and 4

April had their testes, 4.5 x 2.2 and 9x4 mm.

At dusk (31st March) one flew out of forest

on to the bare horizontal branch of a high

dead tree and hawked 20-30 feet away. Ano-

ther (3rd April) was shot off a tree hawking

flying termites at dusk. This site was about a

hundred yards away from the forest and the

owl must have discovered it by seeing a

Racket-tailed Drongo which was already ope-

rating. The owl was soon followed by bats.

As I have already indicated ( JBNHS 69 p.

117) I think it would be better to treat N.

affinis (and its races) as subspecies of N.

scutulata, and obscura as a separate species.

686* ColIocaSia fociphaga inexpectata

Hume (Andaman Islands) Greyr umped Swift-

let.

3: 1 $ 1 o? Great Nicobar; 1 9 Katchal.

The pale rump was noted at Katchal but

not visible among a hundred birds circling

overhead in good daylight, at Campbell Bay.

In the hand and upon comparison with the

material available in Bombay, the underparts

appear browner than grey, the pale rump less

distinct and the over-all effect blacker than

in Andaman birds.

On 9 April we were taken in a catamaran

rowed by three people to a “hawabil” (pre-

sumably adaption of “ababil” — Arabic for

swift) cave about 10 km. north of Laxman

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR N ICO BARS

Beach and near Pigeon I. The trip took 3-J

hours of hard rowing each way.

The cave is at sea-level in the face of a

sandstone cliff, with the entrance roughly tri-

angular, 15 ft high and 12 ft broad. The

tide flowed right in and the waves break-

ing in through the entrance would not

permit anybody to retain a footing. It was

however viewed from a rock above high water-

mark, almost on a level with the apex of the

triangular entrance. Upon our approach, the

first birds seen outside were a few White-bel-

lied Swiftlets. A little later, greyrumped birds

were also visible. One (wing 121 mm) was

lying dead on the rocks outside, highly de-

composed. From the rock outside one could

see and photograph 6 nests of the latter, two

with two eggs each and four with single eggs,

on the wall at the entrance. These nests were

largely white with the thicker basal portions

reddish-orange. On the opposite wall were 2

complete nests (empty and old?) and another

hanging in tatters which were reddish-orange

all over and quite different from what I re-

membered of earlier nests at Chirria Tapoo

etc. One Khalasi, who had collected nests here

before, entered the cave from above avoiding

the tide at the entrance. The cave extended

at least a hundred feet inwards and sideways

on both sides, forming a huge cavern of an

unknown height. The disturbed birds flew out

in hundreds through the narrow entrance, but

it was not possible to catch them with a wet

butterfly net. The Khalasi brought some nests,

highly coloured and with only a fine strip of

white at the upper edge. The reddish colour

on the nests appeared to be a stain acquired

by seepage from the rock.

The yellow nests on Katchal Island men-

tioned by Hume may have been similarly

coloured.

Nests in the underground cave at Car Nico-

bar referred to in the introduction were pure

white and on 25 March 1976 contained either

two eggs or fledglings. The edges of an empty

nest, presumably freshly built, were soft and

jelly-like. Two young in a nest brought to

camp, defecated outside the nest, squirting an

inch away.

The floor of the cave was black with insect

“packets” from the ends of which white grubs

stuck out. Lord Medway, who has consider-

able experience of the habitats of these swift-

lets, writes “ . . . They were in all probability

the larvae of case-making moths, genus Tinea,

family Tineidae. The family includes the com-

mon clothes moths, and all members specialise

in eating animal products of some sort. The

guano-dwelling examples are common in caves

in south and southeast Asia (in my experi-

ence). Their cases are made of fragments of

insect exoskeleton, and they probably can

breakdown chitin in their guts.”

687 CoMocalia escuienta affinis Beavan

(Port Blair, South Andaman) White-bellied

Swiftlet.

1 $

Occasionally seen.

723 AScedo atthis feengalensis Gmelin

(Bengal) Common Kingfisher.

Occasionally seen. Specimens obtained on

earlier trips.

727* Ceyx erithacus erithacus (Linnaeus)

(Benghala) Three-toed Kingfisher.

1 o? Campbell Bay, 27 February 1966.

728 Ceyx erithacus macrocaras Oberholser

(Great Nicobar) Three-toed Kingfisher.

12 6 April 1977 Campbell Bay.

The bird obtained in 1966 supra could not

be distinguished from the nominate form. The

present specimen which had enlarged ovaries

and was probably breeding has a distinctly

761

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

longer 39 mm. (cf. 31-34) bill and though

slightly damaged the black spot on the fore-

head at the base of the bill is barely visible.

The earlier bird does have a bill slightly he-

avier than most others from India, but the

small black spot can be matched in a

few Indian skins. More material is necessary

to determine if both represent variations in

macrocarus or if nominate erithacus also visits

the islands, as I had suggested. I would again

draw attention to the fact that while the no-

minate bird is accepted as a breeding migrant

to the Andamans there are no records of

the species from Car and Central Nicobars.

732 Felargopsis capeesis intermedia Hume

(Galatea Bay, Great Nicobar) Storkbilled

Kingfisher.

1 $ 1 April 1977 (77 / 29) with testes enlarged.

Not infrequent but elusive. One in forest

cackled like a woodpecker and appeared in-

terested (?) in hollow trees.

Specimen obtained on sea-shore.

739 Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) (China)

Blackcapped Kingfisher.

In open valley on East-West Road with tiny

stream running through it.

743 Halcyon clitoris occipitalis (Blyth)

(Nicobars) Whitecollared Kingfisher.

Hume saw them occasionally in Galatea

Bay (S.F. 2 p. 75) and we saw it too.

870 Pitta sordida abbotti Richmond

(Great Nicobar) Hooded, or Greenbreasted

Pitta.

2 $ $ 8 and 9 April 1977. Wing 107, 110.

Compared to 3 (2 S <$ 1 $ ) obtained in early

March 1966 the upperparts are dark, bordering

on brown rather than green, as is also the

case in earlier birds. None of them show the

dark median line on the crown referred to in

the original description.

One of the males had enlarged testes.

949* Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus

(Benghala) Brown Shrike.

There has been some difference of opinion

regarding the occurrence of the nominate form

in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but in

the course of cataloguing the Bombay collec-

tion I finally identified a specimen from the

Andamans as of this race. On 10 April 1977,

two shrikes were seen near Campbell Bay,

not far apart and the brown head and upper-

parts of one compared with the greyish white

forehead in the other, prompts me to accept

the first as of this race.

950* Lames cristatus lucionensis Linnaeus

(Luzon) Philippine Shrike,

Not common. Several birds glassed showed

the greyish white forehead.

957 Orioles chinensis macrounis Blyth

(Central Group, Nicobar Islands) Blacknaped

Oriole.

1 $ Campbell Bay. Bill 35 mm.

Common, Long-drawn pi-hoo early in the

morning. Appears very large. Carrying food

to nests oil 27 and 31 March. Another pair

visiting nest high up and carrying away drop-

pings (?) on 31 March.

981 DIcrerus paradiseus ulcobariensis

(Baker) (Kondel, Nicobars) Great Racket-tail-

ed Drongo.

On 2 April 1976 the birds were commonly

seen and four nests were found along the road

in the course of a short walk and another pair

seen chasing a serpent eagle. Several nests

with young and eggs were seen again in 1977.

One settled in a tree with a large green grass-

hopper, pulled off the wings and feet and then

flew to a nest to feed young still invisible

under the rim.

The webs on the tail of one were constricted

in the centre, not yet being free from the

sheaths. The bird was twice seen on telephone

762

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

wires in open country and also almost on the

ground in grass-scrub land in the manner of

the Common Drongo ( adsimilis ) in India. A

party of 4 was hawking flying termites at dusk.

The crest was quite distinct in all the birds

glassed. One bird with crest and only one

racket and some white on under tail-coverts,

flew to bole of large tree, looked down care-

fully, then entered the hole, splashed in the

water collected there, and then flew away 20

yards to then shuffle and preen itself.

Adult approached 2 young in nest with food

thrice in 15 minutes (8.30 a.m.). Then the

food was refused or not begged for, and the

parent flew away and settled near another

adult, which could be distinguished by its hav-

ing only one racket in its tail, and who made

no attempt to feed the young. The young at

different times spread and flapped their wings.

Another pair of adults sat a few inches from

each other and both quivered their wings, then

flew to another tree and repeated the perform-

ance. This process was gone through thrice

before they flew away in different directions.

986a ApSonis panayensis albiris Abdulali

(Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar) White-eyed

Glossy Stare.

White-eyed birds at Camorta and Great

Nicobar. However, at Camorta on 11 April

1977 I saw a white-eyed adult feeding 2 streak-

ed young which had brown eyes. Stomachs of

specimens collected held figs but the persist-

ant manner in which they probed into the

circlets formed by epiphytes particularly on

dead trees, left little doubt that they were look-

ing for some other food.

Two females in immature plumage collect-

ed on Great Nicobar on 2nd April are marked

as having enlarged ovaries.

At Car Nicobar (subsp. tytleri) some 200

birds were seen together on a large tree early

on two successive mornings.

1018a Gracula leligiosa halibrecta (Ober-

holser) (Little Nicobar) Hill Myna.

4: 2 $ $ 2 $ $

Quite frequently seen around Campbell Bay

and pairs visiting holes in trees. A S obtained

on 26 March 1977 had its testes 10 x 5 mm.

Birds at Camorta appeared smaller than at

Great Nicobar.

1142 Hypsipetes nicobariensis Moore (Ni-

cobars) Nicobar Bulbul.

In my earlier paper (JBNHS 64 p. 182) I

had restricted this species to the Central Nico-

bars, but it may be worth noting that Hume

(S.F. 2, p. 223) refers to Davison having seen

this at Pilu Milu, which is very close to Little

Nicobar.

These islands have not been worked again.

1402 Rhinomyias bmnneata nicobarica

Richmond (Great Nicobar) Olive Flycatcher.

This is restricted to Great Nicobar, but none

were seen on the last two trips.

1464 Tersiphone paradisi nlcobarica Oates

(Great Nicobar*) Paradise Flycatcher.

None wer e obtained either on Car or Great

Nicobar during our recent trips and there is

nothing to add to my earlier notings (JBNHS 64

pp. 183/4). However, I omitted to record that

both males collected at Trinkut and Camorta,

in March 1966 were not only red, but also with

enlarged testes. This supports the view that

Oates’s description of nicobarica which in-

cluded white birds must refer to those from

Great Nicobar and the type locality is hereby

restricted thereto.* If it is established that the

Central Nicobar population (from which a

white bird has not yet been recorded) needs

separation it will require another name.

1469 Monarcha aznrea nicobarica (Bian-

763

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

chi) (Nancowry) Blacknaped Flycatcher.

Campbell Bay 2 April 1976 9 chivvying a

Racket-tailed Drongo. On 3 April 1977 a d

and -a $ were seen attending to two young

out of nest, but yet begging.

1500a Cisticola juncidis malaya Lynes

(Klang, Selangor, Malay States) Fantail War-

bler.

Abbott and Kloss saw a Cisticola sp. at

Great Nicobar and specimens obtained on Car

and Central Nicobars were identified as of

this race ( JBNHS 64: 185). On a subsequent

trip to Car Nicobar I saw them feeding in

sparse grass, and jumping for insects. We did

not see it on Great Nicobar.

1554* Acrocephalus orientalis (Temminck

& Schlegel) (Japan) Eastern Reed Warbler.

1 Campbell Bay 7 April 1977. Wing 82 mm., bill

17, tarsus 27, tail 68.

The third and fourth primaries are almost

equal and longer than the second; the notch

on the inner web of the second is below the

eighth primary. Several were seen in bushes

in open grassland; the pale rump was promi-

nent in flight and the pale eyebrow noticeable

when glassed.

Warbler sp.

A largish warbler without eye-stripe and

olive green upperparts was seen in grassland

on 5 April.

1605a PhyMoscopus tenellipes (Swinhoe)

(Amoy) Palelegged Leaf Warbler.

The old record of one taken on a ship 10

m. east of Great Nicobar cannot be added to

but several were obtained at Narcondam

Island ( JBNHS 71 p. 502).

1884* MotacilSa caspica caspica (Gmelin)

(Caspian Sea) Grey Wagtail.

Seen on both trips. Also on Car Nicobar

and Camorta.

1914 Nectarinia jugularis klossi (Rich-

mond) (Great Nicobar) Yellowbreasted, or

Olivebacked, Sunbird.

8: 4 $ $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

These birds were quite common and two

were obtained on both trips. The bills together

with those of earlier specimen are larger than

in Central Nicobar.

dd (4) 20.5-21.9 contra (3) 18.4-19.6

9 9 (2) 20.6-21.5 contra (3) 16.7-17.7 in 2

In addition, the 3 Central Nicobar females

are a much brighter yellow below, and it is i

probable that a well-prepared series from both

places would indicate separable populations.

Stuart Baker’s blanfordi from Kondal be-

tween Great and Little Nicobar is generally

accepted as synonymous with klossi. No spe-

cimens are available, but it is worth noting

that Oberholser, when describing proselia from

Car Nicobar first compared his type with

klossi (which he said was from 4 ‘the other

Nicobar Islands”) and then added: “It is,

of course, readily distinguishable from Cinnyris

ornata blanfordi (Baker) by its much smaller

bill.” Kondal is just off the northern end of

Great Nicobar. On the next page he admitted

restriction of klossi to Great Nicobar and it

would appear from this that he accepted both

blanfordi and klossi.

1929 Aethopyga siparaja nicofoarica Hume

(Kondal) Nicobar Yellowbacked Sunbird.

\$ 1 o? East-West Road 77/7 and 77/8 on 27

March 1977.

The unsexed bird has a trace of a dark

stripe down the front, as in the off-plumage of

male Nectarinia asiatica. One seen on 2 April

’76 with brown front and red throat.

On 26 March 1977 a 9 was seen carrying

building material to a Nectarinia- type of nest

10 ft up, suspended from a cane leaf overhang-

764

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

ing a dry nulla in heavy cover about 30 yards

from road. A J1 was hanging around but not

visiting the nest.

Another $ building against a roadside cut-

ting had the nest with a long ‘tail’, very simi-

lar to the type seen near Bombay. A <$ was

seen at red inflorescence at base of cane-like

plant (without spikes).

1936* Zosterops paSpebrosa subsp. White-

eye.

2: 1$ 1$ Laxman Beach, 26 March 1977.

Robert Grubh, Asst. Curator, B.H.N.S., had

reported seeing white-eyes at Campbell Bay

on the 1966 trip, but this was not mentioned

(1967) and these are the first specimens obtain-

ed in the Great Nicobar group.

The subspecies nicobarica was described

from “Nicobar Islands” which with the repeat-

ed statement that it did not occur on Great

Nicobar, must refer to Car or Central Nicobar,

and I am restricting the type locality to Nan-

cowry in the latter. The present specimens are

quite different from nicobarica. from the An-

damans, and Central Nicobars — olive on

the upperparts with no trace of a yellowish

wash, and with no yellow on the forehead.

The underparts are greyish with signs of yel-

low in the middle, but the greenish-yellow (not

yellow) patch on the chin is not connected

therewith, being distinctly separated by a grey-

ish breast. The tail feathers are almost black

and lack the yellowish-green fringes visible in

most. The general effect is that of Holdsworth’s

Zosterops ceylonensis from the hills of Sri

Lanka, though smaller.

Tail/

Wing Bill Tail Wing

Index

Great Nicobar $ $ 51,50 11.2,11.5 33,32 64.3

ceylonensis 1$, lo? 58,57 12.3,13 36,39 65.2

The difference in the relative lengths of the

2nd (first developed) primary, one of the char-

acters on which ceylonensis has been made a

separate species, is not visible in any of the

four specimens above.

The birds from Great Nicobar appear to be

quite distinct, but several of the differing char-

acters listed above are those of the single speci-

men on which Richmond named v entrails

from Car Nicobar, where several nicobarica

had also been obtained. This has been ignored

by subsequent authors, and I can find no at

tempt at explanation. More specimens from

these islands and also of the surrounding races

auriventris, buxtoni, williamsoni, etc. are need-

ed to permit any decisions.

PART 2

CAR NICOBAR

39(?) Butorides striatus subsp. Little

Green Bittern.

Common. Remarks under Great Nicobar.

44.* Biibulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert)

(Coromandel) Cattle Egret.

A pair was noted on the Car Nicobar aero-

drome. I was told that it attended pig instead

of cattle. Though common in the Andamans

and having been obtained at Tillangchong,

Central Nicobars, this is a new record from

Car Nicobar.

49. Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus)

(Orienti = Northeast Italy) Little Egret.

Noted.

51. Egretta sacra (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Reef

Heron.

Occasional — remarks under Great Nicobar.

141. Accipiter hadius butlers (Gurney)

(Car Nicobar) Shikra.

On 29 March 1976, I got a glimpse of a

765

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

shikra which looked about the size of a myna.

There are no records of the bird in recent years.

143. Accipiter soloensls (Horsfield) (Java)

Horsfield’s Goshawk.

Except for a single bird in a coconut grove

in Car Nicobar on 15 March 1966, we failed

to see this species.

173. Haliaeetiis leucogaster (Gmelin)

(Prince’s Is., Indonesia) Whitebellied Sea

Eagle.

Occasional. One seen carrying a garfish at

Camorta.

254. Coturnix chinensis trinkutensis (Rich-

mond) (Trinkut Is., Nicobar Group) Blue-

breasted Quail.

4: 2 $ $ 2 9 $ Trinkut Is., 31 March 1976.

I found this bird on both the short trips to

Trinkut, and though looked for, did not see it

in much longer stays on Car Nicobar and

Camorta. This may possibly have been due to

our inability to get suitable areas properly

beaten, for at Car Nicobar the local inhabit-

ants denied knowledge of its existence and it

was impossible to get them to beat the cover

for any sustained period. Butler ( JBNHS 12:

691) found it “Common on one or two small

grassy plains on Car Nicobar” but stressed the

fact that they were very hard to flush and he

found the best way of shooting them was over

a rope dragged by two boys. He also noted

“Mul” as the local name for the bird.

At Trinkut they were beaten out of an ex-

tensive plain of ‘elephant grass’ [lmperata( ?)

sp.] similar to that used for thatching the

domed huts of the neighbouring islands. In

the course of a morning we put up 2 pairs,

2 single birds and one party of 5/6 birds. The

specimens obtained all had undeveloped

gonads. They rose with a very slight whirr and

are certainly too small to permit any sport

with a gun.

One crop was packed with tiny seeds, not of

Imperata. On a sandy patch in sparse burnt

and re-growing grass on the edge of standing

grass, we picked up broken egg-shells, 25 mm x

19 mm, pale fawnish white with an olive wash

and fine specklings. While they appeared to

be rather large for this bird, the measurements

are very close to the average for 100 eggs of

the nominate form in Stuart Baker’s Fauna

(24.5 x 19 mm).

In the course of a routine examination of

the species it is noticed that the single female

from Supkhar, Balaghat, M.P., obtained 13

March 1959 (BNHS No. 20784) differs from

7 old skins from Assam and Burma, in having

clearer colours above and below, with a broad

yellowish brown stripe extending over the

eyes on to the forehead not visible in the

others and less marked on the underparts. No

male from peninsular India is available, but a

fresh well-prepared series from the two areas

may confirm these differences.

330(?) Malles striatos subsp. Bluebreasted

Banded Rail.

Butler (l.c. p. 694) took a nest on Car

Nicobar on 30 August. I got a glimpse of a

dark rail which was probably this species.

345a. Amaoromis plioenictirus leticocep-

halus Abdulali (Car Nicobar) Whiteheaded

Waterhen.

Notes in Great Nicobar section, supra.

346* Gallkrex cieerea cinerea (Gmelin)

(China) Water Cock.

1 $ Car Nicobar.

5 more put up with a jeep driven through

the grass on the sides of the runway at the

Car Nicobar aerodrome. The single bird col-

lected has a 201 mm. wing which is larger

than accepted for females (172-184) and smal-

766

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

ler than for males (211-227). Compared to the

material from India available in Bombay, the

bill appears very short and thick.

371* Fluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus) (Swe-

den) Grey Plover.

Noted on Car Nicobar.

373. Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin)

(Tahiti) Golden Plover.

Also noted on Great Nicobar, supra.

374. Charadrius leschenaulti leschenaulti

Lesson (Pondicherry) Large Sand Plover.

Occasional.

381. Charadrius alexandrines subsp. Ken-

tish Plover.

J. M. Dasgupta ( JBNHS 73 p. 222) record-

ed a specimen obtained by Dr A. K. Mukher-

jee at Malaka, Car Nicobar on 19 February

1972, where it was seen in small numbers to-

gether with waders on the sea shore. The sub-

species is not determined.

384. Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wag-

ler (Bengal) Lesser Sand Plover.

Also noted in Great Nicobar, supra.

385/6. Numenius p. phaeopus/variegatus

Whimbrel.

As in Narcondam and other neighbouring

islands, the birds occurring here are probably

of both races, or an intermediate form.

388. Numenius arquata orientalis C. L.

Brehm (East Indies) Eastern Curlew.

I had overlooked Butler’s reference to a

Car Nicobarese name “ Sakayok ” for this spe-

cies and saw it myself on 24 March 1976.

391* Limosa lapponica lapponica (Linna-

eus) (Lapland) Bartailed God wit.

1 $ Car Nicobar, 23 March 1976. Wing 200

(IH. 202-216) very fat.

This species, not previously noticed in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, was one of the

first birds seen on this trip, in the mud on the

sea-shore, together with Sanderlings (also

previously unrecorded). The specimen was

obtained from a party of three; several others,

including one (?) in breeding plumage were

seen.

The distributional map in birds of the

soviet union, 3:326 , shows the east coast of

India within the range of L. 1. novaezelandae

Gray (= baueri Naumann) in which the rump

and uppertail coverts are heavily barred. Com-

pared with a single specimen of baueri from

Japan, the present specimen, as also the others

from India in the BNHS collection, all appear

to be of the nominate race.

394(?) Tringa totanus subsp. Redshank.

1 $ Car Nicobar, 23 March 1976.

See notes under this species in Great Nico-

bar list, supra.

396.* Tringa nebulana (Gunnerus) (Nor-

way) Greenshank.

Seen on Car Nicobar on 24 March 1976.

400. Tringa terek (Latham) Terek River

(on Caspian Sea) Terek Sandpiper.

2 $ $ 1 $ , Car Nicobar, 23 (2) and 27 March.

J. M. Dasgupta ( JBNHS 73, p. 222) noted

some specimens obtained on Car Nicobar,

wher e it would appear to be a regular visitor.

It has been noted on Trinkut I., Central

Nicobars.

401. Tringa hypoleucos hypoleucos Lin-

naeus (Sweden) Common Sandpiper.

Noted.

402. Arenaria interpres interpres (Linna-

eus) (Sweden) Turnstone.

Common on Car Nicobar, and also noted

at Camorta (13 April) and on Great Nicobar.

767

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

406. Capella stenora (Bonaparte) (Sunda

Islands) Pintail Snipe.

Shot on Car Nicobar.

414.* Calkins albus (Pallas) (Coast of the

North Sea) Sanderling.

As indicated under 391, several were noted

in tidal mud with Bartailed Godwits almost

immediately upon our arrival on 23 March

1976. This is a new record for the Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, The two specimens ob-

tained were badly damaged by a dog but the

remnants are preserved.

422. Calidris testaceus (Pallas) (Holland)

Curlew-Sandpiper.

Butler shot a party of six at Car Nicobar

in September.

434. Dromas ardeola Paykull (India)

Crab Plover.

Butler saw a flock of 60/70 on Car Nicobar,

but there appear to be no recent records.

443. GSareola pratincola maldivarum J. R.

Forster (Open sea in the latitude of Maidive

Islands) Collared Pratincole.

The de Roepstorffe collection at Copenha-

gen contains a cf and a $ obtained at Cam-

orta. Central Nicobars, on 25 December 1875.

Both are in immature plumage with incom-

plete collars and small bills which suggest their

having been hatched not far away.

I have already reported a single bird shot

on the aerodrome at Car Nicobar, where on a

later trip we saw at mid-day a pair soaring

high in the air like birds of prey.

[481. Anous stoiidus pileatus (Scopoli)

(Philippines) Noddy Tern.

In Ripley’s Synopsis (1961), this species was

said to breed on small islets in the Nicobars,

but this is now repeated with a query in Indian

Handbook (3 p. 73) ].

500. Treron pompadora chloroptera Blyth

(Nicobars) Pompadour or Greyf routed Green

Pigeon.

1 $ 1$, 28 March 1976.

These were shot out of a party of 10-12 in

one tree. Their bills were pale with a bluish

tinge, darkish at base and white at tip.

508. Ducula aenea nicobarica (Pelzeln)

(Car Nicobar) Nicobar Green Imperial Pigeon.

Not uncommon.

509. Beaila bicolor (Scopoli) (New Gui-

nea) Pied Imperial Pigeon.

None were seen in the wild but a caged bird

was said to have been captured about two

months ago, indicating the possibility of sea-

sonal movements between the islands. A few

days later, we saw several at Camorta, Central

Nicobars.

525a. Colnmba palumboides nicobariensis

(Walden) (Nicobars) Wood Pigeon.

1 o? Car Nicobar, 25 April 1976.

Wing 251; tail 144; bill 25.

The five outermost primaries in one wing

are in moult and about 150 mm. The other

is fully grown and it is difficult to imagine its

flying in this condition. The Car Nicobarese

name means “water pigeon” for which I

could not obtain an explanation.

544. Chalcophaps indica maxima Hartert

(Golapabung, South Andamans) Emerald

Dove.

Commonly seen feeding on roadside like

Streptopeiia sp. in India. See footnote to spe-

cies on p. 758.

544a. Calaenas nicobarica (Linnaeus)

(Nicobars) Nicobar Pigeon.

We failed to see this bird on the last few

trips and it is apparent that the shelling of

Battye Malwe, 19 miles south of Car Nicobar,

768

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

where it used to breed in thousands has told

on its numbers. It is hoped that the island will

be made a National Park -and an attempt made

to study the ecology of these magnificent birds

before it is too late.

Butler (1899) records that on Car Nicobar

in August there was a large proportion of

very young birds, with the head still covered

with tiny quills.

556. Psittacula longicauda nicobarica

(Gould) (Nicobar Islands) Redcheeked

Parakeet.

Resident.

592. Eudynamys scolopacea dolosa Ripley

(Barren L, Andamans) Koel.

A <$ was seen on 28th March but none

heard.

647. Ninox affinis isolata Baker (Car Ni-

cobar) Nicobar Hawk-Owl.

3:2 $ 9 1 o?

Notes in part 1, supra.

686. Collocalia ftuciphaga inexpectata

(Hume) (Andaman Islands) Greyrumped

Swiftlet.

Resident. See notes included in Great Nico-

bar, supra.

687. Collocalia esculenta affinis Beavan

(Port Blair, South Andamans) Whitebellied

Swiftlet.

Car Nicobar!

At Port Blair on 18 March 1976, we found

four nests in an old Japanese gunpit with c/2,

c/2, 2 hatchlings, and one young with a white

belly.

723. Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin

(Bengal) Common Kingfisher.

One seen on 26 March 1976.

739. Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) (China)

Blackcapped Kingfisher.

Car Nicobar in March 1976.

743a. Halcyon chloris subsp. Whitecollared

Kingfisher.

I have already (JBNHS 68:405) drawn at-

tention to the birds of Car Nicobar being

distinct from davisoni and occipitalis (Blyth)

and restricted the latter to Camorta, Central

Nicobars. It may be mentioned that the key

to subspecies in Indian Handbook (4:95) can-

not be used for birds from the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, where all females have white

underparts.

On Car Nicobar, several ant-nest* pro-

tuberances 15/50 ft up in coconut-palm plan-

tations had holes in the centre which, together

with the proximity of this bird, suggested their

being used as nests. Davison has recorded

their nesting in ants’ nests in similar situation

(quoted JBNHS 61: 544).

917. Hinindo rustica guff oralis Scopoli

(Philippines) Swallow.

Birds were seen on earlier trips and speci-

mens obtained in the Andamans and in Cen-

tral Nicobars were identified as of this race.

926.* Hirtindo daurica subsp. Striated or

Redrumped Swallow.

Single birds were twice seen on Car Nico-

bar, but it is not possible to name the sub-

species. It will be recalled that Vaurie (1959:

13) doubtfully named a specimen from Port

Blair as japonica Temminck and Schlegel, but

the species has not been recorded southwards.

950. Lanius cristatus lucionensis Linnaeus

(Luzon) Philippine Brown Shrike.

The only specimen from Car Nicobar has

been identified as of this race, but as in Great

Nicobar (q.v.), I noted (23 March 1976)

birds with no grey or white on the forehead,

which were possibly of the nominate form.

* One examined contained black ants identified

as Dolichoderus bituberculatus Mayr.

769

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

957. Oriolus chinensis macrourus Blyth

(Nicobar Is., Central group).

Common. On 23 March 1976 a bird was

seen in a deep cup-shaped nest 15 ft. up.

Oberholser’s eustictus from Car Nicobar does

not appear separable.

981. Dicrurus paradiseus nicobariensis

(Stuart Baker) (Kondal, Nicobars) Racket-

tailed Drongo.

Not common.

986. ApSonis panayensis tytleri (Hume)

(Andamans) Glossy Tree Stare.

1 $

Some 200 birds were seen collected together

on a large tree early on two successive morn-

ings.

991. Sturnus erythropygius erythropygius

(Blyth) (Car Nicobar) Whiteheaded Myna.

Common.

1122. Pycnonotus jocosus whistleri Deig-

nan (Cinque I., south of South Andamans)

Redwhiskered Bulbul.

Butler (1899) refers to Davison meeting it

at Camorta and Car Nicobar where it had just

been introduced, but said he had seen it in

neither place. During my several visits it was

quite common at Camorta and Trinkut, but

not noticed at Car Nicobar.

1407. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles (Su-

matra) Brown Flycatcher.

Specimens were obtained on an earlier trip.

1464. Terpsiphone paradisi subsp. Paradise

Flycatcher.

I cannot trace any specific record of this

species from Car Nicobar, and Butler’s state-

ment (1899: 401) that though he did not see

any white birds, young birds were numerous

does not make it clear that he saw them both

on Car and Central Nicobars.

1468. Monarcha aztirea idiochroa (Ober-

holser) (Car Nicobar) Bl-acknaped Flycatcher.

29? (1964).

1500a. Cisticola juncidis malaya Lynes

(Klang, Selangor, Malay State) Fantail War-

bler.

Specimens obtained on Car and Central

Nicobars in 1964.

1592.* Phylloscopus inornatus inornatus

(Blyth) (Darjeeling) Siberian Yellowbrowed

Leaf Warbler.

One was glassed among trees on the shore

while on a launch off-shore. Specimens were

obtained at Narcondam (JBNHS 71, p. 502)

on 26 and 31 March 1972, but this is an ex-

tension of its known distribution.

1726. MonticoSa solifada pandoo (Sykes)

(Ghauts, Dukhun) Blue Rock Thrush.

Von Pelzeln is reported to have obtained a

young male at Car Nicobar on 24 February.

There is no subsequent record.

1736. Zoothera citrina albogolaris (Blyth)

(Nicobars) Nicobar Ground Thrush.

A d\ by plumage, obtained on Car Nico-

bar in 1966 does not quite agree with others

from Central Nicobars. Additional specimens

are needed to permit a decision.

1875. Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg

(Lapland) Greyheaded Yellow Wagtail.

Butler recorded it as a regular winter visitor

and I had obtained a specimen at Camorta,

further south.

1876. MotaciSIa flava becma (Sykes) (Duk-

hun) Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail.

Butler noted M. flava as extremely plentiful

from October to late May and I have identi-

fied specimens from Camorta, as of this race

(but see remarks JBNHS 64 pp. 186-187).

THE BIRDS OF GREAT AND CAR NICOBARS

1

I

1884. Moiacilia caspica caspica (Gmelin)

(Caspian Sea) Grey Wagtail.

Its solitary habits do not make it conspicu-

ous, but it has been noted by most observers

and is no doubt a regular visitor.

1915. Nectarinia jugtilaris proselia (Ober-

holser) (Car Nicobar) Yellowbreasted Sun-

bird.

Common on coconut flowers and also in low

shrubbery and grass, together with Cisticola.

Osmaston took c/3 at Car Nicobar on 24

March. We saw a nest being built in a Bom-

bax on 27 March 1976.

1936. Zosterops palpebrosa nicobarica

Blyth (Nancowry, Central Nicobars) White-

eye.

I have referred to Great Nicobar birds be-

ing different, but the few from the Andamans,

Car and Central Nicobars, appear identical,

Osmaston took a nest with 2 eggs on Car Nico-

bar on 18 March (Nid. 3, p. 193). See remarks

under Great Nicobar.

*Passer domesticus subsp.

On Car Nicobar, while driving through a

village, I noticed a large globular nest in a

tree and noted “Sparrows in mass nest in

tree”. Birds were undoubtedly seen but I did

not re-examine it, and cannot recall the details

of the evidence that prompted this note.

1970. Lonchura striata semistriata (Hume)

(Nicobar Islands) Whitebacked Munia.

A large flock near the Car Nicobar aero-

drome was glassed for some time and appear-

ed to include individuals with black heads.

However, none of the 17 birds that fell to a

single round of dust shot showed this charac-

ter. They differ from Andaman birds ( fumi -

gata Walden) in being slightly smaller, the

bill is noticeably narrower, show pale edges to

the dark feathers of the breast, and the pale

centres of the feathers of the back show up

as a fine streaking.

In four earlier specimens from Camorta,

Central Nicobars, the streaking on the upper-

parts is perhaps slightly less prominent and

which also indicate a slight diminution in size.

Some general remarks on Conservation and the future of the Islands

The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 as in

other parts of India is administered by the

Forest Department. During a week in Great

Nicobar (1976) my party actually witnessed

the capture and/or killing of 2 crocodiles, one

Malayan python and one dugong, all of which

are on the list of animals completely protected

under the Act. The Forest officials in the Nico-

bars had no copy of the Act and they were

quite ignorant of what was to be protected and

what not. We understood that somebody had

been held for collecting the edible nests of the

swiftlets. A perusal of the Act reveals that

this bird is not mentioned in any of the Sche-

dules and neither the bird nor its nest can be

protected under it. Having represented Bom-

bay Natural History Society on the Indian

Board for Wild Life for almost 20 years and

being familiar with the working of this Board

and also that of the Forest department, I am

convinced that the only hope of saving wild-

life in India is to take it out of the hands

of the Forest Department and to hand it over

to people who are genuinely interested in the

subject and willing to devote their time, not

only office hours, to this work.

The Islands have remained unmolested for

many hundreds of years and the natural en-

vironment attained is highly specialised. In

the forests, the trees grow to a height of 200

771

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

feet and more and the whole complex is so

intricate that no single tree can, in all its

magnitude, stand alone. As soon as any part

of the forest is cut, the shoulder-to-shoulder

support is lost and the individual tree liable

to be blown down by the next gale. For this

reason, areas which are cleared of forest have

to be literally denuded, leaving completely

bare areas for cultivation. The perfect crop

has not yet been discovered and even though

a family of refugees or retired servicemen may

be able to farm a few acres, this will only be

for a few years. At and near Port Blair, one

can see the soil being washed into the sea and

the denuded areas being turned into unpro-

ductive and really barren land. Robert Johan-

nes (Reader’s Digest, October 1978) has an

interesting note on corals and their destruc-

tion due to silt and other causes. He refers

to a study in Brazil which showed that where-

as a hectare of tropical rain forest normally

lost a kilo of soil per year to erosion, 13 tons

were lost annually after deforestation. Vari-

ous attempts have been made at cultivating

imported cash crops but the overall effort is

haphazard and unpromising. I have already

referred to the rubber and palm oil efforts on

Katchal Island.

On Camorta we saw hillsides which had

been cleared of forest and were now under

straggly growths of cashew nuts. This will

require a considerable amount of labour and

we do not know if it will be available.

A report on Land Utilization and associat-

ed problems in the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, by D. N. McVean, IUCN Consultant

has been published in June 1976 by Inter-

national Union for Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources, with the assistance of

the Government of India. It refers to the dam-

age which has been done in South Andamans

and other places, consisting of “wasted forest

resources, soil loss and reduced availability of

surface water.” It stresses the fact that the

conversion of forest to plantations or crop or

waste land leads to an immediate reduction in

rain percolation, soon making the places un-

inhabitable.

They indicate that the yield is temporary

and likely to die out in a few years making

it necessary to encroach further upon the

forest. The present allocations of land are

on the basis of the average family, but what

happens as it increases and there is a second

generation? An earlier report (c. 1956) by

D’Cruz & Lai of the Forest Department was

more or less to the same effect. One wonders,

how long such expert opinions will continue to

be ignored.

Identical conditions apply to wildlife. The

passing of pious resolutions on particular days

of the year is not going to preserve our fauna.

There must be more relevant knowledge to

guide our action, and no serious attempts are

made to study. Very recently, I learnt that

Barren, Narcondam, North Reef and South

Sentinel Islands had been declared sanc-

tuaries. While this was indeed a laudable

move, prompted no doubt by the recent stu-

dies of birds, crabs, snakes and other forms

of natural history in the area, it was necessary

that all the islands be separately examined by

parties of experienced naturalists and ecolog-

its. I wrote to the Chief Commissioner offer

ing to get together a suitable team to under-

take this work, but after several reminders

received a letter from the Chief Conservator

of Forests, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, to

the effect that the Administration had no pro-

gramme to carry out ecological studies of the

Wildlife Sanctuaries of the territory at present.

Without this knowledge, we do not know

what we are attempting to preserve and will

not know when it is gone.

772

ECOLOGY OF THE BL ACK- AND-OR AN GE

FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA N1GRORUFA (JERDON)

IN SOUTHERN INDIA1

Mohammad Ali Reza Khan2

(With two plates and a text -figure)

The paper deals with the distribution, status, habitat preference, food and feeding habits of

the Black-and-Orange Flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon). The field work was con-

ducted between September 1974 and September 1976 in the Western Ghats, specially in the

Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu), of southern India. The entire distributional pattern and status of

the species were determined in the Nilgiris and in other hills of the Western Ghats, starting

from the Biligirirangans in southern Karnataka down to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu, in-

cluding parts of Kerala falling within the Western Ghats. The species has been recorded

for the first time from the Siruvani hills and the Nelliampathies of the Palghat district and

Agastyarmalai of Kerala, and High Wavy Mountains of Tamil Nadu. The habitat require-

ments, food and feeding habits were observed

Introduction

The Black-and-Orange Flycatcher Muscicapa

nigrorufa is a monotypic species and is end-

emic in the hills of the Western Ghats in

southern India. Unlike other members of the

genus Muscicapa (Muscicapinae: Muscicapi-

dae, class Aves) it is little known and there

exists very little information on its ecology.

The literature on this flycatcher is meagre and

deals with the taxonomy in great depth, and

to some extent with its distribution, status and

breeding (Jerdon 1862, Hume 1876, Bourdil-

1 Part of Ph.D. dissertation, Ecological Problems

Relating to Birds: Ecology and Behaviour of the

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa

(Jerdon); 1977, accepted by the University of

Bombay.

2 Dept, of Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca-2,

Bangladesh.

and determined.

Ion 1880, Davison 1883, Fairbank 1887, Fer-

guson 1898, Dewar 1904, Ferguson and Bour-

dillon 1904, Kinloch 1921, Baker 1924 and

1933, Baker and Inglis 1930, Whistler and

Kinnear 1932, Ali 1935, 1942, 1949 and 1977,

Nichols 1937, Primrose 1938, KoeJz 1947, Rip-

ley 1961, and Ali & Ripley 1972). However,

the distributional range and status of the spe-

cies still remained enigmatic. There existed

several unsolved questions and unfounded

statements in regard to the status and distribu-

tion of M. nigrorufa. Although some serious

work has been done on the old world or mus-

cicapine flycatchers (Muscicapidae) by Sum-

mers-Smith (1952), Campbell (1954-’55, 1959),

Haartman (1956, 1967), Meidell (1961), Lack

(1966) and many others in different parts of

Europe; no such study on the flycatchers has

been undertaken so far in this sub-continent.

Therefore I undertook extensive field work to

773

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

collect information on various aspects of the

ecology and behaviour of the species. This

paper deals with the ecological aspects includ-

ing distribution and status of M. nigrorufa.

Materials and Methods

Out of 23 months (September 1974 through

September 1976) spent in the field about 11

months were devoted for the present purpose.

There were altogether 27 pairs and a lone

marked male M. nigrorufa which were closely

watched for the study of ecology during this

period.

A pair of Bausch & Lomb, 6 by 30, and

another pair of Nautica 10 by 50, binoculars

were used throughout the study. The following

materials were used in the field: Altimeter,

Rocar stop-watch graduated up to one fifth

of a second, Pesola spring-balance graduated

up to half a gram. Common precision balance.

Steel measuring tape, fine-tipped divider, Fuji-

ca 35 mm camera with a 50 mm and a 85-

205 mm zoom lenses and electronic flash;

mist nets, numbered aluminium rings (size

‘Z’) of Bombay Natural History Society (here-

after BNHS) and coloured plastic rings. I

also used a hand-made insect net, a killing

jar with ether for soft-bodied animals and

another with chloroform for vertebrates, and

a plant press. Soft animals were preserved in

alcohol whereas vertebrates in ten per cent for-

maline. Insects were sent to Tamil Nadu Agri-

cultural University, Coimbatore; to B.N.H.S.

and to Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta;

and vertebrate specimens to B.N.H.S. for in-

dentification. Most of the plant samples were

identified in the field itself excepting a few

which were sent to experts for identification.

As separate methods were followed for the

study of distribution, status etc., these will be

mentioned at relevant places.

Study Area

The intensive field study was conducted in

the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu state, although a

number of other hills lying between Mysore

district of Karnataka state and Kanyakumari

district of Tamil Nadu were also visited. The

topography of the Nilgiris has been described

in detail by Ranganathan (1938) and in the

Working Plan of the Nilgiri Forest Division

(1969). This district lies between 1 1 ° 15' to

11°45' N. and 76° 15' to 76°E. at the junction

of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala where

the Eastern Ghats meet the Western Ghats.

It has an area of c. 2525 square kilometers

and consists of a group of hills ranging in

height between 900 and 2635 meters above

mean sea level. The present study was under-

taken mostly in the environs of three stations

namely Coonoor (11 °21 ' N. 76°49'E) and

Kotagiri (11°26'N. 76°53'E.) under Coonoor

Taluk, and Ooty (11°24'N. 76°44'E.) under

Ootacamund taluk of the Nilgiris. Coonoor is

situated on the lower ridge of the main pla-

teau of the Nilgiris, at an average altitude of

c. 1800 (1100-2000) m, whereas Kotagiri lies

between 1700 and 2000 m above msl; Ooty-

the popular name of Ootacamund — the district

head quarters lies at an average altitude of c.

2200 (2000-2500) m, at the foot of the high-

est peak Dodabetta (2635 m) — the seecond

highest peak south of the Himalayas.

Climate'. The Nilgiris lie essentially in the

tropical zone although they enjoy sub-tropical

to temperate climate being conditioned by the

mountain situation. The hills receive both the

SW and NE monsoons, and the average an-

nual rainfall for the district is 1226 mm, which

usually does not go below 1000 mm in the

interior of the plateau of above 4000 mm in

the Upper Bhavani region (2200 m. msl). The

average annual rainfall of Coonoor, Kotagiri

774

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

and Ooty is 1500, 1600 and 1278 mm res-

pectively. Although the annual rainfall is not

very high, it is comparatively well distributed

over the year.

The mean annual humidity of Coonoor is

68.66 per cent at 0830 hrs, and 78.33% at

0830 hrs in Ooty. According to Puri (1960)

there is no moisture deficiency in any season

during the year in some high peaks of the

Nilgiris.

The mean annual temperature of Coonoor

(1749 m) has been recorded as 17° centigrade

and that of Ooty (2245 m) as 14.2°C by

Champion and Seth (1968). The highest and

lowest temperature records being 29.4°C and

2.2°C respectively for Coonoor, and 26.1°C

and 1.7°C respectively, for Ooty.

Vegetation : A detailed description of the

vegetation of the Nilgiris and other hills of

the Western Ghats, south of Mysore is neces-

sary to understand the distributional pattern

and other aspects of the ecology of nigrorufa.

The natural vegetation of the Nilgiri Plateau

consists of extensive grasslands covering rol-

ling hills interspersed with numerous isolated

compact, sharply defined small woodlands,

termed ‘sholas’ meaning (Tamil) tropical rain

forest (Plate I). Champion and Seth (1968)

have classified these sholas as Southern Mon-

tane Wet Temperate Forest. The sholas occur

in different parts of the Western Ghats usually

above 1500 m msl, e.g. the Biligirirangans,

Karnataka; the Nilgiris, the Anaimalais, the

Palnis, High Wavy Mountains and Ashambu

hills in Tamil Nadu; Siruvani hills, the Nel-

liampathies. High Range and the Agastyar-

malai in Kerala. The composition of the

sholas in different hill ranges may vary slight-

•y-

The major plants of a typical shola are as

follows: species of Mickelia, Gordonia, Meli-

osma, Elaeocarpus, Cinnamomum, Syzygium,

Lit sea, Neolitsea, Evoclia, Ilex, Glochidion,

Vaccinium, Ternstroemia etc., form the top

storey. Second storey, wherever present, is

usually comprised of Turpinia, Symplocos,

Viburnum, Garcinia, Eurya, Vernonia, Euony-

mus, Memecylon, Hydnocarpus, Rhododen-

dron, Hynea etc. Shrubs include Maesa, Lasi-

anthus, Psychotria, Sarcococca, Polygala,

Strobilanthes, Bambusa and Alsophila. Lianas,

scandent shrubs etc., include Toddalia asiati-

ca, Rosa, Mahonia, Rubus, Berberis, Caesal-

pinia, Smilax, Pentapanax, Jasminum, Elaeag-

nus, Ipomoea, Passi flora, Polygonum, Argy-

reia, Marsdenia, Piper and Gleichenia. The

ground cover is formed by Oxalis, Erigeron,

Hydrocot yle, Anotis, Laportea, Chlorophytum,

Fragaria, Desmodium, Drosera, and Rannun-

culus. The grasslands are mostly dominated

by Anaphatis, Helechrysum, Senecio, Conyza,

Rubus, Osbeckia, Dipsacus, Viola and Poa.

Other plants around the sholas are Rhodo-

myrtus, Dodonea, Hypericum, Lantana, Pilea,

Eupatorium, Elatostemma, Girardinia, Ulex,

Cytisus, Dentation etc. There is always an

abundance of epiphytes like mossess, lichens,

ferns and orchids.

The forest of the Ashambu hills, the foot

hills of Agastyarmalai and the Chemmuni-

malai roughly fits to the Southern Hilltop

Evergreen Forest type of Champion and Seth

(1968) with Ho pea, Calophyllum, Dysoxy-

lum, Artocarpus, Syzygium, CAnnamomum,

Macaranga etc., and a dense undergrowth of

shrubs, reeds,, cane and bamboo brakes. West

Coast Evergreen Forest type includes the

Brahamagiris, part of the Nilgiri-Wynaad, the

Malabar-Wynaad, Top-Slip, Parambikulam

in the Anaimalais where the dominant vege-

tation is Hopea, Mesua, Vitex, Diospyros,

Cyclostemon, Cullenia, Poeciloneuron and

Syzygium, and an undergrowth of Ochlandra

775

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

and Calamus. The slopes of the Nilgiris and

the Palnis are characterised by the Southern

Subtropical Hill Forest consisting of Calophyl-

lum, Syzygium, Turpinia , Litsea etc., and an

undergrowth of Strobilanthes, Ochlaudra,

Calamus and Acacia.

Distribution and Status

To determine the overall distributional pat-

tern of M. nigrorufa in the Western Ghats, I

visited, at least twice (once in the breeding

and again in the non-breeding season), the

Biligirirangans and the Brahmagiris in Karna-

taka, the Nilgiris, Top-Slip (Anaimalais),

Valparai (Grass Hills), the Palnis, High Wavy

Mountains and Ashambu hills in Tamil Nadu.

Parambikulam, Sholaiyar (Anaimalais), High

Range, Cardamom hills, the Chemmunimalai,

the Agastyarmalai and the Nelliampathy hills

in Kerala. Additional information regarding

Siruvani hills and High Range in Kerala were

received from Mr. E. R. C. Davidar and Mr.

R. Sugathan respectively. The Nilgiri-Wynaad

and the High Wavy Mountains were re-

visited in March and September to November

1977.

In my survey trek I usually followed main

roads, foot and bridle paths, all cutting across

or skirting the sholas and other types of for-

ests. Where there was no definite path I walk-

ed through or along the edges of sholas and

evergreen forests, and along the game trails.

In a day’s walk I used to cover an average

distance of c. 15 km. Considerable attention

was paid to forest cover between 700 and

2500 meters above msl. The flycatcher’s pre-

sence in a particular spot was usually detected

from its characteristic call-notes ( chee-ri-rirr

or chi-ree-rirr etc.) or a whistling song ( whee -

chee-ree-rirr or chee-ri-rirr etc.). In the non-

breeding season the presence of a pair was

determined usually by the sightings of both

the male and the female at close quarters.

During the breeding season the presence of a

pair was established either from the singing

male and his accompanying mate or from an

actual nest and its contents, or from parents

who were found attending the fledglings. My

experience shows that if a statement is made

that the flycatcher is common in the Nilgiris

it does not really mean in which particular

vegetation or locality it is common. Therefore,

I have specified the places and localities, or

exact spots, in the different hills where the

flycatcher was sighted.

The distributional range and status of M.

nigrorufa are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1.

I found this flycatcher in the Biligirirangans,

the Nilgiris, the Nilgiri-Wynaad, (Siruvani

hills), the Nelliampathies, the Anaimalais,

High Range, the Palnis, High Wavy Mount-

ains, the Chemmunimalai, the Agastyarmalai

and Ashambu hills (locations in the table).

The lowest elevation at which I saw this spe-

cies is c. 900 m at Aduramalai Tea Estate

(abandoned), at the foot of the Agastyarmalai

in Kerala, my highest record being c. 2625 m

on Dodabetta in the Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu).

I did not see the bird in the Brahmagiris,

Kerala-Wynaad, Top-Slip, Parambikulam and

Sholaiyar section of the Anaiamalis, Santhan-

para, Peermade and Kumili in the Cardamom

Hills. Neither did Dr. V. S. Vijayan see this

bird in Top-Slip, Parambikuiam and Sholaiyar

section of the Anaimalais during his survey

of these hills in early 1976.

My observations show that the Black-and-

Orange Flycatcher has disappeared from

places like Wynaad (cf. Davison 1883), Mun-

nar township in the High Range (cf. Ali 1935

& Primrose J938), Peermade and Santhan-

para (cf. Ali, loc. cit.). The probable cause of

this absence may be that the vegetation of

776

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

these localities has altered appreciably after

those authors visited these areas. The under-

growth of most sholas has been removed for

raising Cardamom plantation. During my

visits in January and June to those places I

found that the banks of the streams flowing

through them were virtually devoid of the one-

0 0 50 100 150 200 km

time luxuriant undergrowth of Ochlandra,

Calamus, Pandanus etc., which seem essential

for the habitat of nigrorufa in these hills.

There appears no previous record of the

occurrence of nigrorufa on the Siruvani hills,

the Nelliampathies, the Chemmunimalai and

the Agastyarmalai of Kerala and the High

12

IB'

74

Mercara(Co\rg)

prahmagiris

Mannantody

Mudumalai \ —

Cudalur

N ilambur

Calicut

Siruvani hills

Palghat

Nelliampathies

Trichur

Anairnudi

Munnar

Santhanpara -

Cardamom hills

Peermade

Periyar Lake

Panthalum hills

Ponmudi

Chemmunimalai

Trivandrum

Mysore

Kollegal

■Qil igirirangans

Kotagiri

Ootacamund ( Ooty)

Coonoor

Met tupalayam

Coimbatore

Anaimalais

— -Valparai.

Palnis

Kodaikanal

High Wavy 1

Kumili

+++ + *+

±±..t..t+ +

runelvelly

A.lgast yarmudi

Agastyarmalai

* "Ashambu hills

-srj^r*any akum a r i

Cape I

Areas of the Western Ghats covered by the survey

Areas where M. nigrorufa were sighted during survey

Fig. 1. Showing distribution of Muscicapa nigrofufa (Jerdon) in the Western Ghats,

southern India. (Semi-diagrammatic)

777

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Wavy Mountains (Madura district in Tamil

Nadu). No ornithologists seem to have visited

these hills except the Nelliampathies, which

were surveyed by Kinloch (1921-1923) and

Ali (1935) but without success. My records

from the Siruvani hills and the Nelliampa-

thies seem to be significant since these two

ranges are situated on the northern and south-

ern edges of the Palghat Gap respectively.

Neither the BNHS’s ornithological survey of

the Eastern Ghats nor their bird banding

camp came across nigrorufa in that area. Mit-

ford’s report of the occurrence of the species

in the highest mountains of Sri Lanka, first

doubted by Oates (1890), was subsequently

rejected by Baker (1924) and others as un-

confirmed. McMaster (1871) thought he saw

Ochromela ( Muscicapa ) nigrorufa “among

cliffs a few miles off Chikalda”, in Maharash-

tra, but his report has never been confirmed.

There is another statement in the Maharash-

tra Gazetteer (1968) presumably based on the

above dubious record, that “In Melghat many

more birds like the black-and-orange fly-

catcher ( Ochromela nigrorufa), otherwise

found in the Niigiris and Ceylon (!) are seen”.

Neither Dr. Salim Ali nor others who have

worked the Melghat area had ever came across

the bird. The biotope here is altogether dif-

ferent from the Niigiris; appropriate habitats

are totally lacking, and this statement is pal-

pably erroneous.

The climate, vegetation and the topographi-

cal features seemed to have affected the dis-

tributional pattern of nigrorufa in the West-

ern Ghats. Mani (1968) emphasized these

factors as affecting the distribution of high

altitude insects. At present the bird is wide-

spread in areas of medium rainfall, that is,

an average annual precipitation of 1500 mm,

as in the Biligirirangans, the Niigiris, Siruvani

hills, the Palnis, High Range and High Wavy

Mountains. In these hills the temperature is

considered to be optimum for montane vege-

tation as emphasized by Champion and Seth

(1968). The vegetation here is dominated by

the Shola type with patches of evergreen

scrubs and plentiful undergrowth providing a

perfect biotope for the flycatcher. The country

is hilly and the upper plateaux are always

above 1500 m msl. The flycatcher is either

absent, rare or not common in the heavy rain-

fall zones where annual precipitation exceeds

2000 mm. Such areas include the Brahmagiris,

the Nelliampathies, Top-Slip, Parambikulam

and Sholaiyar of the Anaimalais, Santh-anpara,

Peermade, Chemmunimalai and the major

portion of the Ashambu hills. These are all

slightly undulating hills of medium elevation,

usually below 1500 m msl. and the terrain is

less rugged than the others mentioned above.

The forests in these low hills are of the ever-

green type dominated by tall trees.

I did not find nigrorufa in any part of the

moist-deciduous forests like those in Masina-

gudi and Mudumalai in the Niigiris, Bandipur

in Karnataka, and Top-Slip in the Anaima-

lais, nor has it ever been reported from such

forest in the Eastern or Western ghats.

Contrary to its description by earlier authors

as ‘patchy’, I found the distribution of nigro-

rufa to be rather uniform in the upper plate-

aux of almost all hills situated between the

southern part of Mysore in Karanataka and

the northern portion of the Kanyakumari dis-

trict of Tamil Nadu, usually above 1500 m

msl. The range is restricted to areas lying be-

tween the Biligirirangans in the north and the

Ashambu hills in the south, that is between

c. 8°40' to 12°N. and 76°60' to 77°80' E. The

maximum width of the range does not ex-

ceed 100 km while the length is limited to

about 400 km. Thus the range of this species

is the most restricted of all the muscicapine.

778

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

culicicapine and rhipiduran flycatchers occur-

ring in southern India.

Status :

The Black-and-Orange flycatcher is a com-

mon bird in the hills of the southern Western

Ghats lying between the Biligirirangans and

the Ashambu hills, usually -above 1500 m msl.

It is one of the commonest flycatchers of the

genus Muscicapa in the upper plateaux of the

Nilgiris, the Biligirirangans, Siruvani hills

(E.R.C. Davidar Per. Comm.), High Range,

the Painis and High Wavy Mountains and to

some extent in the Agastyarmalai. It is rare

in the Nelliampathies, around Valparai in the

Anaimalais, and in the Chemmunimalai, and

uncommon in the major portion of the Agas-

tyarmalai and Ashambu hills. Wherever met

this species was sympatric with Muscicapa

tickelliae, M. albicaudata and sometimes with

M. pallipes. Culicicapa ceylonensis was sym-

patric with M. nigrorufa throughout the en-

tire range of the latter.

The result of intensive study of 27 pairs

and ringing has established that, contrary to

the opinion expressed by authors like Baker

(1924), Whistler and Kinnear (1932), and Ali

& Ripley (1972), nigrorufa is absolutely paro-

chial in its habits and is not given to even

any local movements. Recently Ali (1977)

has accepted the parochiality of the species.

Exceptions were observed only in the case of

juveniles and unmated individuals; in the

former as a dispersal movement, in the latter

in search for mates.

Normally nigrorufa lives in pairs and is

hardly ever seen as a solitary bird. I always

met both the members of a pair within 10 m

or so of each other.

Table 2 gives the populations of different

flycatchers including nigrorufa, and two other

species which shared its habitat and in many

cases had overlapping requirements in the

study plots. All these 18 pairs were closely

studied for about two years and every pair

bred either in the 1975 or 1976 breeding

seasons. As I paid regular visits to all the

localities the counts of the flycatchers and

other birds are presumed to be accurate.

Moreover, many of the pairs were recorded

from their nests or contents of the nests which

were attended by the parents. It is clear from

the table that roughly 2.8 hectares supported

a pair of M. nigrorufa whereas 4.4 h were

needed to support a pair of M. tickelliae, 9 h

for a pair of M. albicaudata, 5.3 h for a pair

of Culicicapa ceylonensis, 6 h for Rhipidura

albogularis and 10.6 h for Brachypteryx

major. Erithacus brunneus, a winter migrant

from the Himalayas, was never found in pairs.

Curiously enough hardly a single female E.

brunneus was seen in the winter months

whereas males were very common (for detail

see M.A.R. Khan in press).

Habitat Preference

The Black-and-Orange Flycatcher normally

prefers sholas above 1500 m msl., few are

found in evergreen forest and occasionally in

Eucalyptus scrub. I rarely saw it in tea, coffee

and Acacia plantations. All these vegetation

types are considered as microhabitats of the

species (Plate I), whereas the shola under-

growth and its variations comprise the mic-

rohabitats or immediate environment (Plate

II).

The microhabitat of nigrorufa was deter-

mined on the basis of the bird’s preference

for certain specific places in the sholas. Dur-

ing each visit to a shola I scrutinized the spot

where the birds were seen, the surrounding

vegetation and the height at which the birds

foraged. In the case of birds living in the

sholas above 1500 m msl, mostly in the Nil-

779

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

giris, the microhabitat usually consists of (in

the order of dominance) the following: Psv-

chotria bisulcata, Lasianthus spp., Strobilan-

thes spp., Chomelia asiatica, Pogostemon sp.,

Asystys sp.. Micro! ropis ovalijolia, Solarium

auriculatum, S. robustum, Pilea trinervia,

Pouzolzia trinervia, Alsophila latebrosa, Cala-

mus, Bambusa; seedlings of Memecylon mala-

baricum, Garcinia cambogia, Litsea wightii

etc., all below two meters in height. The strag-

glers included Toddalia asiatica, Smilax spp.,

Rosa leschenaultii , Rubus ellipticus, Rubus

racemosus, Caesalpinia sepiaria etc., climbers

like Ipomoea sp., Argyreia hirsuta, Piper spp.,

Elaeagnus spp., and Polygonum chinense.

Oxalis spp., Hydrocotyle sp., and Car ex spp.,

were the dominant ground cover. The canopy

was dominated by Syzygium spp., Michelia

sp., lie x spp., Vaccinium spp., Gordonia ob-

tusa, Ternstroemia gymnanthera, Turpinia

cochinchinensis, Glochidion spp., Photinia

spp., Scolopus sp., Vernonia mono sis, Elaeo-

carpus spp., Ligustrum spp., Euonymus sp.,

Macaranga and Hydnocarpus alpina etc.

Where the sholas were close to human

habitations or plantations (e.g. sholas around

Coonoor and Ooty townships) the canopy

layer included a few exotics like Trema orien-

talis, Eucalyptus spp.. Acacia spp., Pinus spp.,

Callitris sp., Cupressus spp., and Grevillia

robusta whereas undergrowth in such areas

usually had an abundance of Solanum spp.,

Cestrum aurantiacum, C. elegans, Tecomaria

capensis, Lantana camara, Datura arborea

etc. in addition to the natural shrubs (Plate

II).

The microhabitats above 2000 m included

more of Sarcococca trinervia, all species of

Rubus occurring in the upper plateau of the

Nilgiris, Mahonia nepaulensis, Berberis tinc-

toria, Toddalia asiatica, Ulex europaeus, Cyti -

sus scoparious, Rumex, Elaeagnus, Eupato-

rium glandulosum, Bambusa nana, and brac-

kens. The canopy had Arbotus rollisonii, Cin-

namomum, Eurya japonica, Rhododendron, j

Vitex altisima and Vitex vitifolia in addition

to the plants already mentioned. Here the

canopy height never exceeded 5 meters. The

and macro- micro- habitats of M. nigrorufa

in the Biligirirangans, Upper Plateau of the

Nilgiris, possibly Siruvani hills, Munnar (High

Range), Kodaikanal (the Palnis), Venniar

(High Wavy Mountains) and to some extent

the Agastyarmalai were of these types.

The microhabitats in the plantations in the

lower plateau of the Nilgiris, the Nelliampa-

thies. Cardamom hills, the Chemmunimalai,

the Agastyarmalai and Ashambu hills are

mostly dominated by a plentiful undergrowth

of Ochlandra, Pandanus, Calamus and Strobi-

lanthes under stands of Cullenia, Hopea, Me-

sua, Cinnamomum, Litsea, Syzygium, Calo-

phyllum and Elaeocarpus.

The microhabitats of the pairs studied and

other casually observed were all traversed by

at least one perennial stream each, and the

flycatcher usually lived within one and half

metres of the ground surface, the latter al-

ways covered with a thickish litter of leaves.

Considering all the stations I have investi-

gated in the Western Ghats it is apparent that

the habitat requirements of the Black-and-

Orange Flycatcher are primarily met by the

luxuriant undergrowth or thickets of a typical

shola; and secondarily by the different types

of bushes and shrubbery in the tea-coffee,

gum-wattle plantations or in ornamental gar-

dens and private compounds provided these

have (1) floor with litter layer of dead and

decaying leaves and decomposed plant matter

which harbours hordes of insects; streams,

brooks or pools, clearings and paths to pro-

vide drinking, bathing and feeding places for

the flycatchers; (2) Shrubs, seedlings and

780

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

herbs of suitable heights to provide the fly-

catcher with shelter, perching and roosting

places, and nest sites; (3) Sedge blades,

{Car ex spp.) bamboo, cane and screw-pine

leaves, pine needles, climbers and twiners to

provide nest materials. Any habitat possessing

the above features may be considered as suit-

able for the Black-and-Orange Flycatcher.

Most of the sholas around different places in

the upper Nilgiri plateau, Honnametti, Atti-

kan and Bellaji in the Biligirirangan hills;

Munnar and Nymakad in the High Range;

Bombay shola, Shembaganur, Tiger shola,

Berijam and Gundur Valley of Kodaikanal in

the Palnis and Venniar of High Wavy Moun-

tains provide the requirements and hence sup-

port denser populations of this species than

the other areas in the Western Ghats.

Food and Feeding habits

To determine the food of this species em-

phasis was given to field observation rather

than stomach contents. A sample of five birds-

one lone male (ringed with BNHS Z-7470)

and two pairs (No. 6 & 13)* were selected

for intensive field study. As the macrohabi-

tats of these birds were thinned out remnants

of erstwhile larger sholas the birds could be

observed with less difficulty. Sometimes they

could be watched even without the aid of

binoculars. In the absence of stomach contents

(except what were obtained from two dead

specimens), efforts were concentrated on ran-

dom collection of insects from the territory

of Z-7470 by ‘sweeping’ different portions. A

specially made insect net with a mouth of c

40 cm in diameter and of 80 cm length was

used for this purpose. During November 1974,

March and September 1975 the sweeping was

done 80 times in each month. Each time the

net was swept within 50 cm of the ground

level and mostly touching the leaf litter, so

as to collect most insects present just above

the litter layer where the birds were mostly

feeding.

In addition to direct observation and sweep-

ing a third successful though somewhat cruel

method was adopted to force the adult birds

to drop the food items they had picked

up. When a flycatcher caught an insect or

larva c. 10 mm in length close enough to me,

I would scare the bird suddenly, so as to make

it drop the food item in fright. In 20 such at-

tempts on five birds half were successful and

yielded useful results as will be shown below.

Only two stomachs were actually analysed for

their contents.

Food :

Apparently the food of M. nigrorufa con-

sists mainly of insects belonging to the orders

Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera,

and to a lesser extent of Hymenoptera and

Neuroptera, including larvae and nymphs. The

insects consumed, in order of prominence in

the sample studied, were members of Sep-

sid-ae, Chironomidae (midges, blood-worms

and eye flies), Stratiomyidae, Tipulidae (77-

pula, daddylong-leg flies), Noctuidae and Py-

ralididae (moths), Danaidae and Hesperidae,

Pieridae and Papilionidae (butterflies), Culici-

dae, Ichneumonidae, Tachinidae (bristle flies),

Acrididae (nymphs only), Chrysopidae (Chr-

ysopa), Asilidae, Muscidae, Chrysomelidae etc.

The stomach contents suggest the presence of

sepsids, chironomids, stratiomyids, asilids, tipu-

lids etc. The food insects observed directly

conform, by and large, with the larger insects

included in the above mentioned groups. It

was rather difficult to be sure of the flies and

other smaller items eaten. The data from the

sweepings (Table 3) also support above find-

* Each of the 27 intensively studied pairs was

given a serial number, beginning with 1.

781

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ings. Moreover, the food items obtained by

‘pirating’ the adult birds show one caterpillar

( Papilio ), one butterfly (Nilgiri Tiger Danais

nilgiriensis), two moths (Noctuidae), three

daddylong-leg flies ( Tipula ), two grasshopper

nymphs (Acrididae) and one earthworm ( Phe -

retima). Occasionally they also took leaf-

hoppers (Jassidae).

Feeding habits :

Five birds were intensively followed for 175

hrs, of which the birds remained out of sight

for 24 hrs when they foraged in the thicker

part of the vegetation. Besides watching these

five specimens all the remaining pairs (25)

were also monitored for appreciable periods

for any variations in feeding habits from those

observed more closely. This was mainly done

during rounds of visits to their habitats.

The flycatchers followed a number of feed-

ing methods. Gaston (1974) and Croxall

(1976) have described feeding methods of

birds of the genus Phylloscopus and of mixed-

species hunting parties (bird flocks) respec-

tively. With certain modifications, I have

adopted some of their terms in describing the

various feeding methods of nigrorufa. They are

as under:

Sally: Catching insects from litter layer and

within about 10 cm above the ground surface.

At no time did the birds settle on the bare

ground during a sally.

Flycatching: Taking flying insects on the

wing either from a perch or from the ground

and always between 10 cm and one metre or

so above the surface. This also included a few

attempts made by the birds to catch butter-

flies above one metre.

Flitting : Searching for food amongst un-

dergrowth using frequent brief flights. This

method of feeding could not be followed easi-

ly since for considerable periods the flycat-

chers foraged inside the thicker part of the

vegetation where visibility was greatly im-

peded.

Hopping : Collecting food from the litter

layer by means of hopping. Unlike babblers,

the Blue Chat, Rufousbellied Shortwing, and

Blackbird this flycatcher did neither scratch

amongst the leaf litter nor flick aside any

leaves to obtain its food. Rather it just picked

from the surface larvae of insects exposed

through the activities of the other ground

feeding birds.

Hovering : Hovering for a very short period,

a fraction of a second, to pick up insects or

their larvae from the tip of a twig or leaf.

Clinging : Clinging to bark of a tree for

collecting insects settled there much in the

fashion of a nuthatch.

I assumed that in each feeding attempt a

bird usually did catch an insect, it always

seemed to have a definite target as Hartley

(1964) observed in hawking flycatchers.

Granting one insect per attempt, the result of

close field study has been shown in Table 4.

It can be said from the table that the flycat-

cher ate mostly sepsids, chironomids and other

dipterans and hymenopterans by means of

sally; and muscids and lepidopterans by fly-

catching. The flycatcher collected caterpillars,

various types of insects and their larvae settl-

ed on the foliage by flitting. Hopping helped

it to capture midges and nymphs, flies and

ants settled on the litter layer or on the ground

cover. Hovering facilitated it to collect insect

larvae etc., while clinging enabled it to catch

jassids from the bark.

The sally was the most common method of

capture followed by flycatching. The former

comprised 77.40 per cent of the total insect

catch while the latter 13.45%. The feeding

rate was 73 insects per hour on the average

(Table 5). It was 69.5 for Z-7470; 75.4 for

male of Pair 13; 69 for Male-6; 78 for Fe-

782

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Reza Khan: Mucicapa nigrorufa

Plate 1

Above : The sholas around 2000 metres — perfect M. nigrorufa habitat.

Below : A typical microhabitat of M. nigrorufa. (Photos : Author)

Plate II

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sqc. 75

Reza Khan: Mucicapa nigrorufa

i

Above : The shola undergrowth a typical microhabitat of M. nigrorufa with a stream

in the foreground.

Below : Undergrowth of Eucalyptus plantation (Nilgiris) with an abundance of

Rhodomyrctus tomentosa. (Photos : Author)

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

k

male- 13 and 73 for Female-6. The feeding

rate of the Tickell’s Blue (M. tickelliae) and

Greyheaded ( Culicicapa ceylonensis) flycat-

chers appeared to be 65 and 90 insects per

hour (based on 180 minutes and 60 min. of

observation) respectively.

The lone male Z-7470 was followed for a

whole day when it could be effectively observ-

ed for 10 hrs and 30 min., between 0645 and

1815 hrs. During the remaining one hour the

bird could not be watched as it foraged in the

interior of the shrubbery. The rate of feeding

per hour ranged from 49 to 103 insects. It was

49 between 1300 and 1400 hrs, 98 between

0700 and 0800 hrs, 100 between 1700 and

1800 hrs, and 103 between 1600 and 1700 hrs.

Thus it had atleast two peak hours of feeding,

one in the morning the other at the close of

the day. The rate of feeding at this period

averaged 100 insects and was double the rate

at mid-day, which was 49.

Since the microhabitat of the Black-and-

Orange Flycatcher is regularly shared by seve-

ral other species of flycatchers such as Tic-

kell’s Blue and Greyheaded, and by other

birds like the Blue Chat, Shortwing and bab-

blers there always exists some interspecific

competition for food between them. To show

this the feeding habits of nigroruja and the

four co-existing species have been summariz-

ed in Table 6, which has been prepared large-

ly on the model of Croxall (1976).

The Blue Chat ( E . brunneus), Rufousbel-

lied Shortwing ( B . major). Spotted Babbler

(Pellorneum ruficeps) have more or less simi-

lar feeding habits. They prefer collecting food,

both insects and earthworms, from the leaf

litter on the floor. As shown in the above

table (6) and mentioned earlier under Feed-

ing Methods, this flycatcher collects its food

mostly on the wing either from the ground

surface or in the air. While hopping on the

ground it often encounters one of these three

ground feeding species. The Blue Chat is a

winter migrant and sojourns in the Nilgiris

from October to March. It spends most of its

time on the ground and at least a quarter of

the day inside the shrubbery largely resting,

preening and soliloquizing. It is parochial,

and prefers the edges of the sholas. But be-

cause of its altogether different feeding habits

it evidently does not compete seriously for

food with nigroruja.

The Shortwing is a denizen of the darkest

part of the shola or thickest part of the shrub-

bery in gardens and compounds. It is resident

in the Nilgiris. Like the Blue Chat it spends

most of its time feeding on the ground, and

resting, singing, soliloquizing and preening.

The Black-and-Orange Flycatcher hardly has

a chance to meet the shortwing since it does

not normally visit the darkest parts of the

shrubbery. Moreover, shortwings are not so

parochial as nigroruja. They wander a great

deal therefore, the competition for food be-

tween the two is unlikely to be of a serious

nature.

The Spotted Babbler, like most others of its

kind, seldom lives in the same spot of the

shola or of the nigroruja microhabitat. As it

does not stick to one spot and forages over a

wider area the flycatcher can easily avoid

competing with it for food.

However, there is competition for food be-

tween the Black-and-Orange and Tickell’s

Blue flycatchers since many of their feeding

habits are similar (Table 6), and in many

places their habitats also overlap. But Tickell’s

is a bird of comparatively open woodlands

and not so parochial as the former, it lives

over a much wider area than Black-and-

Orange, covering a variety of habitats. Thus

competition between them is evidently much

reduced.

!

JOURNMz BOMBAY ■-■NM'URAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vbl 75

Record of Occurrence/ Absence of M. nigrorufa in the Western Ghats

784

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

Name of hills prospected ^n’liours"1 ^een°heard Status and remarks

i: Covered 1.5 km per hour of trekking.

ii: Unsexed. Each bird may represent one pair.

785p

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The Greyheaded Flycatcher (C. ceylonen-

sis ) captures insect prey mostly by sallies,

usually more than a metre off the ground sur-

face, and it rarely descends to the floor. It is

not a strictly parochial species either. It lives

in a variety of habitats and may be met with

also in private compounds. If it ever gets into

the proximity of the Black-and-Orange Fly-

catcher it is invariably chased off by the latter.

The Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher, though not

uncommon, usually prefers the upper canopy

where it not only eats insects but also

fruits and berries of Vaccinium, Syzygium,

Cestrum etc. M. nigorufa hardly ever visits the

canopy, and I have no evidence that this spe-

cies and the Nilgiri Verditer ever compete for

food.

Black-and-Orange Flycatchers usually live

in pairs. A third individual was hardly ever

seen in the territory of a pair except during

the breeding season. Only Z-7470, a lone male,

used to visit the territories of neighbouring

Table 2

Comparison of Population Size of Muscicapa nigrorufa and other Associated Species in the

Sample Study Plots in the Nilgiris.

ii: Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher M. tickelliae

iii: Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher M. albicaudata

iv: Greyheaded Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis

v: Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher Rhipidura al-

bogularis

vi: Indian Blue Chat Erithacus brunncus

vii: Rufousbellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major

Figures within the parentheses include the pair nos.,

those with alphabet letters were studied only in

1976 breeding season.

786

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

pairs occasionally. Whenever spotted by a

territory-owning male he was chased out im-

mediately. Intraspecific competition for food

seemed to be a casual affair and there was

literally no intrapair competition either.

Summary

The year-long field study, conducted be-

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher is not a rare

or uncommon bird as earlier regarded;

it occurs in the hills lying between the Bili-

girirangans (Mysore) and Ashambu hills

(Kanyakumari) of the Western Ghats; from

the northernmost to the southernmost limits

it has continuous distribution and is present

on either edges of the Palghat Gap; it is one

of the commonest of the flycatchers, above

1500 m msl, anywhere in the sholas occurring

in the Biligirirangans, the Nilgiris, High Range,

the Palnis and the High Wavy Mountains;

rather uncommon in the heavy rainfall zones

with evergreen forests and totally wanting in

the moist-and dry-deciduous forests of the

Western Ghats. Its range is the most restrict-

ed of all the associated flycatcher species; its

microhabitat comprises solely of undergrowth,

thickets, shrubbery and bushes of a natural

vegetation (mostly the sholas), and to some

extent of different plantations around 1500 m;

It does not show any local movements and

the species is a very parochial one. Its food

consists mainly of dipteran, lepidopteran,

coleopteran and orthopteran insects which are

mostly caught on the wing either by ‘sally’ or

by ‘flycatching,’ from the ground surface and

within one metre of it; although it competes

for food with a couple of associated species

it has a particular way of avoiding severe

competition and hence co-exits with them in

the similar habitats.

Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Salim Ali,

D.Sc., FNA, for his constant interest in my

work and for providing me his valuable guid-

ance. Thanks are due to the Trustees of the

Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Ornithological

Research Fund of Bombay Natural History

Society for awarding me a fellowship, to Prof.

787

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 4

Different Feeding methods adopted by Muscicapa nigrorufa

1m

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

Table 6

i : C. ceylonensis collects insects usually one metre above the ground. Methods like

sally, fly catching etc., have already been described.

K. Z. Husain, Ex-Chairman, Dept, of Zoology,

D.U., and the Authorities of the University ot

Dacca for granting me study leave, to com-

plete this study. I am extremely thankful to

Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator of BNHS; Dr.

(Mrs.) Anwara Begum, Chairman, Dept, of

Zoology, D.U., Dr. B. Biswas, Deputy Direc-

tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta; Dr.

R. M. Naik, M. S'. University, Baroda; and

Dr. Robert B. Griibh, Asst. Curator of BNHS

for their help and encouragement. The help

and assistance rendered by Messers S. A.

Hussain of BNHS, E. R. C. Davidam V. K.

Ramakrishnan, R. Sugathan, P. Kantian, Cura-

tor, Borivli National Park, Miss Priya Davidar

and Mrs. Shailaja B. Grubh are thankfully

acknowledged. Tamil Nadu Government es-

pecially Forest Department deserve mention

as they have provided me with necessary per-

mission to conduct the field work in the Nil-

giris, where the forest officials gave all local

assistance. Forest Departments of Karnataka

and Kerala states were also very co-operative.

Dr. S. Jayaraj and Dr. Abdul Kareem of

Agricultural University, Coimbatore; Prof. P.

V. Bole, St. Xaviers College, Bombay; . Mr.

Naresh Chaturvedi of BNHS; Miss Saramma

Isaac of BNHS; Miss Renee Bourges, mem-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ber; A. L. Hegde, Accountant; Mr. J. S. Ser-

rao. Librarian, of BNHS; Curator of Botani-

cal Garden, Ooty; Managers of Botanical

Garden and Sims’ Park, Coonoor, and Govt.

Meteorological Department, Madras, kindly

identified insects and other animals and

plants; provided necessary assistance, topo-

graphical and meteorological data, permission

to work in their relevant compounds, and

various other help for which I thank them.

My sincerest thanks are due to my friends

Joseph, Alam, Jude and Peter, for the trouble

they took to help me with reprints etc. and

in the field work, to my wife Nazu for her de-

termination to live a flycatcher-widow life

during my absence from the country.

References

Ali, Salim. (1935): Ornithology of Travancore

and Cochin (with notes by Hugh Whistler). Part 3.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 282-320.

. (1942): The birds of Mysore (with

notes by Hugh Whistler). Part 2. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 43: 318-341.

. (1949): Indian Hill Birds. Oxford

Univ. Press, Bombay.

. (1977): The Book of Indian Birds.

10th edn. Bombay Natural History Society.

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1972): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 7. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Anonymous. (1968): Maharashtra State Gazet-

teer, Amaravati District. Rev. ed. Directorate of

Government Printing, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1924): Fauna of British India.

Birds. 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis, London.

(1933) : The Nidification of the Birds

of the Indian Empire. Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis,

London.

Baker, H. R. and Inglis, C. M. (1930): The

Birds of Southern India. Government Press,

Madras.

Bourdillon, T. F. (1880): Letters to the Editor.

Stray Feathers 9: 299-300.

Campbell, B. (1954-1955): The breeding distri-

bution and habitat of the Pied Flycatcher ( Musci -

capa hypoleuca ) in Britain. Bird Study 1: 81-101;

2: 24-32, 179-191.

(1959) : Attachment of Pied Flycat-

cher Muscicapa hypoleuca to nest sites. Ibis 101:

445-448.

Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. K. (1968): A

revised survey of the forest types of India. Govern-

ment of India, Delhi.

Croxall., J. P. (1976): The composition and

behaviour of some mixed-species bird flocks in

Sarawak. Ibis 118: 333-346.

Davison, W. (1883) : Notes on some birds col-

lected on the Nilgiris and parts of Wynaad and

southern Mysore. Stray Feathers 10: 329-419.

Fairbank, S. B. (1887): A list of birds collect-

ed and observed on the Palni hills, Stray Feathers

5: 387-410.

Ferguson, H. S. (1898): Birds not recorded in

the Fauna of British India from Travancore. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 202-203.

Ferguson, H. S. and Bourdillon, T. F. (1904):

The birds of Travancore with notes on their nidi-

fication. Part 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15 :

455-474.

Gaston, A. J. (1974): Adaptation in the genus

Phylloscopus, Ibis 116: 432-450.

Haartman, L. V. (1956): Territory in the Pied

Flycatcher Muscicapa hypoleuca. Ibis 98: 460-475.

(1967): Clutch-size in the Pied Fly-

catcher. Proc. Intr. orn. Congr. 14: 155-164.

Hartley, P. H. T. (1964): Article ‘Feeding

habits’ in Thomson. A. L. (ed.). New. Diet. Birds.

Nelsen, London and New York.

Hume, A. O. (1876): A first list of the birds

of Travancore hills. Stray Feathers 4: 351-405.

Jerdon, T. C. (1862): Birds of India. Vol. I.

Published by the author, Calcutta.

Kinloch, A. P. (1921): Rough notes on the avi-

fauna of the Nelliampathy hills. J. Bombay nat .

Hist. Soc. 27: 939-944.

(1923): On the birds of the Nelliam-

pathy hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 564-565.

790

ECOLOGY OF BLACK & ORANGE FLYCATCHER

Koelz, W. (1947): Notes on a collection of

birds from Madras. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 :

128-142.

Lack, David (1966) : Population studies in birds.

Clarendon Press, Oxf. London.

Mani, M. S. (1968): Ecology and biogeography

of high altitude insects. Dr. W. Junk N. V. Publica-

tion, The Hague.

McMaster, A. C. (1871): Note on birds observ-

ed in the neighbourhood of Nagpur and Kamptee

(Central Province). Chikalda and Akola in Berar.

/. Asiatic Soc. Bengal. Part 2. 205-215.

Meidell, O. [Haartman, L. V.] (1961): Life his-

tory of the Pied Flycatcher and the Redstart in a

Norwegean Mountain area. Nytl. Mag. Zool. 10:

5-47.

Nichols. E. G. (1937): The Kodaikanal birds

and how to name them. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

39: 812-830.

Oates, E. W. (1890): Fauna of British India in-

cluding Ceylon and Burma. Birds. 1st edn. Vol. 2.

Taylor and Francis, London.

Primrose, J. B. (1938): Supplementary observa-

tions on the Munnar section of the ornithological

survey of Travancore and Cochin. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 40: 500-507.

Puri, G. S. (1960): Indian Forest Ecology. 2

vols. Oxford Book & Stationary Co., New Delhi.

Ranganathan, C. R. (1938) : Studies in the eco-

logy of the shola grassland vegetation of the Nil-

giri plateau. Indian Forester 54: 523-541.

Ripley, S. D. (1961): A synopsis of the birds

of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History

Society.

Summers-Smith, D. (1952) : Breeding biology

Whistler, Hugh and Kinnear, N. B. (1932):

The Vernay scientific survey of the Eastern Ghats.

Ornithological Section. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 36: 67-93.

791

RODENT RESEARCH IN INDIA

IS H WAR PRAKASH1

I take justifiable pride in the fact that all

through my teaching /research career spanning

the last two decades it has almost been a habit

with me to ensure that the organisation that I

might be serving at any particular time must

have all the available volumes of JBNHS in

its library. While I cannot altogether disown

selfish motives in being in close physical pro-

ximity to the fascinating store of nature lore

that the pages of JBNHS contain, I can at least

claim to nurture, at the same time a sustained

interest in the propagation of JBNHS for the

values that it has upheld all these 75 years.

Therefore, when I received an invitation from

the Editor to contribute to the 75th Anniver-

sary Volume, I took it as an opportunity to

repay my debt to this great journal at least

partially. I am presenting a brief account of

rodent research that has been carried out in

the country during the period since the 50th

Volume of JBNHS was published.

India’s golden period of mammal research

was during the early part of this century when

an immense volume of material poured out of

the press, written by stalwarts of Indian mam-

malogy. A lucid account of the history of In-

dian mammalogy has been presented by Kin-

near (1952) in the 50th Volume of the JBNHS.

Pertaining to rodents, probably the most im-

portant were the 55 reports of the BNHS

Mammal Survey incorporating the Scientific

Results and Summaries of the survey series,

mostly done by Wroughton. After this period,

a sort of dormancy prevailed in respect of re-

search work on rodents as well as mammals

in our country which was probably broken in

1953 by Professor Daya Krishna of the Jas-

want College, Jodhpur, who was awarded a

Research Project on Vertebrate Ecology of the

Indian Desert by U.N.E.S.C.O. I had the pri-

vilege of starting it as the mammalogist. It

continued upto 1956. Individually Dr. M. L.

Roonwal had already started his monographic

work on the mammals of Manipur (1948,

1949, 1950). Later, Indian Council of Agri-

cultural Research (ICAR) established, in 1959,

a section on Animal Ecology in the Central

Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, chief-

ly to study the desert rodents and to find out

ways and means to control them. The author

has been working in this section since its incep-

tion. Simultaneously, ICAR launched a Co-

ordinated Scheme for research on the study of

field rats. It lasted till 1969. The Johns Hop-

kins University started a centre at Calcutta

and rodent research was a part of its pro-

gramme. In 1970 U.S.A.I.D. launched a field

programme of rodent control in the Sidhpur

taluka in Gujarat State and in 1972 the Ford

Foundation funded Department of Vertebrate

Biology in the University of Agricultural Scien-

ces at Bangalore. Thereafter, ICAR again re-

newed its interest in Rodent Research, initiating

an All India Coordinated Programme on Rod-

ent Research with four centres and by launch-

1 Coordinator and Principal Animal Ecologist,

All India Coordinated Research Programme on

Rodent Control, Central Arid Zone Research Insti-

tute, Jodhpur.

792

RODENT RESEARCH IN INDIA

ing a National Programme for Rodent Pest

Management in 1975. I am endeavouring to

present briefly the salient features of research

conducted under the above mentioned projects

and a few more centres.

Central Arid zone Research Institute ,

Jodhpur

Ecological Survey

An ecological survey of rodent population

in a vast region representing the desert biome

was conducted and besides reporting 8 rodent

species for the first time, district-wise density

of rodents, relative abundance, species compo-

sition in various habitats, and their inter-rela-

tionship with vegetation types, agricultural

crops and soil texture have been worked out

(Prakash et al. 1971). Certain rodent pests

show habitat specificity, such as: Gerhillus n.

Indus occurs exclusively in the sandy habitat;

Rattus c. cutchicus and Mus cervicolor phil -

lip si in the rocky habitat; and R. meltada pal -

lidior, Golunda ellioti, Nesokia indica, Mus

booduga in the agricultural crops. Our collea-

gue, Shri Rana has just collected Bandicota

bengalensis and V and el curia o. spadicea from

Bisalpur, from the foot of Aravallis in western

Rajasthan.

Food

The rodents feed throughout the year upon

vegetative parts of plants, supplemented by

seeds (post-monsoon and winter) and insects

(spring and summer for Tat era and summer

for Meriones). The fluctuations in the occur-

rence of various food items were more com-

mon in the latter gerbil, which were in con-

formity with the changing vegetational eco-

system reflecting the availability of different

food items. The food preferences of merion

gerbil were studied in the field during mon-

soon by comparing the frequency of occurrence

of each plant species iu the biotope with that

of the un-consumed plant species lying near

burrow openings of the gerbils. It was reveal-

ed that they show a definite preference for

palatable grasses, the preference being in the

following order: Cenchrus ciliaris, Aristida

adscenionis, Eragrostis ciliaris, Digitaria ad-

scendens, Brachiaris ramosa and Tragus bi-

florus. In the desert tract where the study was

conducted, the density of desert gerbils was esti-

mated to be 477 per hectare. Considering that

a gerbil consumes about 6 gm. feed a day, their

annual requirement will be 1044 kg/hectare

assuming that their number will be maintained

at this level all the year round. The figure of

the estimated forage production in this tract

were 1410 per hectare. Comparing this figure

it will appear that hardly any fodder will be

left for livestock, particularly when the esti-

mate of the gerbil depradation does not in-

clude the destruction they do by cutting the

grasses and by digging burrows in the root sys-

tems of plants. The gerbils do serious damage

to tree plantations by their debarking activity.

Sometimes the debarking is done so deep that

the system is completely cut causing the death

of the tree. Worst affected by the debarking

activity of gerbils are Prosopis spicigera, Albiz -

zia lebbek and Acacia tortilis. They are extre-

mely destructive to the afforestation saplings

(Prakash 1975).

The gerbils are also serious factors of de-

sertification as they excavate the stabilised soil

at a rate of 61,500 kg,/ day /km. 2

Breeding season

Most of the rodents breed all the year round

with peak littering activity in February, mon-

soon season and November. Minimum breed-

ing activity was, however, observed during

April and May. These studies indicate that if

rodent control is to be carried out through

poison baits, the operations should be taken

793

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

up during the period of minimum breeding

activity (April and May), whereas if gassing

is to be followed, the period of maximum lit-

tering (monsoon season) should be chosen.

Population characteristics

Detailed studies on population have been

made only on M. hurrianae and F. pennanti.

The average annual number of M. hurrianae

varied from 31 to 456 per 95 x 95 m experi-

mental plots in three bio-climatic zones of Ra-

jasthan desert. The fluctuations in their num-

ber also show an annual trend, numbers being

lowest in summer and highest in winter and

spring, the increase being attributed chiefly to

the enhanced rate of reproduction after mon-

soon as directly influenced by the availability

of green food at this time. Number of desert

gerbils have a direct relationship with soil char-

acteristics, the population being thinner in

clayey and compact soils. An inverse relation-

ship was, however, found between grass cover

and population density of desert gerbils (Pra-

kash 1976). The lowest populations of palm

squirrel were observed during winter, at which

time they do not breed as well. This may be

the correct season for their control.

Home Ranges

The average home range of male and female

F. pennanti was found by minimum home

range method to be 0.21 — 0.73 hectares and

0.15 — 0.034 hectares respectively. The ob-

served range length of adult male palm squir-

rel was 65.61 ± 4.80 m., for adult female 46.87

— 5.40 m., for sub-adult male 41.71 — 10.93

m, and for sub-adult female 43.95 ± 1.85 m.

The observed range length of adult males is

more than other groups probably because of

higher competition among adult males for

mate which are lesser in number than the for-

mer. The observed range length of male and

female desert gerbil was found to be 16.03 —

0.98 m and 18.46 ± 1.5 m. Work on T. indica

is in progress. These studies have shown that

the baiting stations for the control of F. pen-

nanti and M. hurrianae should be established

at an interval of 30 m and 10 m respectively.

The behavioural patterns of various rodents,

R. rattus, Gerbillus nanus and M. hurrianae

have been extensively studied. This work has

clearly indicated a development of a parallel

evolution of behavioural adaptations to xeric

environment irrespective of geographic discon-

tinuity in the distribution of rodent species

(Prakash 1975). The study of humoral aspects

has also provided pertinent and useful infor-

mation regarding the timing of poisoning, bait

placement and planning of the operation. Two

experiments are in progress since the begin-

ning of the project on exploratory and neo-

phobic behaviour of rodents. The experiments

are being done inside the ‘plus’ maze. Stu-

dies on physiological adaptations of the ro-

dents for survival in the desert biome are in-

corporated in Prakash and Ghosh (1975).

Studies on the ventral marking gland are in

progress. The most common use of the secre-

tion of mid ventral gland is for marking around

the entrance of burrows and for marking the

trails that gerbils use to move about to many

burrows. The marking frequency in adult males

(median marking score: 8, range 0.27) were

greater than adult female (median marking

score: 0, range 0.27). Marking rate is greater

in ‘dominant’ male gerbil than that of ‘sub-

missive’ male gerbil. Efforts are being made

to enhance the consumption of poison bait to

increase the efficacy of control operation.

In addition to this work, bait preference of

7 species of rodents, bait shyness and lethal

dosages of rodenticides for almost all the de-

sert rodents have been worked out (Fitzwater

and Prakash 1978). In this review the work

on rodent control aspects has been excluded.

794

RODENT RESEARCH IN INDIA

CAZRI has been designated as the ICAR Cen-

tre for Rodent Research and Training and is

also functioning as the Coordinating Unit of

the National Programme for Rodent Pest Ma-

nagement since it was launched during 1975

(Prakash 1976).

ICAR Coordinated Scheme on Field Rats

The Coordinated Scheme on the study of

field rats, financed by ICAR, ran for 11 years

(1959-69) at five centres — Kanpur, Ludhiana,

Bombay, Hyderabad and Aduthurai. The ma-

jor findings have been adapted from Srivastava

(1968, 1969).

Species Composition

Trapping results indicated that in Uttar Pra-

desh, Punjab and near Madras Bandicota ben-

galensis, Rat t us meltada pallidior. Tat era indi-

ca and Nesokia indica are the predominant

field rodent species. Rattus r. rufescens was

also reported in the coconut crops in Marutera

in Andhra Pradesh. In Maharashtra, B. benga-

lensis, R. rattus, Mus cervicolor nagarum and

Bandicota indica were found to be the major

species. Probably in the absence of a set pat-

tern of trapping it is not possible to work out

the relative abundance of these species from

the data. Srivastava (1968) estimated the field

rat population of Uttar Pradesh fluctuating bet-

ween 287 to 818 millions during various months

of the year! At Rajendranagar, traps were set

near coconut trees and the population of field

rats varied from 3 to 8 per acre (= 7 to 19 /ha)

from October 67 to June 1968.

Damage assessment

Probably the best work done under the sche-

me was on this aspect and damages were asses-

sed on statistically designed methods. The

losses to various crops in the five regions of

the scheme are averaged as under: Wheat 11.1

to 11.9 per cent. Barley 5.8 per cent, Jowar

5.8 to 6.3 per cent. Gram 0.9 per cent, Paddy

4.6 to 5.4 per cent. Groundnut 4.1 to 25.8 per

cent. Coconut 5 per cent. Maize 14 per cent

and sugarcane 2.2 per cent. Besides these ma-

jor crops, damages to several other crops were

also estimated in field particularly in south In-

dia.

Habits

Fair attention was paid by the research

workers in the scheme on burrow pattern, num-

ber, size, shape and colour of faecal pellets.

On the basis of patterns of 10 burrows of each

species, Srivastava (1968) found that on an

average there are 11.9, 7.2 and 4.2 openings

in the burrows of B. bengalensis, T. indica and

Mus b. booduga, and are 73.8, 100.5, 35.7 cms.

deep respectively. Almost similar results were

reported from various other centres. It would

have been of interest if such a massive effort

of digging about 10,000 burrows in various

parts of the country had presented common

burrow patterns of various species as has now

been done by Barnett & Prakash (1975). Like-

wise, the extensive work on faecal pellets, paw

marks, swimming habits and movements car-

ried out at all the centres could not be used

for practical application and yielded conclu-

sion like, “Field observations indicated that the

rats migrated from one field to another”, or,

“Mole rats when caged together started quar-

relling with each other” and so on!

Breeding Season

Breeding data collected over 11 years and at

5 centres pointed out that most of the rodents

breed all the year round and their litter size

varies from 1 to 16, in B. bengalensis at Adu-

thurai, and 3-9 of R. meltada. In Uttar Pradesh

M. b. booduga was found to litter in the

months of September, October, February and

June and the litter size ranged from 6 to 13.

During February to May and July to October

each female of Rattus meltada produced 1 to

795

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

4 litters, each having 1 to 8 young (av. 3.4),

(Srivastava 1968). This information appears to

have been collected from random samples ex-

cavated out of the burrow and probably a

monthly catch on a regular pattern was not

planned to yield concrete data on the repro-

duction activity of rodents.

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

After the termination of the Scheme, the

Punjab Agricultural University continued ro-

dent research and a number of students have

submitted their M.Sc. and Ph.D. dissertations

on Punjab rodents. The major fields of their

investigations have been the rodent-crop rela-

tionship, their food, breeding habits, popula-

tion fluctuations, behaviour of B. bengalensis,

T. indica, R. meltada and Mus spp. Bindra

& Sagar (1975) have summarised the result

of their work carried out during 1964-1972. A

useful compendium has been produced by Sood

& Guraya (1976). The University continues

to be a centre of an ICAR Coordinated Pro-

ject, a rodent research initiated in 1977.

Johns Hopkins University Medical Research

& Training Centre, Calcutta

One of the aspects of study at this Centre

was rodents and extensive studies were done

on B. bengalensis in godowns. Though this

bandicoot is a field rodent but in the environs

of Calcutta and Bombay, it has more or less

taken the niche of Rattus rattus, and has re-

placed it almost totally at the former place.

Parrack (1966) and Spillett (1968) found that

population of B. bengalensis in grain storage

godowns over an 11 month period was on an

average 0.78 per m2 of floor space. This ap-

pears to be very high figure but Spillett men-

tioned that these estimates were low. The high

population is maintained partly due to their

continuous reproductive activity. The preva-

lence of pregnancy for sexually mature fema-

les was the highest that has been recorded for

a murid population. The mean number of cmb- [

ryos per pregnant female was 6.2. Spillett

calculated the mean annual production of

young per adult female as 70. The rate of

food consumption by bandicoots led the author

to calculate food losses due to rats in a typi-

cal Calcutta godown to approximately 4,200 kg

annually. The Centre was closed subsequent

to these studies.

Central Food Technological Research Institute,

Mysore

With a major objective to control the rodent

pests, the Central Food Technological Research

Institute has also carried out valuable work

on rodents particularly in the large ratteries,

a facility available till recently only to scien-

tists at this Institute. Besides work on food pre-

ferences, burrow patterns, behaviour of ro-

dents, population studies, a number of ro-

denticides have been screened and a few ro-

dent control methodologies have been develop-

ed by the scientists of the Institute,

Indian Grain Storage Institute, Hapur

Rodent work at the Grain Storage Research

Institute has been carried out in rural environ-

ment. Krishnamurthy et al. (1967) observed

that the population of house rats in the villa-

ges around Hapur was on an average 1,057

rats per village, 9.7 per house and 1.3 per per-

son. In improved residential premises, the rat

population was only 1.8 per house and 0.34 per

person. Later on, however, Krishnamurthy et

al. (1971) found the density of rats to be 8.5

to 18.5 per house. The authors observed that

the average food intake of R. rattus varied

with their body weight and ranged from 8.98

to 18.69 g wheat per day, Mus musculus con-

sumed 2.56 g/ day and B. bengalensis 50-60 g.

The losses of foodgrains in the village were esti-

796

RODENT RESEARCH IN INDIA

mated to range from L36 to 3.59 tonnes, aver-

age being 2.34 tonnes -annually. Another study

(Girish et al. 1972) calculated that 1 to 3.75

per cent stored foodgrains are lost to rats in

city godowns. Besides these studies, work is

continuing in the Institute on the efficacy of

rodenticides for rodent control. A good com-

pendium has been produced by Pingale et ah

(1967).

Rodent Control Project, Sidhpur

The work was initiated as an operational re* ji

search project in the Sidhpur taluka of north-

ern Gujarat (80 villages) and one or two vil-

lages in every district of the State. Control ope-

ration was taken up in residential premises on

such a large and successful manner, that the

classic work will remain as a demonstration

for the entire country if not for the whole

world. The villages were maintained at a very

low level of rodent population for a long dura-

tion (1971-77). Rodent Control Training to

State/ district /village level workers was an-

other major function of the project. Besides

a number of research projects on their popu-

lation in villages, bait preferences, efficacy of

traps and rodenticides, the detailed results are

embodied in Ahmedabad Symposium, ably ar-

ranged by the project.

Haffkine’s Institute, Bombay

In addition to epidemeological studies on

Bombay rodents, a great deal of research has

been carried out on population change over

of species and their control (Deoras 1966).

University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore

A department of Vertebrate Biology func-

tioned at the University for five years and it

is continued now as a Centre of Coordinated

Research Programme on Rodent Control of

the ICAR. The research work here continues

on rodent species composition in fields, popu-

lation dynamics, behaviour, bait preferences,

evaluation of rodenticides and operational con-

trol methods in field.

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

Most of the research work is continuing on

Raitus rattus on its food habits, bait preferen-

ce and bait shyness.

Delhi University, Delhi

After completing work on the Indian gerbil

and the squirrels at Bangalore, Dr. M. R. N.

Prasad migrated to the Delhi University and

along with his colleagues has done intensive

work on F. pennanti and Nesokia indica.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

The Zoological Survey of India can claim

the credit for the publication of the Fauna of

India series, particularly the two volumes on

rodents (Ellerman 1961). Biswas & Tiwari

(1966) compiled the latest information on the

distribution of rodents in India and Agrawal

(1962) published the results of his studies on

the skulls of oriental rodents. At present, be-

sides taxonomic work, ecological work on ro-

dents is also continuing in ZSI.

National Institute of Communicable Diseases,

Delhi

To elucidate the factors responsible for the

persistence of plague in the South India plague

focus, the Institute has been conducting stu-

dies since 1964 mainly to investigate on the

wild rodent plague reservoirs. In addition to

epidemiological and serological studies on field

rodents, studies have yielded excellent data on

the population and breeding biology of Rattus

rattus, R. meltada, Mus platythrix and Tat era

indica hardwickei (Chandrahas 1974).

797

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Sri Venkateswara University , Tirupati

A survey of rodent infested areas revealed

B. bengaiensis, R. rciitus, M. booduga, R. mel-

iada and T. irtdica as predominant pest spe-

cies around Tirupati. A detailed ecological

work on M. booduga was undertaken (Rao

1977). The field mice are solitary burrowers

occurring in both dry and wet crop habitats

and maintaining a congenial microclimate in-

side the burrows in all seasons. The preferred

food of these mice is seeds of various grasses,

roots and leaves of Graminae in summer. A

seasonal trend of reproduction from August

to February is noted. Behaviour of M. boo-

duga and M. platythrix has been studied in

detail.

Symposia, Summer Institutes and Workshops

At least three internationally attended sym-

posia have taken place which were devoted

only to rodents. First one at Calcutta in 1966,

arranged by Dwain Parrack of the Johns Hop-

kins University Centre, the second one at Kan-

pur by Dr. A. S. Srivastava of the State De-

partment of Entomology in 1968 and lastly

at Ahmedabad in 1975, Sidhpur. Proceedings

of all the three are still available, though that

of the first is hard to get.

ICAR has arranged two Summer Institutes

one at UAS, Bangalore and the other at

CAZR1, Jodhpur with the main objective of

training University, Plant Protection Staff and

other Officers for conducting Rodent Re-

search. ICAR has planned to hold workshops

regularly to evaluate, coordinate and monitor

the rodent research in the country. Latest

workshop was held at CAZRI in July, 1978.

In spite of the fact that the history of rodent

research in India is fairly old yet, as usual for

any scientific field, many obvious questions

remain to be answered. We have tried to cata-

logue them in detail (Barnett & Prakash

1975 and Prakash & Ghosh 1975). There is

an urgent need of conducting an ecological

survey of field rodents in various habitats of

the country. How astonishing is that we just

do not know for definite which is the rodent

species associated with bamboo flowering in

Mizoram? What is the relative abundance of

various species in Rayalaseema or Kashmir?

What are their population and breeding cycles

in various bio-climatic zones? and so on. If

we accumulate this knowledge, 1 am sure we

will be able to do a much superior job for the

National Programme for Rodent Pest Manage-

ment.

References

Agrawal, V. C. (1962) : Taxonomic study of

skulls of oriental rodents in relation to ecology.

Rec. lnd. Mus. 60 (3/4): 125-326.

All India Rodent Seminar, 1975. Farmers Friends

Association, Sidhpur, 1-376.

Barnett, S. A. & Prakash, I. (1975) : Rodents

of economic Importance in India. Arnold-Heine-

mann, New Delhi & London, 1-175.

Bindra, O. S. & Sagar, P. (1975): A review of

studies on ecology, biology, damage and control of

field rats and field mice in the Punjab. Proc. All

India Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad, 82-88.

Biswas, B. & Tiwari, K. K. (1966): Taxonomy

and distribution of common Indian rodents. Indian

Rodent Symp., Calcutta, 9-45.

Chandrahas, R. K. (1974): Ecology of the

brown spiny mouse, Mus p. platythrix (Bennett)

and the Indian field mouse, Mus b. booduga

(Gray). Indian J. Med. Res., 62: 264-280.

Deoras, P. J. (1966): The significance of prob-

able change of rat population in Bombay. Indian

Rodent Symp. Calcutta, 58-68.

Deoras, P. J. (1964): Rats and their control. A

review of an account of work done on rats in

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RODENT RESEARCH IN INDIA

India. Ind. J. Entomol., 26: 407-418.

Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The fauna of India, in-

cluding Pakistan, Burma & Ceylon. Mammalia Vol.

3, Rodentia, 1-884.

Fitzwater, & Prakash, I. (1978): Handbook of

Vertebrate Pest Control (Rev. Ed.), ICAR, New

Delhi.

Girish, G. K., Singh, K., Srivastava, P. K. &

Krishnamurthy, K. (1972): Studies on rodents and

their control. Part III. Susceptibility of Rattus rattus

to dilferent anticoagulants. Bull. Grain Technol. 10:

113-115.

Indian Rodent Symposium. 1966. The Johns

Hopkins Univ. Centre for Med. Res. & Training

and USAID, Calcutta, 1-314.

International Symposium on Bionomics and Con-

trol of Rodents. 1968. Science & Technol. Soc., Kan-

pur. 1-184.

Kinnear, N. (1952) : The history of Indian

mammalogy and ornithology. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 50: 767-778.

Krishnamurthy, K., Uniyal, V., Singh, J. &

Pingale, S. V. (1967): Studies on rodents and their

control. Pt. I. Studies on rat population and losses

of food grains. Bull. Grain Technol., 5: 147-153.

Krishnamurthy, K., Ramasivan, T. & Uniyal,

V. (1971) : Studies on rodents and their control.

Part VI. Studies on fluctuations in population and

breeding period of R. rattus in Hapur region, ibid.

9: 79-82.

Parrack, D. W. (1966): Activity cycle of the

lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis. Curr.

Sci., 35: 544-545.

Pingale, S. V., Krishnamurthy, K. & Rama-

sivan, T. (1967) : Rats. Food Grain Technol. Res.

Assn, of India, Hapur, 1-91.

Prakash, 1. (1974): The ecology of vertebrates of

the Indian desert. In : Ecology and Biogeography

in India. Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publishers. The Hague,

369-420.

(1975) : The ecology and zoogeo-

graphy of mammals. In : Environmental Analysis

of the Thar Desert. (Edited by R. K. Gupta & I.

Prakash), English Book Depot, Dehradun, 446-467.

(1976): Rodent Pest Management

— Principles and Practices. Monograph No. 4,

CAZRI, Jodhpur, 1-28.

(1976) : Desert rodents and their

management. Desertification and Its Control. ICAR.,

263-268.

& Ghosh, P. K. (Ed.). (1975):

Rodents in Desert Environments. Dr. Junk Verlag,

The Hague, 1-628.

Gupta, R. K., Jain, A. P., Rana,

B. D. & Dutta, B. K. (1971): Ecological evalua-

tion of rodent populations in the desert biome of

Rajasthan. Mammalia, 35 : 394-423.

Rao, A. M. K. M. (1977) : Studies on some eco-

logical aspects of the Indian field mouse, Mus

booduga Gray. Ph.D. Thesis, S. V. University, Tiru-

pati.

Roonwal, M. L. (1948) : Three new Muridae

(Mammalia: Rodentia) from Assam and the Ka-

baw Valley, Upper Burma. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India, 14: 385-387.

(1949) : Systematics, ecology and

bionomics of mammals studied in connection with

Tsutsugamushi disease (Scrub typhus) in the As-

sam-Burma war theatre during 1945. Trans. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India, 3: 67-122.

(1950): Contribution to the fauna

of Manipur State, Assam. Pt. 3. Rec. Indian Mus.,

47: 1-64.

Sood, M. L. & Guraya, S. S. (1976) : Rats and

their control. Punjab Agric. Univ., Ludhiana, 1-31.

Spillett, J. J. (1968): The ecology of the lesser

bandicoot rat in Calcutta. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

& Johns Hopkins Univ. Centre for Med. Res. &

Training, Calcutta, 1-223.

Srivastava, A. S. (1968) : Rodent control for

increased food production. Rotary Club (West),

Kanpur, 1-152.

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field rats, I.C.A.R., New Delhi, 1-36.

799

16

PROTO-FIDDLERS AND FIDDLERS : PATHWAYS TO

WAVING IN INDIAN BRACHYURAN CRABS1

Rudolf Altevogt2

( With four text- figures )

The visual signalling gestures of the brachyuran crabs Macrophthalmus tomentosus,

Souleyet (Grapsidae), Dotilla blanfordi and D. myctiroides (Ocypodidae, Scopime-

rinae) are described and analyzed by cinematography. In comparison with the waving

of true fiddler crabs (genus Uca, Ocypodidae, Ocypodinae) one finds an ascending

series of complexity in these communication signals so that the said crabs may serve

as examples of evolutionary pathways to waving.

Almost a century ago, Alcock (1892, 1902)

gave the first account on Indian fiddler crabs

which he had observed in the field on the

banks of the Godavari and Kistna rivers. Al-

most twentyfive years ago, I published “some

studies on two species of Indian fiddler crabs,

Uca marionis nitidus Dana and U. annulipes

Latr.” (1955) in the very Journal which we

are celebrating by the present diamond jubilee

volume. Since then quite a bulk of information

has been obtained on the systematics, behavi-

oural ecology and physiology of these most

highly evolved brachyuran Crustaceans (for

literature upto 1974 see the veritable “bible”

on fiddler crabs by Crane, 1975). From the

findings of a hoard of enthusiastic Uca-stu-

dents and scholars quoted in the monumental

volume by Crane and other sources listed be-

low, it can safely be concluded that

1) the name giving visual gesture (fiddling,

beckoning, waving the great claw by the males)

serves semantic purposes informing the con-

specific rival to keep away and the potential

1 On the 70th anniversary of Prof. Harald Stump-

ke, alias Gerolf Steiner in Mairuwilli, Black Forest.

2 Department of Physiology and Ecology, Faculty

of Biology, Munster University, Federal Republic

of Germany.

sex partner to feel appeased and willing to

mate,

2) there is a graded series of complexity in

the type of waving in the ninety-odd species

of true fiddlers of the genus Uca reaching from

a primitive up-and-down movement of the

claw (as in Uca batuenta from South Ame-

rica, Altevogt and Altevogt, 1967a) to the ex-

traordinary rotation waving (as in Uca insignis

from the Eastern Pacific, Altevogt and Alte-

vogt 1967b),

3) that corresponding homologous vibratory

signals are produced by tapping claws or legs

against the soil when underground in the crabs’

burrows at night or under dense vegetation

obstructing visual signalling.

While the intriguing wealth of various types

and levels of waving in the true fiddlers has

attracted numerous authors (including a good

number of my students:

Von Hagen 1962; Gunther 1963; Nosier 1963;

Korte 1966; Feest 1969; Jansen 1970; Heinrich

1971), the evolutionary prestages of true wav-

ing in the lower ranks of Crustacea have little

been worked upon (though some hints to and

considerations of this phenomenon can already

be found in Altevogt, 1957a, b). Also Schone &

Schone (1963) as well as Wright (1968) have

PROTO-FIDDLERS AND FIDDLERS

dwelt on this subject. It is for this reason that

in the following pages some Indian proto-

fiddlers shall be treated and compared to some

true fiddlers of India. The relevant data were

recorded on several trips to crab habitats along

the Indian coasts from north of Bombay down

to Cape Comorin and up to Diamond Har-

bour/Calcutta during the years 1970-1976. Re-

cording was done by cinematography (24-64

frames per second, Bolex H 16 reflex, 16 mm,

Ektachxome), and still photography. Thanks

are due to Professor Dr. H. O. von Hagen,

Marburg, for determining the Macrophthal-

mus species, and to Miss M. Hans for frame-

to-frame analysis and drawing.

From my selected list of proto- and true

fiddlers, undoubtedly Macro ph ihalmus tomen-

tosus (earlier known as Mareotis), Souleyet

(Grapsidae), belongs to the most primitive

fiddlers, followed in ascending order by the

two Dotilla- species D. hlanfordi and D. myc-

tiroides (Ocypodidae, Scopimerinae) and the

true fiddlers of the Uca-t ype of which U. urvil-

lei will be dealt with here. The latter was

chosen because its waving type and display

are among the simplest and they have so far

not been treated in detail (A rough sketch of

waving in Uca urvillei from Inhaca Island,

Mozambique, was given by Mcnae and Kalk,

1958, and Crane, 1975, reports observations

from Tanzania and data taken from films on

two individuals during August).

Waving in Macrophtfaalmus tomentosus

This is a rather slow affair compared to

the real thing in a true fiddler of a somewhat

high evolutionary level as, for instance, Uca

annulipes (see Altevogt 1955, 1957a, and film

1957). From my movie scenes taken in Feb-

ruary/March 1976 near Adyar/ Madras we

find that in Macrophthalmus tomentosus the

average waving gesture lasts 2.4 seconds (n =

18). From the resting position of the two claws

in front of the body and close to the ground,

the signalling gesture starts by an asynchro-

nous movement of one claw (see fig. 1, frame

12), thus giving way to an upward movement

of the other one (frames 17 to 28). Meanwhile,

also the other claw performs a lifting motion

(frames 28 to 33). In reaching the apex, both

claws catch up with each other so that in the

highest position both claws are fully stretched

out above the crab’s body (frame 39). Lower-

ing the raised claws to the ground and bring-

ing them back to the resting position in front

of the mouthparts complete the waving gesture

(frames 44-54). It is, then, primarily a verti-

cal wave.

We must note, however, that the temporal

pattern of lifting and then lowering the chelae

shows an important feature in the 3 to 5 jerks

in the raising, while no such intermittent short

stops are found in the downward movement.

Hence, the conspicuous element in the whole

gesture rests in the downward stroke (a find-

ing similar to that in Dotilla blanfordi — see

Altevogt, 1957b — and to Dotilla my ctir aides ,

see below, and to that in many Uca signal-

lings). While on the average the jerking up-

ward movement lasts 2 seconds, the down-

ward emphasis takes only a flash of 0.4

seconds. We have not seen much alteration of

this temporal pattern even when a female or

male conspecific was close by. This fact may

also be taken as a criterion of primitivity, as

in true fiddlers the rate and type of waving

become more rapid and complex if a pro-

spective sex partner approaches (see Von

Hagen, 1962, 1968, and the films by Altevogt

and Von Hagen, listed in the appendix). More-

over, in advanced stages of courtship (i.e.,

higher excitation levels) of most Uca-species,

the ambulatories are lifted off the ground in

a species-specific manner and take part in the

801

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

802

Fig. 1. Waving in Macro phthalmus tomentosus, dorsal view. Numbers

and dots represent frame number of movie (24 frames per second).

PROTO-FIDDLERS AND FIDDLERS

signalling. No leg raising as in Uca annuli pes,

insignis and others was seen in about 50 in-

dividuals of Macrophthalmus observed in va-

rious stages of excitement. These findings sug-

gest that waving is derived from a locomotory

movement because in Macrophthalmus, where

nature has presented us with a prefabricated

slow motion example, the movements of the

claws are not at all synchronous at the start,

but follow the ancestral style of activating the

ambulatories (and the chelipeds as derived

walking legs, too) in a crosswise manner.

Hence, the waving gesture starts with one

claw (see also Altevogt 1972, p. 459 ff.). Inci-

dentally, Crane hypothesized that the vertical

wave (as in Macrophthalmus) originated from

a feeding movement (as in a mud sifting Uca-

species) while the horizontal wave of several

Uca- forms would have derived from a threat-

ening gesture in which the claw as a fighting

weapon would be shown (1975, p. 523/524

and fig. 87). Earlier, Hediger (1933) had ad-

vanced similar ideas about the common root

of threatening and waving. It should be noted

here that in Macrophthalmus both claws are

very much similar, if not equal in size.

While in a non-waving Macrophthalmus

the claws are drab earthen-coloured they tend

to become whitish in a signalling animal. This

also would be more compatible with a sex-

attractant function than with a threatening

gesture. In a Macrophthalmus- species from

Port Swettenham (Malaysia), probably M.

pacificus Dana, Tweedie (1954) reported bright

blue claws and has seen them performing wav-

ing movements with both chelae. We have not

seen any copulations in Macrophthalmus so

that the connection between waving and sexual

success remains still to be shown (though it is

strongly to be inferred from a bulk of find-

ings in other Crustacea Brachyura).

Waving in DotilSa myctiroides

While the waving pattern of Dotilla blan-

fordi had been analyzed by frame-to-frame-

studies in 1955 (Altevogt 1957b), the

typical gesture of D. myctiroides had not been

covered. The present data were recorded near

Panjim (Goa) and Adyar/Madras from Feb-

ruary to April 1976.

There are two types of claw movements in

Dotilla which may easily be confounded by

the inexperienced observer: a) the “dance of

triumph” after a mock or real fight against

an opponent (described in detail for D. blan-

fordi in Altevogt, 1957 a and b) the

courtship wave which is, among others, recog-

nizable by the conspicuously bleached chelae.

While these are dull brownish-grey in the non-

sexual animal they become bluish-white in the

sexually aroused male (photograph in Alte-

vogt, 1957b, p. 386). Only the latter type will

be dealt with here.

Similarly to the waving in Macrophthal-

mus described above, in Dotilla myctiroides

the downward component is the most empha-

sised element of the gesture lasting only 0.08

seconds, while the lifting movement takes 0.13

seconds (averaged from 22 waves in 20 speci-

mens). As can be seen from figure 2 (lower

graph), waving gestures follow one another at

intervals of 0.17 seconds on the average with

a shortest recorded interval of 0.13 seconds.

This is slightly superior than the temporal

pattern of the D. blanfordi- wave where the

shortest interval is about the same, but lifting

the claw lasts slightly longer (> 0.17 sec),

which also applies to the lowering it in the

downbeat (about 0.1 seconds).

The spatial components of the myctiroides-

wave resemble those of the blanfordi- gesture

and may be seen in fig. 2, upper graph. It

should be noted that in both species the claws’

803

804

Waving in Dotilla myctiroides, frontal view. Time Scale: 1/24 second.

PROTO-FIDDLERS AND FIDDLERS

upward movement is accompanied by a body

raising on tip-toes on stretching legs, thus

rendering the signalling even more conspicu-

ous. Our recordings at 64 frames per second

do not reveal any asynchronous movements

of one claw or the other: both claws seem to

start synchronously. Possibly, an increased

slow-motion technique might reveal an ances-

tral alternating activation of one claw followed

by that of the other one. In any case it be-

comes clear from the above facts that Dotilla

has ascended a higher evolutionary ladder

than Macrophthalmus as far as waving is

concerned. In this context it is interesting to

quote from a letter by Tweedie (1957) regard-

ing the alternating or simultaneous use of the

chelae in D. myctiroides\ “I think I am right

in my observation that D. m. uses its chelae

both simultaneously and alternately”. The

situation in the realm of Uca must be consi-

dered separately, because the tendency of oc-

cupying a habitat by more than one often

closely related or similar species is so promi-

nent among these true fiddlers that strong

evolutionary pressures may be expected to act

on the mechanisms of species recognition and

individual acquaintance: we have come across

mud banks in the gulf of Guayaquil (Ecua-

dor) where a 10 x 10 m square is inhabited by

no less than 18 species of Uca in which inter-

specific recognition mechanisms are evident

(Von Hagen 1968; Altevogt 1969, films 1967).

Waving in Uca urvillei

There is not much information in the lite-

rature about the behavioural ecology of this

large steel-blue species (carapace width upto

36 mm) the most extensive report being that

by Crane (1975). Hence, the following notes

may also be taken as an addition to Crane’s

data (1975, pp. 58-61, table 19). Our findings

are mainly based on fieldnotes and movies of

50 waves taken on the islands of Vypeen and

Vallarpadam in the Bay of Cochin during

March and in Goa (near Panaji) in April.

Ovigerous females were numerous indicating

that the mating season was in full swing. /

Nevertheless, waving by the males remained

a slow affair indeed, and I know of no other

true fiddler of such pronounced lethargy.

Thus, the statement by Crane (1975) will re-

main valid: “Waving display among the sim-

plest” (p. 59). As can be seen from fig. 3, the

wave consists of a plain up-and-down of the

claw in front of the body with a highest ele-

vation just above the tip of the eyes. No body

raise by leg stretching could be seen though

in the frequent waving-cum-locomotion such

a tip-toeing might seem to occur. That quite

frequently waving is performed while middl-

ing may be taken as an indication for the still

close neurophysiological correlation of walk-

ing legs and chelipeds (see Altevogt 1972) also

suggesting that U. urvillei must be placed on

a rather low phyletic scale. From fig. 3 the

temporal components of the urvillei-wave at

the highest arousal level can be seen lasting

about 0.5 seconds in the upstroke and 0.17

seconds for the downstroke, making one com-

plete wave last 0.67 seconds. This is slightly

shorter than the 0.75 to 0.88 seconds mention-

ed by Crane (l.c.) and is probably attributable

to the fact that in Crane’s observations (in

August /September) the peak of the mating

season was not covered. As far as arousal

stages are concerned (see Von Hagen, 1962),

our courting males showed definite claw

bleaching, with pollex and dactylus clear

white and the manus sometimes included in

this process. In most of the females also the

two small claws became conspicuously white

with advancing ebb tide. While Crane could

not observe any copulations (apart from pseu-

docooulatory coverings of females by males),

805

PROTO-FIDDLERS AND FIDDLERS

during our study true copulations (above

ground) were quite numerous lasting from 3

to 11 minutes. Some copulations were not pre-

ceded by any waving or precopulatory beha-

viour at all. Normally, though, about 7-11

waves in one series would be aimed at the

receptive female, while in a non-courtship

display such series consist only of 3 to 4 (as

also mentioned by Crane).

It seems worthwhile to briefly compare the

waving pattern of U. urvillei to that of U.

vccans (formerly known as £/. maricmis, Hol-

thuis, 1959), as both species are of about the

same size and in some places the two species

are sympatric (as in Goa and the Cochin re-

gion). As reported earlier (Altevogt, 1955,

1957, 1958, 1959), the wave in U. vocans fol-

lows the temporal and spatial patterns pre-

sented in fig. 4.

In both species the upstroke lasts longer

than the downstroke, and it is the downstroke

which carries the signal “potent male ready

to copulate”. Now, this informative element

would be similar if not identical in both these

species if it were not preceded by a different

outward flexion angle of the great claw: in

urvillei the claw is never flexed outward-late-

rally (see graphic presentation in fig. 3) while

in vocans the claw’s tip is raised high above

the eye by a lateral-outward flexion. More-

over, in vocans the apex of a wave is empha-

sised by a body raise on tiptoe, which in ur-

villei was never seen. In urvillei, on the other

hand, the apex, i.e., the highest position of the

claw in the wave, seems to be more pro-

nounced than in vocans which shows up in the

graphic presentation of fig. 3 in that at this

moment the claw is held for a short while

(about 0.04 sec). Hence, in spite of all simi-

larities in the timing of the two waves there

are certain specific distinctions which un-

doubtedly serve the conspecific recognition in

sympatric encounters.

This recognition of the conspecific sex part-

ner is aided by the typical male waving dance

around the female with the male’s bleached

back facing her. Such a crescendo is absent

in urvillei so that also from this point of view

urvillei must be placed between the proto-

fiddlers and Uca vocans and the more highly

evolved true fiddlers.

By the above remarks we hope to have re-

lated some examples of proto-fiddlers and

lower true fiddlers by which evolution might

have ascended to that high level of diversity

Fig. 4. Waving in Uca vocans, dorsal view. Time scale: 1/16 second (from Altevogt,

1955).

807

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

and complexity in the waving (and vibratory)

signals which may be encountered in the field

(For problems of “brachyurization” see also

Stevcic 1971). A glimpse of this wealth may

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litoralen Brachyuren, Z. Tierpsychol. 20: 641-656.

Stevcic, Z. (1971) : The main features of brach-

yuran evolution. Syst. Zool. 20: 331-340.

Tweedie, M. W. F. (1954): Notes on grapsoid

crabs from the Raffles Museum, Nos. 3, 4 and 5.

Bull. Raffles Mus. 25: 118-127.

Wright, H. O. (1968) : Visual displays in brach-

yuran crabs: field and laboratory studies. Am. Zool.

8: 655-665.

Selected list of films on the behaviour and eco-

logy of Uca species published by the Institut fur

den Wissenschaftlichen Film, Nonnenstieg 72, D-

3400 Gottingen, Federal Republic of Germany.

808

PROTO-FIDDLERS AND FIDDLERS

Altevogt, R. (1957) : Zur Biologie indischer

Winkerkrabben. Film D 756.

Altevogt, R., and Altevogt, R. (1967a) : Uca

batuenta (Ocypodidae). Balz. Film E 1292.

(1967b): Uca insignis (Ocypodi-

dae). Balz. Film E 1288.

(1967c) : Uca stylifera (Ocypodi-

dae). Balz. Film E 1268.

Hagen, H. O. von (1971) : Uca maracoani (Ocy-

podidae). Balz. Film E 1423.

(1972) : Uca cumulanta (Ocypodi-

dae). Balz. Film E 1420.

809

COMPETITION AND CO-EXISTENCE IN GRIFFON

VULTURES: GYPS BENGA LENS1S, G. INDICES AND

G. EULVUS IN GIR FOREST

Robert B. Grubh1

Introduction

If two (or more) different species populations

require a common resource that is potentially

limited and actually becomes so, they are said

to be in competition for it (Gause 1934).

When such a situation arises one of the spe-

cies would eliminate all others directly or

through competitive exclusion resulting in eco-

logical isolation. Therefore congeneric species

are known to be isolated from each other by

range, habitat or feeding habits (Lack 1971).

A world review of birds with reference to co-

existence of congeneric species by Lack (1971)

shows only one exception where two species

( Calidris melanotos & C. alpinus) with

identical feeding habits share the same range

and habitat for a short period, of 10 to 12

weeks, but that is attributed to temporary

supply of superabundant food. Subsequent

workers (Vijayan 1975 on 2 species of bul-

buls— Pycnonotidae, and Houston 1975 on 6

species of East African vultures) too have ad-

ded fresh data to strengthen the theory of eco-

logical isolation originally put forward by

Gause and further developed by others as

shown above.

However, while the theory by itself is logi-

cal and on firm grounds, its definition needs

1 Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay-400 023.

to be made more comprehensive in order to

explain additional factors hitherto not consi-

dered. For instance Kruuk (1967) who ob-

served six species of vultures (Aegypiinae)

feeding at carcasses in the Serengeti National

Park found that although they all eat off the

same carcass, they feed upon different items

in the carcass and their feeding techniques also

differ. Accordingly he separated the six spe-

cies into 3 different categories of feeders, 2

species in each category. But he did not go

further to explain how the two species in each

category sorted themselves out. We get more

information on these birds from Houston

(1975) who treats individual species in each

pair separately and demonstrates how these

species have distinctly different feeding habits

in spite of the superficial resemblance. How-

ever, with the griffon vultures ( Gyps africa-

nus and Gyps rupellii) he found them to have

identical feeding habits wherever they occur-

red together. He justifies their being found to-

gether in the Serengeti by the fact that it is

only an overlapping area of distribution.

Otherwise the large body size of the rupelli

confines its distribution to hilly terrain while

the smaller africanus, not so dependent on

gliding flight, can feed with equal ease in the

plains. Yet this ‘overlapping’ area is big

enough to hold a large and fairly stable popu-

lation of feeding griffons comprising these two

species. Considering the size of the area and

810

COMPETITION AND CO-EXISTENCE IN GRIFFON VULTURES

the population of griffons involved it would

be more reasonable to try and explain how

these two species manage to co-exist in the

Serengeti rather than put it away as an

‘overlapping’ area.

The scope of this paper is to discuss the

factors that evidently control a very similar

situation in the Gir Forest (Western India) in

which three species of griffons are involved:

the Indian whitebacked Gyps bengalensis, the

longbilled G. indicus, and the fulvous griffon

G. fulvus.

Observational methods

The observations included a study of the

status and distribution of vultures in the Gir,

their population and the feeding habits. Obser-

vational methods consisted mostly of obser-

vation of the vultures in the wild with unaid-

ed eyes or using field binoculars or a portable

hide. Captive birds were observed to a limited

extent. For details of the methods, see Grubh

(1974). The entire study lasted for about 23

months, from September, 1970 to July, 1972.

Study Area and Status of the Griffons

The Gir Forest is a hilly terrain of c. 1265

km.2 area (in 1971-72) having mixed dry teak

and savannah, deciduous forest. For more de-

tails of the study area, see Grubh, 1978. The

Gir accommodates approximately 440 griffon

vultures ( Gyps spp.) at a time in the dry sea-

son, from November to May, and 350 griffons

from June to October in the wet season. The

species composition of the whitebacked, long-

billed and fulvous during the dry season is

85%, 8% & 7%, respectively. Indistinguish-

able feeding habits and uniform distribution

within the Gir enable these species to share

the same habitats for feeding. The fulvous

griffon being a migrant, stays in the Gir only

for a little more than 6 months, and hence

the wet season finds only the whitebacked and

longbilled, their population at that time being

about 90% and 10% respectively. (Grubh

1974). We will take that period, when all the

3 species of griffons occur together, for most

of the discussion below.

Results and Discussion

The investigation was carried out with re-

ference to A. the extent of competition among

the species, B. interspecific dominance and C.

the different factors that enable the species to

live together.

A. Extent of competition:

Among the different areas of probable

competition, the important ones here are

food supply, nesting sites, and roosting

sites.

1. Food supply : On an average only about

8.3 carcasses were available per day during

the season and the quantity of meat avail-

able from these carcasses, not many of

which were intact, was probably just suffi-

cient for the approximately 440 griffon vul-

tures found here (Grubh 1974). With this

limited food supply it is obvious that the

vultures have to compete for food.

2. Nesting sites : None of the 3 griffons nest

within the Gir. The fulvous is purely a

migrant from outside the state of Gujarat.

The longbilled and the whitebacked nest

in the neighbourhood of the Gir more or

less side by side, but with a difference: the

whitebacked nest in trees and the long-

billed on cliffs, and hence both are isolat-

ed from any possible competition for nest-

ing sites.

3. Roosts : Trees and cliffs were used for

roosting. While all the three species of

griffons roosted on trees, the longbilled and,

to a greater extent, fulvous griffons also

roosted on cliff faces. But there are only

811

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

two widely separated cliffs (Charakio and

Nandivilla) within the Gir and these were

occupied mostly by the fulvous griffons.

Whereas the common roosting trees namely

Sterculia urens, Boswellia serrata & Ficus

spp. were in abundance and hence neces-

sitated no competition, the roosting cliffs,

being limited within the Gir, could be a

factor causing a certain amount of com-

petition among these two species. How-

ever, the fact that there were very few

longbills on these two cliffs, even when

the fulvous griffons had migrated out, sug-

gests that the fulvous and the longbilled

did not actively compete for roosts within

the Gir.

B. Interspecific dominance:

When assembled at carcasses, the griffons

exhibited varying degrees of dominance

according to their body size: the largest

bird (fulvous) being the most dominant

and the smallest (whitebacked) the least.

Table 1

Interspecific dominance among griffons in the

Gir (n. 74).

Opponents Total Percentage of attempts won

attempted (In most cases the winners

assaults had also initiated the

assault)

C. Factors enabling coexistence:

1. Extraneous factors limiting the population

of the larger species and effecting the pre-

sent species composition :

Since competition among species is evident

only at feed it would be expected that the

species composition should be directly pro-

portionate to the level of dominance

among the species at least until the most

dominant species has successfully eliminat-

ed the others from the area. Yet the white-

backed form 85% of the griffon popula-

tion, the longbilled 8% and the fulvous

7%. This situation needs to be explained.

We will first take the case of the long-

billed :

The longbilled and the whitebacked, being

resident species, breed in the outskirts of

the Gir, but prefer different nesting ha-

bitats. The whitebacked nests mostly in co-

conut trees Cocos nucifera, Tamerind Ta-

marind us indicus, and trees of the genus

Ficus, in the plains, around the Gir. The

longbilled on the other hand was noticed

to be nesting only in the cliffs of the Girnar

in the neighbourhood of the Gir. While

nesting trees are -available in great abun-

dance, nesting cliffs are limited. Although

•

it is not known why only some of these

cliffs are used and whether the longbilled

is exploiting the optimum number of po-

tential nesting sites, the fact that these cliffs

are so limited in the neighbourhood shows

that the availability of nesting sites can be

a limiting factor for this species.

The population of the fulvous griffon,

another cliff nester too may be controlled

by this factor, but being a migrant from

outside the state, whose status has not been

fully understood yet, we cannot explain

why they come to Gir in such small num-

bers. That the scarcity of suitable nesting

sites could affect the numerical abundance

of a species is also shown by Kruuk (1967)

for Ruppell’s griffon in the Serengeti.

Thus, we find that the longbilled and the

fulvous griffons have not increased in num-

ber within the Gir in spite of their being

COMPETITION AND CO-EXISTENCE IN GRIFFON VULTURES

more dominant species. Consequently the

whitebacked vulture forms the major bulk

of the griffons here, and its number is evi-

dently controlled only by food supply and

interspecific competition. The food supply

being limited, the number of whitebacked

foraging within the Gir would be decided

largely by the number of fulvous and long-

billed griffons that occur inside the Gir

at any one time. Since the proportion of

meat consumed by individual fulvous,

longbilled and whitebacked is approximate-

ly of the ratio of 9:7:6 (based on cap-

tive birds from the Gir) the actual number

of whitebacked that might be displaced by

the other two species can be determined

by considering individuals of the different

species with reference to their feeding ca-

pacity.

The longbilled and the fulvous perhaps

do not influence each others number at the

feeding grounds as their present numbers

are much too small due to the extraneous

factors mentioned earlier.

2 . Iniraspecific behavioural interaction at feed :

Since the whitebacked is the least dominant

species it would be of interest to know

how the individuals obtain their food when

they are at a carcass along with the other

two species. When compared with the

whitebacked, the fulvous 'and the longbilled

griffons spend a considerable amount of

time quarrelling with their own kind at

feeding sites, over food.

While interspecific fights (being between un-

equal opponents) do not usually last for more

than a second, fights between individuals of

the some species often last for more than five

seconds with a great deal of screeching and

other agonistic displays. Each bout of such

a fight temporarily debars the fighting birds

from feeding. These moments are effectively

exploited by the weaker species in obtaining

food. Here we find intraspecific behavioural

interaction to be a factor contributing towards

the co-existence of these species.

In addition to this, the weakest of the three

— the whitebacked — has another advantage

i.e. its numbers. Its very number and deter-

mination to consume food do at times hold

back the more dominant species which just

stand around and watch them feeding, though

not for long.

Conclusion

The above discussion indirectly points out

that where there is competition for a com-

mon resource, one of the competing species

may eliminate all others directly or through

competitive exclusion only when all the com-

peting species have equal chance to obtain

all the biological requirements although there

may not be any interspecific competition for

these items.

Table 2

Frequency of fights within species

Species Birds Total fights Obs. period Interval between

(No.) (Minutes) fights per pair

Whitebacked 314 61 32.6 84 minutes

Longbilled 128 116 37.3 21 minutes

Fulvous 12 6 47.0 47 minutes

813

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Also, it is found that the extent of advan-

tage gained by a species by its dominance over

others can be offset by its intraspecific behavi-

our. To be short, coexistence among congene-

ric species is possible even when the common

resource is limited under certain situations.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

The study, which formed a part of my Ph.D.

dissertation, was financed by the Bombay Na-

tural History Society from Smithsonian Re-

search Foundation Grant No. SFG-O-1894

Refer

Gause, G. F. (1934): The struggle for Existence

(Baltimore) (not consulted in original).

Grubh, Robert B. (1974): The ecology and be-

haviour of vultures in Gir Forest. Ph.D. thesis.

University of Bombay.

Houston, David C. (1975): Ecological isolation

of African scavenging birds. Ardea 65:55-64.

J

under Gir Project through Yale University. Dr.

Salim Ali guided my research during the en-

tire period. The Gujarat Forest Department ,

provided necessary facilities in the field. Mr.

J. C. Daniel (Curator, BNHS) and Mrs. Al-

mitra Patel (Gir Project Officer) took care of

my needs during the study including provid-

ing practical advice. Messers P. Kannan (Cu-

rator, Borivli National Park), Stephen Berwick

(Asst. Professor, Yale University), Steven

Green (Asst. Professor, Rockefeller Univer-

sity), David Houston (University of Glasgow)

and G. L. Storm (Pennsylvania) went through

the manuscript and offered valuable comments.

iNCES

Kruuk, Hans (1967) : Competition for food bet-

ween vultures in East Africa. Ardea 55:171-193.

Lack, David (1971) : Ecological Isolation in

Birds. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford.

Vijayan, V. S. (1975) : Ecology of Bulbuls. Ph.D.

thesis, University of Bombay.

814

DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE NILG1RI TAHR

( HEMITRAGUS HYLOCR1US )- 1975-78

E. R. C. Davidar1

{With two plates)

Introduction

The preferred habitat of the tahr are rocky

outcrops set amongst grass hills and cliffs

bordering grasslands which are to be found

along the crest of the southern half of the

Western Ghats.

The tahr is a gregarious animal associating

in herds which, ordinarily, number between

half a dozen and a dozen. Occasionally several

herds join together to make large flocks of one

hundred or more. The writer came across two

such herds, one of 119 in Eravikulam in the

High Range in Kerala and another of 101 on

the Nilgiri plateau. In composition adult fe-

males outnumber adult males in the ratio of

roughly 2:1.

Mature males — saddle backs as well as dark

brown males (‘Brown bucks’) — do not remain

with the herds always. They normally live on

the periphery of herds, joining and leaving

them at will. Mature males often join together

to make ‘buck’ parties and there are also true

solitaries.

There is no well defined breeding season

and young are dropped throughout the year.

But there appears to be a peak birth season,

which is the winter. One young at birth ap-

pears to be the rule. The womb of an illi-

citly slain female tahr contained two well de-

1 “Canowie”, Coonoor-643 101, S. India.

veloped foetuses establishing beyond doubt

that twin births occur. Occasionally, a mother

with two young at heel have been observed.

Tahr commence feeding at the break of day

and feed until late in the evening. They feed

and rest intermittently; the rest intervals be-

coming longer as the day advances, until they

become active again towards the evening.

Nights are spent on the cliffs or as close to

them as possible. In undisturbed areas, how-

ever, they often bed down in the open away

from the cliffs.

Where possible, that is, where the country

is extensive, the animals wander over a large

area. However, due to the recent inroads made

into tahr country, by way of hydro-electric

projects, opening up of plantations etc., free

movement is not possible over most of the

tahr’s present range. From the manner in

which they wander and the readiness with

which herds disperse and reassemble it is evi-

dent that herds or, for that matter, individual

‘bucks’, do not stake territorial rights over

chosen territory. “Scrapes” or well worn

patches of soil are found scattered about in

tahr country. These do not appear to follow

any pattern. Curiously in some densely popu-

lated areas there are fewer scrapes than in

some sparsely populated areas. Their signifi-

cance and function are yet to be investigated.

The food of the tahr consists chiefly of

grasses. It is more a grazer than a browser.

815

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

except where they have adapted themselves to

comparatively low elevation habitats where

much of the food, of necessity, comes from

browsing. In this respect the tahr resemble

sheep more than goats. The tahr’s water re-

quirements appear to be minimal. The tahr

do not appear to keep regular drinking

hours like other wild ungulates. It is rarely

that one meets them near water.

Aggressive behaviour consists of mild con-

tacts, mostly between subadults and consist

of light clashes of horns, side butts, shoulder

pushes and so on. Such contacts are infrequent.

It is rare to see a full blooded combat between

two adult males.

The sense of smell in tahr is highly deve-

loped. Their sight is keen; better than in many

herbivores. During a good part of the year

tahr country is shrouded in a thick blanket

of mist, when sight is not of much use. The

animal must therefore have to rely on its sense

of smell and direction to survive in such trea-

cherous country.

The alarm call of the tahr is a sneezy

whistle. The animal also communicates in

other ways, by foot stamping etc. On rare

occasions it has been heard to bleat.

Mortality :

Diseases: It is rare to come across a sick

tahr or the remains of one which had perish-

ed due to natural causes. Yet the rate of mor-

tality among this potentially fast breeding

animal must be high as otherwise there would

be much more tahr than there are at present,

particularly in areas where the animal enjoys

a certain amount of protection from preda-

tion, human and otherwise. A saddle back

which was shot dead had a growth on its liver.

An adult female was observed to have a large

growth on its rump. Some tahr in Rajamally

were in poor condition. Otherwise nothing un-

usual was noticed.

Predation :

Predation by animal predators is not a se-

rious threat to the tahr. Leopards pose the

most serious threat. In some areas, such as

the Nilgiris, leopards have adapted them-

selves to tahr country and have become ex-

pert at tahr stalking and take a regular toll.

Wild dogs and tiger manage to secure a kill

occasionally.

Poaching :

The commonest method of poaching is by

hunting them with the gun. Another method

is to lay snares across well known tahr tracks,

especially those passing through woods where

snares could be properly anchored. Tahr are

hunted with dogs in suitable country. Tribals

who do not possess arms brought about their

destruction by leaving oil stained plantain (ba-

nana) leaves along tahr trails in precipitious

country.

Tahr meat is believed to possess medicinal

properties for the reason that the animal is

believed to eat what is known as ‘silajit’, a

jelly like substance oozing out of rock cre-

vices. Some ‘doctors’ practicing Indian medi-

cine are reported to use tahr flesh in their

preparations.

On the credit side there are conditions that

favour the animal. Weather is its principal

ally. During the monsoons it is impossible to

operate in tahr country. For several months

in the year, tahr country is blanketed in mist

— ground mist rising from below and low

clouds from above. Winters are very cold at

higher elevations. Thus the animals get res-

pite from hunting for about half the year.

Yet another circumstance in favour of the

tahr is the weapons in use against it for

poaching, which are muzzle loaders and an-

cient shot guns, have limited range. Besides,

816

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILG1RI TAHR

tahr hunting is not a game the jeep hunter,

who is most destructive, can indulge in.

Tahr is one of the hardiest animals in ex-

istence. Extremes of climate obtain in their

habitat. In the higher ranges of the Western

Ghats, winter is very severe, the thermometer

dropping to below 0°C. The summer sun in

tahr country is piercing because of the thinner

atmosphere obtaining in mountain country.

The south-west monsoon accompanied by

high winds lash the hills for two to three

months followed by the north-east monsoon.

Human beings have been known to succumb

to exposure overnight during the rainy season.

In summer horse flies breed in pestilance pro-

portions in open grasslands and attack tahr

and other creatures without mercy. In lower

elevation habitats on the eastern slopes of

the western ghats, the hills get burning hot

in summer from direct heat from the sun

and radiated heat from the rocks. It is there-

fore surprising that this hardy animal which

is able to survive all these hazards should find

itself in the list of endangered species.

It was with a view to ascertain the present

status of the Nilgiri tahr that the survey was

undertaken.

Distribution :

At one time the Nilgiri tahr is believed to

have ranged over the greater part of the West-

ern Ghats. As late as 1954 tahr were found

in the Agumbe ghat — in Karnataka as con-

firmed by Mr. G. J. Rajasingh, conservator

of forests, Tamil Nadu, who saw a small herd

there in the course of a boundary survey. Ex-

tensive enquiries reveal that there are no tahr

in the Karnataka State today.

The tahr’s present range is restricted to the

states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Nilgiri hills

is its present northern limit and Ashambu

hills the southern limit — 11°30' N to

8°20' N. In between tahr are mainly found

in a few isolated localities along the crest of

the ranges forming the Western ghats at eleva-

tions ranging between 1300 m to 2600 m.

There are however, a few comparatively low

hills where the animal is to be found.

The tahr’s partiality to open terrain, the

unrestricted view that can be had over long

distances in tahr country at the right time

of the year and the animals’ habit of looking

for danger from below and seldom looking

up combined to make a count and that too

with a certain degree of accuracy, possible.

The survey

Methods : The sight count method was emp-

loyed. Ten power binoculars and spotter

scopes were used. Tahr habitats were divided

into sections for the purpose of the survey and

each section was covered systematically.

The following classification was adopted—

Saddle back (old males with saddle marks) —

abbreviated — S . B .

Brown back (dark brown male) — abbreviat-

ed—B.B.

Light brown male (adult males other than

S.B. and B.B.)— L.B.M.

Adult Females — A.F.

Yearling (about 1 year to 2 years)

Young (up to 12 months old)

Classification of L.B.M. and A.F. separate-,

ly was not attempted as the animals in this

group are similar in appearance. Such classi-

fication, although possible, would have slowed

down the work considerably. Of course, some

overlapping is not ruled out.

Earlier surveys of the writer and others are

included to make the report complete.

Extensive enquiries preceded, and followed

the survey to ensure that every single tahr ha-

817

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

bitat was covered. Many of the habitats were

visited more than once and the survey is a

continuing process.

Tahr habitats and population estimates

The Nilgiris

The Nilgiris or Nilagiri Hills rise abruptly to a

height of nearly 2000 meters where they level off

into a large plateau about 30 Km. long and 40

Km. broad. The plateau is dotted with peaks and

rocky outcrops especially along its rim. Before

habitations, cultivation, plantations and man made

forests gradually replaced them, the plateau was

mostly grassland with evergreen woods, locally known

as sholas clothing the valleys and less exposed

sections of the slopes. Except where the passes

lead into the hills the sides of the hills are fairly

steep. This is more pronounced along the entire

length of the western face which is an unbroken

line of cliffs, in appearance, not unlike the walls

of a fortress.

The Nilgiri tahr, locally called the ‘Ibex’ by sports-

men ranged over most of the plateau until the

early part of last century when the Nilgiris began

to be “colonized” by Europeans. Some small

herds got isolated on some of the cliffs on the

North, South and eastern sides of the plateau and

lived a precarious existence there. One by one these

populations have disappeared, some as recently as

ten to fifteen years ago.

The tahr have retreated to the west where they

now inhabit a narrow strip of grassland bordering

the cliffs about 40 Km. in length and 2 to 5 Km.

broad on the average, except on the south-west

corner of this country where it widens out — an area

of 120 sq. Km. in extent or thereabouts.

818

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRl TAHR

Section 3 — Nadgani

The total number seen was 334. To make doubly

sure that there was no duplication, two small herds

of 15 and 11 seen in the proximity of the large

herd of 101 after its break up was not included

in the count. In spite of favourable conditions, it

is not improbable that a hundred or more tahr

remained out of sight and unenumerated. The total

population is estimated at around 450 — 1975.

Silent Valley

The Silent Valley (11°10'N and 76°25'E) borders

the Nilgiris on the south-west. But it is approached

via Coimbatore, Anaikatti, Agali and Mukkali or

via Palghat, Mannarghat and Mukkali. The valley

complex spreads over an area of 16,000 hectares

and the valley proper, over 8000 hectares. Tropical

wet evergreen forest (or rain forest) covers most

of the valley. At the entrance to the valley from

the Mukkali side, on either side of the road into

the valley, there are some rocky ridges set among

grasslands and again as the valley sweeps upwards

towards the Nilgiris, the forests yield place to grass-

lands and rocky escarpments. These hills on the

fringes are typical Nilgiri tahr country.

At the head of the valley stands Ankinda malai

(2383 m above M.S.L.). This peak and the high

hills on either side of it form the northern boundary

of Silent Valley. This ‘ridge’ is mostly grassland

and is a continuation of the tahr country in the

Nilgiris. This part of the Silent Valley is best ap-

proached from the Nilgiris side via Ooty, Avalanche,

Upper Bhavani and Bangitappal.

819

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Population Estimate

Tahr move freely between Ankinda malai ‘ridge’

and the grasslands on the Nilgiri Plateau and there-

fore it is not possible to determine the resident

population in the Ankinda malai area. For the

purposes of this report the silent valley population

may be estimated at around 30.

Siruvani Hills

The Muttukulam hills are better known as Siru-

vani hills after the Siruvani river which springs

from these hills and supplies drinking water to

Coimbatore town which is 37 kms away from the

foot of the hills. This range is immediately to the

South of the Nilgiri hills and North of the Palghat

gap (10°55' N and 76°45' E) and is one of the

smallest hill ranges in the Western Ghats chain. A

motorable road winds its way into the hills and at

about 9 km from the bottom passes over a saddle

(which divides the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States)

and descends a short way into a small basin which

is 900 m above MSL.

The peaks — Vellingiri Malai, Kunjara Malai,

Peria Kunjara Malai, Ayyappan Mudi and others

rise sharply from the basin reaching heights between

1500 and 2000 m. Smaller grass covered hills are

also found in this basin.

On 22.4.76 twenty tahr were seen near the top

of Kunjara Malai (1965 m.). They could not be

classified because of poor light conditions. A nearer

approach was also not possible as a cliff (which

only tahr and Mudigar tribals manage to negotiate)

stood in the way. Two days earlier Nanjan a Mudi-

gar guide from Muttukulam, had seen the same

herd in that area.

The grasslands on the Kunjara Malai ridge are

few and are placed between long stretches of shola

forests and the most extensive among them is less

than 1 sq. km. in extent. These grasslands are deep-

ly eroded, and the signs indicate that this must be

due to over grazing by tahr and sambar over the

years. The grass is also coarse, patchy and unin-

viting and in capable of supporting a large tahr

population.

On the other side of the ridge some 10 km away

is Elival Malai. Although extensive sholas have to

be negotiated it is believed that tahr migrate between

the two hills occasionally.

Chaotic conditions prevail in the basin at the

moment. Men and machines by the hundred are

engaged in building a large dam to replace the old

one, under a Tamil Nadu-Kerala water sharing agree-

ment. A road is being built to provide direct access

to places in Kerala. It will be years before conditions

return to normal, if ever.

Estimated population: 20 — 1976.

Elival Mala

Elival mala (which means rat’s tail mountain),

is in Kerala and lies to the North and West of the

Palghat gap and South of Muttikulam (Siruvani)

hills — (10°55' N and 76°35' E). Elival falls within

the Chennat Nair Reserve of the Olavakkode Range

of the Palghat forest division. Olavakkode is the

Range and Divisional headquarters. The mountain

range dominates the northern horizon of Palghat

and Olavakkode towns. Elival is composed of about

a dozen spurs and of these the two dominant, name-

ly, Palamala (2080 m above MSL) and Karimala

(2180 m above MSL) constitute the Nilgiri tahr

habitat.

The Palamala ridge is short compared to Karimala

which is about 10 km long. Although the two ridges

are connected at one point they are, as far as tahr

are concerned, quite independent, as they are divid-

ed by a deep thickly forested valley and the res-

pective cliffs stand isolated in a sea of rain forest.

There is no path to the Karimala cliffs from Pala-

mala and the route to Karimala cliffs is from below.

Much of the crest of Karimala is clothed in dense

forest and at only two points, namely, the Karimala

peak and Kondamala the grasslands are topped by

cliffs. It is here that the tahr is usually found. The

Palamala grass hill or grass ‘mottai’, as it is called,

along with its side spurs is 3 to 4 km long. The

cliffs are a further 3/4 hour stiff climb from the

‘forest bungalow flat’. The grazing grounds at Pala-

mala are quite extensive and are intersected by

cliffs. The grass is mostly of the Themeda triandra

Forsk. variety and is coarse.

On the evening of 15-1-77 three adult tahr were

seen on the Palamala grass hill and a herd of over

twenty on the Karimala cliff, across the valley.

On 16-1-77 the Karimala ridge and slopes were

searched with binoculars from a commanding posi-

tion on the Palamala grass hill and two men comb-

ed the Palamala cliffs and ridges for tahr.

The same herd was located on the Karimala

cliff the previous evening. There were more animals

820

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI TAHR

in ’the herd this time. There were twentyfive tahr

on the slope facing Palamala and about five beyond

the ridge, whose outlines could be made out on the

skyline. There were over thirty tahr in this herd

including three or four young ones. A more accu-

rate estimate was not possible at that distance.

Two herds of five and ten, including a fine ‘brown

buck’ (dark brown male), well away from the three

seen the previous evening were seen at Palamala.

There were fresh tahr droppings all over Pala-

mala.

At the time of the visit the days were very bright

and warm and the grass was coarse, dry and un-

inviting. Had conditions been more favourable it

might have been possible to see more tahr move-

ment. The tahr country is extensive and is capable

of holding and, possibly it does hold, more than

the forty-eight that were counted.

Estimated population : 60-1 — 1976.

Nelliampathi Hills

The Nelliampathi hills in Palghat district in Ke-

rala are the starting point of the Western Ghats

below the Palghat gap as the 40 Km wide breach

in the Western Ghats mountain chain on either side

of Palghat town is called. After rising to a height

of about 700 m above M.S.L. the Nilliampathies

level off into wide undulating valleys where coffee

and cardamom plantations and tea at higher levels

are situated. The slopes on the East are clothed

in deciduous jungle, replaced by moist mixed

deciduous jungle in the valleys. Towards the West

the jungle is semi evergreen. Higher up there is a

plateau the elevation of which is around 1250 m

above M.S.L. , composed of grasslands interspersed

with evergreen sholas. Sheer cliffs drop down from

the plateau. This country (10° 30' N and 76°40' E)

is the main tahr habitat on the Nelliampathies. The

tahr country is reached by road from Palghat via

Nemmara, Padagiri and finally the Manalaroo Tea

Estate. From Hill top Bungalow, an abandoned

estate manager’s bungalow, where the road termi-

nates it is only a short stiff climb to the plateau,

which is called the Hill top or Peria Aattu Malai

(Big Goat Hill).

On 5.iv.76 three tahr (1 brown buck, 1 adult

female and 1 yearling) were seen on hill top. Again

on 7.iv.76 a large single tahr (probably the same

brown buck) was sighted there, silhouetted against

the skyline. On 18.iv.76 a fine solitary saddle back

was seen on the eastern edge of the plateau (from

Chinna aattu malai, right across the valley). Beyond

Peria aattu malai there is Kumul malai which is

extremely difficult to approach from Hill top be-

cause of an intervening chasm. Bokkan my shikari

from Nilgiris along with a local guide went part

of the way down the cliffs and there they saw

eleven tahr including a young one. He was not

able to classify the rest.

On 6th and 8th April Cruz Malai and Chinna

aattu malai (small goat’s hill), approached from

the Manalaroo estate office, were visited. On the 6th

four adult and a yearling tahr got disturbed and

disappeared down the gully and across the valley.

Three were seen on the Kumulmalai skyline, making

a total of 8 of which one was young. A herd of 7,

in all probability the same animals were seen on

the Chinna aattu malai skyline from the estate lines

on 3.iv.76 by my guide. On the 8th an adult female

tahr and a yearling were seen on Chinna aattu

malai. There is no doubt that they belonged to the

same herd of 7.

Altogether 23 tahr were seen (3, 1, 11, 8). It is

unlikely that many more share this habitat. The

tahr were wild and behaved as if they were regularly

harassed. The reason for this behaviour was not

far to seek. Two poaching parties were operating

in the area during my visit.

Estimated tahr population — 30 — 1976.

Topslip and Parambikulam

Topslip in Tamil Nadu and Parambikulam in Ke-

rala (10° 25' to 30' N and 77° E) occupy the north-

ern half of the Anamalai Hills. Being contiguous

some of the tahr habitats in this sector fall partly

in one state and partly in the other. Therefore

Topslip and Parambikulam have been dealt with

as one composite area for the purposes of this

report.

Topslip, (called after the point from which timber

was rolled or slipped down the hill from the plateau

to the plains, before proper roads were laid) is the

focal point of the Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary.

Bandar avarai :

Pandaravarai is a prominent ridge running North

to South and could be seen from the Topslip forest

rest houses across the maidan towards the North-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

West. The ridge is in three sections, Pandaravarai

in the middle which is the highest point (1300 m),

Nanduvai (crab’s mouth) and Katardi (windblown)

on either side. The inter-state boundary cuts through

the centre of the peak, leaving only a third of the

ridge in Tamil Nadu. The route to the top is through

Karian shola a large unspoilt forest of semi ever-

green and ever-green complexion. The shola swarms

with leeches when wet. The grasslands and cliffs

occupy an extent of 6 to 8 Sq. Km. The grass is

mostly of the coarse variety interspersed with hill

date palms ( Phoenix humilis ). The grazing grounds

are cut up and are beginning to erode due to trampl-

ing by tahr and gaur over the years.

On 2.5.76 one adult and one yearling tahr were

sighted on the sky line at Nanduvai. They were

obviously part of a herd. Before a closer approach

could be made night fell. On 3.5.76 eight tahr (1

young, 2 yearling and 5 adults) and one on Katardi

skyline were observed. The herd seen on Nanduvai

the previous evening could not be located as Katardi

could not be reached from Pandaravarai because

of intervening cliffs (which however, do not deter

tahr from crossing over) it could not be visited.

On 6.5.76 Ravi my young Kadan tribal guide spot-

ted 13 tahr on Nanduvai (2 young, 3 yearling and

8 adults). Dr. V. S. Vijayan who was making a

survey of wildlife of Parambikulam, visited Panda-

ravarai some two weeks subsequently and reported

having seen two herds of nine and six. Ravi re-

ported the presence of a small herd at Katardi and

having seen a large gathering of about 30 tahr

earlier in the year. My total count was 22 (8+1+13).

With the addition of the small herd on Katardi (of

which I saw one and three on 1.10.76 on the sky-

line enroute to Perunkundru) it is possible that

there are around 30 tahr on Pandaravarai. Since

the counts were conducted on different occasions

duplication cannot be ruled out. Young and yearling

accounted for over a third of the population sighted,

which is a healthy sign. Considering the eroded con-

dition of the grassland and the fact that it is shared

with gaur, it is doubtful whether this habitat can

support many more tahr.

Kolumbu malai :

Kolumbu malai 1065 m. above M.S.L. is to the

East of the Topslip resthouses. It is the starting

point of a long line of cliffs which extends all the

way to the Aliyar dam to the South. There are no

permanent resident tahr on Umayamalai. The cliffs

immediately below also appeared bare. But tahr

droppings on the hill indicate that a small herd

visit the area off and on, probably when disturbed

from elsewhere. Ravi my guide and the men who i

were cultivating tapioca as an inter-crop among the

young teak they had undertaken to plant and nurture

for the forest department (under the kumari system

of cultivation) at the foot of the hill had not seen

any tahr on Kolumbu malai.

Perunkundru :

The tallest peak in the area is Perunkundru 1733

m. above M.S.L. in height and conical in shape.

Varakaliar 24 Km. on the Topslip — Manamboli-

Valparai forest road is the point nearest to the peak.

On 2.10.76 I visited Perunkundru along with forest

guard Manuel, a guide and my son Peter after

spending the night at the seldom used Varakaliar

forest rest house. One herd of 11 tahr (3 brown

bucks, 6 adult females and light brown males and

2 yearling) was seen below the summit and another

herd of 7 (1 saddle back, 1 brown buck, 3 adult

female and 2 yearling) was seen on a lower slope —

in all 18. A herd of 15 gaur was grazing on the

summit. Dr. Krishnamoorthy the ‘elephant doctor’

reported having seen over 30 tahr on Perunkundru

some 3 years earlier. This area is an ideal tahr

habitat, extensive and having water sources and a

rich supply of a variety of grasses. During the time

of our visit a leopard had been operating there as

its fresh pug marks showed. A leopard’s dropping

which was perhaps 2 or 3 weeks old contained tahr

fur. There were no signs of poaching. Horse flies

were active at the time of our visit. It is possible

that some of the tahr seen by Dr. Krishnamoorthy

had been disturbed by the leopard. The other pos-

sibility is that they were hiding away in sholas to

escape from the torments of horse flies in the open

grassland.

In March 1977 Mr. G. J. Rajasingh, Conservator

of Forests, accompanied by Dr. Krishnamoorthy and

other officials climbed Perunkundru and sighted over

20 tahr. Mr. Muthumanickam a local sportsman

who is opening up a coffee plantation in the Tho-

lanar Valley reported having observed a large herd

on the Southern face which according to him, took

half an hour to cross a particular point. This was

two years ago. The population of tahr on Perun-

kundru and adjoining slopes (Pachai thanni malai)

can be estimated at between 40 and 50; possibly

more?

822

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

Palagakundru ( 1172 m) :

Mr. J. W. Sykes, Manager, Murugalli Estate re-

ports — “Yesterday (30.4.78), after two abortive

attempts in January, I finally managed to reach

the peak, (which is immediately above Manamboli-

Sholayar Power House I and the upper of the Pa-

rambikulam Reservoir) with the aid of two Karders

cutting the way for me. There have been vague

reports of Nilgiri tahr on this small peak — which

is surrounded by dense jungle — but none on any

of the other neighbouring peaks. Sadly there were

no tahr present but the Karders stated that they are

still there. The bare rock peak had 25% coverage

of shallow soil with grass — at this stage burnt off

and only just beginning to show first signs of re-

growth. In fact there were more tahr droppings

than soil on the top, but old ones. I personally have

no doubt that this is in fact, a small and probably

totally isolated herd, probably otherwise not record-

ed.” It is possible that the herd had moved inside

the jungle as there was no grazing on the peak.

There is a theory that tahr migrate over fairly

long distances through jungle. This is yet to be con-

firmed. This is an area where research might prove

useful. “On 29-xii-1978 I ascended the peak and

saw a herd of 6 — 1 brown buck, 4 adult females

and 1 sub adult, which appeared to be a complete

family group, but I cannot positively exclude the

presence of other tahr.”

Vengoli Malai :

The Vengoli ridge starting at Vellimudi /Umaya-

malai in Top Slip and passing through the middle

of the two sanctuaries and terminating at Vengoli

Mudi in Thunakadavu (which is 12 km. by road

from Top Slip) form the backbone of the two

sanctuaries. Vengoli Malai in Top Slip (1135 m)

is a short stiff climb from Anaikundhi. A section

of the cliffs could be seen from the forest road

from Top Slip to Anaikundhi. But tahr have not

been sighted there in recent times. From the quan-

tity and the age of the different sets of droppings

at the top it was possible to make out that a small

number of tahr paid casual visits to this peak. On

4.5.76 a small herd of, may be, half a dozen ani-

mals was sighted on a slope some distance away on

the Kerala side. As they were resting in a close

group in the shade a more accurate count was not

possible.

Vengolimudi which is also known as Chattiparai

is in Thunakadavu. The cliffs face the forest settle-

ment at Thunakadavu across the lake. On 5.5.76

a herd of 9 tahr (1 young 2 yearling and 6 adults

were spotted from below; two more, (1 yearling

and one adult female) were seen at the top; making

a total of 11. The grazing at Vengoli malai as well

as at Vengoli mudi is limited. But at Pambamalai

an off shoot of the ridge the grasslands are more

extensive. Dr. Vijayan reported having sighted 15

tahr in one group a fortnight previously. The total

tahr population is estimated at between 20 and 25.

The herd on Vengoli mudi because of its proxi-

mity to the Thunakadavu settlement did not seem

unduly disturbed and did not react to human pre-

sence as these animals normally do, by instant flight.

For year round observation and study of the tahr

and that too without much exertion Vengoli mudi

seems a good place.

Karumalai Gopuram :

The twin peaks of Karumalai Gopuram, so called

because of their resemblance to black female breasts,

tower over Parambikulam. From the earth dam of

the Parambikulam reservoir the summit is a stiff

2f to 3 hour climb through a leach infested forest.

Karumalai Gopuram is an ideal tahr habitat, sheer

cliffs on one side and undulating grasslands rich

in variety 3 to 4 sq. km. in extent on the other

three. Water is available near the summit.

On 6.5.76 I saw five tahr (1 saddle back, 1 brown

buck, 2 adult females and one young). Their move-

ment was confined to the South-West face of the

hill, may be, because a solitary bull gaur, I ran

into had taken up residence near the top.

Swaminathan my Kadan tribal guide mentioned

that the five we saw was the largest number he had

seen there. Dr. Vijayan and Jayaraj, the wildlife

guide of the forest department who had visited the

area recently, the latter more than once, averred that

they had not seen more than two tahr at a time.

From the quantity of tahr droppings it is possible

to estimate that there could not be more than seven

or eight tahr at Karumalai gopuram. In the herd

that was sighted as far as composition was concerned,

the ratio between the sexes was disproportionate and

for this reason the viability of the population at

Karumalai gopuram is in doubt. The peaks stand

isolated in a sea of forest and it would be interest-

ing to see if tahr migrations occur between Karu-

malai gopuram and the distant peaks through this

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

extensive forest.

Estimated population : 120 — 1976-78.

Eastern Slopes of the Anamalai Hills

On the Eastern slopes of the Anamalai Hills are

some rugged, rocky hills where Nilgiri tahr which

became isolated on the opening up of the country

in the interior have made their home. Their

retreat is not a true tahr habitat and the

climate, fauna and flora of these slopes are more

lowland than montane in character. The fact that

tahr has managed not only to survive but thrive

there proves its hardiness and ability to adapt it-

self to what could be considered an unfavourable

environment. But it may be mentioned that if the

tahr on these slopes made a serious attempt they

can get to the high hills on the West through un-

opened country on the south. But they have not

chosen to do so.

On either side of the road to Valparai (10°25'

N and 77° E) there are five scattered tahr popula-

tions. Some of these remain isolated by roads, dams

and canals of the Parambikulam-Aliyar project, but

between others communication is possible. This area

falls within the Anamalai Wildlife sanctuary and is

administered by the Wildlife Warden at Pollachi.

Aliyar:

The township of Aliyar at the base of the hills

is 22 km from Pollachi and is situated below the

Aliyar dam.

The rocky hills west of, that is, to the right of

the Valparai road as it climbs into the hills is the

habitat of the Aliyar tahr. These hills form a ring

around the valley drained by a little jungle stream

known as the Chinnar, with Pachamalai at the apex,

and the Chinnar gorge opening out into the road

at the base. The area is known as Villoni and is in

the Poonachi forest range.

A brief visit was made on 26.ii.77 but no tahr

was sighted. But a party of picknickers reported

having seen a herd of about 20 tahr on a rock

north of Chinnar the previous week.

On 16.iii.77, Bokkan my shikari from the Nilgiris

and I accompanied by Neelan and Gokulan, Malai

malasar tribals living in the Aliyar tribal settlement

climbed into the hills. 3 tahr (1 female and 2 sub-

adults) which were resting in the shade on a slope

of the northern ridge were disturbed at fairly close

quarters. Two herds which were partially hidden

beyond the opposite ridge’s skyline (Peria and Chin-

nasalla Katti) were seen. On closer approach Bok-

kan and the local guides counted 14 animals in two

herds of 8 and 6 on the Southern ridge.

At noon on 17.iii.77, a herd of 5 tahr was seen ,

on the upper end of the Northern ridge. On 19.iii.77,

13 tahr were seen on Pachamalai. Some of the tahr

seen on the northern ridge where met with more

than once during the count, and care was taken to

see that there was no duplication. Altogether 35 tahr

were seen. According to Neelan, who visits the

Chinnar Valley frequently in search of edible tubers,

there are two herds in the area, one on the road

end and the other at the Pachamalai end with about

30 animals in each. Direct heat from the sun in

March during the visit was bad enough but the

radiated heat from the rocky hills was worse and

consequently the animals seldom ventured abroad

during the day. Because of this factor and the inter-

spersed trees, viewing was difficult. Neelan’s estimate

of 60 or so should be close to the mark. Very few

young animals were seen. There were no signs of

poaching or predation. An occasional leopard or a

pack of wild dogs is said to operate in the area.

Chetta Guttu — Ninth Hair Pin Bend Hill :

The row of hills to the south-east and the Aliyar/

Attakatti hills “meet”, so to say, at the ninth hair

pin bend on the Pollachi- Valparai road. According

to Neelan this hill was a favoured haunt of tahr

before men started quarrying stone on the top of

the hill near Attakatti for the P. A. Project. The

quarry has now been abandoned.

A saddle back was reported to have taken up

residence on the slope above the ninth hair pin bend

about a year ago and was seen off and on by motor-

ists passing along the road. On the evening of the

16th proceeding to Attakatti, I saw the saddle back,

a very old animal standing on the hair pin bend’s

parapet wall itself! It was accompanied by a younger

saddle back. On 29.iii.77 a small herd of 5 tahr —

the saddle backs not among them — was seen by

some planters and Mr. B. Devarajulu the Game

Warden. On 7.iv.77 seven tahr were seen in the

same area by Mr. Kumaran, a planter. They could

have come from either direction. This is a very

busy place, vehicles passing up and down at short

intervals right through the day and night. The tahr

did not appear to be unduly disturbed by the traffic.

It is hoped that they take up permanent residence

there.

824

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

Attakatti Cliffs :

Attakatti is 35 Km from Pollachi on the road to

Valparai and is 1000 metres in elevation. A kilo-

meter or so behind the Attakatti township and to

the right of the road as one travels up the ghat

is the tahr habitat. It is a 3 to 4 Km stretch of cliffs

and grass covered slopes. It overlooks Villoni and

Aliyar. At the south western end is the Varaiattu

Mottai peak which is about two hundred metres

above the Attakatti plateau. This peak could be

approached through the Waverly Estate also. A brief

visit was made to the peak on 27.ii.77, but as tree

felling was in progress in the valley below, no ani-

mals were sighted due to disturbed conditions.

On 17.iii.77 the cliffs were visited. One female

tahr accompanied by a young one which was passing

on into the sub-adult stage; a group of four com-

posed of adult females and light brown males and

a small herd of 6 (1 young, 1 sub adult and 4 LBM

and AF). A large male, which could have been

a part of a herd, was seen on the Varaiattu Motti

skyline. In all 13 tahr were counted. It is reported

that because of easy access the Attakatti tahr popu-

lation was subjected to much harassment by “sports-

men” residing in the towns in the plains below until

stricter control was enforced since 1973, when the

range was declared part of the Anamalai Wild Life

Sanctuary. Between Chetta guttu and the Attakatti

cliffs there is an estimated population of 20 to 25

tahr.

Thadaganachi Malai :

The Thadaganchi malai is an off shoot of the

Anamalais and is situated west of the Aliyar dam.

A dirt road leads to the foot of this range from

the junction of the old Valparai road and the new

road. The Thadaganachi peak (1693 metres above

M.S.L.) is the highest peak in the area. The coun-

try around the twin peaks in this range is an ideal

tahr habitat. On 18.iii.77, while Bokkan and Neelan

circled this range from the west and north, Gokulam

and I approached it from the south. Bokkan and

party saw one herd of sixteen which included a

young and a dark brown male. We could catch a

glimpse of only one tahr as it disappeared into a

hill bamboo brake. Fresh droppings on the slope

indicated the presence of a herd. This range is con-

nected to the main range by a series of low hills.

There is a lot of cattle grazing in the area. Poach-

ing is reported.

N avamalai :

Navamalai means nine hills. There are nine hills

placed around the top of Aliyar reservoirs on either

side of the Navamalai power house. Puragundu (pi-

geon rock), the hill on the north western end is the

main tahr habitat. Butha gundu adjacent to it also

holds tahr. Navamalai is 33 Km from Pollachi —

6 Km off the Pollachi — Valparai road. The road

throughout is good.

On 6.xii.77, altogether 23 tahr were seen on Pura-

gundu and 4 on Buthagundu. On 7.xii.77 two groups

of 6 and 17 were seen. On 18.xii.77 21 tahr were

seen in one group on an open rock and classifica-

tion was possible. 2 saddle backs, 1 dark brown

male, 13 adult females and light brown males, 2 sub-

adults and 3 young were in that composite herd.

It is estimated that there are altogether 30 tahr at

Navamalai. The proportion of young and sub-adults

to adults is low. The animals appeared to be in

good condition.

Estimated population : 125 — 1977.

Grass Hills in Anamalais

The Grass Hills is a 65 sq. Km. plateau placed

at an elevation of approximately 1800 m above mean

sea level in the Anamallai Hills in the Coimbatore

District in Tamil Nadu (10° 15' N and 77°5' E).

The approach to Grass Hills is through the Peria

Karamalai group of Estates off the Pollachi-Val-

parai road. The last 10 Km. is a forest road which

is invariably out of commission for cars during and

after the rains. The Hills take their name from the

undulating grass-topped hills reminiscent of the

‘Downs' on the Nilgiri plateau; the Grass Hills

Downs, however, are not as extensive as the Nilgiri

Downs as they are intersected by high ridges. The

cliffs are also not sheer and invulnerable as in the

Nilgiris. The grass on the grass hills is the coarse

( Agrostis schmidi) variety. Evergreen sholas clothe

the folds and valleys.

The plateau is bounded on the North and north-

west by jungle and tea plantations and on the north-

east, west and south-west by jungle and on the

south and south-east by extensive grass hills of the

Anaimudi Sanctuary.

The survey was done over a period of seven

days between 3.iv.l971 and 9.iv.l971 (inclusive).

Weather conditions were ideal and visibility was

excellent. Grass had burnt extensively and fresh

young grass was growing in patches and the tahr

825

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

tended to congregate in such places.

Altogether five herds were seen in the following

areas :

1. Kallar Malai — First sighted on 4.iv.l971 on

the S.E. slopes — moved on to the northern slopes

on 5.iv. 197 1 . Remained there breaking up and re-

grouping until 9.iv.l971.

Saddle back ... ... 0

Brown buck ... ... 2

Light brown male & adult female ... 38

Yearling ... ... 0

Young ... ... 14

54

2. Chadayandi Malai — First sighted on 4.iv.l971

on this hill. From 5.iv.l971 until 9.iv. 1 97 1 this herd

was seen on the Kaludai Katti Malai where it had

moved.

Saddle back ... ... 0

Brown buck ... ... 1

Light brown male & adult female ... 11

Yearling ... ... 0

Young ... ... 4

16

3. Tanaka Malai — First sighted on 5.iv. 197 1

on S.E. slopes — later the herd had moved higher

up and towards the west.

Saddle back ... ... 0

Brown buck ... ... 0

Light brown male & Adult female ... 13

Yearling ... ... 7

Young ... ... 7

27

4. Tanaka Malai — Western slope towards Ko-

ram Parai.

Saddle back ... ... 1

Brown buck ... ... 0

Light brown male & Adult female ... 4

Yearling ... ... 1

Young ... ... 0

6

Apparently these two heards had come together

and on 8.iv. 197 1 — altogether 35 animals were seen

against the skyline late in the evening. The two

new entrants could not be classified.

5. Usi Malai.

Saddle back

Brown buck

Light brown male & Adult female

Yearling

Young

16

2

11

30

Not classified ... ... 3

Mr. G. J. Rajasingh, Conservator of Forests, Co-

imbatore circle who visited the Grass Hills in 1976

reported having seen many herds of tahr one of

60-70, others of 25, 16, 12, 8, 4 and 3.

Estimated population: 200 — 1971/1976.

Amaravathi Slopes

Due South of Udumalpet, which is between Polla-

chi and Palani on the Coimbatore-Dindigal road,

some spurs of the Western Ghats project into the

plains. Not far further south this mountain chain

makes further and more extensive inroads into the

plains in the shape of the Palani Hills. Tucked

away between these two projections is the Amra-

vathi-Manjampatti Valley. The Amaravathi town-

ship at the foot of the Amaravathi dam is of re-

cent origin and is the focal point of this region. The

township is 6 Km off the Udumalpet-Munnar road

and is altogether 22 Km from Udumalpet. The

country around Amaravathi (10° 15' N and 77° 15'

E) is comparatively low and unpromising as a Nil-

giri Tahr habitat and it is, therefore, not surprising

that few know of the occurrence of tahr there. The

reserved forests in this area fall within the Ana-

malai Wild Life Sanctuary and are administered by

the Wild Life Warden stationed at Pollachi.

Jambukal :

This isolated rocky mass, only 919 m in height

at the highest point, which is fairly low for a tahr

habitat, stands at the entrance to the Amaravathi

township. Jambukal has the unique distinction of

being the only tahr habitat falling outside a reserv-

ed forest. Jambukal is a revenue forest and because

of lack of protection every single tree on this hill

826

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI TAHR

has been hacked down. And every bit of land

suitable for cultivation has been encroached upon

and is being cultivated without regard to soil con-

servation. Mr. Muthuswamy Nadar, an affluent agri-

culturist and a knowledgeable shikari of Udumal-

pet reports that 15 to 20 years ago Jambukal had a

population of about 50 tahr and that poaching,

which took place on an organised scale, and habitat

disturbance have virtually wiped out the Jambukal

tahr. Two residents of Ilayamuthur at the foot of

the hill who acted as guides state that the few tahr

that are left, which they estimate at less than half

a dozen, are in hiding and are very difficult to come

across. They also thought that tahr migrated to Jam-

bukal from the Elumalaiyan Koil spur across the

Munnar road and that these migrations have stopped

with the coming of electricity and the setting up of

well lit and fenced farms in between. Some of the

more promising sections of Jambukal were kept

under observation on 4.iv.77 and 6.iv.77, but no

sightings were made.

Erumai Malai ( Bison Hill ) :

This hill stands at the head of the Amaravathi

reservoir and could be approached either by walk-

ing along the Eastern shore of the Amaravathi re-

servoir and crossing the Pambar river above Duva-

nam, the waterfall at the head of the dam or by

motoring along the Munnar road up to Chinnar

and walking or proceeding by jeep from there.

A more unlikely tahr habitat cannot be imagined.

The Manjampatti valley floor is about 300 metres

above M S.L. and Erumai Malai cannot be more

than a further 500 to 600 metres at the highest

point, about 1000 metres altogether. The Eluma-

laiyan Koil spur which is a more favourable tahr

country is not far from Erumai Malai across the

country and the tahr could shift there if they want-

ed. In these circumstances why they continue to

favour Erumai Malai is inexplicable.

In summer Bison Hill could well be described as

inhospitable and the heat is intense. Areawise also

it is not a large hill, about 12 Sq. Km. in extent;

the tahr habitat being a third of this. Mr. Muthu-

swamy Nadrar who had hunted there before it was

made a sanctuary in 1973 called it a “one man

beat”. For most part it is surrounded by a belt of

cliffs from half way up the hill to the top. The

soil on the slopes, where it is not rocky, is loose

and gravelly and provides poor foot hold. The com-

position of the flora unlike that in regular tahr

habitats could be best described as ‘savanna scrub’.

However, there is a fair amount of grass of medium

height on the two small plateaus on the top of the

hill.

Census was taken on 5.iv.77 with the assistance

of Bokkan, from the Nilgiris and two local guides,

the details of which are given below: —

Because of the smallness of the area it is possible

that some animals were counted more than once.

But the local guides were certain that the tahr on

Erumai Malai number over one hundred! This seems

an exaggeration. This hill is one of the few' tahr

habitats where it is possible to take a fairly accurate

count by organising a drive with a score of beaters.

The count also showed that Bison hill is a regular

tahr nursery. 25% of the population were young; the

highest ratio of young to adult seen in any tahr

population.

No water sources were observed on the hill at the

time of visit. The Pulayur tribals who live in a cave

at the foot of the hill, but across the river had not

seen tahr come down to the river to drink. How

and from what source do the Bison hill tahr get their

water requirements? The tahr is a hardy animal

which does not have to drink as often as for inst-

ance some deer. But how long can it survive with-

out water? These and other related aspects are pro-

posed to be studied in depth by the writer.

Elumalaiyan Koil Hills :

To the North of and almost paralled to the Udu-

malpet-Munnar road where it enters the hills is a

spur which joins the Anamalai hills on the North

and High Range in Kerala, on the West. The upper

crest of the spur and the adjoining ranges are ty-

827

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

pical tahr country. It is reported that the hills

around Maraiyur have been cleaned out of tahr by

the Muduvans, a hill tribe, some of them being ex-

pert and enterprising poachers. This spur, as such,

as far as it could be gathered, has no particular

name. For easy identification it is called after the

temple for the deity Elumalaiyan, which is located

there.

The temple is a good one and a half hour walk

from the Munnar road and it is placed at the base

of a long ridge ranging in elevation from 800 to

1200 metres above M.S.L. The north-eastern end of

the ridge is known as Rasi Varai and the south-

western end, at Veedankottai (Hunter’s fort) and

the tahr appear to be partial to these sections of the

ridge.

On 6.iv.77 while Bokkan accompanied by the two

local guides climbed Veedankottai, I climbed Rasi

Varai. It was a stiff climb along overgrown game

trails, mostly used by elephants and gaur, especially

after the rains. The grasses on the top are the tall

varieties more favoured by gaur than tahr. At the

time of the visit Rasi Varai was covered with fresh

young grass shoots after a fire. Signs of tahr was

evident.

Although piles of day old droppings and fresh

tracks were everywhere on the summit only 5 tahr

were sighted, (2 adult females; an adult female

accompanied by a yearling and an abandoned, par-

tially crippled young), (which in spite of the best

efforts of my guide and myself could not be cap-

tured). Even these few were wild and showed signs

of having been disturbed recently. The reason for

this was not far to seek.

A party of four men whom we saw on the top

when we were half way up the hill, who were prob-

ably timber poachers, had camped on the summit

the previous night. We also saw a party of two

hunters, on a peak behind the ridge, and one of

them had a gun. My guide stated that men from

the villages below came up each summer, when the

agricultural operations had ceased, to cut wood and

poach. It was not difficult to make out from the

varying size of the fecal pellets that there had been

between 30 and 40 tahr on Rasi Varai the previous

day.

Bokkan had better luck on Vedan Kottai. He and

Gopal, the young Pulayar guide, who lives in a tribal

settlement near Elumalaiyan Koil saw 25 tahr in

one herd. (2 dark brown males, 15 adult females

and light brown males, 8 young and sub adults).

According to Gopal there are two large herds ol

over 30 animals at each end of the ridge at Rasi

Varai and Vedan Kottai.

Checking the sporadic poaching that takes place

on the spur is a difficult task. Action has to be taken

in the villages supplying the poachers. It should not

be difficult to identify and keep a watch over them.

There were not many signs of predation.

Estimated population : 1 30 — 1977.

Swam iam alai Karadu

This Karadu or ridge, an off shoot of the

Palani hills, is south of Amaravathi and lies in the

Madurai district (1Q°2Q'N and 77°25'E). The route

to Swamiamalai is via Papampatti or Andipatti

West of Palani the famous temple town. It in-

volves a trek of over 20 km. in the plains and a

stiff climb of 7 km. H.H. the Raja of Pudukottai

who had hunted in the area many years ago re-

ported the presence of tahr on the Karadu. In Sep-

tember 1976 he had Swamiamalai checked by send-

ing two of his experienced shikaris there. They re-

ported sighting 15 to 20 tahr. Some of the neigh-

bouring escarpments look promising. Tahr are re-

ported on Sandumalai.

Estimated Population : 20 — 1976.

Eravikulam and Rajamallay

Nilgiri tahr habitats of Eravikulam and Raja-

mallay are in the High Range in Kerala (10° 10'

and 77°5'E). They can be reached by road from

the Kerala side as well as from Udumalpet in

Tamil Nadu. The last 12 Kms or so to Eravikulam

has to be trekked over a bridle path which could

also be ridden over on motor cycles in fair wea-

ther. Rajamallay is just off the Udumalpet-Munnar

road on the way to the Rajamallay tea estate. Dr.

George Schaller censused the tahr in these two

habitats in October 1969 and his report is extracted

below.

“ The High Range with its deeply dissected val-

leys, massive peaks and towering crags is * sur-

passingly grand, and incomparably beautiful’, in

the words of Hamilton (1892), one of the first

visitors to the area in 1854. Tea Plantations now

cover the valleys, leaving indigenous forests only

on the steep slopes, but the cliffs and grassy plate-

aus above an altitude of 2000 m. still provide suit-

able tahr habitat. The Eravikulam area, also known

as Hamilton’s Plateau, a private shooting reserve

828

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE N1LG1R1 TAHR

owned by the Kanan Devan Hills Produce Co.,

Ltd. ( Now Tata Finlay Ltd.) contains the largest

tahr population in the High Range. Protected from

poachers, pastoralists, and agriculturists since 1895

by the High Range Game Preservation Association

as well as by the cliffs that border the 80 sq. km.

plateau on 3 sides, the tahr there have remained

relatively undisturbed in recent years. Fire and

slash-and-burn cultivation by the Muduvars, who

occupied the area sometime after the \4th century

( Thurston 1909) are probably responsible for the

little forest that is left on the plateau.

A total of 439 tahr were seen. In addition, fresh

signs indicated the presence of another herd but

1 was unable to find it in the clouds that engulfed

the hills at the time. The total number of tahr in

the reserve was thus about 500”.

In December 1973, that is, four years after Dr.

Schaller conducted his survey, I spent a few days

in Eravikulam and was able to see without much

exertion more than 200 tahr, including a herd of

119.

In March 1978 I spent a few days in Rajamallay

and saw in all three herds of 20, 31 and 8 and

two strays. The permanent population on the Raja-

mallay cliffs is reported to be between 60 and 70.

Some visiting herds are reported to come and go.

Among the 61 seen there were 17 young, that is

28% of the population. Even if half the young

survived they would have more than made up the

loss due to old age, disease, predation and poach-

ing. Assuming that there was only a marginal in-

crease in population over the past 10 years, this

would have brought the total population to 600

or more. Moreover, knowledgeable people feel that

Dr. Schaffer’s estimate of 500 was a gross under-

estimate. A conservative estimate of today’s tahr

population in Eravikulam and Rajamallay would

put it at around 650.

Rajamallay has been a tahr sanctuary for long and

well looked after by the company. Eravikulam has

been a sanctuary for a few years. Recently both

have been accorded the status of a National Park

and named after the Anaimudi Peak, the highest

peak in South India (2700 m) around which the

park has been formed. A wildlife research unit is

being set up at Rajamallay.

A tahr with a collar round its neck is among

the resident herds advertising the fact that snaring

is practiced in that area. The snares ought to be

searched out and destroyed.

Estimated population: 700 — 1969-78.

High Range— less known plateaus

Besides Rajamallay and Eravikulam the main

tahr habitats in the High Range in Kerala there

are some less known areas separated from the

main range by roads, jungle and tea plantations

which are reputed to hold the tahr (10°5' to 10'N

77°5'E). Mr. Samar Singh the President of the

High Range Game Preservation Association had

these areas surveyed in June 1976 with the help

of Muduvan game watchers of the Association and

his report is given below.

1. Tertian’s plateau: “Lying above and in bet-

ween Gundumallay and Chunduvarrai/Kun-

daly Estates.

1 Saddle Back

1 Brown Buck

7 Adults

2 Young

11

(This total number of 11 has been more or

less steady for the last few years.)

2. Karunkulam: Lying between and above Ari-

vikad and Yellapatty Estates.

2 Saddle Backs

2 Brown Bucks

9 Adults (L.B.M. & A.F.)

4 Yearlings and young

17

(This total number would appear to have re-

duced considerably from 60 to 80 some 10 to

15 years ago).

3. Periavurrai j Kannimally Ridge:

4 tahr sighted — probably all does. (This area

has not been known to have tahr for quite

some time now and I presume these four had

moved over from Rajamallay area).

There is no news of tahr sightings in any other

area around here”.

Estimated population: 30 H 1976.

Palani Hills

The Palani Hills, named after the famous

829

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Palaniandavar Hill temple at Palani perched atop

on one of its foothills, juts out into the plains of

Madurai district. They rise gradually to a 1800 metre

high plateau, 450 Sq Km in extent, called the up-

per Palanis, which terminates abruptly in sheer pre-

cipices on the south and south-west sides. The well

known South Indian hill resort of Kodaikanal or

Kodai is on this plateau.

The upper Palani plateau is extremely scenic. The

southern face, from Kodai to Vandarav, a distance

of 40 Km., is just one unbroken chain of precipices,

like the ramparts of an immense fortress. Extensive

grass-topped undulating hills, or downs, interspers-

ed with evergreen sholas, roll back northwards

from the cliffs edge. From Marian shola to Van-

darav, these stretch right across the plateau cover-

ing over 100 sq. Km., one of the finest downland

expanses anywhere, despite the wattle plantations

here and there. The Kodai-Munnar road runs pa-

rallel to the cliff line, in some places within a few

metres, and nowhere more than a couple of hours’

walk from it. Moreover, the entire plateau is dot-

ted with cliffs, as in Adukkam, Perumal Malai, and

Poomparai. It is an ideal habitat for the Nilgiri

tahr.

Prior to my survey in 1973, no serious attempt

seems to have been made to ascertain the tahr’s

status which would have facilitated a comparative

study. However, I was fortunate in having been the

guest of H.H. the Raja of Pudukottai who has

spent every summer for the last 25 years of more

in Kodai, knows every inch of the tahr country,

and has shot many saddlebacks there. According to

him 25 to 30 years ago there were well over 1000

tahr in the Palanis. He showed me a dozen cliffs

within a radius of 20 km of Kodai which, 10 to

20 years ago, held thriving tahr populations, some

as recently as five years ago. His men told me that

tahr used to move in droves like domestic sheep

and goats.

My survey was conducted between April 12 and

20, 1973. Conditions were ideal, except for the

usual ground mist which roll up from the plains

and obscure the cliffs for a few hours every day.

Grass had burned extensively and fresh young

grass was sprouting in large patches, an open in-

vitation for a tahr gathering. The burning also help-

ed to set the tahr in bold relief against the moun-

tain side which made spotting easier.

The Raja arranged for two experienced shikaris

to assist me, and he himself accompanied us on

many of the trips. With a long range telescope and

powerful binoculars we covered systematically, sec-

tion by section, the entire southern cliff line from

the Pali varai (cliff) below the golf links to Van-

darav, double checking the more promising sec-

tions. Our total was 23.

Marian Shola varai

2 Adult females

2 Young

4

Karian varai

1 Light brown male

1 Adult female

1 Young

3

Koravan Thotti

1 Saddleback

1 Brown buck

7 Adult females and light brown males

4 Yearling

3 Young

16 Total : 23.

We were unable to visit Kaluguthorai and Van-

nathi odai cliffs, as the road had been dug up. But

a herd of 12, including a saddleback, is reported

there. On May 25, 1973, the Raja saw ten tahr in

Sooriankanal in two herds (one saddleback, four

adult females and two young — one brown-back and

two adult females). This brings the total to 45.

Even allowing a liberal 35 per cent error margin

for animals that we might have missed in the count

the total tahr population in upper Palanis is un-

likely to exceed 60. A shocking case of wildlife de-

cimation.

Of the 23 animals, seen, six were young (eight

out of 33) a healthy 25 per cent growth rate. Given

adequate protection and a proper environment —

which means restoring the original habitat along

the cliff line by keeping it free of cattle and wattle

there is no doubt that the Palani Hills tahr will

rehabilitate itself.

Estimated population : 60 — 1973/75.

830

Plate I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Davidar: Nilgiri Tahr

Portrait of an adult female Nilgiri Tahr.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate II

Davidar: Nilgiri Tahr

Subadult and adult females Nilgiri Tahr,

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

Highwavy Mountains

The Highwavy Mountains (Megamalai): — 9°42' N

and 77°20' E — are in the Madurai District of Tamil

Nadu. The range has no true plateau, the top be-

ing cut into steep-sided valleys. The narrow strip

of fairly level ground on which the road is laid,

which for convenience can be called the “plateau”,

averages 1600 metres but some of the summits

reach over 1800 metres. Until 1931, when a tea

company obtained a concession over the mountain

from the Gandamanaikanur Zemindar they were

covered with thick evergreen sholas. Some of these

survive where they have not been replaced with tea.

The tahr inhabit five grass-covered rocky out-

crops projecting from the mountain range: Metla

Malai, Kudamparai, Plot No. 28, Varayatu Mot-

tai and Attu Mottai (Pathukudisal) . Except on

Attu Mottai there are no steep precipices, as in the

Nilgiris or the Palanis; the cliffs are no more than

■ a few hundred feet high, and are easily accessible

i from both above and below, and none of the grass

lands cover more than a few square kilometres.

:

Padicattu Metla — Southern slope

First Herd

Young 1

Adult female and \ ^

Light brown male j

. Brown buck 1

6

Mudal Metla

1 Young

3 Adults

4

Varayatu Mottai (Venniar) 6.12.72

First Herd

Young 2

Adult female 2

4

The approach from the plateau to all five tahr

grounds is through the tea gardens. There is a

motorable road to within 200 metres of Varayatu

Mottai, but the others involve treks through the

jungle, varying from half-an-hour to four hours for

Kudamparai, the most distant.

No earlier attempt seems to have been made to

census the tahr population on the Highwavys or for

that matter the other wildlife there. Even the re-

port of the Bombay Natural History Society’s 1917

expedition to the hills, of which Prater was a mem-

ber, makes no mention of the larger forms of wild-

life found on the mountains (JBNHS, Vol. XXXI,

p. 545). However, Mr. E. W. G. Hagger, a director

of the plantation company who has been familiar

with the area since 1955, writes about the tahr

(which he calls “Ibex” after the local practice) :

“In 1956 I saw herds of over 100 on the Metla and

Varayatu Mottai. I would guess conservatively that

altogether in the early fifties there would have

been at least 500 ibex on these hills. The opening

up of the Varushanad Valley and the road to Vel-

lamalai had a profound effect on the ibex popula-

tion”.

My count yielded the following figures :

Second Herd

Young 1

Yearling 1

Adult female and 1

Light brown male | ^

7

Second Herd

Young 1

Yearling 3

Adult female and !

Light brown male j ^

Brown buck 1

12

831

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

Attu Mottai

(pathukudisal)

Yearling 2

Adult female 2

4

Kudamparai could not be visited, but Mr. Pala-

niappan’s shikari reports having seen there five

tahr there (two adult males, three adult females). A

saddleback and four others were seen a week pre-

viously at Plot No. 28. Mr. Palaniappan’s subse-

quent counts and recounts yielded the following

figures :

Attu Mottai — 2 brown buck, 5 adult females

and 2 young: Total — 9.

Padicattu Metla — 2 brown buck, 7 adult fe-

males, 5 young, not classified 6: Total — 20.

Mudal Metla — 1 saddleback, 8 young, 18 not

classified: Total — 27.

Thus the total tahr population can be taken to be

20 + 27 + 9 + 14 + 16 + 5 = 91 or, say 100. The

animals were healthy and did not seem unduly

disturbed, the ratio of young reveals a healthy growth

rate. The rechecks have revealed the remarkable

fact that the Highwavys tahr have learned to adapt

themselves to their environment by extending their

limited preferred habitat of grassy hills among rocky

terrain to include surrounding shola forests which

tahr normally avoid.

Estimated population: 100 — 1972.

Srivilliputtur and Rajapalayam Hills

The Western ghats rises like a rampart behind

(west of) the towns of Srivilliputtur and Rajapa-

layam which are in the Ramnad district in Tamil

Nadu. The towns about 15 Km apart are important

stops on the Madurai — Trivandrum railway line.

Plot No. 28. 7.12.73

Young 3

Yearling 2

Adult female and I ^

Light brown male j

9

They are on the Madurai — Tenkasi highway. Roads

lead to the foot hills from the towns and from there

bridle paths, which are quite steep in places, take

off into the hills.

a) Mudaliar Oothu (9°33' N and 77°35' E).

Mudaliar Oothu is a perennial spring situated at

an altitude of about 1500 metres above MSL in the

Srivilliputhur forest Range. About a 100 metres

North of the spring is a forest rest house — the Mu-

daliar Oothu bungalow. Owing to neglect the bun-

galow is in bad shape and will soon be in ruins.

The Mudaliar Oothu is accessible from Pudupatti

Village also.

Running behind the bungalow, North to South,

is a 9 km long ridge, starting from Kodakkalparai

in the North and terminating at Peimalai Mottai,

(1582 m above MSL) one of the tallest peaks in

the area. The precipitous slopes on the eastern side

of the ridge hold a fair population of tahr. South-

west of the bungalow there are two hills — The

Veilkathan mottai and Sambaltheri both of which

also support tahr populations. The Kodakkalparai

area is visited by the tahr mainly during the north-

east monsoon, that is, October to December. At all

other times the tahr keep to the other slopes men-

tioned above. Because of severe persecution at the

hands of poachers the tahr remain in the middle

terraces, even on the eastern slopes and go further

down for grazing. It was here that the tahr were

seen.

The tahr area is limited and was surveyed by Mr.

A. J. T. John Singh between 15.V.76 and 17.V.76.

LBM & Yearling Young Total

AF

1 — — 6

21 — — 28

1 — — 2

9 — 5 15

51

832

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI TAHR

Duplication was unlikely because the animals seen

were well away from one another and counting was

done within a short span of time.

The other possible tahr terrain is the southern

slope of the ridge running from Peimalai Mottai

to the West where Mr. John Singh’s guide Aagasam

had seen tahr previously. The terrain of the eastern

slope of the Mudaliar Oothu — Peimalai Mottai

ridge is such that smaller inaccessible pockets are

likley to be there supporting small populations of

the tahr. Taking all this into consideration the tahr

population at Mudaliar Oothu could be estimated at

around 70.

b) Funnel valley and Vellakkaltheri ( 9°25' N and

77° 28' E ). Mr. John Singh’s report.

The Tunnel Valley’ and the Vellakkaltheri are

in the hills West of Rajapalayam. The area was

surveyed between 22.V.76 and 24.V.76 and only in

Vellakkaltheri tahr were seen.

Saddle Brown Adult M Yearling Young Total

Back Buck Adult F

— 4 7 3 1 15

Two mornings were spent in the Tunnel Valley’.

No tahr were sighted. But during an earlier trip

tahr were seen there.

Estimated population: 90 — 1976.

c) Puliangudi Hill (9° 10' N and 77° 15' E).

Puliangudi is further south of Rajapalayam. The

hills, which continue in an unbroken chain south

of Srivilliputtur are to the west of the town, which

is on the Madurai — Tenkasi road. The escarp-

ments on these hills held tahr in fair numbers in

the olden days. The District Forest Officer of Tirun-

elveli Mr. Kadakshamani made extensive enquiries

and came to the conclusion that they have been

wiped out or had moved away. But Mr. J. J.

Mangalraj, the Wildlife Warden of Mundanthorai

sanctuary feels that some stragglers may be still left

as a poacher was apprehended with a slain tahr

in the area.

Ashambu Hills

At the southern extremity of the western ghats

are the Ashambu hills spread over Tamil Nadu and

Kerala States. On the Tamil Nadu side, the range

is more or less equally divided between Tirunelveli

and Kanyakumari districts. The Tirunelveli section

is generally referred to as the Singampatti hills as

it formed part of the former Singampatti Zamin-

dari. A motor road cuts across a section of the hills

from Kalladaikurichi in the plains in the east

through Manimuttar and Manjolai estates of the

Bombay Burma Trading Corporation in the hills

and terminates abruptly at the valve house of Ko-

dayar hydroelectric project where it meets the 4

stage winch from the Kodayar power house be-

low, a total distance of 55 Km from Kalladaiku-

richi. From about half way up the hills the road

traverses sections of Kalakadu forest, a fine ex-

ample of tropical wet evergreen forest. Kalakadu

is reputed to hold one of the largest populations

of lion tailed macaque. ( Macaca silenus) Map ref.

8° 30' to 8°35'N, 77°20' to 77°25'E.

Panchamthangi Malai :

At the entrance to the hills is Panchamthangi

malai (also called the Muthalathi malai after the

Muthalathi river rising in this region) an off shoot

of the Ashambu hills. Panchamthangi malai is a pro-

mising tahr habitat and is reported to have sup-

ported a fair population of tahr. Minor forest pro-

duce gatherers whom I met on my first trip in May

1976 reported having seen some tahr when they

camped there a month previously. Vellimalai is

adjacent to Panchamthangi. During my April 1977

trip my assistant Bokkan stayed behind to survey

Panchamthangi. On 20th and 21st April, accom-

panied by two local guides he camped on Pancham-

thangi and covered that hill as also Vellimalai. They

sighted 6 tahr. Bokkan thought he could have seen

more had the grass been shorter. But the signs did

not indicate a large population. His estimate for the

area is 20.

Varaiattu Mottai :

The rocky slope to the right of the ghat road as

one motors up into the hills and its crown are called

the Varaiattu mottai, meaning tahr hill. My guide

Poolappan, a supervisor in the employ of the Bom-

bay Burmah Trading Corporation, who had been

acting as a shikar guide in the area for over thirty

years and others who are familiar with the area

report that Varaiattu mottai was a favoured tahr

haunt. Poolappan last saw (over ten years ago)

three animals — the remnants of the tahr herds

that once lived there. The knowledgeable people

in the area attribute the disappearance of the tahr

to poaching, the main culprits being members of

some affluent families in the district. With control

833

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

over poaching after the formation of the Mundan-

thorai sanctuary, tahr have a chance of coming

back and re-establishing themselves. The entire area

now falls within the Kalakadu sanctuary.

Kuliratti Mottai :

On the eastern face of the main range at an

elevation of 1000 m is Sengaltheri where a forest

rest house is situated. A bridle path leads to Sen-

galtheri from the Kalladaikurichi — Kodayar road.

Sengaltheri could also be approached directly from

the plains below. Kuliratti Mottai (1300 m) is 2

Km south east of Sengaltheri. It was Mr. Rama-

nathan the wild life warden of Kalakadu sanctuary

who brought this tahr habitat to my notice. Unfor-

tunately it was after my visits to Singampatti. His

forest guards reported having seen half a dozen

tahr at Kuliratti mottai. Mr. Ramanathan and Mr.

Rauf Ali, a primatologist visited the ridge in 1977

at my request but could not make much progress

along the ridge because of rank overgrowth.

Pechiparai Cliffs:

The name Pechiparai has come to refer to a much

larger area on account of the large irrigation reser-

voir bearing that name that has been formed at the

foot of the hills. The road to the valve house ter-

minates at the cliffs, cutting them in half, vertically.

Tahr have not been seen above the road after its

formation. The tahr habitat which is generally known

as Varaiattu mottai is bounded by the road on the

top, the trolley line to the Kodayar power house

on the north, thick jungle on the south and the

plains below and covers an area of about 8 sq. Kms.

In spite of these restrictions the tahr have a fine

country to roam. The grasslands are extensive enough

to support a fair tahr population. The valve house

is placed at an elevation of 1266 m. above M.S.L.

and the tahr country ranges in elevation between

700 and 1200 m.

On my first visit to the area in 1969 I saw six

tahr, which were, probably, part of a herd. They

appeared to be much harassed. A case of poaching

by police guarding the Power House was brought to

my notice. Mr. J. C. Daniel of the Bombay Na-

tural History Society saw a herd of twelve in 1970.

On 16.V.1976 Poolappan and I failed to see any

tahr. But came across very fresh droppings. A fa-

mily of workers walking all the way up from the

Power House along the trolly line reported having

seen some lower down. The following day a herd

of 14 was sighted and I kept them under observa-

tion from 8.30 a.m. until 1.30 p.m. The herd was

composed of 2 young, 3 subadults and 9 adults. Be-

sides this herd the track of a large tahr, possibly

a brown buck /saddleback was seen. Men from a

workers’ camp a Km away confirmed having come

across this herd often. Rock blasting, loudspeaker

noises, noisy music from the electricity board camp

below were heard clearly on the tahr hill. There

was activity both above and below and also on the

trolly line. Despite this the tahr remained uncon-

cerned. There were no reports of poaching this

time.

Kclamala :

There is a fine range of hills overlooking the Ko-

dayar power house. It is called by different names

at different points — Varaiattu mudi, Paivarai. kat-

tu, Aduppukal, Venkalamalai, Kalamala and Ma-

hali. It could be approached either from Kodayar

power house at the foot of the hills or the valve

house above. The starting point is way down the

hill at the point where the first stage of the winch

terminates. This range falls partly in Kerala State

and partly in Tamil Nadu. This tahr habitat was

first brought to my attention by Mr. G. Mukundan

of the India Forest Service, Kerala cadre.

On 16/ 17.V.1976, on my visit to Varaiattu mottai

I kept a good part of the range under observation

for 3 to 4 hours each day. No movement of tahr

was observed. On 17.V.76, Poolapan and a local

labourer, who was familiar with the area, climbed

varaiattu mudi (4679') the first highest point in the

range and looked for tahr. They sighted only three

but came across piles of droppings. It was arrang-

ed for Polappan to camp there and take a better

look, which he did in June 1976. He reported

having come across 2 herds; 13 (8 adults and 4

young and yearling) and 9 (7 adults and 2 young),

altogether 22.

On 18 and 19.iv.77 I camped on Kalamala with

Bokkan and two local guides and covered the en-

tire range. On Varaiattu mudi we came across only

two adult tahr. Fifteen were seen near Aduppukal

1900 m (6132'). On the 18th — 15 (2 dark brown

males, 10 adult females and light brown males and

subadults and 3 young) and on the 19th — 8 (6 adult

females and light brown males and 2 young), in all

twentyfive were observed.

834

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

Seeing the piles of droppings on the top Mr.

Mukundan thought that there should be over one

hundred tahr there. There are also some tahr scra-

pes — erosion patches caused by tahr, one of them

is so prominent that, seen from the valve house,

it looks like a road cutting. Two winch operators

who had seen service there for many years had not

seen tahr on the section of the ridge overlooking

the power house except on two occasions. The tahr

in the range appear to be concentrated along the

ridge, as the grass lower down and on the adjacent

slopes is tall and coarse. Droppings and signs of

tahr activity over a small area gives one the im-

pression of a large tahr population.

One of the winch operators had seen small herds

of tahr cross the trolley line on only two or three

occasions from one side to the other, during the

entire period of his 15 years’ service.

Estimated population : 70 — 1977.

Tiruvannamalai Peaks

Motoring along the Tenkasi-Kanyakumari trunk

road, while nearing the town of Panaigudi, two

prominent rocky peaks come into view on the west.

These are the Tiruvannamalai peaks (8°23'N and

77° 32' E). The peaks are in the Boothapandi forest

range of Tirunelveli South forest Division. This

is the southernmost habitat of the Nilgiri tahr.

There are four tracks leading to the peaks; from

Panaigudi, Roachmapuram and Thirukkurungudi. It

is a 11 km. long trek including a final steep climb

of 2 km. The fourth is a short cut from Raja-

pudur, which is very steep.

The Thulukkambarai river flows on the north

western side of the northern peak. This is the usual

campsite. On 8.V.76 at 18.45 hours from the camp

itself one male tahr standing silhouetted against the

sky on the northern slope of the northern peak

(1596 m) was spotted.

The base of the northern slope is steep and

boulder strewn. The vegetation was chiefly com-

posed of Phoenix sylvestris, Themeda cy maria. On

9.V.76 besides the adult buck seen the previous even-

ing an adult female and a young tahr were also

seen there.

On the south peak (1587 m.) fresh young grass

was sprouting after a recent fire and tracks and

pellets of tahr were everywhere. A poaching party

was skinning two tahr — a brown buck and an adult

female on a slope! There were nine men including

a Forester and two police men! It appeared that

they had been camping there for three days and

only that morning did they succeed in killing three

out of a herd of 40 tahr, firing 10 shots. They were

able to recover only two animals and the third

had fallen into a deep gully which was inaccessible.

As the poachers had disturbed the area it was

not possible to see any tahr on the Southern slope.

But from the abundance of pellets and tracks it is

possible to estimate that there must be 40 to 50

tahr in the area. Mr. John Singh deserves praise

for undertaking the survey of this tahr habitat.

Estimated population : 40 + — 1976.

Tahr populations — a summary

Tahr habitat Estimated population

835

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

croachment into tahr country by way of

wattle and blue gum plantations and hy-

dro-electric projects to be avoided. Large

population but somewhat stagnant. Point

to be watched against poaching — Nilgiri

peak area beyond Terrace Estate; Western

catchment dams 2 and 3 above Emerald

Valley Estate; Kinkerai Hundi, from Ba-

daga villages in the Kundah area and Nad-

gani, from across the border through Sis-

para pass and over the cliffs from below

Nadgani. The last is the furthest and most

seriously affected area. Predators — tigers,

leopards and wild dogs are active.

b) Northern slopes — Glenmorgan — Typical

tahr habitat. Cattle grazing and other dis-

turbances on the plateau. Slopes and cliffs

less disturbed. The small herd here appears

to have become extinct. Suitable area for

re-introduction of tahr provided their pro-

tection can be ensured.

c) Southern slopes — Isolated locations. Res-

tricted and much human activity has deve-

loped around the base and sides. No tahr

left. Unsuitable for reintroduction.

2. Silent Valley

a) Hills at the entrance of the valley near Muk-

kali — Only stragglers, if any, left. Human

activity in this area is increasing day by

day. If Silent Valley project is taken up

there will be lot more disturbance. How-

ever, after the project is completed some

of these hills would make suitable sites for

re-introduction of tahr if adequately pro-

tected.

b) Ankinda Mala and adjoining hills — Ideal

habitat. Migrant population. No human dis-

turbance except poaching. Poachers have

access to the area through the Sispara Pass

and over the cliffs below Nadgani. Co-or-

dinated action from the Nilgiris plateau

as well as from Kerala is necessary to

check poaching.

3. Siravani liiSIs:

a) Kunjera mala ridge — Small population.

Endangered habitat due to erosion and

rank growth. Disturbed conditions below

due to dam work. Close watch necessary.

b) Vellingiri malai — Good tahr country. But

no tahr left. Suitable for re-introduction.

4. Elival mala:

a) Palamala — Fair sized habitat. Small po-

pulation recovering after heavy poaching.

Close watch necessary to prevent recur-

rence. Promotion of legitimate activity ad-

vocated.

b) Karimala — Limited habitat. Optimum po-

pulation. Could eventually be encouraged,

through proper protection measures to

spill over into Kondamala, the extensive

grass covered ridge and slopes to the South.

5. NelSiampathi hills:

a) Hill top — Ideal tahr habitat and exten-

sive grasslands. Heavily poached. Serious-

ly endangered population.

b) Cruz malai and Chinna aatu malai — Fair

sized habitat cattle grazing and disturbance.

Endangered population and endangered ha-

bitat. The planting company there could

be encouraged to co-operate and involve

itself in conservation.

c) Govinda malai — Stragglers, if any. En-

dangered.

6. Topslip and Parambikulam:

a) Pandaravarai — Adequate population for

fair sized habitat, which is endangered

through erosion and over grazing by gaur.

b) Kolumbumalai — No resident tahr. En-

dangered habitat — soil erosion through

action of worms.

c) Perunkundru — A very fine habitat; ex-

836

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRl TAHR

tensive, good grazing and well protected.

The long grass covered slope to the south

also holds promise and can absorb the

spill over.

d) Palagakundru — Small isolated habitat —

small population.

e) Vengoli malai — Long narrow ridge. Suit-

able for and holds a small population. In

the middle of two sanctuaries and protect-

ed. Subject to predation.

f) Karumalai gopuram — Small but ideal ha-

bitat. Small population but -area could hold

more. Composition of the herd — male/

female ratio — disproportionate. Translo-

cation could be attempted to correct in-

balance.

7. Eastern slopes of the Anainalai hills:

a) Aliyar — Low elevation habitat, fairly ex-

tensive— appears unpromising, but is sup-

porting fair population.

b) Chetta Guttu — Ninth hairpin bend hill —

No resident tahr. But of late a saddle back

or two or a small herd of migrants from

either direction seen frequently. Being

close to highway require watching.

c) Attakatti cliffs — Once subjected to heavy

poaching. Recovering slowly. Habitat

could support some more.

d) Thadaganachi malai — Medium level habi-

tat. Fairly extensive. Comparatively small

population for the area. Danger from cat-

tle grazing and disturbance. Danger from

poaching-requires close watch.

e) Navamalai — Low level habitat. Looks un-

promising but supports a fair population.

Extensive cattle grazing except on cliffs.

8. Grass Hills in Anamalais:

Ideal habitat, extensive. Large population.

Herds move all over the range and not res-

tricted to specific areas. Advisable to keep the

presence of the planters in the Grass hills

through the Konalaar Fishing Association as

a deterrent to poaching by estate labour and

raids by Muduvans across ‘no man’s land.’ A

dam across Konalaar is under survey. If this

is taken up considerable damage will be caus-

ed to the environment and tahr will be driven

mto the “No man’s land” where they will be

subject to poaching.

9. Amaravathi slopes:

a) Jambukal — Endangered habitat and popu-

lation. No hope.

b) Erumai malai — Low level habitat. More a

scrub country than a normal tahr habitat.

Supports a fairly large population for an

area of that extent. Preservation adequate.

c) Elumalaiyan koil hill — Medium level habi-

tat. Fair population, but subjected to poach-

ing.

Hills higher up. Promising country. But

subjected to poaching. If controlled, suit-

able for re-introduction.

10. Swamiamalai Karachi:

Small population. Endangered.

1 1 . Eravikulam and RajamaSSay:

Ideal habitat. Extensive and well preserv-

ed except on the periphery. Heavily po-

pulated. Periphery requires more atten-

tion.

The “No man’s land” between Grass hills

in Anamalais and Eravikulam is an equ-

ally good habitat and has great promise.

Efforts to check poaching by introducing

legitimate activity necessary.

12. High Range — Less known plateaus:

Tertian’s plateau

Karunkulam

Periavurrai

Typical tahr country.

But limited area.

Small populations.

Endangered. Very lit-

tle hope.

837

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 75

13. Palani Hills:

Extensive and ideal tahr country on the

Southern face of the Upper Palani pla-

teau. Encroached upon by cattle and

forest plantations from above and coffee

and cardamom plantations from below.

Classic case of endangering habitat lead-

ing to decimation of wild life. Small scat-

tered populations leading precarious ex-

istence. Scattered restricted habitats also

suffering from same fate. Massive con-

servation effort required for rehabilita-

tion. Little hope of such effort as things

are.

Adukkam range : Good country, but

now lost for the tahr.

14. High wavy mountain:

Mixed grassland /forest habitat. Widely

scattered, supporting small herds. End-

angered populations.

a) Metla : Fair sized, subject to cattle graz-

ing at lower levels. Also poached from

below.

b) Varayattu mottai : Limited habitat. Much

disturbed due to hydro electric project

work. Endangered habitat and popula-

tion.

c) Attu mottai : Cliffs afford some amount

of protection. Poached.

d) Plot No. 28: Fair extent of grass and

rock country. Bottom end adjoining Raja-

palayam hills. Subject to poaching.

e) Kudamparai : Isolated. Present position

not known. Due to scattered populations

access to tahr country is a problem.

Effective protection at the top at least is

possible and must receive immediate at-

tention.

15. Srivillipettur and RajapaSayam hills:

a) Mudaliar Oothu — Extensive and ideal

b)

c)

16.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

17.

country. But due to habitat disturbance -

tahr movement is restricted. Scattered lo-

cations, could be connected once extensive !,

cattle grazing and poaching are removed.

Promotion of legitimate activity is advo-

cated as supervision is otherwise difficult.

Area holds much promise; if conserved, j

Rajapalayam hills — Limited tahr coun-

try. Gravely endangered. Very little hope.

Puliangudi hills — It is feared that the

scattered populations on these hills have

been exterminated.

Ashambu hills:

Panchamthangi malai — Fairly extensive !i

habitat, comparatively small population

for the area. Fairly well preserved.

Varaiattu mottai — No tahr left. Suitable

for re-introduction.

Kuliratti mottai — Note an ideal country.

Small herd.

Pechiparai cliffs — Limited habitat. Small

but growing population. Well preserved.

Kalamala — Extensive grasslands bound-

ed by cliffs. Signs indicate a larger num- i

ber than actually seen. Holds promise. J

Tiruvannamalai peaks:

Fairly extensive habitat. Ill preserved.

Subject to poaching and cattle grazing. Pos-

sible to eliminate both if determined efforts

are made. Fair population. Holds promise. <

Observations

1 . Is Nilgiri tahr an endangered species?

The overall population of the Nilgiri tahr; |

its hardiness and adaptability; flourishing tahr *

populations in certain habitats in its range and

the breeding potential of the species as ob-

served and reported herein do not qualify the

tahr to be included in the list of endangered

838

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

species. However, there is no room for com-

placency. Some of the scattered populations

are, not only, endangered but gravely so and

could be expected to disappear in the not too

distant future.

2. Conservation : There are two recognised

methods of preserving a wild animal — total

protection and management. Which of these

two methods is to be employed in the case

of an animal like the tahr?

A study of the reports on the seventeen

groups of Nilgiri tahr habitats is revealing.

Only two of the seventeen areas, namely Era-

vikulam and Nilgiris have sizable populations.

It is significant that both these areas were

shooting preserves under the control and

management of Game Associations until re-

cently. The associations concerned believed in

preserving game through management by re-

gulating their pursuit.

Grass hills in the Anamallais has the third

largest population. Grass hills were also, in a

sense, a game preserve of the Anamalai

planters. Their fishing/hunting lodge is locat-

ed in the heart of the tahr country and their

presence was felt. Palani hills were the only

exception. But the Game Association there

ceased to exist, except in name, after the for-

ties.

Going back into the history of the principal

tahr habitats one finds that the stock of game

was low when the Game Associations took

over. They had to start almost from scratch.

But for the Eravikulam game preserve and

the Rajamallay sanctuary of the High Range

Game Preservation Association and the pre-

sence of the Konalar Fishing Association in

Grass Hills there is no doubt, that the “no

man’s land” in between, which has very little

game due to depredations of Muduvan poach-

ers, would have extended on either side to

cover the whole of Hamilton’s Plateau.

As against the example of Nilgiris and Era-

vikulam there are instances of fairly well

stocked tahr habitats which, although officially

closed to hunting, no longer have tahr, the

herds having been eliminated by illicit hunt-

ing and snaring.

If it is possible to rehabilitate the tahr in

thr Nilgiris from the verge of extinction (and

pc ssibly the harassed herds on Hamilton’s

plateau) it can be done throughout the tahr’s

range.

The rehabilitation, it must be remembered,

was done mainly through regulating tahr hunt-

ing. It is also well to remember that sporting

standards in these two areas and in the Grass

Hills were rather high.

In Eravikulam between 1958 and 1969 an

average of 1.9 saddle backs per annum were

shot. In the Nilgiris between 1912 and 1939

an average of 4.6 saddle backs were killed.

And between 1940 and 1976, 76 were bagged,

an average of just over 2 per annum. There

being no forestry operations in the tahr wilder-

ness (with rare exceptions as in the case of

some parts of Nilgiris and Grass Hills where

some seasonal operations take place), no

forest staff visit these places. This is where

the role of the hunter assumes importance.

A saddle back, which is permitted to be shot,

is a difficult trophy to secure. Many trips are

made into the tahr wildernesses to procure a

single trophy. Then there are marking trips.

This leads to regular patrolling of the area.

To give an example, for six years the writer

strenuously tried to secure a really worthy

trophy before he gave up in favour of the

camera. There is no doubt that the trophy

hunter played a useful part in keeping poach-

ing down in remote tahr country.

As far as the saddle back is concerned,

roughly half of them are true solitaries and do

not take part in breeding. Every saddleback

839

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

legitimately shot, therefore, represents a sub-

stantial number of breeding stock saved.

In these circumstances the wisdom of trans-

ferring the Nilgiri tahr from Schedule II (spe-

cial big game which can be shot on licence)

to Schedule I (absolutely protected) of the

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (vide 5.10.1977

notification) is open to question. This is typi-

cally a bureaucrat’s way out of a difficult

situation by closing his eyes to realities.

Particularly, in a place like the Nilgiris, the

cropping of a few old saddlebacks is not like-

ly to have any effect on the overall popula-

tion. On the contrary it will be a good con-

servation measure to have a few sportsmen

visiting the tahr country on legitimate busi-

ness. And supervision is simple. All one has

to do is to check him out at the point of exit.

Unlike the tiger, which wears valuable fur

which has universal appeal the saddleback

offers a trophy which has value only to the

hunter. As for the poacher who is after its

meat it does not make the slightest difference

whether the tahr is in schedule I or in Sche-

dule II to the Act, as long as he eludes cap-

ture. Since he operates in remote and diffi-

cult terrain offering long range views effecting

his capture is more easily said than done. The

best thing to do is to keep the poacher out

with legitimate presence. Dr. George Schaffer

recommends —

“The animals survive in the Nilgiris and

High Range only because the local wildlife

Associations have protected them for years

for sporting purpose. In areas where tahr have

not had the benefit of private initiative, where

they have had to rely solely on the protection

afforded by the State Government, they have

either been wiped out or reduced to a few

scattered herds. The revoking of shooting

rights would eliminate whatever interest the

Wildlife Associations have in the animal and

the resulting increase in poaching and habitat

destruction might well tip the balance of the

species from tenuous security to extinction”.

[J.B.N.H.S. Vol. 67(3)].

In its own interest the Nilgiri tahr should

be put back in Schedule II to the Act. Hunt-

ing when restored must be done selectively

in areas like the Nilgiris, and in the “no man’s

land” on Hamilton’s plateau with the express

object of affording protection to the rest of

the tahr population there. The opening up of

the area outside of the Eravikulam National

Park to hunting will surely encourage the re-

stocking of the area through spiff over of the

excess stock in Eravikulam. As for smaller

tahr habitats, which can be watched and

guarded, they should remain closed and closely

guarded. There, the removal of even an old

saddle back might upset the balance. Thus

both methods of conservation namely, total

protection in smaller areas and sanctuaries and

management by regulating hunting in larger

areas are advocated.

Administration’. Consequent on the enforce-

ment of the wildlife (protection) Act 1972

forest departments in the states have been

bifurcated into general and development wings

under separate Chief Conservators of forests,

wildlife being placed under the development

wing. In practice this progressive measure is

leading to compartmentalisation which is

rather unfortunate.

Wildlife wardens have been appointed and

placed in direct control of sanctuaries. Al-

though technically the administration of the

Act outside sanctuaries is also the responsibi-

lity of the wildlife department, with limita-

tions of staff, wildlife wardens are not in a

position to exercise effective control over

areas outside sanctuaries. Further, as they

have been vested with ‘territorial powers’ over

840

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

sanctuaries, which used to be exercised by the

general administration, their energies tend to

get dissipated in this direction. Wildlife which

even otherwise had a low priority has been

pushed further down in the list of priorities

as far as the general administration is con-

cerned. The cumulative effect of all these de-

velopments is that wildlife in general and tahr

habitats outside sanctuaries in particular get

a poor deal.

The tendency to treat the wildlife depart-

ment as a poor relation of the general ad-

ministration as it is a poor earner of revenue

does have a demoralising effect on the men.

This tendency must go. The wildlife staff

must be made to feel important and wanted

by giving them every encouragement possible.

This was probably one of the reasons for

handing over administrative control of sanc-

tuaries to them. Needless to add that there is

no reason why the wildlife men should feel

neglected. As professionals doing a specialist

job they have the opportunity to prove their

worth. And pride in the profession, in itself

is a reward.

4. Stagnating population :

It has been observed that tahr populations,

however well preserved, however vigorous and

however high the birth rate start stagnating

once certain levels are reached. Unfortunate-

ly, there is only the Nilgiri records to base

this assumption. Phythian- Adams (1929)

thought that there were 400 tahr in 1927 and

over 500 in 1930 (1939 report). Although

these were ‘guesstimates’ based on insufficient

data, in view of Phythian-Adam’s field experi-

ence, they do give one a rough idea. The 1963

census of the writer yielded a figure of 400

(approx). Schaller who did a spot check of

a third of the area in 1969 thought that the

population had stagnated. The writer’s 1975

census yielded a figure of 450. These various

estimates seem to indicate that the tahr popu-

lation in the Nilgiris levelled off at a little

over 400.

From accounts of hunting expeditions of

Pollock (1894) and Hornaday (1885) in and

around Thunakadavoo (between Topslip and

Parambikulam) some rough idea of the tahr

population there is gained. Even in a well pre-

served and ideal habitat like Perunkundru

there has not been any spectacular increase in

the past 70/80 years.

Grass Hills, Topslip and Parambikulam,

Eastern slopes of the Anamalai hills and

Amaravathi slopes are situated within the

Anamalai wildlife sanctuary which was form-

ed in 1973. Some of these tahr habitats were

closed to hunting since 1970 or so and have

been fairly well preserved. In spite of this

there has not been any significant increase in

population.

This matter of stagnating population, it

would appear, is not an isolated instance but

a general trend. In the case of the Nilgiris

there is atleast a fair amount of predation.

But in some of the other areas there is hardly

any predator activity worth mentioning. There

is, no doubt, some falling off of numbers be-

tween the young and sub-adult stage and the

sub-adult to adult stage. But it is not a steep

fall.

Therefore, in the natural sequence of events,

the total population of Nilgiri tahr ought to

have been much more, at least in undisturbed

and well preserved areas, than what the status

survey has disclosed. It would be worth in-

vestigating and identifying these inhibiting

factors. Reintroduction into former habitats

could be considered provided their preserva-

tion could be ensured. With modern capture

guns that are in use translocation should not

present a problem.

841

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

5) Captive breeding I ranching:

An interesting finding in the “discovery” of

flourishing tahr populations in “low country”.

Going into old records it is seen that at one

time tahr had flourished even in the plains.

Jerdon (1874) in mammals of India came

across a tame herd in a church compound in

Cochin. Frederic Cotton (as referred to in

‘Notes on Jerdon’s Mammals of India by an

Indian sportsman’) confirms this. The tahr

in the Trivandrum zoo are doing well.

The low country tahr would appear to be

more browsers than grazers. In this context

it may be mentioned that the writer has un-

dertaken an ecological study of the low coun-

try tahr, which it is hoped will throw some

light on the ecology and behaviour of the low

country tahr and Milgiri tahr generally.

To rehabilitate the tahr it would not appear

to be necessary to seek high altitude, tempe-

rate locale with extensive grasslands bounded

by cliffs, where supervision -and control are a

problem because of remoteness. Any rocky

hill with mixed browse and grazing would

seem to do. In other words, any area which

is capable of supporting domestic goats —

which, incidentally, are efficient converters of

browse into protein, a quality the tahr possi-

bly shares with the goat — would be able to

support tahr.

This knowledge has thrown open exciting

possibilities. Captive breeding is possible.

Ranching also has scope. And this in country

unsuitable for more demanding forms of wild

or domestic ungulates. In choosing suitable

areas, locations where preservation presents

no problems can be chosen.

Conclusion

There is, no doubt, concern for the conser-

vation of the Nilgiri tahr. But so for this con-

cern has not gone beyond labelling it an end-

angered species, upgrading it to schedule I to

the Wildlife (Preservation) Act, declaring

some of its habitats, sanctuaries and passing

impressive administrative orders. It takes

much more to preserve an animal like the tahr

which inhabits remote mountain peaks be-

yond the reach of the ordinary conservation

machinery. Physical effort, a certain amount

of dedication and a pragmatic conservation

policy is what is required. In planning stra-

tegy promotion of legitimate activity in tahr

country to displace and discourage illegiti-

mate activity must have priority.

An Appeal

As mentioned before, it is my hope to make

the survey a continuing process and informa-

tion which will update it periodically is wel-

come. Any tahr habitat which does not find

a place in this report may please be reported

for investigation.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I am indebted to Mr. T. Jeyadev, IFS,

Chief Conservator of forests (Development),

Tamil Nadu, and Mr. K. K. Nair, IFS, Chief

Conservator of Forests (Development), Kerala,

for having bestowed on me the ‘freedom of

the forest’ to roam tahr habitats within their

respective jurisdiction, and for their support.

I am confident that with the co-operation of

the able Chief Wildlife Wardens of Tamil

Nadu and Kerala the suggestions contained in

this report will receive due consideration and

find their way to the field without delay.

I am obliged to Dr. George B. Schaffer for

census methods which I have followed and

also for his note on the Eravikulam popula-

842

DISTRIBUTION & STATUS OF THE NILG1RI TAHR

tion which I have incorporated in this report.

Mr. G. J. Rajasingh, IFS, Conservator of

Forests, Tamil Nadu deserves praise for his

enthusiasm and for the information supplied

on the various tahr habitats in his circle, thus

helping me to update my reports in respect of

these habitats.

I am especially grateful to H.H. Raja of

Pudukottai, Mr. Samar Singh, Mr. A. J. T.

John Singh, Mr. J. W. Sykes, Mr. B. Palaniap-

pan, Mr. Ramanathan and Mr. Rauf Ali who

took part in the survey independently, and to

those who helped to fill the gaps, for their

interest and effort.

Wherever I went, whether it was in Tamil

Nadu or in Kerala I was received with ut-

most courtesy by the forest officers and staff

concerned and to them I express my thanks.

My professional connection with the plant-

ing community stood me in good stead. But

for their help and hospitality my task would

have been so much more difficult. I owe them

my gratitude.

Bokkan, my shikari was invaluable. He was

with me on most of my trips and shared all

the risks and privations. When the mountain

seemed formidable and the climb intermin-

able he often set the pace thus encouraging

me to take the next step and the next till the

work was completed. Sometimes he worked

on his own. I owe him a debt of gratitude. I

am also indebted to my several local guides.

My daughter Priya and sons Mark and Peter

helped me in various ways.

To Mr. H. C. Starr who did most of the

typing with patience and forbearance and Mr.

O. E. Starr who supervised the compilation of

the report, and Mr. M. Mahalingam a special

word of thanks.

To the Fauna Preservation Society, London,

which placed its confidence in me and pro-

vided assistance which helped me to meet a

fair proportion of the expense of the survey,

I express my sincere thanks.

References

Anonymous: Annual reports of the Nilgiri Wild-

life Association 1922-1976.

‘An Old Shikarri’, (1880) : Nilgiri Sporting re-

miniscences.

‘Big Bore’ (1924) : Guide to shikar in the Nil-

giris.

Bombay Natural history society Journal — Bassett

(1964): 61 (2): 431-432; L. Brown (1960): 57 (2):

403—408; A. Hutton (1947): 47 (2): 374—376;

A. K inloch (1926): 31 (2): 520—521; T. J. Ro-

berts (1967): 64 (2): 358—365 and (1967): 34

(4): 238—249; R. H. Waller (1972): 69 (3): 574

—590; J. Willet (1968): 65 (3): 769—771.

Daniel, J. C. (1970) : The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemi-

tragus hylocrius Ogilby, in the High Range, Kerala

and the southern hills of the Western Ghats. /.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 67 (3) : 535-542.

Davidar, E. R. C. (1968): The Nilgiri Wildlife

Association and status of wildlife in the Nilgiris.

ibid. 65 (2): 431-443.

(1971) : A note on the status of the

Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) on the Grass

Hills in the Anamallais. ibid. 68 (2) : 347-354.

(1975) : The Nilgiri Tahr. Oryx,

13 (2): 205-211.

(1976) : Census of the Nilgiri tahr

in the Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73: 143-

148.

Fletcher, F. W. F. (1911): Sport on the Nil-

giris and in Wynaad.

Hamilton, D. (1892) : Records of sport in

Southern India.

Hawkeye, (1881): Game.

Hornaday, W. T. (1885): Two years in the

jungle.

Jerdon, T. C. (1874) : Mammals of India.

843

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Maydon, H. C. (1937): Big game of India.

Phythian-Adams, E. G. (1939): The Nilgiri

Game Association 1879-1939. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 41 (2): 384-386.

(1950) : Jungle Memories, ibid. 49

(3): 418-426.

Pollock, A. (1894) : Sporting days in Southern

India.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Russel, C. E. M. (1900): Bullet and shot in

Indian Forest plain and hill.

Schaller, G. B. (1970) : Observations on Nil-

giri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67 (3) : 365-389.

Stockley, C. H. (1928) : Big game shooting in

the Indian Empire.

Thyagarajan, N. (1958) : The vanishing Ibex.

Indian Forester 84 (3) : 188-191.

844

PEREGRINE FALCON

S. M. Osman1

{With a plate)

Of all the true passage peregrines, one that

travels the longest distance during the course

of its yearly migration, is the Tundra falcon,

Falco peregrinus calidus. It breeds well within

the Arctic circle and flies down south to the

Persian Gulf area and beyond right upto the

southern gates of Arabia. In rare cases it may

even cross the Red Sea to enter Africa but

this is not firmly established yet.

One has only to listen to the voice of Tay-

mur Mirza, that legendary Persian falconer

whose name is still a household word in the

falconry circles of Iran, when he speaks in his

famous treatise on falconry, to fully appreciate

the qualities of this bird from a falconer’s

standpoint. In his book, he describes it as the

yellowish almond coloured variety of the

‘Behri’ or the peregrine falcon. Our famous

chronicler unacquainted with our modern sci-

entific terminology, simply calls this bird the

‘Rumali Shaheen , and continues, “I have

trained these peregrines to gazelle.” Neverthe-

less he laments, “they are however delicate

birds, bold and daring; they dash themselves

impetuously against the gazelle’s horns and

thus frequently injure themselves fatally.”

Having studied these falcons in captivity,

and also having watched, over a considerable

period of time, wild calidus falcons, I am ab-

solutely convinced that accidents of the na-

ture described by our worthy Taymur Mirza

cannot alone be attributed, to their daring im-

1 ll-D/10, Circular Road, Dehra Dun, U.P.

petuousity as he calls it, but mainly to the

style and tactics adopted by these birds when

hunting game.

We had a large immature female calidus

peregrine and out on the hunting field, time

without number I have watched spellbound

the vertical dives made by her when pursuing

game. As soon as we had indication of small

game (partridges) in the area we were quar-

tering, the falcon would be unhooded and cast

off the fist. She would immediately rise

straight up to a height of three to four hun-

dred feet and would maintain that ceiling not

by glide soaring as is usually the practice with

other peregrine’s, but by racing back and

forth above our heads till we got to flush-

ing the quarry out of cover. She would then

be seen descending in an almost vertical

power dive on to the illfated target. I never

tired of watching this fantastic performance by

her. There was hardly any question of pur-

suing game for it always was a bolt from the

blue leaving little if any chance at all for the

hunted to escape. As you may have guessed,

there did occur on several occasions some

nasty accidents. I remember a time when a

recalcitrant stone curlew refused to be flushed

but would merely streak out on foot from the

sanctuary of one lot of bushes to the next.

Ultimately the peregrine tired of following its

movements from up above and waiting for

it to take wing, and so the next time the cur-

lew raced from under one lot of brambles the

falcon made a dive for it. When just about to

be smitten by the peregrine, the curlew gin-

845

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

gerly side stepped and the falcon landed at

full force on the dry sandy river bed. It was

only then that the wily curlew to take wing,

leaving behind a dazed and much shaken fal-

con. The impact was so forceful that the fal-

con after it had been collected from the ground

just sat groggily on the fist for a long time.

An adult female calidus falcon will normally

run upto one pound and fifteen ounces in

weight when directly taken from the trapper’s

net.

As a falconer my experience is that female

Dirds fly best when they stand one pound

twelve ounces in weight. Though heavy, they are

always very keen, and will tackle almost any

feathered game suitable for them. The prin-

ciple to keep in mind about these falcons

when attempting flights at game, is of course

to have them flying not above four hundred

feet, as otherwise they would be inclined to

wander away farther afield. In any case, be-

cause of their inherent tendency to executing

power dives after whatever game they are be-

ing flown at, chances of a surer kill would be

all the more, if the flight ceiling for these fal-

cons at such times is restricted to 250/300

feet only.

Since these falcons are not very much dis-

posed to soaring and ‘waiting on’, as the term

goes, for any substantial length of time, one

method to hold them in check, and from

wandering and leaving the falconer, when

they are flown or exercised, is to keep calling

them constantly so that they keep lurking not

far from the falconer, and also to intermit-

tently swing the lure. If good sport is to be

expected it will be imperative to have the fal-

con up for no longer than a few minutes at

a time only. In the meanwhile the falconer

or his assistant should be able to flush game

from cover.

From all this it becomes clear as to why

Taymur Mirza’s falcons generally got pinned

on gazelles’ horns when out hunting this small

antelope. Nevertheless wonderful and success-

ful flights may still be had at owls, kites, plo-

ver, partridges, cranes, magpies and some

other birds as well. This falcon is a specialist

of the first order and all that is required is

the falconer’s cooperation. Foremost point of

great significance in the matter of flights is to

have the quarry, as far as possible, directly

below the falcon, at the moment of it being

flushed out of cover. Alternately flights may

be obtained when the falcon is cast from the

fist at game. In such flights both hunter and

hunted mount the sky in a series of what to

the observer appears to be never ending spi-

rals, till the falcon manages to gain higher

elevation, rising well above the quarry. From

then on spectacular series of stoops, all in

quick succession, mark the beginning of the

end for the illfated prey. In these mid-air

strikes is clearly seen the vertical nature of

plunging dives which generally is absent in

other types of peregrine attack strategy.

For the benefit of the aspirant falconer, a

description of the calidus peregrine in its

juvenile state is attempted. In the adult or

haggard phase there is little to distinguish

this bird from its counterpart peregrinus pere -

grinus, or peregrinus brevirostris falcons.

After two or three moults, it becomes very

difficult, even for the most experienced ob-

server to be able to differentiate between it

and the other passage peregrines of the same

age group. Should at such times classification

become necessary, careful examination of the

falcon’s attack and specially stooping pattern,

ought to be made. Thereby alone will be seen

the only indication that could possibly iden-

tify this falcon from the rest of the tribe.

A juvenile calidus peregrine has ra frontal

band of light yellow running across the fore-

846

PEREGRINE FALCON

head that extends almost half way round its

head. It has yellowish brown mustachial

stripes, broadbased under the eyes and taper-

ing down to a blunt end on either side of its

neck. Crown of head and nape are light brown

in colour with dark brown shaft streaks. Back

feathers and wing-coverts are brown with flesh

tinted spots and very pale edgings. Its rump

and upper tail-coverts are pale brown, or cin-

namon coloured, and obscurely banded. It has

a greyish brown coloured tail with oblong cin-

namon marks and a whitish pink tip. It also

has dark bands running across it. In addition

to this there is a prominent cinnamon spot

under the chin and light brown streaks from

below its chin to the area denoting its crop.

All over the breast which is wheat coloured,

are spread tear-drop shaped spots. Its feet and

cere are grey yellow in colour but this, as any

falconer will be able to tell you, is at very best

a misleading factor, since colour of feet and

cere will alter with the type of food a falcon

has been feeding on. Usually food that is rich

in vitamin B12, brings out a deep orange

colour. On the sides and on the thighs are

seen heart-shaped light brown spots. These

diminish in size as they appear lower down on

the falcons thigh extention. This falcon has,

as in the case of most other falcons, very dark

brown eyes. Its orbital lids are mostly light

yellow in colour.

A calidus tiercel generally weighs sixteen

ounces. One such falcon had strayed into the

Gangetic plain. He was in his juvenile plum-

age, and was brought to me by a bird mer-

chant who knew I was fond of hawks. Indeed

he was a very pretty fellow and was the first

tiercel of the kind I had so far come across.

In the past I had seen and handled a number

of peregrinus peregrinus tiercels but never be-

fore a calidus tiercel had come my way. How-

ever I was acquainted with female calidus fal-

cons. I therefore very promptly bought the

tiercel hoping to send it to an English friend

in England. At the time of buying him I

noticed one of its middle toes to be badly

scarred with the hard scab still adhering to the

wound which had luckily dried up by now. I

assumed this mark to be due to the ravage

of some of the bigger kind of parrots which

are often preyed upon by falcons and are in

addition plentifully available in this area.

However many months later I was able to get

to the bottom of the story.

The hawk dealer pointed out that he had

known the tiered for quite some time and had

tried his utmost to lure him to his trap but

to no avail for it would not oblige by flying

down to his net no matter what bait he used.

It was by sheer accident one day that the

falcon dived out of the sky to grab a pigeon

out of his neighbours pigeon loft. Perhaps the

tiercel miscalculated its rate of descent, or

maybe he was so engrossed in capturing a

pigeon that he did not notice the corrugated

iron protrusion of the roof by the side of the

loft. This bit of tin sheeting hit the tiercel’s

outstreched claw. The tiercel then, I was told

slammed with a resounding smack, into the

side wall of the building, and thus with all the

wind knocked out of him he fell into the

courtyard in a dazed condition. Snatching up

a bedsheet that had been hung up in the yard

to dry, the owner sprang with, as he later told

me, much alacrity, and threw the sheet on it

before the dizzy falcon could make good its

escape. Later the falcon was brought and sold

to me. And so the injury to its middle toe.

On looking back I was able to reconstruct

the entire episode. The falcon by virtue of its

peculiar habit was not accustomed to flying

low in a shallow dive at game or bait tied be-

hind the trapper’s net. Capturing a calidus

peregrine is more or less a matter of chance

847

19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

than a deliberate lure and capture operation

by any trapper. Though I have not tried it, I

believe however that “Barak” method of cap-

turing falcons would stand a reasonable chance

of success in catching these falcons. No won-

der Punjabi falconers dislike this peregrine,

or the “yellow behri” as they are wont to call

it. After having tried and attempted all the

various stratagems and tricks known to these

worthies, our Punjabi trappers get exasperat-

ed, to the point of shouting abuse at the fal-

con, for its lordly indifference to all the dif-

ferent baits offered by the trapper in the vain

hope of getting the peregrine in to his net.

Having known something of his essential

disposition in respect of vertical sky-diving at

game, I was able to easily control the tiercel’s

training programme, and so in a very short

time had him flying to the lure without any

hesitation. In the beginning I would usually,

when the falcon was just about to strike the

lure, pull it away from him. The tiercel would

then fly straight on, steadily gaining height till

he would rise to some two hundred feet. Once

more I would swing the lure and shout for

him to return. Pie would immediately swing

round to come flying over my head maintain-

ing his height in the air. I would then prompt-

ly throw out the Jure and the tiercel would

immediately make a vertical dive for it.

Whereas in the calidus peregrines such verti-

cal dives are indeed a regular feature and an

integral part and parcel of their nature, some

other falcons can also be trained to execute

a similar feat once in a while. However it is

not easy to teach them this trick and not every

bird will take to it.

I trained the tiercel and in a short time he

was flying very well. One day while I had him

out for exercise in the country, I saw, at the

edge of the field I was walking through, a

covey of grey partridges feeding. Immediately

I unhooded the tiercel and cast him off my

fist. Within no time he was up to his usual

height of three hundred feet or so. In the r

meanwhile I had drawn close to the spot

where the covey had scurried into a hedge.

By this time the falcon was racing up and

down the hedgerow, maintaining his height in

the air. Next time as he came directly over

my head, I bombarded the bushes with clods

of earth I had picked, and shouted at the top

of my voice. Pelting the hedge had the desir-

ed effect for all the partridges exploded out of

the bush, and my hollering had alerted the

tiercel, who stooped in a most spectacular

manner. And before the covey had gained a

few yards, the tiercel had hit one of the par-

tridges which fell back into the hedge with a

shrill cry of protest, and amongst a complete

shower of its own feathers.

While all this was happening the rest of

the covey had got scattered to settle in near-

by bramble bushes, and the falcon ofcourse

had regained its usual commanding height of

three hundred feet or so. Now he was conti-

nuously flying back and forth over the spot

where the partridge had landed in the hedge.

Because the falcon was intended to go to a

friend in England, though I had permission

to train and hunt with it, I was reluctant to

take any further chances with the partridges

for it would have meant keeping the falcon

up in the air till the partridges could again be

flushed. I did not have a dog with me or a

helper either, and I knew from experience

that getting the birds to break cover now es-

pecially after a close shave with the tiercel,

would be no easy matter. Anyway I had to

keep an eye on the tiercel all the time and

this could not be managed simultaneously.

Hence the tiercel was called back to the fist.

With the falcon securely perched on my fist

I attempted to unearth the injured partridge

PEREGRINE FALCON

which the tiercel had struck. This proved to

be an impossible job, though there were fea-

thers scattered all over the place where the

partridge was last seen tumbling into the bush.

Under such conditions a dog is very handy

and if trained, will dig up the quarry that has

gone to earth in ninety out of a hundred

cases. Sometimes it may happen that a par-

tridge in its blind fear to get away from the

pursuing falcon will take refuge in some de-

serted warren. Under the circumstances even

a dog becomes useless, and the enterprising

falconer will have to slip his hand into the

burrow or hole and reckon with the risk of

being bitten by a snake.

The tiercel’s end was tragic, for it never got

to my friend in England. It was in March

1973 when I daily expected news of arrange-

ments by my friend for the falcon’s passage

to England to come through that my mother

met with an accident resulting in a fracture

of the neck of a femur. As a result of this

unfortunate incident all our attention was

naturally devoted to her needs in the hospital,

and I would come home only to feed the

hawks (I had a goshawk, an eagle and, this

tiercel as well). Within a week I noticed the

tiercel going off his food, and it was only

when I weighed him that I was shocked to

find him much below average. Straight away

1 suspected worm infestation to be the cause

for this loss of weight. When I examined the

mutes my suspicion was confirmed, because

there were tell-tale traces of blood in its drop-

pings.

With the help of our local vet, I dosed him

for worms. This unfortunately had the oppo-

site effect to what I expected. The case was

apparently too far gone for any medicine to

be effective or of any value. In another few

days the falcon threw up a cropfull of food,

and the blood in his mutes was now present

in great profusion. It now became abundantly

clear that this was the beginning of the

end. The end came soon afterwards on the

next day or was it the one after next. As

usual I woke to the Muezzin’s call for prayer

early and had just finished my ablutions when

I heard the falcon’s bells jangling as he fell

off his perch in the adjoining room where he

had been kept under observation. Prayers un-

said I hurried to his rescue but by the time

I got to him he was already in his last throes.

It was a great shock to lose him the way I

did, and my friend in England must have felt

it all the more, but he had unduly delayed its

collection. I believe that with better means

at his disposal for the detection of nematodes,

he in England could have taken care and

treated the tiercel right in the early stages

when the disease was not at all evident to

an observer without the aid of proper patho-

logical assistance.

I presented the dead tiercel to Doctor

Asketh Singh of the Zoological Survey of

India who has kindly had it mounted and

kept for display in the survey’s museum hall.

When the taxidermist opened up the falcon

it was seen that the entire body cavity was

teeming with helminths. Some had eaten their

way into the air sack to appear in the lungs.

A few were also present in the falcon’s crop.

In 1943 my uncle obtained a female calidus

falcon from the hawk market or what used

to be the hawk market in those days at Am-

ritsar, and which was run by Chowdry Mo-

hamed Din Bazdar. This beautiful bird which

was in her juvenile plumage, had the tip of

her beak almost up to the portion of the barb

missing. It had happened when an enraged

trapper who had spent many hours in trying

to lure the falcon to his net, had in the end

in sheer desperation taken a pot shot with a

catapult at her. This had smashed away her

849

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

beak tip. The blow proved to be forceful

enough to stun the peregrine, and knock her

to the ground. There she lay helplessly and

long enough for the trapper to nab her. The

imprudent bird catcher who did not know

that these birds never came down to catch

prey tied to the ground behind a net, had

been lucky in not having killed the falcon

outright.

In a very short while its beak grew back

to its normal length once again, and I am

happy to say that she stayed with my uncle

till she ultimately departed for the happy

hunting grounds at the great old age of ten

years. A falcon gets fully matured in almost

two years. On the other hand it takes full

twenty years or thereabout for a human being

to attain all his faculties. This then multiplied

by three will give the average human life span.

Applying the same factor to that of a pere-

grines life span, we arrive at the conclusion

that the normal age of a peregrine falcon

should within reasonable limits be around six

years. So according to human standards, the

peregrine had lived to almost twice its aver-

age span of six years which again when trans-

lated in terms of human longevity comes to

over a hundred years. Not bad even by hu-

man standards I should think.

In 1955 when I was doing land reclamation

work not far from Satyanarian temple, on the

Haridwar-Rishikesh road, I watched for over

three weeks at a stretch, and in detail, the

activities of a female, immature calidus falcon.

During that period I had with me a trained

adult peregrinus peregrinus falcon. Very close

to my place of work there existed open coun-

try of a sort where hunting with a falcon was

possible, I would be flying my peregrine at

plover, partridges, stone curlew and at times

just for the fun of it, at paddy birds, or the

lesser kind of cranes, which generally go by

the name of Herons. One day as my peregrine

waited on high overhead, in anticipation of

my flushing some game out of cover for her

to dive and capture, there appeared out of

the blue, this wild female calidus peregrine

falcon. I was first made aware of the wild

peregrine’s presence by her harsh grating

screeches as she started an aerial battle with

my trained falcon.

Immediately I called back my peregrine

which luckily disengaged from the action and

stooped to the lure. Having secured my bird I

looked up and watched with satisfaction the

wild peregrine swing to perch on the dried

limb of a giant tree standing on the bank of

the Song River. The place where this happen-

ed is just below the railway bridge over the

Song river on the Riawalla-Rishikesh link

line. It also happened to be just a convenient

half mile from the spot where I was camped

at the time. From that day onwards and for

almost three weeks later, the dead tree and the

falcon on the river Song, remained objects of

careful observation for me.

I was not at all very keen to catch this fal-

con at the time for I had a good trained pere-

grine to while away my spare hours, and yet

the urge to capture this beautiful bird, and

hold her in my hands even for a little while,

for I definitely would not be able to hold her

and train her as I had a lot of other work to

do, besides keeping two falcons at the same

time is no joke, tempted me to attempt its

capture inspite of my better judgement. My

untiring efforts as I had reckoned, were of no

avail. The falcon stubbornly refused to come

to the net which I first baited with a blue

rock pigeon and later with a shrike I had got.

I even tried with a tame partridge to entice

her to fly down to the net, but nothing worked.

I usually got to the perch site at the crack

of dawn and as often as not would find the

850

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate

Osman : Peregrine Falcon

Falco peregrinus peregrinus (female), 2 years old.

PEREGRINE FALCON

peregrine busy on some kill or the other

which she had brought to the perch prior to

my appearance on the scene. Mostly it would

be small water birds such as snipe, kingfishers

etc. With the meal over it would naturally

be meaningless to expect the falcon to show

interest in whatever bait I was to put out for

her behind my trap. On several occasions

when the peregrine had not thrown up her cast

till the time of my arrival on the site, I would

patiently set up my net hoping she may fly to

it once the cast had been thrown by her. Let

me explain that a feather cast which is thrown

out by all birds of prey is a ball of undigested

feathers that the predator had swallowed in

the course of its last meal. This pellet of fea-

thers is disgorged by birds of prey just before

sunrise every day. However if a kill has been

made by a bird of prey late in the evening,

and if the kill is some bird that is as big as

say a pigeon, the predator will not then be

able to digest the entire quantity eaten in the

course of the following night. Till such a time

as this is not accomplished, the cast will be re-

tained. The cast remains in the falcon’s giz-

zard along with bits of meat that the falcon

or bird of prey took with its last meal. Here

the digestive juices in the falcon’s system

would be actively engaged in the assimilation

of the food matter. If in such a state the cast

of feathers is expelled, and since this has to

come from the gizzard, with it will also be

brought up pieces of undigested matter in a

most offensive condition, sufficiently repellent

to banish all thoughts of dinner from the pre-

dator’s mind for a long time to come. As a

matter of fact bits of meat adhering to any

bird of prey’s morning cast is indeed a clear

indication that all is not going well with it.

However a cast thrown up in the normal

course, is bound to restore appetite to any

bird of prey, and is a signal that it will be

up and on the hunt very soon afterwards.

And on such rare occasions I would wait

with hopeful expectation, praying and watch-

ing, and feeling miserably cold inside for it

would be just about sunrise on a cold winter’s

morning. I would wait only to see the pere-

grine fly off the perch after she had thrown

her cast of feathers, and watch her go away

into the distance rising higher and higher, con-

tinuously gaining height. The falcon I noticed

would always be flying away from the sun,

that is towards the west. I think this was done

intentionally, as at such times when the fal-

con was seeking prey, had it been flying to

the east, the sun directly in its eyes would

have interfered with its spotting capability.

Here the Song river flows in an east-west axis

so the falcon would be coursing over the river

bed all the time. Looking away from the sun

gave me a better chance to follow her move-

ments for a longer distance, but had she flown

to the east squinting against the sun would

have made it a blinding job to observe her

progress.

It was most interesting to watch her man-

ner of working, for she acted quite unlike

other peregrines. Once the falcon had attain-

ed a certain height she would cease to climb

any higher, but would simply continue to fly

upriver for some distance by when the move-

ment of some bird or the other directly below

would attract her attention, invariably result-

ing in an almost vertical dive that would end

in a certain kill. Immediately the falcon would

triumphantly fly back to its perch on the river

bed with the prey securely held in her claws.

On the return trip to the perch the peregrine

would fly it back just a few meters above

ground level to shoot up to the perch when she

got almost directly below the tree. She would

settle half way up on a thick limb. Once com-

fortably perched she would start feathering the

851

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

dead bird she had brought, and would shortly

start eating it. A few crows would hang around

in the vicinity, though strangely enough I never

saw an eagle disturb her. In an area thickly

infested with hawk-eagles, this struck me as

odd. Once the meal over she would start preen-

ing her feathers. This would be the signal for

me to leave for by now it would be almost

eight in the morning, and time for my break-

fast.

Sundays were observed as rest days on the

farm, unless there happened to be some speci-

ally urgent work. On such days I would return

to the peregrine’s outpost immediately after

breakfast to find her very contentedly sitting

in the same place and on the same limb where

I had left her almost an hour ago. At ten

thirty or so she would be noticed rousing her-

self. After stretching her wings a couple of

times and slicing a mute she would jump up

to a higher branch, and from there to the top-

most branch only to fly off downriver.

Twice I followed the peregrine as she flew

into the distance, and on both occasions I sur-

prised her at her ablutions. She would alight

at some spot almost midway between the perch

location and the confluence of the Song river

with the Ganga. At this spot waters of the Song

river had spread out over an immense area

almost half a mile wide. There was a network

of distributaries with the waters running only

a few inches deep in some of the channels.

Here and there lay scattered all over huge

trunks of drift wood. It was a picturesque spot.

Thickly wooded hills of Lansdowne Division

lay in the east just across the Ganga. A few

miles away and to the north beyond Rishikesh,

rose the mighty Himalayas. In the south a spur

of the Siwaliks could be seen sloping down

to Hardwar, the gateway to Heaven for indeed

as the old persian poet once said, “if heaven

be on earth then it is this, it is this.” At least

that is how things stood some twenty years

ago. It is changed now for the forests have

been mostly cut in the immediate vicinity, there

is very little wildlife left in the area, and even

the hill tracts with their luxuriant growth of

forests have begun to show bald spots in a lot

of places. Here, and in such beautiful sur-

roundings (beautiful in those days) the pere-

grine would be seen taking a bath. Bath over

she would gingerly skip out of the shallow pool

of water to perch on to some driftwood limb

as it lay half buried in the river sands. Firmly

gripping the perch in her claws, she would

vigorously begin to flap her wings sending a

fine spray of water scattering all around. After

a few moments of this exercise she would stop

flapping her wings to shift up and down the

limb of the tree, every now and again turn-

ing and reversing her position as though she

was about to select a spot to settle down for

a photograph. With wings fanned out she would

thus remain sitting for about twenty minutes

when she would start preening her feathers.

Through my binoculars I could easily see her

feathers gradually drying in the sun. In a little

while, a wet patch only would remain below

her crop and she would at this stage fly off

the driftwood perch. She never went to the

dead tree by the railway bridge but would

begin to soar till she became a mere speck

floating against the velvet blue of the sky. A

couple of times I caught her playfully making

passes at kites but very soon, because of the

colossal height she had gained she would dis-

appear from my sight.

Her activities from then on till about four

thirty in the evening, remained obscure. What

she did or where she went was never known

to me; however I would catch her surreptious-

ly returning to her morning perch, the dead

tree on the Song river, round about 4.30 and

there she would remain till a few minutes be-

852

PEREGRINE FALCON

fore sunset. By that time a lot of bird traffic

could be seen crossing the broad river bed.

In this part the dry river bed stretched nearly

a mile across. Flocks of parrakeets would be

making for the sal forest on the other bank

of the river. These would ofcourse be return-

ing from the open cultivated patches where

they had been feeding in the daytime.

The falcon would by now be scouring over

the open area above, and directly over the

river bed at a point where the parakeets cros-

sed to fly into the sal forest which stood on

the right bank of the Song river. Ultimately

she would find one flock just below her wing-

ing its way to the roost. And then in that clas-

sical vertical dive of her’s she would come down

in the middle of the flock to grab a parrot and

carry the protesting bird to her perch. Hold-

ing the illfated victim’s neck in the barb of

her beak, with one simple twist of her head

the falcon would despatch its prey. This job

is carried out by the entire falcon tribe very

efficiently and in a most businesslike manner.

No time was lost in feathering the dead bird,

and immediately afterwards she would settle

down to tearing and devouring bits of the prey.

It would be almost dark by the time the

falcon finished her meal, and flew to roost

in the same sal forest where the parrakeets

had preceded her. This then was the pattern

that each day repeated itself in the peregrine’s

activities from dawn to dusk. This peregrine

on the river Song thus held me in thrall, like

a talisman for nearly three weeks, till one fine

morning she vanished from my life to fly to

hunting grounds further south.

853

NOTES ON THE GREEN KEELBACK SNAKE

(MACROPISTHODON PLUMBICOLOR)

Thomas Gay1

Introduction

These notes were compiled from the ob-

servation of three different specimens, of

which the first two came to me when young

(8" to 10" in length and probably less than

six months old). Snake A was taken on

28-9-69 and given away about one month

later. Snake B was taken on 22-6-70; it escap-

ed on 14-5-71 and was not recaptured. Snake

C is still with me.2 Taken on 29-5-71, it was

at first thought to be identical with Snake B;

however, certain differences of behaviour, and

what seemed to be a lesser degree of intellig-

ence, soon led me to conclude that it was

a different individual.

Accommodation : While small, each snake

was kept in a square glass jar 10" high with

a base of 5J" by 5i". The floor was covered

with newspaper, and extra pieces of paper

were kept for the snake to hide beneath. All

pieces were changed as soon as found soiled.

A small bowl of water was added. Snakes B

and C, after some growth were kept in an ob-

servation cage 20" by 12" and 8J" high, hav-

ing a front of glass and a roof of fine wire

mesh. Sheets of paper covered the floor, with

some extra pieces scattered about. In one

corner stood a bowl of water; in another rest-

ed an inverted piece of flower-pot, under

which the snake slept or rested, tightly curled.

The above “furniture” has been found entire-

1 “Dev Kunj”, Prabhat Road, Pune^411 004.

2 These notes were written in 1974.

ly adequate for the comfort of this quiet and

non-demanding reptile.

Description : So far as could be checked, the

description given by Dr. P. J. Deoras in his

snakes of India (pp. 112-113) was confirm-

ed subject to the following details: —

(1) The thin lateral lines were whitish rather

than yellow; with growth they disappear-

ed.

(2) While the snakes were small, the ventral

surface, with the exception of the white

chin and throat, was definitely smoky

black in colour; the surface turned ivory

white only after several months of growth.

(3) The colour between the head chevron

and nape chevron was lemon yellow, not

orange. This colour fades with growth,

and the chevrons become paler; at full

growth the yellow has disappeared and

scarcely a trace of the chevrons is left.

(4) The “black short cross-stripes across the

body” were not observed.

(5) A few white spots (not mentioned by

Deoras) are spaced at intervals along the

back and flanks. These are ordinarily in-

conspicuous, but show up very distinctly

when the body is distended after a meal.

With growth the spots become pale blue

rather than white.

(6) Snake C showed a small black spot on

either side of the neck; the two did not

lie exactly opposite to each other.

The grass-green colour is bright and shin-

ing (more in young than in old snakes) im-

mediately after sloughing. The choice of

854

THE GREEN KEELBACK

“plumbicolor” for the specific name is strange,

being merited only for the last few days be-

fore sloughing, when the skin looks dull and

grey.

Exact measurements were not easy to take,

and were unfortunately neglected. Snake B

was estimated by mid-December 1970 to have

doubled its length of six months earlier; it had

become markedly thicker and stronger during

the six months of captivity. Its skins sloughed

on 17-9-70, 6-10-70 and 29-10-70 were mea-

sured at 13", 14" and 15" respectively. Such

measurements no doubt have only a relative

value, since a skin is liable to become stretch-

ed in length. Snake C’s skin cast on 8-7-71

was measured at 22^" Full growth was pro-

bably attained early in 1972, at an estimated

age of two years. In September 1974 Snake

C was measured at 24J", its most recently

cast skin measuring 2 6\ inches.

Snake B’s body, after a heavy meal following

a 26 days’ fast (due to a temporary escape)

was greatly distended; the green scales stood

out like islands surrounded by blue-black, and

the white spots were very prominent. For two

days, sharp protuberances (presumably the

frog’s bones) could be distinctly seen along

its flank.

The teeth consist of two short, sharp-point-

ed, triangular teeth in the upper jaw, placed

one on either side, and of many small rudim-

entary teeth in the lower jaw. The latter serve

only to grip the slippery prey; it is the two

formidable upper-jaw teeth which inflict the

wounds and draw the prey into the gullet.

General behaviour: Snakes A and B, and

Snake C subject to the exception of rare oc-

casions, were utterly gentle at all times and

could be freely handled. While being handled,

and at most other times also, the snakes mov-

ed sluggishly; only when hungry and in the

immediate presence of prey did they execute

swift and vigorous movements.

After completing a meal, the snakes would

move about restlessly for some time and then

retire to a place of concealment; here they

would lie dormant until the need to defecate,

to slough, or to feed again made them restless.

Snake C soon showed a tendency to an-

chor itself strongly by the tail; later, it deve-

loped the habit, when handled, of firmly grip-

ping hand or finger with a half-coil. This snake

showed much restlessness in August and Sep-

tember 71, but became very lethargic in the

following January, probably due to the cold.

Snake B had shown similar periods of torpi-

dity in December (70) and February (71).

Snake C tended to become highly excited

as soon as it was dropped into the feeding-

jar, as though it knew that dinner was at hand.

At such a time it would sometimes snap at

a finger through the glass, open its mouth in

a huge yawn of almost 180 degrees, and even

try to bite the glass wall of the jar. This snake

bit me on three occasions, and since such an

experience has probably been shared by few

people, it may be worth describing.

On the first occasion, which was the third

day since the snake had come to me, I had just

before handled frogs, and the smell may have

acted as a provocation (although my observa-

tions tend to exclude the use of smell in de-

tecting food). I began to pick the snake up

in an altogether careless manner, and it im-

mediately seized my right index finger and

gripped with a power that surprised me. The

two upper-jaw fangs pricked painfully and

blood began to flow. The snake hung on like

a bulldog, working his upper jaw on alternate

sides (see the method described below). Quite

apart from the pain, it was a strange sensation.

I lifted the snake high in the air, but it hung

on and continued to chew my finger. Then

I had the idea of plunging both finger and

855

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

snake into a bucket of water. Even thus sub-

merged, the snake hung on for nearly one

minute before I felt its grip slackening and it

reluctantly allowed me to draw my finger away

from its fangs. Blood was flowing freely, and

my finger was smeared with a sort of saliva.

There were several wounds on the upper sur-

face of my finger, but none on the lower sur-

face, where I had merely felt the woundless

grip of the lower-jaw teeth.

I placed the snake inside the feeding-jar

and gave it a frog, which it seized and swal-

lowed at once. Despite having eaten four

frogs in the preceding three days, it must have

been still hungry. Next day, the snake allowed

me to handle it without any hostile reaction,

and it was many months before it bit me

again.

On the second and third occasions, the

snake was certainly very hungry and should

have been handled with a caution that I had

lost from over-familiarity. I tried the bucket-

of-water treatment on the second occasion,

but it took even longer than the first time. On

the third occasion, being unwilling to endure

the painful pricking longer than necessary, I

cut the matter short by forcing the reptile’s

jaws apart by firm yet careful lateral pres-

sure.

Skin sloughing : This took place almost al-

ways at night and therefore could not be ob-

served. I did however see something of the

process in the case of Snake A. On 15-10-69

it moved about restlessly all day, sometimes

dipping into the water bowl. Peristaltic move-

ments were observed, and after the skin had

split at the head there were strong contrac-

tions and expansions of the mid-body.

The intervals at which Snake B sloughed

ranged from 17 to 23 days during the mon-

soon, with an average of 20 days. They ranged

from 32 to perhaps 38 days (the snake was

at liberty from 15-11-70 to 7-12-70, during

which time it must have cast at least one skin,

though probably only one) during the winter, j

with an average of 37 days; and from 13 to

19 days ,with an average of 16 days, during

the summer.

Snake C, before full growth, sloughed at in-

tervals ranging from 23 to 26 days (average,

25) during the monsoon; and from 37 to 42

days (average, 39J) during the winter until

observations were temporarily suspended.

When observations were resumed, by which

time the snake was fully grown, the recorded

intervals were 21 days in the monsoon, 30

days between monsoon and winter, 41 to 47

days (average, 44) during the winter, 33 days

between winter and summer, and from 20 to

25 days (average, 22\) during the summer

and ensuing monsoon. These figures take no

account of a wholly abnormal interval of 37

days between 3-7-74 and 9-8-74, for which I

can give no explanation except the wild guess

that the snake might have eaten a skin before

I found it. The intervals of sloughing plainly

follow a fairly regular curve from season to

season, reaching a peak in about January.

In almost each case, the skin was whole and

undamaged. I have been able to give many

away to interested students and others.

Food and feeding : According to my obser-

vations the diet consists exclusively of live

amphibians. No “small birds” (see Deoras)

were offered, but worms and grubs were of-

fered and refused even by a long-fasting

snake. Dead frogs aroused no interest, and

Snake B even abandoned a frog which it had

itself killed by over-vigorous subduing. How-

ever, frogs which “shammed” death (as frogs

sometimes do when exhausted and finally un-

successful in all efforts to escape) were care-

fully examined and then seized.

The prey was seized, by a swift dart, at any

856

THE GREEN KEELBACK

available part of its body or limbs. When this

happened to be the head, swallowing was

easy and rapid, taking sometimes only a few

seconds (6 seconds in the case of one small

frog). If the first grip was on leg or waist,

the snake would often, without allowing its

victim to escape, gradually work round to the

head. Sometimes a whole leg would be swal-

lowed, followed by the trunk and the other

limbs; sometimes a portion already swallowed

would be disgorged in order to take a more

convenient grip. An initially “awkward” grip,

unless changed into a head grip, would entail

a lengthy struggle to swallow lasting from 10

to 35 minutes. Where the frog was small re-

latively to the growth achieved by the snake,

it could be confidently swallowed from the

rear, all four legs being bunched up and dis-

appearing last of all. A particularly strong and

active frog might have to be subdued by vigo-

rous chewing, in the course of which blood -

might flow and intestines leak forth. After

being subdued, the frog would often be

momentarily released and again seized by the

head.

On 4-12-73 at 1945 hrs. Snake C was given

a really large frog, larger than any attempted

so far, and remarkable for abnormally well-

developed thighs. The snake was very hungry

and attacked the frog savagely at once. Four

times it seized the frog, by hind leg, front

leg, or waist; four times the frog escaped

through its strength and vigorous kicking. A

waist grip punctured the frog’s body, allowing

some blood and intestine to escape. Part of the

snake’s body became smeared with blood, and

at one moment it began to seize its own

blood-covered back. Its excitement reached

such a pitch that once, when the frog tore it-

self free, the snake attacked the glass wall of

the jar. Gradually the frog weakened, and the

fifth grip, which was on the side of its head.

seemed to suffocate it. When the fight had

lasted some forty-five minutes, the frog,

though still alive, appeared to give up. The

snake now seized it deliberately by the head

and began to swallow, which he found diffi-

cult owing to the victim’s size, and his jaws

were distended to an incredible extent.

Forty-five minutes later, the frog had been

swallowed as far as his fat thighs, which,

sticking out at right angles to the trunk, pre-

sented the snake with an insuperable diffi-

culty. Twice the snake almost completely eject-

ed the swallowed portion and tried afresh, but

as I watched, I realised that it would never be

able to complete the task unless one of the

frog’s thighs were removed. While I was cut-

ting off one thigh, the snake retained the frog’s

head in its mouth, and when I had finished,

it devoured the rest of the frog with little

difficulty. The last toes disappeared at 2200

hours, just 2\ hours from the time when the

frog had been introduced into the jar. The

snake’s body was vastly swollen for most of

its length, and twelve days elapsed before it

was ready to feed again.

The method of drawing prey into the gullet

is as follows: — One half of the amazingly

flexible upper jaw, together with its pointed

tooth, is raised clear of the frog’s flesh, while

the other half of the jaw keeps its tooth firmly

embedded. The raised half is now advanced

by a few millimetres and its tooth driven into

the flesh. Now the hitherto “anchoring” half

jaw is similarly raised, advanced, and driven

into the frog slightly ahead of the tooth which

is now “anchoring.” Thus, by advancing either

side alternately, the victim is gradually drawn

into the snake.

The disappearance of the last limb is invari-

ably followed by a prodigious yawn. The vic-

tim’s body rapidly slips down the snake’s body

till it reaches the stomach. On one single occa-

857

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

sion, a frog was ejected (by Snake B) in a

semi-digested state on the day after it had

been swallowed.

Once hunger had been satisfied, the snakes

would ignore any additional frogs offered. A

full meal would be followed by a fast, the

length of which depended upon the quantity

of food consumed, as well as upon the prox-

imity of sloughing. Usually the snakes lost all

appetite for up to a week before sloughing,

and during such an interval Snake A even lick-

ed a frog’s back without attempting to seize

it; there were however instances in which food

was taken on the very day previous to slough-

ing. Casting of a skin normally left the snake

very hungry. Snake B once fasted for 25 days

(11 before and 14 after a sloughing) even

though food was offered; but this was a unique

occurrence.

In the absence of any device for weighing

the frogs, quantities of food were difficult to

estimate. The best I have been able to do is

to make an arbitrary allowance of 1 point for

a “small” frog, 1* for a “medium small”, 2

for a “medium”, 3 for a “medium large”, and

4 for a “large”. On this scale. Snake B con-

sumed the following quantities of food in the

shape of frogs: —

July (70) 6

Aug. 5

Sept. 7

Oct. 9

Nov. 5 (at liberty from

Dec. 14 15 Nov. to 7 Dec.)

It must be conceded that the division by

months is yet another arbitrary feature.

On a similar reckoning. Snake C has con-

sumed the following amounts for the periods

during which observations have been record-

ed:—

Period A

Period B (following a gap of 19 months)

Aug. (73) 10 (for half the month) Mar. 13

The average for both periods is the same:

12i

The snakes — especially Snake C — could

scarcely ever locate the frog in the feeding-

jar until it jumped. In order that the method

of capturing and swallowing might be observ-

ed, the snakes were fed, up to May 1974,

inside a large glass jar, usually at night-time.

It took me longer than it should have done to

realise that the snakes may well have been

partially dazzled by the electric light. After

I began to feed Snake C in his living-cage, in

darkness or at most a dim light, this snake

was able to locate its prey more easily and

Jan. (71) 9

Feb. 4

Mar. 12

Apr. 5 (followed by a 25 days’

fast from 16 Apr.)

quickly, and to perceive it at a distance of

several inches. Scent appears to play no part

in the locating; in the feeding- jar Snake C

was often observed to “crouch”, with his head

above and almost resting on the frog, help-

lessly waiting for some movement to betray

his prey’s whereabouts.

THE GREEN KEELBACK

Defecation was found to begin about 30

hours after the meal. The first defecation would

be followed by one or two others extending up

to the fourth or fifth day after eating. The

faeces, consisting partly of a brittle white

powder and partly of a viscous black paste,

have a strong and objectionable odour.

Conclusion : I would definitely recommend

the keeping of this species of reptile to all

zoologists and others who have the capacity

to be interested in animal life. M. plumbicolor

is non-poisonous, attractive, readily handled,

gentle when young at all times, and gentle

when older at all times except when roused

by considerable hunger. If handling is viewed

with misgiving, it may be omitted altogether.

although such an omission will naturally de-

tract from the value of the experience to be

obtained. After being provided with the sim-

ple accommodation and “furniture” described

above, the snake requires no attention beyond

the supply of live frogs from time to time, and

the replacement of soiled paper.

Apart from the interest and pleasure which

the snakes have given to me personally, I have

found them a most useful aid in trying to make

my fellow citizens aware of the folly (even

“crime” is perhaps not too strong) of wantonly

slaughtering at sight all snakes wherever met,

the many innocent, beautiful and beneficial no

less than the few dangerous or deadly.

859

POPULATION CHANGE OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR

(PRES BYT IS ENTELLUS) , 1961-1976, IN DHARWAR

AREA, INDIA

Yukimaru Sugiyama1

AND

M. D. Parthasarathy2

(With a text -figure)

The population density and the group composition of the Hanuman langurs

(Presbytis entellus ) was studied at Dharwar, South India, in 1976. For the purpose

of comparison with 1961 study of the same population, the present research was

carried out in the same season using the same methods as used in 1961. The popula-

tion decreased to 54.5% during these 15 years. The social characteristics of the species,

however, did not change. Most of the bisexual troops have only 15-16 animals, in-

cluding one adult male, each. Many males live out of the troops and gather to form

all-male parties. These characteristics are revealed to be maintained not only by the

high population density but also because they are the very basic characteristics of this

species in this area.

Introduction

For thirty days between June 17 and Sep-

tember 26, 1961, Sugiyama took a census of

the Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus ) in

Dharwar area of South India. The langurs ob-

served had parts of their home ranges covering

Dharwar-Haliyal road and its sides between

the points 3 and 30.6 km from Dharwar. The

census revealed the population density, group

size and group composition of the langurs in

this area, and was followed by sociological stu-

dies, for nearly two years, of the same species

(Sugiyama 1964). Parthasarathy participated,

for several days, in this census, and for a year

and a half for the later sociological studies.

Most of the troops (bisexual troops), each of

which consisted of about 15 animals, had only

one full-grown adult male in addition to se-

veral adult females and immatures, occasion-

1 Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University,

Inuyama, Aichi, Japan.

2 Zoology Department, Bangalore University,

Bangalore, India.

ally having a few young or subadult males.

Other than such bisexual troops, there were

parties (all-male parties) with a loose social

organization. Troops had small moving ranges;

average for a troop in the forest was 16.8 hec-

tares. These ranges were maintained through-

out the study period of two years through

antagonistic relationships among adjacent

troops. All-male parties, on the other hand,

had larger moving ranges and were living main-

ly in a comparatively poorer habitat with a

few trees and a little food. They frequently

split into several still smaller parties which re-

joined to form all-male parties again. When-

ever the members of an all-male party ap-

proached a troop, the male of the troop be-

came extremely aggressive toward them and

chased them out of his troop’s range, showing

much stronger aggressiveness toward them

than toward adjacent troops (Sugiyama, Yosh-

iba & Parthasarathy 1965). But, sometimes the

party males counterattacked the troop male,

ousted him from the troop, took control of

the females, and succeeded in taking over the

860

POPULATION CHANGE OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR

861

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

moving range of the troop chasing out all the

subadult and juvenile males and killing all the

infants. Dispute followed even among party

males and, as a result, only one male remain-

ed in the troop which had been taken over.

Thus, finally, the typical one-male troop orga-

nization resulted. Troop males including sub-

adults and the juveniles, who were ousted from

the troop, might have joined a party or formed

a party of themselves (Sugiyama 1965, 1966,

1976). Repeatedly undergoing this kind of so-

cial change, the particular type of social orga-

nization of the Hanuman langurs of Dharwar

can be expected to be maintained for many

years.

Mohnot (1971), Parthasarathy & Rahman

(1974), Hrdy (1974, 1977), Ripley (personal

communication) and the others confirmed a

similar process of social change in different

populations of this species living in different

habitats of the Indian subcontinent and Sri

Lanka (Ceylon). But there had been no evi-

dence to confirm the fact that the maintaining

mechanism of this particular type of one-male

troop organization was not a temporary sur-

vival strategy in an especially severe environ-

ment and, thus, a confirmation of this hypo-

thesis, by studying the same population of

langurs some years after the first census was

of utmost importance. To meet this objective,

another census after a lapse of 15 years was

taken.

Study period and method

The authors conducted the present census

to estimate the population of the Hanuman

langur in August 1976 using almost the same

methods as used in 1961. They searched for

langurs in areas extending upto 20 m on

either side of Dharwar-Haliyal road between

the points 3 and 29 km from Dharwar (Fig.

1). The data was collected by driving slowly

repeatedly on the same section, in a three-

wheel motor-cycle for 14 days from August

4 to 19. The census in 1961 had been taken

between the points 3 and 30.6 km from Dhar-

war. But since the forest beyond the point 29

km from Dharwar had been changed into cul-

tivated fields after 1961, the present census

had to be terminated there. For the purpose

of comparison with 1976 census, only the data

between the points 3 and 29 km, of 1961

census will be presented in this article.

The total time of 30 days required for 1961

census was shortened to 14 days for the pre-

sent study. One reason for doing so was that

all the groups which had parts of their home

ranges along the sides of the road could be

confirmed much earlier in 1976 than in 1961,

when all the groups were confirmed before

the 20th day of observations. Secondly, the

efficiency of searching for langurs was much

greater in 1976 than in 1961. This is because

in 1961 Sugiyama alone had to search for

langurs, driving a jeep or a motorcycle by him-

self, whereas in 1976 both the present authors

as well as the driver of the three-wheeler

searched for the langurs. Moreover, the au-

thors were more familiar with the area and

had more research experience in 1976. Conse-

quently, they were convinced that almost all

the groups of langurs which had their moving

ranges in the area under study had been re-

corded as precisely as in 1961 census (In 1961

and 1962 an intensive study in the sample area,

following the census, revealed that 95% of the

langurs who had their moving ranges on or

along the road had been recorded during the

census period).

The identification of the groups was done

by the group size, its age-sex composition, and

by identifying some characteristics typical of

certain individuals in the group.

862

Group Distribution of Hanuman Langurs at Dharwar

POPULATION CHANGE OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR

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Changes in the environment

Though during these 15 years the cultiva-

tion extended slightly into the forest, yet the

forest / openland ratio did not change much, at

least between the points 3 and 29 km from

Dharwar. Whole of the forest was covered with

secondary dry deciduous forest dominated by

planted teak ( Tectona grandis ). Trees in many

parts of the forest had been cut and replant-

ed and, at the same time, many new forests

had appeared at the other parts. A whole de-

forestation did not proceed during the 15 years.

For example, the northern part of the inten-

sive study area of 1961-1963, between the

points 21.5 and 23 km from Dharwar, was

rather a matured teak forest and the southern

part was an open scrub-forest about 2 years

old after plantation (Sugiyama, Yoshiba and

Parthasarathy 1965). The former was cut in

1965 or so* replanted, and was a young ma-

tured forest in 1976. The latter, on the other

hand, was fully matured in 1976.

Significant change that could be noticed

after 15 years was that the plantation of teak

was being gradually replaced by that of euca-

lyptus ( Eucalyptus sp.) which was not seen

in 1961. Many small patches of eucalyptus

trees could be seen in the census area in 1976.

Teak flowers and young leaves were eaten by

the langurs who also used teak trees for rest-

ing and sleeping. Rarely were they seen in

eucalyptus trees.

Results

During 1961 census 7.5 groups a day, on an

average, had been discovered and the maximum

number of groups discovered in a single day

was 14. But in 1976 only 4.8 groups a day,

on an average, were discovered and the maxi-

mum number of groups identified in a single

day was 9. The total number of the groups

J

864

POPULATION CHANGE OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR

Table 2

Comparative data of 1961 and 1976 population census of the 'Hanuman langurs along DharwAr-

Haliyal road, between the points 3 and 29 km from Dharwar

* Troop = bisexual troop Party = all-male party

seen as many as 67 times during the census

period of 1976 was confirmed to be 22 with

327 langurs. This is slightly more than half

of 43 groups and 626 langurs confirmed in

1961 census.

The distribution, size and the age-sex com-

position of each group are shown in Table 1

and the comparative data of 1961 and 1976

census are shown in Table 2.

From August 13 to 15, at a point 9 km from

Dharwar, an adult female and a senior juvenile

were found in a tree. They did not move

throughout these 3 days and kept looking in

a certain direction. Since their behaviour was

similar to that of typical stray animals, they

were assumed to be a part of a troop, and

were waiting in their familiar tree to join the

main part of the troop that could never be

traced during the census period. These two

langurs were recorded as belonging to Troop 1

which has been excluded from certain data

processings for this article.

No males were found in Troops 15 and 19.

Also the numbers of adult females in these

troops were extremely small. Due to the fact

that these females were, sometimes, found mix-

ing with all-male parties, they were taken as

parts of two different bisexual troops from

which adult males had already been ousted

by all-male parties and, consequently, the fe-

males of the troops were scattering away or

moving with the males who had been ousted.

Although the exact evidence of social change

could not be found, they have been treated

865

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

as two different troops.

All the troops except Troops 1, 15 and 19

were typical one-male troops, each with only

one full-grown adult male. The number of

adult males, including young adult males, per

troops was 1.1 (Troops 15 and 19 included).

This number is certainly smaller than that of

1961 census i.e., 1.6 males per troop. This

means that “the matured troops” i.e., troops

with more than one male each, were fewer in

1976 than in 1961. The same is true for party

males. The average size and age-sex compo-

sition of a troop, however, did not differ much

in the two studies. Population density, on the

other hand, showed a considerable decrease;

41.4% in the openland (considering the un-

known part of Troop 1 consisting of 14 ani-

mals) and 63% in the forest. In 1961, groups

of langurs between the points 3 and 9 km from

Dharwar and again between the points 12.5

and 15.5 km from Dharwar were frequently

observed but in 1976 neither the langurs

themselves nor the signs of their activity could

be traced.

Discussion and conclusion

A. Population Density

It may be felt that the decrease in the

population density of the Hanuman langurs,

as shown by 1976 census, may be due to

the short period during which the census was

taken. But from the fact that in 1976 the

authors used more efficient methods and that

even then the average number of groups dis-

covered in a day was only 64% of the average

for a day in 1961 (refer Table 2), it can be

said that the population density of langurs in

1976 was even lesser than 64% of that in 1961.

What reason can be attributed to this de-

crease? Increase of cultivated fields and the

decrease of forest were not so large, at least

between points 3 and 29 km from Dharwar.

Therefore, the deforestation may not have had

much significant effect on the population den-

sity. But replacement of teak plantations by

eucalyptus may effect the environmental value

for the langurs. This problem was not very se-

rious at the time of the present study though

it may become severe in the near future. Al-

though no exact information on the trapping

of langurs in Dharwar area could be obtained,

there were reports that the activity of monkey

catchers had increased tremendously through-

out India during the 15 years and, thus, it is

possible that even in Dharwar area some lan-

gurs had been captured. Even if the actual trap-

ping of the langurs was little, the significant

decrease i.e., 41.4%, of langur population in

the cultivated fields (openland) shows an in-

creased human impact on langurs as being res-

ponsible for this decrease. Despite the fact that

there has not been much deforestation throw-

ing of stones by villagers and attacks by do-

mestic dogs has lowered the environmental

value for the langurs and, consequently, their

population density.

Siddiqi & Southwick (1977) found that a

sample population of rhesus monkeys ( Macaca

mulatto) in Aligarh District of North India,

declined to 51% during 12 years from 1962

to 1974. They emphasize that the main reason

for this decline have been the increasing view

of monkeys as agricultural pests, the loss of

traditional protection given to rhesus monkeys

by most of the people, the loss of jungle ha-

bitat through more intensive agriculture, and

the commercial trapping of rhesus for export.

Most of these reasons, except the last one,

can be said responsible for the decrease of

population density of langurs of Dharwar.

It is quite possible that further urbanization,

increasing human population density and the

transport facilities, and controlled plantations

866

POPULATION CHANGE OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR

into eucalyptus will further push down the

population density of langurs in Dharwar as

well as in other districts of the country.

B. Social Organisation

Although the langur population density had

decreased to 54.5% (considering the unknown

part of Troop 1 consisting of 14 animals) dur-

ing the 15 years, the fact that the size of the

troop, its age-sex composition and the fre-

quency of the all-male party, and especially the

one-male troop organization did not change

should be emphasized. Sugiyama (1967) hypo-

thesized that the maintaining mechanism of

the particular one-male troop organization of

the Hanuman langur over a long period has

an adaptive value in controlling the popula-

tion density as well as in maintaining the basic

Refer

Hrdy, S. B. (1974): Male-male competition and

infanticide among the langurs ( Presbytis entellus )

of Abu, Rajasthan. Folia Primat., 22:19-58.

(1977): The langurs of Abu. Har-

vard University Press, Cambridge: pp. 361.

Mohnot, S. M. (1971) : Some aspects of social

changes and infant-killing in the Hanuman langur,

Presbytis entellus (Primates: Cercopithecidae) in

western India. Mammalia, 55:175-198.

Parthasarathy, M. D. & Rahman, H. (1974) :

Infant killing and dominance assertion among the

Hanuman langur. Abstracts of Vth Congr. lnt. Pri-

mat. Soc. : 35.

Siddiqi, M. F. & Southwick, C. H. (1977) : Po-

pulation trends and dynamics of rhesus monkeys

in Aligarh District. In: Use of Non-Human Pri-

mates in Biomedical Research, Indian National

Science Academy, New Delhi: 14-23.

characteristic of this species. The 1976 census

revealed that a decrease in the population den-

sity, even by one half, cannot change the fre-

quency of rejuvenation of the troop and that

this particular organization is a very basic

characteristic of the Hanuman langur.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

The authors sincerely wish to thank Mr. J.

C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History

Society; Mr. R. K. Torvi, District Forest Offi-

cer, Dharwar; and Mr. M. D. Mang, Range

Forest Officer, Dharwar; for their kind coope-

ration during 1976 population study. They

also thank to Mr. Baldev Singh Grewal, Pri-

mate Research Institute, Kyoto University, for

his help in preparing the English manuscript.

:NCES

Sugiyama, Y. (1964): Group composition, popu-

lation density, and some sociological observations of

Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus). Primates,

5(3-4) :7-48.

(1965) : On the social change of

Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus ) in their na-

tural condition. Primates, 6(3-4) : 381-418.

(1966) : An artificial social change

in a Hanuman langur troop ( Presbytis entellus).

Primates, 7(1) : 4 1-72.

(1967): Social organization of

Hanuman langurs, In: S. A. Altmann ed., Social

Communication Among Primates, Univ. Chicago

Press, Chicago: 221-236.

-, Yoshiba, K. & Parthasarathy, M.

D. (1965): Home-range, mating season, male group,

and inter-troop relations of Hanuman langurs ( Pres-

bytis entellus). Primates, 6(1) : 7 3- 106.

867

THE NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY— 1977

Lavkumar Khacher1

{With a plate and three maps)

Introduction

The Nanda Devi Basin, situated in the

Gharwal Himalayas, is also known as the

Nanda Devi “Sanctuary” to mountaineers by

virtue of its almost inaccessible terrain which

kept the mountain inviolable till 1934, when

Shipton and Tilman pioneered a trail up the

Rishi gorge to reach the base of the mountain.

In doing so, they were the first men to ever

put foot into a remarkable mountain basin

with rich pastures and a veritable Garden of

Eden where herds of Himalayan ungulates

grazed which knew no fear of man. The

“Sanctuary” referred to in this report means

the Nanda Devi Basin.

Description of the study area

Location : The Nanda Devi “Sanctuary” is

situated in the Gharwal Himalayas in the

upper watershed of the Alakananda, the east-

ern arm of the R. Ganga. It lies within the

co-ordinates 30°16'N to 30°32'N and 79°44'E

to 80°02'E. The 799 sq kms mountain basin

falls within the jurisdiction of the Chamoli

District of the Uttarakhand Division of Uttar

Pradesh (U.P.). The eastern and southern

rims of the basin form the border of Chamoli

District with Pithoragar District and Almora

District respectively.

The Mountain Barriers : The “Sanctuary”

is demarcated by a high enclosing mountain

range offering icefalls and corniced ridges to

the outer world. Only in the northwest is there

1 14, Jayant Society, Rajkot-360 004.

easy access for a short period from the last

week of May till October. The Rishi Gorge,

as will be explained later, is difficult of access.

The mountain rim has on it such major

mountains as Dunagiri 7066m., Changabang

6864m., Kalanka 6931m., Rishi Pahar 6992m.,

Nanda Devi East 7434m., Nanda Khat 6611

m., Mrigthuni 6855m., Trisul 7120m., and

Bethartoli Himal 6352m. Nanda Devi 7816m.,

India’s second highest mountain, is situated on

a short ridge projecting from the eastern rim

joining the main summit with Nanda Devi

East. A sharp hog’s-back ridge from Duna-

giri culminating in the 3848m. high Lata peak

and a rugged, glacier-scarred ridge from

Bethartoli converge onto the western end of

the Rishi Gorge, compressing the river in a

narrow, sheer-sided gorge. Entry into the

basin is over the Lata ridge at the Dharasi

Col (4250m., a short distance up the ridge

above Lata peak. (Sketch Map 1).

The Nanda Devi Basin or “Sanctuary" : The

“Sanctuary itself is a vast glacial basin seg-

mented by a series of parallel ridges with a

north-south trend, emanating from the en-

circling mountain ramparts. The most import-

ant is the Devistan-Rishikot ridge, which se-

parates the Inner “Sanctuary” at the base of

Nanda Devi from the rest of the basin — the

Outer “Sanctuary”. The Malthuni Ridge be-

tween Dharasi and Dibrughetta is a short but

very prominent ridge from the northern range

and its magnificent cliffs drop into the Rishi

Gorge opposite equally magnificent cliffs

terminating a jagged spur from the Bethartoli

Himal.

868

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

and Sftc-hjpaJds

SWa*> fflork CU(lia*4

PfeC4|»fc4g$ «5Vj9€S

Map 1. Nanda Devi Basin: Physical features.

869

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The Inner “Sanctuary’ is composed of a

glacier system divisible into the North In-

ner “Sanctuary” and the South Inner

“Sanctuary” by the Nanda Devi mountain.

The northern system is by and large at a

lower altitude with a bigger area. There are

three large glaciers: the Nanda Devi North,

the Rishi North and the Changabang gla-

ciers. The southern system has the Nanda

Devi South and the Rishi South glaciers.

The southern glaciers are more active than

their northern counterparts, though, like all

Himalayan glaciers, they have been re-

treating and their lower stretches are col-

lapsed heaps of rubble and glacial debris

with the laterial morains forming high,

distinctive ridges above the subsiding glac-

iers. Each system gives rise to ablation

streams, the North Rishi and the South

Rishi which flow along the precipitous

cliffs of Nanda Devi. A short distance be-

low their confluence, the Rishi flows into

its stupendous upper gorge, cutting at right

angles across the Devistan-Rishikot ridge.

Clearing the upper gorge, the Rishi receives

the tumultuous Ramani stream, racing down

a precipitous gorge which drains the Ra-

mani glacier basin on the north and a little

further downstream, the Trisul torrent

joins the Rishi from the south, draining the

extensive basins of the Trisul and Bethar-

toli glaciers. The Ramani and the Trisul

glacier systems form important features of

the Outer “Sanctuary”.

The Rishi stream continues along its chasm

receiving various torrents from both sides,

some by narrow impassable gorges, others

as graceful waterfalls, to finally enter the

awesome lower gorge guarded by overhang-

ing cliffs, and skirt the Lata peak to merge

with the Dhauli Ganga near Reni Village.

The Rishi Gorge cuts all the ridges at right

angles, and is therefore difficult to nego-

tiate. Except for this narrow, steep- sided

gorge, the entire basin is well above 3500m.

The Surrounding Valleys : The northern

wall from Lata to Rishi Pahar is the divide

between the Nanda Devi Basin and the

Dhauli Ganga. Of the several ravines and

glaciers scarring the northern face, the Bagani

Glacier, drained by the lovely Dunagiri val-

ley, is the most significant. The eastern wall

from Rishi Pahar to the bifurcation of the

Traill’s Pass ridge runs parallel to the great

Milam glacier. Several side glaciers carry the

snow and ice into the main Milam glacier.

The southern ridge from the Traill’s Pass bi-

furcation to Trisul II overlooks the warm

foothills to the south and offers an unbroken

barrier to the warm moist winds. The heavy

precipitation on this face drains by several val-

leys, the Sundardhunga Valley being the most

significant, into the Pindar which is a major

tributary of the Alakananda. The western rim,

formed by Trisul and Bethartoli Himal, also

receives heavy precipitation on its western

face, and is drained by the Nandakini and

Birahi Ganga Rivers into the Alakananda.

The Rishi Ganga itself, through the Dhauli

Ganga, with the major rivers like the Pin-

dar, the Nandakini and the Birahi Ganga,

forms an important part of the Alaka-

nanda’s watershed. The Alakananda is the

eastern twin of the Bhagirathi. The two join

to form the Ganga, the waters of which

govern the destinies of the millions inhabit-

ing the Ganga plain. A high dam is project-

ed on the Ganga, and one of the conside-

rations foremost in context with this ambi-

tious project will always concern the quan-

tity of silt brought down by the turbulent

rivers. The erosion of the Nanda Devi Basin

870

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Lavkumar : Nanda Devi Sanctuary

Plate

Above : A view of Nanda Devi. Below : Bharal in Nanda Devi basin.

(Photos : Author )

,

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

will have to be taken into account. People

of the area are fully aware of the disastr-

ous floods caused by deforestation of the

mountain slopes, having experienced such

major disasters as the Ghona Tal flood in

the last century and the Alakananda flash

floods of 1970.

Climate of the nanda devi “sanctuary”

The Nanda Devi complex is situated at the

turning point where the Himalayan chain

changes its N.W. to S.E. trend to a west to

east trend and the entire southern mountain-

wall with its extensions to the west and east

along the Trisul II Jatropani ridge and the

Nandakot range beyond the Traill’s Pass res-

pectively exposes a continuous southern as-

pect to the lower foothills and the sun. These

slopes, as also the western watershed ridge of

Trisul and Berthartoli and its westward bi-

furcation of Nanda Ghunti, cause consider-

able updrafts of warm air throughout the

year, resulting in high precipitation and heavy

cloud cover. During the rainy season these

ranges receive the full blast of the S.W. Mon-

soon and rainfall is extremely heavy. The

monsoon effect starts being felt in the third

week of June and from within the “Sanctu-

ary” we daily witnessed fantastically tumul-

tuous cloud formations over the mountain

walls on our south and west, with spectacular

displays of lightning. We concluded that the

Pindar, Nandakini and Birahi Ganga Rivers

between them must contribute a very large

proportion of the Alakananda waters.

The eastern mountain divide had daily

cloud build-ups, but these were far less spec-

tacular than along the southern wall, a fact

which is explained by the drier climate of the

Milam area, lying as it does beyond the main

Himalayan range. The same was true of the

northern wall, though Dunagiri dominating the

Dhauli gorge pulls up considerable warm air.

Its influence creates the late afternoon cloud

and mist on the Lata ridge and the Dharasi

Col. The snow conditions, with thick snow

cornices overhanging the southern ridge and

the more active glaciers like the Nanda Devi

South, the Rishi South and the Trisul Glaciers,

suggest heavier snowfalls on the southern

side. Our observations during the expedition

and photographs of the outer side of the

“Sanctuary” substantiate our conclusions.

Among its other unique qualities the “Sanc-

tuary”, by virtue of its configuration, enjoys

a sub-climate of its own. There is obviously

a mass of cold air on the basin which, as our

preliminary and amateurish observations re-

vealed, exerts a significantly powerful effect

on the precipitation of the Almora and Cha-

rnoli Districts.

The cold air on the basin creates a dry cli-

mate with low annual precipitation. Inside the

“Sanctuary”, the snowline was well above

4500 m. as against the heavy winter snow on

the Dharasi Col and the Malthuni ridge con-

siderably below this altitude. Snow was thicker

and generally at a lower altitude on the south-

ern side of the “Sancutary” than the northern,

which conforms to the general conditions on

the south and north aspects of mountains in

the northern hemisphere. The entire northern

side of the “Sanctuary” receives more direct

sun rays and is consequently warmer, with

more rapid thawing of snow.

While the glacial basins and upper slopes

experience strong diurnal winds, the gorge

itself, unlike other major Himalayan valleys,

is very sheltered. This surprised us till we

were able to watch the cloud movements

from higher slopes and saw how flanking

ridges diverted the air currents up their sides.

The Malthuni and the Rishikot ridges drama-

tically demonstrated their influence on the

871

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

warm air blowing into the gorge. While strong

winds were a regular feature on the higher

slopes from a couple of hours after sunset

almost to sundown, the nights were invariably

calm. The diurnal winds produced clouds in

the afternoon and there was usually a light

drizzle or sleet towards the evening. Twice

in the last week of May we had light snow

all over the “Sanctuary”, and there was wide-

spread snowfall as late as on 1 7th June. The

snow, however, rapidly melted. With the onset

of the monsoon stream in the third week of

June, there was considerable inflow of warm

air up the gorge resulting in light mist over

the high meadows and this warm air had a

profound effect on the wintery conditions

which lingered on late into summer. Under

its influence, the winter snow rapidly melted.

While considerably curtailing the hours of in-

solation, the mists and low clouds in June

kept the soil moist — a factor not found in the

drier inner Himalayan valleys or on the

Tibetan Plateau. Thus, the Nanda Devi “Sanc-

tuary”, though receiving little precipitation,

supports a lusher vegetation than other se-

cluded valleys.

A very distinctive feature of the weather

around Nanda Devi is the fact that unlike

other major Himalayan peaks, the great

mountain has very little cloud formation on it

in the afternoons. Even in June and July

when the monsoon stream was well set in the

area, and while expeditions had withdrawn

from lower peaks like Trisul, it was possible

to operate on Nanda Devi a full fortnight

later. On most days, when clouds obscured all

the other summits around, they formed only

around the great peak’s base and on the very

summit itself. This advantage of a longer ope-

rative season on Nanda Devi offers signifi-

cant advantages to be borne in mind if any

control of expedition activity is planned. The

fact that the day Tilman ascended the moun-

tain in 1936, the Alniora area received excep-

tionally heavy rainfall is worth recording here.

The flora

The vegetation of any region reflects the

climate prevailing there and the distinctive

climate enjoyed by the Nanda Devi complex

has created a distinctive flora which, though it

superficially brings to mind the other inner

Himalayan valleys, suggests to a more careful

observer considerable variations. A very tho-

rough investigation would most certainly

highlight the unique composition of the

“Sanctuary’s” floral community. (See Map 2).

Forest forms a very small percentage of

the flora of the “Sanctuary” and is restricted

to the Rishi gorge. The largest stands of coni-

ferous forests grow in the Ronti valley (not

within the limits of the study area) which

is open to moisture-bearing winds from the

lower Dhauli Gorge, the Dudh Ganga valley

within the basin and the Dibrughatta glade.

The dominant conifer is the Himalayan Fir

Abies pindrow. Significantly, there were no

Spruce Picea morinda anywhere along the

trail. Though there is a fine stand of Deodars

Cedrus deodara at Lata, this lovely tree was

absent inside the “Sanctuary”. The conifers

have an admixture of tree rhododendron

Rhododendron arbor alum and both the pink

and white varieties of wild rose Rosa sp. In

May, the forests looked very dry, suggesting

light winter snow and little or no spring

showers. The soil was exceptionally light and

powdery as a result.

Above the conifers, and forming a broad

belt between them and the high altitude mea-

dows, were fine forests of Birch Betula utilis,

largely leafless in May but under full foliage

in late June. These forests are a characteristic

aspect of the trail from Dibrughetta to Ramani.

872

NAN DA DEVI SANCTUARY

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Map 2. Nanda Devi Basin: Vegetation Distribution.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The trees are large and such well-preserved

old trees are not likely to be found elsewhere

in the Western Himalayas. A very distinctive

feature of this beautiful forest is the trailing

lichen festooning the trees. The understorey

of the forest is formed by the shrub rhododen-

dron Rhododendron campanulatum, which

produces profuse flowering in early May. Most

of the flowers had withered by the time we

entered. This earlier flowering of the rhodo-

dendrons is an indicator to the light winter

snow. The last of the birch trees petered out

at the entrance to the Inner “Sanctuary”.

Between the tree-line and the permanent

snowline, at greater altitude in the “Sanctu-

ary” than on its exposed outer walls, are ex-

tensive meadows of Himalayan grasses and

a rich variety of flowering herbs. The warmer

southern aspect has extensive growth of Juni-

per Juniperus sp. In the last week of March,

the meadows were bleak and without any

greenery apart from the evergreen juniper

bushes; however, by the second week of June

a distinct flush of green started showing and

parts of the “Sanctuary” took on the gay ap-

pearance of a rock garden. Flowers had begun

to appear among screes well above 5000 m.

On the way down the Rishi gorge the air was

heavy with fragrance and vibrating to the hum

of bumble bees and other insects.

The flower meadows of the “Sanctuary” are

today the last remnants of the extensive Hima-

layan pastures before flocks of domestic ani-

mals overgrazed them and the magnificent

display has to be seen to be appreciated. Here

we have still largely undisturbed plant com-

munities which must have reached their cli-

max during the last period of glaciation. The

impression gained was that of a distinct flora

to that of the rest of the Himalayan chain.

The fauna

If the flora of the Nanda Devi basin im-

presses the visitor, the plentitude and confid-

ing nature of the larger mountain ungulates

amazes and charms him. Shipton, describing

the Inner “Sanctuary” in his book ‘Nanda

Devi’, mentions the peaceful herds of Bharal

and Tahr several times. It is difficult to ima-

gine outside Tibet, and perhaps not even there

in recent years, wild ungulates so fearless of

Man. I am yet to see a high Himalayan valley

so well populated by wild animals.

bharal Pseudois nayaur : The Himalayan

Blue Sheep is the dominant and the most con-

spicuous large mammal in the Inner “Sanc-

tuary”. Herds were sighted on the steep pas-

tures above the cliffs of the upper gorge and

almost every pasture had a herd grazing on

open grassy slopes within the Inner “Sanc-

tuary”. The animals were all low down the

slopes and appeared to be partial to the more

gentle grassy meadows than the rocky cliffs,

though a few animals were seen on a couple

of occasions traversing the almost sheer rock

cliffs which form the pedestal for Nanda Devi.

Herds of half a dozen heads to those of more

than thirty were seen. By and large, the larger

herds preferred to remain down the slopes.

The smaller herds inhabited the upper. Lone

rams with the largest horns were seen close

to the snow and their tracks were reported

at 5300m. — well above the snowline.

Observations made of a large herd of thirty-

two animals near the “Sanctuary” Camp

showed that these were ewes and young

rams. All the ewes appeared to be very

heavy and on the verge of dropping lambs.

The first lamb seen was in the last week of

874

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

June. June and July seem to be the period

when the majority of young are born. The

herd under observation grazed and rested

intermittently throughout the day. The sheep

did not seem to show discomfort at the

strong diurnal winds, though they did re-

veal a tendency to descend lower in mist

and when it snowed. While resting, the

younger animals seemed to be drawn to

large boulders up which they scrambled and

stood very much in the manner of goats.

Among themselves, the young males spar-

red a great deal, frequently butting the

flank or the rear of a nearby companion.

This would result in an immediate reta-

liation in most cases, the two combatants

rising on their hind-legs before bringing

their horns together. On a couple of occa-

sions the sheep were seen rubbing them-

selves like goats ’against a rock.

It was possible to approach them closer in

an upright stance rather than in a crouched

position. On several occasions, they curi-

ously approached the observers hiding be-

hind rocks or in depressions, no doubt to

get a look at the intruders. When approach-

ed directly, the herd would move slowly

up the slope. If, however, the observer ap-

proached from above, the entire herd would

make a rapid move to get onto higher

ground. In all instances, the younger ani-

mals showed greater fear and the larger in-

dividuals — rams and older ewes — would

follow the herd, frequently stopping to look

back.

Bharal appear to subsist mainly on grass

and tended to browse far less than goats.

Judging from the scanty vegetation close

to the snowline, it seems these fine sheep

can survive on the sparsest of pastures. The

presence of small herds and isolated adult

rams high up the slopes among the bleakest

and windiest screes and snowfields was in-

deed astounding.

A rough census was undertaken in the Inner

“Sanctuary” where, at a conservative esti-

mate, there is a population of 500 Bharal.

Reports by local porters and foreign visitors

place a further 150 heads in the Trisul

Valley, while the Ramani basin and the

Dunagiri slopes should have another 100

animals. Adding to these about 70 solitary

rams at high altitudes, we can expect a po-

pulation of 820 Bharal within the “Sanc-

tuary”. Observing the facility with which

they cross snowfields, leap across raging tor-

rents and negotiate seemingly impassable

rock traverses, the Bharal of the Nanda Devi

basin must be less circumscribed than is

believed and entire herds and individuals

assuredly cross the mountain barriers to

mingle with and, perhaps, augment herds

still surviving outside the “Sanctuary” area.

Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus :

Shipton mentions herds of Tahr grazing along-

side the Bharal. Tahr are as large as the Bharal

and have very distinctive horns and long hair.

We saw none on the higher meadows. That

Tahr exist in the Rishi gorge is quite apparent

from the numerous goat-like droppings seen

along the trail passing along what is ideal

Tahr country. The herds of smaller ungulates

which Shipton seems to have mistaken for

Tahr are in fact Goral, which do inhabit high-

er altitudes and are indeed considerably smal-

ler than Bharal.

goral Neumorhaedus goral: There were se-

veral herds of this goat-antelope. The largest

herd of 21 occupied meadows south of the

“Sanctuary” Camp. Their smaller size and

shorter and thinner horns immediately identi-

fied them. Goral freely mixed with the larger

sheep, though they tended to be more alert

875

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

and were quick to retreat. They, also, seemed

to prefer steeper ground and browsed a good

deal off the dwarf rhododendrons and furze

clumps.

musk deer Moschus moschijerus : From re-

ports and frequent indications noted, the birch

forests of the gorge seem to still hold a fairly

large population of this much-persecuted deer.

The musk deer habitat, however, is consider-

ably restricted as a result of the precipitous

nature of the Rishi gorge.

snow leopard Panthera uncia : I found

droppings of a large feline near the snout of

the South Rishi Glacier. The turds contained

Goral hair. Two Bharal kills were found and

a Snow Leopard was reported on a Bharal kill

by the St. Stephen’s College team near Changa-

bang. The shepherds met on the way out in

June, on the Mathuni Ridge, graphically des-

cribed this leopard, which apparently came for

stray sheep and, significantly, the authorities

have issued gun licenses to a couple of shep-

herds as protection against this predator.

bears There were no indications of either

the Black Bear Selanarctos t hi bet anus in the

forests or the Brown Bear Ursus arctos above

the treeline. Their absence was confirmed by

the porters.

Game Birds: Despite a careful watch, no

Monals Lophophorus impejanus were sighted,

though there is ample terrain suitable for their

needs. It was a pleasant surprise, however, to

hear several Koklas Pheasants Pucrasia macro-

lopha crowing close to camp at dawn just

above Lata village. Local peasants readily re-

cognise both these pheasants from illustra-

tions shown to them. They, however, do not

recognise any of the Tragopans. That the

Monal has declined in the last few years was

confirmed by an aged villager from Lata who

had considerable knowledge of the natural his-

tory of his hills and who had, it seems, accom-

panied several “Angrez” during his youth. Both

the Himalayan Snowcock Tetrogallus himalay-

ensis and the Snow Partridge Lerwa lerwa

were plentiful and confiding on the slopes

above the treeline. The latter occupied a slight-

ly lower elevation to the former.

The human intrusion

It has been only within the last couple

of decades that the Himalayan range has ex-

perienced a rapid acceleration in exploitation

by Man. Thanks to better medical facilities

there has been a phenomenal rise in the hu-

man population. Roads today penetrate all the

major valleys and are being added to con-

tinually. More and more people are consequent-

ly visiting the Himalayas from the Indian

plains and abroad. The Nanda Devi Basin has

also started receiving a greater attention. Till

1934, and two decades after, only Dibrughetta

and Dharasi were regularly visited for a short

period in summer by a few shepherds from

Lata. The rest of the area was as unexplored

as other remoter areas in the Amazon Basin

or the Antarctica. Shipton and Tilman pioneer-

ed a way up the gorge to the foot of the moun-

tain, to be the first to speak of the extensive

pastures and herds of wild ungulates. Their

accounts gave wide publicity to the mountain

wilderness and surrounded the mountain with

an aura only a few much higher peaks like

Everest or Kanchenjunga enjoy. If geographi-

cal configuration kept local villagers out, po-

litical exigencies delayed exploration further.

The Nanda Devi “Sanctuary” though enjoying

no legal status as a sanctuary is, in fact, one

of the world’s finest wilderness areas. Unfor-

tunately, unwise exploitation has started and

is likely to increase manifold in the years

ahead. It is therefore worth evaluating the na-

ture of this intrusion.

876

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

Shepherds of Lata, Reni and a few other

nearby villages in the Dhauli Gorge have been

traditionally bringing their flocks across the

4250m. high Dharasi Col along a precarious

defile. They cross over in the first week of June

after the winter snow melts on the ridge, and

graze the pastures of Dharasi, Maithuni Ridge

and Dibrughetta. They prepare to vacate these

high pastures in September. The area grazed

is a fraction of the Nanda Devi Basin.

While they have not extended their area of

operation, I learnt that many more flocks

have started using these pastures as a result

of the closure of the more extensive Tibetan

grazing lands following the Chinese take-

over. The Forest Department charges a fee

of Rs. 1/- per sheep and Rs. 2/- per goat.

There appeared to be no check on whether

more goats and sheep were in fact not be-

ing grazed than were paid for. Information

available states that flocks are coming from

as far away as Malari in the upper Dhauli

Ganga valley. The Maithuni grazing ground

alone had four thousand animals!

With the present pastures being overgraz-

ed, it is but a matter of time before some

enterprising shepherd leads his flock further

up the Rishi gorge from Dibrughatta along

the trail now visible thanks to the flocks of

load carrying goats and sheep to Raman i

and the Trisul valley. With expeditions re-

lying more on sheep and goats to carry in

supplies, the trail has become well demar-

cated and a greater number of shepherds

are becoming familiar with the gorge. It may

be pointed out that there are no legal re-

strictions on their grazing their flocks any-

where within the area. With expeditions

wanting access earlier to have more opera-

tional time on the mountain before the on-

set of the monsoon, the Dharasi trail is

“forced5’ by a fortnight.

Plant Gatherers’. Many high altitude plants

have aromatic qualities and their underground

parts have been valued for the preparation of

incense, and Ayurvedic medicines. Quite a few

are used as ingredients in allopathic prepara-

tions. Shepherds always have collected such

plants to earn a little extra. With a greater

demand and higher prices being paid, more

and more of the poorer landholders and land-

less people are resorting to collecting such

plants. While in themselves posing no threat

to wildlife, they help pioneer difficult routes

and the frequent encounters with wildlife

makes them important guides and accompli-

ces of the itinerate poacher. We met several

plant gatherers who seemed to be familiar with

the remotest tracks.

Poachers : As more and more persons gain

familiarity with the gorges, and more easily

accessible areas get depleted of wildlife, the

attention of the poacher turns to the last re-

maining herds in such secluded areas. With

the price of musk having reached an all-time

high, a week or two of hard living is no de-

terrent to the poacher. The shepherds, already

holding firearm licences and spending a sum-

mer within the area are assuredly tempted to

poach. Ample indications of poacher activity

was noted. An expedition member going out

of the “Sanctuary” earlier than the rest was

followed down the difficult upper gorge by two

armed men (personal correspondence); the St.

Stephen’s College party found remains of a

Musk Deer and signs of a hastily abandoned

camp between Ramani and Deodi; I came

across half a dozen skulls of Bharal which

had been severed from the body and left be-

hind on the meadows above the “Sanctuary”

Camp, where I also stumbled onto a rock

shelter which had all the signs of recent use.

Three carcasses, two of animals dying of na-

tural causes and one a predator’s kill, were

877

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

found. They all had the skeleton and sections

of the hide attached to the skulls. There exists

a “shikaris” trail parallel to the regular shep-

herd passage across the Dharasi Col. This trail

is at a lower altitude and can be negotiated

at all times of the year except in mid-winter.

That poaching activity is of recent origin is

apparent from the confiding nature of the

Bharal and the frequent signs of Musk Deer.

Mountaineering Expeditions and Tourist

Parties : The Nanda Devi has always been a

very desirable mountain thanks to its great

beauty and the mystery surrounding it as a

result of the natural barriers. When mountain-

eering activity revived after the Second World

War, the hitherto closed Nepal opened its

borders and the attention of foreign mount-

aineers was drawn to that largely unexplored

stretch of mountains. Also, the Government of

India excluded all foreign expeditions from the

Gharwal Himalayas. However, in the ’60s In-

dian mountaineering came of age and both

civilian and military expeditions have been

active all along the Indian Himalayas. The

Nanda Devi area has received their full atten-

tion as attested by a permanent wooden bridge

built over the Rishi torrent at Deodi and the

graffiti etched and scrawled on rocks and trees.

Reports, confirmed by local men who portered

for these expeditions, indicate that firearms

were often carried in and Bharal meat was on

the menu!

With the declaring of the Nanda Devi Basin

as a free area, a spate of foreign expeditions

have been operating here. The mountain has

to be “booked” several years in advance!

Apart from Nanda Devi, there are several

other attractive mountains within the basin.

At least two of these foreign parties had

a local “shikari” among their porters. They

hire as many as 40 or more porters and se-

veral hundred baggage goats. The impact of

the operations by four expeditions in one

season can well be imagined. This summer,

besides the British expedition with its 30

odd porters and 300 baggage animals, there

was a Japanese expedition on Trisul from

the south, a German trekkers-cum-climbers

party on the same mountain from the north,

the St. Stephen’s College Devistan-Changa-

bang expedition and a Mountain Travel’s

party of American tourists to Nanda Devi.

Both the German and a second Japanese

party came up the Rishi Gorge which is be-

ing progressively used as an alternative to

the traditional high route. All these parties

had more porters and baggage animals than

our expedition! In addition, we met several

trekkers with their porters; the Rishi Gorge

had a continual passage of men. While for-

eign expeditions are registered with the

IMF (Indian Mountaineering Foundation),

there are no checks whatsoever on trekking

parties, individual trekkers and Indian expe-

ditions.

The traditional trail over Dharasi Col is, as

mentioned earlier, forced by the middle of

May. The route by the gorge is being more

regularly used and the “shikaris” trail be-

low the Dharasi traverse is regularly fre-

quented. From Dibrughetta to Ramani a

well-defined and an extraordinarily even-

graded trail now exists. Even the Shipton-

Tilman track up the upper gorge is better

defined and can be traversed with care by

single men and I crossed the formidable

“slabs” unaided, wearing canvas boots! All

in all, the natural defences of the “Sanc-

tuary” have been effectively breached.

Future Development Plans : With the greater

number of expeditions to the area and foreign

agencies promoting trekking parties to Nanda

Devi, the high tourist potential of the “Sanc-

tuary” has been realised by local operators

878

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

and a convincing argument for the construc-

tion of a bridle-path up the Rishi gorge up to

Deodi has found favour with the authorities.

A ground survey has been undertaken and the

project has the backing of the Gbarwal Man-

dal Vikas Nigam, a body set up by the U.P.

State Government to advise opening up of

Gharwal for tourism.

With the construction of a bridle-path up

the gorge, further development will assured-

ly follow as for example, converting the

bridle-path into a jeep track, construction

of tourist huts and bungalows, etc. The Rishi

Gorge, flowing at several hundred metres

above the Dhauli Gorge is separated from

it by the very narrow Lata Ridge and offers

considerable possibilities for a hydro-electric

project involving a short tunnel to divert

the Rishi. Any development programme ini-

tiated without due recognition of the uni-

queness of the Manda Devi “Sanctuary” will

result in the loss of a magnificent heritage.

Conservation considerations

The Fragile Ecosystem : Mountains are sub-

jected to greater erosional activity, particularly

so when they are seismically active young

structures as the Himalayas are. The gravita-

tional force is more potent on steep mountains

and greatly intensifies the action of rivers,

glaciers, snow avalanches, landslides triggered

off by water seepage, and wind. The extremes

of temperature at great altitudes shatters the

rocks and further adds to the instability of

mountain areas. Despite the combined on-

slaught of elemental forces, vegetation tends to

stabilise slopes and to cover exposed rock

faces. There were far less unsightly scars with-

in the “Sanctuary” than in inhabited, less rug-

ged areas. The steepest sides were densely co-

vered by plant growth, forests, shrubberies.

herbs and grass, which even more effectively

held the soil. It was only where torrents and

snowslides came down that there were no

plants. Wherever the screes had become slight-

ly stable, plant life had started colonising them

and hardy high-altitude plants grew in shelter-

ed places well above the permanent snow

fields.

The vegetation cover of the Himalayan slopes

is at the very best very fragile and develops

a precarious balance which the least bit of

change by natural or man-induced causes

can upset. The balance may take years to

be established again. The vulnerability in-

creases with the steepness of the slopes and

the altitude. The entire study area is expos-

ed, therefore, to the maximum effect of ero-

sional forces. An added factor is the general

aridity of the soil, which is liable to be blown

away by wind. The harsh and dry climatic

conditions make regeneration by plants more

difficult. In the upper gorge, the narrow

trail was possibly the same pioneered by

Tilman and Ship ton, its stability provided by

springy turf and large clumps of grass.

The almost continuous cover of juniper on

southern aspects afforded protection to the

loose soil above the treeline. Above the

juniper level, clumps of Caragana (furze

bush) played the same role. The tussocks of

grass so characteristic of Himalayan high-

altitude pastures, are to be seen at their

best here and are an effective protection to

the soil. That regeneration, however, takes

greater time here than elsewhere is demons-

trated by the well-demarcated trail along

the upper gorge, which, in areas of rapid

plant regeneration, would easily be oblite-

rated in one season.

Many of the trees, shrubs and herbs have

aromatic oils and burn easily. The long

grass is dry and inflammable in March and

879

21

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

: June. Fire, therefore, has to be considered

a very major hazard to the ecosystem. Burnt

"slopes: are effectively exposed to erosion

forces and become extremely unstable as a

result.

The Vulnerable Fauna:lt is now a known

fact that in harsh environments only a few

forms of life survive by virtue of a high degree

of adaptation, and these highly successful forms

increase in numbers to fully utilise the habitat.

High mountain habitats are congenial to life

only for the summer months and the period is

shortened with the altitude. Most of the birds

and many of the flying insects move up only

during the summer. Others suspend activities

during the harsh months and hibernate; even

mammals undergo varying periods of winter

sleep. Within our area there are several ro-

dents and a few skinks — reptiles, which so

escape the harsh winters. However, resident

birds like the Snowcocks and Snow Partridges,

the ungulates like the Bharal and Goral and

the Snow Leopard which preys on them are

active in the worst weather. Under very se-

vere conditions they may move to lower alti-

tudes. Within the Nanda Devi Basin, this

downward movement is restricted by the con-

figuration of the enclosing ridges which press

the herds towards the gorge. It is the fat accu-

mulated during the summer grazing which per-

mits them to survive the harsh winter. The

least bit of disturbance can easily upset living

conditions and place an entire species’ con-

tinued survival in jeopardy. This factor needs

to be emphasised if the need for control of

human activity is to be convincingly advocat-

ed. A brief discussion on the mere presence

of human beings at “Sanctuary” Camp in May

and June would suffice our purpose.

The month of May, as we found, is still

rather bleak and it is only in mid- June that

fresh grass starts sprouting. The herds of

Bharal — the ewes heavy with lamb and

young males — are all confined to the lower

pastures through which the path up to

Nanda Devi base camp passes. As the green

flush extends up the slopes, the animals fol-

low up the slopes to reach the higher pastu-

res by August and September, by which

time the ewes are followed by their new-

born iambs and the territories of the Master

Rams are reached and rutting takes place.

During the summer, plenty of body fat is

accumulated. The continual movement of

expeditions in the summer months can en-

danger the species, since they are compelled

to move off the best pastures at a time

when forage is at its lowest. The pregnant

ewes are placed under stress just when they

should have the least disturbance. Though

not substantiated by statistics, it is quite

apparent that even if there is no killing by

poachers there are chances of the wild sheep

declining as a result of human activity on

their summer pastures. What is true of the

Bharal is true of the Goral, and any reduc- 1

tion in the numbers of the two ungulates

would directly affect the Snow Leopards.

The removal of juniper brush, apart from

causing erosion, destroys the sheltered ha-

bitat for insects and the small birds which

find food and nesting sites there. Indirectly

then, as a result of habitat degeneration,

birdlife also is affected. Fires add to the

hazards and since birds nesting at high alti-

tudes have a short period for raising their

young, any destruction of eggs and young

would mean a total failure of nesting for

that particular season.

Impact of Human Action

Grazing by Domestic Flocks : There is quite

apparent degradation of the grazing grounds

880

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

of Dharasi and Dibrughetta. The pressure on

these traditional pastures has increased and

is increasing. The number of heads brought

in is already far too high, with more than

4000 (personal discussion with shepherds)

heads of goats and sheep. In addition to the

usual flocks, several hundred animals carrying

expedition baggage pass through. Apart from

depleting the forage, the passage of animals,

often almost vertically down slopes, results in

a series of very ugly landslides. A huge scar

has formed on the eastern slope of the Mal-

thuni Ridge which is in an active state of shift-

ing. Vegetation has no chance of stabilising on

it since flocks graze over the area and renew

the disturbance each year. Similar landslides,

resulting from passage by sheep and goats, has

set in even in forest country.

Deforestation : Each expedition hires large

teams of porters. With an average of 50

porters per expedition and four such expe-

ditions operating in one season, 200 men

move up and down the gorge. These men,

out of necessity, collect firewood for cook-

ing and since they are all lightly clad and

tents are not provided, have to seek warmth

through the night from fires. The consump-

tion of firewood each season can be appre-

ciable. Above the timberline, juniper is the

chief source of fuel and considerable sec-

tions of juniper have been cleared. At all

the regular campsites, dead wood has long

ago been utilised and trees have to be felled.

This is particularly pronounced at the Deodi

and Ramani campsites.

Fires : Many of the porters light fires at the

base of trees; this sets the heartwood on fire

and we noticed several smouldering trunks.

Such practices obviously cause forest fires

and all along the trail we noticed large sec-

tions burnt. The greatest damage by fire was

seen at Dibrughetta, where almost 25% of

coniferous forest is burnt! The shepherds

in charge of load-carrying flocks fire the

long grass to permit their animals to get

at green sprouting grass. These fires rapidly

spread up the slopes and die out only at

the upper limit or a cliff edge. Clumps of

juniper burst into violent flame, adding to

the upward spread of the flames. Since there

are no forestry practices within the “Sanc-

tuary”, these fires are uncontrolled; nor are

the burnt sections replanted. Ugly scars of

old and recent fires all along the trail were

a marked and depressing contrast to the

green stands of forest on the opposite side

of the gorge.

Poachers : Poaching within the basin is of

fairly recent origin. However, conditions are

now ideal for this evil to flourish. The sale

of animal pelts has been a regular trade

along the pilgrim route. With roads now

permitting vehicular fraffic right up to Bad-

rinath, the numbers of affluent and not very

pious tourist pilgrims have increased. These

are notorious curio-buyers and the sale of

pelts is brisker than before. This ready out-

let is augmented by the large military and

paramilitary forces stationed throughout the

year in the upper valleys. The sale of mut-

ton is an additional inducement for poach-

ing. Shepherds who formerly left carcasses

of their flock dying of forage poisoning, now

find it worth their while to carry the car-

casses down to the road-head in the Dhauli

gorge. With prices of Rs. 300/- per ani-

mal being paid for a goat or a sheep, a

dead Bharal offers high returns to a poacher.

Musk Deer have always been severely per-

secuted and a single animal shot can yield

a fortune. The investigator was told by very

reliable sources that a well-organised group

operates at Dehra Dun, who handle the

smuggling of raw musk pods collected in

881

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

the Gharwal Himalayas. If till recently,

poachers were not active within the “Sanc-

tuary”, it was because there were other more

easily accessible targets, and the terrain was

less frequented. Conditions have completely

changed and the wildlife of the “Sanctuary”

is exposed to the depredation of poachers.

Litter : Though not of consequence to the

welfare of wildlife, it is a depressing sight,

worth mentioning here, that all the major

camping sites have taken on the appearance

of mini-urban refuse dumps. Even streams

from where drinking water is drawn are not

spared, and they were choked with plastic

sheets, toilet paper, cartons, egg-shells, tins,

etc. While expeditions do try to collect their

refuse in one place, the commercially ope-

rated trekking parties have no such com-

punctions, since their interest in the place

is short-lived. Campsites used by one such

trekking party were left completely littered

and unusable. It is quite apparent that even

those who profess to love the mountains

are not over-concerned about the impact of

their passage on a trail.

The Positive Human Factor : Perhaps the

greatest error committed by exponents of

conservation of wildlife in this country has

been the almost complete lack of awareness

or appreciation of local sentiments and the

innate intelligence of the peasants to under-

stand the value of conservation for their

own survival. The Gharwali, like all hill-

men, is a very pragmatic person. He is also

very much alive to the wildlife around him

being a shikari. He is a person, who, though

cautious in accepting new ideas, can cer-

tainly be expected to participate in any

planning for the betterment of his own life.

The social organisation of his village has

been a close-knit one because of having to

cope with a difficult terrain. The proof of

this can be had from the “Chipko Move-

ment”, which has no parallel anywhere else

in the country. Significantly, the epicentre of

this remarkable conservation oriented mass

action is at Reni and Lata villages and in-

volves the excellent forests in the Ronti

Valley — physically a part of the Nanda Devi

Basin. The movement was sparked off by

a contract for clear-felling and the satya-

graha was spearheaded by the housewives

of the two villages. This unique action has

made the villagers aware of their rights to

their village territories. The heartening as-

pect of the satyagraha was not based on

economical needs but on the highest of con-

servation principles — saving the forests to

combat floods and landslides! Unlike the

forest tribes of peninsular India, the Ghar-

wali is a diligent farmer and carefully con-

structs terraces to retain his valuable soil,

is fully alive to the value of forest litter as

manure and constructs extensive irrigation

channels. Being devout Hindus, he con-

siders the Bharal herds as property of God-

dess Parvati, the consort of Lord Shiva and

the Nanda Devi peak is held in veneration

as the physical form of the Goddess. Signi-

ficantly too, the villagers are very alive to

the value of the “Sanctuary” as a tourist

draw and there is considerable resentment

over expeditions bringing in “Sirdars” and

high altitude porters from elsewhere. Signi-

ficantly, the promotion of tourism is handl-

ed by the Gharwal Mandal Vikas Nigam,

which is headed by a Gharwali who im-

pressed the investigator by his interest in

nature.

Favourable Legal Status and other conside-

rations: Unlike other Sanctuaries and Na-

tional Parks in the country, the entire

Nanda Devi “Sanctuary” is free of human

settlement. Even grazing rights are very

882

NAN DA DEVI SANCTUARY

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Map 3. Boundaries of Proposed Nanda Devi National Park.

883

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

seasonal and affect a fraction of the area.

Human exploitation has very recently start-

ed and this, too, is of high tourist potential.

The boundaries are clearly demarcated by

effective natural barriers and are effective

against trespass. Conservation planning for

the area can result in considerable econo-

mic gain to the villagers.

Recommendations

Immediate representation needs to be made

to the State Government to suspend all deve-

lopment projects involving the study area, im-

pressing them of the scope for proper well-

planned utilisation of the tourist value of the

area and that considerable damage will be

sustained by the magnificent habitat and its

wildlife if persons with shortsighted interests

are allowed to initiate exploitation. No deve-

lopmental programmes are to be considered

without taking into consideration the follow-

ing.

Legislation : The Uttar Pradesh Government

be asked to declare the Nanda Devi Basin a

Wildlife Sanctuary2 for high altitude flora and

fauna, to protect India’s only wilderness area

and its large herd of Himalayan Blue Sheep

and viable populations of Musk Deer and

Snow Leopards, both highly endangered spe-

cies. Subsequent action by the State Govern-

ment be requested to upgrade the new Sanc-

tuary to the status of India’s first Himalayan

National Park. The boundaries suggested are

(See Map 3) :

(i) The Northern Boundary or the

Dhauli Watershed to run along the

ridge from Lata Peak, the Dharasi Col,

Dunagiri, Changabang, Kalanka to

Rishi Pahar in the east.

(ii) The Eastern Boundary or the Milam

Watershed to coincide with the boun-

884

dary between Chamoli District and

Pithoragarh District along the crest

from Rishi Pahar to Nanda Devi East

and onto the bifurcation where the

Traill’s Pass Ridge separates.

(iii) The Southern Boundary or the Pindar

Watershed to coincide with the

boundary between Chamoli District

and Almora District along the divide

from the bifurcation of the Traill’s

Pass Ridge, over Nanda Khat and

Mrigthuni and onto Trisul II.

(iv) The Western Boundary to run along

the main Trisul Bethertoli axis and on

along the Ronti-Dudh Ganga water-

shed down to the Rishi opposite Lata

Peak.

Entry Restrictions : The Nanda Devi “Sanc-

tuary” once again be declared a restricted area

and all visitors be required to register with

the Police at Joshimath and entry permits be

issued by the authorities. These permits should

be liable to be checked at Lata Village or

within the “Sanctuary” by Forest Guards. All

entry must be restricted to the traditional

route over the Dharasi Col and the route up

the gorge be completely banned. Nor should

visitors be permitted to enter by the “Shikaris”

trail (see sketch Map 3). The “Sanctuary”

should be open to visitors from 15th May to

30th September. All visitors must vacate the

area latest by 1st October.

Expeditions should only engage porters and

load-carrying flocks must not be permitted

across the Dharasi Col.

Grazing permits should be issued for a fixed

number of animals and the heads of sheep

and goats physically counted at Lata Kha-

rak before being allowed to proceed be-

yond the Dharasi Col. Grazing permits

must be issued only to flocks belonging to

Lata, Reni and the nearby villages.

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

Total ban on Firearms'. All firearm licences

' to shepherds grazing flocks within the “Sanc-

f tuary” must be withdrawn. Sheep dogs are

I effective deterrents to Snow Leopards as ad-

mitted by the shepherds questioned — all the

dogs with the Malthuni herd did not have pro-

[ tective collars. No expeditions or other per-

sons should be permitted to carry in firearms.

I Porters : All porters engaged by expedi-

tions must be registered with the Lata Pan-

chayat and hiring porters from other parts of

the Himalayas must be discouraged. Should

expeditions desire to bring in outside men, they

should have to pay the same entry fee per

porter as would be charged to Indian visitors.

Entry Fee : All visitors to the “Sanctuary”

other than local porters and permit-carrying

shepherds must pay an entry fee. Indian visi-

tors should pay Rs. 50/- per person; foreign

tourists Rs. 250/- per individual.

Peak Fee for Expeditions : Foreign expedi-

tions to the “Sanctuary” should be required

to pay peak fees of Rs, 5000/- for Nanda

Devi and Rs. 2000/- for other peaks. Indian

expeditions should pay a flat expedition entry

rate of Rs. 1000/-. These fees should be

charged in addition to the personal entry fee.

Trekking parties sponsored by travel agents

should pay a fee of Rs. 5000/- per party in

addition to the personal entry fee.

Liaison Officers : All foreign expeditions

and trekking parties by travel agents must be

assigned a liaison officer of standing, who is

either deputed from the Services or a person

recommended by such organisations as the

Himalayan Club, World Wildlife Fund-India

or the Bombay Natural History Society.

Registering “ Sirdars ” and Porters : All ex-

peditions and trekking parties, foreign or

Indian, must engage registered “Sirdars” from

the nearby villages. These “Sirdars” should be

given intensive training at the Nehru Institute

of Mountaineering, Uttar Kashi. All porters

from Reni and Lata should be registered and

issued special identity cards from the NIM

through the Magistrate at Joshimath. Porter

rates, etc., should be fixed after discussions

with the village Panchayats.

Fuel: Expeditions must be required to carry

in Kerosene for the team members and por-

ters. Individual trekkers may, however, be

permitted to use firewood. Only fallen dead-

wood should be used for fuel. A special co-

operative store should be opened at Lata

from where expeditions may purchase provi-

sions for the porters, kerosene, etc., at fixed

Government rates.

Tourist Accommodation : Clean, cheap ac-

commodation should be developed at Reni

and Lata. Villagers should be encouraged to

provide accommodation and financial assist-

ance be made available to them to expand

their facilities. Provision should be made to

provide camping equipment on hire at Reni.

Warden and Guards: The Forest Depart-

ment should appoint a Sanctuary Warden

with his headquarters at Reni. He should be

assisted by at least four guards. All five men

must receive training at NIM. During the open

season three guards should be stationed, one

each at Dharasi Col, Malthuni Ridge and

Patalkhal. The fourth guard should remain

at Lata. Each guard should be assisted during

the season by other guards deputed for anti-

poaching training by the Forest Department

and/or the Police. The military and parami-

litary forces may be requested to depute

jawans as well.

The guards should be issued portable wire-

less sets and light arms. They should each

have a pair of Himalayan Mastiffs and be

equipped with light mountain tents, sleep-

ing bags, protective clothing and binocu-

lars.

885

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Porters wanting to be registered as “Sir-

dars” should be required to undergo a

month of guard duty. College students may

be encouraged to volunteer as assistant

guards under the NSS scheme.

Conservation Action : The Forest Depart-

ment must immediately undertake to replant

the burnt areas with appropriate trees and also

consider establishing nurseries of junipers for

transplanting on slopes denuded of natural

growth as at “Sanctuary” Camp. The assist-

ance of voluntary groups like the “Chipko”

volunteers might be considered.

The half burnt timber should be felled and

the logs used to demarcate the sides of a

carefully graded sheep trail wherever the

descent is direct and steep initiating land-

slides similar to that on the Malthuni Ridge.

Special refuse disposal pits should be pre-

pared at all important campsites and inflam-

mable material periodically burnt and iron

cans, etc. buried.

A systematic study of the area should be

initiated with a view to developing a sound

management programme for the proposed

National Park.

Simple guide booklets be developed on the

“Sanctuary” in Hindi, English, German and

Japanese, which should be available at the

co-operative store at Lata and the Sanctu-

ary Warden’s office at Reni. This booklet

should briefly describe the main flora and

fauna likely to be seen along the trail and

provide conservation guidelines for the

visitor.

Acknowledgements

I am most grateful to the World Wildlife

Fund — India for sponsoring and planning my

visit to the Nanda Devi Basin and for grant-

ing me long leave for the purpose.

Mr. John Millar has to be thanked for hav-

ing got me invited as a member of the 1977

British Nanda Devi Expedition. While all the

expedition members were extremely kind and

helpful at all times, I greatly value the close

friendship which emerged between Len Smith,

the Deputy Leader and Treasurer of the Ex-

pedition, and myself.

Special thanks are due to all the members

of the British Army Team, which had accom-

panied the Expedition. Significant contribu-

tions to my enquiry were made by Rt. Hon.

Captain Jonathan Forbes. Capt. Roderic Wyn-

Pope and the other members were all extre-

mely helpful and hospitable.

Much though I would like to mention

names of officers of the Army at Joshimath

for their great kindness to me, security restric-

tions prevent my doing so. Shri K. S. Fonia,

General Manager, Gharwal Mandal Vikas

Nigam, gave me considerable information re-

garding development plans of the region; to

him go my thanks.

Shri Nalni Jayal, Joint Secretary in charge

of wildlife and forests. Ministry of Agricul-

ture, New Delhi, gave me considerable en-

couragement while Shri Jagdish Nanavati,

Hon. Secretary of the Himalayan Club provid-

ed me with relevant information. He was most

generous with his valuable time.

I must express my appreciation for young

Nanak Chand of Manali, who acted as my

personal porter, cook and guide. Without him,

I would not have been able to get the many

good photographs of Bharal and flowers.

886

NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

THE ITINERARY

Note : *Rainy Days

rfi

887

PARAMB1KULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND IIS

ADJACENT AREAS

V. S. VlJAYAN1

Introduction

Location, Extent and Topography :

The Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary came

into existence in 1962, when a small area —

Sungam range — was declared a sanctuary. In

1973, more areas were added to it and at pre-

sent it covers an area of about 235 km2 (10°25'

N, 76°43' E) in the Palghat District of Ke-

rala at an elevation of 600 metres above sea

level. On the east it is contiguous with the

Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu;

on the north-west it is bordered by the Nelliam-

pathy reserves of Nemmara Division and on the

south-west and south by the Vazhachal and

Sholayar range respectively, of the Chalakudy

Division.

Sholayar is contiguous with Parambikulam

on the south and is separated from Parambi-

kulam by a lofty ridge; the highest peak, the

Karimalagopuram, has an elevation of 1,440m.

Sholayar range has an area of 15,513.60

hectares, of which 1,820.73 hectares have been

leased out for Sholayar Dam and also for tea

estates. The rest is reserved forest. The whole

area is hilly in character with numerous roll-

ing hills, peaks and cliffs.

There are three dams inside the sanctuary

area; Parambikulam, Thunakadavu and Periva-

rapallam dams (Table 1).

1 Wildlife Biologist, Kerala Forest Research Insti-

tute, Peechi, Trichur Dist., Kerala.

Table 1

Details of tiie dams in Parambikulam

The two major river valleys in the area are

of the Parambikulam and Sholayar rivers which

converge at Orukombankutty and flow into

the main Chalakudy river. Parambikulam

drains the southern portions of the Nelliam-

pathy reserve while the Sholayar drains the

further reaches of the Adirapalli reserve.

The only approach to the sanctuary by road

is from Pollachi, about 48 km from Thunak-

adavu, the headquarters of the sanctuary. This

road passes through the top slip area of the

Anamalai Sanctuary. The proposed Chalaku-

dy-Vazhachal-Parambikulam road would in-

crease the accessibility from Kerala side. How-

ever, this would also give more opportunity

for poaching. A unique forest tramway was in

existence here from 1907 solely meant for

timber transport from Parambikulam to Chala-

kudy. Later on it was found that the annual

expenditure for maintaining the tramway was

quite high and it was a problem to supply

sufficient quantity of timber for transport by

the tramway in order to enable it to be work-

ed without loss. Extensive extraction of timber

888

PAR AM BIK ULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

took place during this period and finally a stage

j was reached when timber had to be extracted

to maintain the Tramway! Finally, after seve-

ral years, it was abandoned. However, the

tracks, if properly maintained, would be a bles-

sing to naturalists for watching birds and view-

ing animals.

Habitat and vegetation

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary has a wide

variety of habitats, both natural and man-made.

The former consists of evergreen and moist

deciduous forests, grassy hills and swampy

areas, locally known as Vayals which are very

common. The Vayals are generally surrounded

by hills and forests and as the drainage in this

area is particularly poor, there is an accumu-

lation of clayey loam resulting in a semi-mar-

shy condition. Grass grows luxuriously in this

area and elephants and gaur are greatly at-

tracted to this habitat. Man-made habitats in

this area are derived mainly from Teak plan-

tation. Eucalyptus is also raised and Tapioca

cultivated in newly felled areas.

The vegetation of Parambikulam which has

been studied by Sebastine and Ramamurthy

(1966) is a combination of Malabar and Dec-

can elements. Malabar elements occur in the

evergreen patches mainly in the valleys and

moist regions of the area. In Shofayar the

vegetation is mainly evergreen. Deccan ele-

ments are dominant in the moist deciduous

forest. Cullenla exarillatci, Myristica jmgrans,

Hydnocarpus wightiana, Dillenia sp., Aporosa

lindleyana, Cinnamomum sp., Herpullia arbo-

rea, Hydnocarpus lauri folia, Diospyros assi-

milis, Diospyros malabaricum, Adinosa sp.,

Baccaurea courtallensis, Machilus macrantha.

Vateria indica. Mesua jerrea are common in

the evergreen forests while Adina cordifolia,

Careya arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia, Pterocar-

pus marsupium, Dalbergia latifolia, Melia sp.

are common in moist deciduous forest. Clero-

dendron infortunatum, Fluggea sp., Glycosmis

pentaphylla, Hdicteres isora, Lantana camara

and Randia dumetorum are common under-

growth in moist deciduous forest. Lantana

grows thickly in cleared areas and lush growth

of Eupatorium was noted in Teak plantations,

especially where the plantation has failed.

Plantation :

Parambikulam was one of the typical teak

areas of the State and the best natural teak

was found in this region. But the extensive

extraction during the last several years has

depleted this area of its once famous teak and

rosewood. The first plantation in this area was

raised about 1912. The majority of the planta-

tions lie along the first section of the tram-

way line where clearfelled areas had been re-

generated artificially with teak. All the planta-

tions after 1932 were raised under taungya

system. Eucalyptus is also planted here on a

small scale. At present, 100 Sq. Km of the

sanctuary are under plantation.

Wildlife

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and the

Sholayar area have almost all the representa-

tive Peninsular Indian animals, (Table 2). Pug

marks of 6 tigers, 3 in Parambikulam sanc-

tuary and 3 inside Sholayar range, were seen.

Apart from tiger, the other endangered species

seen here are Liontailed macaque and Nilgiri

tahr, 76 of the former and 32 of the latter were

recorded from the sanctuary area.

889

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 2

Animals recorded from Parambikulam /Sholayar area

890

PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Nilgiri Langur Presbytis johni

238 animals were seen in 30 troops, the

largest troop had 11 individuals. 8 solitary in-

dividuals were seen. On several occasions the

number of individuals in a troop could not be

counted accurately because of the inaccessible

nature of the terrain. Troops were seen mainly

in sholas and moist deciduous forests, occa-

sionally in teak plantation, adjacent to natural

forests. They frequent bamboo clumps too.

Though there is no data to compare their po-

pulation, it is felt that their population has de-

creased considerably. The number of troops

seen during my previous visit to this area in

1972 was apparently higher. Illegal poaching

of this protected species from the remotest part

of the sanctuary is still going on, as reported

by local inhabitants. Habitat destruction is the

other major cause affecting their population.

largest 17. The former was in a small patch

of evergreen forest on the western slope of

Vengoli mudi near Thunakadavu reserve. This

population appeared to be an isolated one since

this patch of forest is surrounded by bamboo

forest and I saw no indication that they move

through bamboo.

The call of Liontailed macaque was heard

from Karimalagopuram, but the troop could

not be traced. A troop was reported from this

area by the Wildlife guides, a month after my

observation.

All the 7 troops were seen in evergreen

forests. Cullenia exarillata was common in all

these areas. In Sholayar the trees were in flower

during the period of observation and the ani-

mals ate the fruits and at times the flower.

Steven Green in his survey of Liontailed

macaque has not reported the occurrence of

this species in Parambikulam / Sholayar area.

Table 3

Distribution of Liontailed macaque in Param bikulam/ Sholayar area

Location of Sightings

No. of individuals No. of Troops

Vengoli mudi shola

Kuriyarkutty

Orukombankutty

Border of Vazhachal and

Orukombankutty

Sholayar range

Total seen

8 1

17 1

13 1

10 1

28 3 (8+11+9)

76

Liontailed Macaque Macaca silenus

16 were seen in 7 troops; 4 troops in Pa-

rambikulam area and 3 in Sholayar area (Ta-

ble 3). The average troop size is 10.8. The

smallest troop contained 8 individuals and the

Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus hylocrius

Tahr was observed at three places. Vengoli

peak, Karimalagopuram and Pandaravarama-

lai. Pandaravaramalai is on the east of Param-

bikulam and largely falls within the Anamalai

Sanctuary. Altogether 32 Tahr were seen

(Table 4).

891

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 4

Distribution of Nilgiri Tahr in Parambikulam are\

Vengoli peak

Karimalagopuram

Pandaravaramalai

18 One Saddleback

5 1 FY, 1 Saddleback, 1 Brown Buck

9 No Saddleback was noted.

Gun shots were heard frequently from the

foothills of Karimalagopuram, on the north-

ern side, where Tapioca is cultivated intensive-

ly. It is said to be to scare away the crop-

raiding animals!

Tiger Panthera tigris

Pug marks of three tigers were seen inside

Parambikulam Sanctuary area and three in

Sholayar area. Of the three in Parambikulam,

one was seen near a shola in Anapadi beat.

Droppings were also seen here and contained

Sambar hair. Two of the pug marks were seen

in Thellickal beat, both on the road to Param-

bikulam from Thellickal Rest House, between

teak plantations. Of the three pug marks seen

in Sholayar area, one was of a large animal.

Elephant Elephas maximus

Altogether 11 elephants were seen. Out of

the 4 Tuskers noted, one was a single tusker

and one other had its tail broken. One calf

was also seen. Elephants seemed to prefer teak

plantations to natural forests during the pe-

riod of observation.

Gaur Bos gaurus

Of the 41 gaur seen, one herd of 12 and

another of 15 were recorded at different pla-

ces. Three gaur were seen once in a bamboo

ings were not as contrasty as in the solitary

bulls were recorded. In the herd of 12 indi-

viduals, all were either cows or young bulls.

Since the pelage was brown, the white stock-

ings were not as contrasty as in the solitary

bulls. In the herd of 15, 6 were calves, 2 were

adult bulls and the rest females. Largest herd

was seen in ‘Vayals5. (Table 5).

Nilgiri Marten Maries gwatkinsi

A pair of this Mustelid carnivore was seen

in the Sholayar area, while the animals cross-

ed a road about 10 ft. away from me. There

is no recent record of this animal from Kerala.

Avifauna

The Parambikulam/ Sholayar area is very

rich in bird life. 133 species were observed

during the period of observation (See List

Appendix I).

Frogmouth ( Batrachostomus moniliger ) was

not recorded earlier from this area. The last

authentic record of this bird in Kerala (at

Thattakad) was in 1937, by Dr. Salim Ali. The

bird was seen on two consecutive days in a

bamboo thicket and was observed very closely.

A photograph could not be taken owing to

poor light condition. Since the plumage of the

bird was cryptic and merged with the surround-

ings, the bird could not be made out till it

moved. The breeding of Dollar bird ( Eury -

stomus orientalis) was recorded at Kuriarkutty

and also at Periya shola. Open areas with scat-

tered trees and shrubs, near water holes, sur-

rounded by forest is its typical habitat. Nests

of Monarcha azurea, Dlcrmus aeneus, Dicru-

rus hottentottus were also observed during the

study.

892

P ARAM B1KU LAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 5

Details of Gaur observed in the Sanctuary

The administrative set up of the sanctuary

is:

DFO : Local Administrative Head

One Assistant

Wildlife

Preservation

Officer : Next to DFO

3 Foresters : One each for Thekkady,

Thunakadavu and Parambi-

kulam.

4 Guards : One each for Thunakadavu,

Parambikulam, Kuriyarkut-

ty, and Orukombankutty.

3 Watchmen: One each for Thunakadavu,

Orukombankutty and Kuri-

yarkutty.

Thekkady area. The Watchman and Guard

posted for Orukombankutty area were never

to be seen there, as they did not stay there due

to the absence of accommodation and other

facilities. Considerable poaching of animals

was reported from Thekkady and Orukom-

bankutty area.

There were also two Wildlife Guides sta-

tioned at Thunakadavu during the study

period.

Wildlife management

There is no management system as such.

The vaccination of cattle against Rinderpest

and the provision of 16 saltlicks — 10 during

1974-75 and the rest in 1976 are perhaps the

only attempts at management.

893

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Existing threats to Wildlife in the area

(1) The proposed Kuriyarkutty Project :

The project envisages the construction of

three dams; one in Karapara river, one in

Pulickalar and a third one in Kuriyarkutty

river. It is aimed at irrigating 43,000 acres of

land in Chittoor area. The project when com-

pleted will have three power house stations

with an initial plant capacity of 82 MW. in

total (Table 6).

might have suffered very greatly during the

construction of these dams, might be in the

process of rebuilding. Therefore, a new

strain on the ecology of the area will certainly

be detrimental to the interest of the remaining

wildlife.

Even if the whole Kuriarkutty project con-

sisting of three dams cannot be called off, it

is suggested here that the whole project should

be reviewed and the possibility of calling off

Kuriyarkutty dam which will be inside the

Table 6

Details of the Project

Catchment area

Water spread area full Reservoir level

Full Reservoir level

Type of dam

Karapara

18.48 Sq. Ml.

8.75 acres

+3087'

Masonry

gravity

Pulickalar

6,24 Sq. Ml.

1200 acres

+2425'

Masonry

gravity

Kuriyarkutty

49.50 Sq. Ml

2950 acres

+1791'

Masonry

earch

Only Kuriyarkutty dam will come within the

limits of the Sanctuary.

Its waterspread area covers most of the

forests in Thellickal/Kachithodu area. This

area is very rich in Wildilife; pug marks of

two tigers were seen here. Though the other

two dams would be coming up only in Nel-

liampathy areas, outside of sanctuary limit,

the impact of them on the ecology of the

area would be severe, since they are very close

to the sanctuary.

Parambikulam already has three dams. Pa-

ra mb ikulam, Thunakadavu and Perivarapal-

lam. Though no authentic data are available

to show whether the wildlife has diminished

after the construction of these three dams,

enquiries with local people show that the

wildlife population has gone down tremend-

ously, especially the population of elephant

and Gaur, owing to the construction of these

dams. Theoretically, the population, which

894

sanctuary limits be considered.

(2) Extraction of Bamboo :

The common bamboo is Bambusa arundi-

naceae which flowers gregariously at long in-

tervals. Licence is issued for the extraction

of bamboo; the general norms which are laid

for the felling and removal of Bamboo are:

1 . “No clump shall be clearfelled except

those that have flowered, in which case they

shall be clearfelled only during the year

following the flowering so that there may

be enough time for seed fall and subse-

quent germination”.

2. “The total number of culms removed from

a single clump shall not exceed the number

of immature shoots present”.

3. “The cutting shall be distributed as far as

possible over the whole clump.

4. “Culms should be cut as low as possible,

and the cut shall always be made above

i

P ARAM B1KU LAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

the node so as to prevent rainwater collect-

ing in the stumps.”

Apart from the fact that these norms are

ignored, the magnitude of disturbance caused

to the Wildlife is very severe. Movements of

workers in the sanctum- sanctorum of the sanc-

tuary and movements of trucks on and off,

have detrimental effect on wildlife. Whether

the workers poach is anybody’s guess.

(3) Minor forest produce :

Under this apparently deceptive heading

falls cane, reeds, cardamom, honey and wax

extraction. Cardamom is extracted mainly

from the Sholayar area. The right of collection

of the produce is sold in auction to private

parties for a year or two. A number of people

are employed for the collection, while the re-

moval of reeds, canes, etc., speeds up the

habitat shrinkage, the movement of people

through the sanctuary scares away the wild

animals. Normally the workers live in tem-

porary sheds inside the forest for days to-

gether. Their activities form a continuous dis-

turbance to wildlife.

(4) Taungya system :

The taungya system was introduced to

Kerala in 1922, about 60 years after its origin

in Burma. In Parambikulam, all plantations

after 1932 were raised under the taungya sys-

tem. After clearfelling an area, it is planted

with seedlings of desired plantation trees and

is leased out for cultivation (here it is Tapio-

ca). The apparent advantage of this cultiva-

tion is that it prevents weed growth and also

offers shade to the seedlings. The ecological

disadvantages of this system are:

1. When an area is clearfelled and the logs

transported, a major portion of what is

due to the soil is lost, decomposition of

the plant material not being facilitated.

2. The soil mounts, which are made for

planting the tapioca, are the worst affect-

ed by erosion during rain.

3. By tapioca cultivation, a major portion

of the nutrient of the soil is lost in the

form of tapioca tubers.

4. When the crop is harvested, the tubers

are pulled out from the soil — the soil be-

comes very loose and hence vulnerable

to erosion by rain.

5. The resultant soil deprived of its vitality,

could probably impair the growth of the

seedlings.

6. The tapioca plant, which grows fast, often

overshadows the seedlings and obstructs

light. How far it affects the growth of the

seedlings is not known.

The probable effects of taungya on wildlife

are:

1 . The increased human activities on the

taungya land scare away the wild ani-

mals.

2. On the protext of crop protection the

taungyadars often keep guns which ulti-

mately lead to ruthless poaching of ani-

mals.

3. Tapioca tubers attract rodents in large

numbers and provide additional food to

them. This abundance of food might lead

to their rapid multiplication. When the

tapioca is harvested, and the additional

food is no more available, these rodents

might migrate to the neighbouring areas

— probably to villages in search of food.

In other words, the population which grew

beyond the optimum level due to the ad-

dition of food would be expelled as a re-

sult of competition from the area when

that additional food was no longer avail-

able. This population probably migrated

to the adjacent villages thereby causing

damage to village crops.

895

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

4. Wild pigs are also attracted by the tubers

of tapioca. The piglets which are bora

while the tapioca is available, are trained

to feed on these and are denied the op-

portunity of being trained to feed on

and search for natural food. This

could probably make the piglets less

competent to live in the natural condition

later on. All these are probable impacts

of the taungya system and have to be

studied in detail.

Notwithstanding its ecological impacts, the

most severe and at the same time, the most

obvious impact of taungya on wildlife is the

indiscriminate poaching of wild animals by

the taungyadars. Therefore, even if with all

the potential ecological dangers it is decided to

continue the taungya system, it is suggested

here that in order to decrease the poaching

activities the forest department should them-

selves undertake the cultivation instead of

leasing it out to private parties.

However, stopping this system has a lot of

social problems as tapioca is one of the major

food items of the poor in Kerala. Therefore,

a study on all aspects of this system has to be

made.

(5) Tribal settlement:

There are four types of tribals in the Param-

bikulam sanctuary area : Mudukas, Kadas,

Mulssers and Mulmalssers. They occupy dif-

ferent areas inside the sanctuary. Mulssers and

Mulmalssers are at Katchithodu and Sungam;

Kadas at Kuriyarkutty-Parambikulam area

and Mudukas opposite to Parambikulam lake;

altogether there are about 300 families. Dur-

ing the time of observation, the tribals at Kat-

chithodu were seen collecting bamboo rice.

Ground under the bamboo clump was cleared

and the rice that fell was collected. Tribals

are given land for cultivation at Katchi-

thodu area. This practice has a built-in

danger to wildlife. The area is surrounded bv

forest where wildilfe is abundant. Animals

often cross the field to the forest on the other

side. Therefore, the tribals have to scare away

the animals from their crop. Trapping of

smaller game like junglefowl is common among

these people. It was told that 200 acres of land

have been allocated for the tribals for settle-

ment and cultivation. The land selected for

this is at Sungam, where wild animals are often

seen and this is a severe threat to the wildlife

of the area.

(6) Cattle grazing :

Cattle are not abundant at Sungam range,

but in Parambikulam area they are. Reduc-

tion of their number at Parambikulam is ne-

cessary.

(7) Felling :

Both clearfelling and selection felling were

not observed in Parambikulam area during the

period of study. But in Sholayar, areas

were being marked for selection felling.

It is suggested here that no forestry operation

should be undertaken in areas lying close to

Orukombankutty and Karimalagopuram area

of Parambikulam where Liontailed Macaques

are common.

(8) Elephant capture :

Elephant capture has been going on for

years in this area, but has been stopped since

1975. The pits prepared during the operation

have been left unfilled and cause accidents to

wild animals occasionally. It was reported

once a gaur calf fell into one of the pits, and

another time an adult bull. It is suggested that

pit capture of elephants should not be restarted

and that the pits left by the former operations

should be filled.

896

PARAMB1KULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

(9) Fire :

Evidences of fire were seen at many places,

including areas very close to evergreen forests

— areas adjacent to the small patch of ever-

green forest on the side of Vengoli peak.

Several places on the way to Karimalagopu-

ram, many places at Anapadi were found

burnt. Fire inside the teak plantations was also

rampant. None was natural, but man-made.

Man-made fire, unless under control, is very

destructive to wildilfe and to the general eco-

logy of the area.

(10) Stray dogs :

At Thunakadavu, Parambikulam, Kuriyar-

kutty and Sungam areas stray dogs are abund-

ant. At Thunakadavu, a dog was seen chas-

ing a spotted deer. There is also the danger of

transmitting rabies to wild animals.

(11) Man and Wild Dog kills :

When a sambar is killed by the wild dogs,

the dogs are often chased away and the prey

is collected by the local people. On 23rd

April, 1976, at Thellickal, very close to the

labourers’ quarters of the Electricity Board,

one Sambar was found killed by wild dogs.

It had three small injuries. One on the neck,

one below the left eye and another one on the

chest. The animal was killed near the Thelli-

ckal river and pulled towards the river bed,

but the wild dogs were chased away and the

kill was collected by the people. I understood

that this is the regular practice here. This

means the dogs will make an additional kill

and in the long run, this type of poaching

by man of the wild dogs kills is bound to

affect the balance between the wild dog and

its prey.

(12) Poaching :

No poaching was seen during the period of

observation, but gun shots were heard many

times from the Tapioca plantation area. It

was learned from reliable people that the

tapioca contractors indulge in poaching quite

often.

T ourism

The presence of representative peninsular

Indian species and the possibility of viewing

some of them easily should attract tourists.

Endangered species like Nilgiri Tahr 'and Lion-

tailed macaque could be seen within an hour’s

walk from the main road at Vengoli peak.

The giant teak known as Kannymarathekku

(50+ metres high and 6 metres girth) which

is at least 300 years old, and the Woods

Grave — the grave of Mr. Hugh Woods, who

was a working plan officer in the 1900’s —

add to the tourist attraction. Boating facilities

though not availiable at present, could be an

additional attraction to tourists.

Accommodation

The only accommodation available inside

the sanctuary is at Parambikulam where the

P.W.D. of Tamil Nadu has a Rest House with

five suites. At present a small bungalow with

two suites has come up at Thunakadavu.

Tourists could also stay at Topslip area, half

an hour drive from Thunakkadavu.

Conveyance

There are no transport facilities in this area.

A jeep has been allocated for tourists but

would never become available.

Recommendations

1. A thorough analysis of the Kuriyarkutty

project by a combined team of Wildlife

Biologists and the concerned engineers,

is necessary to consider reducing the sub-

mergible areas at least inside the sanc-

tuary limits.

897

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

2. Stop extraction of bamboos from the

sanctuary area.

3. Discourage collection of minor forest pro-

ducts from the sanctuary limits.

4. If taungya system cannot be stopped, it

should be undertaken by the forest de-

partment to reduce poaching.

5. Discourage the tribals from settling in-

side the sanctuary area; if this is not pos-

sible, remove and rehabilitate them out-

side the sanctuary.

6. Discourage the granting of land to the

tribals for cultivation in the interior of

the forest.

7. Reduce the cattle population in Faram-

bikulam while maintaining the present

population of cattle in the Sungam area.

8 . Discourage selection felling in Sholayar

area.

9. Elephant-capture pits should be covered

to avoid accidents to other wildlife.

10. Fire lines of standard size should be put

and more watchmen should be employed

for fire-watching.

11. Stray dogs should be removed from the

sanctuary.

12. Stringent measures should be taken

against stealing of wild dog kills.

13. Thuthanpara and Karapara beats on the

west and the forests lying east of Chala-

kudy river and north of Vazhachal-Val-

para road which include part of the Vaz-

hachal range and part of Anakkayam

beat, Sholayar beat and Chandanathodu

beat of the Sholayar range on the south

should be included in the sanctuary area.

Forestry operations or any other disturb-

ance to the habitat in the Thuthanpara

and Karapara beat might destroy the

population of Fiontailed Macaque in the

Orukombankutty area. Pressure to the

habitat and population of this macaque

from various estates in this area is con-

siderable. Thuthanpara and Karapara

beats, if preserved, would act as a buffer

zone to the habitat of Macaques in the

Orukombankutty area.

Fiontailed macaques were observed at

Sholayar and Chandanathodu beats of the

Sholayar range and also at Kuriyarkutty

area of Parambikulam Sanctuary. The

forests of Kuriyarkutty and Orukomban-

kutty are separated by Teak plantations.

The only possible connection is through

the Karapara river valley (I observed one

troop here). The other possible connec-

tion is perhaps through the narrow isth-

mus-like projection through teak planta-

tions of Orukombankutty forests where

the Parambikulam river and Sholayar

river meet. Through this forest connec-

tion, the macaques could move to the

Sholayar area. Troops in the Kuriyarkutty

area will be isolated if forests in the Sho-

layer-Chandanathodu beats are destroyed.

Therefore, Sholayar and Chandana-

thodu beats and the forests west of it

up to Chalakudy river, if included in the

Sanctuary and protection offered, the

troops of these areas and the troops of

Kuriyarkutty and Orukombankutty

could mix, interbreed and form a healthy

population.

I feel that this sanctuary should not be

opened for tourism, but should be preserved

for research, and hence no suggestions are

made here for the improvement of tourist faci-

lities.

898

PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Appendix I

A SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE BIRDS SEEN /HEARD IN

PARAMBIKULAM /SHOLAYAR AREA

1 . Little Cormorant, Phalacrocorax niger.

2. Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis.

3. Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax.

4. Blackwinged Kite, Elanus caeruleus.

5. Common Pariah Kite, Milvus migrans.

6. Brahminy Kite, Haliastur indus.

7. Shikra, Accipiter badius.

8. Indian Crested Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus cirrha-

tus.

9. Black Eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis.

10. Greyheaded Fishing Eagle, Icthyophaga ich-

thyaetus.

1 1 . Crested Serpent Eagle, S pilornis cheela.

12. Indian Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus.

13. Bush Quail, Perdicula sp. ?

14. Grey Junglefowl, Gallus sonneratii.

15. Whitebreasted Waterhen, Amaurornis phoeni-

curus.

16. Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus.

17. Fantail Snipe, Capella gallinago.

18. Common Green Pigeon, Treron phoenicop-

tera.

19. Grayfronted Green Pigeon, Treron pompa-

dora.

20. Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon, Ducula badia.

21. Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Columba elphinstonii.

22. Indian Spotted Dove, Streptopelia chinensis.

23. Indian Emerald Dove, Chalcophaps indica

24. Blossomheaded Parakeet, Psittacula cyanoce-

phala.

25. Bluewinged Parakeet, Psittacula columboides.

26. Malabar Lorikeet, Loriculus vernalis.

27. Common Hawk-Cuckoo, Cuculus varius.

28. Small Greenbilled Malkoha, Rhopodytes viri-

dirostris.

29. Crow-Pheasant, Centropus sinensis.

30. Collared Scops Owl, Otus bakkamoena.

31. Brown Fish Owl, Bubo zeylonensis.

32. Brown Wood Owl, Strix leptogrammica.

33. Malabar Jungle Owlet, Glaucidium radiatum.

34. Hawk-Owl, Ninox scutulata.

35. Spotted Owlet, Athene brama.

36. Ceylon Frogmouth, Batrachostomus moniliger.

37. Indian Jungle Nightjar, Caprimulgus indicus.

38. Common Indian Nightjar, Caprimulgus asia-

ticus.

39. Large Brownthroated Spinetail Swift, Chaetura

gigantea.

40. Malabar Trogon, Harpactes fasciatus.

41 . Common Kingfisher, Alcedo athis.

42. Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher, Pelargop-

sis cape ns is.

43. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis.

44. Chestnutheaded Bee-eater, Merops leschen-

aulti.

45. Bluebearded Bee-eater, Nyctyornis athertoni.

46. Indian Roller, Coracias benghalensis.

47. Broadbilled Roller, Eurystomus orientalis.

48. Hoopoe, Upupa epops.

49. Great Indian Hornbill, Buceros bicornis.

50. Small Green Barbet, Megalaima viridis.

51. Coppersmith, Megalaima haemacephala.

52. Speckled Piculet, Picumnus innominatus.

53. Rufous Woodpecker, Micropternus brachyurus.

54. Small Yellownaped Woodpecker, Picus chloro-

lophus.

55. Goldenbacked woodpecker, Dinopium ben-

ghalense.

56. Great Black Woodpecker, Dryocopus javensis.

57. Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker, Dendrocopos

mahrattensis.

58. Pigmy Woodpecker, Dendrocopos nanus.

59. Heartspotted Woodpecker, Hemicircus canente.

60. Indian Pitta, Pitta brachyura.

61. Dusky Crag Martin, Hirundo concolor.

62. Eastern Swallow, Hirundo rustica.

63. Redrumped Swallow, Hirundo daurica.

64. Brown Shrike, Lanius cristatus.

65. Blackheaded Oriole, Oriolus xanthornus.

66. Black Drongo, Dicrurus adsimilis.

67. Whitebellied Drongo, Dicrurus caerulescens.

68. Bronzed Drongo, Dicrurus aeneus.

69. Haircrested Drongo, Dicrurus hottentottus.

70. Large Racket-tailed Drongo, Dicrurus para -

diseus.

71. Greyheaded Myna, Sturnus malabaricus.

72. Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis.

73. Grackle, Gracula religiosa.

74. Tree Pie, Dendrocitta vagabunda.

75. Southern Tree Pie, Dendrocitta leucogastra.

76. House Crow, Corvus splcndens.

77. Indian Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos.

78. Pied Flycatcher-Shrike, Hemipus picatus.

899

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

79. Common Wood Shrike, Tephrodornis pondi-

cerianus.

80. Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike, Coracina melano-

ptera.

81 . Orange Minivct, Pericrocotus flammeus.

82. Small Minivet, Pericrocotus cinnamomeus.

83. lora, Aegithina tiphia.

84. Goldenfronted Chloropsis, Chloropsis auri-

frons.

85. Fairy Bluebird, Irena puella.

86. Rubythroated Bulbul, Pycnonotus melanicterus

gularis.

87. Redwhiskered Bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus.

88. Redvented Bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer.

89. Yellowbrowed Bulbul, Hypsipetes indicus.

90. Black Bulbul, Hypsipetes madagascariensis.

91. Spotted Babbler Pellorneum rufceps.

92. Scimitar Babbler, Pomatorhinus schisticeps.

93. Blackheaded Babbler, Rhopocichla atriceps.

94. Rufous Babbler, Turdoides subrufus.

95. Jungle Babbler, Turdoides striatus.

96. Wynaad Laughing Thrush, Garrulax delesserti.

97. Quaker Babbler, Alcippe poioicephala.

98. Brown Flycatcher, Muscicapa latirostris.

99. Rufous Flycatcher Muscicapa ruficauda.

100. Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher, Muscicapa tickelliae.

101. Greyheaded Flycatcher, Culicicapa ceylonensis.

102. Paradise Flycatcher, Terpsi phone paradisi.

103. Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher, Monarcha azu-

rea.

104. Longtail Warbler, Prinia hodgsonii.

105. Plain Longtail Warbler, Prinia subflava.

106. Tailor Bird, Orthotomus sutorius.

107. Thickbilled Warbler, Phragmaticola aedon.

108. Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus dume-

torum.

109. Dull Green Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus tro-

chiloides.

110. Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus sp.?

111. Magpie Robin, Copsychus saularis.

112. Malabar Whistling Thrush, Myiophoneus hors-

fieldii.

113. Whitethroated Ground Thrush, Zoothera cit-

rina cyanotus.

Refe

Ali, Salim (1969) : Birds of Kerala. Oxford Uni-

versity Press, Madras.

Sebastine, K. M. and Ramamurthy, K. (1966) :

114. Indian Grey Tit. Parus major.

115. Yellowcheeked Tit, Parus xanthogenys.

116. Velvetfronted Nuthatch, Sit la frontalis.

117. Paddyfield Pipit, Anthus novaeseelandiae.

118. Forest Wagtail, Motacilla indica

119. Grey Wagtail, Motacilla caspica.

120. White Wagtail, Motacilla alba.

121. Large Pied Wagtail, Motacilla maderaspatensis.

122. Thickbilled Flowerpecker, Dicaeum agile.

123. Tickell’s Flowerpecker, Dicaeum erythrorhyn-

chos.

124. Indian Purplerumped Sunbird, Nectarinia zey-

lonica.

125. Small Sunbird, Nectarinia minima.

126. Purple Sunbird, Nectarinia asiatica.

127. Little Spiderhunter, Arachnothera longirostris.

128. White-eye, Zoster ops palpebrosa.

129. House Sparrow, Passer domesticus.

130. Whitethroated Munia, Lonchura malabarica.

131. Rufousbellied Munia, Lonchura kelaarti.

132. Spotted Munia, Lonchura punctulata.

133. Blackheaded Munia, Lonchura malacca.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Bombay Natural His-

tory Society for sponsoring the project and to

its Curator, Mr. J. C. Daniel, for his guidance

and encouragement. I am grateful to the

World Wildlife Fund-India for financing the

study, and to Mrs. D. S. Varfava, Administra-

tor, World Wildlife Fund-India, for taking a

keen interest in the successful completion of

the project.

I record my sincere thanks to Mr. K. K.

Nair, Chief Conservator of Forests (Develop-

ment), Kerala, for permitting me to work in-

side the forests. The co-operation of the field

staff of the Forest Department in Parambi-

kulam and Sholayar is gratefully acknow-

ledged.

ENCES

Studies on the flora of Parambikulam and Aliyar

submergible areas. Bull. Bat. Surv. India, 8:169-

182.

900

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF IMP ALIENS LINN. ( B ALS AMIN ACE AE) FROM

SOUTH INDIA1

M. Chandrabose2

(With nine text-figures)

Impatiens chandrasekharanli sp. nov.

Impatiens modesta Wt. affinis tamen differens

foliis palmatim prof unde lobatis, lobis denuo

in lobulis lobatis, palmatim 3-5 — nervatis; cal-

care labii cylindrico leviter incurvato; vexillo

suborbiculari, latiori quam longo, apice inden-

tato, lobo membranaceo ad centrum porcato.

Herba scapigera; caudex 1 — L8 x 0.5 — 0.8

cm, roseus, elliptico-oblongus, tuberosus, laevis,

fibrillosus. Folia radicalia; lamina 2 — 8.5 cm

diam., sub-orbicularis, palmatim 3-9-lobata;

lobi 1.5 — 5x0.3 — 1.5 cm, oblongo — obovati vel

ovati, membranacei, glabri (praeter pilos pau-

cos super nervos supra), lobulis divisi; lobuli

emarginati, apice breviter mucronati, basi at-

tenuate palmatim 3 — 5-nervati, nervis roseis;

petioli 1 — 6 cm longi, striis pallido-viridis, gra-

ciles, glabri. Flores 0.8 — 1.2 cm diam., albi,

roseosuffusi, pauci, racemosi; scapus 3 — 20 cm

longus, gracilis, erectus, glaber; pedicelli 0.7 — 2

cm longi, graciles, glabri; bracteae 2 — 2.5 x 1.2

mm, virides, ovato-oblongi, subobtusi, glabri.

Sepala 3; lateralia 2, utrumque ± 2 x 1.2 mm,

pallido-viride, punctis roseuis, ovato-oblongum,

subacutum, glaber; posterior vero — 3 mm

longum, album, late ovatum, concavum, apice

subacutum, ad basim calcaratum; calcar ± 3

mm longum, album, cylindricum, leviter incur-

1 Accepted October 1978.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 002.

vatum. Petala 3, alba, roseo-suffusa, vexillum

2 — 3 x 4 — 5 mm, latior quam longum, subor-

biculare, membranaceum, lobo membranaceo

ad centrum porcatum, Igaber, apice indenta-

tum; alae 2, utrumque ± 1 cm longa, glabra

(praeter pilos paucos papillatos intra ad basin),

3- lobata; lobi ±4x2 mm, subaequales, ob-

longo-obovati, obtusi. Stamina ± 2 mm longa,

5; filamenta brevia; antherae coherentes. Ova-

rium — 1.5 x 1 mm, ovato-ellipticum, glaber;

stigma sessile, 5-dentatum, Capsula (immatura)

± 2 x 0.5 mm, ellipsoidea, glabra. (Figs. 1-9).

Holotypus Chandrabose 57269 A et isotypi

Chandrabose 57269 B-N lecti ad Akkamalai,

Anamalai, Dist. Coimbatore in statu Tamil

Nadu (Madras) lie 23-7-1978; holotypus posi-

tus in CAL, isotypi in MH.

Impatiens chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

Allied to Impatiens modesta Wt., but differs

in having leaves palmately, deeply lobed, lobes

again divided into lobules, palmately 3-5 nerv-

ed; spur of lip cylindric, slightly incurved; and

standard petal suborbicular, broader than long,

indented at apex, ridged with a membranous

flap at the centre.

Scapigerous herbs; rootstock 1-1.8 x 0. 5-0.8

cm, pink, elliptic-oblong, tuberous, smooth, with

fibrous roots. Leaves radical; lamina 2-8.5 cm

across, suborbicular in outline, palmately 3-9

lobed; lobes 1.5-5 x 0.3- 1.5 cm, oblong-obo-

vate or obovate, membranous, glabrous (except-

901

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ing a few hairs on the nerves above), divided

into lobules; lobules emarginate, with a short

mucro at apex, attenuated at base, palmately

3-5 nerved, nerves pink; petioles 1-6 cm long,

pale green with pink striations, slender, gla-

brous. Flowers 0.8 — 1.2 cm across, white with

pink tinge, few, in racemes; scape 3-20 cm

long, slander, erect, glabrous; pedicels 0.7-2

cm long, slender, glabrous; bracts 2-2.5 x 1.2

mm, green, ovate-oblong, subobtuse, glabrous.

Sepals 3; laterals 2, each — 2 x 1.2 mm, pale

green with pink dots, ovate-oblong, subacute,

glabrous; posterior sepal ± 3 mm long, white.

Figs. 1-9. Impatiens chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. Flower; 3. Posterior sepal; 4. Lateral

sepals; 5. Bract; 6. Standard petal; 7. Wing petals;

8. Androecium; 9. Gynoecium.

broadly ovate, concave, subacute at apex, spur-

red at base; spur ± 3 mm long, white, cylin-

dric, slightly incurved. Petals 3, white with

pink tinge; standard petal 2-3 x 4-5 mm, broad-

er than long, suborbicular, membranous, ridg-

ed with a membranous flap at the centre, gla-

brous, indented at apex; wing petals two, each

± 1 cm long, glabrous excepting a few papil-

late hairs at the base within, 3-lobed; lobes

— 4x2 mm, subequal, oblong-obovate, obtuse.

Stamens 151 2 mm long, 5; filaments short;

anthers cohering. Ovary ± 1.5 x 1 mm, ovate-

elliptic, glabrous; stigma sessile, 5-toothed.

Immature capsules ± 2 x 0,5 mm, ellipsoid,

glabrous. (Figs. 1-9).

The holotype Chandrabose 57269 A (CAL)

and isotypes Chandrabose 57269 B-N (MH)

were collected in Akkamalai, Anamalai in Co-

imbatore District, Tamil Nadu (Madras State)

on 23.7.1978.

This curious delicate species grows usually

on wet tree trunks and occasionally on wet

rocks in tuft of moss in the evergreen forests

at an altitude of 1,700 m. This species is nam-

ed in honour of Dr. N. Chandrasekharan Nair,

Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore for his contribution to the taxo-

nomy of Indian plants.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. C. Grey-

Wilson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey,

England working at present on the section

scaposae of Impatiens Linn, for his valuable

opinion on the specimen; Rev. Fr. Dr. K. M.

Matthew, S.J., Rapinat Herbarium, Tiruchira-

palli for rendering Latin translation; and Dr.

A. N. Henry, Systematic Botanist, Botanical

Survey of India, Coimbatore for help.

902

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS THARPYNA KOCH

FROM INDIA (FAMILY : THOMISIDAE)1

B. K. Tikader2 and Bijan Biswas

(With six text-figures)

Introduction

The spiders of the family Thomisidae are

moderately known from Indian fauna. Stoliczka

(1969), Simon (1892), Dyal (1935) describ-

ed some species of Thomisidae from India,

however the classical work of Pocock (1900)

on Indian spiders contains no reference to this

family. Recently Tikader (1960, 1971) and

Tikader & Biswas (1974) recorded many

known and new species of the various genera

of the family.

While examining the spider collection receiv-

ed from West Bengal and Himachal Pradesh,

we came across two new species of spiders of

the genus Tharpyna Koch of the family Tho-

misidae, which are being described in this

paper. The illustrations used in this paper are

prepared by Shri P. W. Garde, Artist of this

station.

All type specimens will in due course be de-

posited in the National Collection of Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta.

Genus Tharpyna Koch

Tharpyna Koch, 1874. Ar. Austr., : 548.

Tharpyna : Simon, 1892. Hist. Nat. Araign.,

1 : 1015.

Tharpyna : Workman, 1896. Malaysian spider,

1 : 4.

1 Accepted May 1978.

' 2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional

Station, Poona-411 005.

Characters’. Cephalothorax moderately high,

convex, slightly wider in front, side nearly

parallel. Eyes in two rows, both are recurved,

median eyes nearer to each other than to ad-

jacent laterals. Ocular quad longer than wide

and wider behind. Crab-like appearance. Abdo-

men decorated and clothed with hairs.

Type-species: Tharpyna diademata Koch.

Distribution: Java; N. Hollandia, New Zea-

land, Burma, Sumatra and India.

Tharpyna Iisdka sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

General: Cephalothorax reddish brown,

abdomen black with white patches. Total length

4.50 mm. Carapace 1.75 mm. long, 1.75 mm.

wide; abdomen 2.30 mm. long, 2.70 mm. wide.

Cephalothorax: Nearly as long as wide, mo-

derately high and convex, smooth and shiny,

deep brown, slightly narrowing posteriorly,

clothed with a few stout hairs; thoracic region

slightly elevated. Eyes in two rows, both re-

curved. Anterior laterals larger and posterior

medians smallest. Both medians nearer to each

other than from the adjacent laterals. Ocular

quad slightly longer than wide and wider be-

hind. Sternum heart-shaped, pointed posterior-

ly, brown, clothed with fine hairs. Labium

brown, longer than wide, distal end of maxillae

pale and wide. Chelicerae weak reddish brown,

clothed with hairs. Legs short and stout, red-

dish brown, coxae and the proximal end of

the femora II, III & IV with pale colour.

Abdomen: Almost round slightly narrowing

903

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

posteriorly, jet black, covered with pubescence.

Dorsally near the edge provided with conspi-

cuous irregular shaped chalk white patches

as in text-fig. 1. Anterior median provided with

a large sigilla followed posteriorly by two pairs

of sigilla. Posterior extremity also provided

with small white patches and spots. Ventral

side black. Two pale round spots present just

posterior to the epigyne. Epigyne as in text-

fig. 2. Internal genitalia as in text-fig, 3. Male

unknown.

Tharpyna indica sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 2. Epigyne;

3. Internal genitalia.

Holotype female, paratype one female in spi-

rit.

Type-locality : Choona Vhati near Sibpur

Botanical Garden, Dist. Howrah, West Bengal,

India. Coll. Bijan Biswas, 25.8.1977.

This species resemble T. diademata Koch

but can be separated on the basis of: (i) diffe-

rence in abdominal colour pattern and (ii)

structural difference in Epigyne and Internal

genitalia.

Tharpyna himachalensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4 6)

General : Cephalothorax, legs reddish brown,

abdomen deep-brown. Total length 5.75 mm.

Carapace 2.25 mm long, 1.70 mm wide; abdo-

men 3.40 mm long, 2.90 mm v/ide.

Cephalothorax : Longer than wide, wider in

front, moderately high and convex, smoothly

shiny and deep reddish brown; slightly narrow-

ing posteriorly, clothed with a few short hairs,

thoracic region slightly elevated. Eyes in two

rows, both recurved but posterior row more

recurved than anterior row. Anterior and pos-

terior laterals large and nearly same size, pos-

terior medians smallest. Both medians nearer

to each other than from adjacent laterals. Ocu-

T harpy na himachalensis sp. nov.

4. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 5. Epigyne;

6. Internal genitalia.

904

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

lar quad slightly longer than wide and wider

behind. Sternum nearly oval, slightly pointed

posteriorly, brown, clothed with fine hairs. La-

bium and maxillae brown, longer than wide,

distal end of maxillae pale and wide. Chelicerae

weak, reddish-brown, clothed with hairs. Legs

short and stout, reddish brown clothed with

hairs and spine-like hairs.

Abdomen : Nearly elliptical, longer than

wide, clothed with fine hairs and some spine-

like hairs. Dorsal side decorated with pattern

of dots as in text-fig. 4. Anterior median pro-

vided with a small sigilla, followed posteriorly

by two pairs of sigilla, posterior pair larger

than the other and all sigilla provided with

deep red colour. Ventral side pale in colour.

Refei

Dyal, S. (1935) : Spiders of Lahore, Bull. Zool.

Punjab Univ., 1; 119.

Pocock, R. I. (1900) : Fauna of Brit. India,

Arachnida.

Simon, E. (1892): Hist. Nat. Araign., 1, 1015.

Stoliczka, F. (1869) : Contribution towards the

knowledge of Indian Arachnidae. J. Asia. Soc.

Bengal, 38, 201.

Tikader, B. K. (1960) : On some new species of

Epigyne as in text-fig. 5. Internal genitalia as

in text-fig. 6. Male unknown.

Holotype female in spirit.

Type-locality : Chogaon (Tapri) Disk, Kin-

nour, Himachal Pradesh, India. Coll. Dr.

Arun Kumar , 21.6.1975.

This species resembles Tharpyna indica but

can be separated as follows: (i) Abdomen

brown with pale dots all over the dorsum but

in T. indica abdomen jet black and provided

near the edges with conspicuous irregular

shaped chalk-white patches, (ii) Lateral eyes

large and equal but in T. indica anterior late-

ral eyes larger than the others, (iii) Epigyne

and Internal genitalia structurally different.

e n c e s

spiders (Arachnida) of the family Thomisidae from

India. 3. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 57(1) : 173.

(1971): Revision of Indian Crab-

spiders (Araneae: Thomisidae). Mem. Zool. Surv.

India, Calcutta, 15 (3) : 1-90.

- & Biswas, Bijan (1974): Some

spiders of the genus Xysticus (Family: Thomisidae)

from Darjeeling, India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 80

(6): 262-266.

A NEW SPECIES OF PELIOCOCCUS BORCHSENIUS FROM INDIA

(HOMOPTERA : PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) 1

Rajendra Kumar Avasthi2

AND

Shaikh Adam Shafee

( With fifteen

Genus Peliococcus Borchsenius

The genus Peliococcus was proposed by

Borchsenius in 1948 with Phenacoccus

chersonensis Kiritshenko as type species. The

1 Accepted August 1978.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

text -figures )

genus is reported for the first time from India.

Peliococcus indices sp. nov. (figs. 1-15)

Femah (fig. 1):

Mounted material broadly oval in outline,

slightly more than one and a half times longer

than wide (3.32 : 1.93 mm). Dorsal surface

membranous with minute setae (fig. 13) and

905

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Figs. 1-15. Peliococcus indicus sp. nov., $ :

(1) body, dorsal and ventral view; (2) antenna; (3-5) part of fore, mid and hind legs; (6) claw of

hind leg; (7) anterior spiracle; (8) trilocular pore, (ventral); (9) quinquelocular pore; (10) multilo-

cular pore; (11) tubular duct; (12) marginal cerarrii; (13) dorsal setae; (14) trilocular pore, (dorsal);

(15) anal opening.

906

O 25mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

trilocular pores (fig. 14); margin of the body

with a series of 18 pairs of cerarii, each with

a pair of conical spines and a group of 7-10

trilocular pores (fig. 12); anal lobe cerarii

formed with two conical spines surrounded by

one or two minute setae and a group of trilo-

cular pores; dorsal cephalic and abdominal

the margin of the body having a series of 18

pairs of cerarii, each cerarii with two conical

spines and a group of trilocular pores, 9-seg-

mented antennae, presence of cephalic and

abdominal ostioles, and dentate claw. But the

two species distinctly differ in the following

important characters:

Peliococcus indicus sp. nov.

Peliococcus plurimus De Lotto

1 . Claw digitule dilated at apex.

2 . Circulus absent.

3. Multilocular pores confined to posterior part of

abdomen on ventral surface.

4. Compact clusters of numerous multilocular

pores present.

ostioles well developed with inner membran-

ous lips; anal ring cellular with six long setae

(fig. 15).

Ventral surface membranous with sparsely

distributed multilocular pores (fig. 10), small

and large setae; trilocular pores arranged along

the marginal and sub marginal areas of the

body (fig. 8); quinquelocular pores on the

mid region of the body (fig. 9); tubular ducts

sparsely distributed on marginal and on pos-

terior abdominal segments (fig. 11); poste-

rior margin with three pairs of long setae; cir-

culus well developed, oval in shape, between

4th & 5th abdominal segments. Labium dime-

rous; anterior and posterior spiracles well de-

veloped (fig. 7). Antennae 9-segmented, 0.53

mm long, inserted near the anterior margin

of the cephalic region; 1st segment wider than

long, segments 2-9 longer than wide (fig. 2).

Legs normal; femur and tibia of fore, mid

and hind legs are 0.21:0.21 mm, 0.22:0.25

mm and 0.25:0.29 mm in length respectively;

claw simple with a denticle placed rather api-

cally; claw digitules long and narrow (fig. 6).

Peliococcus indicus is more closely re-

lated to Peliococcus plurimus De Lotto in

Claw digitule pointed at apex.

Circulus present

Multilocular pores distributed throughout the body

on ventral surface.

Compact clusters of multilocular pores absent.

Holotype $, India: Mysore, Bangalore,

Hebbal, on Prosopis spicigera L., 29.vi.1968,

Coll. S. Adam Shafee.

Paratypes 4 $ (same data as for holotype).

Holotype and Paratypes in Zoological Mu-

seum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,

India.

Hayat et al. (1972), Shafee (1972) and

Shafee et al. (1973) reported some species of

encyrtids as parasites of Peliococcus sp. Host

material of these parasites deposited in the

Zoological Museum, Aligarh Muslim Univer-

sity, Aligarh has been studied and described

here as a new species. The parasites reported

by earlier workers are Anagyrus nigricorpus

Shafee et al., Cheiloneurus latijrons Hayat et

al., Mashhoodia flava Shafee, M. indica Sha-

fee, and Plagiomerus bangalorensis Shafee

et al.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are greatly indebted to Prof. S. Mash-

hood Alam, Head, Department of Zoology,

for providing research facilities. We are also

thankful to Prof. Nawab H. Khan for en-

couragement.

907

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

References

Borchsenius, N. S. (1948): Contribution to the

revision of the genus Phenacoccus Ckll. (Insecta,

Homoptera, Coccoidea) (In Russian). C. R. Acad.

Sci. USSR, Moscow ( N.S. ). 61: 953-956.

De Lotto, G. (1969) : The Mealy bugs of South

Africa (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) . II, Entomo-

logy Mem. Dep. Agric. Serv. Repub. S. Africa

No. 20: 1-30.

Hayat, M., Alam, S. M. & Agarwal, M. M.

(1975): Taxonomic survey of Encyrtid Para-

sites (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in India. Alig.

Musi. Univ. Publ. ( Zool . Ser .) Ind. Ins. Typ. 9:

1-112.

Shafee, S. A. (1972) : Species of the genera

Tachardiaephagus Ashmead, 1904 and Mashhoodia

Shafee, 1972 (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from

India. Indian J. Ent. 34: 325-329.

Alam, S. M. and Agarwal, M. M.

(1975): Taxonomic survey of Encyrtid Para-

sites (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in India. Alig.

Musi. Univ. Publ. {Zool. Ser.) Ind. Ins. Typ. 10:

1-125.

A NEW SPECIES AND A NEW RECORD OF THE INTERESTING

GENUS SMICROMORPHA GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA :

CHALCIDIDAE) FROM ORIENTAL REGION1

T. C. Narendran2

( With six text -figures)

The genus Smicromorpha was erected by

Girault (1913) who included it under a new

tribe Smicromorphini of the family Chalcidi-

dae. Girault described this genus based

on the type Smicromorpha doddi Gir-

ault from Australia. He described two more

species, S. cadaverosa (1914) and S. minera

(1926) from Australia. According to Dr. Bou-

cek S. minera is a misspelling for S. minerva

(Personal communication). Since then there

was no report on this genus from any part of

the world. The present paper records this

genus from India for the first time.

Smicromorpfia keraleiisSs sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

Male: Length 4.5 mm. Head golden yellow

with the eyes and ocelli black. Thorax golden

1 Accepted November 1978.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala, India.

yellow with pale brown patches as in Figure

4. Wings hyaline. Fore- and mid-legs golden

yellow with the pretarsus pale brown. Hind

coxa brownish-black; hind femur dull golden

yellow with black coloration on the proximal

and dorsal margin as in figure 6. Hind tarsi

golden yellow with the pretarsus brown. Ab-

domen blackish-brown. Pubescence golden

yellow.

Head (Fig. 1) a little wider than the maxi-

mum width of thorax, sparsely and shallowly

punctate; interspaces between the punctures

rugulose. Scrobe deep with transverse stria-

tions; apex of scrobe far away from the front

ocellus, area below scrobe coarse with trans-

verse striations. Pre-and post-orbital carinae

absent (Figs. 1 & 2). Eyes large and devoid

of cilia. Inter-antennal projection very small

and hardly visible. The maximum diameter of

median ocellus equal to that of lateral; the

distance between median and lateral ocelli one-

third the interocellar distance; interocular

908

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-6. Smicromorpha keralensis sp. nov.

1. Head in front view; 2. head in profile; 3. antenna; 4. thorax in dorsal view (less propodeum);

5. hind leg and abdomen in lateral view (with part of propodeum) ; 6. fore wing.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

space three and one-third times interocellar

distance; width of ocellar area three-fourths

interocular space; interocellar distance a little

over the maximum diameter of lateral ocel-

lus. Right mandible sickle shaped; left one

short and acute. Antenna (Fig. 3) nine joint-

ed without a ring segment, inserted a trifle

over the level of lower margin of eyes; scape

never reaches the front ocellus and never ex-

ceeds the upper rim of scrobe; size and shape

of antennal segments as in figure 3.

Thorax (Fig. 4) moderately convex with

small, shallow, reticulate and close punctures

on notum; natualices complete; scutellum with-

out a shallow median groove; met’anotum with

weak longitudinal costae; propodeum some-

what strongly declined posteriorly, with a

shallow median groove which widens at its

distal end; punctures on the propodeum sim-

ple, shallow and close, without forming defi-

nite carinae; sides of propodeum with a spi-

racle on each side but without teeth. Fore

wing (Fig. 6) a little over two and a half times

as long as wide; marginal vein a little less

than four times the submarginal; stigmal

shorter than the marginal; postmarginal absent.

Fore and mid tibia with a single spur each.

Hind coxa (Fig. 5) with reticulate shallow

punctures on all sides, so rather mat; no tooth

or protuberance on hind coxa. Outer side of

hind femur rugose with very minute punctures;

densely pubescent, outer ventral margin with

a series of minute comblike teeth projecting

on outer side of hind tibiae when the tibia is

bent; inner basal tooth absent.

Gaster (Fig. 5) inserted far up on the pro-

podeum just below the apex of scutellum;

petiole a little shorter than the hind coxa. Seg-

ments of abdomen as in Figure 5. Segments

two to five with small punctures and pube-

scence.

Female unknown.

Biology : Dr. Boucek informs that “the spe-

cies of this group apparently are nocturnal and

from the information available seem to be

parasitic in the nests of ants Oecophylla,\

The specimen of S. keralensis was collected

by me while it was flying around the nest of

Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr.

Material. Holotype <$ (Coll. No. C.U.

4110) on pin, India: Kerala: Malappuram

district, Thenhippalam 1977 (T. C. Naren-

dran). Type retained for the time being in the

Department of Zoology, University of Calicut

but will eventually be deposited in a National

Institution.

Comments. This is the Western-most re-

presentative of the group Smicromorphinae. It

differs from all the three species reported from

Australia by Girault (loc. cit.) mainly in the

absence of median groove on the scutellum,

in the difference of proportions of size be-

tween the segments of antenna, in the diffe-

rence of proportion of fore wing veins, in the

difference of coloration, and in many other

features.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

Thanks are due: to Dr. Z. Boucek of the

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, Lon-

don, for help in the identification of this spe-

cies and for various other information on the

genus Smicromorpha.i to the Head of the

Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

for facilities.

910

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

References

Girault, A. A, (1913): Some Chalcidoid Hy-

menoptera from North Queensland. — Arch. Naturg.

79 (A), H.6 : 70-90.

(1914) : A new Chalcidid genus

and species of Hymenoptera from Australia. —

Ent. News 25: 461.

(1926) : Notes and descriptions of

Australian Chalcid flies-V. — Insecutor lnscit. menst.

41: 70.

* (1930) : New Pests from Australia,

VIII. 5 pp. Private publication. Brisbane.

STUDIES ON THE SCARAB BEETLES (COLEOPTERA :

SCARABAEIDAE) OF NORTH EASTERN INDIA : A NEW

SPECIES AND NOTES ON OTHER INDIAN SPECIES OF

SUBGENUS STRAND1US , GENUS ONTHOPHAGUS

S. Biswas1 2

(With three text -figures)

The genus Onthophagus Latreille, 1802 is

one of the largest genera in the animal king-

dom and contains about 1620 described spe-

cies (Balthasar 1963). Division of this multi-

tudinous species into subgenera was of prac-

tical necessity but earlier efforts to subdivide

these large number of species into subgenera

did not meet with much success mainly be-

cause no one person has been able to consider

Onthophagus on a world wide basis. However,

while working on Palaearctic and Oriental

species, Balthasar divided the genus into a

number of subgenera, and during the present

study of Scarab beetles of northeastern India

it has been observed that inspite of Balthasar’s

emphasis on extremely variable sexual charac-

ters, many of the species may easily be assign-

ed to different subgenera.

Subgenus Strandius Balthasar.

Strandius Balthasar, 1935: 307. Type. On-

thophagus (Strandius) lenzi Harold, 1874.

Medium to large species, uniformly black

1 Accepted August 1978.

2 Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Shillong-793 003. Present address: Coleoptera

Section, Z.S.I., 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Cal-

cutta-700 012.

or elytra black with red spots or yellow with

black bands; upper surface usually shining,

bare or covered with minute hairs, head and

pronotum with little metallic tinge.

Pronotum with a strongly raised irregularly

polygonal basal disc, upper surface never

granular; front angles sharp, strongly produc-

ed. Front tibiae of male rather elongated, dis-

tinctly bent, strongly broad and flat towards

apex, penultimate external tooth large, placed

rather at right angle, last tooth small and

often directed forward. The chief characteris-

tic of the subgenus lies in the shape of the

pronotum and in the front tibiae of the male,

however, in case of small male and female

pronotum is rather simple.

Habits and habitats : As far as Indian spe-

cies are concerned, members of this subgenus

form a biologically well defined natural group.

All the members are found in hills above

1000 m altitude and frequent, so far as is

known, dung of herbivorous animals only.

Geographical distribution : The subgenus is

known from China, Japan, Burma, Vietnam,

Cambodia, India and part of Africa. In India

there are three species namely O. (Strandius)

gagates Hope, O. (Strandius) hingstoni Arrow

and O. (Strandius) subansi riensis sp. nov.

911

23

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Key to the Indian species of the subgenus

Strandius Balthasar

1 . Upper surface not entirely black; parts of pro-

notum and elytra pale I. O. ( Strand -

ins ) subansiriensis sp. nov.

— Upper surface entirely black 2.

2. Elytra shining; front angles of pronotum not

hooked 2. O. ( Strandius )

ga gates Hope.

— Elytra opaque, front angles of pronotum, hook-

ed 3. O. ( Strandius )

hingstoni Arrow.

1. Ontliopliagus (Strandius) subansiriensis

sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3).

Male major : (Flolotype) length 11 mm;

breadth 6 mm; head, pronotal disc and major

parts of elytra black. Mouth organs, antennae

except club, tarsi and a large patch beneath

fore femora reddish.

Clypeus acuminate, strongly reflexed in the

middle in front; disc strongly punctured, rather

rugosely at sides; clypeofrontal carina weak,

posterior carina obsolate, forehead strongly

punctated, a little rugosely at sides, ocular lobe

separated by an indistinct suture, closely pun-

ctated. Pronotum with an irregular basal disc

having a strong process on each side, front and

lateral margin of a disc gradually sloping,

closely but unevenly punctated, punctures on

disc stronger, cavity below lateral process

smooth and shining; front angles acute, hind

angle obsolate, base a little produced in the

middle, margined; lateral margins almost

straight in front, sinuate behind.

Elytra moderately strongly striate, striae

sparsely covered with feeble punctuations, in-

tervals rather closely covered with setigerous

punctuations. Metasternal shield very feebly

punctated in the middle, rather feebly at sides;

sides of metasternum closely punctated anter-

iorly and covered with long hairs. Front tibiae

broad at apex, provided with four external

teeth, penultimate tooth largest, last one

directed forward, a little obliquely placed.

Female : (Allotype) length 10.5 mm;

breadth 7.0 mm; broadly oval, moderately

convex. Head rounded, clypeal margin feebly

reflexed in the middle in front, clypeal disc

strongly and rugosely punctured, clypeofron-

tal carina strong, curved, posterior carina

strong, straight, forehead closely and strongly

but not rugosely punctured, vertex feebly pun-

ctured. Pronotum completely margined, front

angle sharp, hind angle obsolate, base gently

rounded, a little produced in the middle; pro-

notal disc less strongly defined and lateral

process represented by a tubercle. Fore tibiae

short, external teeth sub-equal and placed at

equal distance from each other. Pygidium

moderately strongly punctured.

Figs. 1-3. Onthophagus ( Strandius ) subansiriensis

sp. nov.

1. Male major; 2. Female; 3. Male minor.

Male minor : (Paratype) length 9.5 mm;

breadth 5.5 mm. Male minor resembling

female excepting cephalic carinae, external

teeth on front tibiae and 6th ventral sternite

which are as in male major.

Type : Holotype cf major; India: Aruna-

chal Pradesh: Nacho. collected from cattle-

dung. 28.xi.1974. J. M. Julka, Regd. No. Al/

4391. Paratypes 1 9 . 1 S (including allo-

type), data same as for holotype. Deposited at

present in the collection of Eastern Regional

Station, Zoological Survey of India, Shillong.

912

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Remarks : The species may easily be sepa-

rated from other related species by (i) pale

markings on pronotum and elytra, (ii) strong

punctures on pronotum and characteristic pro-

not-al process, and (iii) elytra covered with

minute pale setae.

2. Onthophagus (Strandius) gagates Hope

Onthophagus gagates Hope, 1831, Gray’s Zool.

Misc. 22.

Onthophagus gagates : Arrow, 1931. Fauna Brit.

India, Lamell., 3:378.

Onthophagus ( Strandius ) gagates : Balthasar,

1963. Monogr. Scarab. Aphod. palaearkt.

orient., 2: 381.

Material examined: India: Meghalaya: Khasi

hills, 5 &$, 4 $2, 30.V.1972, 1 2, 18.vi.1965,

1 2, 9.V.1965. 1 $, 30.vi.1970. 1 $, 13.ix.1971, 1 2,

28.iv.1971. 2 $$, 1 2, 26.iv.1972, 1 $, 24.X.1967.

coll. S. Biswas. Arunachal Pradesh: Subansiri:

1 $, 1 2, 28,xi.l974. coll. J. M. Julka.

Habits : This is a hill dwelling species, found

only in the dung of herbivorous animal. Pri-

marily a forest dweller but sometimes occurs

in cleared areas near forests. It has not been

collected below 1000 m altitude from Megha-

laya.

Distribution : The species has been record-

ed in India from Himachal Pradesh (Simla

Hills c 2500 m), Uttar Pradesh (Ranikhet,

Muktesar, Chakrata, Mussoorie), Assam (Haf-

Refe

Arrow, G. J. (1931): The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera Lamelli-

cornia, Part III (Coprinae). 428 pp. London.

Balthasar, V. (1935) : Onthophagus- Arten Chi-

nas, Japans und der angrenzenden Lander. Fol.

Zool Hydrob., 8: 303-353.

long), Manipur, Meghalaya (Umtyngar,

Mawphlong, Shillong, Mawsynram, Dempep),

Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri dist.) and from

Nepal.

3. Onthophagus (Strandius) hingsfoni

Arrow, 1931.

Onthophagus hingstoni Arrow, 1931. Fauna Brit.

India, Lamell., 3: 378.

Onthophagus strandius hingstoni : Balthasar, 1963.

Mon. der Scarab, und. Aphod. der palaearkt.

und. orient. 2: 381.

The species has only been recorded from

Sikkim at about 2000-3000 m altitude. So

far it has not been collected from any other

states of N. E. India.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India for allowing me to work out

the Scarab beetles collected during the Sub-

ansiri expedition of 1974. My thanks are also

due to Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Eastern Regional

Station, Zoological Survey of India for en-

couragement, Dr. H. Khajuria for facilities and

Dr. R. Paulian, Rector, Academy de Borde-

aux, Bordeaux, France for kindly confirming

the identification of the new species.

ENCES

(1963): Monographic der Scara-

baeidae and Aphodiidae der palaearktischen and

orientalischen Region (Coleoptera: Lamellicornia) .

Band 2. Coprinae (Onitini, Oniticellini, onthopha-

gini) Tschechoslowakischen. Akademic der Wissens

chaften, Praha, 627 pp.

913

REVIEWS

1. THE TIGER : The Story of the Indian Tiger. By Kailash Sankhala.

pp. 220 (23.5 x 16 cm) with 22 colour and 8 monochrome plates and

numerous sketches. London, 1978. Collins. Price Rs. 60.00

Biographies leave one with a slight sense

of embarrassment at the subtle or blatantly

catalogued virtues. This book is a biography

of the tiger, and of course in a sense, of the

author too. The tiger has had many biogra-

phers, such has been its fascination. Some

have looked at it over the sights of a rifle,

some have looked at it through the lens of

a camera, and a few with the dispassionate

eye of a scientist. Those who see it through

the sights of a gun often see a thing of evil,

those who see it through the lens of a camera

see a thing of beauty and the scientist sees

a magnificent animal in tune with its environ-

ment. Mr. Sankhala has had a multiple view

and unfortunately, often takes an abrasive look

at those who had viewed the tiger before him.

The book is in two sections, the first six

chapters describe the tiger and its environ-

ment, animate and inanimate. The seven chap-

ters in the second section describe the tiger

in relation to man.

The chapters in the first section are an over-

all review of the ecology of the tiger. Repeti-

tion of known facts is unavoidable in such an

approach particularly when the animal con-

sidered is the tiger whose natural history has

been the subject of attention for over a Cen-

tury. It is to Mr. Sankhala’s credit that he is,

inspite of this handicap, able to present some

excellent natural history notes.

Some of the remarks on other inhabitants

of tigerland are however questionable. For in-

stance statements such as langur babies are

looked after by all the adults of a troop or

that elephants cannot negotiate steep slopes or

that the Egyptian or Scavenger Vulture, which

is a habitual feeder on human excreta, is

cleaner than other vultures and does not de-

serve the name Scavenger. These are but

minor blemishes in a well written book.

The second section describes the inter-rela-

tionship of the tiger and man through the

ages and the author makes no bones about

where his sympathies lie. In the ardour of his

empathy for the tiger, Mr. Sankhala is more

than a little unfair to Jim Corbett, whose

name has been, and continues to be, linked

with the tiger in India. Corbett made it ex-

plicit in his books that what he described were

abnormal tigers and his sympathy for the ani-

mal is evident in his writings.

Reading Corbett’s limpid prose, the feeling

one receives is of the deep love he had for

the country and its people. He is remembered

more for this love than for anything else.

The book ends with a description of the

Conservation movement which saved the

tiger, a movement to which many people, and

many organisations, both local and inter-

national, contributed.

A very readable book inspite of its dogma-

tic approach. The plates are excellent. The

pen and ink sketches are uniformally good

and the chart with the sketches of animals of

tigerland even has a touch of ‘Paul BarrueF in

its composition.

J. C. Daniel

914

REVIEWS

2. FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE EASTERN HIMALAYAS. By Salim Ali.

pp. xvi + 263 (11.8x 18 cm). With 37 coloured plates. Delhi, 1977. Oxford

University Press. Price Rs. 80.00.

Dr. Salim Ali’s latest book is most welcome

as an addition to the field guides to birds. It

relates to an area of immense ornithological

interest, covering eastern Nepal, Darjeeling

district of West Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan and

Arunachal Pradesh. Except for the western

part, the birds of the area are imperfectly

known, and that too only through stray reports.

A concise introduction gives a brief general

account of the physiography and ecology of

the area, followed by short descriptions of 536

birds and 37 plates depicting 366 birds in

colour. Each bird has been introduced with

its common English name, zoological name,

and an approximate idea of its size, followed

by short accounts of its field characters, status,

habitats, etc. in about 15-20 lines of text.

As in all books by Dr. Salim Ali, the text

is superbly written and will surely prove to

be immensely helpful to the users of this guide.

However, I would like to take this opportu-

nity to provide some additional information

here. The Bearded Vulture (p. 10, no. 24)

occurs up to at least 4700 m. The Spotted

winged Stare (p. 104, no. 192) is frequently

found in winter at as low as c 120 m. The

Himalayan Tree Pie (p. 109, no. 205) occa-

sionally goes up to c 3200 m, even in winter.

The zoological name of the Blacknaped Fly-

catcher (p. 171, no. 346) should be Hypothy-

mis azurea (Boddaert), and that of the Black

Tit (p. 219, no. 460) Paras rufonuchalis

Blyth, the common English name for P. rabi-

dly entris Blyth being the Rufousbellied Tit.

The chief weakness of this very useful field

guide lies in the colour reproduction of the

plates (I say ‘reproduction’ because I have

had occasion to see some of the original paint-

ings which were skilfully done). The faulty

colour renderings may be grouped as follows:

1. Crimson and scarlet printed as chestnut,

chestnut-brown, brownish red, pinkish or some

other reddish colour: A very large number

of figures, e.g., those of woodpeckers [pis. 9,

10, 18 (fig. 9), 35 (fig. 6)].

2. Claret-maroon printed as dark brown

(pi 6, fig. 7), and rufous also as dark brown

(pi. 6, fig. 10) so that barrings on the tail have

become inconspicuous.

3. Greyish brown printed as bluish grey

(p. 32, fig. 7).

4. Metallic purple printed as cobalt blue

(pi. 11, fig. 2); glossy jet black, slate-black,

and metallic bronze-green and blue as deep

blue (pi. 13).

5. Slate-grey or ashy printed as bluish grey

[pis. 12, 30 (fig. 1)].

6. Ashy grey printed as purplish grey (pi.

26, fig. 12).

7. Blue-black printed with unnecessary

greenish patches (pi. 26, fig. 2).

8. Black with unnecessary brownish patches

[pis. 18, 36 (figs. 1, 2)].

9. Black printed as dark brown (pi. 2, figs.

6, 7).

10. Shade of green used is too dark (pi.

28).

The following three are the worst ones:

1 . No trace of buff-yellow has been depict-

ed on the chin, throat and foreneck of the

Great Slaty Woodpecker (pi. 10, fig. 5).

2. The Blackrumped Magpie (pi. 18, fig. 3)

shows brownish patches on the sides of the

head and upper back, and a lot of green on

the tail.

3. The Streaked Laughing Thrush (pi. 22,

915

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

fig. 2) shows grey instead of olive brown on

the rump and upper tail coverts. Moreover,

the bird should have been placed on the

ground for it is highly terrestrial.

The following errors in drawing have also

been noticed:

1. The chestnut patch on the breast of the

Redbreasted Hill Partridge (pi. 5, fig. 4)

never has as clear-cut an outline as depicted.

2. The bill of the Ashy Swallow-Shrike

(pi. 12, fig. 3) should be finch-like.

3. The tail of the Yellowbilled Blue Mag-

pie (pi. 14, fig. 3) is disproportionately short.

4. There should be no white patch on the

throat of the Orangeheaded Ground Thrush

(pi. 31, fig. 8).

Furthermore, there are no scales on plates

14, 19, 21, 34 and 37.

In contrast to the printing of the plates, the

printing of the text matter is excellent and the

binding neat.

In the next edition, some important pub-

lications on birds of the area (e.g. Sikkim

Himalaya by Stevens, Sikkim by Salim Ali,

Darjeeling and its neighbourhood by Mathews

and Edwards, etc.) could perhaps be suggested

by the author for further reading by any one

interested. This will surely greatly enhance the

utility of this field guide.

Nevertheless, it is a very important addi-

tion to Indian ornithology, and will prove

very useful and helpful to naturalists, bird-

watchers and others interested in birds of the

eastern Himalayas.

Biswamoy Biswas

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. OCCURRENCE AND OBSERVATIONS ON TAD ARID A

AEGYPTIACA (E. GEOFFROY, 1818) (MOLOSSIDAE :

CHIROPTERA) ; THE WRINKLE-LIPPED BAT IN

EAST-NIMAR DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH (INDIA)

During a recent survey of bats of East-

Nimar the presence of Tadarida aegyptiaca

( Geoff roy, 1818) belonging to the family

Molossidae of bats was recorded in three dif-

ferent localities. Certain observations on this

species are recorded.

Between December 1975 and April 1977,

142 specimens were collected. Specimens were

collected with the help of mist-net or shot at

frequent intervals.

Brosset (1962) in his study on bats of

Central and Western India recorded some of

the species of family Molossidae from six

localities. This species Tadarida aegyptiaca of

genus Tadarida (Molossidae: Chiroptera) has

not so far been recorded from East Nimar

(Khandwa, Burhanpur, Asirgarh) of Madhya

Pradesh (Blanford 1891), Ellerman, J. R. and

Morrison-Scott (1951). This region has very

low rainfall and it remains arid throughout

the year.

In this survey of bats of East-Nimar three

colonies of Tadarida aegyptiaca were located

in different locations.

Collection Localities'. A brief description of

the collection localities is as given below.

1. In the old building of S. N. Govt. College,

Khandwa.

2. In the old fort at Burhanpur.

3. In the old fort at Asirgarh.

The three colonies were found in

buildings. In each colony the number of in-

dividuals was between fifty to hundred. All

colonies of Tadarida aegyptiaca have similar

type of roosting sites. They are in the narrow

and deep crevices in the stones of the large

old forts and buildings. At Khandwa, colonies

were located within ten yards of each other

in deep crevices of 8 feet vertical elongation.

Note may be taken here that these crevices

are 15 to 25 feet above the ground but at

Burhanpur and Asirgarh it is over 50 feet

from the ground level.

The wrinkle-lipped bats are easily detected.

They conceal themselves very well, but are

found on account of their extremely noisy

behaviour during the day. The smell of their

guano and its shape make it possible to iden-

tify them in narrow crevices.

Tadarida aegyptiaca has broad, rounded,

thick ears and they are joined on the front

of muzzle, and about half a portion of its tail

is covered by femoral membrane. The shape of

its wings is narrow and it has a greater length

in its horizontal plane. The feet have a row

of stiff hairs. These all are a diagnostic fea-

ture of family molossidae.

There is a marked variation in the colour

of its fur. This has been noticed in two indi-

viduals of same colony.

Three principal types given below are main-

ly observed.

(i) Light brown above and grey below.

(ii) Warm brown above and brown grey

below.

(iii) Blackish grey above and grey below.

917

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

According to my observation of these colo-

nies of Tadarida aegyptiaca, this bat does not

fly very early at sun-set, but it depends upon

the seasons. Usually they fly half an hour after

sun-set. All of them emerge only from a few

specific crevices of their habitat while coming

out they produce a special type of sound. The

observation of Brosset (1962) that after ten

minutes of departure crevices were complete-

ly empty may be correct. However, I observed

that during a year the colonies are comple-

tely empty only on 4 or 5 days. Generally

four or five bats keep on moving inside their

roosting crevices.

Quoting the statement of Verschuren, Bros-

set (1962) says that they do not come back

to their diurnal roost for at least two hours

after they had left it. It may be men-

tioned in this regard that some of them re-

turned just after ten minutes of their depar-

ture in my presence and I could successfully

trap a few specimens while they were trying

to enter their habitat at a distance of ten feet

from their colonies.

Tadarida aegyptiaca hunts far away from

the roosting sites, but after ten minutes

of hunting they start returning to their

roosting sites. This bat usually hunts at a

Teacher Fellow,

Department of Zoology,

University of Saugar,

Sagar 470 003 (M.P.),

October 10, 1977.

Refei

Blanford, W. T. (1891) : The Fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia Vol.

2. Taylor & Francis, London.

Brosset, A. (1962): The Bats of Central and

Western India. Part III. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

59 (3): 707-746.

(1963) : The Bats of Central and

height of 100 to 250 feet from the ground.

They can be identified from their peculiar

sharp calls at the feeding ground.

It was observed in the colonies of East-

Nimar that Tadarida aegyptiaca migrate in the

month of April. They return usually in

groups again in the month of June. The area

to which they migrate is yet to be traced.

Banded bats have not been recovered from

other colony sites. It may be possible that their

migratory sites are far from their original

roosting colonies. It seems that this displace-

ment or movement of Tadarida aegyptiaca

are connected with high temperature which in

East Nimar crosses 35 °C in the month of

May. This migratory behaviour of Tadarida

aegyptiaca appears to be similar to that of

Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana (Saussre) of

Arizona (Cockrum 1967).

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Professor R. S. Saini for

his keen interest throughout the progress of

this work; to Dr. D. R. Sharma for his guid-

ance while preparing this paper; Dr. H. Kha-

juria for critically reading this manuscript and

Mr. J. K. Joshi for his kind help in collection

work.

S. K. KASHYAP

EN CES

Western India. Part IV. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

60 (2): 337-355.

Cockrum, E. L. (1967): Migration in the guiano

bat, Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana. Misl. Publ.,

Univ. of Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. 51: 303-336.

Ellerman, J. & Morrison-Scott, T. (1951):

Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals, 1758

to 1964. British Museum, London.

918

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. OBSERVATIONS ON ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE

RHESUS MONKEY MAC AC A MU L ATT A, IN ASARORI

Introduction

The present account gives the more im-

portant results of a nine-month field study on

the ecology and behaviour of rhesus macaque

(Macaca mulatto,) in the Asarori Forest, near

Dehra Dun (Uttar Pradesh, Northern India),

carried out during January to October 1976.

The forest is of moist deciduous type, and

consists mainly of large sal trees ( Shorea ro-

busta). Here a fairly good population of the

rhesus as well as the Hanuman langur {Pres-

bytis entellus Dufresne) coexist.

Observations

1. Group size and composition : Some 14

groups of rhesus monkeys were present com-

prising a total of about 500 individuals; four

solitary males were also observed. Detailed

studies were made on six groups, whose size

varied from 5-c. 90 (mean 32.8) individuals.

All groups, except one, were of the bisexual

multimale type. The exception was an all-

juvenile group of 5 individuals. The number of

adult males in a group varied from 2-7 and of

adult females from 4-27. The adult sex ratio

was male 1: female 2. 2-3. 7. The mean ratio

for adult female to young infants for four

groups was 1:0.7; this shows high reproduc-

tivity (70%).

2. Home range : The home range area

varied from 1.3-13.4 km2 and was correlated

with group size (correlation coefficient r=0.937,

significant at P = 0.01). The home ranges of

neighbouring groups overlap considerably

(23.5 — 100%, mean 61.1% of their area).

3. Food and feeding : The rhesus is largely

vegetarian, eating various components of some

85 different plants. But some animal food is

also eaten regularly, this consists mainly of

insects of all kinds such as beetles (including

water beetles) and their grubs, moths, butter-

flies and their pupae, grasshoppers, termites,

cocoons of hymenoptera and spiders and their

webs. Insects are caught with a quick move-

ment and the uneatable appendages are re-

moved with the hand before eating. During

the monsoon months two species of fungi are

eaten in abundance. Occasionally they eat

earth from termite mounds and lick the lime

washed walls of forest quarters. Strange food,

such as carrots, Indian chapaties, when offered

is rejected after inspection and testing it by

a little chewing. During summer the animals

drank daily or on alternate days, and in winter

about once a week. Casual intake of water in

winter occurred regularly by licking dew from

leaves.

4. Foraging routes : A group was followed

from dawn to dusk for 15 consecutive days to

determine the actual distances travelled for

foraging. The length travelled ranged from

1050-3500 m (mean 1803.3 ± 160.2) and this

determines the distance between the two con-

secutive roosting sites. The two are closely re-

lated (correlation coefficient r-0.63, signifi-

cant at P = 0.01).

5. Roosting : Groups of tall trees serve as

the night roosting sites, which are changed

every night, as was noted in detail in two

groups for a period of one month each. Cer-

tain areas of home range are used frequently

for roosting and may be called “roosting sites.”

In both groups ’the area of ‘roosting sites

forms about 47% of the total area of the

home range, irrespective of the size of

the latter. The mean distance between

919

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

the two roosting sites (for two succes-

sive nights) was 431 ± 56 m in the Harbhaj-

wala group -and 1247.5 ± 110 m for the Bada

group. This feature is directly related to group

size (31 and c. 90 respectively).

6. Dominance : The dominant male or

leader of a group can be easily identified b>

his robust body and certain characteristics.

His tail is carried high up with a tight end

loop, especially when in encounters other ani-

mals and also in inter and intra group encoun-

ters. He usually leads a group, gives threats to

intruders and gives dominance displays by

shaking tree branches. Almost all females and

young seek his support in case of danger. He

frequently dashes to site of intra group squab-

bles and his presence has an immediate calm-

ing effect. His aggressive activities are more

frequent than those of other males of the

group, and he enjoys priorities in all activites.

Curiously, he also shows some paternal be-

haviour whose intensity varies with the indi-

vidual. One leader was observed carrying, pro-

tecting, grooming and roosting with an 8-

month old infant.

7. Intergroup relations : Groups are into-

lerant of the proximity of other groups and

intergroup spacing or avoidance is noticeable.

Although the home ranges of neighbouring

groups overlap considerably, intergroup inter-

actions are infrequent. Only 19 interactions

were noted during a period of nine months.

In encounters, a dominance display is com-

mon rather than fighting. The period of in-

teractions varied from 2 to as long as 60

minutes. Usually subordinate males lead in

chase during a fight.

Intergroup dominance is positively correlat-

ed (89.5% of the cases) with group size.

Sometimes the dominant male of a group

mounts adult female of his own group during

encounters. Four types of encounters were

noticed: overtly aggressive (5.3%), aggressive

(36.8%), aggressive-tolerant (10.5%) and

approach-withdrawal (47.4% ) .

8. Interspecies dominance : Occasionally,

rhesus and langur groups interact with one

another, and the latter always displays sub-

ordination by avoiding the former. Although

the langurs are larger and heavier, they with-

draw and are threatened and chased by the

rhesus. This agrees with Roonwal’s (1976)

view that some other factors other than body

weight and size determine interspecies domi-

nance.

Discussion

Group size and composition, as studied by

various workers in different habitats show

variation, but groups are mostly bisexual and

multimale. Rarely, groups without adult males

are also found (Neville 1968a; Makwana, in

press). Southwick et al. (1965) give the aver-

age size of groups as 50 (for 5 forest groups).

Jay and Lindburg (1965) 32 (for 14 groups),

Lindburg (1971) 23 (for 5 groups near Dehra

Dun), Neville (1968b), 41 (for 5 Forest

groups near Haldwani), Mandal (1964) a

range of 5-35 (for 29 groups in the Sunder-

bans), and Puget (1971) an unusual size

range of 90-180 in northeastern Afganistan.

Solitary males are also occasionally found.

The extent of home ranges also varies great-

ly. In Uttar Pradesh, Neville (1968b) record-

ed 1-3 km2 in forest near Haldwani, and 0.05

km2 in Haldwani town. Lindburg (1971), 16

km2 near Dehra Dun and the present range is

1.3-13.4 km2 in Asarori.

The roosting sites of urban groups are fixed

and groups roost there every day (Southwick

et al. 1965; Singh 1969). But in forest habi-

tat roosting sites are changed daily (Lindburg

1971 and present study).

Foraging routes are apparently determined

920

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

arbitrarily and their length may vary from

c. 200-3500 m; Lindburg 1971, 350-2820 m;

Neville 1968b; 200-400 m; the present study

1050-3500 m). A group always travels a

longer distance than the actual straightline dis-

tance between two consecutive roosting sites.

Factors which may determine the length of

foraging routes are the availability of food and

water, the season, the position of neighbouring

groups, the group size, etc.

Inspite of much overlap in the home range

Dept, of Zoology,

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur, Rajasthan,

December 2, 1977.

Refer

Jay, P. C. and Lindburg, D. G. (1965) : (Quot-

ed from Lindburg, 1971).

Lindburg, D. G. (1971) : The rhesus monkey in

North India: An ecological and behavioural study.

In Primate Behaviour : Development in Field

and Laboratory Research, vol. 2 (ed. L. A. Rosen-

blum), pp. 1-106, New York (Academic Press).

Mandal, A. K. (1964) : The behaviour of the

rhesus monkeys ( Macaca mulatto Zimmermann) in

the Sunderbans. /. Bengal nat. His. Soc., 33; 153-

163.

Puget, A. (1971) : Observation sur le macaque

rhesus, Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann 17801), en

Afghanistan Mammalia, 55(2): 199-203.

Neville, M. K. (1968a) : Ecology and activity

of the Himalayan foot-hill rhesus monkeys ( Macaca

mulatta). Ecology, 40: 110-123.

area, intergroup encounters are infrequent and

usually group avoidance is noticed rather than

fight. This situation was also observed by

Southwick et al. (1965) and Lindburg (1971).

Ack nowledge ments

I am indebted to Prof. M. L. Roonwal,

Jodhpur, for his keen interest and encourage-

ment, to Prof. S. D. Singh for working faci-

lities; and to Dr. S. M. Mohnot for assistance

with literature.

S. C. MAKWANA

E N CES

(1968b) : A free-ranging rhesus mon-

key troop lacking adult males. J. Mammal. 49: Hi-

ll3.

Roonwal, M. L. (1976): Dominance behaviour

in South Asian Primates. J. Sci. industr. Res. 35 :

244-260.

and Mohnot, S. M. (1977): Pri-

mates of South Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology and

Behaviour, Harvard University Press.

Southwick, C., Beg, M. A. and Siddiqi, M. R.

(1965) : Rhesus monkey in North India. In Pri-

mate Behaviour: Field Studies of Monkeys and

Apes (ed. I. DeVore). pp. 111-159, New York

(Hott, Rinehart and Winston).

Singh, S. D. (1969) : Urban monkeys. Scientific

Amer., 221: 108-115.

3. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING AND LONGEVITY OF THE

INDIAN PANGOLIN {MAN IS CRASSICAUDATA) IN CAPTIVITY

A pair of adult Indian Pangolins ( Mauls

crassicaudata) was acquired for the Nandan-

kanan Biological Park, Orissa. The female

arrived on 16th July 1973 and the male arriv-

ed on 16th July 1976. They were housed in an

enclosure measuring 2.5 x 1.5 x 2 m. high.

Attached to the enclosure is a dark sleeping

den measuring 0.85 x 0.5 >< 0.5 in high. They

remain curled up throughout the day in the

sleeping den and became active from late even-

ing to early morning. They sometimes climb

up a cement tree erected inside the enclosure.

They are fed with red tree ants (adults, young

and eggs) every evening at the rate of 600

921

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

gms per day per adult and occasionally some

termites with combs.

A male young was born to the female of

this pair on 7-4-1977 early morning but the

young was found dead on 8-4-1977. The young

measured 33 cm tip to tip including 12 cm

long tail and weighed 242 g. The eyes were

open and the scales were soft at birth. The

mother Pangolin weighed 7.920 Kg and the

male weighed 9.250 Kg on 10-4-1977.

The female Pangolin died on 1 December

1977 establishing a longevity of 4 years, 4

months and 16 days in captivity. The details

of other five Indian Pangolins which have liv-

ed for over 1 year in the Park on a diet of

red tree ants and termites are as follows.

tail and weighed 235 grams (Acharjyo and

Misra, loc. cit.).

A Pangolin lived in captivity for 2 years

(Prater, loc. cit.). According to Yadav (1973)

Jaipur Zoo has reared Pangolins for a period

of over six months. Out of three Indian Pan-

golins received at New York Zoological Park

on 28 April 1961, one lived for 4 months, an-

other for 7 months but the third one remain-

ed in good condition till late 1963 (Cran-

dall 1965). Narayanan (1977) reports that one

Pangolin survived for a little more than 2

years in captivity at USPHS — JIPMER Leprosy

Research Project, Jawaharlal Institute of Post-

graduate Medical Education and Research,

Pondicherry.

SI. Date of Date of

No. arrival in death in Period of survival in the Park

the Park the Park

There are records of birth of this species

in India in July (Prater 1971) and November

(Asdell 1964; Acharjyo and Misra 1972). The

litter size is usually 1 and occasionally 2 (As-

dell, loc. cit.). A new-born young measured

30 cm from tip to tip including 12.5 cm long

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang-754 005,

Dist. Cuttack, (Orissa).

2 years, 4 months and 4 days.

2 years, 6 months and 17 days.

1 year, 6 months and 5 days.

Over 1 year and 8 months.

Over 1 year and 6 months.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to

Shri G. M. Dash, I.F.S., Chief Wild Life War-

den, Orissa and to Shri S. Jee, I.F.S., Chief

Conservator of Forests, Orissa for their help

and encouragement.

L. N. ACHARJYO

922

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Wild Life Conservation Officer,

Orissa, 95-Saheednagar,

Bfiubaneswar-751 007,

April 28, 1978.

Refer

Acharjyo, L. N. and Misra, R. (1972) : Birth

of an Indian Pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata ) in cap-

tivity. J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 69 (1) : 174-175.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian Re-

production. Second Edition, Cornell University Press,

Ithaca, New York, pp. 182.

Crandall, Lee, S. ( 1965) : The Management of

S. MOHAFATRA

iNCES

Wild Manmals in Captivity. The University of Chi-

cago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 195-199.

Narayanan, E. (1977) : Pers. Comm.

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, pp. 301-303.

Yadav, R. N. (1973) : Rearing of Indian Pangolin.

Indian Zoo Bulletin, 1(1): pp. 16.

4. THE BRONZEWINGED JACANA METOPIDIUS INDICES

(LATHAM) IN SAURASHTRA AT JAMNAGAR

In a communication from Jamnagar, Sau-f

rashtra, Shri Lalsinhbhai Raol writes to re-

port the first ever record of a Bronzewinged

Jacana in the Saurashtra peninsula. He writes:

‘There is a fairly big reservoir in Jamnagar

City. Egrets, herons, storks, ibises, stilts, Red-

wattled and Yellow- wattled Lapwings and

wintering ducks and waders can be seen here.

On 6th March 1977 I noticed an unusual

bird on a small islet in the lake. Examining

it through field glasses I was thrilled to find

a bird familiar from looking at the illustration

in my “Salim Ali”, but an addition to my

life-list.

If my memory of our notes compared does

not fail me, this species is uncommon in main-

land Gujarat, but has never been recorded

from Saurashtra. Dharmakumarsinhji lists it

in the supplement for Birds of Gujarat in his

C/o. World Wildlife Fund-India,

Shahid Bhagat Singfi Road,

Bombay-400 023,

August 25, 1977.

book birds of saurashtra, and does not in-

clude it in his Saurashtra bird descriptions.’

Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley in the hand-

book OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

Vol. 2, say that the species is absent from

western Punjab and western Rajasthan. How-

ever, there are records of this bird from Kutch

(Humayun Abdulali, JBNHS 40: 122) seen

at the Hemissar Tank in June 1937. Dr. Salim

Ali in the birds of kutcfi (1945) describes

its status in Kutch as “Resident (or local mig-

rant?). Uncommon”, and in ‘The birds of

Gujarat’ ( JBNHS 52: 413) states that though

no specimens have been collected it has been

noted at Bhuj (Kutch) also by Humayun Ab-

dulali in June (ibid. 40: 122) and several

places in Gujarat in vegetation-covered tanks

and j heels, but that it is decidedly uncommon.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

5. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK-NAPED GREEN

WOODPECKER, PICUS CANUS HESSEI GYLDENSTOLPE

(PICIFORMES : PICXDAE) IN ORISSA

During the course of a faunistic survey in

Orissa in 1976, I collected a female specimen

of Picus canus hessei Gyldenstolpe on 12

March, from Dhuanali, Puri district. Its

measurements (in mm.) are: Wing 148, bill

from skull 36, tail 100, tarsus 12, and its

weight is 137 g.

The Assam population of the Blacknaped

Green Woodpecker was separated from Picus

canus hessei Gyldenstolpe, 1916, as Picus

canus gyldenstolpei by Baker (1918) on the

basis of slight differences in coloration and

size. Vaurie (1959), however, treated gyldens-

tolpei as a synonym of hessei , since there is

very little difference warranting their separa-

tion. Ali & Ripley (1970, p. 189, note) while

admitting gyldenstolpei stated that hessei ‘is

doubtfully separable from’ it. On a re-exami-

nation of the material available in this depart-

ment, however, I am inclined to agree with

Vaurie (op. cit.) in not recognizing gyldens-

tolpei as a distinct subspecies.

According to Vaurie (1965) this subspecies

occurs in Indochinese countries (with the ex-

ception of northeastern Tonkin, northeastern

Burma and peninsular Thailand), Assam south

to the Lushai Hills (= Mizoram), and eastern

Himalaya to Sikkim. As far as known from

the extant literature on Indian avifauna e.g.,

Baker (1927), Ali & Ripley (1970), etc., this

species has not so far been reported from

Orissa.

The present example reported for the first

time from peninsular India extends its distri-

bution as far south as Orissa.

Zoological Survey of India,

Indian Museum,

Calcutta-700 016,

June 24, 1977.

N. MAJUMDAR

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1970): Handbook of Vaurie, C. (1959): Systematic notes on Palaearc-

the birds of India and Pakistan, together with tic birds. No. 34. Picidae: The genera Picus and

those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. 4: 188. Dryocopus. Amer. Mus. Novit. No. (1945): T

Oxford University Press, Bombay. (1965) : The birds of the Palaearctic

Baker, E. C. S. (1927) : Fauna of British India, fauna, Non-Passeriformes, p. 695. Witherby, Lon-

Birds. 4: 15. Taylor & Francis, London. don.

6. SIGHTING OF THE INDIAN PITTA (PITTA BRACHYURA) IN

PAKISTAN

The Indian Pitta spreads across the Hima- (Whistler handbook 1949), or Simla (Rip

layan foothill zone during the monsoon season ley, S. D., synopsis 1961). There are no re-

when it breeds but it does not appear to have cords of its occurrence in Pakistan territory

been recorded further west than Dharamsala even in the Murree Hill region where several

924

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

species were recorded at the turn of the cen-

tury which no longer appear to survive or

visit this area at the present time.

On June 17th 1978 I was visiting a jungle

clad region at the foot of the Margalla Hills

just west of Islamabad city when I heard a

strange bird calling. Upon investigation this

turned out to be the Indian Pitta. There was

a pair frequenting the steep hillside above a

stream and I had clear views of what was

presumably the male singing from the top of

a stunted wild fig tree. The location was at

about 2,000 feet elevation and hardly more

than three miles from the outskirts of Islama-

bad (33°28'N, 73°03'E). The World Wild-

life Fund Appeal had chosen this site for con-

struction of a pre-release pen for the Cheer

Pheasant ( Catreus wallichii) which has been

C-24, K. D. A. Scheme No. 1,

Drigh Road, Karachi,

Pakistan,

August 7, 1978.

bred in captivity and is now believed to be

extinct in the Margalla Hills. Dr. Sheldon

Severinghaus was visiting Pakistan to assist

with this project and I was able to bring him

the next morning to observe these Pittas. He

made recordings of the male which are now

lodged in the Cornell University library of

bird sounds. I was able to visit the area again

on July 13th 1978 at which time one individual

was still in the same vicinity and heard call-

ing, however when I reported this find to a

keen ornithologist friend, Mr. T. J. Roberts

he failed to find any trace of these birds on

July 28th. The Margalla Hills are covered with

dry tropical deciduous type of scrub forest

and would seem to provide ideal habitat for

Pittas.

KAMAL ISLAM

7. A NEW BIRD FOR NEPAL AND NOTES ON OTHER SCARCE

SPECIES

At 16.00 hours on 23rd February 1978 I

was fortunate enough to be drifting down-

stream along the main channel of the Nara-

yani River just below its confluence with the

River Rapti in the Nepalese terai when I

spotted a swan some 200 yards ahead. My

companions were principally amateur Euro-

pean bird-watchers and naturalists, members

of a special interest tour I was leading for

Town and Gown Travel of Oxford, UK, as

well as Khadak Kumar of Tiger Tops Jungle

Lodge staff. As we drifted closer the pure

white plumage, smallish size and yellow area

at the base of the black bill became visible.

I turned the boats and we approached within

about 80 yards to obtain excellent views of

the truncated (not pointed) yellow area at the

base of the bill. At this point the bird patter-

ed over the surface showing its black feet, and

took to the air with neither wing sound nor

call. In the air the comparatively rapid wing

beats and general compactness reinforced my

identification of this bird as a fully adult, wild

Bewick’s Swan Cygnus columbianus. Salim

Ali and S. Dillon Ripley’s handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan list five records

for the sub-continent, none in Nepal. R. L.

Fleming Sr., R. L. Fleming Jr., and L. S.

925

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Bangdel do not include the species in their

birds of Nepal. By good fortune I was able to

talk to R. L. Fleming Jr., within a couple of

days and he confirmed that there were no pre-

vious records for Nepal. It should be added

that as a European resident I have observed

thousands of these birds over the years and

would not consider them difficult to identify.

The weather at this time was quite severe

in the hills and R. L. Fleming Jr., considered

it an exceptionally hard winter. Certainly it

had produced several records of unusual

northern passerine species in and around the

Kathmandu valley.

On 26th February 1978 I was once again

drifting downstream on the Narayani River,

this time in company with Peter Jackson of

the World Wildlife Fund, Morges; David

Smith of the Smithsonian Tiger Ecology Pro-

ject; Charles McDougal, Director of Wildlife

at Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge; and Michael

Price of Survival Anglia. Our aim was to ex-

plore the new western extension of Chitawan

National Park. Within an hour of leaving the

Narayani-Rapti confluence we encountered

several large flocks of duck. Mostly these were

Brahminy Duck Tadorna ferruginea, Teal

Anas crecca, Wigeon A. penelope, Pintail A.

acuta with some Goosander Mergus mergan-

ser, Gad wall Anas strepera and Red-crested

Pochard Netta rufina. Then I spotted a drake

35 Brodrick Road,

Wandsworth Common,

London, SW17, U.K.,

March 25, 1978.

Goldeneye Bucephala clangula followed soon

afterwards by a drake Falcated Teal Anas

falcata. The Goldeneye is the third record for

Nepal, the Falcated Teal the first record for

Nepal away from the Kosi River. Both birds

were also seen by Peter Jackson and Michael

Price, two experienced observers.

On 28th February 1978 the same party was

finishing its trek beside the Narayani at Mo-

han Khola about five miles downstream from

the Narayani-Rapti confluence. A large raptor

appeared and gave excellent views as it circled

overhead. Its general coloration was dark

brown with a faint light line along the edges

of the under-wing coverts. The head was pro-

minent and the wings long and broad and

held well forward. Clearly an eagle, its identi-

fication was ensured by the prominent and

distinctly wedge-shaped tail. The bird was

immature and lacked the white retrices of the

adult White-tailed Sea Eagle Haliaeetus albi-

cilia. However, by good fortune, I had seen

a transparency of an individual in similar

plumage only two weeks or so before. The

tail feathers formed a distinctive wedge and

against the light each retrice was edged all

round with a darker colour giving the effect

of a “leaded window” of the tail feathers and

indicating a second or third year bird. This

bird constitutes the second record for Nepal,

the first being an adult at Pokhara in 1971.

JOHN GOODERS

926

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. ON THE PHENOMENON OF NOCTURNAL FLIGHTS OF SOME

RESIDENT BIRDS AT LUNGLEI, MIZORAM, N. E. INDIA

During a faunistic survey of Mizoram in

1976, our attention was drawn to a report of

frequent casualities of birds occurring annual-

ly, by dashing to death against walls of a

building at Lunglei, Lunglei district, Mizoram.

We visited the building in November, 1976

with a view to study the phenomenon, but

were told that the birds fly in only during

the months of September and October. How-

ever, the owner of the building. Dr. Doliana,

a retired Civil Surgeon at his Aizwal residence

furnished valuable information in addition to

presenting some specimens of parts of birds

which he had preserved out of those killed

during the accidents. We also obtained some

of the feathers of the dead birds for identifi-

cation from the building where the feathers

are kept as wall-decoration.

The building stands at a height of 1210 m

amidst rugged mountain ridges. It has three

prominent electric lights fitted on the same

plane in front of the building. As the bulbs are

of high intensity, of more than 100 watt

power, they are easily seen at night even from

far off distances. The birds are attracted by

the lights and dash themselves headlong

against the roof and walls of the building and

thus get killed. The following additional in-

formation has been obtained from Dr. Doli-

ana:

1. The birds have been observed to dash

against the building in late September and

I early October during which period the area

receives late monsoon rains.

2. The phenomenon occurs when the sky re-

mains over-cast with clouds, i.e. without

moonlight and with fog and mist. A little

drizzle appears favourable.

3. The birds usually fly from west to east

during 7 p.m. to 10 p.m.

The above three points are extremely simi-

lar to those reported by Salim Ali (1962) for

Haflong except that at Haflong the birds

came from the north. The number of birds

which get killed annually reportedly vary from

300 to 500. Dr. Doliana has made record of

such deaths since 1974, and the apparent num-

ber of species vary from 6 to 8.

The following identification is based on

parts of specimens obtained from Dr. Doliana

and from the building.

1. Indian Moorhen: Gallinula chloropus in-

dica Blyth.

2. Greyfronted Green pigeon: Treron pom-

pad ora.

3. Indian Emerald Dove: Chalcophaps ind-

ica. Salim Ali (1962) mentions frequent

casualties of this bird and the green pigeon

in the coffee plantations of Mysore and

Kerala.

4. Indian Threetoed Forest Kingfisher: Ceyx

erithacus.

5. Indian Ruddy kingfisher: Halcyon coro-

manda coromanda (Latham). There are

several records of this species getting killed

under similar circumstances in other

places. Robinson & Chasen (1927) observ-

ed nocturnal fall of this bird at light

houses and light strips in the straits of

Malacca in autumn. Salim Ali (1962) men-

tions this species being regularly picked at

lights on certain mountain ridges of Jatin-

ga (Hafflong) in North Cachar Hills in

Assam in dark monsoon nights.

6. Hooded Pitta: Pitta sordida cucullata

Hartlaub.

7. Drongo Cuckoo: Surniculus lugubris

8. Cuckoo: Cuculus canorus

927

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

It is clear from the above list that all the

birds killed are of resident species. Salim

Ali (1962) and Gee (1964) have re-

corded similar phenomenon in Jatinga near

Haflong, where petromax lamps are used by

the villagers to attract birds. In both the places

two common observations are made: that (i)

almost all the species are resident birds; and

(ii) green pigeons ( T reron sp.) in consider-

able numbers are reported to be attracted by

light. Although some of these birds namely.

Emerald Dove, Greyfronted Green pigeon.

Three-toed Forest kingfisher and Indian Rud-

dy kingfisher are known to dash against ob-

Zoological Survey of India,

Eastern Regional Station,

Shillong-3,

November 4, 1977.

stacles and die, it is not still clearly under-

stood why these ‘non migratory’ birds fly into

the lights and that too in one particular time

of the year and in a particular place or two

alone.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. H. Khajuria, Deputy Direc-

tor, E.R.S., Shillong for permitting the

authors to undertake the survey and for going

through the manuscript and Dr. A. K. Ghosh,

Zoologist, for valuable suggestions offered.

The Bombay Natural History Society kindly

identified the bird parts.

K. R. RAO

R. ZORAMTHANGA

References

Ali, Salim (1962): The Bombay Natural His-

tory Society, world health organisation bird migra-

tion study /project. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59

(1): 100-130.

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1969): Hand book

of birds of India and Pakistan 3 : 1-325. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

(1970) : Hand book of birds of

India and Pakistan 4: 1-260. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

Gee, E. P. (1964): The bird mystery of Hafl'-

long. Wildlife of India, Collins, St. James place,

London.

*Robinson, H. C. & Chasen, F. N. (1927): The

birds of Malay Peninsula 1 : 102. H.F. & C.G.

Witherby, London.

* Not seen by the authors.

I

9. NOTES ON DISTRIBUTION, SEXUAL DIMORPHISM AND

GROWTH IN CAPTIVITY OF GEOCHELONE ELONGATA (BLYTH)

{With a text -figure)

Distribution : This species is so f’ar known

to occur in India from Jalpaiguri district, E.

Bengal and Singbhum district, Bihar (Chai-

bassa and Chotanagpur) as recorded in the

collection of Zoological Survey of India ex-

cluding the female specimen from Orissa men-

tioned below. Outside India the species occurs

in Nepal, Bangladesh (Akyab and Chittagong

Hill tracts), Burma, Thailand. According to

Smith (1931)1 Nepal is the north eastern

limit of the range of the species in the Indian

1

1 Smith, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British

India. Vol. I.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

subcontinent. This is an example of an Indo-

chinese species in Peninsular India. This com-

mon land tortoise of eastern India is becom-

ing rare with the restriction of Sal forest.

Habits and habitats’. Two specimens were

collected from the forest floor of hill “Sal”

forests while moving among the dry Sal leaves.

Their preference for fallen flower petals with-

in the enclosure suggests that they possibly

feed on fallen Sal flowers in nature. Their dis-

tribution also is closely associated with the

Sal ( Shorea robusta ) and Teak ( Tectona gran -

dis) forests of the Indian and Indochinese

subregion. In winter they are less active than

in the summer or rainy season.

Sexual dimorphism : The distinguishing

characters of this species are prominent. The

Fig. 1. Geochelone elongata Blyth.

Life size figure showing the anal bifurcation in

male (M) and female (F).

body of the male is comparatively narrower

and deeper than the females. The nuchal shield

as well as the angle of bifurcation of anal

shields (plastron) (Text-fig. 1) in male are

much narrower and also the tail is longer and

more curved than in the female. In rare cases

the nuchal may be absent. Smith (loc. cit.)

found the nuchal wanting in one out of 60

specimens and Anderson in 4 specimens. There

is no colour difference. The shell is greenish-

yellow or yellow and each shield has a irre-

gular black blotch. In our specimen’s shell this

blotch is wanting.

Growth : Measurements and weight were

taken of the male and female on 27-1-74 and

after a gap of two years the male was measur-

ed and weighed on 27-1-77 and 23-1-78. From

the size and weight it is presumed that both

were of the same age group but the male is

slightly larger. The annual weight gain by the

male was more in the 4th year (245 gm) than

in its 2nd year (150 gm). The following

measurements indicate that the growth of the

species is very slow in captivity:

Food : The two tortoises were fed everyday

on cut pieces of Banana, “Sag” or vegetables,

soaked Bengal gram, “Doob” grass ( Cynodon

dactylon). They took all these food and also

petals of flowers fallen inside the enclosure.

Breeding season: The breeding season ap-

pears to start in the month of July because

the male was observed to try and mate twice

on 7.7.77 and 9.7.77 with a female G. elegans.

The female reported herein was collected

929

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

on 27th April 1969 from a forest in Puri di-

strict and the male on 22nd February 1971

from the forests of Simuli Pahar, Mayur-

bhanj district by the D.F.O., Puri Division

and A.C.F., National Park, Joshipur respecti-

Zoological Survey of India,

34A & B, Sashibhusan De St.,

Calcutta- 12.

Nandankanan Biological Park,

Dist. Cuttack, Orissa.

vely and were sent to the Nandankanan Bio-

logical Park. Unfortunately the female died on

26.5.74. The male is now being kept with 4

specimens of star tortoise G. eiegans

(Schoepff).

S. BISWAS

L. N. ACHARJYO

Wildlife Conservation Officer, S. MOHAPATRA

Bhubaneswar, Orissa-7,

July 25, 1978.

10. HEARING ABILITY OF BROWNTREE SNAKE

{DENDRELA PHIS TRISTIS)

While studying the feeding behaviour of Bar-

bets ( Megalaima ) on 2.xi.77 at Borivli Na-

tional Park, I noticed an interesting phenome-

non. I was sitting in my bush hide under a big

Ficus mysorensis and observing Barbets feed-

ing on Ficus receptacles. At 10.05 hrs. when I

looked at the ground I saw a Browntree snake

lying on an arched log at a distance of about

2\ m from me. The snake was about a metre

in length and its anterior portion was erected

up at an angle of 45°. In the meantime when

we (the snake and I) were looking at each

Research Scholar,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

June 13, 1978.

other an aeroplane’s sound was heard. As soon

as the sound was heard the snake lifted up

its head, as if trying to see the source of the

sound, making an angle of 90° and remained

in this position till the sound faded; then it

resumed its former position. We were both

situated under the thick foliage of the Ficus

tree and there was no question of sighting the

plane or its shadow passing over our head.

Nothing except the sound of the plane was

the cause for the snake to change its position.

I think it has good hearing capacity.

SHAEQUE AHMAD YAHYA

930

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

[Dr. Carl Gans whose opinion was requested

comments :

Snakes can hear quite well to 1500 Hz, and

the sound of the plane would have components

in that range. Consequently, there is a possi-

bility that the snake responded to the sound.

It would be surprising if the snake did indeed

present an obvious behavioural response. On

the other hand, such one-time observations

hardly constitute a very high level of proof,

rather they are incidental observations that

must be checked out by experiment. As it is,

the snake might have responded to movements

of the wind or to chemical cues, which the

author could not have observed. — Eds.]

11. RECORD OF PTEROMALUS PUP ARUM LINN.

( PTEROM ALIDAE : HYMENOPTERA) FROM THE PUPA OF

LEMON BUTTERFLY, PAPILIO DEMOLEUS LINN. AT

LUDHIANA, PUNJAB (INDIA)

During the last week of May 1976, a dry

pupa of lemon butterfly was collected from a

citrus tree and when opened, as many as 124

cream coloured pupae of the parasite were re-

covered. The adults that emerged were iden-

tified as Pteromalus puparum Linn. (Pteroma-

lidae : Hymenoptera ) .

The species is recorded as an important

pupal parasite of Pieris brassicae Linn., Pieris

rapae Linn, and Pieris deplidice Linn. (Du

Porte 1914, Zacharov 1915, Zorin 1937).

However, it has also been recorded on yellow-

edge butterfly Euvanessa antiopa Linn. (Joh-

annsen 1913), frit fly Oscinella frit Linn. (Col-

lin 1918), Apanteles glomaraius Linn. (Gau-

tier 1919), Aporia crataegi Linn. (Martelli

1931), Hemlock looper Ellopia fiseellaria Gn.

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana,

December 22, 1977.

(Schedl 1931), Vanessa urticae Linn. (Zorin

1937), Sawfly Diprion pini Linn. (Often 1943),

Melacosoma neustria Linn. (Romanova 1951)

and Papilio demodocus Esp. (Abu Yaman

1973). This is apparently the first record of

Pteromalus puparum Linn, parasitising pupa

of Papilio demoleus Linn.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. A. S. Sidhu, Pro-

fessor and Head, Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for

providing the necessary facilities and to the

Director, British Museum, Commonwealth

Institute of Entomology, London for identifi-

cation of the parasite.

M. RAMZAN

DARSHAN SINGH

References

Abu Yaman, I. K. (1973) : Biological studies on Collin, J. E. (1918) : A short summary of our

the citrus leaf caterpillar, Papilio demodocus Esp. knowledge of frit fly. Ann. App. Biol. Cambridge,

(Lepid., Papilonidae) in Saudi Arabia. Z. angnew. 5: 81-96.

Ent. 72: 376-83.

931

.5

24

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Du Porte, E. M. (1914): Insect of 1913. 6th

Ann. Rep. Quebeck. Soc. Prot. Plants, Insects and

Fung. Dis., pp. 38-43.

Gautier, Cl. (1919) : Recharches physiologiques

et parasitologique sur les leaves de lepidopteres

muisibles. C. R. Soc. Biol. Pahs 82: 720-21.

Johannsen, O. A. (1913): Insect notes for

1912. Maine Agric. Expt. Station, Orono, 18 pp.

Martelli, G. M., (1931) : Contribute alia cono-

scenza dell’ Apcria crataegi L. e di alcuni Suio

parassiti ed epiparassiti (A contribution to the

knowledge of A. crataegi and some of its parasites

and hyperparasites). Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici, 25:

171-241.

Otten, E. (1943) : Chalcididen als Diprion —

parasiten (Chalcidoids as parasites of Diprion).

T.C., 108-26 (Abstr. in Z. pflKrankl).

Romanova, Yu. S. (1951) : The biological con-

trol of Malacosoma neustria (In Russian). Dokl.

vsesoyuz. Akad. Sel. Khaz. Nauk Lenina 16: 30-34.

Sacharov, N. (1915): Pests of mustard and

methods of fighting them (preliminary observations).

Report of Entomological station Abtrachan Society

Fruit growing Market, Gardening and Agriculture,

Abstrachan, 44 pp.

Schedl, K. (1931) : Der Hemlock spanner, Ello-

pia fiscellaria Hb und Seine naturlichen Feinde

(The hemlock looper, E. fiscellaria Gn. and its

natural enemies). Z. Angew. Ent. 18: 219-75.

Zorin, P. V. (1937): A few data on the biology

of Pteromalus puparum L. and its utilisation in the

control of the cabbage and rape white butterfly

(In Russian). Bull. Sta. reg. Prot. Plantes Leninger,

7: 13-17.

12. NEW RECORD OF D1MEROMICRUS VIBIDIA (WALKER)

(HYMENOPTERA : TORYMIDAE), A PARASITE OF THE GALL

FLY PROCECIDOCHA RES UT1L1S (STONE) (DIPTERA :

TEPHRITIDAE) FROM NEPAL

The gall fly Procecidochares utilis (Stone)

is a serious pest of the crofton weed Eupato-

rium adenophorum Sprengel and is employed

for the control of this weed in many parts of

the world.

A hymenopterous parasite Dimeromicrus

vibidia (Walker) (Torymidae) was reared

from the larvae of this fruit fly in Kathmandu

and this is the first record of the insect para-

sitising P. utilis. The only other insect known

to parasitise the insect in Hawaii is Opius

tryoni (Cam.) (Dodd 1953).

From 20 galls examined eight contained 16

larvae and 11 contained 21 pupae of the fruit

fly, whereas six galls showed parasitisation by

D. vibidia. Four larvae and seven pupae of

the parasite were recovered. The parasitisation

of the galls was noticed to be 30 per cent.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We are grateful to Mr. D. R. Uprety, Dean,

Institute of Science, Tribhuvan University,

Kirtipur for the facilities provided. We are

also indebted to Dr. N. C. Pant, Director,

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, Lon-

don for getting the parasite identified by

Dr. Z. Boucek.

V. C. KAPOOR

Y. K. MALTA

Zoology Instruction Committee,

Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur,

Nepal,

September 8, 1978.

Reference

Dodd, A. P. (1953): Observation on the stem

gall fly of pamakani Eupatorium glandulolosum.

Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 15 : 41-44.

932

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. UROCTEA IN DlC A POCOCK (FAMILY : UROCTEIDAE) AS A

NEW RECORD FROM RAJASTHAN, INDIA

(With five text-figures)

Fig. 1. Uroctea indica Pocock. Dorsal view of

female, legs omitted.

While studying a collection of spiders from

Rajasthan, we came across two females of

Uroctea indica which was described by Po-

cock (1900)1 from Poona, Maharashtra. This

is the only recorded species from India. The

original description is very inadequate and

without illustrations. In the present paper

U . indica Pocock is redescribed and illustrated.

Uroctea indica Pocock

(Figs. 1-5)

1900. Uroctea indica Pocock, Fauna Brit. India,

p. 243.

Specimens exemined : 2 $ 9, India, Rajasthan,

Indana, Dist. Nagaur, date, 4.ix.l960. Coll. B. Bis-

was (Regd. No. 4317/18).

General : Cephalothorax and legs reddish-

brown, abdomen brownish-black. Total length

8.5 mm. Carapace 2.80 mm. long, 3.70 mm.

wide; abdomen 6.30 mm. long, 4.30 mm.

wide.

Cephalothorax : Transversely reniform,

strongly rebordered, clothed with hair. Radiat-

ing black stripes diverge from foveal region to

lateral sides of cephalothorax. Eyes compact,

pearly white, arranged in two distinct rows.

Anterior row of eyes slightly procurved (as

seen from in front); medians larger than the

laterals and closer to laterals than to each

other. Posterior row of eyes slightly procurved,

medians slightly smaller than the laterals,

widely separated from each other, closer to the

adjacent laterals. Median ocular quadrangle

wider than long and wider behind than in

front. Chelicerae weak, vertical, dorsally cloth-

ed with hair, inner and outer margin without

1 Pocock, R. I. (1900): Fauna Brit. India, Arach-

nida. p. 243.

933

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Figs. 2-5. Uroctea indica Pocock.

2. Labium and maxillae; 3. Spinnerets, ventral view;

4. Epigyne; 5. Internal genitalia.

tooth. Labium wider than long, pentagonal in

shape, maxillae convergent, clothed with hair

and some spine like hair, shape as in fig. 2.

Sternum heart-shaped, pointed behind, cloth-

ed with long hair. Legs long, stout, clothed

with hair and spines. Femur of all legs dorsal-

ly provided with black and pale patches.

Abdomen : Longer than wide, oval, clothed

with spine like hair, dorsally provided with

Zoological Survey of India,

14, Mad an Street,

Calcutta- 13,

April 25, 1978.

14. RECORDS OF PLANTS

It will be interesting for students of botany

to know the highest altitude in the world from

where flowering plants have been collected.

Sahni & Raizada (1955) during an expedi-

tion to Pancha Chuli in 1951 collected Sedum

three pairs of sigilla and some round white

spots as in fig. 1. Ventral side slightly lighter

than the dorsal, clothed with hair and provid-

ed with four longitudinal white bands starting

from epigastric furrow to the anal tubercle.

Epigyne consisting of transversely elliptical

plate and marked with nearly semicircular

grooves in front as in fig. 4. Internal genitalia

with oval spermathecae and three spermathe-

cal ducts as in fig. 5. Spinnerets six, clothed

with hair, posterior spinnerets longer than

others, bisegmented, anterior spinnerets short,

cylindrical as in fig. 3. The anal tubercle large,

thick, bisegmented and clothed with long hair.

The apical segment provided with a lateral

fringe of long flexible hair.

Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra,

Rajasthan, Indana, Dist. Nagaur.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We are thankful to Dr. T. N. Anantha-

krishnan. Director for providing necessary

facilities and to Dr. S. K. Bhattacharya, Supe-

rintending Zoologist, Arachnology Division,

for going through the manuscript and offering

valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to

Dr. B. K. Tikader, Deputy Director, Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

Poona, for encouragement.

U. A. GAJBE

S. BHADRA

AT HIGH ALTITUDES

crenulatum Hk. f. & Th. from an altitude of

20,000 ft. Albert Zimmermann (1953), a

botanist, who participated in the Everest Ex-

pedition in 1952 had collected Arenaria, An-

drosace (perhaps Androsace microphylla) and

GROWING

934

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sedum sp. from an altitude of 20,850 ft. In

an earlier expedition to Kamat, F. Smythe

found one plant at over 21000 ft. He threw it

down to R. H. Holdsworth who was at the

other end of his rope, but he failed to make

the catch, and in the words of Holdsworth,

“the adventurous crucifer, as its probably was,

lost to science”.

Later, Jayal (1956-57) in his 1955 Kamet

Expedition reported two flowering plants col-

lected by his party from an altitude of 21,000

ft. without giving their names. These plants are

CCRIMH Unit,

National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow,

May 8, 1977.

Ermania himalayensis (Camb.) O. E. Schultz

( Christolea himalayensis Camb.; Cheiranthus

himalayensis Camb.) (Cruciferae) and Ranun-

culus lobatus Jacq. ex Camb. (Ranunculaceae)

now housed at the herbarium of the Forest

Research Institute, Dehra Dun (Accession

Nos. 118521 and 118522).

A perusal of the available records shows

these to be the highest growing flowering

plants collected from the Himalayas so far.

Since this information is not readily available,

we are bringing it to the notice of the readers.

N. C. SHAH

D. P. BADOLA

References

Sahni, K. C. & Raizada, M. B. (1955): Obser- House, Museum Street, p. 135.

vations on the vegation of Pancha Chuli. lnd. Jayal, N. D. (1955/57): The Mountain World

Forester : 81: 300-317. (London, George Allen & Union Ltd., Ruskin

Zimmerman, A. (1953): The Mountain World House, Museum Street), p. 145.

(London, George Allen & Union Ltd., Ruskin

15. ADDITIONS TO POACEAE OF KARNATAKA STATE

Except for Fischer’s account (1937) in the

Flora of Presidency of Madras there is practi-

cally no detailed enumeration on the Poaceae

of Karnataka. Recently Razi (1973) has enu-

merated 95 species from Bangalore district and

Saldanha & Nicolson (1976) 135 species from

Hassan district. Based on recent botanical ex-

plorations of selected districts of Karnataka

by the workers in Botanical Survey of India,

a few interesting new records of grasses have

been sent for publication.

In the course of further studies, we have

come across many species which are either

new records or interesting from the distribu-

tional point of view. A critical study of the

herbarium specimens as well as a perusal of

literature including the recently published

floras reveals that the following species have

not been recorded from Karnataka. Arundi-

nella intricata has been recorded for the first

time from Peninsular India. Species like Aris -

tida stocksii, Arundinella spicata, Arthraxon

purandharensis and Ischaemum tumidum

which were regarded as restricted to Maha-

rashtra State only, are now known to extend

to Karnataka as well. Similarly Garnotia

courtallensis earlier recorded from only Kerala

and Tamil Nadu has been reported from

Chikmagalur district (Karnataka). In the pre-

sent paper aspects of distribution are discussed

briefly.

935

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

All the specimens have been deposited in

the regional herbarium of the Botanical Sur-

vey of India (BSI).

Agrostis pilosula Trin.

Fischer reports it from Nilgiris and Pulney

hills only and this has now been collected from

Bababudan hills at a similar high altitude of

1200 m extending the area of distribution.

Chikmagalur district : Bababudan, Ragha-

van 132431.

Aristida stoeksii (Hook, f.) Domin

According to Bor (1960) the species is con-

fined to the Concan and that “there is only a

single gathering of the grass”. However, this

species, though infrequent, has been subsequ-

ently collected from Pune and Aurangabad

districts of Maharashtra. There is a single mis-

identified sheet from Belgaum collected by

Woodrow, which on scrutiny is referable to

this species and hence it is a new report for

Karnataka.

Belgaum district : Belgaum, Woodrow 816.

Artliraxon purandharensis Bharucha

The type locality is from Purandhar and

though Jain (1972) states that it has not been

collected since the original collection, this

species is quite frequent at Khandala ghats

(Maharashtra) and has been recorded from

Mt. Abu (Rajasthan) as well. This distinct

species is normally misidentified or confused

with A. meeboldii Stapf which it very closely

resembles, hence the rarity. This has now

been recorded from Chikmagalur and Coorg

districts of Karnataka State thereby extending

its distribution further south along the West-

ern ghats.

Coorg district: Talacauvery, A. S. Rao

95138.

Chikmagalur district : Kemmangundi, Rag-

havan 132386, 132397, 132529; Abbe falls,

Raghavan 132581, 132097; Balur, Raghavan

126132.

Shimoga district : Jog falls, Raghavan

134482.

Arundiuella intricate Hughes

This species has been so far recorded only

from eastern India. The present report from

Chikmagalur district is thus a new record for

peninsular India and reveals discontinuous

distribution.

Chikmagalur district : Abbe falls, Raghavan

134011.

A. spicata Dalz.

This pretty annual has so far been regarded

as endemic to Maharashtra only, but the re-

cent collections extend its distribution further

south along the Western Ghats.

Chikmagalur district : Balur, Raghavan

126111; Kemmangundi, Raghavan 125505;

Kotegehar, Raghavan 1262 12A.

Cymfoopogois polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf

This grass is confined to the Nilgiris in

peninsular India and has now been recorded

from Chikmagalur district as well.

Chikmagalur district : Balur reserve forest,

Khisti 120686.

Echinochloa pyramidalis (Lamk.) Hitchc. et

Chase

A native of tropical Africa, this has been

recently introduced in India but without any

precise locality. The present report from

Coorg in the wild state is hence interesting.

Coorg district: Kanbite water tank, Sunti-

koppa, A. S. Rao 86695.

Eulalia ftmbrlata (Hack.) O. Ktze.

According to Bor (1960), the distribution

extends to “South India” but there is no re-

936

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

cord of its collection either by Fischer or in

any recently published flora. Cooke (1908)

reports it for Maharashtra and the present col-

lections thus extend it to Karnataka also.

Chikmagalur district : Bharatibyle, Khisti

120850, Kudremukh, Raghavan 134289.

Garnotia courtallensis (Arn. et Nees) Thw.

It has been so far recorded from Kerala and

Tamil Nadu at altitudes of 1800-2000 m and

this has been collected from Bababudan ran-

ges from similar elevations.

Chikmagalur district : Bababudan, Ragha-

van 125894; Dhupagagiri, Raghavan 125650;

Bhagavati, Raghavan 126369.

Isachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Ktze. var.

effusa (Trin. ex Hook, f.) Senaratna.

Singh & Deshpande (1973) had reported

this variety from Goa as a new record for

India. However, though infrequent, this species

also occurs in Karnataka, extending its distri-

bution along Western Ghats.

North Kanara district : Belvatgi, Arora

43705. Coorg district : Kalhalla, Arora 42084.

Ischaemom tumidum Stapf ex Bor

As to the distribution of this remarkable

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle,

7 Koregaon Road,

Poona 411001,

June 18, 1977.

R E F E ]

Bor, N. L. (1951): Some New Indian grasses,

Kew Bull. 445-453.

(1960): The Grasses of Burma,

Ceylon, India & Pakistan. Pergamon Press, U.K.

Cooke, T. (1908): Flora of Bombay Presidency

2: 817-1083, England.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1937): Flora of the Presid-

ency of Madras, 10: 1689-1864. England.

Jain, S. K. (1972): The genus Arthraxon P.

Beauv (Poaceae) in India. /. Indian bot. Soc. 51

grass Bor (1951) mentions “Concan” (Mad-

ras State) and Khandafa (Maharashtra). A

critical study of the herbarium specimen re-

cords that this species has so far been collect-

ed only from Maharashtra. Fischer has also

not included it for Madras Presidency, but the

present collections indicate its occurrence in

Karnataka as well.

North Kanara district : Sirsi, Jain 29889.

Shimoga district : Hosuru, Raghavan 68050.

Coorg district : Makut, A. S. Rao 95319.

Mkrostegiom cillatom (Trin.) A. Camus

This species is quite common along the Nil-

giris and Palni hills and the present collec-

tion from Chikmagalur at an elevation of 1400

m confirms its occurrence on hill tops.

Chickmagalur district : Mulainagiri, Ragha-

van 134113.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah for facilities offered

in carrying out the above work.

R. S. RAGHAVAN

N. P. SINGH

U. R. DESHPANDE

B. G. KULKARNI

ENCES

(2): 165-177.

Ramaswamy. S. V. & Razi, B. A. (1973): Flora

of Bangalore district Prasaranga, University of

Mysore. Mysore.

Saldanha, C. J. & Nicolson, D. H. (1976):

Flora of Hassan district, Karnataka. Amerind

Publishing Co. (P) Ltd., New Delhi.

Singh, N. P. & Deshpande, U. R. (1973): Re-

port of an endemic Ceylonese grass from India.

Ind. For. 99(11): 674-75.

937

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

16. THE GENUS OPHIOGLOSSUM IN RAJASTHAN

Ophioglossum was last surveyed in Raja-

sthan by Mital in 1968 when he recorded four

species of the genus from Mt. Abu ( O . reticu-

latum, O. gramineum, O. nudicaule and O.

costatum) and one from Ajmer (O. petiola-

turn). A recent survey indicates that the genus

is widely distributed in Rajasthan. The speci-

fic identification in this genus is based on stem

character, shape of the leaf and aereoles in the

leaf, we now record the following new locali-

ties for this genus in this State. All these loca-

lities are in the humid regions of the State

and the genus is completely absent from the

semi-arid zones. A brief description of all the

localities where this genus has so far been

found follows:

mt. abu — is the richest locality for this

genus since all the five species known from

Rajasthan have now been recorded by us.

Thus Toad rock area contains O. reticulatum

and O. nudicaule. On way to Dilwara temple

O. petiolatum and O. gramineum were record-

ed. On Trevor Toll road bifurcation we found

O. petiolatum and O. gramineum. M.I.G. area

on way to Gomukh contains O. costatum

(pure stands), O. petiolatum and O. grami-

neum (mixed with grasses) and O. reticulatum

(pure stand). Similarly O. petiolatum was re-

corded near Kodra dam. This species was also

collected from Adhar Devi and on way to

sun-set point. According to Mital (1968) this

species is not found at Mt. Abu. Instead he

records O. reticulatum from Adhar Devi

which we could not find. The wide distribution

of the genus at Mt. Abu is interesting by way

of dynamics of species differentiation, a fact

not emphasized by any of the earlier workers.

Thus while pure stands of all these species

were observed, certain spots showed contiguity

of more than one species and in certain cases

two distinct species were found in close pro-

ximity as recorded earlier by Balakrishnan et

al. (1960) in Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Thus on a sloppy grassland on way to Dil-

wara temple and in M.I.G. area O. petiola-

tum and O. gramineum were found intermingl-

ed. A certain sequence could also be made out

in our field observations regarding the occur-

rence of these species. Thus O. petiolatum

appears first around July and continues till

November or even later. O. gramineum ap-

pears much later (October) and is on the

verge of disappearing by the end of Novem-

ber. O. costatum seems to be most sensitive

to moisture and dries up faster than the other

species.

kumbhalgarh hills — This locality which

is an extension of Mt. Abu hills on the north

eastern side contains only O. petiolatum

which occurs with a low frequency. However,

this locality is a new record for this genus.

aimer — This locality contains only O. petio-

latum distributed in Nag Pahar and Antade

hillocks around Ajmer as mentioned by Mital

(1968). We found that the number of leaves

produced per season corresponds to the period

of precipitation. In the year 1975 and 1976

when excessive rainfall was recorded at this

locality plants with six leaves were frequently

observed by us.

mainal — situated about 60 km south west

of Bundi, is again a new locality for this

genus. Here again four species of the genus

( O . costatum, O. petiolatum, O. nudicaule and

O . gramineum ) were recorded. It forms thus

the second richest area for the genus. Again,

like Mt. Abu, stands containing intermingled

populations of O. costatum and O. gramineum

were also observed.

bundi — The genus has been recorded for

938

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the first time from three spots around Bundi.

At Bhimlat (about 10 km from Bundi) O.

costatum and O. petiolatum were found. How-

ever the two species were found growing in

separate stands. A few plants of O. petiolatum

were also seen at Gudha dam just near Bundi.

Similarly dense patches of O. costatum were

found growing at Ramjhar Mahadev near

Bundi.

kota— O. petiolatum has been recorded for

the first time from Bhitaria Kund. O. costatum

was also recorded from Kanyadeh, Sitabari

forest about 120 km east of Kota. Dense pat-

ches of O. costatum and a few plants of O.

Dept, of Botany,

Govt. College,

Ajmer,

June 13, 1977.

gramineum were also found at Atru about

100 km. south east of Kota. This is the third

locality where the two species grow together.

Aspects of contiguity and intermingling of

the different species are being investigated in

details in this laboratory.

Ack no wledge ment

Thanks are due to Dr. B. V. Ratnam, Prin-

cipal, Government College, Ajmer for facili-

ties to carry out this survey. University Grants

Commission provided financial assistance for

this survey.

O. P. SHARMA

T. N. BHARDWAIA

C. B. GENA

References

Balakrishanan, N. P., Thothathri, K. & Rajasthan III : Hitherto unrecorded spedes of Op-

Henry, A. N. (1960): Some Indian Ophioglossums hioglossum from Rajasthan. Bull. Bot. Surv. India

—Taxonomy and distribution. Bull. Bot. Surv. India. 10: 171-176.

2: 335-339. (1969): Ferns and Fern allies of

Mital, P. L. (1968): Ferns and Fern allies of Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 31-42.

17. TAXONOMICAL NOTES ON A FEW SPECIES OF AD1ANTUM

Baker described Adiantum wattii Baker (in

Jour. Linn. Soc. 18: 381, t. 14 f. A, 1881)

based on Watt’s collections from Chamba,

Pangi, in Western Himalayas and A. levingei

Baker (in Ann. Bot. 5: 207, 1891) based on

Levinge’s collection from Sikkim, Chingtang,

in the Eastern Himalayas. Beddome in his sup-

plement to the HANDBOOK TO THE FERNS OF

BRITISH INDIA (p. 18), 1892, reduced A. wattii

Baker to a variety of A. capillus-veneris Linn,

and kept A. levingei Baker in synonymy.

Hope (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 240,

1900) while retaining the specific rank of A.

wattii Baker, also considered A. levingei

Baker as conspecific and this view appears

to have been accepted by all later workers

on Indian ferns. On a comparative study

of the materials of A. wattii Baker and

A. levingei Baker (isotypes and other mate-

rials) housed in the Central National Herbar-

ium, Sibpur, Howrah (CAL), we have come

to the conclusion that both are distinct species

and can be identified by the following key: —

939

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Sorus oblong or elongate-oblong; pinnule slightly

lobed; scale triangular, margin serrulate, base

truncate; indusium yellowish when dry

A. wattii

Sorus obreniform; pinnule deeply lobed; scale

lanceolate, entire, base rounded; indusium grey-

ish when dry A. levingei

Available evidence at hand indicates that

A. wattii Baker is confined to Western Hima-

layas and A. levingei Baker to Eastern Hima-

layas.

Although we have not seen any type mate-

rial of A. refractum Christ (Bull. Ac. Geog.

Bot. Mans. 202, 1902), a study of the descrip-

tion as well as the figure of A refractum Christ

given by Ching in leones Filicum Sinicarum

(Fasc. 8 : t. 137, 1935) reveals that all the

Sikkim materials of A. levingei Baker men-

tioned below are referable to A. refractum

Christ. Dr. S. C. Verma of the Panjab Uni-

versity, Chandigarh, has also written on the

Sikkim sheets previously identified as A. levin-

gei Baker) collected by Levinge, present in

CAL, as A. refractum Christ. If A. refractum

Christ and A. levingei Baker are conspecific

the latter name alone should be correct on the

basis of priority. Materials examined: (All

materials are from CAL unless otherwise in-

dicated).

A. wattii Baker; Cheri, Pangi, Chamba, alt.

7000', /. H. Lace 1876 (Acc. Nos. 41066,

41067), Sept. 1898; Pangi, /. C. Macdonell

s.n. (Acc. No. 6043), Aug. 1882; Killar-Lahul

Road, Chamba, Pangi, alt. 7500', James Mar-

tin s.n. (Acc. No. 6042), Aug. 1899.

A. levingei Baker; Chingtang, Sikkim, alt.

3000', H. C. Levinge s.n. (Acc. Nos. 6012,

6013, 6018, 6019, 6024, 6025, 6026, 6032,

H.C. Levinge s.n. (Acc. Nos. 6014, 6016, 6028,

6033, 6039 Isotypes ), Nov. 1882; Sikkim,

6029, 6030, 6031), Oct. 1883; Anonymous

s.n. (Acc. Nos. 6015, 6017, 6022, 6023, 6027,

6034, 6035, 6036, 6037, 6038); Shergaon to

Gcgaon, Kameng F.D., NEFA, G. Panigrahi

15905 (Acc. No. 5462), May 20, 1958,

Assam.

A. emarginatum Bory was described in Will-

denov’s Species Plantarum. (5 : 449, 1810).

Hooker (Sp. Fil. 39, 1858) recognised the spe-

cies. But, its specific status was questioned by

later workers. In ferns of British india (1:

18, 1866) Beddome recorded the species from

Madras Peninsula based on a collection of

Wight. He remarked that, “I have not been

fortunate enough to find it unless I have con-

founded it with A . aethiopicum,\ In his hand-

book TO THE FERNS OF BRITISH INDIA (1883)

he did combine the two species. C. Christen-

sen (Ind. Fil. 26, 1906) expressed the view

that A. emarginatum Bory is a variety of A.

capillus-veneris Linn. To ascertain the taxo-

nomic status of A. emarginatum Bory we have

taken up a critical study of the species involv-

ed and concluded that A. emarginatum Bory

is a distinct species, A key to distinguish A.

emarginatum, A. capillus-veneris and A. aeth-

iopicum is provided below.

Sori oblong :

Fronds membranous; pinnules obcordate, cune-

ate, sinus shallow, sorus covering the entire

breadth of the lobe A. emarginatum

Fronds not membranous; pinnules ovate or

triangular, sinus deep, sorus covering only the

middle part of the lobe.

A. capillus-veneris

Sori reniform or obreniform

A. aethiopicum

Material examined (The specimens are from

CAL).

Malacca, Anonymous s.n. (Acc. No. 6053);

Malaya, Anonymous s.n. (Acc. No. 6052),

1879. On the Malaccan sheet, Beddome has

written that “This Malaccan plant is A. emar-

ginatum Bory as referred by Hooker”.

Of the three species involved here only A.

capillus-veneris appears to be present in India.

940

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Plants hitherto reported as A. aethiopicum

Linn, from India are A. thalictroides Willd.

(See Nair and Ghosh 1975). The presence of

A. emarginatum Bory in India is also doubt-

Botanical Survey of India,

Indian Botanic Garden,

Sibpur, Howrah-711 103,

May 20, 1978.

Reference

Nair, N. C. and Ghosh, S. R. (1978): Does

Adiantum aethiopicum Linn, exist in India? /. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (1) : 244-247.

ful since we could not come across even a

single specimen from India in CAL as well

as in the various regional herbaria of the

Botanical Survey of India.

N. C. NAIR1

S. R. GHOSH

1 Present Address : Botanical Survey of India,

R. S. Puram, Coimbatore-641002.

18. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BIHAR AND ORISSA-II

The 10 species of plants reported in the

paper as new records for Bihar and Orissa,

were collected by the authors during botani-

cal collections in Ganjam, Bhubaneswar, Ba-

rang, Dhenkanal, Bhitarkanika and tidal forests

of river Brahmani in Orissa.

Cyperus piifoisquama DC.

Ganjam: Paniganda, in forest, fr. 27.i.75.

Saxena 8c Brahmam 1933.

Bhubaneswar, occasional in scrub forest, fl.

25.vii.74. Brahmam 1933.

Dhenkanal: Saptasajya forest, fr. 23.i.76.

Saxena 2111.

Distribution : From Assam and Burma to

Perak — Malay Islands and Sri Lanka.

Fimforistylls polytrichoides Vahl

Cuttak: Bhitarkanika, common in saline

soil, fl. 8.iii.75. Saxena 8c Brahmam 1686.

Distribution : From Bengal to Sri Lanka and

Malacca, common near the sea. — Tropics of

the Old World.

Hydrocera triflora (Linn.) W. & A.

Cuttack: Barang, aquatic, fl. and fr.

13.vii.75. Saxena 1774.

Distribution : Throughout Bengal, the East-

ern and Western Peninsula, Sri Lanka and

Burma. — Java.

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb.

Bhubaneswar: Kedargouri, fl. 4.iv.75. Sax-

ena 8c Brahmam 1746.

Distribution : Deccan Peninsula from the

Konkan southwards; Sri Lanka. — Tropical

Africa.

Momordica cocliinchioensis (Lour.) Spreng.

Bhubaneswar, rare under tree shade, fl.

l.viii.75. Brahmam 1780; Saxena 8c Brahmam

1787.

Distribution : Assam, Bengal, North West

Frontier Provinces, Peninsular India, Anda-

mans, Burma, Malaya. — China.

Miicuna gigantea DC.

Tidal forests of Brahmani, fr. 9.iii.75.

Saxena 8c Brahmam 1694.

Distribution : Sundribans, plains of Western

Peninsula, Andamans; Malaya — Philippines,

Polynesia.

Oldesilaedia bifSora Linn.

Bhubaneswar: Kedargouri; on moist shady

walls, fl. and fr. 4.iv.75. Saxena 8c Brahmam

mi.

941

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Distribution : Plains districts of the eastern

and western coasts; Karnataka; Sri Lanka.

Neopeltandra saiberosa (Muell.-Arg.)

Gamble

Cuttack: Barang, roadsides, fl. 23.V.76.

Saxena 2319.

Distribution : Deccan Peninsula; Samalkota.

Pittosporum siepaulense (DC.) Rehder &

Wilson

Ganjam: Koinpur, in the mixed forest, fr.

3.xi.73. Saxena 1228.

Local name : Prushparni.

Distribution : Along the foot of the outer

Himalayas in Assam, Bhutan, Tibet, Sikkim

and Nepal.

Sphaerantliiis africanus Linn.

Cuttack: Dangmal, in open grass ponds near

rice fields close to river Brahmani, fl.

8.iii.75. Saxena & Brahmam 1651.

Distribution : Plains of Bengal and Silhet

and southwards to Sri Lanka and Malacca. —

Persia, Africa, Malay Islands, China, Philip-

pines and Australia.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. P. K. Jena, Direc-

tor, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubanes-

war and to Dr. P. K. Dutta, Project Coordi-

nator for facilities and to the Director and

staff of the Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

for their cooperation and the facilities provid-

ed for consulting the Herbarium.

H. O. SAXENA

M. BRAHMAM

Regional Research Laboratory,

Bhubaneswar-751 004,

May 5, 1977.

19. NOTES ON DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS

During a recent botanical exploration tour

to Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh I

came across several plants which do not seem

to have been reported so far from Arunachal

Pradesh. Some of them are of economic im-

portance, and hence it is considered useful to

notify their occurrence in Kameng. The speci-

mens are deposited in the Herbarium of Bota-

nical Survey of India at Shillong. As the des-

cription of the plants are available in floras

no detailed description are provided here. Only

a brief note on habit or habitat is given.

Cymbopogan flexoosus (Notes ex Steud.)

Wats. var. sikkimensis Bor, is an aromatic

white-stemmed grass known as “Lemon-

grass”. It has so far been known from Siki-

kim. The present collection was made from

Tenka valley in Kameng District.

Loc: Tenga Valley, 31.8.76, Hajra 68539.

Cynibopogon khasianus Stapf ex Bor, is

another aromatic grass which has so far been

known from Khasi Hills, Naga Hills and

Manipur. The present collection from Lumla

and Tenga valley of Kameng District extends

its distribution further northwards into East-

ern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh.

Loc: Lumla, 24.8.76, Hajra 68505; Tenga

valley, 31.8.76, Hajra 68538.

Cynibopogon martini! (Roxb.) Watson is

also an aromatic grass. Though Bor (1960)

has mentioned very common in South East

Asia in North-eastern India it has so far been

recorded from Nagaland and Khasi Hills only.

The present collection was made from Tenga

valley in Kameng district. The species can be

easily identified by the presence of sessile and

aromatic leaves. It grows in open places on

the hill slopes. The plant yields aromatic oil.

942

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Loc: Tenga valley, 31.8.76, Hajra 68540.

Diplomeris hirsuta Lindl. is a ground or-

chid with white flowers. It has so far been

known from Western Himalaya and east-

wards to Sikkim and Bhutan. The present col-

lection from Bongleng-Bomja road extends

its distribution further in Eastern Himalayas.

The plant grows in shady places on moss

covered-rocks.

Loc.: Bongleng-Bomja Road, 26.8.76,

Hajra 68523.

Impatiens amplexicaelis Edgew. is a herb

with sessile leaf and small white flowers. It has

so far been known from Western Himalaya

and Nepal. The present collection from Ta-

wang extends its distribution further to Aruna-

chal Pradesh.

Loc.: Tawang, 15.8.76, Hajra 6A131.

Nardostachys jatamaiisi DC. is a herb root

stock covered with fibres. It has so far been

known from Western Himalaya and Sikkim.

The present collection from Mela pass of

Tawang sub-division extends its distribution

eastwards. It is a valuable medicinal plants.

Loc.: Mela pass, around Tawang, 15.8.76,

Hajra 64750.

Picrorhiza kerrooa Benth. is another her-

baceous plant with spathulate, subradical.

Botanical Survey of India,

Eastern Circle, Shillong,

March 18, 1977.

serrated leaves and bitter rootstock. It has so

far been known from Kashmir to Sikkim. The

present collection from Tawang surroundings

extends its distribution to Arunachal Pradesh.

It is a valuable medicinal plants.

Loc.: Around Tawang, 15.8.76, Hajra

64756.

Pinos roxburgfaii Sargent is a large tree with

3-4 needles. It has so far been known from

Kashmir to Bhutan. The present collection

from Kameng District extends its distribution

further to Arunachal Pradesh.

Loc.: Bomja — Seru Road, 27.8.76, Hajra

68518.

Saesserea obvallata Wall, is a herb with

membranous uppermost leaves. It has so far

been known from Western Himalaya, Bhutan

and Sikkim. The plant grows in open places

amidst rocks.

Loc.: Mangmagnella, on way to Mela pass.

16.8.76, Hajra 64801.

Acknowledgement

I wish to thank Dr. S. K. Jain, Deputy

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern

Circle, Shillong for kindly reading through

and suggesting improvements.

P. K. HAJRA

20. DISPERSAL IN SOME LORANTHACEAE OF THE NILGIRIS

The semi-plant parasites of the mistletoe

family Loranthaceae, have a dispersal system

that in almost all cases is linked up with birds.

Loranthaceae has a world wide distribution

and in different regions, different birds, or

families of birds, play a significant role in the

propagation of this parasite. Most of the birds

that feed on mistletoe berries are unspecial-

ised frugivorous birds. Certain avian families

have evolved a mutual interdependance with

this plant. Significant among them is the Old

World flowerpeckers, Dicaeidae, a family

943

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

recognised to have a close relationship with the

family Loranthaceae as dispersal agents as well

as pollinators.

I was able to make some observations on

the dispersal of the various species of loran-

thus in the Nilgiris. The mode of dispersal

of the loranthus by the flowerpecker (Dic-

aeum spp.) is well documented by Rumphius

(1747)*, Keeble (1901), van Heurn (1922)*,

Ali (1931) and Doctors van Leeuwen (1954).

The sticky seed surrounded by the viscous

matter is swallowed and the rind-like epicarp

is discarded. The seeds are soon voided in a

string accompanied by some comical acroba-

tics by the bird. The seeds stick on to or along

a branch or twig and germinate. Ali (1931)

observed the thickbilled flowerpecker (Dic-

aeum agile ) follow a different technique in

dispersing the seeds. According to him the

flesh is teased out by revolving the fruit in the

mandibles of the bird, and consumed, while

the seed is rubbed off onto a branch. Doctors

van Leeuwen (1954) do not accept this

method of dispersal by the flowerpecker.

According to Weeraratna (I960)* in Ceylon,

the flowerpecker is only interested in the pulp

of the berry and the seed is swallowed only

occasionally.

In the Nilgiris nearly all the species of loran-

thus were found to be dispersed by the first

method, usually by Dicaeum concolor, the

most common species of flowerpecker in the

hills. Whether passage through the alimentary

canal of the flowerpecker improves the germi-

nation potential of the loranthus berry is an

open question. Seeds of many of the species

of loranthus in the Nilgiris seem capable of

germinating without having passed through

the alimentary canal of the bird. However, in

certain species like Dendrophthoe neelgher-

rensis passage through the bird’s intestine

seems to greatly facilitate germination, as the

turbid flesh coating the seed is removed.

Keeble (1901) noted that in small seeded ber-

ries like Helixanthera hookeriana (in Ceylon),

the soft seed got partly digested in the alimen-

tary canal of the bird. This was not found

to be the case in H. hookeriana in the Nilgiris.

The two species of Macrosolen in the Nil-

giris are dispersed by different methods. The

berry of Macrosolen differs from Helixan-

thera, Taxillus, Scurrula, Helicanthes and

Dendrophthoe in having a mass of viscid tis-

sue at the pole opposite the radicle, near the

base of the fruit: whereas in the other species

the viscid tissue is at the radicular pole of the

seed (Kuijt 1969). The viscid tissue in

Macrosolen forms a sticky ‘tail’ and is distinct

from the fleshy layer which adheres to the epi-

carp. Ali (1931) noted that Dendrophthoe

falcata had two thread like viscid processes

one at each end of the seed which helps it to

adhere along its length to the substrate. In

Macrosolen the viscid tail at one end of the

s6ed and attaches it at an angle to the sub-

strate.

The fruiting of Macrosolen parasiticus a

higher elevation loranthus, is from October to

May. The fruit has a very thin epicarp and a

large amount of fleshy tissue adhering to it.

The width of the fruit is 8-10 mm, and as-

sumes a deep bottle green colour when ripe.

In this area the flowerpecker appears to have

little to do with its dispersal. The large

amount of fleshy tissue adhering to the epi-

carp, and the size of the fruit possibly makes

it difficult for the flowerpecker to consume in

its usual fashion. Birds observed feeding on

the fruits were Pycnonotus jocosus, P. cafer,

Hypsi petes madagascariensis and Megalaima

viridis. These birds swallowed the fruit whole

and excreted the undamaged seeds singly with

the slimy tail retained. The slimy tail got

caught on to a substrate and attached the seed

944

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to it. Thus in the Nilgiris it was observed that

the unspecialised frugivorous birds contribut-

ed to the dispersal of Macrosolen parasiticus.

In Ceylon, Keeble (1901) noted that whole

berries of M. parasiticus were found in the

stomach of frugivorous birds, whereas the

flowerpecker stomachs contained only the

flesh of the berry and an occasional seed. Pos-

sibly the birds had consumed the flesh and

rubbed off the seed onto a branch.

In Macrosolen capitellatus, a species com-

mon on the slopes of the Nilgiris upto an ele-

vation of 1500 m, the fruit is dispersed by the

flowerpecker by a different technique. The

fruit in this case has a thick epicarp and its

width is 8-9. 5mm. The species of flowerpecker

observed feeding on these berries was Dicaeum

concolor, the common flowerpecker in this

area. The bird plucked off a berry from the

clump and flew with it to a bare branch or

twig. The stalk end of the berry was held in

its bill, the seed was squeezed out and the

flesh eaten by manipulating the berry in its

Research Scholar,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbiil House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

November 9, 1978.

R E F E ]

Ali, S. A. (1931): The role of the sunbirds and

the flowerpeckers in the propagation and distribu-

tion of the tree-parasite Loranthus longiflorus

Desr., in the Konkan, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 :

144.

van Leeuwen, W. M. (1954): On the Biology

of some Javanese Loranthaceae and the role birds

mandibles. After the flesh was removed the

epicarp was discarded and the seed which

was stuck onto one side of the birds bill was

rubbed off onto a branch. This exercise takes

the birds about 45-60 seconds. Eight D. con-

color were observed for over an hour on 17

clumps of M. capitellatus which were parasi-

tising a Ficus sp. Observations were also made

in different places and in all cases Dicaeum

concolor was found to eat the berry in this

manner. With other species of loranthus this

bird employs the ordinary method of feeding.

The feeding method of D. agile appears to be

similar to the one described above, though I

have not been able to make observations on

D. agile feeding. It would be of interest to

know whether the technique of the bird varies

with the fruit encountered (as in D. concolor ),

or if a technique is specific to a species of

bird. More information on the dispersal sys-

tems of the different species of loranthus in

India would certainly be useful.

PRIYA DAVIDAR

ENCES

play in their life-history. Beaufortia, Misc. Publ. 4:

105-207.

Keeble, F. W. (1901): Observations on the

Loranthaceae of Ceylon. Transact. Linn. Soc. Lon-

don 5: 91-117,

Kuijt, J. (1969): The Biology of Parasitic

Flowering Plants. University of California Press.

* Not referred to in the original.

945

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

21. A NOTE ON SOME ENTOMOGENOUS FUNGI ATTACKING

PRESERVED DRAGONFLY COLLECTIONS

Introduction

Fungi are the biggest hazard to insects in

preservation cabinets. Several instances of

fungal attack on preserved and stored insect

material have been reported earlier (Wegstaffe

& Fidler 1955; Oldroyd 1963; Ray Chaud-

huri et al. 1975). It seems, useful to give a

brief account of atleast some of the fungi

which commonly attack dragonflies dry- stored

in collection cabinets and the methods to be

effectively used to prevent their appearance

within the containers.

Observations

No less than six different species of fungi

were obtained on an examination of about 100

dragonfly specimens of either sex and belong-

ing to four (two zygopterans and two anisop-

terans) species namely Prodasineura autum-

nalls, Rhinocypha quadrimaculata, Trithemis

f estiva, and T. aurora. The fungus species as

recorded on these dragonflies are Entomoph -

thora destruens, Entomophthora sp., Mucor

sp., Spicaria sp., Tarichium sp. No. 1 and

Tarichium sp. No. 2. The six fungi species

are new records as far as their host materials

are concerned. It is interesting to note that no

two different species of fungi have ever been

found together on any individual host, how-

ever, the same saprophytic fungus may be

found on individuals of many species also.

It was found that the organs and parts

usually subject to fungal attack were compa-

ratively feebly chitinized and/or membranous,

e.g., intersegmental membranes of the abdo-

men. Body pores and genitalia were, however.

among the worst affected parts. As a result of

such infestation the material becomes brittle

losing many parts of taxonomic significance.

Control

The following control methods could be of

great use in coping with the fungal growth on

dry preserved material in collection cabinets.

1. Drying of the material in the hot sun

for atleast six hours for a week.

2. Spraying of powdered Para dichloroben-

zene and/or naphthalene along the inner walls

of the box.

3. Putting rolls of cotton soaked in Ethyl

acetate in the corners of the box.

4. When the infestation is heavy and ap-

parent the specimens can be cleaned by brush-

ing out with a solution of glacial phenol in

benzene in the ratio 1:10 or in dilute formal-

dehyde.

5. The best method to prevent the occur-

rence of fungus is to put a ball of cotton wool

(about an inch in diameter) soaked in carbolic

acid and then placing it on a stout pin. When

the acid is recrystalized on the cotton wool,

then the ball can be pinned in the drawer.

6. Damp and consequent moulds can be

checked to some extend by placing a small

perforated tin box containing silica jel in each

drawer.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. S. K. Sangal and

Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha (both of the Depart-

ment of Zoology, D.A.V. (P.G.) College,

Dehradun, India) for their constant encourage-

ment and help rendered during the prepara-

946

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tion of this paper. Thanks are also due to

Mr. S. N. Sachan, Botany Department, D.A.V.

Department of Zoology,

D. A. V. (P.G.) College,

Dehra Dun, U.P., India,

April 26, 1978.

(P.G.) College, Dehradun for having kindly

identified the fungus species for this paper.

BRIJ KISHORE TYAGI

VIJAY VEER

References

Oldroyd, H. (1963): Collecting, Preserving and

studying insects, Hutchinson, Scientific and Techni-

cal, London, 1-321.

Ray Chaudhurt, S. P. et al. (1975) : Advances

in Mycology at Plant Pathology. Prof. R. N. Tan-

don Birthday Celebration Committee, New Delhi,

1-341.

Wagstaffe, R. & Fidler, J. H. (1955) : The pre-

servation of natural history specimens. H. F. & G.

Willwerley Ltd., London, XIII + 198.

947

YU Ad 'l ' -A

d . - - ■ ‘ell > d 1 l . ' i ‘

?DAYT ;Y / _ Y

5AI3V YAlliV

mm * . , '■

■

-o*l AT :(im) .1Z .1 A - A A'

.0 & A A A- ->.:Ai YdrT ^ ' •/ ' A : , A - ' •, •

Mi y:AC A A *v • •• •' A .

Ill

v

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CONTENTS

i)r>

Page

Editorial i

Bombay Natural History Society — The Founders, the Builders and the

Guardians — Part I. By Salim Ali . . 559

Changes in the bird fauna of a forest area: Simlipal Hills, Mayurbhanj

District, and Dhenkanal District, Orissa. By S. Dillon Ripley . . 570

Forest Days. By Tom Norman . . 575

How Man modifies climate. By Anna Mani . . 580

Recent advances in inland aquaculture in India, By V. G. Jhingran . . 589

A COMPARATIVE FIELD STUDY OF THE INDIAN AND NEW ZEALAND REPRESENTATIVES OF

the Genus Ruppia Linnaeus. By Charles McCann . . 600

The shape of the shell of the chambered Nautilus. By Nathaniel Grossman . . 611

Emotive kinships in the study of mammals. By M. Krishnan .. 613

Moth migration in Mombasa — 1955/1977. By D. G. Sevastopulo . . 618

Microarthropods and soil ecosystems. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan . . 625

The changing Wildlife of Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji .. 632

The present status of.mahseer (fish) and artificial propagation of

Tor khudree (Sykes). By C. V. Kulkarni and S. N. Ogale .. 651

Oceanographic research in India — past, present and future. By S. Z. Qasim . . 661

The status of Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus ) in U.P. and its rehabilitation.

By V. B. Singh . . 668

Rare and threatened flowering plants of south India. By A. N. Henry, K.

Vivekananthan and N. C. Nair . . 684

Bilateral symmetry in the reproductive structures of some palms. By T.

Antony Davis and C. Bhattacharya . . 698

On factors governing the distribution of wild mammals in Karnataka. By S.

Narendra Prasad, P. Vijayakumaran Nair, H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav

Gadgil . . 718

The birds of Great and Car Nicobars with some notes on wildlife conserva-

tion in the islands. By Humayun Abdulali . . 744

Ecology of the black-and-orange flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon) in

southern India. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan 773

Rodent research in India. By Ishwar Prakash . . 792

Proto-fiddlers and fiddlers: Pathways to waving in Indian Brachyuran crabs.

By Rudolf Altevogt . . 800

Competition and co-existence in Griffon vultures: Gyps bengalensis, G. indicus

and G. fulvus in Gir forest. By Robert B. Grubh . . 810

Distribution and status of the Nilgiri Tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) — 1975-78.

By E. R. C. Davidar . . 815

Peregrine falcon. By S. M. Osman . . 845

Notes on the Green Keelback snake ( Macropisthodon plumbicolor) . By Thomas

Gay . . 854

Population change of the Hanuman Langur ( Presbytis entellus), 1961-1976, in

Dharwar area, India. By Yukimara Sugiyama and M. D. Parthasarathy . . 860

The Nanda Devi Sanctuary — 1977. By Lavkumar Khacher . . 868

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjacent areas. By V. S. Vijayan . . 888

New Descriptions : Balsaminaceae; Arachnida (Thomisidae) ; Homoptera (Pseudoc-

occidae) ; Hymenoptera (Chalcididae) ; Coleoptera (Scarabaeidae) . . 901

Reviews . . 914

Miscellaneous Notes 917

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400

and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Borr

Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 4r

i

JOURNAL

of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

Vol. 75

Supplement

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P, V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

Editors to the Supplement : M. Gadgil & R. B. Grubh

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay mi.

Hist . Soc . 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of

papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the

author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,

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Hornbill House,

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Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society.

VOLUME 75 SUPPLEMENT

Date of Publication : 27-3-1980

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface

On the time-budget of different life-history stages of Chital ( Axis axis). By H.C.

Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil. ( With two plates, four sketches and five text-figures ) 949

On the Primate resources of India. By S. M. Mohnot . . . . . . . . 961

Seasonal changes in Body weights of some Rodents from South India. By R.K. Chandrahas 971

Ecology of the Bonnet Macaque {Macaca radiata Geoffroy) with special reference to

Feeding Habits. By George P. Kuruvilla . . . . . . . . 976

Banding Bats for the study of population ecology. By H. B. Devaraj Sarkar, B.S. Bhima

Rao, M. Suvarnalatha and B. S. Thyagaraja. {With two plates) . . .. 989

The status and Distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka. ByP. Vijayakumaran

Nair and Madhav Gadgil. ( With four plates and seven text-figures) . . . . 1000

The status, ecology and behaviour of Lion-tailed Macaque {Macaca silenus). By J.

Mangalraj Johnson. {With three plates) .. .. .. .. .. 1017

A comparative account of the Avifauna of the Sholas and the neighbouring plan-

tations in the Nilgiris. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan. {With a plate) .. .. 1028

Nectar-feeding adaptations of Flowerbirds. By P. Kannan. {With twenty-two text-figures) 1036

Population and roosting behaviour of Migratory Rosy Pastor Sturnus roseus in Poona,

Maharashtra State. By Anil Mahabal and D. B. Bastawde. {With seven text-figures) . . 1051

The Griffon Vultures {Gyps bengalensis, G. indicus & G.fulvus) of Gir forest: their feeding

habits and the nature of association with the Asiatic Lion. By Robert B. Grubh.

{With a plate) .. .. .. .. . . .. .. 1058

The ecology and behaviour of the Indian Peafowl {Pavo cristatus Linn.) of Injar. By

A. J. T. Johnsingh and S. Murali. {With a text-figure) .. .. .. 1069

Ecological notes on some Migrant Waders in India. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju. ( With six

graphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080

Breeding Biology of Bulbuls, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus luteolus (Class : Aves,

Family : Pycnonotidae) with special reference to their ecological isolation. By V. S.

Vijayan. ( With two plates and six text-figures) . . . . . , . , 1090

CONTENTS

Page

Breeding season in a tropical population of the House Sparrow. By R. M. Naik and

Lalit Mistry. (With ten text-figures ) .. .. .. .. .. 1118

The availability of nesting materials and nesting sites as vital factors in the gregarious

breeding of Indian Water-Birds. By M. Krishnan. (With five plates) .. .. 1143

Wintering habits of the Blue Chat Erithacus brunneus (Hodgson), in the Nilgiris, Southern

India. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan . . .. .. .. .. 1153

A contribution to the Ecology of Indian Pied Myna, Sturms contra contra Linnaeus. By

M. L. Narang, A. K. Tyagi and B. S. Lamba. (With two plates and a text-figure ) . . 1157

A comparative study of the feeding habits of certain species of Indian birds affecting

Agriculture. By D. N. Mathew, T. C. Narendran and V. J. Zacharias . . . . 1178

Observations on the food and feeding habits of Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus. By

Mir Hamid Ali, T. G. Manmohan Singh, Aziz Banu, M. Anand Rao and A. T. Sainath

Janak .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 1198

Abnormal nests of the Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). By V.C. Ambedkar.

( With a plate and a text-figure ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205

Breeding biology of the Black Drongo. By E. A. A. Shukkur and K. J. Joseph. ( With

twelve photographs in two plates and five text-figures) .. .. .. .. 1212

Ecology of hole nesting birds. By K. N. Panicker .. .. .. .. 1227

The status of Indian Crocodilians. By Romulus Whitaker and J. C. Daniel. (With two

plates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238

Notes on the Host Plants of the Loranthaceae in the Nilgiris. By PriyaDavidar . . 1246

Ecological impact of afforestation at the Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary. By S.G.

Neginhal, (With two plates) .. . . .. .. .. .. 1254

Human-Animal interactions in the Rajasthan desert. By Ishwar Prakash and P. K. Ghosh 1259

Health perspectives for wildlife conservation. By C. M. Singh . . . . . . 1262

Salim Ali at Ranganathittu bird sanctuary, 17th June 1974. In his glasses are reflected the

islands on which breed 11 species of waterbirds. Dr. Salim Ali discovered this heronary during his

Mysore State survey and was responsible for having it declared one of the first bird sanctuaries in India*

PREFACE

SALIM ALI, NATURALIST EXTRAORDINARY:

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

INTRODUCTION

The papers in this issue were presented as a tribute to Dr. Salim Ali at a symposium

on ‘ Ecology and Conservation of Birds and Mammals in India ’ held at Bangalore on

llth-13th November, 1977. The authors of these papers represent amongst themselves

a majority of scientific workers active in this area on the Indian sub-continent. Notably

enough, most of us have been attracted to the field because of Salim Ali ; and his pervasive

influence will be apparent throughout this volume. It is therefore appropriate to pause

and enquire here into the reasons why this one man has accomplished so much for the

scientific study of natural history and for the conservation of nature on the Indian sub-

continent.

Man the Hunter

Man has always found fascination in the world of plants and animals around him.

In early days his very existence depended on gathering fruits and leaves of the plants and

hunting animals for their meat. As a ground dwelling predator of the tropical savannas

his most prized prey were the bigger birds and mammals, and the bigger mammals were

also his arch-enemies (Ardrey 1976). An intimate knowledge of the habits of these

animals must therefore have been a matter of life and death to the early man. From what

we now know of the hunting gathering people of today, this knowledge was remarkably

detailed and accurate. Moreover, it must have been very systematically organized, and

man’s capacity for deductive reasoning may, in fact, have originated in his attempts to

deduce vital facts about the prey he was hunting from the subtle tracks that were left

behind (Blurton- Jones et al. 1976).

The fantastic growth of man’s intellect enabled him to become a highly successful

hunter, a little too successful in fact for the natural resilience of his prey populations to

suffice to maintain themselves before the onslaught of man. Starting with the pleistocene,

man began to wipe out species after species of the bigger herbivores that were his preferred

prey ; a process that continues to this day (Mosimann and Martin 1975). With these

extinctions came an understanding of the necessity to practice some prudence, and the

primitive hunter gatherer seems to have initiated a whole gamut of conservation measures.

Taboos against the hunting of pregnant females, and against the hunting of totemic

animals must have been components of such conservation measures (Harris 1977).

Valmiki’s vehement protest against the killing of a mating crane with which the epic

Ramayana begins perhaps symbolises the awakening of this consciousness in India.

i

SALIM ALI: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Beginnings of Agriculture

But the prudence was often ineffective, and man destroyed his very base of subsistence

as a hunter-gatherer through over-exploitation in many parts of the world. He then

turned to domestication of animals and cultivation of plants — an intensification of

resource use which enabled him to build up his populations to ever higher levels (Harris

1977). This process seems to have begun in India some four to five thousand years ago,

with hunting-gathering gradually giving way to animal husbandry and agriculture. This

transition made possible an accumulation of a surplus of animals on hooves or of grain

and initiated the process of social stratification. An accurate prediction of seasonal

changes is vital to the practice of agriculture and this promoted the growth of a specialized

priestly class of Brahmins (Kosambi 1970). These became the men of learning and made

important contributions to mathematics and astronomy on which the predictions of the

seasons were based (Bernal 1939).

But these men of learning were cut off from the hunting gathering peoples of our

country who continued to nurture the traditional knowledge of animals and their ways and

maintain the practices for the conservation of wild animal and plant wealth based in the

various taboos. It has been suggested that there was however another tradition of

scientific enquiry which did retain contacts with nature, this was the so-called Tantrik-

Lokayat tradition (Chattopadhyaya 1978). The Lokayatis worshipped prakriti or nature

and were perhaps the people responsible for the flowering of Indian medicine and surgery

in the first millenium of the Christian era in India.

Loss of Contact with Nature

The pressures on land had been building up all this time and by the time of Buddha

around 600 b.c. there were no more large herds of animals to permit continued large scale

animal sacrifice as a part of religious ritual. The cattle in particular were extremely

valuable as a source of power for agriculture which had now spread over vast stretches of

the country and the cattle had to be conserved. Over the next fourteen hundred years

therefore there was a protracted struggle to abandon cattle sacrifice at religious rituals ; a

struggle that ended in the cow becoming a holy animal never to be killed and with the

Brahmins abandoning all eating of meat, except in a few instances (Kosambi 1970, Harris

1977).

With this adoption of strict vegetarianism, the Indian men of learning in the

Brahminical tradition lost all contact with the way of life that demanded an intimate know-

ledge of animals for successful survival. At about the same time around 800 a.d., the

Brahminical tradition also succeeded in largely suppressing the intellectual tradition of

the nature worshipping Lokayat school (Chattopadhyaya 1978). With this ceased further

progress in medicine and surgery ; and after this there were no more great poets like

Kalidasa dealing lovingly with mountains and forests and wild animals.

ii

PREFACE

Mughal Naturalists

The only segment of the Indian social elite retaining any live contact with nature

over the mediaeval times has been the princes, both Hindu and Moslem. The princes

have always been devoted to hunting, and the Kautilya’s arthasastra, for instance, gives

detailed instructions on the maintenance of hunting preserves and elephant forests. But

it was the Mughal emperors who seem to have taken a more seriously intellectual interest

in this pastime, and Jahangir is famous for his collection of animals and their paintings,

and for his own perceptive observations on the habits of animals (Alvi and Rahman

1968). But these scientific enquiries of Jahangir were outside the main stream of Indian

intellectual tradition.

Tribal Nature Lore

This has gone on now for over a thousand years and we have a dual society. A small

but significant fraction of the Indian population still depends on wild plants and animals

and still retains a tremendous storehouse of traditional knowledge of animals and their

way of life. I know this, for instance, to be true of the Phaseparadhis of Maharashtra

and the Kadu-kurubas of Mysore (Khomne et al. 1980). But the formal body of learning

does not recognise this as knowledge and treats it as being worthless. Thus a zoologist

like me is forced to pay an assistant with this body of knowledge so important to my work

at the same level as a totally unskilled worker, while an assistant with a formal degree

but no real knowledge or understanding of animals must be paid several times higher

wages. This same segment of society in intimate contact with the nature also has a whole

series of nature conservation measures which have been responsible for preservation of

much that we are now beginning to treasure. Here again, this traditionally preserved

wealth, as for instance embodied in the sacred groves, is being destroyed by the civilised

society, while it is creating its own nature reserves which end up being protected only on

paper (Gadgil and Vartak 1975).

Contact with Western Science

Thus we have a picture of the Indian civilization almost totally cut off from live

contact with nature. When this civilization came in contact with the Western science, it

developed a tradition of teaching and research in zoology based entirely on the study of

dead animals in the laboratory. It was also a civilization utterly indifferent to an ever

accelerating and tragic loss of its magnificent heritage of plant and animal life.

In this mileu was born a remarkable man ; Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali in the year

1 896, and he became the foremost heir in the modern times to the great tradition of natural

history that flourished in the courts of Mughal emperors. Notably enough, some of the

most interesting early papers of Salim Ali are on Mughal emperors as naturalists (Ali

1927-28). He also imbibed the tradition of natural history brought to India by the British

iii

SALIM ALI : A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

naturalists. Quite naturally he did not care much about the formal study of dead animals

that went on in our institutions of learning and struck out his own path without ever

obtaining a formal degree. He wrote two remarkable papers on bird pollination and on

the breeding behaviour of baya weaver birds ; work that was way ahead of ecological and

behavioural studies not merely for India, but the world over (Ali 1931, 1932). He then

launched on his own, without any institutional backing but was supported to a limited

extent by the tradition of natural history amongst the princely houses of India. For, a

number of native states invited Salim Ali to undertake ornithological surveys in their

territory ; and with these surveys he established a solid basis for the systematic study of

Indian birds over the four decades from 1930’s (e.g. Ali 1933-34, Ali 1962), culminating

in the monumental handbook of birds of india and Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1968 to

1974).

Like all great naturalists in this tradition he began as a hunter. India has produced

many man-eating tigers ; but Salim Ali is one of its few tiger eating men : he has shot and

eaten tiger steak in the old days in Assam. But he was amongst the first to realize the

plight of India’s wildlife and one of the earliest to begin a battle for nature conservation

in India. More than any other man, he is responsible for the present-day consciousness

for conservation in our country (Gee 1964).

The Future

It has been a struggle against heavy odds for him in a society utterly indifferent to

natural history and nature conservation. But largely thanks to his efforts we are about

to turn a new page. With his handful of students and a few others inspired by him, we are

at last beginning to see being established in India a sound tradition of scientific study of

living birds and animals, and of a scientifically based conservation effort. Both these

traditions are still in their infancy, and it was perhaps due to this that the tribute paid to

him on his 75th birthday was largely the handiwork of his foreign admirers. But then we

plotted to see to it that when he completes his 81st year at least, the tribute should come

from his own country. This dream was realized when a symposium was organized on

1 lth-1 3th November 1977 at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore to honour

Dr. Salim Ali. The theme of the symposium was the ecology and conservation of birds

and mammals in India, and a majority of Indians active in this field gathered together to

express their gratitude to the man who began it all. The proceedings of that symposium

are this volume, and on behalf of us all, it is my privilege to dedicate it to

Dr. Salim Ali.

Madhav Gadgil

PREFACE

References

Ali, Salim (1927-28) : The moghul emperors of India as naturalists and sportsmen. Parts 1 to III. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., Vols. 31 and 32.

(1931): The nesting of the Baya {Ploceus philippinus). A new interpretation of their domestic relations.

J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 34 : 947-64.

(1932) : Flower-birds and bird-flowers in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 35 : 573-605.

(1933-34) : The Hyderabad state ornithological survey. 5 parts. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., Vols. 36-37.

(1962) : The Birds of Sikkim, Madras.

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1968-74) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vols I-X. Bombay.

Alvi, M. A. and Rahman, A. (1968) : Jahangir — the Naturalist. Delhi.

Ardrey, Robert (1976) : The Hunting Hypothesis. New York.

Bernal, J. D. (1939) : Social Functions of Science. London.

Blurton Jones, N. G. (1976) : in Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers (ed.) R. B. Lee and I. De Vore. Cambridge, Mass.

Chattopadhyaya, D. (1978). Lokayat : A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. Delhi.

Gadgil, M. and Vartak, V. D. (1975) : Sacred groves of India : a plea for continued conservation. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72 : 314-320.

Gee, E. P. (1964) : The Wild Life of India, London.

Harris, Marvin (1977) : Cannibals and Kings, London.

Khomne, S. D., Malhotra, K. C. and Gadgil, M. (1980) : The nomadic hunter-gatherers of Maharashtra. Tech.

Report, I.S.I., Calcutta.

Kosambi, D. D. (1970) : The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India. Delhi.

Mosimann, J. G. and Martin, P. S. (1975) : Simulating overkill by Paleoindians. Amer. Sci. 63 : 3.

\

S

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

Vol. 75 SUPPLEMENTARY ISSUE

ON THE TIME-BUDGET OF DIFFERENT LIFE -HISTORY

STAGES OF CHITAL (AXIS AXIS)

H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil1

( With two plates , four sketches and five text figures)

Introduction

Any animal has to undertake a variety of activities

in order to survive, grow and reproduce. A male

baya weaver-bird in the breeding season, for

example, has to collect nesting material, weave

his nest, defend the nesting area against intrud-

ing males, display to the attendant females, feed,

drink, sleep and so on. Each of these activities

has a certain benefit and a certain cost attached

to it. Reducing the time spent in feeding may

enable a male to complete the nest more quickly

and display more towards intruding males and

receptive females. However, he may at the same

time be exposed to a greater risk of mortality

through physical exhaustion. Shifting the em-

phasis from threatening intruding males to col-

lection of nest material, may allow him to con-

struct the nest more quickly, while at the same

1 Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of

Science, Bangalore-560 012.

time render him more susceptible to the usurpation

of his territory. Obviously all these trade-offs

have to be balanced for an appropriate decision

regarding the proportion of time to be allocated

to each activity. The calculation of such trade-

offs and hence the appropriate time-budget will

depend on the criterion that the animal wants to

maximise. We do not of course imply that the

animals consciously choose a criterion and then

allocate their time amongst various activities

through appropriate calculations of cost and

benefit attached to each activity. Rather, we

make the assumption that the criterion is genetic

fitness, and that the natural selection has moulded

the time-budget of any animal so as to maximise

its genetic fitness.

A study of such time-budgets can be expected

to throw much light on how the behaviour of any

organism is structured in relation to its ecology.

Fagen (1974), for example, has shown that natural

selection should favour the allocation of a larger

949

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , F<?/. 75

fraction of time towards play activity in the

juvenile phases of the life-history. MacFarland

(1977) makes a much finer analysis and shows

how natural selection moulds the proportion of

time devoted to and sequence of the various com-

ponents of a male newt’s courtship display. The

whole study of time-budget is, however, in a

primitive stage, and very few good time-budgets

are as yet available (Wilson 1975). Here we

analyse the time-budget of spotted deer or chital

( Axis axis), a highly social deer species of the

oriental region, with particular emphasis on the

variation in the time-budget at different stages

of the animal’s life-history.

Material and Methods

The Environment :

The observations reported here were carried

out on a herd of chital in the vicinity of the lodges

at Bandipur Tiger Reserve in Karnataka (11 °39TSf

and 76°37Ti). This herd inhabits a very open,

dry deciduous forest interspersed with extensive

grassy glades. The tree canopy is dominated by

Anogeissus latifolia, and the shrub layer by Lantana

camara. The herb layer is predominantly made

up of grasses, although there are extensive patches

of Eupatorium in places. The mean annual

temperature of Bandipur is 20°C, and the mean

annual precipitation 1000 mm. The dry season

when forest fires occur runs from January to March,

when the deer consume considerable browse

and fruit. Good rains at the onset of south-west

monsoon occur in April-May, followed by a rela-

tively dry spell in June. There is a second peak

of rainfall in October corresponding to the north-

east monsoon, though the rains continue all the

way from July to November. The deer largely

consume grasses in this wet period.

The Animal :

The chital, with its coat adorned by white

spots, is one of the most handsome deer in the

world. It is a medium-sized animal, with adult

females weighing around 35-45 and males upto

60 kilograms. The large males grow antlers

upto 90 cm in length. This animal’s attrac-

tiveness is greatly enhanced by its social habits,

herds of over a hundred animals not being un-

common in the early monsoon season. After

September the herds break up into much smaller

units, even as small as two or three animals in the

dry season in January-March. The rutting sea-

son of the deer coincides with the south-west

monsoon. This is when a majority of males are

in the hard antler stage, and large bisexual herds

are formed. Antlers are shed from September to

November, and outside of the rutting season the

males tend to form small bachelor herds. The

males’ antlers are largely in velvet in the dry season

from December-March, which is the hardest

season for the animals ; but also happens to be

the period when most fawns are dropped (Schaller

1967, Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975).

Chital is the commonest of the resident larger

herbivores of Bandipur Tiger Reserve, a popu-

lation of about 800 inhabiting an area of 20 square

kilometres in the vicinity of lodges in the tourist

zone. This population is organized rather loosely

in herds which do change considerably in strength

and composition over the year. One of these

herds spends the night on the lodge grounds and

forages during the day-time in the forest to the

north of the lodge towards Bolugudda hillock.

Its strength over the year varies from 80 in the

monsoon season, to around 30 in the driest

period. Most of the observations presented

here are based on the animals of this particular

herd.

The Observations :

We have computed the time-budget of chital

on the basis of a recording of behavioural sequen-

ces of individual animals. The method followed

was to focus randomly on an animal without any

bias in respect of an animal indulging in a more

conspicuous activity. Having focused on an

95CV

TIME-BUDGET OF CHIT At

animal, a record was maintained of the date,

time of day, the stage in life-history of the animal,

and the number of seconds spent on each activity

till the animal went out of sight. The time spent

on each activity was recorded with the help of a

stop-watch accurate to 0.1 seconds. As soon

as the focal animal went out of sight, another

animal was picked up, again at random and its

behavioural sequence recorded and so on. Over

6500 such behavioural sequences have been re-

corded over a period of twelve months from

October 1975 to September 1976. The obser-

vations were restricted to day time from 0530 to

1900 hours. These behavioural sequences were

subsequently coded and punched on computer

cards. This data was utilized to calculate the

time-budget of each life-history stage, and for each

season after due corrections for the bias intro-

duced by the fact that observations were con-

centrated to the dawn and dusk hours when the

animals are most active. Here we present the

data on the time-budgets of the various life-history

stages for the year as a whole.

The Life-History Stages :

While maintaining the field observations, chital

were classified into one of the following four

major categories and twelve sub-categories :

(1) Juveniles : Immature animals below the

age of a year. These were further classified into

babies upto the age of 3 months and fawns beyond

the age of 3 months (Plate I).

(2) Adult females : These were not classi-

fied any further (Plates I, II).

(3) Adult males in velvet : This category

included the five sub-categories of shed antlers,

and velvet antlered males with antlers less than

25 cm, between 25-50 cm, between 50-75 cm

and over 75 cm in length. No particular signi-

ficance attaches to the antler sizes though as the

antlers in velvet continue to grow till the velvet

is shed and do not necessarily reflect the ultimate

size reached.

(4) Adult males with hard antlers : It is

the adult males in hard antlers that are active in

social displays, agonistic and sexual activities,

and therefore of greatest interest. The yearling

males have the so-called spike antlers less than

25 cm in length. Older males have antlers which

appear to grow in size with body size. They have

been classified in three more categories : antlers

between 25 to 50 cm, between 50 to 75 cm and

over 75 cm in length (Plate II).

The Activities :

On the basis of our earlier observations at

Bandipur from May 1974 to September 1975, we

divided the activity pattern of chital into the

following 8 major categories, with 29 sub-

categories :

(1) Locomotion : Subdivided into (a) walk-

ing, (b) running and (c) trotting.

(2) Anti-predatory behaviour : Chital is the

major prey species of the three predators of

Bandipur — wild dog, panther and tiger, and the

deer spends a significant fraction of its time in

antipredatory behaviour. The three sub-

categories we use are (a) standing, scanning for

anything suspicious, (b) an alert posture with

the neck outstretched pointing in the direction

of the disturbance and (c) giving alarm signals

which include tail raising, alarm calls, stamping

the ground with forefoot, and when actually

confronted with a predator stotting and bunching

into a tight herd.

(3) Grooming behaviour includes (a) licking

itself (sketch 1), ( b ) scratching itself, (c) being

licked and (d) licking another deer. The last two

categories involve mother licking her fawn, and

a fawn licking its mother.

(4) The trophic behaviour which dominates

at all seasons includes — (a) scanning for fallen

fruit, ( b ) pushing in competition for food items.

(c) drinking, (d) feeding, (< e ) standing and chew-

ing, (/) ruminating, (g) drinking mother’s milk,

(j h ) nursing a baby (Plate I).

(5) Fighting, which includes pushing and

951

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 75

thrashing with forelegs amongst females (Plate 1) ( e ) giving rut calls. These displays involve a

and shed antlered males, and sparring with antlers

in hard-antelered males (Sketch 2). Butting to

initiate a fight is also included.

(6) Play, includes the seemingly non-func-

tional vigorous physical activity of the juveniles

and yearling males with spike antlers.

(7) Displays : The males, almost exclusively

those in hard antlers, indulge in a variety of dis-

plays : (a) preaching, includes thrashing the

vegetation with forelegs while rearing up, ( b ) rub-

bing forehead and preorbital glands on vegetation

(Sketch 3), (c) rubbing antlers on vegetation,

( d ) hitting antlers vigorously, generally on a bush,

Sketch 1. Grooming : Chital doe cleaning by licking

its underparts (after a photograph).

Sketch 3. A chital stag sniffing, after rubbing the

preorbital gland on a tree trunk. Note the erection of

the penis (after a photograph).

single individual. In (/) dominance display, a

male approaches another sideways with head held

high and to a side (Plate II). The responding male

may ignore the challenge, continuing to feed, or

whatever else he was doing, join in a sparring

bout or respond with a (g) submissive display

which involves moving off with a lowered head.

(8) Sexual behaviour includes (a) male

sniffing at the female’s vagina (Sketch 4) and

(b) mounting another individual. Mounting

may involve female-female as well as juvenile-

female mountings also, (c) the very rare be-

haviour of a female soliciting (Plate II).

Sketch 2. Sparring match : The males generally spar

with other males of the same size class (after a photograph)'

Sketch 4. Chital stag sniffing the vagina of the oestrus

doc, Note the submissive posture of the stag

(after a photograph).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Sharatchandra and Gadgil : Axis axis

Plate I

Chital doe pushing another doe,

1 Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 75

Sharatchandra and Gadgil : Axis axis

Plate II

Chital doe courting a stag.

TlM&M UBQET OF CHITAL

Results

(1) Trophic activities occupy an overwhelmingly

large fraction of chital’s time followed by anti-

predator activities, fighting, displays, locomotion

grooming, play and sexual activities (figs. 1 and 2).

(2) Males in hard-antlers devote less time to

trophic activities, and much more time to display,

fighting and to locomotion than the other life-

history stages (figs. 1 and 2).

(3) Females devote a greater fraction of their

time to anti-predatory activities (fig. 1).

(4) Play is particularly prevalent amongst

juveniles and spike males (figs. 2 and 3).

(5) Sexual activities are restricted to juveniles

and hard antlered males. Amongst the latter,

they are monopolised by males with antlers over

75 cm in length (figs. 2 and 5).

(6) Displays such as preaching, rubbing antlers

and hitting antlers are particularly prevalent

amongst males with hard antlers between 50 and

75 cm in length (figs. 4 and 5).

(7) Dominance displays are common amongst

males with antlers between 25 to 50 cm in length,

and over 75 cm in length. Note that the class

with intermediate size antlers is notable for lack

of dominance displays. At the same time sub-

missive displays are almost restricted to males

with antlers over 75 cm in length. Fighting is

particularly common in males with antlers bet-

ween 25 cm and 50 cm and between 50 cm and

75 cm. Pushing is common in males with antlers

between 50 to 75 cm in length (figs. 3, 4 and 5).

(8) Sexual activities such as sniffing and mount-

ing are quite common amongst the fawns and as

mentioned above, to males with hard . antlers

over 75 cm in length (fig. 5).

Discussion

Two of these results, namely the greater pre-

valence of antipredatory behaviour amongst the

females, and the distribution of the display, agonis-

tic and sexual behaviour in the various classes of

hard-antlered males deserve further discussion.

Antipredatory Behaviour

Chital is a highly social species, and the avoi-

dance of predation appears to be the prime

moving cause of its sociality (Hamilton 1971).

Field observations on the predation on chital by

wild dogs indicate that any animal which strays

off from the herd is particularly susceptible to

predation (A. J. T. Johnsingh, personal communi-

cation). When the predators approach a herd of

chital, the deer respond by forming a tight bunch.

There is no active defence against the predators,

and in fact the stronger males force their way into

the centre of the herd. This leaves those animals

forced to stay on the periphery, mostly females,

much more susceptible to predation, and again

Mr. Johnsingh’s field data seem to indicate that

females do suffer heavier mortality through

predation . It would therefore appear that females

have been selected to be much more alert, since

only through an early awareness of the danger

could they stand any chance of getting to the

safety of the centre of the herd. The stronger

males on the other hand can force their way to the

centre of the bunch even if they are alerted a

little late, and hence do not allocate as much time

to antipredatory behaviour as do females. The

juveniles are maximally susceptible to predation,

but do not exhibit as much antipredatory be-

haviour as do the females. Presumably, the

juveniles depend on the mothers to be warned of

danger, and in fact they always stick to their

mothers.

Display, Agonistic and Sexual Behaviour

In chital, as with many other mammalian species,

there is evidence that while all females are success-

ful in reproduction, only a small fraction of males

monopolises all breeding. Sharatchandra and

953

PROPORTION OF TIME SPENT

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Fig. 1. Histograms showing the proportion of tim3 spent on trophic, anti-predator, fighting and display activities

by different life-history stages of chital.

954

PROPORTION OF TIME SPENT. ( %)

TWfrMUmET OF CHIT AL

Fig. 2. Histograms showing the proportion of time spent on locomotion, grooming, play and sexual activities by

different life-history stages of chital.

PROPORTION OF TIME SPENT , {%)

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

Fig.

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antlers among different life-history stages of males in hard antler.

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PROPORTION OF TIME SPENT, (%)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vel, 75

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Fig. 5. Histogram? showing the proportion of time spent on pushing, mounting, sniffing and preaching

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958

TIME-BUDGET OF CMTAL

Oadgil (1976) from their earlier study of the dyna-

mics of the chital population of Bandipur

conclude that the birth rate appears to be such

that all adult females fawn once a year. On

the other hand, our present study indicates that

only males with antlers over 75 cm have sexual

access to the females. It is of course possible

that even of the males in this class, not all are

successful in breeding. In any case, only a small

fraction of males can breed successfully, and as

Trivers (1972) points out, this would generate

intense selection pressures amongst the male sex

to be included amongst the males who are success-

ful in breeding. The tremendously higher level

of display and agonistic activities amongst the

adult males is clearly related to the male-male

competition generated by these selection pressures

(fig. 1). As this figure shows males indulge in

these activities, particularly when they are in the

hard-antlered stage, when antlers can be safely

employed in sparring.

The male population is composed of several

overlapping age and size classes. The males

continue to grow in size for several years, and

the size of antlers is positively correlated with body

size. As the males approach their prime, there-

fore, they must slowly grow into the size class

which includes the males who succeed in breeding.

However, if all males automatically grew to the

size at which they are successful in breeding, we

would not expect the tremendous investment that

the males make in display and agonistic activities.

It is likely that the growth rate itself depends

on success in competition, and also that not all

of the bigger males are equally successful in

breeding.

It is evident that all adult males are engaged in

a continual struggle, particularly during the

breeding season, to succeed in reproduction

either immediately, or acquire a size and status so

as to succeed in reproduction in coming years.

The particular combination of display, dominance,

submission and agonistic activities employed by a

male can then be assumed to have evolved so as

to maximise his chances of doing so.

Our results suggest that the strategy adopted by

males to accomplish this changes in a most

interesting fashion over the four different antler

size-classes. The males with spike antlers are first

year males. They engage a great deal in what has

been classified as play, and involves jumping

around vigorously and kicking with hindlegs in

the air. They also do some preaching. Apart

from this they do not indulge in any display or

agonistic activities. Males with antlers between

25 and 50 cm in length engage to a considerable

extent in displays like hitting antlers. They

also engage quite a bit in fighting and pushing.

The fights are initiated generally by a dominance

display which may be ignored or responded to

with a fight. There is no submissive display.

They may sniff female’s vagina, but do no mount-

ing. The male-male competition reaches its

highest pitch in males with antlers between 50-75

cms in length. This is the size-class, just below

the class which breeds successfully. These males

give displays such as hitting antlers maximally.

The fighting in this group appears compulsive.

The fights are initiated not through dominance

displays, but by a direct butt with a lowered head.

This invariably leads to a fight. These males

however do not get a chance at any sexual activity.

The males with antlers over 75 cm in length

are the only ones to participate in sexual activities.

They indulge very little in other displays such as

preaching and hitting antlers. They are the only

class of males to give rut calls. They challenge

other males with a dominance display. The

challenge is generally responded to by a sub-

missive display, and only in a small fraction of

cases does it lead to fighting. Overall it appears

as if there is a strong selection against actual

fighting, perhaps because the energy cost in-

volved or the risk of injuries is very high, or

simply because the hierarchy in this group is rather

rigidly established, most fights occurring between

males of similar sizes. A more detailed explora-

959

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 75

tion of this shift in strategy of male competition

with marked individuals, and a theoretical ex-

ploration of how changing selection pressures

bring about a change in strategy would be most

interesting to pursue.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the authorities of the

Karnataka State Forest Department for their

Refer

Fagen, R. M. (1974) : Selective and evolutionary

aspects of animal play. Amer. Naturalist 108 : 850-858.

Hamilton, W. D. (1971) : Geometry for the selfish

herd. J. Theor. Biol 31: 295-311.

MacFarland, D. J. (1977) : Decision-making in

animals. Nature : 269 (1) : 15-21.

Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger.

Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp. 370.

generous co-operation and for the facilities pro-

vided that made this study possible. Financial

support of World Wildlife Fund — India is grate-

fully acknowledged. The Centre for Theoretical

Studies and the Indian Institute of Science helped

us by providing many facilities. Our colleagues

S. Narendra Prasad, P. V. K. Nair and A. J. T.

Johnsingh have helped in the field work and

through many stimulating discussions. Sulochana

Gadgil has helped with critical discussions at all

stages.

: n c ES

Sharatchandra, H. C. and Gadgil, M. (1976) : A

year of Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (3) :

623-647.

Trivers, R. L. (1972) : Parental investment and

sexual selection in B. Campbell (ed.) Sexual Selection

and the Descent of Man, 1871-1971, 136-179.

Wilson, E. O. (1975) : Sociobiology. Harvard

University Press, Cambridge, Mass. pp. 697.

960

ON THE PRIMATE RESOURCES OF INDIA

S. M. Mohnot1

Introduction

The greatest concentration of primate species of

the world lies in the Indian region. These species

range from a squirrel like tree-shrew to a large

gibbon. Eight genera having 18 species and 44

subspecies (one third of the world total of 130

subspecies) are found in India. Of these,

7 species, Anathana ellioti , Tupaia nicobaricch

Macaca assamensis, M. radiata , M. silenus , Pres-

bytis geei , and P. johnii are exclusively Indian in

their distribution. However, very little work has

been done on these species in nature except on

M. mulatta , M. radiata , P. entellus and P. johnii.

Even the exact range of distribution and present

population status of most of our species is still not

known. The large scale destruction of primate

habitats (mainly forests) is going on uninter-

rupted in most parts of the country resulting in

population depletion, because of ecological vulner-

ability of most of the species. Some of them have

even reached the level of extinction — a clear cut

case of human predation. The rhesus macaque is

the biggest sufferer due to the destruction of their

habitats and large scale harvest for export. The

rhesus population has thus declined considerably

in the recent past.

In addition to the above, a serious problem

linked with the use of the rhesus abroad has also

come to light. The export of these monkeys is

allowed on a clear understanding that these

monkeys will not be utilized for any other pur-

pose than ‘ biomedical \ Indeed, they have been

increasingly used in chemical-biological warfare

experiments by the importing countries.

The present paper deals with some of the urgent

problems associated with the Indian non-human

primates and likely solutions keeping in view the

1 Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur.

increasing use of monkeys in different researches

and the present supply position.

Primate Stock in India

(Table 1)

Of 18 non-human primate species occurring in

different parts of the country (Roonwal and

Mohnot 1977), existence of only the snub-nosed

monkey Rhinopithecus roxellanae is doubtful.

Groves (1970) is skeptical about its occurrence

as reported by Gee (1952). Even some 25 years

after the report of Gee, no one has ever seen this

monkey in nature in this habitat. It is, therefore,

essential now to survey forests of Manipur in

eastern India to ascertain its status in India.

Among the remaining 17 species, the Madras

tree-shrew Anathana ellioti , the common tree-

shrew Tupaia glis , the rhesus monkey M.

mulatta, the bonnet monkey M. radiata , and the

hanuman langur Presbytis entellus, are quite

common in their distribution zone. The Nicobar

tree-shrew T. nicobarica, the Assamese macaque

M. assamensis, the long-tailed macaque M.

fascicularis , the pig-tailed macaque M. nemes -

trina, the capped langur Presbytis pileatus and

the hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock, are

occasionally seen in the forests of their range, but

their population estimates are not known. The

slow loris Loris tardigradus, the slender loris

Nycticebus coucang, the stump-tailed macaque

M. arctoides, the lion-tailed macaque M. silenus ,

the golden langur P. geei and the Nilgiri langur,

P. johnii are some of the species threatened with

extinction. The lion-tailed macaque and the

golden langur have already been included in the

Red Data Book of the IUCN.

Information pertaining to distribution, group

structure, population estimates and such other

features of all the 18 species found in India is

given in Table 1.

961

Distribution, group-size, population status, etc., of Indian primates

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964

PRIMATE RESOURCES OF INDIA

Indian Species in Institutions Abroad

Much before the virus vaccines became

popular as a commercial possibility, the Indian

primates especially the rhesus were in demand

abroad. The first record of rhesus export to

USA is of 1930. During the same time, the

Sukhumi Institute of Experimental Pathology

and Therapy, USSR, probably started using our

monkeys. This Institute was established in

1927. The first colony of rhesus monkeys came

into existence at Cayo Santiago Island, Puerto

Rico, with 450 monkeys shipped from India in

1938, but the demand of macaques reached the

level of about 250,000 in the same year

(Carpenter 1972).

By now, several primate colonies have been

established namely Parlov, Moscow, Leningrad

and Kiev, in USSR ; seven regional primate

research centres in USA ; at Rijswijk in Nether-

lands and also in France and Italy. This is in

addition to hundreds of laboratories, institutes,

University departments, and pharmaceuticals

using Indian primates, especially the rhesus, in

USA, U.K. and other countries in Europe

(Hobbs and Bleby 1976).

Exploitation of Primates in India

Of about 5,000 monkeys used annually, some

50% are utilized by various medical institutes

in the country numbering about 25 in different

research activities. The remaining share is :

drug research (c. 30%) ; vaccine production

(c. 10%) and reproductive biology research

( c . 6%). To a small extent (c. 4%), the

monkeys are used for pharmacology, cytology,

genetics, nutrition, tissue culture, ethology and

other branches of study. With increasing

research facilities the demand for monkeys will

mount rapidly.

Export of Rhesus Monkeys and

Associated Problems

No precise export data for the thirties are

available due to the then impending World

War II. But thousands of rhesus must have been

shipped during that period as well. The flow

of rhesus from India continued during forties

and fifties. Nearly 200,000 monkeys had been

exported by the late 1950’s to United States

alone. This number decreased by about 50,000

a year to the entire world in the sixties. Bet-

ween 1965 and 1974, an average of about 35 to

49 thousand rhesus were sent out every year

(Ted Patterson, Pers. Comm. 1975). Details

of export for this period is as under :

Interestingly, the rhesus requirement abroad

is 18 times greater as compared to our domestic

need. From the year 1975, export has been

restricted to 20,000 monkeys per annum. Yet,

it is the most frequently used species, which is

about 60% of all species combined (Nolan

1975). Thus in the last four decades, the total

harvest for work at home and abroad must

have touched a record number of over 2 million

monkeys — a number that cannot be imagined

for any other primate species found elsewhere

in the World.

Inhuman Treatment

The sacrifices, and pain borne by rhesus in

the hands of scientists throughout the world has

not only served the cause of science but of

humanity at large. As a mark of tribute, we

could assign this animal the statue of an

4 International Animal ’. But, unfortunately

2

965

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

all is not well with this species presently. It is

depressing to note that even the agreement for

its use in a humane manner, and that too only

for medical research and vaccine production,

has not been fully honoured. Results of

current works indicate that all of them are not

always used in medical research or in breeding

programmes, but are frequently used for other

purposes. For example, of about 20,000 rhesus

imported by the United States in 1975, some

83 % were killed during the year of their arrival

in a variety of projects not relevant to medical

research.

The use of rhesus in laboratories appears to

have become a fancy. For example, hundreds

of them are killed in trauma causing experi-

ments. The important trauma experiments

involved are : Blunt chest and abdomen, burns,

gunshot wounds, severe shocks and injuries

caused by crashes. Experiments on electric

shocks, brain damage, aggression, water and

food deprivation, drug addiction, heat and

cold avoidance and isolation were frequent,

taking the life of several hundred of monkeys

every [year. Equally large numbers are used

in narcotic research. In most of these experi-

ments referred above any other mammal could

have served the purpose, if such experiments

are unavoidable.

Much of the ‘ research ’ is not medical at all.

Most of the so called medical work is of no

value in solving human diseases — what is the

use of such work as dipping rhesus monkeys in

boiling water, slamming them in the guts with

a cannon impactor or addicting them to

narcotics such as heroin, just to see what hap-

pens ? It is utterly senseless to torture monkeys

in these ways.

Rhesus in Chemical-Biological Warfare :

In the recent past, they have been increasingly

used in radio-osteonecrosis, X-radiation and

radiation killings. The latest in the series is

their use in estimating radiation effects of

neutron bomb tests. They were formerly

used at atomic bomb tests, being tied down at

varying distances, from the bombing site, many

of these animals later developing cancer.

Some laboratories have used rhesus monkeys

to study diseases like, tularemia, poliomyletis,

psittacosis, Rift Valley fever, St. Louis ence-

phalitis, equine encephalitis, Japanese B ence-

phalitis, anthrax, brucella suis, coxiella, Simian

herpes, histoplasmosis capsulatum and myco-

bacterium TB. Many of these disease agents,

spread through air, are potential weapons in

biological warfare, anthrax being one of the

most deadly.

Because of these dangers, Mohnot (1975)

suggested ban of rhesus export at least for two

years, allowing time to ascertain the impli-

cations at home and abroad.

Present Rhesus Population :

Although no accurate overall population

figures are available except for small pockets,

field work by Neville (1968), Lindburg

(1971) and Mukherjee and Mukherjee (1972)

provides helpful data for approximating rhesus

population figures of limited areas. However,

Southwick et al. (1975) have estimated the

rhesus population of Uttar Pradesh (rhesus

occurs in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,

Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra, in addition

to U.P.) to about 500,000 monkeys, and about

17,600 births per year in the total population

with about 60,000 individuals for harvest every

year. Whether this situation exists today or

not has yet to be verified, and, the most im-

portant point at the moment is to survey the

whole geographical range of its distribution to

assess the overall population status and to

infer statistically the number of individuals avai-

lable for harvest every year. This will also help

develop a scientific plan of its conservation and

population management for times to come. If

necessary breeding colonies can also be

966

PRIMATE RESOURCES OF INDIA

established in natural habitats for maintaining

supply of healthy, disease-free, quarantined

animals of known pedigree to match require-

ments of indenting agency at home and abroad.

Other Species in Use

In addition to the rhesus, Loris tardigradus ,

Nycticebus coucang , M. radiata and P. entellus

have been frequently used in the Indian labora-

tories for biological and biomedical researches.

However, the first two are now used very occa-

sionally owing to their non-availability on

account of their presence only in the interior

of the forests and shrinking population.

M. radiata is still common in peninsular India

and is used frequently in laboratory studies.

P. entellus , is the most widespread of the Indian

primates and is a very appropriate animal

model for reproductive research. It has been

used extensively in the recent past in fertility ^

sterility and hormone research.

The use of the remaining Indian species in

laboratories is infrequent.

Threatened Species

At one time a common laboratory animal, the

slender loris Loris tardigradus , is found in

tropical rain forest, open woodland and swampy

coastal forests of South India. Its sluggish

nature and demand for its eyes for eye diseases

takes a big toll of this species every year, and is

now threatened with extinction. The present

population of the slow loris Nycticebus coucang ,

is not known to any extent. It is restricted to

Assam and is occasionally seen in the local

market for sale, being easily tamed and

making a good pet. The population has now

been threatened due to forest-felling operations

in its habitat.

The stump-tailed macaque M. arctoides , is

said to occur in dense forests upto c. 2400 m

elevation in Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh.

Its rarity was discovered in 1965 when a survey

carried out by Mireille Bertrand, R. K. Lahiri

and George Schaller failed to locate a single

group after spending several weeks (Southwick

and Siddiqi 1970). Its disappearance from its

range was reported earlier by Bertrand (1969).

The lion- tailed macaque M. silenus , a truly

arboreal species, is threatened with extinction.

Kurup (1975) reported existence of only 800

macaques organised in 55 groups over an area

of about 2800 sq km. Earlier, Sugiyama

(1968) gave its population around 1000 indi-

viduals and did tell about its possible extinction

in the near future. However, its habitat is

now expected to be protected by law and all

forest-felling operations in its distribution

zone of shola forests in the Nilgiri hills stopped.

The Nilgiri langur Presbytis johnii , a once

common species of Nilgiri Hills, is threatened

by regular destruction of its habitat, the

shola forests, because of its exclusive arboreal

habits. It is also frequently killed by jungle

tribes for food, fur and medicines. A tonic

made from monkey parts and herbs and

marketed as karung kurangu rasayanam (black

monkey medicine) is widely used in south India

(Poirier 1971). Krishnan (1972) believes that

the position of this langur has improved in

recent years. Kurup (1975) also states that its

former distribution in patches is now becoming

contiguous. Yet, the extensive destruction of

sholas in the recent years for agriculture pur-

poses have jeopardised population. Further,

the lion-tailed moneky as well as the Nilgiri

langur, being very specific in habitat utilization,

particularly the trees, their protection can only

be achieved if forests of their range are not only

protected but are further provided with plan-

tation of species used by them in nature. This

will also avoid congestion and over population

in times to come.

The golden langur P. geei , of Eastern India,

is found only in Goalpara district of Assam

and in parts of Bhutan along River Manas

967

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , H>/. 75

upto c. 2400 m altitude. This interesting langur

lives in dense tropical deciduous forests. From

field studies by several workers (Gee 1955 ;

Oboussier and Maydell 1959 ; Wayre 1968 ;

Khajuria 1962 ; and Mukherjee and Saha

1974), it is evident that only a limited number

exists. All of the observers have encountered

only a few groups each organised in 4-40 indi-

viduals. The geographical distribution and

population status can be studied further, taking

advantage of existing information on its

ecology.

Conclusions

From the foregoing account it is amply clear

that the future of our several primate species

is still bright. Timely action, wise and scienti-

fically planned management and exploitation

can certainly avoid the distressing situation

that has developed in recent years due mainly

to human interference. Extensive destruction

of primate habitats through deforestation,

urbanisation, and commercial exploitation have

curbed population growth of several of our

arboreal species. Of these, five species are now

endangered.

Till now no serious effort with regard to their

conservation, management, planning and re-

search has been made. A blue print is now

urgently needed to initiate a phased long range

scientific programme to take stock of the present

situation and to undertake sound conservation

plans needed for sustained yield so that regular

harvest of monkeys from nature could be main-

tained for legitimate requirements. It should

be a twenty year plan framed in consultation

with competent, both government and non-

government.

Abundant species like T. glis , M. radiata

and P. entellus, should be cared for, protected

and used in biomedical research to ease pres-

sure on the heavily used monkey, the rhesus,

which too can be placed among the common

species. In the present set-up, rhesus popu-

lation management is very important. Strict

surveillance during commercial harvest is

essential at all stages from trapping to ship-

ping, to minimise loss. The local people?

villagers and farmers have to be educated to

show restrain in handling rhesus, particularly

when it raids their fields and orchards.

The people can be compensated for loss if

necessary to discourage possible poisoning and

killing. Monoculture reforestation should be

discouraged and export of primate species in

the wild should not be allowed except for

scientific purpose.

Where information on the ecology and

population of a species does not exist, im-

mediate research programmes should be initiated

to fill in the existing lacunae so that sound

conservation programmes can take shape.

For this, research on primates in Universities

should be supported with funds and other

assistance. Having known the true picture of

population status and geographical distribution?

investigations on population dynamics and carry-

ing capacity of the habitat can be undertaken.

Where monkeys have established themselves

in urban areas, they should be translocated

to near-by jungles to avoid nuisance, or else

they will be either trapped or killed. With

their presence around, transmission of viral,

bacterial and other diseases pose a problem.

Bonnet groups have been successfully translo-

cated to places outside Bangalore City in the

last 3 years. This can also be done with rhesus

in several cities, towns and villages in northern

India.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. Madhav Gadgil

for inviting me to write this paper, and for

his critical reading of the manuscript.

968

PRIMATE RESOURCES OF INDIA

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Eds. Bermant, G. and Lindburg, D. G., John Wiley &

Sons (New York).

Sugiyama, Y. (1968) : The ecology of the lion-tailed

macaque {Macaca silenus ) (Linnaeus) : a pilot study.

J. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc., 65 : 283-292.

Wayre, P. (1968) : Some observations on the golden

langur Presbytis geei (Khajuria) Gee. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 65 : 473-477.

Webb-Peploe, C. G. (1947) : Field notes on the

mammals of south Tinnevelly, south India. /. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 46 : 629-644.

970

SEASONAL CHANGES IN BODY WEIGHTS OF SOME

RODENTS FROM SOUTH INDIA

R. K. Chandrahas1

Introduction

In connection with the studies on the wild

rodent hosts and flea vectors involved in the

epidemiology of plague in the southern India

plague focus, emphasis was laid on the ecology

of burrowing wild rodent species. Chandrahas

and Krishnaswami [1974 and 1974 (a)] and

Chandrahas (1974) reported the findings on the

ecology of the Indian gerbil Tatera indica hard-

wickei (Gray), the soft-furred field rat Rattus

m. meltada (Gray), the brown spiny mouse Mus

p. platythrix (Bennett) and the little Indian field

mouse Mus b. booduga (Gray) in Kolar

(Karnataka State). In the present communi-

cation, the seasonal fluctuations in body weights

of these four species of rodents are summarised

and presented.

Methods of Study

The rodents were collected by excavating

their burrows at four weekly intervals by uti-

lizing the services of professional rat-catchers.

The animals were obtained from the neighbour-

hood of Kolar town as well as from some

localities in Kolar taluk falling in a radius of

about 8-9 miles from Kolar town. The rodents

collected in the field were transferred to

well ventilated tins, sorted species-wise and

transported to the laboratory. The animals

were sexed and weighed after anaesthetizing

with chloroform.

1 Present address : Vector Control Research

Centre, Indian Council of Medical Research,

Pondicherry-605 01 1 .

Results and Discussion

The data recorded on the mean body weights

monthwise with standard deviation and range

for 812 adult specimens (373 males and 439

females) of the Indian gerbil Tatera indica

hardwickei ; 548 specimens (251 males and

297 females) of Rattus m. meltada ; 725 speci-

mens (335 males and 390 females) of Mus p.

platythrix and 1202 specimens (538 males and

664 females) of Mus b. booduga is analysed

and presented in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 respec-

tively.

(a) Tatera kdica hardwickei :

The mean body weights of adult males of

Tatera indica hardwickei ranged from 90.0 to

245.0 gm. There was a long span of stabiliza-

tion of body weights (between 127.51 and

130.05 gm) during May to August preceding

the rise and November to January following

the peak in October. However, individuals

exhibiting higher body weights were en-

countered in the population in September and

October as well as in January when the minimum

limit in the range exceeded over 100 gms.

The body weights of Tatera i. hardwickei

reached the apex in September and the entire

period from January through August indicated

almost uniform body weights ranging between

108.03 gm and 119.14 gm. The mean body

weights ranged from 80.00 gm to 186.70 gm.

In this species, the weight at sexual maturity

is considered to be 90.0 gm and above for

971

Table 1

Seasonalchanges in the body weights of Tatera indica hardwickei (Gray) adults in Kolar (Karnataka State)

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JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Val. 75

males and 80.0 gm and above for females.

The breeding season extended from August to

April with a peak in the reproductive per-

formance during October and November.

Considering the combined data for both the

years it was observed that 50 per cent of the

females collected in October were pregnant and

43.0 per cent lactating during November

(Chandrahas & Krishnaswami 1974). In view

of this, it is likely that there was a pick up in

the body weights in females from September

to December.

(b) Rattus m. meltada :

The body weight ranged from 35.8 gm to

102.3 gm. The body weights in males started

ascending from May and reached the peak in

June (73.88 gm) and declined thereafter. There

was a minor peak in October (64.85 gm). The

period between November and March was

almost plateaued when the body weights fluctua-

ted from 53.47 gm to 59.79 gm.

Projection of two peaks ; one major (59.92

gm) in June and the other minor (57.31 gm)

in October was observed in females of Rattus

m. meltada. The body weights diminished in

April (44.39 gm) and the mean body weights

for the entire period ranged from 35.0 gm to

92.0 gm.

In Rattus m. meltada the weight at sexual

maturity is considered to be 35.0 gm and

above for both males and females. Although

this species has been found to breed throughout

the year, peak reproductive performance was

noticed during the months October to January

when the percentage of pregnant animals ranged

from 22.4 to 55.5 per cent and the lactating

females from 19.3 to 36.3 per cent. There was

a spurt in the reproductive activity in May

when the population sampled constituted 38.0

per cent pregnant and 43.0 per cent lactating

specimens (Chandrahas and Krishnaswami

1974 a).

(c) Mus p. platythrix :

The mean body weights in males decreased

in May, June and July and attained maximum

in October (36.02 gm). During November-

December and January-March the body weights

were remarkably stable. The range was from

19.5 gm to 53.2 gm.

The mean body weight of Mus p. platythrix

males ranged from 19.0 gm to 49.6 gm. Decline

in the body weight was recorded in April, May

and June and the minimum was touched in May.

There was a gradual rise in body weights from

September onwards extending upto January

with a peak in December.

The weight at sexual maturity is 20 gm

for both the sexes. Breeding extends from

January-March and August-December, with a

peak in reproductive activity in November,

when 38.6 per cent and 48.0 per cent specimens

exhibited pregnancy and lactation, respectively.

Mus b. booduga was the lightest. The mean

body weights of males ranged from 6.0 gm to

17.0 gm. Depression in body weights was

observed in March, April and May and reached

higher level during September to November.

Mus b. booduga females exhibited higher

body weights during the period October-

December and the mean body weights ranged

from 6.66 gm in April to 11.40 gm in October.

The weight at sexual maturity in Mus b.

booduga is 7.0 gm for both males and females.

The breeding season extends from July to March

recording a higher incidence during the period

September to February. There was a peak

in the reproductive activity during October and

November (Chandrahas 1974).

From the data analysed in Tables 1 , 2, 3 and 4,

it is evident that the body weights diminished

during the hotter months of the year and

increased during September-January period

indirectly suggesting that the climatic factors

exert influence and have a bearing on the

seasonal fluctuations in the body weights. In

general, the October-December period found

974

SEASONAL CHANGES IN BODY WEIGHTS OF RODENTS

individuals of high mean body weight. Apart

from the favourable climatic factors encoun-

tered during this part of the year and the avai-

lability of sufficient food in the field it could

be expected that the higher intensity of breeding

constituting good proportion of pregnant and

lactating specimens would also contribute to the

increase of body weights. It is also possible

that there will be a recruitment of individuals

just attained maturity into the population

from January onwards. April and May are

the hotter months in the area studied. The

rainy season extends from June to October

although a few pre-monsoon showers are

experienced before June. The ploughing

operations and sowing of seeds are completed

by the middle of July and the major crops

harvested in December and January.

The rodents would obtain scattered seeds and

grains in the field till March and thereafter the

rodents are obliged to depend upon various

other items like roots, grass etc., due to the

paucity of common crops. Hence, the reduc-

tion in body weights during the hotter period

of the year could largely be attributed to the

prevailing climatic conditions and scarcity of

food. It is only after the onset of pre-

Ch AN DR AH AS, R. K. AND KRISHNASWAMI, A. K.

(1974) : Studies on the ecology of the Indian gerbil

Tatera indica hardwickei (Gray) in Kolar (Karnataka

State). Ind. Jour. Med. Res. 62 : 971.

(1974a) : Ecology of the soft-furred field rat,

Rattus m. meltada (Gray) in Kolar (Karnataka State).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 : 447.

Chandrahas, R. K. (1974) : Ecology of the brown

spiny mouse Mus p. platythrix (Bennett) and the Indian

field mouse Mus b. booduga (Gray). Ind. J. Med. Res.

62 : 264.

Jain, A. P. (1970) : Body weights, sex ratio, age and

monsoon showers that the green vegetation

starts appearing.

There is little information on the fluctuation

in the body weights of wild rodents of the Indian

sub-continent based on systematic studies.

Reporting the findings on the reproductive

pattern in male and female Indian gerbil

Tatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse) in Bangalore,

it was observed that the males lose body

weight during May and June, and females

from April to August (Prasad 1956, 1961).

Also in the Indian gerbil Tatera indica

indica (Hardwicke) from Bikaner (Rajasthan)

a steep peak was observed in June (Jain 1970).

Further it is also reported that the mean body

weights in the desert gerbil Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon) declined after winter touching its

minimum in summer in Rajasthan (Prakash

1970).

In general, the males attained a higher body

weight than the females in all the four species.

The maximum body weight recorded during

the present study was 245.0 gm, 102.3 gm,

49.6 gm and 17.0 gm, for males and 186.7 gm,

92.0 gm, 50.2 gm and 20.0 gm for females of

Tatera i. hardwickei , Rattus m. meltada , Mus p.

platythrix and Mus b. booduga , respectively.

ENCES

some aspects of reproduction in the Indian desert gerbil,

Tatera indica indica (Hardwicke) in the Rajasthan desert.

Mammalia 34 : 415.

Prasad, M. R. N. (1956) : Reproduction cycle of

the male Indian gerbil Tatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse).

Acta Zoologica. 37 : 187.

1961) : Reproduction in the female Indian

gerbil Tatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse). Acta Zool.

BD. 42 : 245.

Prakash, Ishwar (1970) : Eco-toxicology and con-

trol of the Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon). VIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 : 717,

975

ECOLOGY OF THE BONNET MACAQUE ( MACACA

RADI AT A GEOFFROY) WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO FEEDING HABITS

George P. Kuruvilla

Introduction

The food and feeding habits of the Bonnet

Macaque Macaca radiata in its natural

habitat was studied in detail from

October 1974 to September 1975. Daily

feeding activities, monthly variations in food,

phenological data and correlation between

the fruiting season and food preference of

the macaques were studied. Age and size

classes were recognized. All data were

collected and recorded by systematic time

samplings.

The study was conducted in the forests of

Elephanta Island (18° 57'N and 73°E) one of

the small islands in Bombay harbour lying

11.27 km from Trombay (Salsette Island).

The eastern shore of the Island is approxi-

mately 2.4 km from Nava, another small island

close to the mainland. The area of Elephanta

Island varies from 6.4 to 9.7 sq km depending

on the state of the tide. The highest peak on

the island has an elevation of 173.2 m. A

massive hill runs from north-west to the’' north-

east. However, a valley runs almost through

the middle giving an appearance of two

separate hills. The major part of the island is

covered by forest and the rest byj cultivation

or wasteland.

Climate : Three seasons can be distin-

guished—Winter (November to early March),

warm during the day and cool at night ;

Summer (March to May), hot and dry;

Monsoon (June to October), humid and wet!

The hottest month at Elephanta is May. The

cooler months are December to February*

Elephanta gets most of its rain from the south-

west monsoon. Rainfall is normally heavy

during June, July and tapers off during

September. The average precipitation for 15

years for this region is 2148.9 mm ranging from

957.8 mm to 3526 mm.

Vegetation : About 70 per cent of the total

area is covered with forest and the rest is

occupied by rocks and open grasslands. Steep

rock precipices are seen on the eastern ridge

which also has the best forest. Mangrove occurs

along the coast.

Seasonal availability of fruits plays an

important role in the ecology of those animal

species which feed on them. A study of the

abundance"and seasonal fluctuation of the plant

life was therefore undertaken. There is practi-

cally no spot in the^study area, which has not

been subjected to very drastic degradation

through constant cutting of woody vegetation,

overgrazing on the \ herbaceous plants, and

summer fires which have all combined to turn

the area into a degraded deciduous forest.

With the advent of the monsoon, however, the

ground becomes covered with dense herbaceous

vegetation and the cultivated fields soon turn a

brilliant green with paddy Oryza sativa.

The vegetational cover of the whole study

area was recorded by walking along different

trails and noting the species upto a distance of

10-15 m on either side of the trail. Trees with

flowers and fruits were recorded separately.

This was done once every week and twelve

months phenology data was thus collected.

976

ECOLOGY OF THE BONNET MACAQUE

One hundred and seventy-one plant species

were identified in sixty-two families. Out of the

171 species of plants identified from the Island,

the macaques utilised 36 species. Among the

171 species of plants, 28 species are exotics.

Methods of study

The aim of the study was to obtain data

on the food habits, habitat utilization, home

range, activity pattern, population structure

and behaviour of the^Bonnet Macaque under

natural conditions. All data were collected

by direct observation using 8 x 30 binoculars.

Special importance was given to feeding be-

haviour. The observations were made with

as little disturbance to the animals as possible.

The main study troop named the 4 Forest

Troop ’ was less accustomed to people and the

animals would begin to move away if

approached closer than 30 m. The troop was

gradually accustomed to the presence of the

observer and in course of time observations

were made from very close range (5m and less).

1337.47 hrs. of observations were made on

four classes of animals : adult male, adult-

female, sub-adult (large juvenile) and juveniles.

Two troops of bonnet macaques occur in

Elephanta Island. The troops were named the

4 Forest Troop ’ and the 4 Caves Troop ’ in

accordance with their habitat. Data were

collected mainly on the 4 Forest Troop ’ which

was completely dependent on natural food. The

4 Caves Troop’ lived largely olf the food brought

by tourists, during the tourist season. Occa-

sional observations were made on this troop

also.

The 4 Forest Troop ’ was continually ob-

served from sun-up to sun-down except for an

occasional short break in the morning and

afternoon. The troop~was usually followed on

foot and the behaviour directly recorded. The

number of individuals in each of the troops

was determined by keeping a count of the

animals during various months. Counts were

made when the animals crossed a forest road

or similar open areas. Group composition

was recorded after closely observing each indi-

vidual. Home range was determined by conti-

nuous observation on the troop during this

study. The daily travelling distance of the

animals was calculated by discreetly following

the macaques during their wanderings. The

distance they travelled from the roost in the

morning, along the route travelled during

the day, and back to the roost in the late evening

was measured.

Results

The Study Troop

Population : The 4 Forest Troop ’ of maca-

ques was wild and shy, and was often spread

over an area of 100-200 m in diameter. Some

of them were missed during counts, quite

possibly sub-adult and adult males. Four

censuses were made in different seasons of the

year : October to December 1974 ; January

to March, 1975 ; April to June 1975 and July to

September, 1975. The 1974 census showed a

total of eighty-three animals of all age classes

in the two troops. In the second census period

it was 95, twelve new born macaques were re-

corded during this period. During the third

census, the total number of animals was 93.

The fourth census gave a total of 92 macaques,

4 Forest Troop ’ 43 and 4 Caves Troop ’ 49

(Table 1).

Group sizes and composition varied from

time to time, mainly due to births and deaths.

Sixteen new-born infants were observed and

recorded during this study from both troops,

The classes of animals were separated roughly

on the basis of size.

Copulation frequency was seen at its maxi-

mum during October to November, and the

birth rate was at its highest during February

and March. Two births were observed in

4 Caves Troop ’ during October and December.

977

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

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ECOLOGY OF THE SONNET MACAQUE

Number of new-born babies seen during the study

PERIOD FROM OCTOBER 1974 — SEPTEMBER 1975

From the ‘ Forest Troop * one old male died

on 25th July, 1975, perhaps due to old age.

A two-day old infant also died from the same

troop on 27th April 1975. The mother carried

the dead body for two days. Two deaths were

noted from the * Caves Troop ’ during the

study period. Two juveniles from the ‘ Caves

Troop ’ were taken away by tourists during the

month of May 1975.

Home Range : The ‘ Forest Troop »

occupied the eastern and the ‘ Caves Troop ’

the western parts of the Island. The area was

constantly used by troop members and was

defended from the other troop. The peri-

pheral area was used uncommonly and it

overlapped with the territory of the other troop.

The home range of the forest troop formed the

intensive study area. The home range is com-

paratively small at Elephanta, a total area of

4.8 sq km being occupied by the two troops.

The home range of bonnet macaques is recorded

as very large by Rahaman and Parthasarathy

(1967), Nolte (1955) and Simonds (1965) in

different places in southern India. The troops

do not leave their well marked home range and

no seasonal change in home range was observed

during this study.

Daily Movement : The macaques usually

began to move at the first light of the morning

(between 0600 hrs to 0630 hrs). The time

varied from month to month. The average

distance travelled by the troop during a day

was about 1.5 to 2 km. The shortest was

about one km during rainy season and longest

about 2.5 km during favourable conditions.

The mean daily movement distance of bonnet

troop has been recorded as 790 m by Sugiyama

(1971). Average daily movement distance of

common langur varies from one to two miles a

day (Jay 1965). The variation in distance of

daily movement seems to depend on the distri-

bution, volume of food, safety factors and

distribution of food trees.

Roosting : The troop roosted in several

selected tall trees with dense foliage such as

Tamarindus indica , Derris glabra. Ficus benga-

lensis, Ficus religiosa and Sterculia urens . They

select the highest and safest branches for roost-

ing. The 6 Forest Troop ’ roosted chiefly

in areas within the home range. Occasionally

the macaques roost in other places also. In

August, October, November and March the

animals occupied site 1 : December and

April in site 2 and January, February, May,

June, July and September in site 3. Tall trees

and evergreen creepers were abundant in all

roosting sites. Changing of roosts may be due to

the following factors : (1) Abundance of food :

If the food was abundant near the roost the

animals can spend more time in feeding in the

early morning as well as late in the evening.

(2) Seasonal : During dry seasons most of the

trees shed their leaves. At this time the

macaques select roosts where evergreen trees

are numerous. During monsoon months trees

covered by creepers and climbers which offer

shelter from the heavy rains were preferred.

(3) Safety : There are no predators on the island,

yet all the three sites were situated in the least

disturbed areas.

Roosting behaviour : The animals leave the

feeding grounds for the roost by about sunset.

On reaching the roosting site the macaques split

into small parties. The animals do not divide

into families or sub-groups. Southwick, Beg

and Siddiqi (1965) recorded that the rhesus

macaques split into families or into sub-groups

for roosting. The troops spread on two to

979

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

three near-by trees for sleeping. Some adult

males and the dominant males often preferred

to sleep alone. However, more often two or

more monkeys hug each other and sleep in such

associations. More than ninety per cent of the

troops slept clasping each other (Koyama 1973).

The monkeys climb to the top of the trees and

then select strong branches and gather in small

groups and sleep. The tendency to sleep

clasped together is more among females and

infants, but is negligible between females and

males (Koyama 1973). The lion-tailed

macaques M. silenus prefers extreme branches

of very tall trees. Trees near the feeding

place were often used as roost by the bonnets.

All troop members, both male and female,

select places for sleeping. During rains more

individuals sleep or rest clasped together. The

dominant male sits on a top branch to sleep as

well as to keep watch. Usually the dominant

male would be the last to sleep. Mothers

with infants often embrace another to sandwich

the baby in between them and prevent it from

falling at night. Once they settle down for the

night’s rest the animals remain in the same

position till dawn. There is no perceptible

activity after dark.

Food and Feeding Habits

The food habits of bonnet macaques have

not yet been studied in depth. General food

and feeding methods of bonnets occupying a

garden sector of Bangalore have been mentioned

by Rahaman and Parthasarathy (1969). Food

material includes leaves, flowers, fruits,

seeds and insects such as grasshoppers, certain

flies and pupae.

The data were collected by systematic sampl-

ing of food habits of the ‘Forest Troop’ mainly

but occasional observations were made on the

‘ Caves Troop ’ also. Systematic time sampling

during a month consists of data collection

during three to five consecutive days of obser-

vation, from dawn to dusk, or from early

morning till noon, or afternoon to late in the

evening at an interval of one to two days. The

first sustained activity by a monkey during a

sampling period was recorded. Then the

activity of several members, according to the

age classes (adult male, adult female, sub-adult

and juvenile) were noted during each period.

The classification of the animals into age

classes was in the manner of Jay’s (1965)

classification of common langurs.

Usually observations were possible at a close

range when the animals fed together. Al-

though, the same animal could not be studied

every day without marking, the observations on

particular age groups were recorded separately.

The total feeding time is deduced from the

total observation time for each day. The

following data were recorded :

(a) Daily feeding rhythm and time spent

on feeding in each hour of the day.

( b ) Monthly variations in feeding time.

(c) Time spent in feeding on each food

item.

( d ) Preference of food items.

Most of the plant items were identified.

Identification of animal material was ex-

tremely difficult and almost impossible in many

cases. Animal food items like grasshoppers,

lizards, and some pupae could be identified

without much difficulty and were recorded.

Insects which were taken by the animals in

most cases remained unidentified. The un-

identified insects were listed as ‘ insects ’.

The bonnet macaque is omnivorous and

feeds upon a variety of leaves, flowers, fruits,

seeds, grass-blades, grass flowers and animal

material. The animal material included a

variety of insects such as caterpillars, grass-

hoppers, and flies. Lizards were also eaten.

The macaques preferred plant to animal

material. This related to the abundant plant

food items available. Water is taken in by

direct licking from holes on tree trunks or on

980

ECOLOGY OF THE BONNET MACAQUE

rocks or from a well platform (near villages)

without using hands. At times the animals

put their hands into the water holes and licked

the droplets from their arm and fingers.

Plant food of macaques : The important

fact about bonnet diet is in the selection of

variety of food materials. Thirty-six species

of plant food were found to be eaten. The

plants eaten and parts consumed in each plant

by the macaques are shown in Table 2.

The bonnets move early in the morning from

the roost to their daily routine of feeding with

some kind of warming up or morning play,

especially among the sub-adults and the

juveniles. At times the mature animals also

showed an inclination for such kind of activities

in the morning. The macaques were seen

sunning before commencing to feed. The period

of sunning varies according to the seasons being

longer during cold and rainy seasons.

The feeding rhythm showed two peaks during

the day ; between 0800 hrs to 0900 hrs and

1500 hrs to 1600 hrs from October to April.

During the month of May there was only one

peak, between 1500 hrs to 1700 hrs. In this

month they spent more time under shade during

the day, probably because of the high day

temperature. The feeding behaviour was more

or less similar in June also. The reason for

this is not clear. During the month of July the

animals did not show preference for any parti-

cular feeding period and fed throughout the

day. This may be due to the continuous cloud

Table 2

Plant food items utilized by bonnet

MACAQUES

Species Part consumed

GRASS

Setaria glauca Beauv. . . Leaf and

flower

Oryza sativa Linn. . . Seed

Species Part consumed

3

981

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

cover. The animals did not feed intensely

at any one time during the rains. In the months

of August and September the feeding peak

appeared to be similar to that of October to

April.

The monthly feeding time variations showed

that from October to May and September the

adult females spend more time in feeding than

the other animals. One of the possible reasons

for this may be pregnancy and parturition

(from mating to 2 months after the delivery

of the off-spring). Observations regarding

adult females were restricted to those which

were breeding. The adult males spend more

time for feeding than the sub-adult and

juveniles. From June to August the adult

females spend less time in feeding than other

animals. The monsoon starts in June and

heavy rains continue upto the end of August.

So the adult females with the babies spend

more time protecting the young ones from the

heavy rains. This may be one of the reasons

for the sudden fall of feeding time for adult

females from June to August. Others also

spend less time during these months than in

other months. Fruits were most abundant in

the months of October, December, January,

March and April. The macaques spend more

time for feeding during the above months except

October. During the month of October the

major food was paddy but the time spent in

collecting this food is less, probably because

(a) the paddy fields were outside their regular

feeding range and ( b ) the animals had to wait

for a chance to feed without disturbance from

guards. Paddy was available only during the

month of October.

The food taken each month of the year is

given below. The percentage of feeding time

is given for new addition each month.

October

% of feeding time

Oryza sativa . . 56 to 66.8

P ter o carpus mar supium . . 9.3 to 15.8

December

The preferred food for all classes during this

month was the fruit of Bridelia squamosa.

They spent the maximum time on this fruit.

Also the sub-adults and juveniles showed more

preference for Bridelia squamosa than adult

males and females. Adult females, sub-adults

and juevniles gave next preference to the fruit

of Sauropus quadrangular is whereas adult

males which spent more time on the ground

preferred Urena sinuata , a small herb. All the

above mentioned food items were abundant

during December.

Leaves of Dalbergia latifolia , flower of

Canavalia virosa , fruits of Dioscorea bulbifera ,

Ficus bengalensis , Lantana camara , Solanum

indicum and seeds of Crotalaria filipes , Denis

glabra , Heterophragma quadriloculare and

Tamarindus indica were the other favourite plant

food items.

Dalbergia latifolia 0.3 to 0.5%

Heterophragma quadriloculare 0.2 to 0.3 %

January

All classes except juveniles showed a parti-

cular preference for the seeds of Derris glabra

during the month. Juveniles preferred the fruits

of Bridelia squamosa and Lantana camara.

Adult females showed equal preference for

the fruits of Derris glabra and Lantana camara.

982

ECOLOGY OF THE BONNET MACAQUE

The three major fruits available during this

month were Bridelia squamosa , Denis glabra

and Lantana camara. The macaques also ate

the fruits of Ficus bengalensis.

Flowers of Canavalia virosa , fruits of Sauropus

quadrangular is and C. filipes were the other

favourite plant food items of the macaques in

January.

Zizyphus mauritiana (Lamk.) 5.7 to 9.1 %

February

The seeds of Derris glabra continued to be

preferred during this month also. The adult

females fed more on cotyledons of Derris

glabra than others. This was the dominant

food during the month. The seeds of Derris

glabra occurred abundantly. The macaques

showed almost equal preference for the fruits

of Ficus religiosa, Lantana camara and Zizyphus

mauritiana.

Other favourite plant food items were the

leaf blades of Setaria glauca ; flowers of Salmalia

malabarica ; fruits of Acacia farnesiana , Bridelia

squamosa , Diospyros montana, Ficus benga-

lensis, Holoptelea integrifolia , Urena sinuata

and Heterophragma quadriloculare.

Acacia farnesiana Willd. 1.1 to 1.6%

Setaria glauca Beavn. 1 .2 to 2.3 %

Diospyros montana 0.5 to 1.4%

Ficus religiosa Linn. 12.3 to 18.9/;

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. 1.8 to 3.7%

Salmalia malabarica (DC.)

Schott & Endl. 0.2 to 0/ 0

March

Adult males and females preferred the seeds

of Derris glabra during this month. Sub-adults

and juveniles preferred the fruit of Manilkara

hexandra.

Other favourite plant food in March were the

leaf blades of Setaria glauca ; flower of Salmalia

malabarica and fruits of Carissa carandas ,

Flacourtia ramantchi , Holoptelea integrifolia ,

Lantana camara, Sterblus asper, Urena sinuata

and Zizyphus mauritiana.

Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.)

Carissa carandas Linn.

Flacourtia ramantchi L’Herit

Streblus asper Lour.

22.1 to 29.2%

1.4 to 7.1%

10.3 to 16.2%

9.4 to 18.1%

April

The macaques showed particular preference

for the fruit of Manilkara hexandra which was

abundant during the month. In addition all

four size classes showed more or less equal pre-

ference for the fruits of Flacourtia ramantchi

and Scutia myrtina. Flowers of Anona

squamosa, Alangium salvii folium, Carissa

carandas, Ficus religiosa, Lantana camara,

Streblus asper and seeds of Derris glabra and

Erythrina variegata were the other favourite food

items during this month.

Scutia myrtina Kurz

Anona squamosa Linn.

Alangium salvii folium

(Linn, f.)

Erythrina variegata Linn.

15.3 to 16.5%

8.9 to 11.7%

8.1 to 11.1 %

0.2 to 0.7%

May

The bonnets showed very high preference for

the fruit of Alangium salviifolium during this

month. Adult males, females and juveniles

spent more time than sub-adults on this food

item. The data showed that the preferred food

were limited to a few species only during this

month compared to all other months except

October. May was the hottest month of the

year covered by the study. The fruit of

Alangium salviifolium is soft, fleshy and about

1.15 cm in diameter and weighs about 1.3 gm.

The soft and fleshy epicarp may be the reason

for the preference of this fruit during May.

The water sources were meagre during this

month. The only water source for the monkeys

was the village well where they rarely got a

983

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

chance to drink due to the continuous use of

the well by the villagers.

Fruits of Anona squamosa , Carissa carandas ,

Lantana camara , Manilkara hexandra and

Scutia myrtina were the other favourite plant

food items of the macaques during May.

June

As in May the macaques showed preference

for the fruit of Alangium salviifolium during this

month. In this month adult males spent more

timejfeeding on this fruit than all other age

classes. Second major food item of the

macaques during June was Lantana camara.

In this case juveniles spent more time feeding on

this fruit than all other age classes.

Other favourite plant food items were leaf

of Setaria glauca , pith of Colacasia esculenta

and fruits of Anona squamosa , Cansjera rheedii ?

Ficus bengalensis , Ficus religiosa , Morinda

coreia and Scutia myrtina.

After the commencement of the monsoon

many herbaceous plants sprout. Among

these the macaques showed preference for

Celosia argentea, Colocasia esculenta and

different kinds of grasses.

Cansjera rheedii Gmel. 0.3 to 2.7 %

Colacasia esculenta (Linn.)

Schott. 0.3 to 0.4%

Morinda coreia Buch. - Ham. 7 to 9.2%

July

During this month all age classes except

juveniles showed preference for the fruit of

Morinda coreia. The juveniles showed high

preference for the fruit of Lantana camara.

Pith of Colacasia esculenta ; flower of Celosia

argentea , Setaria glauca and fruits of Anona

squamosa , Cansjera rheedii , Ficus bengalensis ,

Ficus religiosa and Scutia myrtina were the

other favourite plant food items of the

macaques.

Celosia argentea Linn. 0.9 to 2.4%

August

All age classes showed preference for the

fruit of Lantana camara during the month of

August. Lantana camara was abundant just after

the beginning of the monsoon. The juveniles

spent more time on Lantana camara than all

other age classes. The macaques also took

Anona squamosa , Impatiens balsamina and

Cansjera rheedii , even though these fruits were

not in abundance during this month, indi-

cating the need for variety of food materials

according to their availability.

Pith of Colocasia esculenta ; flower of Celosia

argentea , Setaria glauca and fruit of Morinda

coreia were the other favourite plant food items

during this month.

Impatiens balsamina Linn. 11 to 16.2%

September

Adult females preferred the seeds of Derris

glabra , whereas the adult males, sub-adults and

juveniles showed high preference for the fruit

of Lantana camara. This is more or less similar

to the food habits of the previous month.

Pith of Colocasia esculenta ; flower of Setaria

glauca , Celosia argentea and fruit of Anona

squamosa, Cansjera rheedii and Impatiens

balsamina were the other favourite plant food

items of the macaques during September.

Correlation between fruit preference and fruiting

seasons :

Seasonal changes in the diet of the macaques

were mainly due to the difference in the fruiting

seasons of the plants. But this may not the

only reason as certain food items were more

preferred than others. Derris glabra was in

fruit from October to April. Adult males and

adult females showed preference for the seeds of

D. glabra throughout its fruiting seasons. Sub-

adults fed on the seeds of the same fruit from

November to April and juveniles from

December to April. Bridelia squamosa was in

fruit from November to February. All the

984

ECOLOGY OF THE BONNET MACAQUE

animals showed more preference for the fruit

during the months of November and December

and less during January and February. At

the same time the sub-adults and juveniles

showed preference for the fruit of Sauropus

quadrangular is during the month of December.

Even though Derris glabra was in fruit the

animals showed preference for the fruit of

Manilkara hexandra during the month of April.

Manilkara hexandra was in plenty during this

month and in May and June the fruit of

Alangium salviifolium. Lantana camara was

abundant just after beginning of monsoon from

July to September. The data showed that all the

animals spent more time in feeding on the fruit

of Lantana camara. The animals also pre-

ferred the fruit of Morinda coreia during July.

It was also abundant at that time. (Table 3).

Table 3

Fruiting seasons of the food plants of bonnet macaque

985

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Possible reasons for food preference

Analysis of the data suggests that the pre-

ference for food may be an outcome of factors

like the nature of the fruit (hardness and

softness), colour, taste and position of the fruit

on the plants.

From the collected data it seems that the sub-

adults and juveniles preferred fruits like

Bridelia squamosa , Sauropus quadrangular is.

Ficus bengalensis, Ficus religiosa, Lantana

camara , Zizyphus mauritiana , Alangium salvii-

folium , Urena sinuata and Manilkara hexandra

than other fruits. These fruits are small in

size and the epicarp is also soft and easy to

open. Derr is glabra was seen almost through-

out the year, but the epicarp of the fruit is

hard. The sub-adults and juveniles showed

less preference to this fruit throughout the

season. The data show that the hardness of

the fruits does not affect the feeding preference

in the case of adult males and females.

To a certain extent the macaques were

attracted by the colour of the fruit or flower.

It was observed that most of the fruits had

attractive colour like red, black, orange,

yellowish and shades of green, when ripe. The

fruit of Ficus bengalensis is red and this was a

seasonal attraction (November, December,

January, February, June and July). This fruit

also attracted a number of birds like koel,

coppersmith, crows, and bulbuls. Other

fruits such as Sauropus quadrangular is, Bridelia

squamosa , Zizyphus mauritiana , Diospyros

montana , Manilkara hexandra , Streblus asper

and F. ramantchi also had attractive colours.

The position of fruit on the plant plays a role

in selection of the fruit to some extent. In

some trees the fruits occur towards the extre-

mity of small branches. In such cases the

bigger animals (adult males and adult females)

cannot collect them. Usually the mature

animals avoid such fruits, but sub-adults and

juveniles collect them.

Animal food of bonnet macaques

Most of the animal food material eaten by

the macaques were identified. The consump-

tion of animal food material by the macaques

was much less when compared with that of plant

material. The animal food material consump-

tion seems to be more in the adults than sub-

adults and juveniles. An interesting animal

item in the diet of monkeys was the garden

lizard Calotes versicolor , observed once. Fast

moving lizards and insects were hunted on trees

and on the ground.

During May one adult male got hold of a

Calotes versicolor and ate it bit by bit. The

following animal material were taken by the

macaques in different months during the study.

Animal food items of bonnet macaque

Feeding Behaviour

The macaques started feeding early in the

morning, usually between 0600 to 0900 hrs.

They may start later during the cold weather.

The macaques usually foraged leisurely sitting

and walking. The animals fed in groups. But

males, and particularly dominant males, pre-

ferred to feed alone though not far from the

troop. They also fed more on the ground.

Feeding location depended on the locality and

time of the day. Early hours of the morning

the animals prefer arboreal feeding. During

the middle of the day the monkeys come down

for feeding or for other activities. During

the breeding season the mature animals eat

more. Food was rarely transported by hand

from one place to other. No animal offered

m

ECOLOGY OF THE BONNET MACAQUE

food to another and no macaque was seen to

use any tool to obtain its food. The infant

monkeys tried to pick up the food discarded by

their mothers. At times the infant took food

from the hands of the mother. The monkeys

remained close to each other while feeding on

ground or on animal material. The macaques

were very alert when they were on ground,

especially the dominant males.

Methods of Feeding

Bonnet macaques are selective feeders, con-

suming certain parts of certain fruits. The

animals hoard food inside the cheek pouches

when they are in a hurry to gather them or when

disturbed. After filling the cheek pouches

the animals run to shelter. This method is

seen more frequently just before the mid-day

rest. The hands of the macaques are used for

manipulation, holding and pulling, and the

teeth for biting and gnawing. The animals

usually hold the fruits in hand or mouth and

detach them from the branch. This method

is clearly observed when the animals feed

on Derris glabra , flower of Salmalia mala -

barica and fruit of Anona squamosa. After detach-

ing the fruit from the branch the animals sit

near-by and eat. One or both hands are used

for plucking the fruits. The food is cleaned by

rubbing between the palms or on rough tree

surfaces. The former method is used while

feeding on caterpillars and certain plants.

When they feed on Tamarindus indica the

macaques rub the entire fruit on a rough

surface of the same tree branch, and then

consume the unripe seeds. The same method

was employed in the case of Scutia myrtina}

Manilkara hexandra and Carissa carandas #

Juveniles also use this kind of rubbing to open

the fruit of Derris glabra. Occasionally the

animal smells the food and throws it away.

When feeding on the fruit of Alangium salvii-

folium the macaque plucks the fruit with the

hand and squeezes it with its fingers and con-

sumes the fleshy mesocarp and discards the

seeds. They swallow small fruits as such.

While feeding in open fields, the animals cover

a wide area and search for grasshoppers and

other insects by walking very slowly through

the grasses or by lifting small stones. On many

occasions it was noticed that the monkeys chase

flying grasshoppers and other insects. Pupae

and small insects attached to leaves were

separated with the tongue and eaten, at times

by licking. In the case of the gall farming

psyllid ( Phakopteron lentiginosum ) the macaques

pluck the leaves of Garuga pinnata with its

attached gall, and carefully open it very near

to the mouth by both hands and consume

the psyllid. The macaques very carefully peel

off the dead bark of trees by hand and search

for animals.

Acknowledgements

I record my deepest gratitude to my guiding

teacher, Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay

Natural History Society, whose supervision

and encouragement have been invaluable. I

am grateful to Dr. Steven Green of Rocke-

feller University, U.S.A. and his associate.

Miss Karen Minkowski, for their help in the

initial stages of this study. I am also indebted

to Prof. P. V, Bole of St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay, and his research student Mr. R. P.

Subhedar for their assistance with plant identi-

fication. I am grateful to the Maharashtra Forest

Department for permitting me to work in the

forests of Elephanta Island. The hospitality

of Mr. J. K. Mhatre (Panchayat President),

Mr. C. N. G. Nair, Mr. Kulkarni, Mr. Padthe

and my field assistant Mr. Vithal H. Patil of

Elephanta Island are gratefully acknowledged.

A special note of thanks goes to Miss Saramma

Isaac for her immeasurable help throughout

this study period. I wish to extend my deep

appreciation and thanks to Bombay Natural

History Society and Rockefeller University Field

Research Fund for their financial support.

987

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , tt>/. 75

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Winston, New York, Ch. 6 : 175-196.

Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A. and Siddiqi, M. R.

(1965) : Rhesus Monkeys in north India. In : Primate

Behaviour — Field studies in Monkeys and Apes. I.

DeVore(ed-), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,

pp. 111-149.

Sugyiama, Y. (1971) : Characteristics of the Social

life of Bonnet Macaques ( Macaca radiata). Primates

n (3-4) : 247-266.

988

BANDING BATS FOR THE STUDY OF POPULATION

ECOLOGY

H. B. Devaraj Sarkar, B. S. Bhima Rao, M. Suvarnalatha and B. S. Thyagaraja1

( With two plates)

Introduction

Studies involving banding of bats are mainly

concerned with the homing abilities and migratory

patterns of bats except for Pearson et al.

(1952) who attempted to study the reproductive

biology of Corynorhinus rafinesquei in nature

employing wing banding. There are no syste-

matic studies reported on either fluctuations in

population or reproductive behaviour of bats

in southern India. Keeping this in view the

present study was undertaken. It concerned

mainly with population fluctuation, colour poly-

morphism and reproductive behaviour of two

species of microchiroptera : Rhinolophus rouxi

and Hipposideros speoris from southern India.

Methods of Study

I. Selection of banding site : While select-

ing the banding site the following criteria

were taken into consideration : (« a ) easy accessi-

bility of bats at their day-time retreats and

possibility of easy visual inspection of the roost-

ing sites and (b) presence of alternative roosting

sites within a short radius to enable recaptures>

when necessary.

1 Department of Zoology, University of Mysore,

Manasagangotri, Mysore— 570006.

* Since the attempts to identify the species of Hipposi.

deroswQTQ not successful, the diagnostic characters of the

specimen collected are given herewith :

Head length : 1.8 cm ; Body length : 4.4 cm ; Wing

span : 32.5 cm ; Fore arm length : 2.1 cm ; Tail length :

3,5 cm.

Srirangapatna (Karnataka State ; India :

12° 25 N' 76° 40' E) with abandoned sub-

terranean magazines was selected as the

banding area (Fig. 1). These magazines are

totally dark during day-time and two species

of microchiroptera, the Indian horse-shoe bat

Rhinolophus rouxi (Rhinolophidae) (Fig. 2) and

the leaf nosed bat Hipposideros speoris

* (Hipposideridae) (Fig. 3) roost here. Both

the species roost in one of the eight magazines,

herein after referred to as G± and only R. rouxi

roosts in two more magazines, herein after

referred to as Ga and G3 (Fig. 1, G± to G8).

Gx was selected as the banding site because of

the availability of both the species of bats

(Fig. 4). This magazine has an entrance lead-

ing to a landing five feet below the ground level

which in turn leads to a lower landing at about 8'

below ground. A small arch entrance opens

into the central corridor with a roof of about

12' and two ante-chambers on either side with

a low roof level and these are interconnected

with three intercommunications on either side.

The central corridor and ante-chambers are 6'

wide. There is a ventilator in the central corri-

dor high above the ground level through which

the bats move in and out freely (Fig. 5).

Weekly trips were made to Srirangapatna for

banding these bats from April 1974 to May

1975. There are hill ranges towards north and

south-east of Srirangapatna situated at a

distance of 15 Km. The hill range towards

north is called Kuntibetta and the one towards

south-east is called Karighatta. Several trips

989

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

were made to these hill ranges to locate the

banded bats.

II. Banding material and procedure : Thin

aluminium foils with numbers engraved and

cable wire together weighing 200 to 250 mg were

used for banding. The bats were captured with

a butterfly net without causing injury.** The

wire with the numbered foil was placed around

the neck of the bat and the free ends were

twisted. Care was taken to see that the band

does not slip out easily and does not suffocate

the animal.

Ear was punched as an additional mark of

recognition so that even if the band is lost the

bat can always be identified as a previously

banded bat.

The body weight, species, sex, fur colour

and the reproductive status of each animal

were recorded. Vaginal smears of only R.

rouxi were examined while, H. speoris were

not available for such examinations.

Some bats, brought from G2 and Gs, were

banded and released at G1 during some months.

These magazines were visited regularly to trace

the banded bats. 25 bats were brought from

G3 to Paschimavahini situated at a distance

of 1.6 Km South-west of G3, were banded and

released to test the homing abilities.

The percentage of recaptures has been cal-

culated as : (a) cumulative percentage which is

expressed as the percentage of the total recap-

tures to the total number of bats banded upto

the previous week and (b) relative percentage

which is expressed as the percentage of the

number of bats recaptured on any given date

to the total number of bats captured on that

date (includes both banded and recaptured)

(table 1).

Some discarded bands were recovered from

Gr Two reasons could be ascribed to account

** Captaring bats under these conditions using butter-

fly net will : 1. cause a certain amount of injury to

bats and 2. cause much panic among the individuals

providing bias in the recapture data— Eds.

for this : (a) defective banding where the bands

were recovered with the cable wire ring intact

and (b) chewing of the wire where the bands

were recovered either with a cut in the ring or

the ring intact without band. The percentage

of such recoveries to the total number of bats

banded is included here as failure rate (table 2).

The frequency of recaptures was calculated

in relation to : (a) the number of times the

same bat was recaptured and (b) the period

after which the bat was recaptured (period

between banding and recapture) (table 3).

Observations

A total of 1193 bats were banded during a

period of 14 months (Tables 1 and 2). The

banded bats were recognizable from a distance

of three to five metres at their day-time retreats

(Fig. 6) with a large number of non-banded

bats. Even without seeing them, the existence

of banded bats could be clearly made out,

since, the band makes a rustling noise as the dis-

turbed animals hung themselves back at their

perch. Bands could be recognised even after a

lapse of 13 months and the numbers were not

disfigured. Continuous contact with the cable

wire or the aluminium foil did not cause any

skin reaction in recaptured bats. The band

does not seem to interfere with the normal

activities of the bats, since, bats recaptured

even after one year were found to be normal.

Young bats, which are two to three months

old, can also be successfully banded.

The hole caused by punching the ear heals

and closes leaving a white circular scar which

can be seen by fifth week (Fig. 7) and this later

becomes pigmented and indistinguishable.

The average rate of recaptures of banded bats

is almost the same per any given week (Table 1).

Except for some days it is observed that the

relative percentage of recaptures is always

greater than the cumulative percentage of re-

captures. It is important to note that in spite

990

300400 METRES

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Sarkar et at . : Banding Bats

Plate I

60

E

Map of Srirangapatna showing the eight magazines marked Gx to G8.

Plate II

J, Bombay nat, Hist, Soc. 75

Sarkar et a I. : Banding Bats

Rhinotopftns H2H2L1

Hipposideros sps

Fig. 2. Face of Rhinolophus rouxi. Fig. 3. Face of Hipposideros speoris. Fig, 4. A view of the magazine CL.

Fig. 5. Sectional view of the magazine Gj showing the two landings, central hall, two lateral corridors with

their interconnections and ventilator.

Fig. 6. A banded bat clinging to the wall. Arrow indicates the band.

Fig. 7, Ear of a bat to show the white scar formed after punching. Arrow indicates the scar

BANDING BATS FOR POPULATION ECOLOGY

Table 1

Details of Banding and Recaptures

* No banding, since the animals were not to be found.

Abs, = Absolute ; Cum. = Cumulative ; Rel. = Relative.

991

Table 2

Banding and Recaptures (Monthwise), mortality rate, and failure of banding

Journal, bomba y natural hist, society, voi. 75

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BANDING BATS FOR POPULATION ECOLOGY

Table 3

Frequency of recaptures

Note. — Bats recaptured on the same day of banding are not taken into account.

* Bats recaptured with the wire ring intact, but the band missing.

of increased number of banded bats, the cumu-

lative percentage of recaptures remains almost

the same. Daily inspection of G3 for 7 days

revealed that of the bats taken from G3 banded

and released at Paschimavahini, very few

returned to G3. Only one bat was recaptured

at G3 on the following day after release and

two bats were recovered on the second day.

Later recoveries were nil and even these three

bats were not to be found at G3 later on.

The number of recaptures in relation to the

period after banding decreases after a lapse

of time. In the first month after banding re-

captures were relatively high and the rate

gradually decreases as the duration between

banding and recaptures increases (Table 3).

Multiple recaptures are very few. Recapture

for the second time is more frequent during the

first three months. In this connection it is

very interesting to note that one bat was re-

captured in the same magazine (Gx) after 13

months !

Some bats without the bands but with the

wire ring intact around the neck were also

captured. These are also considered as re-

captures. But the frequency of recaptures in

relation to the number of times or to the period

from the date of their banding to the date of

their recapture cannot be calculated, since the

reference to these bats as to the date on which

they were banded cannot be traced. Hence

these are treated as ‘unaccountable’ in Table 3.

Bats banded at G± were occasionally re-

catpured at G2 and G3 also. Of the 200 bats

brought from G2 and G3, banded and released

at G,, only two were recaptured at G2 and

five at G3.

The word population is used here with a

specific meaning to indicate the number of bats

occupying the given magazine at a given time.

The number of bats banded during each week

and month is given in Tables 1 and 2, respec-

tively. A wide fluctuation in the number of

individuals occupying the magazine is observed.

During October-March period except

November, bats were not found in any of the

magazines. Our efforts to locate the bats

during this period at other alternative sites were

not successful. As Karighatta is relatively

smooth and devoid of cave formations no bats

were found there. At Kuntibetta, there are

many cave formations and rock crevices.

993

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , >W. 75

i?. rowxz roost in these crevices and caves but

banded bats were not seen. R. rouxi when

available, were found congregating in large

numbers both at Kuntibetta and Magazines.

[ During the course of thejstudy some dead

banded bats were recovered (Table 2). Of

these, four were very young and they died of

strangulation due to banding.

The sex ratio (Table 4) indicates that both

sexes co-exist in the same roost. Female R. rouxi

were not found during April, but they appear

during May and out-number the males during

June-August and then decline. On the other

hand, both the sexes of H. speoris occupied

the magazine in large numbers during April

and May and both decrease in number after-

wards. They reappear only during next April.

The ratio of the number of R. rouxi to the

number of H. speoris living in the same

magazine is always greater, except during

April.

Colour polymorphism prevails in both the

species of bats (Table 5). They exhibit brown

(melanistic) to bright orange (erythristic)

coloured fur. Bats with mixed colour patches

were also observed.

Orange furred bats appear in May and

continue upto September. The ratio of

melanistic bats to the erythristic bats in two

species or to the total number of bats banded

indicates that there are more orange furred

R. rouxi than H. speoris. Orange furred H.

speoris were found only during April

and May (1974) and April (1975) and their

relative percentage to the total number of bats

banded during those months is only 0.7, 1.8 and

2.7 respectively. Orange furred R. rouxi

appear during April, gradually increase in

number during May and out-number the melanis-

tic forms during June and August. Then they

decline and disappear during November and

reappear during next April.

Cornified scales were noticed in the vaginal

smears of R. rouxi during September-November

period. H. speoris females collected during

April were pregnant and were lactating during

the middle of May. The young ones leave

their mothers and lead an independent life

two to three weeks after their birth. The

higher incidence of H. speoris indicates that

this species roosts in this magazine for breeding

activities. They decline in number afterwards

and reappear only during next April. The

juveniles of this species remain sexually im-

mature even one year after birth.

The body weights are indicated in Table 6.

It is evident that there is a fast rate of growth

in these species and that there is not much of a

difference between the body weights of adults

and juveniles. Further, there is no appreciable

change in the weights during different months

of the year. Comparatively R. rouxi is a

heavier animal with a body weight range of 15.0

to 18.5 gm while, H. speoris weight range is

9.0 to 15.2 gm. In R. rouxi , there seems to be a

difference between the two sexes and the female

weighs a little less than the males while, in

H. speoris , there is no significant difference

between the two sexes.

The weights of the newly born H. speoris

ranges from 5.3 to 7.3 gm which represents

38.3% of the body weight of adult animals.

11 to 15 days after their birth, the young ones

weigh on average, 7.4 gm. Within two to three

months after their birth, the weights of juveniles

is almost the same as that of the adult animal.

We could not make similar observations in

R. rouxi as we could not collect newly born

horse-shoe bats.

Discussion

The recapture rate in the present study is

encouraging (Tables 1 and 2). The failure rate

does not seem to give an accurate picture as we

were able to recover the discarded bands only

from the magazine (Table 2). Mortality among

adults due to banding seems to be nil from

available data.

994

Sex ratio and Population density

BANDING BATS FOR POPULATION ECOLOGY

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BANDING BATS FOR POPULATION ECOLOGY

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , F<?/. 75

Punching ears as an additional mark of

recognition does not seem to be useful since,

the perforation heals within a short period and

becomes indistinguishable. This confirms the

uselessness of marking ears (Griffin 1970).

Keeping in view all the advantages of neck

banding, it may be said that the technique is

useful in keeping track of individual bats.

The cumulative percentage of recaptures

remains almost the same throughout the dura-

tion of this study. It is interesting to note

that in spite of progressive increase in the total

number of bats banded, the cumulative per-

centage of recaptures for any given date remains

almost the same (Table 1). This is due to the

continuous influx of new occupants to the

magazine and it is evident that not all the bats

banded in the previous week return to the same

magazine after their nocturnal activity. It is

interesting to observe that the banded bats are

very few even in other two magazines which are

situated at a very short distance. Abel (1960)

reported very little shifting between two well

populated colonies of R. fermm-equinum and

pointed out that the colonies were rather stable.

Similarly Pearson et al. (1952) reported that

almost all the banded Corynorhinus rafinesquei

were recaptured at the same place. Contrary

to this, Roer (1960) observed a rapid movement

of colonies of R. ferrum-equinum and R. hippo -

sideros between several roosts situated within a

short radius. The colonial make up of R. rouxi

seems to be highly unstable as evidenced from

our present study. Recapture of bats brought

from G2 and G3, banded and released at Gx

are very few. The frequency of recapture both

in relation to the number of times of recapture

and the time lag indicate no specificity for any

day-time retreat contrary to those reported for

some European congeneric species (Griffin

1970). All these suggest that the territory of

R . rouxi in the present study is much larger

than the area that could be covered by these

three magazines. Because of the wide fluctua-

tion in the number of bats in any magazine on

any given date, it may be said that these bats

migrate frequently over short distances (local

migration or local movement) which is an

important part of the behaviour of bats.

On the other hand, H. speoris occupy

the magazine only during late pregnancy and

lactation period and move away at the end of

the lactation period. At present it is not pos-

sible for us to locate their roosts during non-

breeding and early pregnancy periods. A

similar situation has been reported by Davis

et al. (1962) for Tadarida brasiliensis where the

summer roosts consist of pregnant females and

lactating mothers. They also reported that the

mothers do not carry their young ones when

they leave the roosts for hunting and a sort

of communal dairy herd has been established as

for as lactational behaviour is concerned. But

in the present study, the mothers carry their

young ones during nocturnal activities and this

lactational behaviour is different from that of

Tadarida brasiliensis.

Males and females of R. rouxi roost together

during non-breeding season and there seems

to be no sexual isolation contrary to the

reports on European congeneric species. R.

rouxi comes to oestrus during November as

revealed by the presence of cornified scales in

the vaginal smears. This agrees with the

reports that R. rouxi gives birth during March-

April (Asdell 1964). Our observations that

R. rouxi are not to be found during December

to March suggest that they might have a

different breeding area.

It has been reported that the young bats

range from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight of

the adults (Orr 1970). In the present study the

newly born H. speoris weighed on average

38.3 per cent of the adults followed by a gradual

increase in the ratio as the growth proceeds

(Table 6). The juveniles become indistin-

guishable from the adults in their body size

within three months of their birth. This indi-

998

BANDING BATS FOR POPULATION ECOLOGY

cates a rapid growth rate among these

bats.

There is some controversy as to the age at

which the bats attain sexual maturity (Orr

1970). Based on banding data Shearman

(1937) observed that Tadarida cynocephala

reached sexual maturity within one year after

birth and according to him the females of this

species came to oestrus within one year. Rama-

krishna (1976) suggested that R. rouxi rouxi

attains sexual maturity only after a year. Our

data indicates that H. speoris do not attain

sexual maturity by the first year of their birth

as newly born young bats banded during July

1974 remained sexually immature even after

one year.

Colour polymorphism has been reported in

rhinolophids and leaf nosed bats (Walker

et al. 1968). This colour polymorphism does

not seem to be associated with breeding cycles

or sexual status of the bat (at least in R. rouxi),

since both melanistic and erythristic forms of

juveniles and adults of both the sexes occur

throughout the year although Anderson (1917)

Refer

Abel, G. (1960) : 24 Jahre Beringung von Fleders-

mausen Lande Salzburg. Bonner Zool. Beitr. 11 :

25-35.

Anderson, K. (1917) : On the so-called colour phases

of the rufous Horseshoe-bat of India ( Rhinolophus rouxi ,

Temm.). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25 : 260-273.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of mammalian repro-

duction. Ithaca : Cornell University Press.

Davis, R. B., Herried, C. F. and Short, H. L. (1962) :

Mexican free tailed bats in Texas. Ecol. Monogr. 32 :

311-346.

Griffin, D. R. (1970) : Migrations and homing of

bats. In Biology of bats, 1 : 233-264. Wimsatt, W.A.

(ed). London : Academic Press.

Orr, R. T. (1970) : Development : prenatal and

postnatal. In Biolcgy of bats, 1 : 217-231. Wimsatt.

W. A. (ed.). London : Academic Press.

Pearson, O. P., Koford, M. R. and Pearson, A. K.

indicated that the darkness of the fresh coat

fades away with age, sex and other factors like

ammonia concentration at the roosting site.

Quay (1970) concluded that there should be a

high incidence of colour polymorphism during

late summer. But in the present study, the

incidence of polymorphism is high during mon-

soons (rainy season). Since both melanistic

and erythristic forms and mixed fur coloured

forms occur together in the same magazine, it

may be possible that this colour polymorphism

may be genetic. But it is very difficult at this

stage to suggest whether this colour polymor-

phism is entirely genetic or the animals change

the colour in relation to the concentration of

ammonia in the roosting sites (which we have

not measured).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. M. R. Rajasekara-

setty for his encouragement and to C.S.I.R.,

India for the award of research fellowships to

B. S. Bhima Rao, M. Suvarnalatha and B. S.

Thyagaraja.

ences

(1952) : Reproduction of the lump-nosed bat ( Cory -

norhinus rafinesquei ) in California. J. Mammal. 33 :

273-320.

Quay, W. B. (1970) : Integuments and derivatives.

In Biolcgy of bats, 2 : 1-56. Wimsatt, W. A. (ed.),

London : Academic Press.

Ramakrishna, P. A. (1976) : Some observations on

reproduction of Rhinolophus rouxi rouxi. Curr. Sci.

45 : 497-498.

Roer, H. (1960) : Vorlaufige Ergebnisse der

Fledermaus-Beringung und Literaturubersicht. Bonner

Zool . Beitr, 11 : 234-256.

Shearman, H. B. (1937) : Breeding habits of the free

tailed bats. /. Mammal. 18: 176-187.

Walker, E. P., Warnick, F., Hamlet, S. E., Lange,

K. I., Davis, M. A., Uible, H. E. and Wright, P. F

(1968) : Mammals of the world, Vol. I. Baltimore.

The John Hopkins Press,

999

THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT

POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

P. VlJAYAKUMARAN NAIR AND MADHAV GADGIL1

( With four plates and seven text-figures)

Introduction

The hill chain of Western Ghats running parallel

to the west coast of India is a fascinating region

from both an ecological and biogeographical

point of view. The extensive hilly region

retains its natural vegetation and fauna to a

much greater degree than the rest of the

peninsula. This last refuge of the natural fauna

and flora is, however, being threatened with

rapid destruction by the numerous hydro-

electric and irrigation projects that are coming

up, the greatly accelerated pace of forest ex-

ploitation and the increasing demand for land

for plantation and cultivation. As a con-

sequence very few virgin forests remain intact

on the western ghats today and the wild life has

also been nearly wiped out. It is therefore an

urgent need of the day to make an accurate

assessment of the status of the natural vegeta-

tion and wild life of this area. A report dealing

with the natural vegetation of the Karnataka

region of this area and man’s impact on it has

been submitted as a report to the Task Force

on the Ecological Planning of Development of

Western Ghats (Prasad, Nair, Sharatchandra

and Gadgil 1977). The present report deals

with the wild life of the Karnataka region of

this area with particular emphasis on the

elephant populations.

Methodology

The Western Ghats areas of Karnataka along

with the eastward extension of hills across the

1 Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of

Science, Bangalore 560 012.

Mysore plateau may for purposes of descrip-

tion be divided into the following five areas :

(a) North Kanara, ( b ) Crest line of the Western

Ghats, (c) Malnad, ( d ) Mysore plateau,

(e) Kollegal hills (Figure 1).

The present report is based on studies carried

out in Karnataka over a period of more than

three years from May 1974 to July 1977. Over

these three years we have maintained almost

continuous detailed observations at Bandipur

National Park. This has been supplemented

by an intensive survey of the Mysore plateau from

July to October 1975, a survey of North Kanara

area from August 1976 to January 1977 and a

survey of the Malnad, Crestline and Kollegal

areas from May to July 1977.

Different methods were adopted in the

different areas depending on the circumstances

and aims of the study. The first intensive

survey of the Mysore plateau was conducted

by a party of four biologists who covered the

terrain on foot. The survey area was divided

into approximately ten square kilometre com-

partments with the aid of maps and each of the

compartments surveyed by one investigator

with the help of a local guide. Walking in a

zig-zag route the entire terrain, especially areas

favoured by elephants such as swamps, stream

banks, and bamboo thickets were traversed.

Whenever elephant herds were encountered

details of the herd composition were noted.

The distribution and degree of abundance of

other wild life, based on sightings as well as on

spoor marks was recorded. Particular atten-

tion was paid to elephant tracks and dung to

infer the number in the herd involved. A

1000

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

74'

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANTS

IN

KARNATAKA

KARWAR

/

BANGALORE /

1 NORTH KANARA-

2 CREST LINE

3 MALNAD

4 MYSORE PLATEAU n

5 KOLLEGAL \

Fig. 1. Map of Karnataka forests showing the five elephant bearing areas,

1001

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Fof. 75

detailed account of this work has been published

already, (Nair, Nair, Sharatchandra and Gadgil

1977) but a resume is incorporated in this

report for the sake of completeness.

The North Kanara forests are vast, and now

contain wild life only in scattered pockets.

The elephants in particular are very few and

completely dispersed. Tracking them in the

dense vegetation of this region would have been

impossible in the time available. We therefore

resorted to collecting the required information

from the innumerable hamlets in the middle of

the forest where elephants regularly raid crops.

Almost all the villages inside and bordering the

forests were visited and data collected on the

number of elephants that raid the crops, the

season of their visits and the general pattern of

movement. Wherever possible this was con-

firmed by checking on elephant tracks. Infor-

mation on the abundance of wild life species

was also collected during the same visits.

These details were plotted on a map and

analysed with reference to the distribution of

the habitat and barriers to movements and

provided a good picture of the distribution of

elephant herds as well as other wild animals.

A similar method was adopted for the Western

Ghats areas from Makut to Bhatkal. The

investigation here was faster because of the

availability of a vehicle.

Basically the same method was used with

more detailed field observations in the Malnad

areas. The number of elephants here is much

greater and the vegetation more favourable for

movement and observation. The forest was

covered in detail mostly in the vehicle in addi-

tion to collecting information from the villagers.

The tracks and other spoor of elephants and

other wild animals as well as the actual sightings

were taken into account. The Kollegal areas

are extensive dry hilly tracts which could not

be covered in sufficient detail. This area has a

number of elephants which move to and from

the Sathyamangala areas of Tamil Nadu. The

area was covered rapidly with a vehicle and

information collected from the local people.

This was checked to an extent through actual

sightings as well as tracks of elephants.

North Kanara

The district of North Kanara and parts of

Belgaum constitute the northernmost sector of

the Western Ghats in Karnataka (latitude

13°45'N to 15°45'N, longitude 74°E to 75°15'E).

The hill ranges run through this area in a north-

south direction rising to an elevation of 700 to

1000 metres. To the east the hill ranges merge

into the Deccan plateau at an elevation of

around 600 metres. The tract receives precipi-

tation ranging from 6500 mm at the crest of

the hills to about 1000 mm on the plateau. The

Western Ghats are very broad here and the

extensive hilly terrain is covered with good

vegetation. Until recently about 80 per cent of

the district was under forest cover. The last

few years, however, have witnessed a tremen-

dous decline of the forest cover in this area

because of the giant Kalinadi Hydro-electric

Project and great deal of iron and manganese

ore mining.

The vegetation of North Kanara ranges from

tropical evergreen to dry deciduous. The

only patch of tropical evergreen forest in North

Kanara lies near the Crestline of the ghats west

of Siddapur. This evergreen forest is charac-

terized by Olea dioica , Hopea wightiana and

Diospyros canolleana. There is an extensive

belt of semi-evergreen forest largely along the

Crestline and to the west of the Crestline charac-

terized by Xylia xylocarpa , Terminalia tomentosa

and T. bellerica. Large tracts of moist deci-

duous forest occur to the east of the Crestline

and are characterized by Tectona grandis , Lager -

stroemia lanceolata , Xylia xylocarpa , Dalbergia

latifolia and various Terminalia species. The

dry deciduous forest occurs in low rainfall

areas bordering the Deccan plateau and is

1002

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

characterized by Anogeissus latifolia, Tectona

grandis, Grewia tiliaefolia and Terminalia

tomentosa. There is a good bamboo growth

through much of this area. With such rich

vegetation, there is no shortage of fodder for

elephants of this region.

This is one of the richer wild life areas in the

state and can boast of elephants, gaur, sambar,

spotted deer, wild pig, wild dog, panther and

tiger. Gaur are now to be frequently seen in

only restricted areas such as Virnoli range,

western parts of Dandeli range and parts of

Supa range. Tiger is widely destributed and

frequently makes cattle kills particularly in parts

of Mundgod range, Kirwatti range and Gund

range.

Elephant population

The district of North Kanara lies at the

extreme northern end of the distribution of the

Asiatic Elephant on the Western Ghats in

Peninsular India. Geologically also this

district constitutes the northernmost limit of the

precambrian igneous rock formation. Whether

this coincidence of the geological regime and

its consequent vegetational regime and of the

elephant distribution has any further signi-

ficance is not known. In recent past at least

the elephants were distributed through most

of the North Kanara district to the east of the

Crestline of the Western Ghats. That is to say

their distribution largely coincided with the

moist and dry deciduous vegetation. They

seem to have been largely absent from the

coastal tract and the hill tract to the west of the

Crestline which receives very heavy rainfall and

harboured very dense semievergreen vegetation.

The elephant population of this district earlier

in this century seems to have comprised five

different herds, two of which still survive as herds

with males and calves. Two others seem to

have been reduced to one or two bulls and the

fifth one has been completely wiped out (see

fig. 2).

Herd 1 : The 1957 working plan mentions the

existence of a herd staying in the Barchi valley

and moving through the adjoining forests of

Nagargali. This herd still survives and includes

about eight to ten animals. The herd spends

the summer months in the moister Kurundi and

Nagargali forests near Jagalbet, Nagargali

areas. The last decade has witnessed the

release of a number of revenue forest lands for

cultivation within the range of this herd.

Apparently the cultivators did not suffer much

from crop raiding by this herd in the initial

years of cultivation. Huge areas within this

range have recently been cleared in connection

with Supa dam of the Kalinadi hydro-electric

project as well as for manganese mining. This

has led to the elephants being forced into con-

tact with the cultivated areas with much raiding

of crops in villages like Barchi, Shingergaon,

Kudilgaon, Aveda, Kheda, Bommardo, Ajgaon,

Usoda, Badgund, Gobral, Vaini, Adangaon

etc. in the years 1975 to 1977 (see fig. 3).

Herd 2 : Korlhally (1957) refers to a bigger

herd staying in the Kaneri river valley. This

herd used to spend the drier months in the

Kaneri and Nagjhari river valleys and used to

range in the Dandeli, Bhagavathi, Ambga

Jumba (present Ambikanagar), Phansoli, Gund,

Ulvi, Ganeshgudi areas as also towards

Hunasgere, Kolikere, Kirwatti side. In the

distant past they used to go as far as Kalghatgi.

The last three decades since independence have

witnessed a great deal of cultivation particularly

towards the Yellapur side being taken up.

This herd apparently used to raid the crops in

its range and was shot. There is hardly a

village within the range of this herd where one

or two elephants have not been shot since 1947.

When the paper mill was established in Dandeli

area elephants used to come right upto the

township of the mill and were shot there. By

about 1965 this herd was reduced to three to

five animals. One more elephant was reported

1003

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

74*00'

74°-30

s

b

AREA N0.1 - N.KANARA

75-00'

.o

IO

O

fO

■o’

...

KUMTA

I*,'.'*,;

H0NI^VARVj?^-__3

"• — district boundary V':;sm^aTr,..--

-—ROADS ti* C

«— e RIVERS \i\ > ,

><>'• CULTIVATIONS ’0

^ ELEPHANTS PAST •>>>;*; V

SHH ELEPHANTS PRESENT S-.\" ^

-SB SUBMERSION AREA V. \ j

f'S

•r/'.-VS. | ^

‘ /.;/*;V^SpP^PUR

SHARAVATHY

RESERVOIR

O

o'

*—

L*Jk

74°-30<

>-od

Fig, 2. Distribution of elephants in North Kanara.

1004

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

74'l 20'

74'! 30'

74“! 40*

SIOTiC DISTURBANCES IN THE RANGE OF HERD NO. I & 2

KHANAPUR RANGE

KHANAPUR

'X.

74*’ 50'

!?. KHS

f

V- >.

LON DA % RANGE \y~?

“A, “ 8" j lr-v

/ \

•*,NAGARGALI RANGE)

( f * h

N

k

, \ •

\JAGALBET RANGE- ^

10

)

W''s i -

rs "'x X x Si

J eS. > 'c *• fe j> * \

.^•^ HALIYAL RANGE

’»o

SAM BRAN! RANGE -so

DIVISION BOUNDARY

— — RANGE BOUNDARY

— ^ RIV4ERS & STREAMS

*»ss SUBMERSION AREA

////MINES

YELLAPUR DIVISION

74! 40'

o

QJ

Vj

74 | §0'

Fig, 3. Maps of Haliyal, Yellapur and Karwar divisions indicating the various disturbances affecting

the forest habitat and the elephant populations.

1005

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY , Po/. 75

to have been found dead near Nagjhari valley

around 2 years ago. This year we have seen the

tracks of only a solitary elephant.

It is interesting to note that when the first herd

was driven out of the Supa forest people

believed them to have come from the Nagjhari

area where the construction of the power-house

had begun just at that time. However, a big

belt of villages and cultivations separates the

range of the herd number two from that of

herd number one. Since no elephants have

been noted to have passed through this belt it

is unlikely that any animals from herd two of

the Nagjhari valley could have crossed over

into that area.

Herd 3 : A herd of eight to ten elephants

has been reported from the Mundgod, Katur,

Bilki, Manchikere, Bharathanahally, Chevathy,

Sirsi and Hulekal areas in the pre-independence

days. The forest in this entire belt is riddled

by a net-work of cultivation throughout the

region. Such cultivation is highly susceptible

to crop raiding by elephants and the elephants

were consequently completely shot out. There

are records of elephants having been shot at

Katur, Mundgod, Bharathanahally, Pala,

Attangi, Chipgeri, Indoor, Chevathy, Sirsi etc.

The complete herd was eliminated about 30

years ago.

Herd 4 : There is presently a herd of a few

elephants and a solitary bull in the Gersoppa

region. They range over Badal, Jankadkal,

Medni, Herebail, Mahime, Gersoppa areas.

This herd has also received some recruits from

the Linganamakki submersion area of the

Sharavathy hydroelectric project. The herd

is extensively utilizing the scrub forests created

by human interference which cover the hilly

terrain towards the coast. The climax forest

in this region is semievergreen which persists

towards the more interior parts of the range.

Two elephants were found shot dead on the

bank of Sharavathy river in May 1979.

Herd 5 : There is now a solitary elephant in

the Ghotegali region in Kadra range in the

Sanake, Hajkarni, Bargadde areas. This

elephant probably moves into the Goa forests

also. There was apparently another elephant

along with the surviving one ; the second ele-

phant is reported to have been shot a few years

ago. The survivor does raid crops and is cer-

tainly in danger of being eliminated. The

relation of these elephants to the others is not

clear.

Discussion

The district of North Kanara with its hilly

terrain, and malarious climate remained largely

under forest cover and very thinly populated

until the recent times. The huge forest was

extremely rich in wild life, being particularly

known for the gaur and tiger. This northern-

most part of the elephant range was included

in the British Province of Bombay presidency

while the adjacent range of elephants to the

South was included in the Old Mysore State.

Kumri cultivation was banned in forests of

the Mysore State in 1847 and that resulted

in a large influx of people to the North Kanara

areas (Garland 1935). Perhaps as a result,

these forests are characterised by the existence of

extensive enclaves of cultivation even inside

the reserved forests (Plate I).

This cultivation inside the forests has been

continually on the increase and has accelerated

since Independence. The pace of settlement of

people into this area has particularly increased

since the eradication of malaria in the nineteen-

fifties. The recent years have also witnessed

many other disturbances in the forest, parti-

cularly with the starting of a paper industry

at Dandeli and the execution of the giant

Kalinadi Hydroelectric Project and mining for

manganese (Plate I). As fig. 3 shows a great

deal of the forest in the Haliyal division has

been lost either to submersion or to mining, and

the rest is more and more subject to enclaves

of cultivation.

1006

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

The demands of the people on the forests for

firewood and grazing are also escalating. Vast

areas in Sirsi and Honnavar divisions are classi-

fied as minor forests which are open for collec-

tion of leaves for manure, firewood etc. Most

of these areas are completely degraded and

reduced to scrub from the original semi-

evergreen condition. Several thousand families

of a pastoral caste called Gavli Dhanagars have

migrated from the north and have settled with

their buffaloes and cattle throughout the

Haliyal, Yellapur, Mundgod, and other taluks

of North Kanara. Overgrazing by the animals

belonging to these people is seriously affecting

forest regeneration.

This tremendous loss of vast chunks of forest

habitat along with the degradation of the rest

has seriously depleted the wild life of this area.

Elephants are particularly susceptible because

they wander over a vast terrain and are attracted

to the cultivated enclaves inside the forest.

When they indulge in extensive crop raiding

they are shot at and slowly eliminated. A very

large number of elephants has been killed in

this fashion throughout North Kanara. There

even used to be a reward for the killing of crop

raiding elephants. All these pressures have well

nigh eliminated the elephant from this vast tract

of forest. The Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary

which could have played a role in the preser-

vation of wild life in this area has been very

heavily disturbed by the Kalinadi Hydroelectric

project and there are moves to remove it from

the protected areas list.

A bold and imaginative approach is called for

if we are to save the relics of the magnificent

wild life of this area. Perhaps a new sanctuary

could be constituted around the Supa dam by

incorporating areas from Nagargali, Jagalbet,

Supa and Dandeli ranges. All pockets of

cultivation from this sanctuary should be

shifted by taking advantage of the resettlement

programmes for the submersion areas. Such a

sanctuary around the Supa lake could develop

into a great tourist attraction, and could save

at least some of the rich wild life of this area.

Crestline

To the south of the North Kanara forests the

Crestline of the Western Ghats rises to much

greater altitudes exceeding 2000 metres in places

(latitude 11°30'N to 14°N, longitude 74°15'

to 76°30'E). The hill ranges here are further

inland and narrower than in North Kanara.

The rainfall is very high, exceeding 6000 to

7000 mm in places. It is also the place of

origin of a number of important rivers like

Nethravathy, Tunga and Bhadra. To the west

of the Crestline, there are belts of evergreen

forest on the rather steep slopes. The

important genera of evergreen forest include

Dipterocarpus , Hopea and Poeciloneuron in the

northern parts and Viteria, Calophyllum and

Canarium in the southern parts. The semi-

evergreen and moist deciduous forests are

located mostly on the eastern slopes, while the

foot hills on the western face are characterised

by Terminalia, Tectona and Lagerstroemia.

Although the area harbours all the major wild

life species including elephant, gaur, sambar,

wild boar, spotted deer, wild dog, panther and

tiger, the only species to be seen in sizeable

numbers is the wild boar.

Elephant population

Only a few isolated groups of elephants are

found in these evergreen forests. This is

obviously a suboptimal habitat for elephants

and there are only four small herds of elephants

in this areas (see fig. 4).

Herd 1 : One or two elephants are reported

from the Meginevalley, Koilurghat, Nagavalli

areas (Kesava Vittal 1945). Elephants raid

crops occasionally in villages in Meginevalley

and Nagavalli. This area adjoins the range of

Herd No. 5 of North Kanara, but a hill range

1007

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Pb/. 75

7TT

TTST

area NO. 2. THE CREST LINE.

COON DA PUR |\

•13

-ROADS

-STATE boundary

\ ©HAOAHA^

V fVAl a V

—forest boundary \

j^r elephant present dsst. \

y—f FOREST AREA ^

RIVERS a STREAMS

: : ; cultivation fisiDE forest

715

ms' V R PET

MAKUtT

Fig. 4. Distribution of elephants along the Crestline of Western Ghats.

1008

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

forms a geographical barrier between them.

Recent sighting indicate the presence of a single

elephant only in this area.

Herd 2 : South of the area described above, a

small herd of 5-6 elephants is reported in the

ghat forests of Mudigere, Belthangadi and

Uppinangadi ranges. These elephants cause

serious damage to crops in villages like

Sathyaganahally, Guthyhally, Byrapura, and

Kumbharde. Repeated complaints from these

villagers, situated mostly deep inside forest has

forced the authorities to seek permission to

shoot these elephants.

Herd 3 : Further south there is another group

of elephants ranging in the ghat forests of

Bisle, Shiradi, Pushpagiri, Subramanya and

Sampaje. The number of elephants reported

is about 15 and they raid paddy and arecanut

gardens. The elephants seem to be in 2 groups,

the smaller one of 5-7 elephants moving in the

forests near Shiradi and the others in remaining

areas.

Herd 4 : This is the southernmost herd in

the western ghats proper of Karnataka. They

range over extensive evergreen forest areas of

Brahmagiri, Makut, Bhagamandala and some

parts of Sulya forest ranges. About 20 in

number, they raid crops of paddy, pineapple,

jack, plantain, arecanut and tapioca.

Discussion

Even though elephants are not frequently

found in evergreen forest in large numbers,

their great adaptability to different climates

and a very wide spectrum of food species

enables them to survive in these forests. Pro-

bably they have migrated to these areas from

the deciduous forests on either side of the ridge

when the latter areas were brought under

plough. Thus the evergreen forests which

earlier were only their summer resorts for water

and fodder which will be scarce in the drier

forests have become their permanent habitat

(Plate II).

Extensive crop raiding is indulged in by

the elephants of this area and it invariably

results in the killing of the pachyderms.

Establishment of villages in the cultivable

areas, deep inside the forest and the continued

release of land in the middle of the forest has

led to more and more crop raiding and the

consequent killing of the elephants (Plate III).

. Malnad

The Malnad area lies to the east of the Western

Ghats described above, separated from the

latter by a wide belt of coffee plantations and

cultivations. The area is relatively plain with

an elevation of 800 to 1400 metres from sea

level. The area extends from Aynur in the

north to Mudigere in the south between lati-

tudes 13°N and 14°15'N and longitudes 75°E

to 76°E with an annual rainfall of 1500 mm

to 800 mm. There are 3 main hill ranges,

namely the Shankar hills, Karadibetta and the

Bababudangiris. The rivers Tunga and Bhadra

flow along this area. This region includes the

Shettihally Wild Life Sanctuary and the Bhadra

Wild Life Sanctuary.

The vegetation of this tract is of tropical

moist deciduous and dry deciduous nature

with Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia lanceolata ,

Anogeissus latifolia , Xylia xylocarpa and Termi -

nalia tomentosa being the characteristic species.

The forest is fairly thick with an extensive

undergrowth of weeds and bamboo.

This region has one of the best wildlife con-

centrations in the state, harbouring populations

of elephants, gaur, sambar, spotted deer, wild

pig etc. The Bhadra Wild Life Sanctuary is

one of the few places in the state where one

could easily sight gaur. The anthropogenic

pressures over the area are much less and hence

the rich wild life of this area has remained

largely unmolested.

1009

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , kb/. 75

Elephant population

The presence of perennial rivers, reservoirs,

and plenty of bamboo, grass and other fodder

species in a moderate rainfall area makes this

region an ideal habitat for elephants. There

are five groups of elephants in this area (see

fig. 5).

Herd 1 : This comprises 2 or 3 elephants,

which often raid crops in different villages in

the Anandapuram, Rippenpet and Aynur

forest ranges. The recent killings of 2-3 people

by these elephants has given them much

notoriety. Human disturbance causes them to

move over extensive areas, coming more

and more in contact with villages and cultivation.

Herd 2 : Forests in the range of Sacrebyle had

a large population of elephants before the

construction of the Tunga reservoir, but har-

bour only about 5 elephants now. The clear-

ing of vast areas of forest both from submer-

sion and for rehabilitation has brought the

elephants in conflict with human settlements

everywhere. Because of persistent complaints

of crop raiding the authorities are contem-

plating capturing the elephants. The elephants

sometimes cross the river and destroy crops in

some parts of Umblebyle range also.

Herd 3 : This is a large population of ele-

phants, further divided into two groups most

of the year by the backwaters of the Bhadra

reservoir and steep hills with plantations of

coffee. Construction of the Tunga reservoir

has already isolated herd No. 2 from this herd.

The first group, about fifteen in number stays

in the forests of Lakkavally range, sometimes

crossing into the forests and villages of N.R.

Pura forest range doing occasional damage to

crops. Some attempt was made to capture a

few of these elephants but it is reported that

none of the captured elephants survived in

captivity.

The second group is the largest of all the

herds considered so far and consists of a breed-

ing population of about 30 to 40 elephants

moving mostly in the forests of Bhadra Wild

Life Sanctuary. Excepting occasional damage

done to the villages deep inside the forest and

one or two peripheral villages the problem of

crop raiding is not severe in case of this herd.

Herd 4 : In addition to these, elephants are

occasionally seen in parts of Balehonnur and

deciduous forests of Mudigere and Kalsa forest

ranges numbering not more than 10 in all.

One of these elephants was accidentally electro-

cuted last year while raiding crops.

Herd 5 : The few elephants seen in the dry

deciduous forests of Hassan range also may be

included along with the Malnad areas.

Discussion

The dry and moist deciduous vegetation,

with a number of fodder species and perennial

water sources make this area an ideal habitat for

elephants. Even though the area is now very

much fragmented, most of the habitats are

still large enough to support small populations.

It is quite possible to protect elephants of herd

No. 3 with some effort because the villages inside

its range are few and other anthropogenic

disturbances are at a minimum.

Mysore Plateau

This area, between latitude 11°35'N and

12°45'N, and longitude 75°45'E and 77°E

lies on the eastern side of the Western Ghats,

adjoining the forests of Kerala and Tamil

Nadu. The region is mostly plains, with rain-

fall ranging from 1000 mm to 600 mm. The

vegetation is dry and moist deciduous con-

sisting mainly of teak, Anogeissus latifolia ,

Terminalia and Lagerstroemia species and

bamboos. Rivers Kabini and Cauvery flow along

this area. This region includes the Bandipur

National Park and Nagarhole Wild Life

Sanctuary.

1010

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

'to

o

to

'7S 1 30'

AREA NO. 3. THE MALNAD

76' 100

TIRTHAH

KMS

V)

BALEHONNUR ,

DN.B0UN0ARY 4fr ‘Vita. \ * _

^.fLDUR V-V

\ __ ^ > <

/'“"'(7-eEUJR \

V ' - - hassan

ftOWGERt

<

> / '

FOREST BOUNDARY

ROADS

RIVERS & STREAMS \ i

ELEPHANT OIST. P&ESEN’K'

: - DO - PAST f

[RESERVOIRS ,

[CULTIVATION INSIDE FOREST \

75’ |30'

76 P

Fig. 5. Distribution of elephants in Malnad area.

1011

I3|0tf I3‘|3<> 14 |QO

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

The area has perhaps the best wild life con- phants. Fodder and water is not uniformly

centration in South India, harbouring large available, but if the elephants are able to migrate

herds of elephant, spotted deer, wild pig, wild to wetter areas in summer, it would not become

dog, hanuman langur, and in some parts gaur, a limiting factor. For fuller details see Nair

sambar, and occasionally tiger and other cats, et al. (1977).

Elephant population

About five elephants that are reported around

forests of Somavarpet — in Maldare and Dubare

state forests are more or less isolated from the

rest of the population which has a continuous

range in an extensive forest. The elephant

population of this region cannot be described in

herds for their ranges overlap and it is difficult

to identify the individual herds (see figure 6).

There was a large concentration of elephants

along the Kalkare, Begur, Bandipur and

Mudumalai area during the rainy season when a

survey was conducted in 1975. Migration of

elephants from the wetter areas of Coorg,

Wynaad and Benne during the monsoon to these

drier tracts is responsible for this. The total

number of elephants in the Bandipur-

Mudumalai area was estimated around one

thousand and that in the remaining Nagarhole

areas around three hundred. There does not

seem to be any notable disparity in the sex

ratio (Plate IV).

Discussion

Here, too, the elephant habitat has been

continuously shrinking. The destruction of

Pulpally forests of Kerala is probably the reason

for the high density of elephants in Gundre and

Begur areas. If this trend is continued it would

result in further overcrowding of the elephants.

There are problems arising from crop raiding

in most of the peripheral villages. There is

occasional poaching of larger mammals in this

area especially in the north-western parts. The

construction of the Kabini reservoir has created

a geographical barrier for movement of ele-

Kollegal Hills

This area, lying between 11°30' and 13°N

latitude and 77° 15' and 77°45'E longitude,

extending from the Nilgiris to Bangalore is a

Western spur of the Eastern Ghats. This dis-

continuous chain of hills harbours mostly dry

deciduous and scrub forest. The rainfall is

around 500 mm except on the high BRT hills

where it is nearly 1000 mm. The dominant

tree genera are Anogeissus , Ficus, Acacia,

Grewia and Sant alum.

Almost all the major wild life species like

sambar, spotted deer, gaur and wild boar occur

in this area only in small numbers and hence the

elephant becomes the prominent species.

Elephant population

This extensive forest is continuous with the

Sathyamangalam areas of Tamil Nadu and

has innumerable villages all over the area.

Elephant herds are frequently sighted, but

an estimation of numbers is difficult because

of their seasonal migration and because of the

extensive range. A survey similar to that of

the Mysore plateau is necessary to arrive at an

approximate estimation. In any case the

number of elephants at any time does not

seem to exceed 200 in this area. There is fre-

quent crop raiding in many villages and a few

elephants get shot annually during this process

(see figure 7).

Discussion

This area can sustain a large population of

elephants because of the presence of the perennial

Cauvery river, many fodder species of trees and

1012

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Nair & Gadgil . Elephant population of Karnataka

Plate I

Above : Paddy cultivation in the middle of forest in North Kanara. Such fields are

subject to severe crop raiding by elephants.

fo : Manganese mining in North Kanara ; a major source of disturbance in elephant

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Nair & Gadgil : Elephant population of Karnataka

Plate II

Above : The grassy downs of Western Ghats in Karnataka are not a habitat favoured by

elephants.

Btlow : Dense evergreen vegetation on Charmadi hills. This is a suboptimal habitat for

elephant.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate III

Nair & Gadgil : Elephant population of Karnataka

Above : An arecanut garden in the middle of forest in South Kanara, The trees lying

on ground have been damaged by elephants.

Below : The Kerala-Karnataka border near Makut in Coorg. Hill slopes originally

covered by dense evergreen forest have now been put under cultivation on Kerala side.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate IV

Nair & Gadgil Elephant population of Karnataka

Above : A herd of elephants at a pond at Bandipur. This dry deciduous forest is near

optimal elephant habitat during the monsoon.

Below : A stump tailed male elephant at a pond at Bandipur. Such easily identifiable

animals could be followed to yield valuable data on elephant movements.

AREA N0.4.THE MYSORE PLATEAU

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

iTTiT

^ [ II

5

1013

Fig. 6. Distribution of elephants on the Mysore plateau.

pgj.gi I pOi.Zl

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

77 'IS' 1 TtU?

area NO. 5. KOL LEGAL HILLS.

BYLUR

TAMIL NADU

PALAR

— STATE BOUNDARY

FOREST BOUNDARY

ROADS

i tUt ELEPHANT DiST. PRESENT

RIVERS A STREAMS

CULTIVATION INSIDE

FOREST

77'|I5

HIM,

Fig. 7. Distribution of elephants on the Kollegal hills.

1014

121 00 12 130'

DISTRIBUTION OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS OF KARNATAKA

shrubs and the moist B.R. hills for migration

in summer.

Management

It is clear that even though Karnataka has

a good population of elephants their habitat is

mostly discontinuous and there is an urgent

need for protection of elephants and their habitat

to conserve the species. Four major factors

will play a crucial role in the conservation of

elephants in the coming days. They are

(1) overcrowding of elephant ranges, (2) con-

struction of hydroelectric or irrigation projects,

(3) crop raiding by elephants, (4) poaching.

Overcrowding :

With the rapid shrinkage of habitat, the

elephants are being forced into smaller and

smaller areas. Such areas consequently reach

very high densities of elephant populations.

The Bandipur National Park areas, for example,

now harbour almost 2 elephants per square

kilometre. Investigations on the African

elephant suggest that elephants are at an equili-

brium with their environment at much lower

densities of about 1 elephant per 5 square kilo-

metres (Fowler & Smith 1973). It is therefore

likely that the densities such as currently noticed

at Bandipur National Park may have serious

adverse consequences in the long range. The

situation obviously needs to be watched carefully.

Big projects :

The big projects consume vast areas of

forest. For rehabilitating the displaced people

from submersion areas further forest areas are

cleared. The Tunga and Bhadra Reservoirs

have divided a good population of elephants

into three or four fragments. The construc-

tion of the Kali hydroelectric project will have

its effects on the surviving elephants of herd

No. 1 of North Kanara. The Kabini reservoir

has rendered migration of elephants from

Nagerhole areas to Bandipur extremely difficult.

A hopeful sign, however, has been the timely

intervention in construction of a reservoir near

Mudumalai which has saved some of the best

elephant country in South India from going

under water.

Crop raiding :

Crop raiding and subsequent shooting forms

the major threat to the elephants on the Western

Ghats. This is the result of indiscriminate allot-

ment of wetter areas deep inside forest and

cultivation of the revenue forests or grazing

lands which used to form a buffer between wild

animals and cultivation. Almost all the herds

of elephants in Karnataka raid crops today

and to protect both the crops and elephants is

difficult. Rehabilitation of some of the villages

out of places with a good concentration of

elephants seems imperative if the elephant is

to be protected.

Poaching :

Poaching of elephants, though rare in the

areas under study, does occur in some parts

especially on the eastern side of Kollegal hills.

This if extensive could disturb the sex ratio and

have a very adverse effect on the populations.

The future :

Taking all factors into account, the fate of

the isolated small herds of North Kanara,

Crestline and Malnad areas seems sealed. There

seems to be little hope of saving them, and they

appear destined to be shot out one by one and

disappear, as many other herds have over the

past half century in these areas. There is

much more hope of conserving the population

of the Bhadra sanctuary area, of Nagarhole

and Bandipur sanctuaries and possibly of the

Kollegal hills. Even here the future depends

of preventing further shrinkage of areas and

encroachment by cultivation in the heart of

elephant forest. Even though everything is

1015

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

done for the maintenance of the integrity of generous co-operation this survey would not

the habitat, a certain amount of crop raiding

will inevitably continue. An effective scheme

for granting compensation for loss of crops will

therefore have to play an important role in the

future conservation of elephants of Karnataka.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of Karnataka

State Forest Department without whose

Refe:

Fowler, C. W. and Smith, T. (1973) : Characterizing

stable populations : an application to African elephant

population. J. Wildlife Management 37 (4) : 513-523.

Garland, E. A. (1935) : Revised working plan for

the Yellapur-Mundgod areas.

Kesava Vittal (1945) : Working plan for South

Kanara Division.

Korlhally, S. A. (1957) : Revised working plan for

the mixed teak forest blocks I to X and VIIA of Haliyal

taluka, North Kanara district.

have been possible. We were greatly en-

couraged in this work by World Wildlife Fund,

India, by the West Coast Paper Mills, the

Southern Indian Task Force on Elephants, and

the Asian Elephant Group of the Survival

Services Commission of the International Union

for the Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources. We are also grateful to our collea-

gues at the Indian Institute of Science for

help in the field and for stimulating discussions.

ENCES

Nair, S. S., Nair, P. V. K., Sharatchandra, H. C.

and Gadgil, M. (1977) : An ecological reconnaissance

of the proposed Jawahar National Park, /. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 74(3): 401-435.

Prasad, S. N., Nair, P. V. K., Sharatchandra, H. C.

and Gadgil, M. (1977) : A proposal for the consti-

tution of biosphere reserves for Karnataka, Technical

Report No. 6, Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore.

1016

THE STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED

MACAQUE {MAC AC A SILENUS)

J. Mangalraj Johnson1

( With three plates )

Introduction

In part fulfilment of a postgraduate Wildlife

Management course a dissertation work was

to be undertaken on a wildlife problem. It

was then suggested that I may work as a collo-

borator with Dr. Steven Green when his

research proposal on the Lion-tailed Macaque

was being evaluated. My dissertation on

Status, Ecology and Behaviour of Lion-tailed

Macaque was accepted by the faculty of the

Wildlife management course, Forest Research

Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun. The field

work lasted for 28 days : 8 days during

November 1973, 17 days in December 1973,

and 3 days in January 1974. General obser-

vations amounting to many more days were

made before and after this intensive study

period. Also a brief study was made on captive

specimens in the Delhi Zoo for about 2 weeks,

(see Table IX.)

The Nilgiri Langur Preshytis johni is per-

secuted for its blood and flesh, believed to be

a cure for asthma. The species has almost

been exterminated in localities where they

were once common. Similar property is sup-

posed to be possessed by the Lion-tailed

Macaque Macaca silenus also. Unlike the Nilgiri

Langur which is very fast moving and which

disappears at the sight of human beings, the

Lion-tailed Macaque is slow moving and can

be easily shot. The whitish grey ruff around

its face clearly reveals its movements even in

its shady and darkened habitat.

1 Wild Life Warden, Mundanthurai Sanctuary,

Shencottah-627 809, Tamil Nadu,

As these monkeys consume a varied vege-

tation, people believe that they choose, select

and eat only medicinal herbs and hence their

blood and flesh are a panacea ; ‘ Karunkurangu

Rasayanam ’ is a recognised preparation of the

Ayurvedic system of medicine. In Sanskrit

and Ayurvedic literature no distinction is made

between the Nilgiri langur and the Lion-tailed

Macaque. This study is an attempt to estimate

the existing population in Tamil Nadu and to

understand their food and ecological require-

ment to enable effective management in future.

Study area

For the intensive field study, a part of

Manjolai Estate where Green had been working

on vocalization etc. of the Lion-tailed Macaque

was chosen. The Bombay-Burma Trading

Corporation had taken the major portion of

the Shola Forests of Singampatti Forest (of

Tirunelveli South Division) for Tea, Coffee and

Cardamom Plantations.

The study area (8° 33.5'N, 77° 23'E, 1300 m.

above M.S.L.) is situated close to Manimuthar

river and consists of Evergreen Forests (Sholas),

Cardamom Fields, abandoned Coffee Planta-

tions with secondary growth and Red Gum

{Eucalyptus tereticornis) plantations. There are

trails, within the cardamom fields maintained

by the Estate and within the Forests made and

maintained by Dr. Green. The temporary log

bridges got washed away thrice during the period

of study.

During the study the Lion-tailed Macaque

was found in the following associations of the

1017

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FW. 75

West-Coast Tropical Evergreen Forest (Cham-

pion and Seth forest types of india 1968).

(see Table I.)

The Cullenia-Palaquium Association is the

most widespread, growing on deep well drained

soil occurring at 750 m to 1050 m. Sometimes

they occur in patches exhibiting the denser state

towards gregarious. This is the most favoured

and almost exclusive habitat of Lion-tailed

Macaque.

T. V. Iyer {Indian Forester , August 1932)

Volume LVIII (8) found the following tree

density per acre.

The Lion-tailed Macaque is endemic to this

region alongwith :

1 . The Nilgiri Langur Presbytis johni

(Fischer).

2. The Nilgiri Brown Mongoose Herpestes

fuscus Waterhouse

3. The Malabar Civet Viverra megaspila

civet tina Blyth

The avifauna seen in the macaque habitat

is given in the table II.

Table I

1018

MGN-tAtLBb MACAQUE ECOLOGY

The following are the Rainfall, Temperature

and Humidity particulars from records of

Manjolai Estate and collected during the

study.

The annual rainfall during 1972 and 1973

in the study area was 2982 mm and 3440 mm

respectively. The average rainfall for different

months in a year is given in the table III.

For this study the following categories of

Forests were recognised :

more in October than in February. The

difference between the insect population during

the month of October and February was so

high (Fig. 4) that even though the migratory

birds were present during the former month,

the actual number of insects available to the

local birds might be higher during this period.

Also, it was found (Vijayan, in preparation)

that P. cafer feeds its chicks more with animal

food than vegetable, hence the higher clutch

size of P. cafer in October is correlated with

the abundance of food available for the young.

In the case of P. luteolus the average clutch

size is comparatively higher in February than

in October. From the food of the nestlings it

was found that they were fed more with fruits

than insects (Vijayan, in preparation). In

February the ripe Sahadora persica fruits were

the most abundant, and an analysis of the

dried fruits of Salvadora (Fry et al. 1970)

has shown that they are very rich in readily

assimilable fructose and sucrose (82.5%).

Also during February, though the actual frui-

ting is less than that in October, the fruit

available to the local birds might be many times

more because of the general decrease in the

bird population due to the exodus of many

of the migratory species. The difference bet-

ween the abundance of fruit during the month

of October and February was not very high

(Fig. 4) so the presence of migratory birds

during October would certainly affect the

quantity of fruits available to the local birds.

Significance of the clutch size :

Clutch size is characteristic of each species

and in nidicolous birds it has been evolved

through natural selection to correspond with

the largest number of young for which the

parent can, on the average, provide enough

food (Lack 1954, 1966, 1968 and also 1947

and 1948). Earlier Moreau (1944) had sug-

gested with reference to African birds that

‘ availability of food for the chicks is almost

irrelevant ; at most it would fix an upper limit

to the brood that could be reared and con-

ceivably, by adaptation, an upper limit to the

size of the clutch’. Skutch (1949) contends

that tropical birds do not raise as many young

as they can. According to him there is an

innate rhythm in food-bringing in the parents,

and the rate of food-bringing is increased when

they find the chicks are more hungry due to

a large interval or when an additional chick is

placed in the nest. Ricklefs (1970) suggests

that clutch-size is an outcome of opposing

predator and prey adaptations.

While accepting Lack’s hypothesis (Lack

1954) that the clutch size is a heriditary charac-

teristic of each species and has evolved through

natural selection to correspond with the largest

number of young for which the parent can,

on the average, provide enough food, the

following points are noted as important, at

least for the cup-shaped nesters in the tropics

where predation is extremely high.

Clutch size has evolved through natural selection

to correspond with the largest number of chicks

the nest can support.

Explanation :

As described above, the nest of P. luteolus

is very shallow when compared to P. cafer' s

and is constructed and suspended in such a way

that it cannot support the weight of more than

two chicks. The instances where chicks fell

from the nests as they grew older support this

assumption. On two occasions the chicks fell

down thus, when they were more than 7 days

old.

1108

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BULBULS

In P. cafer three grown chicks completely

fill the nest and there is no room for another ;

the nestlings are rather uncomfortable inside

the nest even when there are only three.

The question why these two species of bulbul

cannot make bigger nests and lay larger clutches

does not arise. The two species have the habit

(described above) of covering the nest with the

wings during rain. This is possible only if

the diameter of the nest is shorter than the

wing span. These facts suggest that the nest

size is correlated with the size of the bird

(applicable perhaps only to the cup-shaped

nesters).

Clutch size has evolved through natural selection

to correspond with the largest number of chicks

the parent can effectively feed, minimizing the

chances of betraying the nest to a predator.

Explanation :

It is strongly suggested here that in the

evolution of the clutch size in these two bulbuls,

predation has had a paramount role. Natural

selection prevents laying larger number of eggs,

as it involves greater activities of the parents

around the nest when there are more chicks

and thus attracting predators. This is

especially so when the nests are placed at the

periphery of the bushes. The nesting success

of these two bulbuls shows that the smaller the

clutch the lesser the danger from predators

and thus the greater the nesting success. Skutch

had earlier (1949) maintained this view for the

evolution of smaller clutch size in tropical birds

compared to temperate birds.

Incubation and nestling period :

/

Much data on these aspects could not be

collected because of the severe predation on

eggs and chicks in the Point Calimere area.

However, the following features are recorded i

In P. cafer regular incubation commences

usually after the laying of the second egg.

The first egg is left unattended, but the parents

visit the nest occasionally and at night roost

on the same bush but they never incubate the

first egg on the first night. Usually the

female does the actual incubation, while all the

other duties are attended to by both the parents.

Dixit (1963) in Baroda noted that both parents

incubate the egg. However, during the course

of this study no male with incubation patch

was noted in the netted population, and a colour

marked pair also substantiated this observation.

Incubation period is considered, as defined by

Nice (1954) and Skutch (1945), to be the period

from the laying of the last egg of a clutch to

the hatching of the last nestling. This period

in both P. cafer and P. luteolus is 1 1 days (only

one case in each species observed). Marchant

(1963) has recorded the same period for P.

leucotis. Salim Ali and Ripley (1971) have

recorded the incubation period for P. cafer

as approximately 14 days. The hatching is

asynchronous in both species. The nestling

period is 12 days in P. cafer (one case). Average

nestling period of three broods of P. luteolus

was 10 days (9-11 days). Unhatched eggs in

both species remained in the nest even after

the chicks had fledged.

There is an interesting correlation between

the growth rate of the nestling of P. cafer and

that of P. luteolus. Though there are only two

chicks in P. luteolus , the increase in the average

weight of the chicks per day during the first

6 days is more or less the same as in P. cafer

where there are 3 chicks. However, the pattern

of growth changes after the 6th day as the nest-

ling P. luteolus grows faster than P. cafer (Fig. 6).

Ricklefs (1968) has postulated that in tropical

land birds slow growing species have two eggs

in a clutch, whereas more rapidly growing

species have 3 to 5 eggs. However, this is

not borne out by the present limited data.

11

1109

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 75

Age in days

iVbte ; In P. luteolus the weight is average of 2 chicks.

In P. cafer the weight is average of 3 chicks.

Fig. 6. Growth rate of nestling of P. cafer and P. luteolus. (Chicks hatched within a difference of one day ;

both nests from the same place.)

Breeding success :

The breeding success of P. cafer and P. luteolus

at Point Calimere appeared to be exceptionally

low. For a period of 16 months, out of the

134 eggs laid by P. cafer only 11 (8.3%), and

out of 114 eggs laid byP. luteolus only 15(13.2%)

nestlings fledged (Table 13). Few studies

have been done in India on the nesting success

of passerine open nesters ; therefore a com-

parison with other areas is difficult. Salim Ali

(1930) notes that out of 6 nests of P. cafer under

his observation none produced a fledgling that

1110

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BULBULS

Table 13

Breeding success of P. cafer and P. luteolus from October, 1972 to February 1974

Total Egg % egg % fledged % fledged

egg laid hatched hatched Fledged from hatched from total

from laid eggs laid

P. cafer . . 134 48 36.4 11 23 8.3

P. luteolus .. 114 34 29.8 15 44 13.2

flew. Skutch (1966) reports that in the tropical

Central American lowlands the nesting success

is 23.5% in the nests found in the forest and

37 % in the clearings and secondary growth.

A correlation between the nesting success

and the denseness of the vegetation cover was

recorded. According to season the thickness

of the vegetation can be divided into three

categories. August to September : after the

summer heat the vegetation becomes green, most

of the deciduous plants sprouting new leaves ;

so the vegetative cover during this period is

neither dense nor open. October to December,

dense cover ; January to March, the actual

breeding period is February, when most of the

deciduous plants have shed their leaves and

the vegetation looks very dry ; the cover then

is sparse. The nesting success was the highest

in both species when the cover was densest

(Tables 14 & 15). Between January and March

the nesting success in P. cafer was nil and in

P. luteolus it was negligibly small, viz. 3.8%.

In August /September a total of 4 eggs of P.

luteolus was under observation of which none

hatched, whereas from 34 eggs of P. cafer 3

hatched and fledged.

Hatching success :

Hatching success depends mainly on two

factors ; hatching failure and egg loss. The

former might be due to infertility of eggs or

the death of the embryo — very rare in both

species of bulbul. However, P. cafer suffered

a comparatively high percentage of hatching

failure, which occurred mainly during the dry

season when the cover was less dense and the

food — especially insects — -comparatively scarce.

The high percentage of hatching failure may be

due to inefficient incubation during this period,

caused by the parent having to spend much

time in search of food. Murton (1966) relates

the low hatching success in wood pigeon to the

same reason. Egg loss was higher in P. luteolus

than in P. cafer , and was extremely heavy in the

dry season when the cover was less dense

(Tables 16 & 17). Most of the egg loss in

both species was due to predation. The high

predation on the eggs of P. luteolus during

February is attributed to the cover factor.

Since cover was very sparse, the nests were

more vulnerable to predators, and more so

when situated at the periphery of the bushes.

The egg loss in P. cafer was the same both

during the period when the cover was dense

and when it was less dense.

Fledging success :

The fledging success was higher in P. luteolus

than in P. cafer (Tables 18 & 19). In both the

species there is a striking difference in the nesting

success between the wet and dry season. This

difference is significant statistically too as calcu-

lated students’ value of t = 3.723 with 32 degrees

of freedom in the case of P. luteolus and as

calculated students’ value of t^= 2.489 with 43

degrees of freedom in the case of P. cafer.

Both the values are statistically significant.

The success of fledging depends on nestling

mi

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 14

Nesting success of P. luteolus

1112

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BULBULS

Table 18

Nestling success in P. luteolus

fell down during heavy rain and gale, the

attachment of the nest on the twig being feeble.

Of the two nestling deaths observed in P. cafer

one is presumed to be due to starvation. In

this case two out of the three nestlings were

missing, and had most probably flown and one

was found dead in the nest. The dead one

was the youngest among the chicks due to

asynchronous hatching and it is presumed

here, that it received less food while competing

with the elder ones. It was only 17.5 gms

in weight while the other two were 23 gms

on the last observation, two days earlier. In

nestling swifts starvation has been noted to be

the major cause of death (Lack, D. and Lack,

E. 1951). High starvation deaths are reported

in S, W. Ecuadorian birds (Marchant 1960).

nest ; the second chick and unhatched egg were

missing.

However, predation is the major cause of

nestling loss in P. cafer as well as P. luteolus

(Table 20). Predation on nestlings is higher

during the dry season than in the wet. Here

again vegetation cover is the most important

factor. The high predation on the chicks of

chaffinch is attributed to the thinness of cover

(Newton 1964) and it is found to be so in the

case of greenfinch (Monk 1954). The frequent

visits of the parents to the nest for feeding is

another major factor which can cause heavy

predation ; and this is more so in P. cafer which

has three chicks to feed than in P. luteolus ,

which has two. Young (1963) attributed the

frequent visits of parent birds to nest, as one of

1113

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 20

Mode of nestling loss

the major factors which caused the high nestling

loss he found in Redwinged Blackbirds. Skutch

(1949) opines that tropical passerines have

smaller clutches as an adaptation to reduce

the increased activity of the parents during the

nestling period.

The major predators at Point Calimere :

It is difficult to see the actual predation of

eggs and chicks and most of the conclusions

in this respect in the present study as in pub-

lished literature (Lack 1954, Skutch 1966)

are inferential, based on circumstantial evidence.

However, in the present study, a few instances

of predation were directly witnessed. The

mongoose ( Herpestes edwardsi ) seemed to be

the greatest single cause of nestling loss in

the study area. Snakes though seen were rare,

but they undoubtedly purloined a good

number of eggs. One was seen emptying

a nest, while another was noticed climbing up

on a nesting plant, but it was unsuccessful as

a crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis , filched the

eggs before the snake could reach the nest.

The important bird predators were Centropus

sinensis and Dendrocitta vagabunda. The

former was seen eating the chicks. There is

no direct evidence against Dendrocitta vaga-

bunda, but it was noticed several times being

phased away from the nesting area by P. cafer.

Spilornis cheela was once observed eating the

chicks of Aegithina tiphia. Eudynamys scolopacea

though common during October/November was

not seen robbing the nests ; but Salim Ali (1930

and pers. commu.) has observed them swallowing

bulbul’s eggs. Calotes lizards were neither

seen stealing the eggs, nor was there any

reason to suspect so, since the incubating

bird was never provoked by the appearance

of a Calotes near the nest. However, Salim Ali

(1930) reports that one of the clutches of P.

cafer in Kihim appeared to have been preyed

on by Calotes. Pereira (1961) reports

Calotes attempting to take entangled Erithacus

svecicus and Ploceus philippinus from mist nets.

Some cases of predation are difficult to explain.

For instance, in a clutch of three eggs of P. cafer

the eggs hatched asynchronously. The first

chick disappeared soon after hatching, leaving

the other two eggs in the nest ; the second

disappeared as it hatched leaving the third

egg in the nest. This egg disappeared after

two days. In another instance, in the nest of

a P. luteolus, the egg shells were found intact

in the nest, having a very small hole on one

side ; the predator must have sucked the con-

tents. A similar case is reported by Murton

(1958) in wood pigeon and he mentions that

Corvids are notorious for sucking the eggs of

many birds in this way.

1114

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BULBULS

Adaptation of P . cafer and P. luteolus against

predators :

Nesting at the periphery by P. luteolus is an

adaptation to reduce predation although the

loss of eggs was greater in this species. It would

be expected that these species which nest at the

centre of bushes have a better nesting success,

but it was found not to be so in this study.

Closer observation showed that mongoose,

the principal predator in this area, found it

hard to reach nests on the periphery of bushes.

Also the bird predators like Centropus sinensis

and Dendrocitta vagabunda often preferred to

have a steady perch for feeding. In the case

of P. luteolus nests, these birds would have

to hover over the nest to get at the contents,

and such an action was not seen.

Passage to and from the nest : If one side of

the nesting bush is open and the other covered,

the parent bird enters the nest through covered

area. This is invariably so with P. luteolus

while incubating. But they leave the nest from

the open side. This behaviour reduces the

chances of the predator in detecting the nest by

following the parent bird.

Smaller clutch size is considered to be an

adaptation for reducing the chances of

predation.

Broken-wing tactics : Often when the nest

of P. cafer was approached both parents raised

a hue and cry and one of them practically fell

to the ground, scrambling forward with apparent

difficulty, beating wings and giving distress calls.

If the purpose of this behaviour is to distract

the attention from the chicks, the ruse was

successful in one case where the chicks flew

away while the observer was watching this

behaviour. This behaviour has been reported

in P. leucogenys leucotis by Cumming (1903)

and in P. jocosus by Aitken (1903). The latter

reports that the bird employed this tactic even

when crows approached the nest.

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of a study I conducted on

the ecological isolation in bulbuls at Point

Calimere for my Ph.D. Thesis on the Ecology

of bulbuls (1976). I am greatly indebted to

Dr. Salim Ali who was not only my supervisor

but was a constant source of inspiration. His

advice and criticism were invaluable.

I am grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel (Curator,

Bombay Natural History Society) who took

a steady interest in the project and was extremely

helpful to me at all stages of study, particularly

while preparing the manuscript. The problem

was first suggested to me by Dr. Robert B.

Grubh (Assistant Curator), whose unfailing

co-operation is gratefully appreciated. I had

the benefit of having several discussions on

various problems related to the project with

Dr. R. M. Naik (Head of the Division of

Avian Biology, M. S. University of Baroda).

The statistical analysis was done with the

help of Mr. Balakrishnan Asan (Asst. Professor

of Statistics, Kerala Agricultural University).

This study would not have been possible

without the co-operation of Tamil Nadu Forest

Department and the particular interest shown

by the Chief Conservator of Forest, Mr. Bhoja

Shetty.

I am grateful to the Bombay Natural History

Society for providing me the financial assistance

through the Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Orni-

thological Research Fund.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

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/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14 : 163.

Ali, Salim (1930) : Casualties among the eggs and

young of small birds. J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 34 :

1062-1067.

and Ambedkar, V. C. (1957) : Further

notes on the Baya Weaver bird Ploceus philippinus

(Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 491-502.

and Ripley, S. D. (1971) : Handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 6. Oxford Uni-

versity Press, Bombay.

Ambedkar, V. C. (1958) : Notes on Baya : breeding

season 1957. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 55 : 100-106.

Bailey, R. E. (1952) : The incubation patch of pas-

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Baker, E. C. Stuart (1932) : The Nidification of

Birds of the Indian Empire, Volume 1. Taylor &

Francis, London.

Barnes, H. E. (1889) : Nesting in Western India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 4 : 248-252.

Betham, R. K. (1897) : Nesting of the Whitebrowed

Bush Bulbul ( Pycnonotus luteolus ) in Guzerat. ibid.,

11 : 316-317.

Blanford, W. T. and Oates, E. W. (1863) : The

Fauna of British India. Volume 1. Taylor and Francis,

London.

Blasco, F. and Legris, P. (1973) : Dry evergreen

forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 70 : 279-294.

Champion, H. G. (1936) : A Preliminary Survey of the

forest types in India and Burma. Indian Forest

Records. Volume 1. Manager of Publications, Delhi.

Cumming, W. D. (1903) : Artifices practiced by

bulbuls. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14 : 611-612.

Daniel, J. C. (1968) : The Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Madras State — May 1967. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc •

64 : 512-523.

Darwin, Charles (1859) : The Origin of Species,

by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of

Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here cited

from 1902 ; reprint of the 6th edition. John Murray,

London.

Dixit, D. (1963) : Notes on a case of redvented bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) nesting indoors. Pavo,

1 : 19-31.

Dutt, N. B. (1932) : Bulbuls in Calcutta and its

suburbs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 895-896.

Elton, C. S. (1927) : Animal Ecology (London).

* not consulted in original.

Fry, C. H., Ash, J. S. and Ferguson-Lees, I. J.

(1970) : Spring weights of some Pala. arctic migrants

at Lake Chad. Ibis, 112 : 58-82.

Gaston, A. J. (1973) : The ecology and behaviour

of Longtailed Tit. Ibis, 115 : 330-351.

*Gause, G. F. (1934) : The Struggle for Existence

(Baltimore).

Gibb, John (1950) : The breeding biology of the

Great and Blue Titmices. Ibis 92 : 507-539.

Grubh, B. R. (1974) : The Ecology and Behaviour of

Vultures in Gir Forest. Ph.D. thesis. University of

Bombay.

Hume, A. O. and Oates, E. W. (1889) : The

nests and eggs of Indian bir s. R. H. Porter, London.

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nesting of some birds around Delhi. Ibis, 89 : 569-576.

Jerdon, T. C. (1863) : The birds of India. Vol. II,

Part 1. Published by the Author, Calcutta.

*Lack, David (1947) : Darwins Finches. (Cambridge).

(1947-1948) : The significance of clutch

size. Ibis, 89 : 302-352. Ibis 90 : 25-45.

(1950a) : Breeding seasons in Galapagos.

Ibis , 92 : 268-278.

(1950b) : Th- breeding seasons of European

birds. Ibis, 92: 288-316.

(1954) : The Natural Regulation of Animal

Numbers. Oxford.

(1966) : Population Studies of Birds.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

(1968) : Ecological Adaptations for Breeding

in Birds. Mat' uen & Co. Ltd., London.

(1971) : Ecological Isolation in Birds.

Blackwell Scientific Publications.

and Lack, E. (1951) : The breeding biology of

Swift ( Apus apus). Ibis , 93 : 501-546.

(1958) : The nesting of the Long-tailed Tit.

Bird Study 5 : 1-19.

and Silva, E. (1949) : The weight of nestling

Robins. Ibis 91 : 64-78.

Lamba, B. S. (1968) : Wire nests of Redvented Bulbul

( Pycnonotus cafer L.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 :.

222.

Lockie, J. D. (1955) : The breeding and feeding of

Jackdaws and Rooks with notes on Carrion Crows

and other Corvidae. Ibis, 97 : 341-369.

Marchant, S. (1960) : The breeding of some S.W.

Ecuadorian birds. Ibis 102 : 349-382 ; 584-599.

(1963) : The breeding of some Iraqui birds.

Ibis 105 : 516-517.

1116

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BULBULS

Matthews, W. H. (1919) : Different birds nesting in

company. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 853.

McCann, M. (1931) : Notes on the nesting habits of

the Redvented bulbul ( Molpastus cafer). ibid., 35 :

680-681.

Monk, J. F. (1954) : The breeding biology of the

Greenfinch. Bird Study , 1 : 2-14.

Moreau, R. E. (1944) : Clutch-size : a comparative

study with special reference to African birds. Ibis, 86 :

286-347.

(1950) : The breeding seasons of the

African birds. 1. Land birds. Ibis, 92: 223-267.

Murton, R. K. (1958) : The breeding of Wood

Pigeon populations. Bird Study , 5 : 157-183.

(1966) : Natural selection and the breeding

seasons of the Stock Dove and Wood Pigeon. Bird

Study, 13 : 311-327.

Newton, I. (1964) : The breeding biology of

Chaffinch. Bird Study, 2 : 47-68.

Nice, M. M. (1954) : The problems of incubation

period in North American birds. Condor , 56 : 173-197.

Pereira, M. J. (1961) : The Common Blood Sucker

Lizard ( Calotes versicolor Daudin) as predator of birds.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 : 527.

Ricklefs, R. E. (1968) : Patterns of growth in birds*

Ibis , 110 : 419-451.

(1970) : Clutch-size in birds : outcome of

opposing predator and prey adaptations. Science

168 : 599-600.

Skutch, A. F. (1945) : Incubation and nestling

period uf Central American birds. Auk, 62 : 8-37.

(1949) : Do tropical birds rear as many young

as they can nourish ? Ibis, 91 : 430-455.

(1950) : The nesting seasons of Central

American birds in relation to climate and food supply.

Ibis , 92 : 185-222.

(1951): Congeneric species of birds nesting

together in Central America. Condor, 53 : 3-15.

(1965) : Life history of the Long-tailed Silky

Flycatcher with notes on related species. Auk, 82 :

375-426.

(1966) : A breeding census and nesting success

in Central America. Ibis, 108 : 1-16.

Thomson, A. L. (1950) : Factors determining the

breeding seasons of birds : An introductory review.

Ibis, 92 : 173-184.

Torth, E. E. (1902) : A Pied Crested Cuckoo's egg

(Coccystes jacobinus ) found in the nest of Bengal

Redvented Bulbul ( Molpastes benghalensis). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 14 : 172.

Vijayan, V. S. (1976) : Ecology of Bulbuls. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Bombay.

Vincent, A. W. (1946-1949) : On the breeding habits

of some African birds. Ibis, 88-91 (seriatim).

Voous, K. H. (1950) : The breeding seasons of birds

in Indonesia. Ibis, 92 : 279-287.

Whistler, Hugh (1928) : Popular Handbook of

Indian Birds. Gurney and Jackson, London.

Young, Howard (1963) : Age-specific mortality in

the eggs and nestlings of Black Bird. Auk. 80 : 145-155

1117

BREEDING SEASON IN A TROPICAL POPULATION OF THE

HOUSE SPARROW1

R. M. Naik2 and Lalit Mistry3

(1 With ten text-figures)

Introduction

The House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Lin-

naeus) is of near cosmopolitan distribution.

It is found throughout Europe, North Africa,

Egypt, Sudan, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia,

Northern Manchuria, Northern Mongolia,

Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Burma. It is

introduced in North America, Australia,

New Zealand, South Africa, Chile and else-

where. Summers-Smith (1967) has given an

interesting account of the dispersal of the genus

Passer. Passer for its dispersal seems to have

followed the trail of man, so that, like man,

it occupies a wide variety of habitats at present.

Several scientific reports on biology of the

house sparrow and the other species of Passer

have appeared from Europe and North America.

After the initiation of world-wide studies of

granivorous birds in 1965 under the auspices of

the PT (Productivity Terrestrial) section of

the International Biological Programme, the

research out-put on Passer , particularly P.

domesticus and P. montanus has increased. A

news-letter on 4 International Studies on

Sparrows ’ published from the Polish Academy

of Sciences since 1967, provides useful informa-

tion on the research activities of numerous

workers actively engaged in researches on the

1 Dedicated to Dr. Salim Ali on occasion of his

81st birthday.

2 Present address : Dept, of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University, Rajkot-360 005, India.

3 Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science,

M.S. University of Baroda, Baroda-390 002, India.

granivorous birds, and has published a compre-

hensive bibliography on Passer. Recent re-

searches on the House Sparrow in North

America are summarized in a series of papers

organized in a monograph published recently

(Kendeigh 1973). Some results of the studies

on several granivorous bird populations in

different parts of the world, made during the

tenure of PT section of the International Bio-

logical Programme, have been published in

a volume on the productivity, population

dynamics and systematics of granivorous birds

(Kendeigh and Pinowski 1972). While several

populations of the House Sparrow in the tem-

perate regions have been well studied, the

tropical populations of this species have been

barely touched. Our knowledge of the popu-

lations in the Oriental region is scanty ; some

information on general biology and habits of

the species collected by naturalists is sum-

marized in several bird books, some of them

covering the avifauna of certain specific regions

of India (Ali 1945, 1953 and 1972 ; Whistler

and Kinnear 1949).

Our studies formed a part of the International

Biological Programme (PT section). The

ultimate objective of the studies is to estimate

the seasonal and annual changes in the repro-

ductive rate of our sparrows. A preliminary

report of the studies has been published earlier

(Naik and Mistry 1972). A part of the studies

has been reviewed briefly by Naik (1974). This

paper on the breeding season of the house

sparrow, is a part of the detailed report of our

1118

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

five-year studies ; the other parts will be

published elsewhere.

Reproduction in birds is a continuous chain

of events from the nest-building, copulation,

ovulation and oviposition to the fledging of the

young. This chain of events, once started,

occurs at the species specific speed and can

neither be staggered nor speeded up, but it

must at the same time ensure a high survival

rate for the brood (Immelmann 1971). The

timing of the start of this chain of events is,

therefore, most crucial for a bird population

and is controlled by a most intricate mechanism.

The oviposition of the first egg in a clutch, that

is the starting of a clutch, is the earliest event

of avian reproduction that can be conveniently

recorded with a great degree of precision. In

the ornithological literature, the starting of a

fresh clutch of eggs is referred to as breeding and

the period during which the fresh clutches are

usually started in a population, is referred to

as breeding season.

The population of house sparrow whose

breeding season is described here, belongs to

the subspecies indicus. This subspecies has

the most extensive range among the three sub-

species of Passer domesticus in India (Ali and

Ripley 1974). Our population of the House

Sparrow is strictly sedentary and breeds in loose

colonies located in buildings. The sparrows

visit their breeding colonies throughout the

year — at all times of the day when they are

nesting and only in the morning when they are

not nesting. Within the colony, a nesting pair

of sparrows often defends more than one

nesting site, even though it breeds at one site

at a time.

Materials and Methods

One hundred nest-boxes were made available

to the sparrows for breeding. The boxes

were numbered and nailed to the wall, about

3 metres off the floor, in the verandahs or lobbies

of the first and second floors of several buildings

mainly in the university campus. The contents

of the boxes were checked every fifth day

during 1969 and 1973, and every day during

1970 to 1972. During every checking visit

to a box, contents were recorded and the eggs

were marked with Indian ink.

Precise and approximate dates of nesting events :

During 1970 to 1972, the nests were checked

every morning so that timings of breeding

in each nest-box were known precisely. In 1969

and 1973, the boxes were checked every fifth

day. During these years, the dates of breeding

in a nest-box could be approximated, when

required, as follows. The sparrows usually

lay 3 to 4 eggs in a clutch and the interval

between the laying of successive eggs is about

24 hours. When the fresh eggs are found in

a box on a day of nest-checking, the number of

fresh eggs gives a clue as to how many days

before checking the clutch might have been

started.

Complete and incomplete clutches :

Occasionally a sparrow lays a clutch of one

egg. Such a clutch may be an * incomplete *

clutch, but, it may be incubated by the parent

and it may even produce a fledgling. For this

reason, we have considered all clutches alike

and have made no distinction between small

and big clutches.

6 Early 9 and fi late ’ broods :

In a multi-brooded species, such as the

house sparrow, it is desirable to separate the

early broods of the breeding pairs from the later

broods. In the Baroda population, the breeding

occurred almost throughout the year, a breeding

pair often changed the next-box between succes-

sive breeding, and the broods of individual

females, in most cases, could not be arranged in

a chronological order. We, therefore, assigned

the broods studied by us to different months.

The broods were assigned to a particular month

1119

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 75

by using the following procedure. The entire

study period was divided into successive 5-day

periods. The clutches which were started

during a 5-day period were presumed, for the

present purpose, to have started on the last

day of that (5-day) period. On this basis,

for example, the clutches laid between 31st

January and 4th February 1969 were lumped

with other clutches of February 1969.

Breeding of individually marked birds :

A limited number of females ringed with

combinations of coloured rings and serially

numbered aluminium rings, were watched and

all their breeding attempts were carefully

recorded.

Study Area

Baroda (Long. 73° 13'E, Lat. 22° 18'N)

is about 31 to 40 metres above sea level and is

surrounded by flat country. The campus of the

M.S. University of Baroda, where these studies

were carried out, is located on the outskirts of

Baroda. The campus is interspersed with

gardens, sports fields and patches of unused

land and is surrounded by residential areas and

shopping centres. There is also some farmland

close to the study area.

Climate in Study Area

The following description of the weather

during our study period (1969-1973) is based

on the meteorological data collected by the

meteorological observatory of M. S. University,

Baroda.

Summer (February to May) :

(1) February : February is a transitional

period between the winter and summer. To

a limited extent it is comparable to the spring

in the temperate region. The daily range in

temperature was large. The days were warm ;

the maximum daily temperature ranged from

about 22° to 39°C. The nights were cool,

the daily minimum temperature ranged from

about 6° to 22°C. Cloudy weather prevailed

occasionally and it drizzled sometimes. The

monthly rainfall, however, was negligible and

never more than 2 mm. The mean relative

humidity during this period was between 57

and 67%.

(2) March to May : The nights were usually

warm and days hot. The daily minimum tem-

perature did not drop below 11° C, the daily

maximum temperature was always above 29°C

and went up as high as 46° C. The sky was

always clear, except in May when sometimes it

became cloudy. This was a very dry period.

The total rainfall during the period was never

more than 11 mm. The monthly means of

relative humidity were between 44 and 71 %.

The relative humidity during some days dropped

as low as 15%.

Monsoon (June to October) :

(1) June to September : The daily variation

in temperature was usually small. The air

temperature at any time was between 15 and

44° C. The average rainfall during this period

was 956 mm. The rainfall/month ranged from

22 mm. to 565 mm. The monthly means of

relative humidity were between 58 and 92%.

(2) October : October is a transitional period

between the monsoon and winter. The daily

range in temperature was usually wide. The

days were warm and the sky was usually clear.

Though during this month there was no signi-

ficant rainfall, the humidity was high. The

rainfall was recorded only in 1970 (34 mm).

The mean relative humidity in any year was

between 55 to 87%. The air temperature at any

time was between 15 to 41° C.

Winter (November to January) :

This was a cool dry period. The daily

minimum temperature was always below 24°C

1120

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

and dropped on certain days as low as 5° C.

The daily maximum temperature was always

above 24° C and below 39° C. The relative

humidity was on the whole moderate. Monthly

means of the relative humidity ranged from 60

to 68 %. The sky was clear and rainfall rare.

Annual variations :

Physical features of the climate showing

profound annual variations were precipitation

and consequently the relative humidity.

The rainy season in Baroda has a tropical

regime as it rains during the long days of the

year. The average annual rainfall is about

940 mm, and most of it is recorded between

June and September (based on the record of last

30 years). However, actual duration of the

rainy season, amount of rain during the season

and number of dry months may vary from year

to year, and these variations have important

ecological implications.

Annual distribution of dry periods can be

clearly illustrated through ombrothermic dia-

grams. The ombrothermic diagrams given in

Fig. 1 show mean monthly temperature and

rainfall plotted according to the system adopted

by Walter and Leith (1960-1967). In the

diagrams, the amount of precipitation and

temperature stand in fixed proportion to

each other ; ten degree centigrade corresponds

to a precipitation of twenty millimetres. Using

this proportion Glaussen (as quoted by Golly

and Leith 1972) has established for the mediter-

ranean region a strictly arid period to prevail

as soon as precipitation goes below the tem-

perature curve, and a humid period as soon as

precipitation exceeds temperature.

Some more information about the moisture

status of the monsoon months during the study

period is given in Table 1. In the table, humid

period is sub-divided into semi-dry, humid and

perhumid periods.

In all the years of these studies, January to

May and October to December were the dry

periods (Fig. 1). In addition to these, Septem-

ber was also a dry month in 1972 (Fig. 1 ;

Table 1). According to the classification of

climatic regimes by Bagnouls and Glaussen

(1957), the climate was semi-arid ( = 9 to 11

months of the year dry) in 1972, whereas in

the other years (1969 to 1971 and 1973) the

climate was sub-humid (=5 to 8 months of the

year xiry). Considering the amount and

distribution of rainfall, the years 1969, 1970

and 1973 had * good ’ monsoon, 1971 had

a 4 moderate ’ monsoon and 1972 was the year

of 4 drought ’.

Vegetation in Study Area

Baroda is part of a thickly populated and

highly industrialised region of Gujarat State.

Most of the land which at one time was covered

by dry thorny forest, has either been brought

under the plough or used for construction of

roads, factories and residential buildings. With

the result, the natural vegetation exists only

in the form of a few relict communities in the

remote corners. In such a biotically disturbed

area, the weed flora of cultivated plots, ruderal

flora of waste-land and hedge flora occupy

positions of prime importance and form the

most conspicuous aspects of vegetation.

The vegetation in general has two growing

seasons in Baroda, one in the monsoon and

the other in summer. However, the pattern

of growth of individual species tends to vary

in that the peak biomass may be produced in

the monsoon, winter or summer, or even

twice a year. The start of monsoon in June,

marks a rapid growth period of vegetation

in general, the beginning of preponderance of

the annuals and sowing of the monsoon crops

of millets and cotton in the farmland. A wide

variety of plants flower and fruit from July

to September. With the withdrawal of the

monsoon in October, the annuals start drying

up, plant litter consisting of leaves, flowers,

1121

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 75

1972

27-9 388

Arid period

Humid period

i — \ — i — | — i — j — r t i

J FMAMJ JASOND

27-3 915

I i I t*-i | t t

JFMAMJ'JASOND,

Fig. 1. Climate of Baroda in different years during the study period (1969 to 1973). In each diagram, the

year is indicated on upper left comer and the mean annual temperature in degree centrigrade and annual precipita-

tion in mm in the upper right corner. All diagrams are designed on a uniform pattern. Monthly means of tem-

perature and precipitation are drawn as curves ; the temperature is in degree centigrade and precipitation in mm.

Precipitation above 100 mm is printed in the scale 1 : 10 and marked in black. See text, for further details.

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

Table 1

Moisture status of the monsoon-months in different years*

*Note. — The moisture status for a month is categorised by the following formulae, where P stands for the

monthly precipitation in mm and T stands for the monthly mean temperature in degree centigrade :

Dry = P < 2T

Semidry = P 3*- 2T but ^ 3T

Subhumid = P 3T but ^ 4T

Perhumid «= P > 4T but < 5T

Humid = P ^ 5T

fruits and seeds, starts accumulating on the

ground and the monsoon crop in farmlands

is harvested. In November, the winter crop,

of wheat and legumes is sown. Rate of pro-

duction of the natural vegetation is on the whole

low in the winter. With the end of winter in

February, the leaf fall of deciduous trees starts

and is completed by April. A number of trees

and other perennial vegetation enter into

another period of growth, they sprout new

leaves, flowers and fruits between February

and April. The weather condition and soil

moisture in earlier part of the summer seem

to favour germination and emergence of some

species of perennial grasses. During the

extremely hot dry conditions in the later part of

summer, however, vegetation growth is

minimum.

In several places in the university campus,

where the plots of gardens are regularly watered,

moisture is not a limiting factor for the plant

growth during dry periods. However, during

the period following a ‘ poor ’ monsoon, the

water supply in the campus tends to deplete,

so that even in the garden plots a drought

situation prevails.

Breeding Pattern

The percentage of clutches laid by the

sparrow in every month is illustrated in Fig. 2.

The breeding occurred in every month of the

year. The laying pattern during the summer

(February to May) was about the same every

year ; the pattern was unimodal, the peak having

been reached in March-April. During the

monsoon, however, the laying pattern varied

from year to year ; it was unimodal in some

years and bimodal in others.

The number of days in a month the fresh

clutches were started is precisely known for the

period between 1970 and 1972 (when the nest-

boxes were checked every day), and the relevant

data are given in Table 2. The days on which

the fresh clutches were started were very few

or none in January ; the number of days in-

creased in February and maintained a peak

level in March, April and May. Thereafter,

between June and November, the days on which

1123

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

Fig. 2. Relative distribution of clutches started by the sparrows in different months during 1969, 1970,

1971, 1972, 1973 and 1969 to 1973.

clutches were started varied in number from

month to month during the same year, and for

the same month in different years. There were

very few days on which the fresh clutches were

started in December.

Though the number of nest-boxes examined

and the number of sparrow pairs estimated to

have been breeding in the study colonies did

not change significantly, during 1970 to 1972

the number of days on which the clutches were

started varied from 171 to 193 in different years

(Table 2). On an average, 176 days on which

fresh clutches were started were mainly spread

over a period of nine months from February

to October.

A generalized breeding pattern that emerges

is that the breeding changed from continuous

breeding to restricted breeding and then to

sporadic breeding during the course of a

12 month period. The breeding was continuous

from about February to May, largely restricted

to certain peak periods during June to October

1124

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

Table 2

THE NUMBER OF DAYS ON WHICH FRESH CLUTCHES WERE STARTED IN THE SPARROW COLONIES.

and sporadic or irregular during November to

January. Viewing these observations in the

light of seasonal changes in the weather des-

cribed earlier, some degree of correlation

between the breeding pattern of sparrows and

environmental changes becomes obvious. During

the course of a year, about 50 to 58% of the

clutches were laid in the four months of summer,

about 41 to 46% clutches in the five months of

monsoon and 0 to 5% in the three winter

months (Table 3). The birds bred on most of

the days in summer (almost all the days in

March, April and May) ; relatively more

clutches recorded in the middle of summer

(Fig. 2) may possibly be attributed to the late

starting younger birds (Seel 1968) having joined

up the early-starting older birds at this time

in breeding. The breeding pattern during the

summer was almost identical in different years

and this is correlated with the fact that the

same pattern of environmental changes occurred

during every summer. It grew progressively

warmer after February. In April-May, the

solar radiation and heat was intense and the

birds reduced their daily activities during the

middle of the day ; this was partly compensated

by the increased feeding hours. In the mon-

soon, however, there was a great degree of

instability in the environment. The weather

changed from month to month the dominant

variable factor having been the rainfall, and also

the days suitable for breeding and the intensity

of breeding changed from month to month.

The amount of rainfall, air temperature and

humidity, and presumably the biotic factors as

a consequence, changed in the monsoon of

different years. Correlated with this the in-

tensity and pattern of breeding in monsoon

was conspicuously different in different years

(Fig. 2). In the winter, when the mean air

temperature was relatively low and the days

were relatively shorter, the breeding intensity

was also low ; the earlier part of winter (Novem-

ber) was exceptional in that during this period

significantly more clutches were laid in some

years than in the others (Fig. 2).

1115

2

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

Breeding season :

The sparrows bred in every month, but

intensive breeding involving a sizable part of

the population occurred only during a part of

the year ; on the average about 98 % clutches

were laid during the summer and monsoon

(Table 3). The breeding, therefore, is seasonal

in a way, and it is possible to demarcate the

breeding season. After a certain date in

February, when we started recording the first

egg of at least one clutch per day, or the first

eggs of at least five clutches per every 5-day

interval, we considered that the breeding season

had started. The precise date when the breeding

season started could be determined during

1970 to 1972, as in these years the nest-boxes

were checked every day. In 1969 and 1973

the start of breeding season was approximately

determined by calculating the dates when the

earliest clutches of the season were started.

In September-October, when the laying stopped,

or when the starting of fresh clutches became

irregular events, we presumed that the breeding

season had ended. The precise, or the estimated

date when the last clutches of the season were

started was the date on which the breeding

season was presumed to have terminated. In

1970, a considerable number of clutches were

recorded in November (Fig. 2), but, these were

started at irregular intervals and were, therefore,

considered to have been laid outside the breed-

ing season.

The timings of the breeding season in different

years were 25 February to 21 October in 1969,

13 February to 26 October in 1970, 12 February

to 29 September in 1971, 20 February to 15

September in 1972, and 15 February to 30

October in 1973. The date for termination of

the season was more variable than the date of

start ; the difference between the earliest and

the latest dates for the start of the breeding

season was only 13 days while that between the

earliest and the latest dates for termination of

the season was 45 days.

Breeding and inter -breeding periods :

After the start of the breeding season, the

breeding was continuous until May, but

June to October it was restricted to one

or two peak periods only. With the

result, the breeding season could be divided

into breeding periods. A breeding period

Table 3

Seasonal distribution of clutches in percentage

1126

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

Table 4

Duration of the breeding periods

(PB) is the period of intensive breeding. In

practice, this was a period during which we

found at least one clutch having been started

almost every day. The timings of breeding

periods in different years are given in Table 4.

Between the two successive breeding periods,

there was a distinct interval of time, the inter-

breeding period (PIB), when very few clutches

were laid (Table 5). In every breeding season

one or two inter-breeding periods occurred

between the end of May and September. The

timings of inter-breeding periods varied in

different years.

The total duration of inter-breeding periods

varied considerably from one breeding season

to the next. The total duration of breeding

periods, on the other hand, remained more or

less the same in different breeding seasons

(Table 6).

Aseasonal breeding :

Breeding outside the breeding season is

termed as aseasonal breeding. Some aseasonal

clutches were laid occasiopally in January.

Several aseasonal clutches were recorded for

February in the year 1969 and 1972 when the

breeding season started late ; these clutches were

presumably laid by some early-starting birds.

A variable number of seasonal clutches appeared

after the breeding season terminated in Sep-

tember-October. 2 to 5% clutches every year

were aseasonal clutches.

Breeding pattern of individual females ;

Since the breeding season is long and divided

into several breeding periods, it is necessary to

ascertain whether the same female breeds in

different breeding periods. The monthly distri-

bution of clutches laid by the ringed female

sparrows is given in Fig. 3. The figure is based

on 16 annual breeding records of ringed females.

In the figure, each block represents a clutch laid

by a particular female in a particular month ;

all the clutches laid by a female during the

course of a year, bear the same number, but

the successful and unsuccessful clutches are

1127

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

Fig. 3. Monthly distribution of the clutches started by individual ringed females. Each block represents a

clutch. All the clutches laid by a female during the course of a year bear the same number. A successful clutch

is designated by a cross.

distinguished by suitable symbols. Numbers

1 to 6 stand for the records of six females that

bred during 1969, 7 to 14 for eight females during

1970, and 15 and 16 for two females during

1971. 2 and 7, 3 and 8, 5 and 9, 11 and 15, or

13 and 16, is a set of numbers that represent

the records of the same female breeding in

different years.

It is obvious from the figure that (1) the

breeding pattern of individual females corres-

ponded with the breeding season of the popu-

lation (described earlier), and that (2) the same

female which laid several clutches during the

breeding season, bred aseasonally outside the

breeding season as well.

Number of Clutches /Female /Year

An estimate of the number of clutches/female/

year is obtained by dividing the total number of

clutches laid during a year by the maximum

number of females nesting at one time during

that year. A female sparrow in Baroda

population is estimated to have laid on the

average 6.4 to 7.4 clutches per year (Table 7).

It must be pointed out that the maximum number

of females nesting at one time during the year is

only a minimal estimate of the total number

of breeding females. The estimate of 6.4

to 7.4 clutches/female/year is therefore an

overestimate.

1128

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

Table 5

Inter-breeding periods

Total duration of breeding season and the breeding and inter-breeding periods

IN DAYS, IN DIFFERENT YEARS

Table 7

AN ESTIMATE OF THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF CLUTCHES LAID BY A FEMALE SPARROW IN DIFFERENT YEARS

1129

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

The estimate mentioned above is only slightly

higher than the number of clutches laid by

a limited number of ringed females observed

by us. In 1969, six ringed females laid on the

average 6.16±Q.75 clutches /female ; in 1970,

eight ringed females laid on the average 7.05

±1.85 clutches /female ; in 1971, 2 ringed females

laid 7 clutches each. Out of these ringed

females, two females contributed 6 successful

clutches/female/year, whereas the other two,

four, six and two females respectively contri-

buted 5, 4, 3 and 2 successful clutches/female /

year. The average number of successful clutches

raised by a ringed female during the course of

a year was 3.75. The interval between the

successful clutches (interval between the first

eggs of two successive clutches, where the

earlier clutch is successful ; Seel 1968) was

38 ±5 days (averege and standard deviation

for 25 cases of the ringed females) in the

summer. The interval was relatively longer and

more variable in the monsoon.

Regulation of Breeding

Start of breeding season :

No clutches were started in January, except

in 1971 and 1973, when two and one clutches

respectively were laid in January. Apparently

January was not suitable for breeding. It was

the coolest month every year, except in 1972

when February was the coolest month (Table

8).

The earliest clutches in February appeared

when the air temperature started rising (Figs-

4 to 8). Table 8 gives the dates when the

earliest clutches in February were laid. In

1969, 1971 and 1972, the early clutches were

followed by clutches that appeared at irregular

intervals until the breeding season started ;

altogether 4 to 10 (aseasonal) clutches were

started in February before the breeding season

commenced in these years. In February of

1970 and 1973, the breeding season started

abruptly in that the event was not preceded

by the laying of any aseasonal clutches.

The starting of regular breeding, as it has

been explained earlier, is considered to be the

commencement of the breeding season. After

reviewing the daily climatic factors, we gathered

that a drop in the air temperature in February

may delay the commencement of the breeding

season. In 1970, 1971 and 1973, the breeding

season started relatively early, between 12th

to 15th February. During these years, the

mean temperature in February was 2.4 to

3.7° C higher than that in January, and the

third week of February was relatively warmer,

with the mean temperature between 24 to 26° C

(Table 8). In 1969 and 1972, the breeding

season started relatively late. In 1972, February

was cooler than January the temperature having

dropped considerably in the second week of

February (Table 8). In 1969, the mean air

temperature, after an initial rise in the first week

of February, registered a substantial drop to

about 21° C on the 16th, so that the mean

temperature of February was only slightly

higher (by 1.5° C) than that of January and

the third week of February was cooler than the

preceding week (Table 8).

In birds, the rapid increase in the growth of

the ovum resulting in ovulation, starts about

5 to 7 days before the ovulation and some

appropriate proximate factors are presumed to

be necessary to trigger this process of rapid

enlargement of the ovum. It has been found

in a wide variety of birds that weather condition

for a period of about 5-7 days before the egg

laying may be the proximate factor for the

laying. Seel (1968) concluded from his studies

that the changes in the laying activities of the

House Sparrow occurred about four days

after the changes in air temperature. In the

light of these, we calculated the average daily

mean temperature for a 5-day period preceding

the start of the breeding season, in different

years (Table 8). Every year, except in 1972;

1130

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

Table 8

The starting of the breeding season

* Approximate date.

the mean daily temperature for a 5-day period

prior to the onset of the breeding season was

24 to 25° C. In 1972, when the mean tempera-

ture in any week of February was only between

19 and 22° C, the breeding season started late

and the average temperature during a 5-day

period preceding the commencement of the

breeding season was relatively lower (20.2° C).

This indicates that the temperature threshold

for egg-laying may decline if the onset of the

breeding season is delayed. A declining

temperature threshold with the passing of spring

was illustrated in other species of birds by Nice

(1937) and Kluijver (1951). Seel (1968) indi-

cated the existence of a similar phenomenon with

respect to the breeding of the House Sparrow.

In the Baroda population, just as in other

northern populations, the breeding tends to

occur when the winter ends and the air tempera-

ture starts rising. The breeding season com-

mences when the temperature reaches about 24

to 25° C in Baroda and 10° C in Oxford (Seel

1968). Seel (1968) suggested that ‘ layingAis

adapted to begin at a particular air temperature

because at lower air temperature the adult

would have insufficient energy available to

produce and incubate a clutch.’ Several authors

consider the air temperature less suitable as

a start-timing mechanism for breeding season

in birds in general because of its great un-

reliability and the frequent short-term fluctua-

tions (Immelmann 1972). It is possible that

a sharp rise in temperature may have been

more effective than temperature in itself (Lofts

and Murton 1966). A flush of vegetation

growth and increased activity of insects that

follow a rise in temperature may have an

immediate positive effect on breeding.

Timings of the inter-breeding periods :

We have seen earlier that during each breeding

season there were one or two inter-breeding

periods, and that during an inter-breeding period,

the breeding was negligible, only a few clutches

having been laid in the beginning or end of an

inter-breeding period (Table 5 ; Figs. 4 to 8),

1131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BUST. SOCIETY, V&l. 75

1 2

i pB -i— PIES— i — PB-f

< ■ — - i i i i_ i Li 1

t ! | , — i i — i "hf

date 33544 3 32 1 1 55

MONTH J FMAMJJASO N D

1969

Fig. 4. Histogram showing the number of clutches started (bottom), mean daily temperature (middle) and

rainfall (top) per five-day interval, in 1969. Breeding periods (PB : also numbered) and inter-breeding periods (PIB ;

dotted areas) are demarcated by thin vertical lines.

1132

CLUTCHES RAINFALL/qay CM

Bft£Bi>iNo smascw in rm house sparrow

1 2 3

PB ! PB— PB— i-PIB— IPB-'

cate 4 3 5 4 4 3 3 2 11 5 5

MONTH JFMAMJJASOND

1970

Fig. 5. Histogram showing the number of clutches started (bottom), mean daily temperature (middle) and

-ainfall (top) per five-day interval, in 1970. For further explanation, see legend under Fig. 4.

113S

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V&l. 75

date 4 3 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 5 5

MONTH JFMAMJJASOND

i/>

LU

X

y

3

U

1971

Fig. 6. Histogram showing the number of clutches started (bottom), mean daily temperature (middle) and

rainfall (top) per five-day interval, in 1971. For further explanation, see legend under Fig. 4.

We witnessed during our studies eight inter-

breeding periods varying from 14 to 49 days

in duration (Table 5). Each of these periods

coincided with a period of bad weather.

The weather during the inter-breeding period

was characterised by heavy rain, a drop in air

temperature (Fig. 4 to 8) and reduction in

sunshine hours because of the cloudy weather.

The dust-storms or thunder-storms also occurred

during this period. The sparrow pairs that

were not attending eggs or chicks in their nest,

visited their nests less frequently and only in the

mornings. They spent most of the available

time foraging away from the colony. The birds

that were already with eggs or chicks when

an inter-breeding period started, continued to

attend their nests.

The coincidence of an inter-breeding period

with a long spell of rain and cloudy weather

is indicative of the fact that the extreme rainy

1134

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE Sf ARROW

weather had adverse effects on breeding. The

adult food as well as the nestling food might

have been difficult to find during a greater part

of the inter-breeding period. During a long

spell of heavy rain, the rain itself would decrease

the mobility of the birds, water-logged ground

would make it difficult for the adults to find food

and decreased light hours as a result of cloudy

weather would restrict the feeding hours. Under

such conditions, the birds would spend all the

available time for foraging to meet their meta-

bolic needs and to store the surplus energy which

could be more profitably used for breeding when

the weather conditions improve. Most of the

adults, during these periods, had been without

eggs or young and were feeding away from the

colony. The fact that the birds laid relatively

heavier eggs in bigger clutches when they

resumed breeding after an inter-breeding period

(Naik and Mistry, unpublished), indicates that

the birds did build up an energy reserve some-

times during the period. The pairs which

already had eggs when the inter-breeding period

started, apparently managed to find enough

food near the colony because such birds were

very few and faced reduced competition for

feeding near the colony.

The inter-breeding period as a break in

40

30

20

CATE

MONTH

Fig. 7. Histogram showing the number of clutches started (bottom), mean daily temperature (middle)

and rainfall (top) per five-day interval, in 1972. For further explanation, see legend under Fig. 4,

1135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 75*

1 2 3

i — -PB t-PIB-1 — PB — '-RB-'PB-'

J L. * l I i l . L jL-_. — J • L

MONTH j FMAMJ JA SOND

1973

Fig. 8. Histogram showing the number of clutches started (bottom), mean daily temperature (middle)

and rainfall (top) per five-day interval, in 1973. For further explanation, see legend under Fig. 4.

reproduction activity in the midst of the breeding

season, is certainly adaptive. An inter-breeding

period, which staggers the breeding, provides

the birds a temporary relief from the reproduc-

tive stress. The stress should build up because

of the continuous breeding, and some relief

from the stress during the breeding season

may have a positive effect on the reproductive

efforts made by a bird during the season.

Number of clutches laid by a female :

The average number of clutches laid by

a female, as we have seen earlier, vary in

different years. For an analysis of the causal

mechanism behind this, we regrouped the data

in Table 9. In the table, a year is divided into

a period of five months before monsoon

(January to May) and another period of seven

months covering the monsoon and post-mon-

1136

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

Table 9

The average number of broods/female before, durtng and after the

MONSOON AND THE RAINFALL IN DIFFERENT YEARS

Average number of broods/female

soon periods (June to December). The

monsoon (June to October) and post-monsoon

(November and December) periods were grouped

together, because the pattern of breeding in

the post-monsoon period is primarily determined

by the breeding pattern laid down in the pre-

ceding monsoon. The table also gives the

total rainfall for each year. It may be recalled

here that the total rainfall given for each year

was almost entirely recorded during the mon-

soon. The average number of clutches/female

during the monsoon and post-monsoon periods

of a year is related to the rainfall during the

year.

A relationship between the average number

of clutches/female during the monsoon and

post-monsoon periods and the rainfall during

that year is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 9.

The regression formula for the curve fitted to

the five observations is y = 3.38430-0.02591x-f

0.00022x2, the correlation coefficient being

0.9952. It is thought desirable to have a

quadratic expression instead of a linear one in

x for predicting y, because the residual sum of

squares for the quadratic fit is 0.005404, whereas

that for the linear fit is 0.145902, which is

relatively much higher ; this is also revealed

by the fact that the correlation coefficient for

the quadratic fit is higher than that for the linear

fit (0.8620). According to the form of curve

fitted to the five observations, the number of

clutches laid by a female during the monsoon

and post-monsoon periods decreases with a

decrease in the annual rainfall, until a level of

500 mm rainfall is reached, but, a decrease

in the number of clutches is proportionately less

than a corresponding decrease in the rainfall

(Fig. 9). It seems possible that any further

decrease in the rainfall may not correspond with

a change in the number of clutches and that

the lower-most limit for the number of clutches

that a female lays on an average during this

period may be about 2.7. There should be an

upper limit for the average number of clutches

laid by a female between June and December.

Such a limit was probably reached in 1970, when

the breeding season continued up to the last

week of October and a maximum number of

aseasonal clutches were laid in November.

While we have speculated about a lower and an

upper limit for the number of clutches, it must

be stressed that the relationship derived between

1137

NO. OF CLUTCHES/9

Journal , Bombay natural hist, society, vbi is

the annual rainfall and the number of clutches

laid by a female would hold good only within

the observed range of rainfall.

The average number of clutches laid by a

female between January and May bears a linear

relationship to the amount of rainfall in the

previous year (Fig. 10). The regression formula

for the curve in Fig. 10 is y = 3.29333 -f0.00502x,

the correlation coefficient being 0.9693 ; here,

it makes no difference whether one chooses

a linear or quadratic expression in x for pre-

dicting y and therefore a simple linear regression

is used.

The above observations indicate that the

average number of clutches laid by a female

sparrow during a year is dependent upon the

amount of rainfall in the previous year, as well

as that during the year in question. A possible

explanation for this relationship is that the

amount of precipitation affects the food supply

of the sparrows and the food supply is the most

dominant factor, among the factors determining

the number of clutches laid by a female in

Baroda. Because of ample sunlight and

rainfall in cm

Fig. 9. Relationship between the annual rainfall

and the average number of clutches laid by a female

during the monsoon and post-monsoon periods.

relatively warm weather, the precipitation is

known to be the main factor affecting the

growth of plants and seed-production in the

tropics. During the wet season (monsoon),

the amount of precipitation during the season

is an effective factor. During the dry season

(summer), however, it is the precipitation during

the preceding wet season that is effective.

The average number of clutches laid by a

female during a certain interval of time would

depend upon not only the rate of food supply,

but also the number of days favourable for

breeding. The breeding, after a less variable

start, occurs almost every day in the summer,

so that the rate of food supply primarily would

influence the number of clutches laid by the

female during that season. The number of

days on which the sparrows are capable of

breeding in the monsoon and post-monsoon

periods varies in different years (Table 2),

so that the food supply as well as the number of

days favourable for breeding would determine

the average number of clutches laid by a female

during these periods. Here, not only the total

RAINFALL IN CM

Fig. 10. Relationship between the annual

rainfall and the average number of clutches

laid by a female during the next year summer.

1 13$

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

amount of rainfall but also the pattern of rainfall

during the season may be involved. The breed-

ing periods alternate with the inter-breeding

periods and the breeding is relatively more

synchronized at the population level in the

monsoon. Under these conditions, the overall

temporal distribution pattern of the breeding

and inter-breeding periods, rather than only the

total number of days favourable for breeding,

may influence the average number of clutches/

female. The breeding and inter-breeding

periods are largely regulated, as we have seen

earlier, by the pattern of rainfall.

Termination of breeding season :

The date on which the breeding season

terminated and the total rainfall in different

years were as follows : —

1972 — 15 September, 388 mm ; 1971—29

September, 915 mm ; 1969 — 21 October, 1091

mm ; 1970 — 26 October, 1288 mm ; 1973—30

October, 1131 mm. The timing for termination

of the breeding season seems to have been

related to the rainfall during the year. In

a year of ‘ good ’ monsoon, as compared to

a year of ‘ poor ’ monsoon, a good supply of

food might have been available for a longer

period, and the breeding season therefore was

prolonged. Apparently, the decreasing food

supply had an immediate negative influence on

reproduction of the sparrows. Existence of

such a mechanism for the termination of breed-

ing season is considered a possibility in several

other species of birds also (Dunnet 1955 ;

Farner 1967).

Discussion

The avian breeding seasons present a wide

spectrum ranging from continuous to restricted

breeding season ; a continuous breeding season

tends to occur in regions of the world where

there is no marked seasonality in the climate and

a restricted breeding season tends to occur in

the regions with seasonal variations in the

environmental conditions (Immelmann 1971).

A continuous breeding season for the house

sparrow, to our knowledge, has so far not been

described, but, it possibly occurs in suitable

habitats. The restricted breeding season of

the sparrows have been described for the popu-

lations in the temperate regions (for example,

April to July in England, by Seel 1968) and

also in some of the tropical regions (March to

July, in Lahore, Pakistan, by Mirza 1972).

Breeding season of the Baroda sparrows

represents a stage transitional between the two

extremes, the continuous and restricted breeding

seasons. The breeding season is long. Its

start is well defined and the timing is subjected

to only small yearly variations. After the

breeding season starts, the breeding is contin-

uous until the end of summer. In the monsoon,

however, the breeding occurs during certain

well defined periods (breeding periods) only.

During the interval of time (inter-breeding

period) between the breeding periods, the

breeding activities are largely excluded. Such

an inter-breeding period may occur once or

twice and it tends to prolong the breeding

season. The termination of breeding season in

the later part of monsoon not only has a

variable timing but is poorly defined at least

in some years when the fresh clutches keep on

occurring sporadically even after the season

terminates.

The complexities in the timings of breeding

season, as outlined in the previous paragraph,

should be taken into account in timing the

breeding season accurately. During an inter

breeding period, for example, one may believe

that the breeding season has terminated, only

to find it restarting after a certain interval of

time. In the light of this, the existing literature

about the breeding season of sparrows in

different parts of India needs to be carefully

reviewed. All the same, it is apparent from

the published literature that timings of the

1139

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , 75

breeding season tend to vary widely in different

parts of India. Ali and Ripley (1974) who have

summarized some of the general trends in these

variations, state that the season extends from

March to June in the north, continuing till

September or October in central India and

extending throughout the year in Southern

India. From north to south, the winter tends

to be milder and the monsoon tends to be

earlier and longer. Apparently correlated with

this, the sparrow tends to extend its breeding

season at both ends (earlier start and later

termination of the season) in the southern parts

of India.

It had become possible for our sparrows to

lay an unusually large number of clutches

(as many as six successful broods/female/year)

because they had a long period favourable for

breeding and their breeding was not continuous

throughout the breeding season, but interrupted

by the inter-breeding periods when they were

relieved from the reproductive stress and built

up energy reserve to make a fresh attempt at

reproduction again. In contrast to our sparrows,

the sparrows in Oxford during their restricted

breeding season laid on the average only 2.1

clutches/year and only some of the pairs made

4 to 5 breeding attempts (Seel 1968). It is

interesting to note that the interval between

the successful clutches for the sparrows was

about the same in Oxford and Baroda. The

interval in Oxford was 40 days (Seel 1968)

and in Baroda during the summer was 38 days.

A large number of studies made on the

breeding patterns of birds have indicated that

every species of bird tends to breed at the time

of the year when it can raise its young most

efficiently (Lack 1954, 1966). Those environ-

mental factors that control efficiency of breeding

are called ‘ ultimate factors * (Thomson 1950).

The most important ultimate factor for nearly

all species of birds is the availability of an

adequate food supply. Our observations on

the breeding pattern of the House Sparrow and

some casual observations on the bird’s habitat

in the study area provide further circumstantial

evidences for the above views. From February

to May different species of perennial plants shed

the old leaves and sprout new ones. Several

species of these plants also flower and fruit

during this period. Following the flushes of

vegetation growth, the blooms of insects and

caterpillars keep on appearing. The winter

crop of cereals is harvested by the farmers in

April-May. Taking advantage of all these,

the sparrows breed uninterrupted and raise

several successive broods in the summer. A

more active period of vegetation growth starts

with the monsoon in June, and terminates in

August-September just before the end of

monsoon. A number of perennial plants

flower and fruit from August to October and it is

during this period that monsoon crops of cereals

are harvested by the farmers. The insect food

for the sparrow nestlings is particularly abundant

during the monsoon. The food supply and its

availability are assured during the monsoon,

only if the rainfall during this period is adequate

and properly spaced out. This rarely happens

in the sub-humid to semi-arid habitat of the

sparrows in Baroda. The rainfall during a

monsoon has an almost unpredictable pattern

and periods of floods and droughts occur.

The food supply for the breeding sparrows is

also apparently variable and the ‘ good ’ periods

may alternate with the ‘ lean ’ periods. Con-

sequently, the breeding of sparrows during the

monsoon is interrupted from time to time, and

is never continuous as in the summer.

The food supply is apparently adequate even

after the breeding season ends in September-

October. The post-breeding period, however,

is occupied with moulting. Our casual obser-

vations indicate that the sparrows start moulting

in September-October. When after a ‘ good ’

rainy season the food supply is still exceptionally

good, a number of sparrow pairs may breed

aseasonally in November. In these birds,

1140

BREEDING SEASON IN THE HOUSE SPARROW

some adjustments between the moult and

breeding probably occurs ; a variety of adjust-

ments between the moult and reproduction in

birds have been described by Stresemann and

Stresemann (1966).

The food supply, or its availability, apart

from being the most effective ultimate factor,

apparently has an immediate influence on egg-

laying. Immediate positive effect of an in-

creased or easily accessible food supply on

the breeding seems to operate as a timing

mechanism for the start of breeding season and

the termination of inter-breeding periods.

Similarly, immediate negative effect of a

decreased food supply seems to time the start

of inter-breeding periods and the termination

of breeding season. The quality and/or quantity

of food supply may influence the time of egg-

laying by directly affecting the reproductive

physiology of the adult bird. Circumstantial and

experimental evidences for the importance of

nutritional factors in spermatogenesis and

egg-laying are discussed by Marshall (1949),

Siivonen (1957), Assenmacher et al. (1965),

Buhler (1965), Loft and Murton (1966), Lack

(1967) and Braithwaite and Frith (1970).

In the tropics, where precipitation is the most

important limiting factor for the food supply,

the rainfall has a remarkable influence, in-

directly through the food supply, on the fecun-

dity of sparrows. A 4 good ’ rainy season as

compared to a 4 poor * one, results in a female

sparrow not only laying more clutches during

the monsoon and breeding aseasonally in the

winter, but also laying more clutches in the

following summer.

In the light of the present findings that the

pattern of breeding and the fecundity of

sparrows show a close relationship with the

pattern and amount of annual rainfall, one

should expect a wide degree of variations in

breeding of the sparrows, correlated with a

wide variety of climatic regimes to be found

in the Indian sub-continent. Based on the

rainfall pattern, four types of regimes are

recognised for the Indian sub-continent. These

are (1) irregular regime, where rainfall lacks

a seasonal rhythm and includes regimes with

three or four dry periods in a year, (2) mediter-

ranean regime, where it rains during the short

days of the year, (3) bixeric regime, where there

are two rainy periods and two seasons in a

year, and (4) tropical regime, where it rains

during the long days of the year (Meher-Homji

1971). Based on the degree of aridity-humidity,

four types of climatic regimes, according to

a classification by Bagnouls and Glaussen

(1957), occur in the Indian sub-continent and

these types are (1) humid, where 0 to 4 months

of the year are dry (when the monthly precipi-

tation, in mm, is less than twice the mean

temperature, in °C, (2) subhumid, where 5 to

8 months of the year are dry, (3) semi-arid, where

9 to 11 months of the year are dry, and (4)

arid, where 12 months of the year are dry. Here

is, therefore, a good case for the desirability of

having a co-operative study on the breeding of

sparrows in different parts of the Indian region.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. Salim Ali and Dr. S. C.

Kendeigh for providing us with the aluminium

and colour rings and M.S. University of Baroda

for providing the grants to the senior author.

Thanks are also due to Dr. A. G. Pathak and

Miss S. N. Vahia for the statistical help.

13

1141

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fb/. 75

References

Ali, Salim (1945) : The Birds of Kutch. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

(1953) : The Birds of Travancore and Cochin.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

(1972) : The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

and Ripley, S. D. (1974) : Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 10. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

Assenmacher, I., Tixier-Vidal, A. and Astier, H.

(1965) : Effects de la sous-alimentation et ju jeune sur la

gonadostumulation du canard. Ann. Endocrinol. 26 :

1-26.

Baonouls, F. and Glaussen, H. (1957) : Lea climates

biologiques et leur classification. Ann. de Geogr. 355 :

193-220.

Braithwaite, L. W. and Frith, H. J. (1969) : Water-

fowl in an island swamp in New South Wales. III.

Breeding. CSIRO Wild l Res. 14 : 65-109.

Buhler, P. (1965) : Experimental ausgeloste Fruh-

bruten bei der Schleiereule (Tyto alba). J. Ornithol.

106 : 347.

Dunnet, G. M. (1955) : The breeding of the starling,

Sturms vulgaris in relation to its food supply. Ibis

97 : 619-662.

Farner, D. S. (1967) : The control of avian reproduc-

tive cycles. Proc. 14 th Int. Ornithol. Congr. 1966 :

106-133.

Golley, F. B. and Leith, H. (1972) : Basis of organic

production in the tropics. In : A Symposium on

Tropical Ecology. Ed. P. M. Golley and F. B. Golley.

Athens.

Immelmann, K. (1971) : Ecological aspects of periodic

reproduction. In : Avian Biology. Vol. I, Ed. D. S.

Farner and J. R. King. Academic Press, New York.

Kendeigh, S. C. (1973) : A Symposium on the House

Sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) and European Tree Sparrow

(P. montanus ) in North America. Ornithological Mono-

graph, No. 14.

and Pinowski, J. (1972) : Productivity, Popu-

lation Dynamics and Systematics of Granivorous Birds.

Warszawa.

Lack, D. (1954) : The Natural Regulation of Animal

Numbers. Oxford University Press, London.

Lack, D. (1966) : Population Studies of Birds.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

(1967) : Interrelationships in breeding adapta-

tions as shown by marine birds. Proc. 14th Int. Ornithol.

Congr. 1966 : 3-42.

Lofts, B. and Murton, R. K. (1966) : The role of

weather, food and biological factors in timing the sexual

cycle of woodpigeons. Brit. Birds. 59 : 261-280.

Marshall, A. J. (1949) : Weather factors and sper-

matogenesis in birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 119 ;

711-716.

Miher-Homji, V. M. (1971) : Bioclimatic variability

with special reference to India. Trop. Ecol. 12 : 155-176.

Mirza, Z. B. (1972) : Study on the fecundity, morta-

lity, numbers, biomass and food of a population of

House Sparrows in Lahore, Pakistan. In : Productivity,

Population Dynamics and Systematics of Granivorous

Birds. Ed. S. C. Kendeigh and J. Pinowski. Warszawa,

pp. 141-155.

Naik, R. M. and Mistry, L. (1972) : Breeding season,

and reproductive rate of Passer domesticus (L.) in Baroda,

India. In : Productivity, Population Dynamics and

Systematics of Granivorous Birds. Ed. S. C. Kendeigh

and J. Pinowsky. Warszawa pp. 133-140.

Naik, R. M. (1974) : Recent studies on the grani-

vorous birds in India. Intern. Stud. Sparrows 7 : 21-25.

Seel, D. S. (1968) : Breeding season of the House

Sparrow and Tree Sparrows, Passer spp. at Oxford.

Ibis 110 : 129-144.

Siivonen, L. (1957) : The problems of the short-

term fluctuations in numbers of tetraonids in Europe.

Pap. Came Res., Helsinki 19 : 1-144.

Stresemann, E. and Stresemann, V. (1966) : Die

Mauser der Vogel. J. Orn. 107 : 1-448.

Summers- Smith, D. (1967) : The House Sparrow,

Collins, London.

Thomson, A. L. (1950) : Factors determining the

breeding seasons of birds : an introductory review.

Ibis 92 : 173-184.

Walter, H. and Lieth, H. (1960-1967) : Kima

diagram. Weltatlas. V. B. Gustav Fischer Verlag,

Jena.

Whistler, H. and Kinnear, N. B. (1949) : Popular

Handbook of Indian Birds. Gurney and Jackson,

London.

1142

THE AVAILABILITY OF NESTING MATERIALS AND NESTING

SITES AS VITAL FACTORS IN THE GREGARIOUS BREEDING

OF INDIAN WATER-BIRDS

M. Krishnan1

{With five plates)

Introduction

In the mid-fifties, I surveyed the old-established

Vedanthangal Sanctuary for water-birds in

the Chingleput district at the request of the

(then) Government of Madras, to recommend

measures for conserving and improving the

preserve. Over the next two seasons, and

part of the third, I visited Vedanthangal each

week-end from mid-September to mid-February,

to study the main breeding birds, their nesting^

and other features of the sanctuary. The flora

of the tank bed (during the dry season) in the

middle of which the birds had nested for

centuries in a grove of Barringtonia acutangula

trees, and of the surrounding scrub from which

they collected the thorny, unarmed, and leafy

dry and green twigs for the construction, lining,

and periodic replenishment of their nests over

the prolonged breeding enterprise (extending

over about 3£ months) had also to be studied,

and for this I sought the expert help of the

wood-anatomist and taxonomist, Dr. B. G. L.

Swamy, who was entirely responsible for this

valuable floristic assessment, made over two

seasons and with the assistance in the field of

my son, M. Harikrishnan (now of the Tamil

Nadu Forest Department).

My rusty recollections of botany, and less

rusty knowledge of the vegetation of the Chingle-

put district, enabled me to appreciate this

floristic assessment, and also to realise that

1 2/14 Edward Elliot Road, Madras-600 004.

variations in the species of plants from which

the different kinds of nesting and nest-replenish-

ment materials were collected are inevitable,

since the floristic complexion of the peripheral

scrub of different mixed heronries is varied.

Nevertheless, it was considered worth while

to undertake an independently verified assess-

ment of the plants from which such nesting

materials were collected at Vedanthangal. For

this purpose, I watched the birds collecting

twigs from the peripheral scrub, and tagged

those plants which could not be readily

identified, and later ascertained their identities

(when in flower) with the help of a flora. At

the end of the nesting season, 3 representative

nests were collected intact, and separately

analysed by Dr. Swamy by pickling, sectioning

and examining the twig-sections under the

microscope and comparison with his exten-

sive labelled collection of slides of south

Indian woody plants. He was able to confirm

my identifications of the twigs used for nest

building (the identification by me had not been

disclosed to him) and to add considerably to

my list. The result of this study was incor-

porated, tabulated, in my second report on the

sanctuary to the Government. Wishing to

append it to this paper, recently I applied to the

Tamil Nadu Forest Department for a copy of

this technical note, and was informed that my

report could not be traced in governmental

records. It is still possible to reconstruct this

note from Dr. Swamy’s notes made at the time

1143

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , IW. 75

he identified the nest-twigs, but this laborious

reconstruction has not been attempted in view

of the variations already mentioned in the

choice of different kinds of nesting and nest-

replenishment materials (which, in turn, depend

on the kind of material preferred being available

in the vicinity of the breeding centre).

In fact, this elaborate verification of the

nesting materials used at Vedanthangal in the

mid-fifties (which may no longer be valid even

for this sanctuary, considering the near-total

denudation of the wild peripheral scrub at

Vedanthangal today) is detailed here for a

quite different reason. It was this that first

made me realise how important a factor to the

success of the gregarious breeding of Indian

water-birds the availability of the different

kinds of nesting materials is, and how little this

vital factor has been appreciated in our con-

servation effort. The last sentence is a com-

pressed and over simplified statement of this

factor, which is set out more adequately in the

body of this paper, following the introduction.

Since 1956, right up to the present, as

opportunity offered I have observed the nesting

and the collection of nesting materials by

water-birds at other breeding sites, and also

the replenishment of their nests by them over

the period of their breeding enterprise. An

inseparably associated factor, the choice of

nesting trees or other nesting locations, has

also been studied, and the present paper is

based on sustained and sporadic observation

over the past 20-odd years in many parts of

India. The main nesting colonies at which

these observations were made are specified

below :

Kerala ;

The Periyar sanctuary. Along the Quilon

backwaters.

Tamil Nadu :

Vedanthangal sane- All 3 in the Chingleput

tuary. district, the first two

(only some 5 mile

apart) featuring prac-

tically all the birds

listed below except for

the grey pelican which,

however, may also be

seen in certain years

in one or two pairs.

These two preserves

are specially notable

for their grey herons,

night herons and

openbills.

Karungulam tank at Kallidaikurichi in the

Tirunelveli district, where egrets, darters and

a few herons nest atop 2 or 3 tall trees on the

bund.

Note : — The breeding colony of egrets in

planted Acacia nilotica clumps

in Dhamal tank is no longer

there, the trees having been cut

down. Night herons, cattle

egrets, egrets and pond herons,

nesting in many locations in

Mylapore, Raja Annamalai-

puram, Adyar and some other

parts of south Madras, since

colonised by men, were also

observed.

Andhra Pradesh :

The Aredu pelicanry in the West Godavari

district.

The Nelapattu mixed pelicanry in the Nellore

district.

Orissa :

A mixed heronry in a mangrove swamp in

Bhitar Kanika island.

Karnataka :

The Ranganathittoo sanctuary, near Mysore

(Srirangapatnam).

Karikili water-bird

reserve.

Dhamal tank.

1144

NESTING MATERIALS AND NESTING SITES OF WATER-BIRDS

Assam :

The pelicanry near Kaziranga village.

Rajasthan :

The Keoladeo Ghana (Bharatpur Bird Sanc-

tuary) in Bharatpur.

Further, other nesting colonies at small tanks

in Tamil Nadu and in Karnataka were also

observed. Almost all of them are no longer

there. The nesting of birds like the little

grebe, also found at mixed heronries, was not

observed. The larger water-birds whose gre-

garious breeding was observed are listed

below : —

Little Cormorant Large Egret Spoonbill

Indian Shag Cattle Egret White Ibis

Large Cormorant Pond Heron Grey (Spotted-

Darter Grey Heron billed)

Little Egret Night Heron Pelican

Median Egret Openbilled

Stork

Painted Stork

Basic Factors

The water-birds considered here nest gre-

gariously in crowded colonies. These may be

large mixed heronries, as at Bharatpur, Vedan-

thangal and Ranganathittoo ; or they may

be much smaller but still congested colonies

limited to 2 or 3 species nesting in a few adja-

cent trees, as at Karungulam ; or they may be

large or small congregations of a single, or of

dominantly one, species — for instance, the

Aredu and Kaziranga pelicanries and the

nesting-trees of night herons in Mylapore and

other parts of Madras city.

Many features govern the breeding enterprise

of these birds, not all of them instinctive. For

example, they get into breeding condition

only when an abundant supply of food is

available, and since this abundance is sea-

sonal and territorial, and not a transient and

haphazard event, the assured supply of food that

gets them into breeding condition (a physio-

logical and not an instinctive stimulus) also

ensures adequate nourishment for their vora-

cious, demanding and fast-growing young.

Even with regard to these seasonal periods of

plenty, the extent to which the breeding of

these birds is influenced by drastic fluctuations

may vary with different species. Early in the

forties, the low-lying wastelands and paddy

fields of south Madras were gradually built up

and converted into Raja Annamalaipuram, and

the many nesting-trees of egrets, cattle egrets

and night herons in this area were consequently

lost. This was followed by unprecedented

drought, and it was noticed that while the egrets,

obviously affected by the paucity of food in

peripheral feeding grounds, did not nest at all,

or nested only in noticeably diminished num-

bers, in the few established nesting trees near

Adyar (since cut down), the night herons

invaded the most congested parts of Mylapore

and nested in such trees as they could find in the

compounds of human residences there (one

such nesting-tree, used for years till cut down,

was in the tiny compound of the Mylapore

Police Station), breeding thickly : they, unlike

the egrets, were able to find their food supply

from the Buckingham Canal and its slushy

banks, close by.

It is useful at this stage to consider the

extent to which we can be sure of avian in-

stincts, the complex impact of diverse instinc-

tive urges governing the breeding enterprise of

these birds. That all these impulses do not

have the identical directional slant, and are

not narrowed down to particular and unvaried

preferences, is a reasonable conclusion, though

they may serve much the same ultimaie end

even when mutually antagonistic. This may

be illustrated by two well-known reactions of

nesting water-birds : obviously the instinctive

attachment of a brooding bird to its nest is

sharply in conflict with its instinct of self-

1145

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

preservation when danger approaches the nest

closely ; on such occasions, frequently it flies

away at the last moment, kicking the eggs (or

even the hatchlings) out of the nest in its seem-

ing panic flurry. At first sight this may seem a

self-destructive reaction, but though it definitely

destroys that particular clutch, it may actually

help the breeding enterprise as a whole, since

the breeding pair, having lost its clutch or brood,

is hastened to the next brood. In this note,

which is mainly concerned with the importance

of nesting materials, such complex inter-reactive

compulsions need not be detailed, but it may

be said that the accepted view is that these

diverse instinctive promptings all tend to be

ultimately beneficial to the species and have

survival value : otherwise, obviously, urges that

are self-destructive would have resulted in the

extinction of the species.

Instinct knows no intelligent acceptance of

defeat, but only frustration or death when it

cannot be fulfilled in some way. It is here

that ornithologists have sought, in their desire

to keep the distinction between instinct and

intelligence clear, to find intermediate terms

such as 4 intuition * (James Fisher and Roger

Tory Peterson : the world of birds)

which are of debatable validity. The sublima-

tion of an instinctive urge or apprehension is

well known in animal behaviour, where dis-

placement activities are recognizable, but the

acceptance of substitutes for the nesting sites

and nesting materials instinctively preferred

(where the environment is entirely natural and

rich in its resources) by water-birds is some-

thing quite different. Since nesting sites and

1 A purely artificial factor that has profoundly influen-

ced the establishment of water-bird breeding sites is the

protection offered to them by human countryside senti-

ment : the major nesting colonies now extant, or known

earlier in this century, mainly owed their origin to this,

or still owe them to this protection or its substitution

by the accord of governmental protection. Vedan-

thangal provides a fully documented example of this

factor.

nesting materials are closely inter-related, the

choice of nesting sites by these birds has to be

considered, where otherwise they are assured of

their breeding needs.

Nesting-trees and other nesting sites

In their gregarious nesting, water-birds are

instinctively impelled to choose trees (or other

sites) that offer them some security from distur-

bance and ground predators1, either by being

insulated by water (by their boles being partially

submerged as at Bharatpur, Karikili, Vedan-

thangal and Nelappattu, or by the trees being

on small islands in deep water, as at Rangana-

thittoo) or by their boles being very tall (as at

the Aredu and Kaziranga pelicanries, and at

Karungulam).

Where such trees are not available or are of

limited availability, they may accept substitute

nesting locations, food supply and other factors

being congenial. Such acceptance of substitute

sites may be partial or total, depending on the

availability of nesting-trees in particular loca-

tions. A few illustrative examples will help to

make this point clear, but before going on to

them it may be said that among other birds,

too, the acceptance of substitute nesting sites

where the prLtine, natural nesting sites are no

longer available is well known. Blue rock

pigeons, for instance, nesting originally in

caves and sheltered cliffs, have taken freely to

the somewhat similar nesting sites provided by

old forts and the spires of mosques and temples,

even where they arc probably truly wild, and

not feral atavistic reversions from domesticated

stock.

A quite remarkable acceptance of substitute

nesting-trees is provided by the pelicanry around

the hamlet of Aredu, in West Godavari. In

recent years, the birds seem to have aban-

doned, or are much less regular at, this long-

established nesting site. There are no other

tall trees here — pelicans like to nest in lofty

1146

nesting materials and nesting sites of water-birds

trees, as at Kaziranga, where they do not have

the insulation of water all round as at

Nelappattu — and so they used to nest regularly

in the palmyra and coconut tops around

the hamlet — the last kind of trees one would

imagine grey pelicans would choose to nest in !

(Plate I, 1). I observed the nesting birds closely

here in 1968, and they were very much at home

atop the palmyras. The reasons for their giving

up this breeding site are probably wholly un-

connected with nesting trees, as is explained

later in this paper.

Ranganathittoo

Though less flagrant an instance than the

quaintly picturesque sight of pelicans atop

palmyras that Aredu offers, the Ranganathittoo

sanctuary is a much more significant and multi-

faceted example of the acceptance of substi-

tute nesting sites by water-birds. There is a

great variety of nesting species, and one can

study the transition from what may be termed

the orthodox sites in trees to the most extra-

ordinary substitute locations at Ranganathittoo.

Unlike other mixed heronries insulated by

water, it is no village tank (Vedanthangal,

Karikili) or large, artificially created lake

(Bharatpur) that provides the protection, but

the deep, fast-flowing Cauveri. At a bend in the

river there is a large mixed heronry to be found

from July to October-November (taking the

vagaries of the monsoon into account) com-

prising, in the main, the following breeding

birds : cormorants of all 3 kinds, the darter,

the little, the median and the large egrets, the

cattle egret, the pond heron, the openbill, the

spoonbill and the white ibis : egrets and open-

bills are the main features of this sanctuary,

and there are only a few pairs of spoonbills.

The brief account that follows of the nesting

of these birds takes note only of dominant

trends and ignores exceptions.

Ranganathittoo is notable in that unlike

other mixed heronries, it offers no home-water —

the river is the home-water. The feeding

grounds are the inundated low flats, paddy fields

and minor irrigation canals in the neighbour-

hood, and nesting commences and ends sooner

here than in other water-bird breeding areas

the birds beginning to nest with the first heavy

monsoon rains in July. They build in a few

trees along the river and a few trees on shallow,

rocky islands, some of them only a few square

metres in area, in the river, and also in the

brakes of screwpine along the bank and on the

islands, and even in less congenial locations.

Further, some of the limited number of trees

available, especially the taller ones along the

bank, are used not so much for nesting as for

roosting — at all sizeable mixed heronries such

roosting trees may be found, used during the

early part of the breeding season mainly by a

number of water-birds (of the same species as

those nesting) that have not yet, or not for the

season, got into breeding condition, and later

briefly both by the breeding birds and their

grown young. While the cormorants and

darters nest here in trees, as elsewhere, the

other birds may also nest in the screwpine and

even in sedges.

Openbills and white ibises like to nest in

colonies mainly by themselves (though a few

other water-birds may also nest on the same

trees) : at Ranganathittoo also there is such

an 4 openbill-tree ’ on one of the central islands,

a Terminalia arjuna whose crown has a quite

atypical, low, flat spread by the top boughs

radiating in a downbent, lateral direction : there

are also two lesser colonies of openbills on

trees on the islands. But openbills nest also atop

screwpine on these islands, as I have not seen

them doing anywhere else, building high up

the screwpine brakes as other birds nesting in

these brakes do not. To the extent of my

limited personal observation at this sanctuary,

the openbills first build in their trees (they

1147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

always nest in the same trees) and perhaps those

that nest in the screwpine do so because the

nesting trees are already occupied by earlier

pairs.

The spoonbills nest mainly, or entirely, in

the screwpine brakes, building their nests low

down near the basal parts of the screwpine

and just inside the outer periphery of the brake.

They roost in the treetops at times.

White ibises, perhaps, build the most ele-

mentary (primitive) kind of stick nests among

these, birds. Elsewhere it may be noticed that

they favour low, flat-topped trees, building their

shallow nests close together, the nests often

being confluent and forming what may be

termed rafts. At Ranganathittoo there are two

trees specially favoured by white ibises — in

1968 I saw some nests right atop a screwpine

brake, built on the flat top formed by the thick,

sword-shaped leaves bending sharply down

towards their terminal part. More remarkable,

some of the white ibises nest on a small, flat-

crowned rock thinly covered with soil and

herbage projecting just above the water level, a

singularly vulnerable location — I have seen

these nests (and their contents) being carried

away by the current when the water rose in the

river.

Elsewhere, egrets nest in comparatively low

trees when they have the insulation of water,

not only in colonies by themselves, but also

along with cormorants, darters, herons and

openbills. Acacia nilotica and Barringtonia

acutangula are trees specially favoured by

them: they build fairly low in these trees, but

well above the water level. Where they do not

have the insulation of water, as when nesting

in trees on the banks of tanks and lakes, they

prefer tall trees — at Karungulam, for instance,

a few tall Terminalia bellerica and jamun

(Syzygium) trees. At Ranganathitoo, however,

the majority of the egrets nest, not on trees

(where, also, some nest) but in the screwpine

brakes, low down and well inside, often along

with night herons and cattle egrets (Plate I, 2) :

in places, the screwpine is white with nesting

and roosting egrets. Moreover, there is a

subsidiary island near the island on which the

‘ openbill tree ’ ( Terminalia arjuna) stands,

and on this island a thick growth of sedges

and grasses fringes part of its outline. Egrets

have always nested in this patch, low down,

the conjoint culms of many plants supporting

the weight of the nest, with the basal, support-

ing portions of the culms weighed down

and leaning outwards — when this island gets

flooded by the river rising, the culms are erected

and raised just above the highwater level by the

force of the current ! Other birds do not nest

in this patch of sedges, probably because to

land on the nest and take off from it needs the

delicate airmastery of egrets (Plate II, 3).

From what has been said, it may be thought

that the utilisation of these exceptional nesting

sites by the nesting birds at Ranganathittoo is

an intelligent adaptation to inevitable circum-

stances— to the circumstance that while food

and other amenities are available here, the

nesting trees are limited : it may be also thought

that nesting on islands in a swift river also gains

them an added measure of security, and that

some intelligence is displayed by the birds in

this. This is not so. Apart from the risk to

their nesting enterprise when the river rises

(as much as by 3 feet in a day), even in these

island strongholds they are bothered by an un-

doubtedly intelligent land predator, the bonnet

monkey, which swims across, breasting the

powerful current, and raids the nests. That

the bonnet monkey is not by nature a land

predator at the nesting sites of water-birds is

true.

Although this is not strictly relevant here,

it may be pointed out that not far from this

nesting colony, a little farther down the river

and barely 250 metres away, there are a number

of likely nesting trees along the bank which

are never occupied. If intelligence governed,

1148

NESTING MATERIALS AND NESTING SITES OF WATER-BIRDS

or qualified the nesting of these birds they

would certainly exploit these trees. What

inhibits them from doing so, apparently, is the

purely instinctive preference for nesting in a

crowd, in the midst of the established congestion.

That there is safety in numbers and in such

congestion, especially from avian predators

is well known — in passing it may be noted that

these predators include, besides birds of prey

like eagles and falcons, sneak-thieves like the

brahminy kite, the scavenger vulture, and crows.

But if they colonised those other, unoccupied

trees, they would automatically provide their

own crowd in this new location — something the

birds should know if their nesting was informed

by intelligence !

Another point worth noting is this. It

may be thought that the detailing of non-

arboreal nesting sites at Ranganathittoo and

the preference of arboreal sites by the nesting

birds elsewhere, where there are close-grown

trees, suggests that the latter is the natural

condition and the acceptance of non-arboreal

sites at Ranganathittoo a contingent, imposed

condition. Actually, the reverse is true in the

historical sense. In almost all the other water-

bird sanctuaries well known today, the nesting

trees are not natural and wild but planted by

men in groves, whereas at Ranganathittoo these

trees are purely natural : Bharatpur, Vedan-

thangal, Karikili, Dhamal, and Nelappattu

are examples of such planted groves. In

purely wild locations also (as at Bhitar Kanika

and elsewhere, in remote mangrove swamps)

these same species of water-birds may be found

nesting thickly together in trees, which justifies

the mention of their natural preference for trees

in this paper, but at present most of the breeding

sites are in artificially planted groves in village

tanks and in lakes.

Nor is this a recent phenomenon. The

Barringtonia acutangula grove in the middle of

♦ The idea was originally suggested by Dr. Sdlim

Ali, Bombay Natural History Society — Eds.

the village tank was already long-established

and * immemorial ’ in 1798, when the villagers

of Vedanthangal presented their petition to

Lionel Place, first Collector of the Chingleput

District. One of Hume’s correspondents

refers to a large nesting colony of grey pelicans

and the 4 pelican ibis * (painted stork) that

he noticed in a remote village in the Anantapur

district about a century ago, and says the

birds were nesting atop tamarinds and were

strictly protected by the villagers — the tamarind

came to India only some 4 centuries ago and was

sedulously planted on the outskirts of villages.

Bharatpur is an instance of an artificial

water spread, created for irrigation and mili-

tary purposes (as General Lake discovered

in 1805) and was only subsequently planted,

up to its present arboreal richness — incidentally

this seems to be the only water-bird sanctuary

in India where a sustained attempt has been

made to replenish the old, dying nesting trees

with others of the same species, carefully

planted.® Among the species specially favoured

for plantation in village tanks should be men-

tioned Acacia nilotica all over India, Terminalia

arjuna in the south as also Barringtonia

acutangula (the former mainly on tank bunds

and the latter in the tank bed, in a grove) and,

in the north-west, Mitragyna parvifolia .

Barringtonia species are very slow growing and

longlived, and survive for centuries, but need to

be replenished well in advance of their

decadence and death on account of their slow

growth.

Nests and Nesting Materials

While water-birds are considered primitive

taxonomically, and while it is true that their

nests do not exhibit the marvellous instinctive

intricacy and refinement of structure of birds

like the weavers, some of the warblers or even

ioras, the designation of their nests as rough

6 stick nests \ suggesting a haphazard throw-

ing together jof dry twigs, would be incorrect.

1149

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 75

Even in the roughest and simplest of their

nests, there is a structural pattern.

Illustration 4 is a photograph of the main

part of the nest of a pair of painted storks, and

shows the bulk and strength of the nest in

relation to the nesting pair and the two nestlings-

The foundation, or basal and outer sides, of a

water-bird’s nest is always of dry thorny twigs,

or dry, much-branched twigs (Plate III, 5)

which, when placed on a suitable site, will not

only tend to intermesh into a strong foundation

and side-walls, but also bind on to the fork of

the tree in which it is built, or to the twigs of

the treetop on which it is. Obviously, the

receptivity or holding power of the site (fork or

treetop) on which the nest is built also deter-

mines the strength of the attachment of the

nest to its site, since water-birds use no binding

for this purpose of fibrous materials : a flat-

crowned thorny tree, like Acacia nilotica offers

advantages in this respect which unarmedi

smooth-boughed trees like Mitragyna parvi-

folia or Terminalia arjuna do not — as against

this, the stouter and stronger forks and boughs

of these unarmed trees offer a stability to the

nest wedged in them that the acacia cannot.

Screwpine offers a different kind of peripheral

spiny grip to nests built in it, the edges of the

fleshy, dorso-ventrally flattened leaves being

armed with sharp spines : nests built in sedges

and tall grasses also have a firm support below

and on the sides — as pointed out already, they

are built low, just above the basal parts of the

culms, and have a firm if somewhat elastic

support from below, having already sunk as

low as they can by their weight, and being also

partly held up at the sides by the culms.

To some extent, the kind of nesting materials

used for building and lining, and replenishing,

the nests depends on its location and the kind

of nesting site selected. Since purely physical

limitations and needs condition this nest site

relationship, no attribution of intelligent

adaptation by the nesting birds is necessary

instinctive skills and responses no doubt govern

this relationship.

Whatever the site or substratum utilised for

the nest, thorny or spinously branched, usually

both thorny and much-branched, twigs (dry

twigs, not green twigs) are needed for the inter-

meshed outer shell and foundation of the nest.

A variety of thorny twigs are used for this

purpose : the most favoured appears to be

Acacia nilotica twigs which are both strong,

somewhat pliant, and thorny, and where this

tree is plentiful, as at Bharatpur, the outer

shell of the nest is built almost entirely, or

quite entirely, of these thorns (Plate II, 4).

Naturally the flori sties of the surrounds of

different nesting sites would determine the kinds

of thorny twigs employed in the main.

While water-birds can bring food for their

young in their crops from feeding grounds miles

away, and actually do so in many places, they

have to find the nesting thorns (awkward things

to carry, even in the beak) from much nearer,

usually in the immediate vicinity of the breeding

site. This point may be stressed, as the avail-

ability of thorny twigs in a patch of scrub some

distance away may not be of much use to the

nesting birds : the availability has to be local.

While competition for nesting sites is noticeable

in the early stages of the breeding enterprise,

once the nests are built, apart from threat

displays to keep intruders away, there is little

competition to be observed at these breeding

sites except for nesting material. The thorny

twigs may be pulled off the live tree, dry twigs

being selected for easy detachment — this is

quite usual where acacia thorns are used in the

main (Plate III, 5). Egrets and herons may be

observed actually fighting for (actively compet-

ing for) the displaced dry thorns that have fallen

off nests into the water below, for the thorny

twigs floating on the water.

Periodically, as the thorny twigs holding the

nest together get detached or weakened, the

outer shell of the nest is reinforced with fresh

1150

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate I

Krishnan : Indian Water-birds

1. Grey pelicans nesting on palmyra tops : Aredu :

West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh*

2. Cattle egrets and median egrets nesting in a screwpine brake, Ranganathittoo

Sanctuary, Karnataka.

ill!!

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Krishnan : Indian Water-birds

Plate II

3. A median egret coming in to its nest in the sedges, Ranganathittoo Sanctuary,

Karnataka. Note the egret sitting on its nest to the extreme right.

4. A pair of painted storks and their nestlings on their nest : Keoladeo Ghana,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

Plate ill

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Krishnan : Indian Water-birds

5. Openbill coming in with dry twigs for its nest : Ranganathittoo Sanctuary,

Karnataka.

6. The 4 large cormorant tree ’ at Keoladeo Ghana, Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

Note the extravagant use of grass to line the nests.

'V 4

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate IV

Krishnan : Indian Water-birds

7. Spoonbill slithering down to the grass on the lake bed to pull it out :

Keoladeo Ghana, Bharatpur : Rajasthan.

8. Openbill bringing in green leaves for the nest : Ranganathittoo Sanctuary,

Karnataka.

Plate V

J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Krishnan : Indian Water-birds

9. Painted stork bringing Mitragyna parvifolia leaves for its nest : Keoladeo

Ghana. Bharatpur, Rajasthan,

10. Grey pelican carrying rain-tree leaves to its nest : Aredu,

Andhra Pradesh.

NESTING MATERIALS AND NESTING SITES OF WATER-BIRDS

thorny twigs. Once this outer shell is built, it

is lined, or filled on the inside, with smooth,

unarmed twigs, the top layers consisting even

of green twigs with a few leaves attached. This

is done even prior to the laying of eggs.

This lining material, again, is not brought

from far away but from the periphery of the

breeding site, or even procured from unoccupied

trees in the breeding centre. At Vedanthangal,

it was noticed that the deeper nests (openbills,

grey herons, large egrets) were thickly lined

with the twigs of Barnngtonia acutangula , which

was occasionally detached from the crowns of

the nesting trees themselves, but more usually

from the unoccupied trees on the periphery

of the tank. The birds seem to be less

choosy over this lining twigs than over the

thorny twigs used for the shell of the nest. In

this connection reference may be made to

Bharatpur. The large cormorants nesting here

build rather heavy nests of stout acacia thorns,

securely wedged in the forks and crowns of the

nesting trees they favour (either Acacia nilotica

or Mitragyna parvifolia ), and well padded with

unarmed twigs, but in one particular colony of

these birds in a Mitragyna tree in the lake behind

Shanti Kutir (a large tree almost entirely

occupied by large cormorants), the inner lining

of twigs has been largely or wholly replaced by

dry grass pulled from the lake bed (Plate III, 6).

I noticed spoonbills at this sanctuary also

pulling drying grass off the lake bed — the

bird shown in (Plate IV, 7) took nearly 7 minutes

to slither down the sloping trunk of the dead-

wood it had alighted on to detach a culm of

grass and fly away with it.

Once the eggs are hatched, green leaf (in the

form of leafy twigs) is brought to the nest and

used for lining it, apparently to serve as a cool-

ing superstratum. Many birds at all water-

bird breeding centres may be seen bringing in

green leaf to the nest at this stage of their

breeding enterprise (Plate IV, 8 ; Plate V, 9).

While most birds bring in green leaves (largish

leaves) to the nest, some, like spoonbills also

bring in thalloid algae and other water plants.

The green leaves have also to be found in the

vicinity of the breeding site and, in addition,

cannot be picked up from the ground or water

as dry twigs are frequently picked up, but have

to be detached from the plants, almost always

along with the green twigs on which they grow.

For this reason the mere availability of thorny

and twiggy plants (for the earlier stages of the

nest construction and subsequent replenish-

ment) alone does not satisfy the requirements of

nesting materials of most water-birds— green,

leafy plants are also needed in the vicinity of the

breeding site.

At the Aredu pelicanry I noticed that while

the palmyras provided effective substitutes for

the lofty nesting trees in whose crowns grey

pelicans nest (when not nesting in trees insula-

ted by water) the search for twigs and green

leaves for the nest presented a problem to the

birds. They find the vast amounts of fish

they need for their breeding enterprise at

the Kolleru lake (less than 15 km away) and

even in inundated flats nearer home, but

have considerable difficulty procuring the twigs

and green material they need for the nests,

firmly wedged in the crowns among the flat-

tened, strong stalks of the leaves. There were

hatchlings in most of the nests when I was

there and I found a regular crowd of pelicans at

the only mesophytic tree in the neighbourhood,

a rain tree ( Pithecalobium saman ), tugging

away energetically at twigs from its crown,

finding their stance on the thin top boughs

precarious during this operation and often

toppling over : on detaching a twig with leaves

they took it immediately to the nest (Plate V, 10).

It was noticed at Ranganathittoo that egrets,

night herons, and even openbills, nesting in and

near the tops of the screwpine brakes used

much less green leaf for the nests than birds of

the very same species nesting in more exposed

locations, such as treetops. Elsewhere, too,

1151

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Fa/. 75

species nesting inside leafy trees, like night

herons, use much less foliage for their nests

than those nesting in more open locations.

Apparently the green material serves mainly

in providing thermal insulation and in

cooling.

Necessary environmental safeguards

FOR EFFECTIVE CONSERVATION

The main requirements of water-birds

breeding gregariously may be listed as follows :

1 — Feeding grounds and food. The types

of feeding grounds utilised and of the prey

favoured or taken in are not detailed here.

The feeding grounds may be some distance

away from the breeding colony but should

be protected from all forms of artificial

disturbance (human disturbance). A

home water is a great advantage, enabling

the grown-up young to feed near their

roosts.

2 — Nesting trees and other nesting sites : a

grove of close-grown trees insulated by

their boles being partially submerged

(as by their being in a tank bed) would

appear to be the most congenial : the

trees may also be on islands adequately

insulated by water : there may be alter-

native nesting locations available as in

brakes of screwpine (the tree-type screw-

pine) on islands — these would be specially

valuable during the replenishment of the

nesting trees periodically. It is impera-

tive to provide new nesting-trees as the

old ones decline, the new trees to be well

grown by the time the old ones die. This

can be effected in more than one way

and the physical features of each breeding

site would condition the technique best

suited to it.

3 — It is essential to provide adequate areas of

natural thorny scrub also holding meso-

phytic trees in the vicinity of the breeding

site to assure a supply of thorny twigs,

unarmed twigs and leafy material. In

all water-bird sanctuaries known to me

this has not been provided for. It would

be interesting to experiment with the

provision of detached dry twigs (as of

acacia) in this nesting-material area to

ascertain if the birds will accept this arti-

ficial provision, but in all other ways the

area reserved for nesting material must

be strictly conserved, be adequate and

adequately varied to suit the varied re-

quirements of the nesting birds, and be

fully protected. It should be fairly

open scrub, to allow free access to the

birds without creating any difficulties in

their landings and take-off, and feature

mesophytic trees at intervals, as also such

shrubs.

1152

WINTERING HABITS OF THE BLUE CHAT ERITHACUS

BRUNNEUS (HODGSON), IN THE NILGIRIS, SOUTHERN

INDIA

Mohammad Ali Reza Khan1

Introduction

The Blue Chat Erithacus brunneus is a

winter visitor in the Nilgiris and in other

parts of the Western Ghats (Ripley 1961, Ali and

Ripley 1973). During my study of the

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher Muscicapa nigro -

rufa, between September 1974 and September

1976, I also had occasion to observe the Blue

Chats in all my study areas in Coonoor (1750

m above msl), Kotagiri (1800 m) and

Ootacamund (2200 m). Hardly anything is

known about it except in a general way (see

Ali 1969, Ali and Ripley 1973). In this report

I have described the wintering habits of this

Himalayan species.

Methods and Materials

As the Blue Chats are not shy birds I could

easily follow them from close quarters even

without the binoculars. One single male Blue

Chat was followed over 15 days when it was

under direct observation for 5 hours a day. A

couple of them was mist-netted and banded

with the numbered aluminium rings of the

Bombay Natural History Society. An esti-

mate of population was made in the Government

Botanical Garden (Ootacamund) and environs

(c 25 h) ; Sims’ Park and environs (c 15 h).,

Forest Lodge Shola and environs ( c 10 h) and

Hebron School Shola (c 3 h), all within Coonoor

1 Research Fellow, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay-400 023. Present Address : Asst. Professor

in Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca-2, Bangladesh.

municipal limits. The individuals were counted

directly. Counting was not difficult as I visited

all these plots frequently and regularly and the

birds seemed to be parochial. No attempt

was made to collect specimens for the purpose

of stomach analysis and no insects were col-

lected for identification. A pair of 10 x 50

binoculars was often used.

Results and Discussion

Arrival and Departure

Like the Grey Wagtail Motacilla caspica,

the Blue Chat is one of the earliest migrants

to arrive and among the last to depart

from the Nilgiris. In Coonoor and Ootacamund

(Ooty) I noted 15 birds in mid-September.

By the middle of October almost every other

hedge or bush, be it along residential

quarters, in gardens, or in the sholas (Southern

Montane Wet Temperate Forests of Champion

and Seth 1968) were occupied by an individual.

From October to April end the Blue Chat is

one of the commonest species. The northward

migration possibly starts by April. All 12

birds in 1974-1975 and 15 in 1975-1976 in my

study plots at Coonoor and Ooty were noticed

to the middle of April. By the first week of

May none were seen in any part of the Nilgiris.

The birds which were banded in Nov. 1974

were not sighted again nor was there a re-

covery of the rings. The Blue Chats had arrived

singly and possibly departed singly too. There

was no sudden influx or disappearance in any

particular area.

1153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vel. 15

Habitat, Status and Population

The Blue Chat occupied all available under-

growth irrespective of the type of cover. The

undergrowths of the sholas, eucalyptus planta-

tion, bushes along perennial streams, and

amongst tea fields, road-side thickets of

Rubus , Lantana , Solatium , Cestrum aurantiacum

etc., are their favourite haunts. The habitat

preference seemed to be almost exclusive.

They preferred places which were almost un-

occupied by the resident species excepting the

Rufousbellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major

and the Black-and-Orange Flycatcher. The

shortwing is a bird of the thickest part of the

jungle and is more secretive than the Blue Chat.

The flycatcher is not terrestrial like the Blue

Chat. Thus the chat did not perceptibly

compete with it for the habitat.

The Blue Chat can be considered as one of the

commonest species during winter in the upper

plateaux of the Nilgiris and other southern

Indian hills like the Biligirirangans in

Karnataka, the Nelliampathies, High Range

and Cardamom Hills in Kerala, the Anaimalais,

the Palnis, the High Wavy Mountains,

Agastyarmalai and the Ashambu Hills in Tamil

Nadu, falling within the Western Ghats, usually

above 1000 m. In the Nilgiris I never saw it

below 800 m, though I came across it twice

around 200 m on my way to Agastyarmalai.

It always occurred singly.

The result of population count shows four

birds in the Botanical Garden (almost devoid

of undergrowth), 6 in Sims’ Park, 7 in the

Forest Lodge Shola and 3 in the Hebron School

Shola. On the average 2.65 hectares supported

one Blue Chat. In abundance this species was

next to Phylloscopus spp. and Acrocephalus

dumetorum among the migrants, and

Pycnonotus jocosus and Hypsipetes spp.,

Zosterops palpebrosa and Prinia socialis

among the residents.

Sex Ratio

The peculiar ratio of the sexes is a point of

particular interest in this species. Out of 20

birds observed in the study plots only one was

female and the rest all males (by plumage).

The few birds I trapped turned out to be males

too. In two years I came across over one

hundred birds in the Nilgiris, excluding those

only heard, of which only two were females

by plumage. The Blue Chats are sexually

dimorphic when adult and the plumages

are unmistakable. Although they lived in

deep shade it was easy to approach and

watch at close quarters. The only likely reason

for the sighting of more males is that the sexes

do not move together and that the females

winter elsewhere. This needs further study.

Parochiality and Territoriality

I do not know if the Blue Chats are parochial

in their winter quarters everywhere. But in

the Nilgiris each male invariably remained in

one particular area throughout the winter

months. They had hardly moved out of their

preferred shrubbery during the whole period of

their stay. Apparently they were also territorial.

Two birds were hardly ever found in close

proximity. In two cases I saw a male intruding

into the territory of another and being chased

off by the territory owner. They did not per-

form elaborate agonistic displays and merely

rushed at the intruders with tuck-tuck notes

and twitching the stumpy tail up and down.

The Blue Chats were hostile towards the

Black-and-Orange flycatcher when the latter

came within one metre or so on the ground.

They did not chase when this flycatcher

was off the ground. Price (1933) and Lack

(1953) have recorded defending of winter terri-

tories in American and European Robins,

respectively.

Food and Feeding Habits

All food materials were collected by the birds

from the ground. I observed them collecting

earthworms and large number of caterpillars

1154

WINTERING HABITS OF THE BLUE CHAT

and larvae in addition to insects settled on the

thickish leaf litter.

On the feeding ground the Blue Chats com-

peted for food with the Rufousebellied Short-

wing, Blackbird Turdus merula , Nilgiri Thrush

Zoothera dauma, Magpie-Robin Copsychus

saularis , Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher Muscicapa

tickelliae and the Black-and-Orange flycatcher.

Competition for food did not appear to be

strong with any of these. The blue chats

usually avoided all these species except the last

which they always chased.

In November 1974 I was observing a single

male Blue Chat in a small plot of some 10 x 3 m,

in the Sims’ Park, Coonoor. There was a male

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher in that bush too.

These two were the only occupants of the

shrubbery although many others used it as their

occasional feeding and resting place. The

shrubbery was composed of Cestrum aurantia -

cum and a few Ipomea , Passiflora and Callitris

Here the chat foraged regularly and systemati.

cally from one end of the bushy patch to the

other. The process was repeated throughout

the day except during the siesta mentioned

below.

The chats neither turned over dead leaves nor

scratched the ground for food as is the usual

practice with babblers and the Blackbird.

Sometimes they collected food at the same spot

for several minutes at a stretch. They preferred

the edges of their territory for this activity.

In the Botanical Garden they were often seen

along the base of the ornamental hedge plants

collecting food from the ploughed up soil.

Sometimes they hopped out into the open for

an insect.

General Habits

Ali and Ripley (1973) have summarized the

habits of the Blue Chat. The bird is not shy,

and if one remains quiet it can be observed even

from a metre distance. In the Botanical

Garden they were often seen along main path-

ways oblivious of the traffic. They spend

most of their time on the ground and usually

live within a metre or so of it and are partial to

sheltered streamlets and drains.

At least thrice a day they take rest, at c 0800,

at 1100 and c 1500 hrs. At the time of rest the

birds perch half a metre or so above the ground

and preen their feathers thoroughly. This

activity is often interrupted by the tuck-tuck call-

notes and short whistles, and tail twitching. They

also produce several low, soft and melancholy

notes almost like a soliloquy. The rest period

lasts for about five minutes after which the

birds descend to the ground and resume forag-

ing. Similar soliloquizing is performed by the

Black-and-Orange Flycatcher and the Rufous-

bellied Shortwing during the rest period. No

published literature mentions it.

The Blue Chats under observation became

active at c 0615 hrs. Their first activity was a

vigorous preening and soliloquizing. They

retired at c 1830 hrs. spending almost 12 hours

of the day in collecting food and in other

daily chores. Roosting was always in the same

shrubbery and usually at the same spot. I have

noticed heavy droppings under such roosts.

They prefer the thickest part of a bush for roost-

ing and usually within a metre off the ground.

They do not allow the Black-and-Orange Fly-

catcher to roost near them (Khan 1977). I

have not noticed the Blue Chats join other birds

in mobbing predators. At the sight of a preda-

tor they quickly withdraw inside the bush.

Song and Call -Notes

On arrival in the Nilgiris the birds had a

loud quick-quick-quick etc., song (Magrath in

Ali and Ripley 1973). A few of the early

arrivals (3 out of 20 birds observed) retained

this song. Towards the end of March and in

April, many again developed this song before

departing for the breeding quarters.

In winter months the Blue Chats are quite

vocal although their voice is feeble and in my

1155

JOURNAL > BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY \ To/. 75

estimation they rank next to Blyth’s Reed

Warbler. Their normal and characteristic call-

note is tuck-tuck described by earlier authors

as an alarm note. This note is sometimes

followed by a whistling twitch-fweech somewhat

similar to tui or twee of the Black-and-Orange

Flycatcher (Khan, loc. cit.). Like the Rufous-

bellied Shortwings and the Black-and-Orange

Flycatchers, the Blue Chats are more often

heard than seen.

The habitat preference, ratio of the sexes,

pattern of arrival and departure, and relation-

Ali, Salim (1969) : Birds of Kerala. 2nd edn.

Oxford University Press, Bombay & London.

AND Ripley, S. D. (1973) : Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 8. Oxford

University Press, Bombay and London.

Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. K. (1968) : A revised

survey of the forest types of India. Government of

India, Delhi.

Khan, M. A. R. (1977) : Ecological Problems relat-

ship with the resident birds could be good

subjects for further study.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. Salim Ali for his con-

stant interest and helpful criticism during the

preparation of the paper, and to Dr. Robert

B. Grubh, Assistant Curator, BNHS, for

reading through the manuscript.

ENCBS

ing to birds. Ecology and behaviour of the Black-

and-Orange Flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon).

Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the University of Bombay.

Lack, David (1953) : The Life of the Robin. Rev.

edn., Penguin Books, London.

Price, J. B. (1933) : Winter behaviour of two semi-

albino Western Robins. Condor 35 : 52-54.

Ripley, S. D. (1961) : A Synopsis of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, India.

1156

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ECOLOGY OF INDIAN PIED

MYNA, S TURN US CONTRA CONTRA LINNAEUS

M. L. Narang, A. K. Tyagi and B. S. Lamba1

{With two plates and a text-figure)

Introduction

Birds play an important role in relation to

agriculture. Many land birds feed on insects

including insect pests of agriculture and horti-

culture. But they also feed on cereal grains,

fruits and fishes. Thus the evaluation of their

exact role as beneficial or harmful to the farmer

becomes all the more important.

Mynas and starlings are generally considered

to be friends of the farmer. These birds are

known to feed on agricultural pests such as

grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, ants, cutworms

and caterpillars. Like many other species

they too feed on cereal grains and fruits. A

study of the food and feeding habits and breed-

ing biology of the Indian Pied Myna Stumus

contra contra Linnaeus (Sturnidae) was under-

taken to assess the exact role played by the

bird in agriculture.

The pied myna is one of the commonest

species of birds in northern and eastern India.

Local and patchy in distribution, it is found

upto c 700 m in the foothills.

This species is sociable, predominantly

insectivorous, and ground feeding. It is found

in noisy squabbling flocks when not paired off

for breeding, commonly in association with

other mynas. It affects villages and human

habitations. Its favourite feeding sites are

damp grazing grounds, banks of ponds and

tanks, sewage farms and municipal refuse

dump.

1 Zoological Survey of India, Northern Circle,

Dehra Dun.

Study area

Physiography :

Studies on food and feeding habits and

breeding biology of Indian Pied Myna were

carried out during the years 1974-76 and early

1977 in and around the city of Dehra Dun,

situated at an altitude of 650 m and located in

the Doon Valley in the northern part of Uttar

Pradesh at 78°2' E. longitude and 30°20'

N. latitude. The valley is surrounded by the

Himalayas on the north-east and by Siwalik

hill ranges on south-west and bounded by the

rivers Jamuna and Ganga on the north-west and

south-east (Fig 1).

The valley is covered by deciduous forests

and scrub in the Sub-Himalayas and Siwalik

foot-hills. Major part of the valley is culti-

vated.

The flora around the city of Dehra Dun

furnishes a long list of plants including shrubs

and timber trees. Prominent among the latter

are : Sal Shorea robusta , Sheesham Dalbergia

sissoo , Cheer Pirns longifolia , Khyr Acacia

katechu , Siris Acacia serissa , Sain Dentaptera

tomentosa and Silver Oak Grevillea robusta.

Among the shrubs Lantana sp. and Zizyphus

spp. are common.

Climate :

The climate of Dehra Dun differs from that

of the plains of northern India. The tempera-

ture is slightly lower because of its elevation

and the forest range of Siwaliks partly blocks off

and cools the scorching winds that blow during

14

1157:

30° 20

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

* DEHRADUN

Vill. Bad Ki pur £*

v Gorakhpur

Fig. 1. Map of Dehra Dun & vicinity.

1158

TEHRI GARH WA L

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

the hot weather in the north Indian plains in

summer. Being located in the valley, it is pro-

tected by Mussoorie hills from cold Himalayan

winds during winter. The average of mean

minimum annual temperature of this area

ranges between 3°C (December) and 22.5°C

(July) and the mean maximum between 19.1°C

(January) and 30°C (June).

Seasons :

A year at Dehra Dun may be divided climati-

cally into three main seasons.

The cold season begins from November when

the average minimum temperature drops to

about 6°C and extends to February when the

average minimum temperature is 5.7°C,

December being the coldest month with the

mercury dropping as low as 2.7°C at times.

The hot season may be said to begin from the

middle of March when the average maximum

temperature shoots upto 26.2°C. The rise in

temperature continues, reaching its maximum

in mid June when the average maximum tem-

perature rises to 35.2°C. Thus May and June

are the hottest months in Dehra Dun. With

the onset of rains by June end/early July the

temperature starts falling again.

The wet season is ushered in by south-west

monsoon by the later half of June and it conti-

nues upto September. July and August being

the months of heaviest rainfall.

Rainfall :

The south-west monsoon is the chief source

of rains in Dehra Dun though some rainfall

usually occurs almost throughout the year.

The monsoon breaks over Dehra Dun by the

later half of June, is at its heaviest during July

and August and gradually tapers in September.

July has the maximum rainfall sometimes hav-

ing as much as 729.4 mm of rains. November

is a dry month. In winter also (December

to February) on an average 43 mm of rainfall

occurs in Dehra Dun. The average annual

rainfall for the last fifteen years as recorded

by the Forest Influences Section of Forest

Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun

is 2058.5 mm.

Monthly mean rainfall for the years 1974-1976

is given in Table 1.

Humidity :

The city of Dehra Dun being enclosed by

Himalayas on one side and Siwalik on the

other. It has dense vegetation. The area

attracts heavy rains. All this adds to increase

the relative humidity which is considerable

throughout the year reaching its maximum

during summer and winter rains. During

winter rains it may reach to a maximum of 97 %.

April and May are the driest months.

The monthly mean relative humidity for the

years 1974-1976 is given in Table 2.

Temperature :

The monthly mean minimum of daily tempera-

ture ranges from 2.7°C in December to 23.3°C in

July, while the mean of daily maximum ranges

from 17.7°C in January to 36.9°C in May.

The monthly mean temperature is the lowest in

December. It rises steadily thereafter until the

maximum is reached in June. The daily range

of temperature is least during the months of

July and August (about 6-8°C) while in winter

season it is generally large (about 13-15°C).

The monthly mean minimum and maximum

temperature for the years 1974-76 are tabulated

in Tables 3 and 4.

Period of Sunshine :

The monthly mean of hours of bright sun-

shine ranges from 3.9 hrs to 10.8 hrs. July

being the monsoon month has the lowest hours

of bright sunshine. (Table 5).

1159

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

Table 1

Monthly mean rainfall (in mm) for the years 1974-1976

Months

Table 2

Monthly mean relative humidity (in per cent) for the period 1974-1976

Months

Table 3

Monthly mean minimum temperature (in °C) for the years 1974-76

1160

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

Table 5

Monthly mean of hours of bright sunshine per day

Years Months

PART I

Food and Feeding Habits

Introduction

Our present day knowledge of food of Indian

birds is largely based on the findings of Mason

and Maxwell- Lefroy (1912). They analysed

the food of 110 species of birds collected at

Pusa, Bihar. Their findings added valuable

information on the food of birds in India.

D’Abreu (1918) studied the food of birds in the

Central Provinces. Husain and Bhalla (1937)

studied the food of 93 species of birds of

Lyallpur. Beresford (1944) and, Simwat and

Sidhu (1974, 1975) also added to our know-

ledge of the subject. All these workers have

made a qualitative assessment of food of birds.

Mukherjee (1969-76) was perhaps the first in

India to make a quantitative assessment of the

food of birds.

Material and Method

Birds were collected, mostly with a 12 bore

double barrel shot gun using Nos 6-9 shots,

from cultivated fields and scrub around the

village of Badripur and Gorakhpur near

Defence Colony on Haridwar road and culti-

vated areas around Sahaspur on Chakrata road.

Most of the specimen were collected bet-

ween 08.30 hrs and 10.30 hrs during summer

and between 09.00 hrs and 11,00 hrs during

winter. The specimens thus collected were

labelled in the field and brought to the labora-

tory packed individually in polythene bags.

Material which was to be examined after 24 hrs

was preserved in 5 % formalin. The crops and

gizzards were then opened and the contents

put in screen sieves, washed with water and

then placed on a blotting paper and dried in an

oven at 30°C for five minutes. The animal

and vegetable matter was broadly separated

into phyla and classes and weight and volume

was recorded on individual data sheets. An

electronic single Pan Balance, accurate to 0.001

gms, was used to weigh the samples. A gra-

duated measuring cylinder true to 0.1 ml was

used for measuring the volume.

Examples of animal diet were identified in

the laboratories of Zoological Survey of India

whereas plant materials were determined by

Botanical Survey of India. Some insect larvae

were identified at the Forest Research Institute

and Colleges. Identification of a few insects

were confirmed by British Museum (N. H.),

London.

Three methods have been used by various

workers to determine the food of birds quanti-

tatively, namely, numerical, gravimetric and

volumetric methods.

As the objective of our study was to establish

the status of this species as beneficial or harm-

1161

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 75

ful to the farmer, we opted for a combination

of the known methods.

For analysing the animal diet we used a

combination of numerical and volumetric

methods. The advantage was, if we were to

determine the economic status of any item of

animal diet, especially insects, we must know its

size to determine the extent of its involvement.

A combination of numerical and gravimetric

methods was followed for analysing the veget-

able diet.

Some workers have suggested the examination

of whole digestive track but this method seems

to give more importance to foods which are

hard enough to resist digestion. We have

examined the contents of crops and gizzards

only as the food articles retain recognisable

shape only upto the gizzard.

Observations

The results of our study suggest that the

Pied Myna does not go for any specialised diet

but feeds upon a variety of food which is seaso-

nally abundant and hence easy to obtain. A

year round record of the food taken by the bird

during the study period is presented in Table 6-

Table 6

Seasonal food preference

Month

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Food

. . Caterpillars (unidentified), grubs (unidentified), ants ( Pheidole sp.), wheat (( Tritium aestixum

L.), Molluscs {Kaliella sp., Digoniostoma sp.), beetles ( Oxytelus sp. Rhyscdes sp.), teimites

( Odontotermes sp.).

. . Bugs (Eusarcocoris sp.), grasshopper fragments, caterpillars, termites ( Odontotermes sp.),

molluscs [Kaliella sp., Indoplanorbis sp., Digoniostoma pulchella (Ben sen)], beetles ( Tanymecus

sp., Drasterius sp., Rhysodes sp.), ticks [. Boophilus microplus (Canestrini)].

. . Caterpillars (unidentified), beetles ( Oxytelus sp., Rhysodes sp.), molluscs {Indoplanorbis sp.,

Macrochlamys sp.), crickets {Gryllus sp.).

. . Beetles {Rhysodes sp., Oxytelus sp., Coccinella sp., Anadastus sp.), bugs {Cydnus indicus West.),

ants {Pheidole sp.), grubs (Unidentified), molluscs {Macrochlamys sp.).

. . Termites {Odontotermes sp.), gastropods {Opeas gracilis Hutton), caterpillars (unidentified),

grubs (unidentified), beetles {Coccinella sp. Rhysodes sp.), Mole Crickets {Gryllotalpa sp.)

. . Ants {Aphaenogaster sp.), grasshoppers {Chrotogonus sp., Acrydium sp.), grubs (unidentified),

Cockroaches {Periplanata sp.), bugs {Aeschrocoris sp.), flower parts of silver oak {Grexillea

robusta Cam.), beetles {Scleron sp.).

. . Berries of Banyan and Peepal {Ficus benghalensis L. & Ficus religiosa L.), wild seeds (unidenti-

fied), seeds of Jamun [Syzygium cumini (L.)], ants {Pheidole sp.), beetles {Bembidion sp.).

.. Earthworms [ Eutyphoeus waltoni (Michaelson), Eutyphoeus orientalis (Beddard)], frogs [Bufo

melanostictus Schneider, Microhyla ornata (Dumeril & Bibron)], Beetles {Coccinella sp.,

Lyprops sp., Crioceris sp.), earwigs (Partially digested), grubs (unidentified).

. . Earthworms [. Eutyphoeus orientalis (Beddard)], molluscs {Macrochlamys sp.), beetles [Anadastus

bifasciatus (Mots.), Anthracophora crucifera Oliv., Syncalypta curimoides Champ., Crioceris

sp.)], grubs.

. . Lantana berries {Lantana camara L.), bees and wasps {Apis dorsata Fabr., Vespa basalis Smith)

termites {Odontotermes sp.), flies {Musca domestica Linn.).

. . Wheat {Triticum aestivum L.), Lantana berries, termites, ants {Dorylus orientalis Westwood),

beetles {Aphodius sp., Onthophagus sp.).

. . Grubs, flies {Musca domestica Linn., Drosophilia sp.), wheat, ants and beetles {Aphodius sp.).

A volumetric and gravimetric analysis of food found in the crops is given in Table 7— A & B,

1162

ECOLOG Y OF THE INDIAN FIED MYNA

Table 7-A

Vegetable Diet

1163

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 75

Table 7-B -\Contd.)

Animal Diet

1164

bcoioo f of rm in dun pied myna

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , 75

Table 7-B— -(Gmfrf.)

Animal Diet

No. Number of birds which had taken the item.

Wt. Maximum wt. (in gms) of item of diet found in any single specimen.

Vol. Maximum volume (in ml) of item of diet found in any single specimen.

%Wt : Maximum percentage of food item by wt. found in any single specimen.

%Vol : Maximum percentage of food item by vol. found in any single specimen.

1166

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

Conclusion

Judging from an analysis of the gut contents

we find that these birds mostly feed on insects,

lantana berries, molluscs, earthworms and wild

seeds. Only a few birds have taken seeds

of wheat during the sowing season. Out

of 137 birds collected, only six have taken

wheat. During the harvesting season none

of the specimens had taken wheat or any other

grain. This apparently suggests that Pied

Myna does not prefer wheat but during sowing

season, while taking insects from fields, some

wheat seeds are also taken. On the other hand

these birds took a heavy toll of insects some of

which are injurious to agriculture. A few birds

have consumed ticks which are ectoparasites

on mammals and cause diseases such as anaplas-

mosis. Earthworms bring organic matter

above the surface of earth and make the soil

more fertile. During the rainy season this

bird may be said to cause some harm to

farmers by feeding on earthworms. However

we can safely conclude that the Indian Pied

Myna is much more beneficial than harmful

to agriculture.

PART II

Breeding Biology

Introduction

Our present day knowledge of the breeding

biology of the Indian Pied Myna remains

restricted mainly to the topics dealt with by

Jerdon (1862-64), Hume (1873, 1889-1890)

and Baker (1933). Very little has been added

to it in spite of the fact that a number of workers

(Cripps 1878 ; Ried 1881, 1887 ; Barnes 1890,

Inglis 1901, 1910 ; Osmaston 1913 ; Whistler

1919 ; Field 1922 ; Gill 1922 ; Briggs 1934 ;

Ara 1954 ; to cite a few) have written

on one or the other aspect of the breeding habits

of this bird.

Material and Method

Most of the observations for this study were

made in the field through 6 x 30 prismatic field

binoculars. Observations were started before

the flocks disintegrated into pairs.

Before and during the nest building stage the

sexes, wherever necessary, were determined by

actual examination of the gonads after killing the

bird. After the construction of the nest one

(and in some cases both) of the occupants was

captured with mist nets and ringed with

coloured plastic rings for visual recognition.

The process of nest construction was watched

from a safe distance from behind a stout tree/

bush or from within a parked vehicle. The

material used for nest construction and dimen-

sions of the nest were recorded from a few nests

brought to the laboratory for the purpose.

Soon after the start of nest construction

regular daily examination of the nest was made

by climbing upto it. Occasionally light

bamboo ladders (6 to 8 metres) were used for

the purpose. Nests situated on very thin

branches were examined with the help of small

boys who would communicate or lower the

contents in a small tin container for taking

notes, measurements and weights. The con-

tents were then replaced intact.

During the laying and hatching periods a

number of selected nests were observed daily

between 0530-0730 hrs, 0930-1230 hrs and

1630 to 1830 hrs for certain specific obser-

vations. Extra but irregular visits were made at

night, dawn and dusk.

1167

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

Eggs for incubational studies were marked

with indelible India ink. For recording des-

cription and measurements, eggs from certain

deserted nests and nests that are difficult to

approach for regular observations, were brought

to the laboratory. A pair of vernier callipers

was used to take measurements in milimetres.

An electronic single-pan balance true to 0.001 g

was used to record the weight of eggs. The

colour of the shell was determined by com-

parison with ‘ Methuen handbook of colour ’.

Successive eggs of a selected number of clutches

were measured and weighed in the field.

In a few selected nests the freshly hatched

nestlings were banded with coloured plastic

bands for studying growth rate and behaviour

patterns. Single-pan electronic balance was

used for taking weights of the nestlings. Grown

up nestlings were put in cloth bags for weighing.

For certain specific studies like growth of

feathers etc. some nestlings were brought to the

laboratory. Such nestlings were killed to deter-

mine the type of food on which they were being

fed.

All the nest life studies were made visually

by climbing upto the nest or through a pair of

6 x 30 prismatic binoculars from a distance.

The photographs of nests, eggs, nestlings etc,

were taken with an Asahi Pentax Camera with

a normal 50 mm/F 1.2 lens and a 500 m/F 8

lens.

The map of the study area was obtained from

Survey of India, Dehra Dun and data on the

weather conditions, from Forest Research

Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun.

Breeding Season

The Indian Pied Myna does not breed round

the year. At Dehra Dun it was observed to

have a single breeding season of about six

months from late February to end of August.

In the years of prolonged winter rains the

commencement of breeding season may oe de-

layed upto March or even April. In 1975 when

rainfall in 2nd half of February was normal

the breeding activity i.e. pair formation etc. star-

ted normally, i.e. by February end. But on

account of sudden increase of winter rains in

March (119.2 mm) further progress in breeding

activity i.e. nest construction etc. was arrested

till the rains slowed down by the end of March.

In 1976, on the other hand, the rainfall in the

later half or February was much more. As

a result the breeding activity i.e. pair formation

etc. did not start till the end of March. The

breeding activity however, lasted till end of

August during both the years 1975 and 1976.

Apparently the rainfall does interfere with

breeding. In the year 1977 when the rainfall

was much more than normal in July, a second

brood was not raised although some nest

repairing activity was noticed. The extension

of the winter rains also retards the commence-

ment of breeding activity in this species. It

will, however, be not wise to attribute the delay

in the commencement of breeding to any one

climatological factor alone. For a detailed

discussion on this topic please see Lamba (1977 :

265-266).

Maximum number of nests under construc-

tion were observed from March end to early

May. Most nests with eggs were met with

during April-May and most nests with

nestlings were noticed from April end to early

June. Some of the early breeders go in for a

second brood also. Largest number of second

clutches was found during later half of June to

later half of July. The nestling from these

second broods left the nests by end of August.

Pair formation :

With the commencement of breeding

season the large flocks usually seen feeding

and roosting in winter, start thinning out.

Partners are sought out and courted. The

factors involved in the selection of a partner

were not ascertained. Pairs once formed re-

1168

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

mained together for the total duration of the

breeding season. In three out of four cases where

one of the partners was shot or died when the

nest was active another partner was acquired.

Once when a male was eliminated after the 1st

brood had been successfully raised the female

acquired another male and raised a second

brood in the same nest. In another case where

the female was eliminated after the 1st brood the

male deserted the nest and left the area.

Mating :

Copulation takes place either on the ground

or in the branches of trees.

Courtship includes feeding together. During

courtship display the male puffs up its feathers

and bobs its head up and down a couple of times.

Copulation may or may not take place im-

mediately after a spell of courtship display.

The frequency of copulation is the highest,

four times in 6 hours in one instance, when the

egg chamber is being constructed. The fre-

quency of copulation decreases as the clutch

is being laid and ceases completely after the

female starts incubating during the day time.

The second peak of copulation activity is

reached when the nest is being repaired and

reshaped for raising the second brood.

Territory

The male occupies his territory early in the

breeding season. The territory seems to be

announced by mere presence of the male as

no distinctive song or display was noticed.

The territory is defended by the owner (male)

against all males of the species. All females

are welcome till the pair formation takes place.

After the pair formation the territory is defended

by both the partners against all others of the

species who may attempt construction of nest

in the same nesting tree. A straggler or an

occasional visitor may not be pounced upon.

Occasionally, if the tree is very large with

spreading branches, another pair or two may

be tolerated to build in the same tree. The

occurrence of half a dozen nests in a single tree

has been recorded by Baker (1933).

Distances between various nests were mea-

sured in a guava and mango garden of about

4000 sq. metres. Fourteen nests were found

placed at distances varying from 14 to 100

metres from each other.

The Pied Myna defends its territory by threat

display and actual combat. The threat display

consists of puffing up of the body feathers,

especially of the neck region and emitting loud

calls with beak open and the neck extended.

Normally the threat display is sufficient to

frighten the intruders into retreat. If this

fails an attack is launched by running or flying

up to the intruder. The beak is used as an organ

of offence. A number of sparring bouts may

occur. The weaker of the two may lie flat on

the back and try to use the claws also for

defence.

When threatened by a common enemy like

a raptor or a snake, some sort of community

defence comes into play. In such an event some

or all of the neighbouring pairs and even

visitors may join hands in response to loud

warning calls given out by the bird first

to spot the danger. When faced with a large

raptor who refuses to be frightened by the

noise or ineffective attacks, the birds calm

down after a number of attempts and occupy

the neighbouring trees only to launch another

attack as soon as the raptor leaves its perch.

Nest Construction

Site :

Apparently the nest site is selected by mutual

consent, after the pair formation, inside the

territory already occupied by the male. The

original site may often be given up in preference

to another probably moie suitable one. This

may happen even after the commencement of

nest construction.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Ko/. 75

Generally thin vertical forks in large trees

like, mango, banyan, peepal, kathal, guava

and sheesham are preferred to place the nests

in, at about 5-15 metres high above the ground.

Occasionally cross-bars on telegraph poles may

be used for the purpose, especially in areas

where large trees are wanting.

The birds may take their own time in making

the final selection of the nesting site. As many

as 10 to 15 days may elapse after the pair for-

mation before undertaking the actual const-

ruction of the nest.

Nesting material :

Thin and pliable twigs, stems of small plants,

grass stems, stems of creepers and twiners,

strings, rags, pieces of paper, discarded cello-

phane wrappers, polythene bags and similar

sundry materials are collected from under the

trees, hedges, waste land, garbage cans etc. from

the territory and adjoining human habitat, for

the construction of the outer dome.

The inside of the dome or the egg chamber

is lined with similar but softer materials.

Occasionally human or horse hair may also be

included in the lining of the egg chamber.

Both sexes gather materials for and take part

in the construction of the nest. The female

puts in more effort than the male who generally

helps in the collection of the material leaving

most of the construction work to the female.

The female keeps to the vicinity of the nest

even when searching for nesting material.

When the nest is well under way the female’s

material hunting trips are greatly reduced.

She keeps on working in the nest while male

keeps her supplied with requisite material.

Once the nest construction starts the nest is

never left unguarded. One of the mates is

always at hand to defend and protect it from

intruders and pairs of the adjoining territories

who are not beyond pinching the nesting

material from deserted or unguarded nests.

The maximum nest construction activity

was observed between 06.00 hrs and 08.00 hrs.

It slows down considerably during the day.

Towards the evening there is another spurt of

nest building activity reaching a second peak

during 1600 to 1800 hrs. In the nests started

late in the breeding season the frequency of

material gathering trips and speed of construc-

tion is much more than those started earlier

in the season. In some of these cases the

material gathering and nest construction may

continue throughout the day with short periods

of rest and feeding.

During a spell of normal construction

activity as many as 38 material gathering trips

an hour in the morning and 21 in the evening

by both birds, were clocked.

On the approach of a raptor or in the event

of a possible threat to the nest even from the

observer, the bird outside the nest, usually the

male, gives out an alarm call which makes the

bird working inside to leave the nest and take

refuge in the branches nearby. Alarm calls

from a neighbouring male do not elicit such

a response.

Time required for the completion of

THE NEST

Normally it takes about 11 to 22 days for

a pair to complete the nest (Table 8). The

birds that start building early in the breeding

season usually take longer than the ones that

start late. In two cases when the construction

was started as late as the end of June it took

the birds 7 days in one and 8 days in another

case to finish the nest.

The nest :

The finished ne,.t is a rough, round or more

often elongate, dome approximately 60-80 cm

wide and approximately 35 to 50 cm high with

a circular side opening 6-8 cm in diameter

1170

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

Table 8

Time required for completion of the nest

(Plate I, Fig. 1). The opening usually faces

the fork (Plate I, Fig. 2).

Occasionally a nest may be deserted while

still under construction, or even after comple-

tion due to lack of security. A nest is rarely

deserted after a full clutch has been laid, except

when all the eggs are removed. The mateiial

from the deserted nest is often utilised in the

construction of the new nest.

After the first brood has been successfully

raised, the same nest may be used, after slight

repairs, for a second brood.

The time lag between the completion of nest

and laying of the 1st egg could not be ascertained

beyond doubt because of the dome like struc-

ture of the nest with narrow opening makes

visual observation rather difficult. It was

generally observed that after the construction

activity ceased or almost stopped the 1st egg

was not laid immediately. Usually it was laid

1-3 days after the work ceased on the nest

(Table 9). But in some nests the lining of the

egg chamber continued even after the 1st egg

had been laid. In a few cases the full clutch

was laid in an open nest and the dome was

constructed later. In three cases (out of some

170 nests studied) the eggs were laid and hatched

in an open nest without any attempt at construc-

tion of the dome.

Clutch

Laying pattern :

Generally four to five and occasionally six

eggs are laid at regular intervals of twenty-four

hours (Table 10).

Eggs were laid in the early forenoon in

81.6 % of the nests. In 16.1% of the nests

1171

JOURNAL* BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY t Vol 75

Table 9

Time lapse between completion of the nest and laying of the 1st egg

1172

Plate I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Lamba et cil. : Indian Pied Myna

Fig. 1. The finished nest is a rough dome.

Fig. 2. The opening usually faces the fork.

J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Lamba et al : Indian Pied Myna

Plate II

Fig. 3. The eggs are ovoid in shape and blue in colour.

Fig. 4. One week old nestlings.

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

the eggs were laid during the afternoons.

The individual time of laying and the period

of twenty-four hours was, however, maintained

in all cases.

Clutch size :

In all 172 clutches were observed during the

period of study. Out of these, sixty-two

(36.05 %) consisted of 4 eggs each, seventy-three

(41.44 %) of 5 eggs each and thirty-seven

(21.49 %) of 6 eggs each. The larger

clutches (of 6 eggs) were laid more frequently

in the first half of the breeding season and the

smaller (of 4 eggs) in the later half. In

88 nests where second broods were raised the

same number of eggs were laid for the second

brood also. The average clutch size was larger

(4.9) in the year 1975 when the breeding

season started early, and was comparatively

smaller (4.8) in the year 1976 in which the

breeding season commenced late.

Eggs :

The eggs of the Indian Pied Myna are ovoid

in shape and blue in colour. The shade

may vary slightly from clutch to clutch.

The shell is fairly glossy and devoid of

any markings (Plate II, Fig. 3). Average

size of 60 eggs was found to be 27.24 x

20.12 mm. This compared favourably with

Baker’s (1933) average of 27.6 x 20.2 mm for

100 eggs. The eggs weigh from 4.974 grams to

6.391 grams. Average weight of forty eggs

worked to be 5.937 grams.

Incubation :

The female starts incubating during the day

time after the full clutch has been laid. She,

however, starts spending the nights in the nest

even a day or two before the laying of the 1st

egg. Although she always sits in the nest during

the night, from the laying of the first egg, it is

doubtful if she incubates the eggs during the

first one or two nights. This fact is revealed by

the hatching pattern, and is discussed under

that head.

The male hangs around the nest while the

female is incubating. He may go for short feeding

trips. On return from such trips he usually inti-

mates his arrival to his spouse either by calling or

peeping into the nest. He relieves her occasionally

for short feeding trips. During this time he

may stay in the nest or outside. It could not

be ascertained whether or not he incubates

during the time he is inside the nest.

On hot afternoons the female may leave the

nest and join her mate in a shady branch of the

nesting tree.

Period of incubation and hatching pattern :

The eggs hatch after 14-15 days (Table 11)

more or less in the same order in which they are

laid. The time gap between the laying of the

last egg to the hatching of the same has been

taken as period of incubation. Eggs hatch out

at irregular intervals of four to twenty-four

hours, the first two hatching out on the same day

within six hours of each other. That indicates

that the regular incubation does not get under

way till the second or the third egg is laid.

Hatching success ;

Hatching success was found to be fairly

high. In the year 1975 it was observed to be

79 % and in 1976 it was 88 % (Table 12).

Nest life :

The hatchlings are fleshy, pink in colour

and almost naked. They have a yellow

bill and gape, tip of the bill hard and eyes

closed. There are traces of greyish white

filoplumes on the head, back, wings, thighs

and sides of the abdomen. The hatchlings

are unable to stand up. They gape for food

shortly after hatching.

The newly hatched young are kept warm

especially during the night by the mother. This

15

1173

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

Table 11

PERIOD OF INCUBATION AND HATCHING PATTERN

1174

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

Table 12

Hatching success

night brooding continues for about 16-18 days.

Even when the hatchlings are about to fly the

female spends the night with them in the nest.

The young, especially in the earlier stages, are

never left unguarded.

Both parents bring food and feed the young.

The young are fed on insect larvae, soft bodied

insects, spiders, etc. to begin with. Regurgi-

tated grain is added to the bill of fare later.

Both the parents are kept under great pressure

by the constant demand of food by their 4 or 5

nestlings. As many as thirty to forty-four

trips an hour by both parents were recorded

on a number of occasions. In a six hour

observation the feeding trips averaged to 35

trips an hour for a single pair.

The freshly hatched young weighs slightly

less (average of thirty-two : 0.512 grams)

than the egg’s weight before hatching.

The average individual weight gain recorded

in 17 hatchlings was 4.371 grams per day

in the first week, 3.889 grams per day in

the second week and 3.473 in the third week.

The average individual weight of hatchlings

shortly before leaving the nest in the case of

above-mentioned 17 fledglings was found to

be 78.415 grams. The adult weighs between

86 and 95 grams.

The eyes open on the 7th or 8th day after

hatching. The body feathers, remiges and

rectrices also make their appearance by that time

1175

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

(Plate II, Fig. 4). There is a gradual lengthen-

ing and growth of body feathers till the nestling

is ready to fledge. The growth of remiges and

rectrices is much faster than of the body

feathers.

Fear complex develops a day or two after

the eyes open. When the eyes are closed the

nestlings will raise their necks and gape for

food on the slightest disturbance outside the

nest. After the opening of eyes the nestlings

start discriminating between the visit of a parent

and that of intruders. At about the same time

they start responding to the alarm calls of the

parents. On approach of an intruder or in

response to the alarm call the nestlings move

deep inside the nest and may even cling to the

nest lining if handled. The parent offspring

recognition also seems to be audiovisual. Even

after leaving the nest when a few families are

feeding in a group the young birds beg food

from their own parents only. They do, how-

ever, equally respond to the alarm calls of others

of the community.

The young leave the nest when they are about

3 weeks old (21-25 days). A few days before

leaving the nest they come out of the nest and

perch on nearby branches where they practice

flying. Short practice flights are indulged

before they accompany the parents for feeding

on ground. How long the young remain with

the parents before leaving the area was not

studied.

Nesting success :

The nesting success worked out to be 57%

in 1975 and 54% in 1976. Most deaths (31 %)

were due to fall on account of the nest being

blown away by strong gusty winds during

monsoons. The next important factor in-

volved was perhaps the availability of food. In

nests which did not meet with accidents it was

found that some of the nestlings (17%) died

especially from broods of 5 and 4 young. It is

presumed that these deaths were on account

of starvation. Some of these deaths may have

occurred on account of other factors.

Acknowledgements

We are obliged to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India for facilities. Our grateful

thanks are due to (1) The various specialists

of the Zoological Survey of India, especially

to Dr. O. B. Chottani, Dr. S. K. Tandon, Dr.

Asket Singh, Dr. T. D. Soota, Dr. Tapan Sen

Gupta and Dr. N. B. Subbarao for identifying

the animal food material and (2) to Dr. A. S.

Rao and Dr. B. M. Wadhwa of the Botanical

Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehra Dun

for identification of the vegetable food materials.

We are also grateful to the Entomology Division

of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

especially Dr. P. K. Sen Gupta and Shri Pratap

Singh for identification of some of the insect

material.

The study would not have been possible

without the help and support of the entire staff

of the Northern Regional Station, Zoological

Survey of India, Dehra Dun, to all of whom, ;

we acknowledge our gratefulness.

References

Ara, Jamal (1954) : The mating habit of House Barnes, H. E. (1890) : Nesting in western India.

Crow (Corvus splendens) and Pied Myna {Sturnus contra). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.t 5 : 105.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 940-941. Beresford, G. De. La P. (1944) : The winter foods

Baker, E. C. S. (1933) : Nidification of the Birds of of birds in Kashmir. J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc •

Indian Empire 2. Taylor and Francis, London. 45 : 86-88.

1176

ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PIED MYNA

Briggs, F. S. (1934): A note on the birds of Ghazipur.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 37 : 382.

Cripps, J. R. (1878) : First list of the birds of

Fureedpur, East Bengal. Stray Feathers , 7 : 238-315.

D’Abreu, E. A. (1918) : The Food of birds in the

Central Provinces. Rec. Nagpur Mus. 2 : 1-55.

Field, F. (1922) : Rough list and notes on the birds

found breeding in Gonda district. /. Bombay nat . Hist.

Soc., 28 : 757.

GrLL, E. H. N. (1923) : A description of the nests and

eggs of common birds occurring in the plains of United

Provinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 29 : 343.

Hume, A. O. (1873) : Nests and eggs of Indian birds.

Rough draft. Superintendent of Government Printing,

Calcutta.

(1889-1890) : Nests and eggs of Indian birds.

1-3. 2nd Ed. R. H. Porter, London.

Husain, M. Afzal and Bhalla, Hem Raj (1937) :

Some Birds of Lyallpur and their food. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 831-842.

Inglis, C. M. (1901) : The birds of Madhubani Sub-

division of Darbanga district, Tirhut, with notes on

species noticed elsewhere in the district. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 13 : 631.

(1910) : Common Myna ( Acridotheres

tristis ) feeding young of Pied Myna ( Sternopaster contray

and nesting habits of the common Pariah Kite (M.

govinda ) and Brahminy kite (H. indus). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 19 : 985. i

Jerdon, T. C. (1862-64) : The Birds of India. 2 Vols

(3 parts), Published by the author, Calcutta.

Lamba, B. S. (1977) : The Indian Crows, a contri-

bution to their breeding biology, with notes on brood

parasitism on them by the Indian Koel. Rec. Zool.

Surve. India 71 : 183-300.

Macatea, W. L. (1912) : Methods of estimating the

contents of Bird stomachs. Auk 29 : 449-464.

Mason, C. W. and Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1912) :

The food of Birds in India. Mem. Agr. Dept. India

Entomological series Vol. 3.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1969-76) : Food-habits of water-

birds of the Sunderban, 24-Parganas district, W.B.,

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 4 Parts, Vols. 66, 68,

71, 72.

Osmaston, A. E. (1913) : The birds of Gorakhpur.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 : 532-549.

Ried, G. (1881) : The birds of Lucknow civil division.

Stray feathers , 10 : 52.

(1887) : Addenda to the birds of Lucknow

civil division. Stray Feathers , 10 : 444-453.

Simwat, G. S. and Sidhu, A. S. (1974) : Food pre-

ference of the Rose-ringed Parakeet. Indian J. agri.

Sci. 44 (5) : 304-305.

(1975) : Development period and feeding

habits of Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus

(Latham) in Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (2) :

305-308.

Whistler, H. (1919) : Some birds of Ludhiana

district, Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 26 : 585-600

1177

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE FEEDING HABITS OF

CERTAIN SPECIES OF INDIAN BIRDS AFFECTING

AGRICULTURE

D. N. Mathew, T. C. Narendran and V. J. Zacharias1

Introduction

The need for studying the biology of Indian

birds in relation to agriculture and forestry

was pointed out by Salim Ali in 1936. Mason

and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912), D'Abreu (1920),

Hussain and Bhalla (1931, 1937 a & b), and

Mukherjee (1966-1976), and a few others

listed by Mukherjee (op.cit) have worked on

this problem.

From 1968 to 1972 the senior author (D. N.

M.) carried out a preliminary study of the

feeding habits of 10-15 species of birds affec-

ting agriculture in India. From 1974 he

continued a similar study on two species of

babblers ( Turdoides spp.) in collaboration with

the other two authors. The results of these

investigations form the basis for this paper.*

Material and Methods

Feeding habits and behaviour of wild birds

were observed using binoculars.

Birds were collected with shot gun from the

cultivated fields or adjoining areas from Rajam-

pet Taluk, Cuddapah District of Andhra

Pradesh, Nilambur in the Malappuram District,

Mannarghat in the Palghat District, and near

Palathu area in the Calicut District of Kerala.

The stomach contents were preserved in 10%

formalin. Some plants and animals were

1 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Calicut, Kerala.

* Based partly on the thesis by the first author which

was accepted by the University of Bombay for the

Ph.D. degree 1972.

collected from the study area to help in identifi-

cation. The plant materials in the stomach were

identified at the Systematic Botany Section of

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and the

animal material at the Madras Christian College

and the University of Calicut. The food and

feeding habits of 9 species of birds covered by

this study are discussed below.

Results

1. Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes)

This heron affects paddy fields at all stages

of this crop but more often young paddy or

stubble fields with water and those being pre-

pared for planting. It feeds solitarily during

day time and at dusk collects in large flocks to

roost on trees in villages. In wind-damaged

standing crops of paddy this bird fed in

company with birds like the Common Myna

the Black Drongo and the Baya. The food of

Pond Heron appears to consist mainly of

crabs, nymphs of dragonflies, grasshoppers

and tadpoles. It takes adult frogs also. A

leech Herpobdelloides sp. found in the food of

a bird at Reddipalli has not been recorded in

the food of Pond Herons. D'Abreu (1920)

observed crickets in the diet of Pond Herons.

Mukherjee (op.cit.) examined 105 adult speci-

mens in the Sunderban area and found Crustacea

and aquatic vegetable matter to be the more

important items in the diet of this heron. Tad-

poles and adults of frogs, toads, small fishes

and freshwater molluscs came next. Mukherjee

(op. cit.) considered this bird to be economically

1178

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

harmless. A comparison of the stomach con-

ents of the Pond Herons from the Sunderbans

with those from Cuddapah and Palghat districts

reveals that the birds of these regions had

10 families and 5 genera of prey animals in

common. They differed in the absence of

crickets (family Gryllidae) in the Sunderbans

birds and molluscs in the southern Indian ones.

The results of analyses of stomach contents

of the thirty birds collected (four from Nilam-

bur, seven from Mannarghat and nineteen

from Rajampet taluk), are presented in Table 1 .

2. & 3. Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senega -

lensis (Gmelin) & Spotted Dove Strepto-

pelia chinensis (Gmelin).

Both species of doves were found in Cuddapah

District where the Little Brown Doves fed in

the open fields, fallows and cart tracks, and the

Spotted Doves in the stubble fields fringed by

trees, forests, and orchards. Only the latter

species was observed in Palghat, Malappuram

and Calicut Districts where it occurred in the

rain forests as well as in the open areas around

buildings. Both doves consumed some newly

sown grains and it was perhaps for this reason

that Hussain and Bhalla (1937b) considered

the Little Brown Dove as injurious to

agriculture.

In the periods after harvest and before sowing,

the activities of these doves are perhaps entirely

beneficial in destroying thousands of weed

seeds. Their potential for disseminating weed

seeds was not tested, e.g. by sowing seeds from

excreta. Thirty specimens of the Little Brown

Dove and thirty-one of the Spotted Doves were

examined. Their stomach contents showed

almost complete overlap in the major items

consumed, among which the cultivated grains

dominated. The items of food identified from

the stomach contents of these two doves are

given in Table 2.

Table 1

The stomach contents of 30 Pond Herons

** Frequency — The number of birds in the total sample examined which had taken the category of food

indicated.

1179

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 75

Table 1 — ( Contd .)

** Frequency — The number of birds in the total sample examined which had taken the category of food

indicated.

1180

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

Table 2

Stomach Contents of Little Brown Dove and Spotted Dove

1181

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 75

The wide variety and large quantities of food

consumed by them included many animal

groups which were pests of agriculture and

forestry. A single individual consumed 120

soldiers and workers of termites, and another,

13 specimens of Liogryllus bimaculatus. These

numbers probably represented only the quantity

taken in one feeding session. This roller was

recorded as very beneficial to agriculture by

Mason and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912) and Hussain

and Bhalla (1937). In the 17 samples of Roller

stomachs examined beetles, grasshoppers and

crickets were the most frequent items. Table 3

gives the items of animals found in the stomach

contents.

5. Small Green Bee-eater Merops oriental is

Latham

Very common bird in the “cultivated areas

and around human habitation. It likes bathing

in soft sand and perching on telegraph wire,

and assembles in fields and gardens in large

flocks. This bee-eater roosts communally on

small trees at spots far away from houses. It

hunts insects in the air as well as on ground.

From perches close by this bee-eater flies long

distances parallel and close to the surface of

crops, in search of food, returns to the perch

hammers the prey on a wire or branch and

swallows the prey like dragonflies head first.

In the specimens examined it shared 10 orders

and 13 families of insect prey with the Black

Drongo.

It consumed a lot of hymenopterans but

adult forms of Coleoptera, Odonata, and Lepi-

dopetra were equally numerous in its food.

Hussain and Bhalla (1937b) recorded this species

to feed on moths and grasshoppers. The 32

specimens examined from the taluks of Mannar-

ghat and Rajampet had taken the items of prey

given in Table 4.

In Palghat (at Karimba) the Chestnut Headed

Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti Vieillot also

occurs with M. orientalis. To compare the

diets of these two species, 9 specimens of the

former and 10 of the latter were collected from

a mixed roost during 3-7 January 1970.

It was found that M. leschenaulti consumed

more dragonflies and red ants and M. orien-

talis, more ground beetles and more species of

Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. Both

species fed on Noctuidae and Chrysididae to

harmful species of insects.

6. Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis Vieillot

This drongo affects fields of paddy and bajia

in flocks of up to 16 birds at all stages of culti-

vation and in greater numbers if food is abun-

dant. In a stink-bug infested rice field at

Karimba 13 Black Drongos made 72 attacks

on this bug within 80 minutes. In 9 birds

collected from this field on that day 160 heads

of Leptocorixa acuta were counted from stomach

contents. D'Abreu (1920) and Hussain and

Bhalla (1931 and 1937b) found this drongo

feeding on grasshoppers and locusts.

This species perches close to its prey and

appeal s to swoop down after seeing it. Clashes

with the Green Bee-eaters were observed. A

Chrysomelid beetle ( Sindia clathrata) was taken

by this drongo and the Chestnut Headed Bee-

eater. When paddy is being harvested this

drongo feeds in close association with the

Common Myna capturing the insects flushed

out by the latter bird. The Black Drongos

and the Common Mynas shared insects of 6

orders and 16 families. This drongo feeds in

the twilight period also.

In 33 specimens of the Black Drongo collected

from Nilambur (2), Mannarghat (18) and

Rajampet (13) taluks the items of food given

in Table 5 were identified.

7. Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Lin-

naeus)

The most common bird of agricultural

areas. Thirty to sixty birds moved together

and fed from ground, in ploughed fields, stubble

1182

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

Table 3

Stomach Contents of 17 Southern Indian Rollers

1183

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 75

Table 4

Stomach Contents of 32 Small Green Bee-eaters

1184

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

Table 5

Stomach Contents of 33 Black Drongos

Item of food

Frequency Remarks

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Arachnida

Order Araneae 2

Class Insecta

Order Orthoptera

Family Blattidae 2

. -V : V ;

Family Mantidae 4

Family Acridiidae 13

Family Tettigonidae 3

Family Gryllidae 5

Order Hemiptcra 18

Order Isoptera

Family Termitidae 2

Order Odonata

Suborder Anisoptera 6

Suborder Zygoptera 4

Order Neuroptera 6

Order Coleoptera 26

Families Argiopidae,

Oxyopidac

Blatta sp.

Acridium sp.

Gryllus sp.

Families : Pentatomidae 8,

Coreidae 9,

Pyrrhocoridae 1,

Reduviidae 3.

Species : Bagrada picta

and Leptocorixa acuta.

Eutermes obesus.

Genera Aeschna and Anax

Families : Cicindelidae 5,

Carabidae 7,

Gyrinidae 1,

Cantharidae 1,

Buprestidae 4,

Elateridae 2,

Tenebrionidae 6,

Chrysomelidae 8,

Curculionidae 1,

Lucanidae 1.

Species : Omphra sp.

Onthophagus sp.

Sindia clathrata.

1185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 6

Stomach Contents of 32 Common Mynas

1186

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

and grasslands. In rice-fields near Nilambur

gatherings of 200-300 Common and the Jungle

Mynas Acridotheres fuscus fed and roosted

together. The Common Mynas took a number

of weed seeds. Both species took large quanti-

ties of beetles and had 16 families of insects

prey in common. Mason and Maxwell-Lefroy

(1912), D’Abreu (1920) and Hussain and Bhalla

(op.cit.) all found the Common Myna to be

beneficial to agriculture. The items of food

given in Table 6 were found in thirty-two speci-

mens of the Common Myna examined from

Nilambur, Mannarghat and Rajampet.

The Jungle Myna which was found in the

more hilly parts of Nilambur and Mannarghat

had many items of food in common with the

Common Myna. The stomach contents of

12 Specimens of the Jungle Myna collected for

comparison are given in Table 7.

8. Whiteheaded Babbler Turdoides affinis Jerdon

Groups of Whiteheaded Babblers varying

in number from 1-16, fed in kitchen gardens,

cashew groves, coconut plantations, gardens of

turmeric, ginger, bajra, cassava, peppervine,

peas, standing crops of paddy and bajra, and

in thickets of Lantana. Its typical feeding

niche is among the dead leaves on ground but

it can feed in a variety of situations and on a wide

range of vertebrate and invertebrate animal, and

vegetable food. Since it consumes grains of

rice, jo war, and bajra it is considered to be a

pest of these crops by some farmers. Examin-

ation of stomach contents of over a hundred

specimens collected throughout the year suggests

that this species does not consume any parti-

cular item of food in large quantities so as to be

classified as a pest.

The closely related Jungle Babbler Turdoides

striatus occurs sympatrically with T. affinis

in many places. The larger and darker Jungle

Babblers are more widely distributed in India.

At Baroda, Andrews and Naik (1970) found

the Jungle Babblers living close to houses but

only in areas with plenty of trees and bushes.

In the Calicut area they do not come into the

open spaces as much as T. affinis. Both species

visit the premises of houses and buildings but

the shady kitchen gardens with tall trees and

bushes which keep the surroundings poorly lit

show more Jungle Babblers. These two species

exhibit almost a complete overlap in their items

of food. Both species consume unconventional

items like the fruits of mango, jack -fruit, cassava,

starch and the cashew, apple and staple items

like grasshoppers, termites, and beetles. In

the stomach contents of 17 specimens of the

Turdoides affinis collected from Palghat and

14 collected from Rajampet the items of food

given in Table 8 were identified.

Near Calicut both types of babblers consume

consistantly small quantities of the tubers of

cassava and termites. The role of these

babblers in the control of termites in Malabar

is worth investigating. At Baroda, Andrews

& Naik (1970) found the Jungle Babbler to feed

largely on insects particularly coleopterans and

quoted Rana (1970) who found this bird

taking large quantities of food grain in summer

and winter at Jodhpur.

9. Large Pied Wagtail Motacilla maderaspa -

tensis (Gmelin)

This wagtail is associated with agriculture

in almost every stage of its life. It feeds in the

muddy inundated paddy fields or on the grass

covered bunds. At Reddipalli it was observed

nesting in a well and at Karimba, on a rock

jutting out of a rivulet, flowing through a rice

field. The 22 specimens examined, 11 each

from Reddipalli and Karimba had fed upon

the items of food shown in Table 9.

In the limited samples examined, Coleoptera,

Orthoptera, Odonata, and Diptera were more

numerous. D’Abreu (op.cit.) found grass-

hoppers and crickets in the stomach contents

of this wagtail in the central provinces.

1187

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 73

Table 7

Stomach Contents of 12 Jungle Mynas

* Also taken by Acridotheres tristis.

1188

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

Table 8

Stomach Contents of 31 Whiteheaded Babblers

1189

16

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , 75

Table 9

The Stomach Contents of the Large Pied Wagtail

1190

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

The Pied Wagtails were not found in large

numbers and were often seen close to rivers,

ponds and inundated fields. The food habits

of the migratory wagtails which visit India

every year will also be very interesting as they

frequent the paddy and sugar-cane fields in

enormous numbers.

A Comparison of Feeding habits

Data such as these presented above could be

used to understand how different species of

related and unrelated biids with comparable

feeding habits co-exist in an area, and to have

some preliminary facts about the food require-

ments of these species before planning research

in economic ornithology.

Gause’s principle that two species cannot

co-exist indefinitely if they are limited in their

population sizes by the same factors can be

interpreted to mean that the two similar species

of animals or birds co-existing in the same

environment (normally) must take different

foods. How far this principle is applicable

in the food requirements of some of the common

species of Indian birds may also be examined

to a very limited extent with the data presented

here.

The Pond Heron was useful to agriculture in

destroying grasshoppers, crickets and flies

but it also consumed vast quantities of useful

forms like dragonfly nymphs and tadpoles.

It was the only heron (Ardeidae) consistently

observed in rice-fields. Mason and Maxwell-

Lefroy (op.cit.) considered the Pond Heron as

useful to agriculture.

Winged forms like the adult dragonflies and

moths like Cirphis albistigma were frequently

eaten by the Indian Small Gieen Bee-eater.

This bee-eater consumed some bees and other

hymenopterans but did not specialise on a diet

of bees. About half of the 38 families of insects

found in the food in the bee-eaters examined

was injurious to agriculture. It roosted near

rice-fields and clashed with the Black Drongo

with which it had many families of prey in

common.

Bugs,e.g. Leptocorixa acuta were very frequent

in the Black Drongo and rare in the food of

bee-eaters. Sixty per cent of the 28 families

of insect food in the Black Drongo stomachs

were injurious to agriculture. It never gathered

in large flocks. The entire biology of this

species merits thorough investigation. Fletcher

(1914) suggested how this bird could be en-

couraged to feed from cultivated fields by

offering it more perches. This could be done

by growing crops with larger shoots like castor

as a side crop along the margins of fields holding

crops like paddy and millet. This drongo

does not occur in large numbers and it will be

advisable not to kill it in numbers even for

study purposes.

The Common Myna which was more

abundant in the rice fields than the above species

took many ground beetles and 53% of the

animal food in the samples studied came from

the harmful families of Orthoptera, Isoptera,

Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera. Grasshoppers,

cockchafers, leaf beetles, and termites were the

more frequent items in that order. Mason

and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912) stressed the impor-

tance of this myna to agriculture as an enemy of

insect pests.

The Roller which is larger in size than the

birds discussed so far seemed to have a wider

range of food articles. It fed on the ground,

but after watching carefully from perches on

telegraph wires and trees in the midst of culti-

vated fields. Mason and Maxwell-Lefroy

found the roller to be beneficial to agriculture

and seven species of crickets and grasshoppers

reported by them as prey of rollers were found

in the samples examined in the present study.

The Roller’s food included vertebrates like

frogs, toads, and Mabuya.

In diet and habits the Large Pied Wagtail

came closest to the Pond Heron. Coleopterans

1191

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 75

were prominent’' in the diet of this Wagtail

followed by Orthoptera and Odonata. The

sample examined contained more injurious

than useful families of insects.

The Whiteheaded Babbler had the widest range

of food items including many cultivated and

wild seeds and fruits and nearly all of the items

of invertebrate food taken by the other carni-

vorous and insectivorous species of birds

examined by us. In consuming some of the

food crops of man it may be described as poten-

tially harmful to human interests but it never

took any single item of food in very large

quantities and the injurious families of animals

taken by it outnumbered the beneficial and

neutral ones. Its diet almost completely over-

lapped that of the Jungle Babbler from which

it differed in coming out more often into open

fields, grasslands and lawns.

Cultivated grains like paddy and ragi were

the chief food of the Little Brown and Spotted

Doves. The latter is more widely distributed.

The limited data available suggests that these two

species may have different preferences for wild

seeds, e.g. Croton sparsiflorus in the Little

Brown and Paspalum scrobiculatum in the

Spotted Dove. These doves can damage

freshly sown paddy and millets but the fact that

they consume almost exclusively vast quantities

of weed seeds is noteworthy. Only detailed

year-round studies of annual diets will reveal

their exact economic status. In table 10 the

economic importance of the food of some of

the species discussed here is compared. The

classification of invertebrate food into harmful

beneficial etc. is based on Mason and Maxwell-

Lefroy (1912).

The Baya Weaver bird ( Ploceus philippinus)

Table 10

Comparison of the economic importance of prey of 7 species of Birds

The economic status of insect families is taken from Mason and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912).

1192

COMPARATIVE FEEDING ffABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

shares the same habitat as the birds discussed

above, and consumes many of the items of food

taken by them. In the nestling stage the Baya

is omnivorous consuming grains as well as

insects like grasshoppers and caterpillars, but

as adult its diet comes close to that of a dove.

The Baya takes seeds from the ground as well

as directly from the panicles of standing Paddy

and Bajra ; but it avoids Ragi. The doves

consume large quantities of Ragi but being too

heavy to perch on the plants, they have to pick

up grains from the ground or from plants blown

down by wind (Mathew 1977).

The data presented in this paper throw some

light on how different species of birds with com-

parable diets adjust with each other with respect

to food. Viewed from a broad taxonomic

level like that of the order (of the prey animal)

there does not appear to be any strict one pre-

dator one order of prey relationship between

the birds examined and their food animals.

All the carnivorous-omnivorous species studied

by us consumed members of coleoptera and

orthoptera. But each species had some family

of insects on which it preyed consistently, and

a feeding behaviour suitable for capturing that

group. The Pond Herons which fed walking

slowly through the rice fields and watching the

ground carefully took more of odonata nymphs,

coleoptera and diptera larvae (Tables 11 & 12).

The actively flying Small Green Bee-eater and

the Black Drongo took many flying insects

(Tables 4, 5, 1 1 & 12). But the latter consumed

more of bugs and the former more

hymenopterans.

The Common Mynas and the Whiteheaded

Babblers had many plant and animal items of

prey in common but the Babbler’s special feed-

ing niche was leaf litter on the ground and

special items of food cockroaches and termites

(tables 6, 8 & 11). The Common Myna de-

pended much on grasshoppers and ants. Both

consumed coleoptera but the babblers took a

wider range of beetles (Tables 11 & 12).

When one compares the different families of a

particular order of insects for example coleop-

terans consumed by birds it is found that there

is much more difference between the prey

animals taken (table 12) than is apparent if one

were to make a comparison at the order level of

prey. The order of importance as prey of the

different families of beetles to seven species of

birds is brought out further in table 13.

Thus the different species of birds which are

associated with agriculture and which are found

in the same habitat have different combinations

of food requirements which keep their niches

distinct. Gause’s Principle is generally appli-

cable to the dietary needs of the birds examined

here. The cases studied here also illustrate the

fallacy of classifying a bird as a pest before

studying its food habits in different seasons and

population size in detail. In many cases the

potential of Indian birds for controlling pests of

agricultue is underestimated or not known at

all.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. Salim Ali

for suggesting the problem and for kindly

guiding the entire investigation.

We are deeply grateful to Professor D. Daniel

Sunderaraj of Coimbatore, Prof. George J.

Phanuel of Madras Christian College, and

Prof. R. Altevogt of the Zoologisches Institut

der Universitat, Munster, Germany for their

expert advice in connection with the identi-

fication of stomach contents. We wish to thank

Shri Jacob Thomas of Calicut for his advice in

certain statistical aspects.

We are indebted to the late Mr. V. K. Chari,

Curator of the Natural History Section, Prince

of Wales Museum, Bombay, for his help in

organizing this work in his farms near Reddipalli.

Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator and Mr. N. T.

Nadkerni, entomologist of the Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, and Professor P. J.

Sanjeevaraj of Madras Christian College have

1193

A Comparison of the Stomach Contents of 7 Species of Birds Affecting Agriculture

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Whiteheaded Babbler Tenebrionidae Chrysomelidae Cicindelidae Curculion/Elateridae/

Cerambycidae

COMPARATIVE FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BIRDS

helped much in organising this work.

Sarvashree P. N. Achutha Menon, M.

Madhavan Nair, and K. Mohandas of Palghat,

Kesari Mathew of Nilambur and Guruvayya

of Rajampet helped in the collection of birds

for this study.

The first author is grateful to the CSIR for

their research grants which supported this work

from November 1967 to February 1971 and to

his late father for financial support which helped

him to complete the first part of the investi-

Refer

Ali, Salim A. (1936) : Economic ornithology in

India. Curr. Sci. Bangalore, 4 : 472-478.

Andrews, M. I. and Naik, R. M. (1970) : The biology

of the Jungle Babbler. The Pavo Vol. 8 Nos. 1 & 2,

pp. 1-34.

D’Abreu, E. A. (1920) : Some insect prey of birds in

the Central Provinces. Report of the third Entomo-

logical meeting held at Pusa, February 1919, 3 : 859-871.

Fletcher, Bainbridge T. (1914) : Some south

Indian insects and other animals of importance.

Government Press, Madras.

Hussain, M. Afzal and Bhalla, H. R. (1931) :

Some bird enemies of the Desert Locust ( Schistocerca

gregaria Gorsk.) in the Ambala District, Punjab. Ind.

J. Agric. Sci. 1 : 609-619.

— — & . (1937a) : The bird enemies of the

gation. He is also grateful to the U.G.C. for

a grant which helped him to restart this work

in 1974. V. J. Zacharias is supported by the

Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Fund for research in

ornithology from the Bombay Natural History

Society.

We are grateful to the authorities of the

University of Calicut and particularly to the

Head of the Department of Zoology for provid-

ing us with facilities to work.

nces

Cotton Leaf Roller ( Sylepta degogata Fb.) at Khane

wal, Multan, Punjab, ibid. 7 : 785-792.

Sc . (1937b) : Some birds of Lyallpur

and their food. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 831-842.

Mason, C. W. and Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1912) :

The food of birds in India. Mem. Agr. Dept. India ,

Entomological Series 3.

Mathew, D. N. (1977) : Ecology of the Weaver

birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(2) : 249-260.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1969) : Food habits of waterbirds

of the Sunderban, 24 Parganas District, West Bengal,

India— Part I. ibid. 66 : 346-366. Part II. (1971). ibid.

68 : 37-64.

Rana, B. D. (1970) : Some observations on food of

the Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus and the Common

Babbler Turdoides caudatus in the Rajasthan Desert,

India. Pavo 8 : 35-44.

U97

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF

BAYA WEAVER PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS

Mir Hamid Ali,1 T. G. Manmohan Singh, Aziz Banu, M. Anand Rao and

A. T. Sainath Janak

Introduction

Baya Weaver (Family : Ploceidae) is a resident

and locally migratory bird and has a wide

distribution in India (Salim Ali 1972). The

food of the adult Baya weaver Ploceus philip-

pinus comprises of grass and weed seeds

(Gramineae), cereal grains (Rice, Jowar, Bajra

etc.), insects (grasshoppers, beetles, moths, cater-

pillars and spiders) and flower nectar wherever

available. Nestlings are fed mainly on cater-

pillars, moths, grasshoppers, spiders and

triturated tender paddy grains (Salim Ali and

Ripley 1974). Studies on stomach content of

Baya Ploceus philippinus by Mukherjee and

Saha (1974) revealed that in the non-breeding

adult collected in October and dissected, the

food comprised mostly of Rice grains together

with 2 or 3 stone chips and in a few cases insects

(samples of Jassids, Hemipterous nymphs and

Lepidopterous larvae) were also associated

with rice grains. Further investigations were

taken up by the Scheme for studies on Biology

and Control of Bird pests, Rajendranagar,

(Hyderabad, A.P.) to study the food habit and

feeding behaviour of Baya Weaver Ploceus

philippinus. The period of investigation was

one year, i.e., July 1975 to June 1976, which

included also one breeding season of Baya i.e.,

from June to October 1975.

Materials and Methods

Field studies on food and feeding habits :

The feeding of Baya Weaver on sorghum

was observed in the experimental fields of

1 Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hydera-

bad, (A.P.).

Scheme for studies on Biology and Control of

Bird pests, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural Uni-

versity, Rajendranagar, during Kharif and

Rabi 1975-76. A plot of 20*00 Cents was

taken up in Kharif and a plot of 17*25 Cents

was taken up in Rabi 1975-76 for observation

on sorghum crop. For observation on rice

crop, cultivators’ fields were selected for study-

ing the feeding habits of Baya, and in addition,

observations on feeding habits and population

counts were done in the plots, sized 50 Cents

(£ acre) in Kharif, and 100 Cents (1 acre) in

Rabi 1975-76 at Agriculture College Farm,

Rajendranagar. There was no bird scaring in

the sorghum and paddy plots under obser-

vation. The observations on the food and

feeding habits of the bird on the two crops

mentioned, were done with the help of field

binoculars during the peak visit hours of the

birds, i.e. 6 to 10 a.m. and 3 to 6 p.m. Exact

number of hours spent in the field observation

was from 6 a.m. to 12 Noon and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m.

in the evening. Thus, totally ten hours, i.e.

six hours in the morning session and four hours

in the evening session were devoted to bird

pests observation in the paddy and sorghum

fields. Out of the hours devoted, peak hours

of the bird’s visit were 7 hours, i.e. 6 to 10 a.m.

in the morning and 3 to 6 p.m. in the evening.

Lab studies on gut contents :

Adult Baya Weaver birds for gut content

studies were obtained from the fields by shoot-

ing with air gun or trapping with a mist net.

Immediately they were dissected and gut con-

tents examined and identified. Totally, fifty

five (55) adult Bayas were dissected for gut

1198

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF BA YA WEA VER

content studies during the period under report.

The monthwise details are furnished in Table II.

As can be seen from this Table, during the

months November 1975 to January 1976, the

Baya Weaver were not found in Rajendranagar

area and its vicinity as the crops were in sowing

to vegetative phase and there was probably local

migration of this bird.

Lab studies on food preference :

Bayas (8 nos.) were maintained in a wire mesh

cage. They were offered a known quantity of

paddy, sorghum and bajra grains every morn-

ing and the quantity consumed was found out

next morning by weighing the left overs of

these grains. The food intake study data per

day per bird for the 12 months of study period

is presented in Table I.

Assessment of quantity of Sorghum and Paddy

grains consumed in the field by Bayas :

Based on the results of laboratory studies on

food preference of sorghum and paddy by

Bayas, the quantity of these grains likely to be

consumed by the population of these birds

visiting the two crops on one hectare area is

calculated and presented (Tables III & IV).

For arriving at an estimate of the density

of population of Bayas visiting the two crops

per hectare area, the actual counts of the birds

visiting the crop in the specified plots (Cols. 3

and 4 of Tables III & IV) aie taken as the basis.

The average quantity of sorghum and paddy

grains consumed per day per bird, during the

period under report, as per laboratory studies on

food preference (Table I), i.e. 0*76 gms and

5*50 gms respectively, is taken as the basis for

arriving at the amount of sorghum and paddy

grains actually consumed in the field.

Results and discussion

Sorghum :

Baya Weaver in groups of 2 to 7 and some-

times singly visited the sorghum crop in milky

and early dough grain stage and damaged the

earheads by picking the individual grains from

spikelets, leaving the glumes intact. Some-

times the glumes too were picked up along with

grains. The number of sorghum grains picked

up was 5 to 10 in a single sitting under un-

scared conditions. As per the population

counts the number of Bayas visiting the sorghum

crop was on an average 11 per day in Kharif

and 65 per day in Rabi 1975-76 (Table III, Cols.

3 & 4). The density of population of this bird

per hectare calculated on this basis comes to

138 and 942 in Kharif and Rabi 1975-76

respectively.

Rice :

In Paddy nurseries the Baya Weaver birds

fed on the exposed germinated and unger-

minated seeds and pulled out the just sprouted

seedlings before they established. At the vege-

tative phase of the crop, Bayas cut the young

leaf blades into strips for use in the construc-

tion of nests. After the emergence of the

panicles, Baya Weaver in groups of 2 to 7 visited

the Paddy fields and by perching at the base of

the panicle of each tiller, fed on the individual

grains rendering the panicles chaffy. Similar

method to that followed for sorghum was

adopted in paddy also for bird counts. During

Kharif, the bird visitants were 35, 45 and 60

in the milky stage (13 days), dough stage (15

days) and in hard grain stage (18 days)

respectively on an average per day per hectare.

During Rabi, the bird visitants weie 33, 40 and

50 in milky stage (12 days), dough stage (14 days)

and hard grain stage (16 days) respectively on

an average per day per hectare. Thus totally

the number of Baya visitants during Kharif

came to 140 and in Rabi the Baya visitants were

123.

Gut content studies :

Out of 55 birds examined for gut contents,

27 had only rice grains as gut content and 5

1199

JOURNAL, BOMBAt NATURAL BIST. SOCiETt, fol 75

Table I

Statement showing the food preference of Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus

FOR 12 months (1975-76)

In the above Table— denotes nil consumption by the Baya Weaver,

Table II

Statement showing the number of adult Bayas dissected during 1975-76

1200

Population of Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus visiting plots of observation trial of sorghum (Var. CSH. 5)

at Agricultural College Farm, Rajendranagar observed during Kharif and Rabi 1975-76 and estimation of Sorghum

grains consumed per hectare of crop area

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF BAYA WEAVER

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Population of Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus visiting the observational Fields of Paddy (Var. Telia Hamsa) at

Agricultural College Farm, Rajendranagar observed during Kharif and Rabi 1975-76 and estimation of Paddy grains

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1202

(*) The quantity of Paddy grains consumed on an average per day, per Baya, as per lab. studies, comes to 5.50 gms (Table I).

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF BA YA WE A VER

had only sorghum grains. In the remaining

23 Baya Weaver, 3 were found with sorghum

and rice grains, weed seeds, mollusc shells

( Helix sp.), sand particles and insect parts

(grasshopper complete, insect sclerites and legs)

and the remaining 20 had grains of sorghum,

ragi, bajra, anthers and pollen grains of plants

(belonging to Gramineae family) and triturated

mass of tender paddy leaves and rice grains.

Food preference studies :

Out of the 3 types of food grains namely

paddy, sorghum and bajra, offered throughout

the year, Bayas preferred only paddy grains all

through the year and consumed this in large

quantities along with bajra. Bajra grains were

shown second preference and taken along with

paddy grains during July 1975 to February 1976.

Sorghum grains were shown the last preference

and taken only during February and March

1976.

Assessment of quantity of Sorghum and Paddy

grains consumed by Bayas :

As per laboratory studies (Table I), Bayas

consumed on an average 0.76 gms sorghum

grains per day per bird. The Bayas in the field,

fed on sorghum earheads, in the milky and

early dough stage of grains, which lasted for 12

days in Kharif and 10 days in Rabi 1975-76.

For Kharif, the amount of grains consumed in

one hectare area by 138 birds comes to 1 .260 kgs

and in Rabi in the same area consumption by

942 birds comes to 7.160 kgs as presented

in Table III (Cols. 5 and 8).

The Bayas consumed on an average 5.50 gms

of Paddy grains per day per bird as per the

laboratory studies conducted for studying the

food preference (Table I). The Bayas feed on

all stages of paddy crop, i.e. milky, dough and

hard grain stages in the field in both the Kharif

and Rabi seasons, and the details of bird visi-

tants and their consumption is presented in

Table IV. The total number of bird visitants

in all the susceptible stages of paddy crop in

Kharif comes to 140 and the likely consump-

tion by these birds per hectare comes to 12.154

kgs and in Rabi 123 Baya visitant’s likely

consumption is 9.658 kgs paddy grains (Table

IV, Cols. 5 and 8).

The quantities of sorghum and paddy grains,

estimated to be consumed by Bayas in the field,

over the area of a hectare of a crop, calculated

on the basis of laboratory studies on food pre-

ference, though theoretical, have been attemp-

ted with a view to get a rough idea of grains

damaged by birds for food. Under natural

conditions, the actual intake of the quantity of

sorghum and paddy grains in the fields might

be more than in the captive conditions of a

laboratory cage for the obvious reasons like

need for more food intake for more calories of

energy to meet the flight movements (over large

areas) and other metabolic activities.

A comparison of the quantities of sorghum

and rice grains consumed by the Bayas reveals

that this bird prefers paddy to sorghum grains

and this is in confirmity with the results ob-

tained under laboratory studies of food pre-

ference (Table I).

Summary

On sorghum crop, no damage was done by

Baya Weaver in the seed germinating stage or

vegetative phase. Only the ripening grains

(milky and early dough stages) suffered from

Baya Weaver damage when these grains were

picked individually for food from the earheads,

leaving the glumes intact. The assessment of

quantity of sorghum grains consumed by Bayas

in the milky and early dough stages of the grains

in an area of a hectare for the two agricultural

seasons of a year comes to 8.420 kgs.

On Rice crop, Baya Weaver bird acted as a

pest in the germinated and pre-germinated

seeds, in the early vegetative phase and in the

maturing stages of grain. The damage in these

1203

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 75

stages comprised of feeding on germinated and

pre-germinated seeds and pulling out the just

sprouted seedlings before they established,

cutting the leaves into fine strips for nest con-

struction and feeding on the individual ripening

grains (milky to hard grain), respectively. In

Kharif and Rabi seasons the total consumption

by the Bayas in all the stages of the paddy crop

is estimated to be 21.812 kgs in an area of a

hectare. Bayas preferred paddy over sorghum

grains.

The gut content studies revealed that in

49.09% of the Baya Weaver population dis-

sected and studied, the stomach had only rice

grains. In 9.09% population, only sorghum

grains were found, 5.45% population had

sorghum and rice grains, weed seeds, mollusc

shells {Helix sp.), sand particles and insect

parts and in the remaining 36.36% population,

the stomach contained grains of sorghum, ragi

and bajra, pollen grains and anthers of

Gramineae family and triturated mass of

tender leaves of paddy and rice grains.

Thus, in 94.55% Baya population dissected,

the stomach contained only grains of rice,

sorghum, ragi and bajra ; plant parts namely,

Refer

Ali, Salim (1972) : The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, p. 123.

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1974) : Hand Book of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University

pollen grains, anthers, triturated mass of

tender leaves of paddy and rice grains. In

remaining 5.45% Baya population, though the

stomach contained grasshoppers and other

insect parts, it was not the sole content and

was mixed with sorghum and rice grains, weed

seeds and sand particles. The gut content

analyses results lead us to the inference that

Baya Weaver adult, in this area is mostly graini-

vorous in food habit.

Amongst paddy, sorghum and bajra grains

offered in cage (in the laboratory) Bayas pre-

ferred paddy followed by bajra and sorghum,

the average quantity consumed per day per

bird being 5.50 gms, 1.11 gms and 0.76 gms

respectively.

Acknowledgement

Thanks are due to the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for financing

the Research Scheme for Studies on Biology and

Control of Bird pests at Andhra Pradesh

Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, under

which the present studies were carried out.

NCES

Press, Bombay, 10 : 90.

Mukherjee, A. K. and Saha, B. C. (1974) : Study on

the stomach content of Baya ( Ploceus philippinus L.).

J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 71(2) : 308.

1204

ABNORMAL NESTS OF THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS

PHILIPPINUS (LINN.)

V. C. Ambedkar1

( With a plate and a text-figure)

Introduction

This report deals with a field study of the Baya

Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus philippinus

(Linnaeus) (Family Ploceidae) made in the

Kumaon terai, Dist. Naini Tal, Uttar Pradesh,

during its breeding season — July, August — in

1974. While searching for a good breeding

colony of the Finn’s Baya Ploceus megarhynchus

in the Kumaon terai for a filming operation, I

came across a very unusual breeding colony

of the baya on a lofty tree ( Mitragyna parviflora)

where nearly half the nests were of abnormal

forms besides the usual retort-shaped nests.

The colony was exceptional and the largest in

the area I studied. The breeding colony was

so unusual that it merited investigation for the

abnormalities of nest structure, its causes, and

other related problems. There seems to be no

previous study that has focused attention on

such abnormal nests, except stray notes that

had appeared in various journals (Jesse 1897 ;

Prater 1932 ; Ali and Ambedkar 1956 ;

Ambedkar 1964 ; Crook 1964). The obser-

vations presented here, were made from 8

August to 24 August, 1974.

During the breeding season — May to

September — the male establishes his territory

and constructs his retort shaped nests on a

tree (of various species, Davis 1974), usually

over a pool of water. Afterwards these nests

are accepted by females. It is a polygamous

species, and the male acquires females

1 Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay-400 023.

successively in a short period. Moreover he

maintains two or three half-built nests (Helmet

stage) for accommodating unmated females.

The nests are conspicuous and the birds are

noisy while constructing their nests. Though

granivorous, this bird also consumes a large

amount of insects. Details of breeding biology

of the baya are given elsewhere (Ali 1931 ; Ali

and Ambedkar 1956, 1957 ; Ambedkar 1958,

1964 ; Crook 1960 ; Mathew 1976).

Study Area

The observations were carried out in the

premises of the Pantnagar Agriculture Uni-

versity, Pantnagar (lat. 29°N, long. 79° 30 'E,

Altitude 243.84 m, a.s.l.), Dist. Naini Tal.

The particular colony I watched was located by

the side of a road, surrounded by open grass-

land. This open grassland becomes swampy

during the monsoon and afterwards the ground

became squelchy wet for a considerable number

of days. Various species of grasses grow pro-

fusely. When the study was undertaken, the

height of the grass was as much as eight feet or

more, at the end of July. To breeding birds,

this provided easy nesting material and shelter

at hand. Interestingly, there was no water

below the tree.

Ecology of the Colony

The tree Mitragyna parviflora on which the

colony was situated was nearly fifty feet high.

Beside the tree, as well as on the opposite side

17

1205

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

of the road, Sheesham Dalbergia sissoo trees

were present, but the baya selected this parti-

cular tree for nesting purpose. In other places,

in the Kumaon terai, as well as in and around

Pantnagar area, the baya very often used

Sheesham trees. The reason for selecting

Mitragyna parviflora in this area was not under-

stood.

An interesting feature of the colony was that

the nests were built only on the lower branches

from six to thirty feet above the ground in all

directions, the rest of the upper branches

remaining vacant. The baya was seen to

prefer lower branches for nesting in other sites

too. There were about 150 males, and more

than 200 females in the colony, and the densest

aggregations of nests so far noted.

It was observed that about a dozen Indian

Whitebacked Vultures Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin)

were roosting every evening on the top-most

bare branches of the tree. The vultures used to

arrive one after another for roosting well before

the sunset, when the baya were still active,

building nests, singing chorus songs, courting

unmated females, and feeding the young.

A pair of Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata

(Linnaeus) was constructing nest on the upper

branch of the tree at the height of 40 feet from

the ground above the nests of the baya and did

not show any visible interest in the nests of the

weaver birds, (cf. the behaviour of White-

throated Munia Lonchura malabarica, see Ali

1931.)

About 5-6 house swifts Apus affinis were circl-

ing and wheeling around the tree from morning

to evening. I could not find any particular

aspect of their association, but Kirkpatrick

(1950) has reported the roosting of the house

swift in old disused baya nests. He further stated

that the house swift found it difficult to enter

the nests through the entrance tube.

On 14th August I observed a Crimsonbreasted

Barbet Megalaima haemacephala on an upper

branch, sitting and calling.

A pair of house crow Corvus splendens visited

and lingered round about the colony from

morning to evening probably looking for

chances for robbing eggs and young.

Nests

For the first time, I recognised three types

of nests built by the baya weaver bird, though

the basic essential features were the same. The

following description is based on field obser-

vations made at Pantnagar.

Type — I : Normal single chambered retort-

shaped nest.

Type — II : Abnormal nest having one, two or

more nest chambers one below the

first in linear succession.

Type — III : Composite nest of dozen nests

laterally fused into each other to

form a big mass.

(1) Normal single chambered

retort-shaped nest : The nest was suspended

from a twig and it had an elongated entrance

tube projecting vertically downwards. Stages

in nest construction (1) wad, (2) initial ring or

transverse loop, (3) helmet or bell, (4) the

completed egg chamber, (5) the completed nest

with a long entrance tube hanging downwards,

described in detail by various workers (Jerdon

1863 ; Hume and Oates 1890 ; Dewar 1909 ;

Ali 1931 ; Ali and Ambedkar 1956, 1957 ;

Ambedkar 1958, 1964 ; Crook 1960, 1964 ;

Davis 1971).

(2) Abnormal multichambered

linear nest : It has been observed here and at

Pune (Maharashtra) that the male always

sealed off* his first completed nest and started

to use the entrance tube of the first nest at the

point of suspension for his second nest. The

latter was duly occupied by a female (same ?)

and laid her clutch of eggs. But she left the

nest, either of her own accord (see below) or

1206

ABNORMAL NESTS OF THE BA YA

was probably preyed upon by an enemy. Since

the male baya did not incubate the eggs he again

sealed off the nest leaving behind the eggs in

the egg chamber (Ali and Ambedkar 1956).

In this fashion he built successive chambers

one below the other. Here the main purpose of

the nest, i.e. to rear the young, failed even after

the eggs were laid in the nest.

During the study period, I observed a six

storeyed nest in the colony. On 9th August the

entire structure toppled down for some reason.

It was examined by Dr. Salim Ali and myself

by cutting open each and every chamber. In

the first or upper most chamber one addled

egg was found. The next two chambers were

empty, the fourth contained three fresh eggs

and the fifth held two addled eggs, while the

sixth or the last chamber was empty. There

was no inter-connection between the chambers,

each nest being a separate unit. The total

length of the entire structure was 160 cms

(5 feet 3 inches). From the blackish appearance

of the fibres of the first and second chamber, it

appeared to me that the male started to build

the nest well before the other males ; and he

was successful in getting females one after

another who used to lay their eggs in the egg-

chambers.

I have also observed a six-storeyed nest in

Pune in 1956. The length of this entire struc-

ture was 115 cms and it weighed 156 gms.

Jesse (1897) described a nest of seven chambers

from Lucknow and the last three chambers in

this nest contained 3, 3 and 2 eggs respectively.

Baker (1934) writes, sometimes a second

nest is attached to the bottom of the first by

another pair of birds ; in such cases the junction

of the two nests being hollow and allowing

Fig. 1 Stages of abnormal nests construction.

1207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

free passage to the pair of tenants of the ‘ Upper

flat \ I did not come across such situation as

4 hollow and free passage ’, but on the contrary

each unit was observed as a separate and inde-

pendent unit.

However, it has been observed that a male

built more than one nest one below the other,

but without obstructing the passage so that the

females could continue to use their respective

nests independently. There were only four

nests of this type in the entire colony.

I give below some interesting field obser-

vations made on individual birds marked with

colour rings, which throw light on the behaviour

and constructions of abnormal nests.

Male No. 17

On the morning of 8th August, I observed

this male having three nests, one below the

other. The first nest (No. 1) was sealed off,

and the second nest was constructed below

(No. 2). This was occupied by a female who

was probably incubating eggs. From the flank

of the entrance tube of the second nest, the male

constructed his third nest (No. 3), which was

also occupied by the another female. Both the

females were incubating their eggs, entering

and leaving the nests freely. All the while the

male was giving more attention to No. 2 and

No. 3 by adding grass fibres to the outer sur-

faces of the nests. Occasionally he paid visits

to Nest No. 1 and added some long strips and

gave more support to the suspension point.

There were two nests at the sides of these and

their owners were not noticed.

Although I was watching and studying the

colony daily, I was surprised to see the change

in the position of nests on 16th August 9.30 a.m.

on the very next day after a snake invasion on

the colony. The male pulled Nest No. 4

towards the three-chambered nest, and by adding

grass strips, Nest No. 4 was actually fused with

Nest No. 1. Between 20th August and 23rd

August he added one more nest (No. 5), an old

derelict nest from left and gave more support

to the long swinging structure.

Furthermore he constructed a new nest

(No. 6) upto the helmet stage, and got a new

female. Copulation was observed on 23rd

August morning. Thus the Male No. 17 had

four mates and owned six nests, out of which

one nest was inoperative.

Male No. 30

This male had two nests side by side. In the

course of maintenance activities, he pulled his

nests together and fastened them together by

adding and interweaving the grass strips,

leaving the entrance tubes free to allow the

female’s movements.

(3) Composite nest : This was a

particularly interesting part of the colony. On

a thick branch of the tree and about 15 feet

above the ground, I observed a cluster of 11

nests actually fused with each other, the con-

necting walls being linked together with strands

of fibres. In this composite unit nest, only three

nests were occupied and active at the time of

observation period. One nest was at ‘ helmet ’

stage where the male was courting an unmated

female. She was repeatedly visiting the nest,

showing her interest in the nest. Whenever

she left the nest, the owner went after her for

long distances trying to bring her back again.

This courtship chase was sustained for not less

than two hours in the morning.

This entire structure of 11 nests belonged to

at least three males who were maintaining it

by adding fresh strands of grasses. At times

the male took loose ends of fibres left hanging

from an adjoining nest and tied it into his nest.

On this occasion, if the owner returned and

found the culprit, a severe fight took place,

occasionally both males pulling the fibre from

opposite ends — a sort of a tug-of-war.

1208

J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 75 Plate

Ambedkar : Abnormal nests of Baya Weaver

Author with 6-storeyed Baya nest. Kumaon terai, August 1974,

(Photo : Salim All)

ABNORMAL NESTS OF THE BAY A

In the colony, there were, 95 normal single

retort shaped nests, 60 nests of two chambers,

19 nests of three chambers, 8 nests of four

chambers, 1 nest of five chambers, 1 nest of six

chambers and 1 composite nest of 11 nests

respectively. In all, the colony consisted of

185 nests including normal and abnormal nests,

or there were 326 egg-chambers, either empty

or with eggs and young, on 22nd August, the

day before I left the Pantnagar area. Besides

these nests, 55 separate, ‘ helmet ’ stage nests

were ready for accommodating prospective un-

mated females. The birds were busy, from

morning to evening, in constructing new nests,

unmated females were constantly visiting the

colony and the nests and the males were courting

these females. The well-settled females were

either incubating the eggs or feeding their young.

The chorus song of the male birds could be

heard from a considerable distance.

Predation by Snake on the Colony

During the course of the study, I observed

the behaviour of a snake during its actual act of

predation on the weaver bird colony. The

impact of predation on the colony was severe.

On 12th August, at 6 p.m. while I was

approaching the colony, I did not find the

familiar joyous chorus song of nesting birds,

displaying of the males and the liveliness of

the colony. On the contrary, the birds of

both sexes, were sitting nervously on the

grass, around the tree and on the power

lines, producing scolding call-notes chit-chit-

chit etc. Occasionally one or two males or

females were making attempts to fly towards

their nests half-heartedly. A house crow was

jumping nervously from branch to branch,

producing his raucous call-notes, and a pair of

common mongoose Herpestes edwardsi was

looking at the tree from the ground. With

the naked eyes I could not see anything on the

tree, and so I picked up my binoculars and

started to scan each and every branch, thinking

something must be wrong in the colony. After

searching for nearly 20 minutes I spotted a very

large black snake nearly 7 feet long on a branch

about fifteen feet above the ground, crawling

slowly towards the nests. As he moved

forward the house crow made a bold attempt,

and pulled his tail downwards. Thereupon

the snake hurled itself from the branch into the

thick undergrowth about ten feet away and

disappeared. This was at 6.50 p.m. It was

on the tree for at least half an hour.

The next two days, I did not see the snake

and the weaver birds were very active till

7.00 p.m.

When I started to watch the colony, on 15th

August at 5.30 p.m. everything was all right.

At about 6 p.m. most probably the same snake

climbed the tree, and started to search the nests

one after another. It was very active moving

swiftly from branch to branch thrusting its

head into normal and abnormal types of nests,

as well as nests of the ‘helmet’ stages. Within

a short time it examined about 50 nests and

swallowed what it got from the nests. The

process of swallowing could be seen clearly

through my binoculars. In one nest, after

thrusting its head through the entrance tube,

its neck region bulged out, indicating that it

probably swallowed a nest-trapped female.

The house crow was harassing the snake all the

time. Finally the snake jumped into the grass

underneath' and disappeared.

Probably the snake was not satiated and went

down only to avoid the crow. After about

10 minutes it again climbed the tree, and without

giving the least attention to the birds, and the

molestation from a pair of the house crows, it

started to search the remaining nearly 100 nests.

By this time about 12-15 people stopped on the

road to witness the act of the snake. It was

very active and ruthless during its second

assault. The day light grew more and more

dim, but through the binoculars I saw markings

on the body and it was a rat snake Ptyas mu-

1209

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

corns. The people were shouting, but the snake

did not give up. The snake did not visit the

composite nest or that branch of the tree, I con-

sidered this was very significant. It could also

not reach the lowest 3rd and 4th egg chambers

of the abnormal nests, although it made attempts

to reach it. It stopped at about 7 p.m. des-

cended from the tree and quickly hide itself in

the undergrowth.

Discussion

Lack (1954) states that ‘ colonial nesting is

possible only for species which are comparatively

safe from nest predators, which otherwise

would be attracted to the spot The snake

Ptyas mucosus who was probably living under

the tree, was apparently preying regularly on

the colony. It was also possible that its

predatory activities was keeping pace with the

laying and hatching of the baya’s eggs, thereby

clearing the entire colony at regular intervals.

This was actually observed on 12th and 15th

August. It appears, therefore, that the site

chosen by the initial pairs was detrimental to

the colony in course of time. There are records

of attack by snakes on the weaver bird colonies

from Africa (Skead 1947 ; Pitman 1958, 1962 ;

Elgood and Ward 1963 ; Collias and Collias

1970, 1971 ; Maclean 1973). In India, Barnes

(1887) observed a brown tree snake ( Boiga

gokool) which devoured nestlings from the baya

nest. Similarly Ambedkar (1964) reported

seeing a snake ( Xenochrophis piscator) attempt-

ing to enter a baya nest overhanging a well,

but at the last moment it fell into the well.

These observations suggest that in the tropics

snakes are important predators at nests. Further

Ambedkar (Ali & Ambedkar 1956) reported

that the nocturnal tree mouse, Vendeluria

oleracea may destroy a brood of the Baya and

establish its own nest within.

Although, the house crow Corvus splendens

is considered a confirmed egg-stealer in India

(Ali 1956), the behaviour and association of the

crow pair with the present baya breeding colony

was probably beneficial. The crow gave the

first alarm call as soon as the rat-snake came

out from its hiding place in the evening. More-

over, as soon as the snake climbed the tree,

both the crows, made a successful attack on it,

at least on 12th August, and drove it

back.

The observed colony was the largest with the

densest congregation of both males and females

and was fully packed to its capacity. As soon

as the eggs and, in some cases, females, were

devoured by the rat-snake, the male baya,

being a polygonous species, was obliged to

start his second nest upon the previous stiuc-

ture. Thereby his nests came one below the

other — the abnormal nests. Sometimes he built

his third nest starting from the flank of the nest

tube of the second nest (Male No. 17), leaving

both the females to do their domestic duties.

On the very next morning of the snake attack,

i.e. 16th August, Male No. 17 pulled his 4th

nest towards the first one, and both the nests

were joined together with fresh grass-strips,

suggesting that he was re-enforcing the entire

nest structure.

,

It appears that the abnormal nests have

survival value to some extent. As the length

of the nest structure increased, the snake found

it more and more difficult to approach the nest

contents of the third and fourth chamber of the

hanging nests. During its attack on the colony

it did not visit the big composite structure of

eleven nests, probably the irregular mass of

nests deflected its attention.

This suggests that the eggs and nestlings

from the third or fourth chambers, and the

composite nest had more chances to survive.

Further research work on this problem would

be rewarding.

1210

ABNORMAL NESTS OF THE BA YA

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr. Salim Ali for taking preparation ' of this report is gratefully

active part in the investigation of the problem, acknowledged.

TT. . . . . . . , . .u n i The study was financed by the Bombay

His constructive criticism during the final XT* in-/ o

® Natural History Society.

References

Ali, Salim (1931) : The nesting habits of the baya

{Ploceus philippinus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(4) :

947-964.

(1956) : Crows and Weaver Birds — Ratio-

cination or what ? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 :

470-472.

and Ambedkar, Vijaykumar C. (1956) I

Notes on the Baya Weaver bird, Ploceus philippinus

(Linn.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 381-389.

(1957) : Further notes on the Baya weaver

bird, Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 54 (3) : 491-502.

Ambedkar, V. C. (1958) : Notes on the Baya : Breed-

ing Season 1957. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (1) :

100-106.

(1964) : Some Indian Weaver Birds. Uni-

versity of Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1934) : Nidification of Birds of the

Indian Empire. Vol. III. London.

Barnes, H. E. (1887) : Notes of Ploceus philippinus.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 2 : 105-107.

Colli as, N. E. and Collias, E. C. (1970) : The

behaviour of the West African Village Weaver bird.

Ibis, 112 : 457-480.

(1971) : Ecology and behaviour of the spotted-

backed weaver-bird in the Kruger National Park*

Koedoe, 14 : 1-27.

Crook, J. H. (1960) : Studies on the reproductive

behaviour of the Baya Weaver / Ploceus philippinus (L.).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1) : 1-44.

(1964) : Field experiments on the nest con-

struction and repair behaviour of certain weaver birds.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 142 : 217-255.

Pavis, T. A. (1971) : Baya weaver-bird nesting on

human habitations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1) :

246-248.

Davis, T. A. (1974) : Selection of nesting trees and

the frequency of nest visits by Baya weaver-bird.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (3) : 356-366.

Dewar, D. (1909) : The nesting habits of the Baya.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19 : 627-634.

Elgood, J. H. and Ward, P. (1963) : A snake attack

upon a weaver bird colony. Possible significance of

synchronous breeding activity. Bull. Br. Orn. Club.

83 : 71-73.

Hume, A. O. and Oates, E. W. (1890) : Nests and

eggs of Indian Birds. London.

Jerdon, T. C. (1863) : The Birds of India. Vol. II.

Calcutta.

Jesse, W. (1897) : Birds nesting in and around

Lucknow. Ibis (7) 3 : 554-562.

Kirkpatrick, K. M. (1950) : Peculiar roosting site

of the House Swift ( Micropus afflnis ). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 49 : 551-552.

Lack, D. (1954) : The Natural Regulation of Animal

Numbers. Oxford.

Maclean, G. L. (1973) : The Sociable weaver. Part

4 : Parasites and Symbionts. Ostrich , 44 : 241-253.

Mathew, D. N. (1976) : Ecology of the weaver birds.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2) : 249-260.

Pitman, C.R. S. (1958) : Snake and lizard predators

of birds. Bull. Br. Orn. Club. 78 : 82-86, 99-104, 120-

124.

(1962) : More snake and lizard predators of

birds. Bull. Br. Orn. Club. 82 : 33-42, 45-55.

Prater, S. H. (1932) : Double nests of the weaver

bird. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 681-683.

Skead, C. J. (1947) : A study of the Cape Weaver

(Hyphantornia capensis olivaceus). Ostrich , 18 : 1-42.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE BLACK DRONGO

E. A. A. Shukkur and K. J. Joseph1

(With twelve photographs in two plates and five text-figures )

Introduction

The Black Drongo, Dicrurus adsimilis macro-

cercus Vieillot is a resident bird in Malabar,

Kerala, India. Not much is known about its

breeding biology. Ali and Ripley (1972) have

recorded much information about the morpho-

logy, behaviour, food and breeding biology of

the northern Indian race. The same authors

(op. cit.) have given some information on the

plumages of the juvenile and subadult stages

of the southern Black Drongo.

There are very few other recent studies on the

biology of this bird. The present paper is

based on observations made on the biology and

ecology of the Black Drongo in the Calicut

University Campus from 1973 to 1976.

Study Area

The Calicut University Campus is 227 ha.

in area and falls in the narrow tract of land

between the Western Ghats and the Arabian

sea. The campus terrain is undulating with

open grassy meadows, rocky promontories and

ravines. Outcroppings of hard laterite rocks

interspersed with gravelly and red loamy soil

are common. Many species of grasshoppers

and coleopterans are present here and form

a large portion of the food of the Black Drongo.

The characteristic cultivated plants of the study

area are the jackfruit tree Artocarpus integri-

folia , Cashew Anacardium occidental, the

1 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala.

Mango tree Mangifera indica and the coconut

palm Cocos nucifera. Interspersed with these

are clumps of Calycopteris Calycopteris flori-

bunda. The ground cover consists mainly of

the grasses Apocopis mangalorensis and Setaria

pallidae . There are many paddy fields border-

ing the campus. The study area receives an

average rainfall of 7 cm to 100 cm between

the months of April and July and an annual

rainfall of 300 cm.

Methods of Study

The Black Drongos were observed by Shukkur

during the breeding seasons using a 10 x 50

prism binoculars. About 2500 hours were

spent in the field and a total of 65 nests and 59

breeding pairs were observed in the four breeding

seasons from 1973 to 1976. Each nest was

visited every day noting the progress in building,

egg laying, size and weight of the eggs, incu-

bation, growth of nestlings, their development

of plumage and general behaviour. The eggs

and nestlings were weighed near the nests using

a torsion balance with a precision of 0.1 gm.

The temperature of the nestlings was measured

by placing an ordinary thermometer under the

wing for one minute. The brooding was

observed continuously for 2 hours at 5 nest

sites for a total of 162 hours for the entire study

period.

To study plumage and moult, 100 birds were

collected from points 20 to 50 kms away from

the campus. Observations on the juvenile

plumage were based also on thirty-five nestlings

1212

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate I

Shukkur & Joseph : Black Drongo

Photo, 1. A typical nesting tree ( Artocarpus integrifolia ) of the Black Drongo (Arrow indicates the

location of the nest) ; Photo. 2. A nest of the Black Drongo with completed clutch ; Photo. 3, A breeding

pair of the Black Drongo guarding the nest from their favourite perching post within the territory ; Photo. 4,

Shells of a freshly hatched egg ; Photo. 5. Nestling Black Drongos in the 2nd and 3rd days of nest life ;

Photo. 6. Nestling Black Drongos in the 5th and 6th days of nest life.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Shukkur & Joseph : Black Drongo

Plate II

Photo. 7. Nestling Black Drongos in the 8th and 9th days of nest life ; Photo. 8. 10th and 11th days of

nest life ; Photo. 9. 12th and 13th days of nest life ; Photo. 10. 15th day of nest life ; Photo. 11. 16th

day of nest life ; Photo. 12. Just fledged nestling on the 17th day.

BREEDING BIOLOG Y OF BLACK DRONGO

ringed in the campus. Nestlings were ringed

with the AB size (inner diameter 4 mm) alumi-

nium ring of the Bombay Natmal History

Society and coloured plastic rings.

During the breeding season the female Black

Drongo was identified at the time of egg laying

based on the size, and depth of the fork of fis

tail which was slightly different from that of the

male bird. Some deserted nests were taken to

the laboratory, measured and dissected to

identify the materials used in nest construction.

The breeding territory of the Black Drongo

was marked as the area around the nest en-

compassed by the radial distance upto which

the Jungle and/or House Crows ( Corvus macro-

rhynchos and/or C. splendens) freely entered the

home range. The mean radial distance was

calculated by taking ten observations each at

ten nest sites.

The abundance of insects during different

months was estimated by making monthly

counts at ten randomly selected sites of one sq.

metre area each. Four such counts were made

each month.

Results

Status and general habits :

The Black Drongo is resident in the study

area where it affects open fields, lawns and

gardens around buildings. Ali (1953) recorded

that this Drongo preferred gardens of jackfruit,

cashew and coconut trees for breeding. Moreau

(1935) studied its distribution in Africa and

considered this to be a savannah species which

now inhabits secondary forests. It is largely

a solitary species hunting insects after locating

them from perches on bushes, telegraph wires

or on the cattle grazing in the campus. But

when termites swarmed (Shukkur 1978 ;

Mathew, personal communication) flocks of

upto 25 birds fed together. Groups of upto 10

drongos feeding for long periods on mosquitoes

emerging from drainage canals and septic lanks

were observed repeatedly by the above-

mentioned workers. It joined the foraging

parties of the Whiteheaded Babbler ( Turdoides

affinis) and the Jungle Babbler ( T . striatus).

During the harvesting and ploughing operations

in the paddy fields, it perched on elevated posts

nearby to pounce on the insects flushed out.

It feeds voraciously in the morning hours and

hunts for insects attracted to electric lamps in

twilight hours and as late as 2 to 4 hours after

sunset and also J to 1 hour before sunrise.

The Black Drongo is very active during the

early morning period singing and feeding alone

or in pairs. In our study area duetting is most

prominent in the morning hours in the pre-

breeding months of February and March.

Helversen and Wickler (1971) have described

the details of the duet in the African race of

D. adsimilis. The Black Drongo spends the

mid-day quietly on shady trees.

Plumage and moult :

It was possible to differentiate the age groups

of the Black Drongo on the basis of plumage.

From observations of the marked young birds

the diagnostic features of the birds in different

stages of life were worked out and an outline

of such features is given below : —

Juveniles or first year (3-12 months old) :

Feathers of the underparts of the body,

undertail coverts, and underwing coverts are

white- tipped. The rictal spot is larger and

conspicuous. Colour of bill and legs is slaty

black.

The second year bird (1-2 years old) :

Tips of the feathers of the undertail coverts

alone white-tipped.

The adult (two years or more) :

Adult Black Drongo is glossy jet black in

colour with deeply forked tail and compact

body. The bare parts like the bill and legs

slaty black in colour.

1213

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

The Black Drongo moults its feathers during

June/July to October. The flight feathers

moult in an orderly fashion, i.e. the wing moult

starts in June/July from the most proximal or

the first primary and progresses in the ascendent

order towards the tenth. Secondaries moult

from July /August after the primary moult has

progressed to the third quill. The secondary

moult is less orderly. The 8th and 7th secon-

daries usually moult earlier than the remaining

ones. The rectrices moult from central pair

outwards and very symmetrically. The rectrix

moult starts after the primaries have started

moulting and is completed before the wing

moult is completed.

Each primary greater covert, and uppertail

covert moults along with the corresponding

remex and rectrix. The secondary greater

covert does not moult along with its secondary

quill but either before or after it. The Black

Drongo moults its body feathers from July to

November.

Breeding Biology

Breeding season :

During the period 1973 to 1976 we examined

65 nests. In the study area the Black Drongo

breeds from April to June. The breeding season

is defined here as the period from the date of the

building of the first nest to the date of the

fledging of the last chick. In the study area

the Black Drongo started breeding after the

first showers in April (Table 1 ; Figs. 1 & 3)

and completed breeding in June before the start

of the heavy monsoon.

The breeding season was so timed that the

eggs and nestlings escaped the rigours of the

severe summer and monsoon. The nestling

period (Figs. 1 & 3) coincided with the time when

the insect food was on the increase. The

nestlings fledged when the insect food was

available in plenty.

Breeding age and pair bond :

The Black Drongo appears to remain paired

throughout at least one whole year as indicated

by our close observations on a single pair where

the male was marked. A male bird which

fledged in 1973 bred for the first time at the

age of 22 months. Judging from the age of

birds on the basis of plumage it would appear

that both male and female Black Drongos

breed for the first time when they are about two

years old.

Pair formation and selection of nesting sites :

From December onwards the second year

and older birds start perching closer to each

other and producing long, soft, chirping calls.

Table 1

Breeding season of the Black Drongo in the study area during 1973-1976

1214

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BLACK D RON GO

rrrm many (in 100s)

Ess! large number (in 1000s)

Fig. 1. Insect abundance during different months of the year compared with that of rainfall. Data pooled

for four years and average taken. (Only three counts made during November, December and January.)

1215

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FW. 75

Fig. 2. Map of the study area with the nest sites 1973(3), 1974(4), 1975(5), 1976(6).

Inner approximate circles : — Area encircled by favourite perching posts.

Outer circles : — Area defended from House and Jungle crows (Mean radius 43.2 m). Scale 1 : 8,000.

NH. 17. National Highway 17 and other important land marks (ADB, UL, SB, LB, UHS, TH, MH,

LH, SG, PS).

breeding biology of black drongo

This is one of the earliest signs of courtship.

Such pairs indulge in duetting and vigorous

pursuit flights. Von Helversen and Wickler

(op. cit.) refer to the African Drongo duetting

outside their breeding season also. The nest

site seems to be selected between late February

and early March. This is the time when the

pair starts defending their territory. The nests

are situated in forks of trees like Mango, Jack-

fruit and Cashew. Early in the courtship period

the nesting birds could be seen hopping about

on these forks tilting and turning their bodies

to the sides, generally going through the motions

of building a nest without any nesting material.

This behaviour appears to be a type of vacuum

activity.

Territory :

Once the nest site is selected the pair defends

the surrounding area particularly against con-

specific individuals. The territory is more

vigorously defended after the commencement of

incubation. The Jungle and the House Crows

( Conus macrorhynchos and C. splendens) and

the Blackwinged Kite (Elanus caeruleus) are

not allowed to enter the territory. The Southern

Tree Pies ( Dendrocitta vagabunda) and Orioles

( Oriolus sp.) could move within the Black

Drongo’s territory but not on the nesting tree.

The territory comprised an area of 0.3 to 1.2 ha.

(Fig. 2) around the nesting tree. The nesting

pair has a number of perching posts on tall

trees around the nest. The topmost point on

a very tall tree which gives a good view of the

area around is usually the most favourite

perching post of a nesting pair.

Courtship and copulation :

A nesting pair indulges in vigorous courtship

activities. Such birds chase each other in

flight and bring their bills and wings into con-

tact as though in sham fight. In the course

of this their wings get interlocked and the pair

may fall to the ground. Courtship included

many vocalisations with the pair singing duets

or merely singing together. Only once was

copulation observed ; a female which had

perched on a branch slightly lowered the fore-

part of her body raising her tail ; the male which

was nearby mounted her, tilted his tail and

brought his cloacal opening close to that of the

female.

Nest location and building :

For nesting purpose, the Black Drongo

appears to prefer the grassy areas interspersed

with trees, a feature which gives it a good view

of the area around. The patches of grass

provide grasshoppers, beetles, spiders and other

arachnids, centipedes and worms in plenty

which serve as prey for the Black Drongo.

About a third of the campus area which does not

satisfy this requirement is not used by the

Black Drongo for nesting.

The nest of the Black Drongo is a thin

bottomed cup situated in the fork of a tree.

Small twigs, grass and fibres are pressed together

and draped with cobwebs. The nests are built

at points closer to the peripheral extremities of

branches than to the tree trunk. Trees 5-30 m

tall and standing singly in open areas

are often preferred for nesting. Usually the

nesting trees are situated 18 to 40 m away

from any of the surrounding ones. The nest

is located at heights of about 2.5 to 13 m from

the ground. Forty per cent of the nests were

located in the north-east portion of the trees,

23 % each in the south-east and south-west and

14% in the north-west portions. The south-

west portion bears the brunt of the strong

winds characteristic of the month of June. The

nest location on different trees in the study

area is shown in Table 2.

The Black Drongo appears to prefer jack-

fruit trees for nesting. The closely planted

cashew and densely foliaged mango trees which

offer only limited view of the territory around

seem to be less preferable as nesting sites to the

1217

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY \ Vol. 75

Table 2

Trees used for Nesting in the study area

Approximate

No. of

Trees No. of trees of the

Black Drongo. On the other hand, the jack-

fruit trees have a more open type of leaf arrange-

ment and the trees themselves are sufficiently

removed from other trees offering a clear view

of the territory.

A completed nest weighs about 15 gm and

has a diameter of 9 cm and a cup depth of

about 4 cm. The nest is built with fibres from

the fronds of the coconut palm (23.5% by

weight) twigs from the Gooseberry Tree Phyllan -

thus emhlica (16.4% by weight) and the Triple-

nerved Lizard foot Scuropus quadrangular is,

and cobweb. All the materials used for nest

building are available in the nesting area. The

fibres from fronds of the Coconut palm pro-

vided the matrix. Ribs of the leaves of the

Gooseberry Tree imparted rigidity. As is

common in passerine nests, cobweb bound the

building materials together and with the fork

of the branch of the tree. In 26 cases observed

it took 5 to 8 days to complete the nest, the

average being 6 days. Both sexes take part

in nest building. Building activity is faster

from the third day onwards. In a day-long

observation on the fourth day it was found

that the material was brought to the nest at

intervals of about 10 minutes in the morning

and 20 minutes in the later half of the day.

The builders took rest on the branches of the

nesting tree or trees nearby for about 2 hours

usually from 1200 hours to 1300 hours and from

1400 hours to 1500 hours. Each bird made

about 35 trips to collect nest building material.

A bird with new material does not approach

its nest directly but waits nearby, watches

around and then proceeds to the fork. In the

early stages the builders sit in the fork and press

the new material into the structure of the

growing nest. Later on they may perch on

the rim of the nest also. By pressing the body

into the nest-cup and by moving from side to

side the cup is shaped and widened. Egg-

laying commences on the day after the comple-

tion of the nest.

Nest desertions :

Twenty-nine out of the 65 nests studied were

deserted, five of these due to human inter-

ference. Year- wise break-up of data on nest

desertion and the apparent or recorded reason

for desertion are given in Table 3.

Re-nesting :

Five out of the 29 nesting pairs which deserted

their nests built new nests on other trees in

their home range. These 5 pairs were those

disturbed while egg laying was in progress in

their first nests. Drongos which deserted

nests in the advanced stage of incubation did

not renest.

Egg laying and incubation :

Sixty per cent of the eggs were laid within two

weeks of the fiist rainfall (Fig. 3). The eggs

are laid between 7 and 9 a.m. on consecutive

days. When the female is in the nest for laying,

the male watches from a favourite perch in the

territory. As she comes out of the nest after

laying, he flies towards her uttering a low

pitched ‘ qui . . . qui ’ call. The birds then

perch on nearby branches, spread out their

wings, fluff out their feathers and go for feeding.

1218

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BLACK DjRONGO

Table 3

Year-wise Data of Nest Desertion During the Years 1973-76

Eggs were 2.4-2.7 cm long, 1.85-2.05 cm

broad and weighed 4.8 to 5.8 g, i.e. 10 to 11.8%

of the average body weight of 49 gms of an

adult Black Drongo. The egg is elliptical and

white with red spots all over. The spots are

bigger at the broader end.

The clutch size was three in 46 cases and once

4 eggs. In two cases where one egg was broken

after the completion of clutch, no further egg

was laid.

The incubation period was 14 to 15 days.

Both parents incubated and in two closely

observed cases the male took a prominent role

in incubation. The incubating birds rarely

left their nests in the fore-noon. At noon

the eggs were left unbrooded for about an

hour. The nesting pair spent more time for

feeding in the evening hours.

Eggs hatched asynchronously and the

hatching period generally was between mid

May and mid June (Fig. 3). A time lapse

of 24 to 28 hours was observed between hatching

of the first egg and of the last. Egg shell

disposal was not observed.

The young and their development :

At hatching a nestling weighed 4 gm, 77.5%

of the mean weight of the fresh egg. The

nestling period varied from 16 to 20 days,

though in most cases it was 16 to 17 days.

The body weight of the nestlings increased

steadily from the day of hatching until they

were 12 days old. Thence the body weight

remained more or less static and later in the

prefledgling days, the weight decreased.

The newly hatched nestling is naked, un-

gainly and its eyes are not open. The body is

flesh-coloured. The abdomen and ventral part

of the lower mandible are paler. An egg-tooth

is present. Conspicuous white rictal flanges

line the margin of the mandibles towards the

angle of the mouth. The lining of the mouth

is yellowish-red. The beak is flesh-coloured

and the tarsi shadow-black.

The nestlings call softly and direct their

bills towards the soutce of food. The three-day

old nestlings are able to raise their heads more

efficiently to receive food and utter louder

begging calls. The body coloration attains a

darker tinge.

By the fourth day the feather follicles of the

body tracts appear as black spots under the

skin and by the fifth day they emerge out. The

head is completely covered over with bristle-

like outgrowths of feathers. The feathers of

the rest of the body pterylae grow to pin stage

by the seventh day and the remiges and rectrices

protrude out.

1219

15*

IQ-

S'

20

is-

le-

s'

20

15

10

5

20

15

10'

5

7ig.

lin<

(Ra

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 75

i. Number of eggs laid (solid line), number of eggs hatched (dotted line) and number of nestlings fledged

compared with the rainfall (dash and dot line) of the years 1973, 1974, 1975 and 1976, plotted in 5 day

ifall between 1 and 5 mm is plotted as 5 mm).

1220

Rain fall

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BLACK DRONGO

The eyes open by the eighth day and are

coloured reddish-black. Now the nestlings start

shivering movements of their wings and making

louder calls than before. Their responses to

stimuli like the calls of parents and vibrations

of the tree are more prompt and strong. The

beak turns more blackish ; the gape changes to

red and tarsi to black.

When 9 to 13 days of age, the feathers cover

the body except in the underparts. The pri-

maries, secondaries and rectrices grow longer.

At this age all the rectrices are of equal length.

From the ninth day onwards the rictal flanges

grow shorter, becoming reduced towards the

corner of the bill.

When two to three weeks old, the body and

abdomen of the nestling are more proportionate

in size. The underparts of the body are fully

feathered. The feathers are glossy black on

the upper part and tinged with white in the

underparts. The nestlings flutter their wings

and try to fly out of the nests. Normally the

nestlings leave their nests on the 16th or 17th

day though they are very weak fliers. If dis-

turbed by man they leave their nests slightly

earlier. The fledglings are fed by the

parents.

Brooding and body temperature of the nestlings :

The temperature of the nestling Black Drongo

varied from 30°C on the day of hatching to

42.5°C prior to fledging (Figure 5). The body

temperature increased steadily from 30°C to

38-40°C in the first 10 days of nestling develop-

ment. The nestlings maintain fairly constant

body temperature from the fourth day onwards.

The nestlings were brooded upto the fifth day

of nest life. The time spent in brooding pro-

gressively decreased from a total of 58 minutes

in 2 hours to 10 minutes in 2 hours, the duration

of brooding in a single session varying from

1 to 6 minutes. Brooding was not observed

after the fifth day.

Feeding of the nestlings :

The parents transfer whole food directly

into the mouth of the nestlings. Early in the

nestling period the chicks are given soft and

small insects. Very often the food brought

at one trip is sufficient to satisfy any one nestling

only.

The fledgling :

Fledgling Black Drongos do not return to

the nests once they leave it. The newly fledged

birds do not have forked tails. They master

flight slowly. The fledglings are guarded

carefully and fed frequently by their parents

for about a month, by which time they learn to

fly fairly well. The tail develops the forks

by the 20th day. There is a conspicuous white

spot near the angle of the mouth. As late as

3 months after fledging, the young Black

Drongos may beg for food, but the adults

ignore them and try to drive them away. Never-

theless the fledglings usually remain close to

the spots where they are reared for many more

months. One ringed juvenile did so upto the

2nd year and nested on the same tree on which

it was raised.

Breeding success :

The breeding success of the Black Drongo

during the period 1973-1976 is summarised in

Table 4. The timing and extent of rainfall

in the breeding season appears to influence

the extent of breeding success (Fig. 3). In the

years 1974 and 1976 when the rainfall in the

breeding months was uneven and very low, the

breeding success was only 26% and 37% res-

pectively (Fig. 3).

The influence of the first shower in April,

in timing the breeding of the Black Drongo

in the Calicut University Campus was clearly

demonstrated in a histological study of the

testes cycle of the species (Shukkur 1978).

Examination of the sections of the testes of the

is

1221

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 75

bird every month (for one year) revealed that

the spermatocytes and spermatozoa were

present in the testes in one week after the first

few showers.

The same author (1978) also examined in

detail the role of the various factors like the

availability of mates, suitable nesting sites,

material for nests, food for the young and

physical factors like temperature, moisture and

rainfall on the nesting success of the Black

Drongo. Mates, nesting sites and materials

for nests were available throughout in all the

years. Only the pattern and amount of rainfall

in the breeding months varied. Accordingly

AGE IN DAYS

Fig. 4. Graph showing the daily weight increment of the nestling Black Drongos. Middle bar indicates mean ;

Vertical bar indicates Standard deviation.

1222

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BLACK D RON GO

UJ

Q

<

CT

O

P

;z

LlJ

u

LlJ

LU

cr

o

LlJ

Q

AGE IN DAYS

Fig. 5. Graph showing the temperature development of the nestling Black Drongos on the consecutive days of

nest life. Circles indicate mean ; Vertical bars indicate range.

the percentage of the eggs hatched and nestlings

fledged also varied (Fig. 3).

After the first rains of the season the grasses

sprout and insects become abundant. This

condition is maintained if there is normal

rainfall during the following weeks (Fig. 1).

If not, the grasses wither and insects decrease

in numbers. This apparently results in food

shortage for the nestlings and is one of the

reasons for breeding failure.

The 65 nests examined during the four

bleeding seasons from 1973-1976 produced

72 fledglings. A pair of Black Drongos thus

raised 1.11 fledglings on an average. Sixty-

three per cent of the eggs hatched and 44%

produced flying juveniles. Lack (1954) after

studying the rate of survival of the eggs and

young of nidicolous birds, concluded that in the

passerine species with open nests the proportion

of eggs and completed clutches which gave rise

1223

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. IS

to flying young was rather under half varying

from 22% to 59%. The results of our four

years’ study of the Black Drongo also suggested

this proportion to be slightly under half of the

eggs laid by the Black Drongo. The highly

evolved defence behaviour and parental care

in the Black Drongo may be an important factor

contributing to the comparatively high breeding

success of this bird (Table 4).

Proximity nesting :

In the study area the Redvented Bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer nested in the territory of the

Black Drongo. Gilliard (1958) recorded that

birds like orioles and doves frequently built

nests on the same trees as this drongo and

enjoyed safety from crows and hawks which

the Black Drongo drives off. Out of the 40

Black Drongo nests in which incubation was

completed during 1973-1976, eighteen had the

Redvented Bulbul’s nests placed at distances

of 1 to 10 m from them and on the same trees.

The bulbuls started building 3 to 5 days after

the Black Drongos started building. These

bulbuls took 3 to 4 days to complete the nest

and they incubated for 11 to 13 days. The

bulbuls benefited from the vigorous defence of

the territory by the Black Drongo with whom

they seemed to have no conflicts. The Fantail

flycatcher Rhipidura aureola was also observed

to nest in the same manner. The bulbuls and

flycatchers responded to the alarm calls of the

Black Drongo and joined the drongos in the

defence of the nesting area. In three cases

when the Black Drongo deserted nests the

bulbuls nesting close to them did not complete

their nests. In one case when a drongo nest

was destroyed by man, the bulbuls nesting on the

same tree deserted their nests.

The nestling period of the Bulbuls was 12

Table 4

Breeding success of the Black Drongo during 1973-76

Years 1973 1974 1975 1976

Date of first shower

Number of rainy days during the one and half months after

the first rain

No. of nests building started

No. of nests building completed

No. of clutches started

No. of clutches completed

No. of nests incubation completed

Total No. of eggs laid

Total No. of eggs hatched

Total No. of nestlings fledged

Percentage (of total No. of eggs) producing fledglings

4- 5 are re-nests.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF BLACK D KONGO

to 15 days in 3 closely observed cases. The

bulbul parents were not seen to collect any

food from points close to the tree used for

nesting by the drongos and bulbuls. More

cases of such nesting associations have to be

studied in greater detail for drawing more

definite conclusions about the nesting relation-

ships between these two species.

Discussion

These observations on the breeding biology

of the Black Drongo D. adsimilis , carried out

from 1973 to 1976 in the Calicut University

campus cover four breeding seasons but the

data are too meagre for any elaborate dis-

cussion.

The drongos began breeding after the early

showers in April. On account of these rains,

grasses sprout and insects become more abun-

dant. The breeding drongos collect all their

insect food from areas close to their nests.

By the time the eggs hatch and the nestlings

fledge, the monsoon will have increased in

intensity ensuring a steady supply of food for

weeks to come. Baker (1938), Skutch (1950)

and Lack (1954 & 1968) have all observed how

food for the young was the ultimate factor

regulating the timing of breeding in birds.

Among the proximate factors operating

on the individual bird, the first showers appeared

to time the breeding season in the Black Drongo.

Proper timing of the breeding activities is most

important to the survival of the Black Drongo

in our study area as this bird has a very short

breeding season. The nestlings leave nests

before the height of the monsoon. It is sus-

pected that the Black Drongo remains paired

throughout the year and in the same home

range. This has to be proved by more obser-

vations.

In the study area the Black Drongo breeds

only in grass growing tracts interspersed with

tall trees. The Black Drongo has a territory

of 0.3 to 1.2 ha. which is defended by both

partners of a breeding pair. Howard (1914)

observed that a large territory may help to

regulate the size of the population in birds.

There are only a few spots which have the

combinations of conditions required by the

Black Drongo for nesting in the study area.

This may be one of the factors regulating its

population here.

We have no evidence of predation and

disease as factors causing mortality in the

Black Drongo. Food is an important factor

and is dependent on the distribution and

quantity of rainfall.

The clutch size of three and the single brood

raised by the Black Drongo seem to be very

suitable for the local conditions. The heavy

rainfall after June rules out the possibility of

this drongo raising a second brood. According

to Lack (1968) in species of birds in which

parents feed their young the clutch size corres-

ponds to the brood size from which the parents

can on average raise more young. The average

breeding success of the Black Drongos studied

by us during 1973-1976 is 44% which is com-

parable to the average figure given for open

nesting passerines by Lack (1954), and falls

in its upper range. Could the Black Drongo

raise a larger number of young by having

a bigger clutch size? We doubt this since a

larger clutch and brood may retard the growth

rate of the individual nestlings and prolong

their stay in the nest thus exposing them to

heavy rains.

Lack (1954) thought that solitary nesting in

birds helped to conceal the nest. The Black

Drongo’s nest is well concealed but its vigorous

defence of territory and highly aggressive

behaviour makes its nesting area very conspi- *

cuous. Perhaps since the Black Drongo is

efficient in protecting its nest, concealment of

nest is not very important to its breeding success.

The Redvented Bulbul which nested on the

same tree as the Black Drongo avoided any

1225

'

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 15

conflict with the latter by not collecting any Acknowledgements

food from the areas close to the nest. The

adult bulbul is an omnivore (Mathew un-

published). Its nest building, incubation and

nestling periods are shorter than those of the

drongo and this ensures unintenupted pro-

tection by the proximity of the Black Drongo.

Refer

Alt, S. (1953) : Birds of Kerala. Oxford University

Press, pp. 269-270.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1972) : Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Yol. 5, Oxford Uni-

versity Press.

Baker, J. R. (1938) : The Evolution of breeding

season. Evolution Essays presented to E. S. Goodrich,

pp. 161-177.

Gilliard, E. T. (1958) : Living Birds of the World,

Chanticleer Press Inc., New York, p. 303.

HELVERSEN, V. AND WlCKLER, W. (1971) 2

Z. Tierpsychol. 29 : 301-321.

Howard, H. E. (1907-1914) : The British Warblers

(London).

Lack, D. (1954) : Natural Regulation of Animal

Numbers. Oxford University Press, London.

Our thanks are due to Dr. D. N. Mathew

and Prof. R. M. Naik for their interest, stimu-

lating discussions and advice throughout the

study and to Prof. Madhav Gadgil for his

support and enthusiasm which enabled us to

present this paper at the Symposium.

ENCES

Lack, D. (1968) : Ecological Adaptations for Breed-

ing in Birds. Methuen & Co., London.

Moreau, R. E. (1935) : A critical analysis of the

distribution of birds in tropical Africa area. Jour .

Animal Ecol. 4 : 167-191.

Mason, C. W. and Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1912) :

The Food of Birds in India. Mem. Agr. Dept. India ,

Entomological Series 3.

Shukkur, E. A. A. (1978) : Biology, Ecology and

Behaviour of the Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis.

Thesis submitted to the University of Calicut.

Skutch, A. F. (1950) : The nesting seasons of

Central American birds in relation to climate and

food supply. Ibis 92 : 185-222.

Tinbergen, N. (1957) : The functions of territory.

Bird Study , 4 : 14-27.

1226

ECOLOGY OF HOLE NESTING BIRDS

K. N. Panicker1 *

Introduction

Literature on nidification of different species

of birds is exhaustive, but information on com-

parative studies of species of different families

having common ecological niches for breeding

is meagre. A comparative study of different

species using tree holes for breeding was

undertaken to determine whether inter- and

intraspecific competition for nest holes is a

major factor in their breeding success.

The species studied are :

(1) Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) Roseringed

Parakeet, (2) Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus)

Indian Roller, (3) Megalaima haemacephala

(Muller) Crimsonbreasted Barbet , (4) Acri-

dotheres tristis (Linnaeus) Common Myna,

(5) Stumus pagodarum (Gmelin) Brahminy

Myna, (6) Copsychus saularts (Linnaeus)

Magpie Robin, and (7) Petronia xanthocollis

(Burton) Yellowthroated sparrow.

Materials and Methods

The primary material for this study were the

nests, nestlings and adults of the species of

birds listed above. The nesting details were

observed at the nesting sites. Routine obser-

vations were made almost every day during

the breeding season using a 6 x 30 prismatic

field binoculars. Among the same species,

certain individual birds were recognised by

constant observation of the pairs and their

centres of activity. Nest construction, incu-

1 Vector Control Research Centre, Kosapalayam,

Pondicherry.

bation period, and parental care were studied

by sample observations of the nest from dawn

to dusk. Food habits were studied by obser-

vation of the parent birds bringing food and

confirmed with an analysis of the excreta of

nestlings. The insect life of the study area

was studied through local collections. Eggs

and nestlings were weighed with a 4 Salter ’

balance. To study individual pairs, the parent

birds were caught with nylon mist nests and

given a visible identification mark on the wings

with enamel paint. Adults and fledglings

were ringed with Bombay Natural History

Society’s rings and coloured aluminium rings

prepared out of anodised aluminium strips.

Study Area

Studies were initiated in a patch of land

adjacent to a reserve forest called Ammundi

at Thirumani village in North Arcot district,

Tamil Nadu (12° 55'N., 78° 96'E.) situated

at about 200 metres above MSL from January

1969 to December 1969. From March 1971

to August 1972 the study was continued in the

Okhla Dam area Delhi (28° 38' N., 77° 17'E.)

at about 200 metres above MSL, and in the Delhi

Zoological Gardens.

Thirumani : The selected area in the environs

of Thirumani village was a private land about

250 metres away from the reserve forest of

Ammundi, situated in North Arcot district

of Tamil Nadu. It had the appearance of

a tropical dry evergreen forest — with a canopy

of small evergreen and deciduous trees with

shrubby undergrowth. The study site covered

approximately 2 hectares. The area was

1227

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol 75

neglected and the trees maintained only for

using the foliage as green manure in fields.

There were 128 large trees in the selected area,

the majority of them were Albizzia lebbek.

Other species were Tamarindus indica and

Azadirachta indica. Being soft wooded, Al-

bizzia lebbek is favoured by hole nesters. The

other trees in the area, Tamarindus indica and

Azadirachta indica being comparatively hard

woods were probably not attractive to hole-

nesters. The main source of water was the

river Palar flowing on the northern border.

This river separated the study area from the

Ammundi forest. During the study period,

the river was dry. The main rainfall in this

area is from the south-west monsoon during

the months of June to October.

The study area is bordered by agricultural

lands cultivating paddy, ragi and sugarcane.

Harvesting of the crops is in March (Ragi)

and May (Paddy). The grains form a source

of food supply for the breeding birds in the

area. There are some peepal trees ( Ficus

religiosa) in the village nearby which provide

food for a large number of frugivorous birds.

Flowers and figs are available from early April

onwards. The majority of parakeets and

barbets nesting in this area were largely depen-

dent on these peepal figs for feeding their

young. Periodical collection of the insect

fauna revealed species of the families Cara-

bidae, Tenebrionidae, Cerambycidae, Acridiidae,

Gryllidae. Species of the orders Odonata,

Isoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera were

obtained during the study months from January

to December.

Ecology of hole nesters

While all the hole nesting birds studied

exhibit all the normal breeding activities such

as establishment of territory and nesting site,

pair formation, copulation, nest construction,

laying of eggs, and care for the young, there is

great diversity of p attern by which these phases

are exhibited.

Breeding Season : The tree hole nesters

have well marked breeding season. The breed-

ing seasons of the species studied were given

in table below.

The birds start their breeding activities before

the onset of rainy season in both the study areas.

Moreau (1950 a) has reported that tropical

birds breed in relation to onset of rainy

season and mentions the monsoon as the only

apparent seasonal factor to which the breeding

season of some species on Islands off the coast

of East Africa can be related. Betts (1952)

reported that in the hills of Southern India, para-

keets and barbets breed early and this period

corresponds with the blossoming of the principal

nectar bearing trees and the ripening of the most

important wild fruits like peepal figs and of

crops, so that food for the young are easily

available. The timing of the breeding season

has many advantages as noticed by Betts (1952)

Roseringed Parakeet

Crimsonbreasted Barbet

Indian Roller

Common Myna

Brahminy Myna

Yellowthroated Sparrow

Magpie Robin

Tamil Nadu

. . December to May

. . January to June

. . April to July

. . May to September

. . April to June

April to July

Delhi

March to June

April to July

May to August

May to September

May to August

June to September

1228

ECOLOGY OF HOLE NESTING BIRDS

in woodpeckers. Woodpeckers are the earliest

to breed and there is no competition from other

species as none nest in the cold season and

secondly woodboring beetle larvae are in

plenty during this period. Breeding season

mainly is timed in such a way that the young

can be reared at the time of maximum food

supply (Thomson 1950). Lack (1950) has

also shown that the availability of food as

the most important factor in breeding. Late

breeders like the roller and mynas have the

advantage that the density of insects becomes

high with the arrival of monsoon, which are

the primary food supply for the young. It was

observed during this study in Tamil Nadu

area, that the ripening of ragi and paddy crops

in surrounding fields and subsequent prepara-

tion of the field for the next crop resulting in

flushes of insects and worms from February to

July coincided with the breeding of the birds

under study. Similarly the blossoming of Ficus

and neem trees also started from early March

which was advantageous to the frugivorous

birds like parakeets and barbets for feeding the

young.

Pair Formation :

During this study it was observed that the

pair remains together throughout the breeding

season. Mating was induced by a series of

courtship display simple or elaborate. Para-

keets rub their beaks and body for considerable

time uttering low twittering notes and the

female twisting herself into many postures,

while mynas flutter around the vicinity of

the general location of the selected nest hole

often indulging in preening each others feathers.

The rollers, however, have an elaborate court-

ship display rolling and flying high in the air

and then diving headlong with harsh cries.

Sexes were identified by watching the pairs at

mating except in parakeets where the male has

the rose ring around the neck.

A study was undertaken to find out whether

the same partners were involved in the second

brood. For this purpose, adults were caught

in mist nets and given identification marks with

coloured enamel paints. The marked pairs

were observed until the second brood was

formed. It was confirmed that the same

birds were responsible for both broods.

All these species maintained a small territory

around the nest hole, and the distance between

two adjacent nests of the same species was as

follows :

Parakeets . . Less than 1 metre and

more nests on the

same tree.

Common Mynas . . Approximately 3

metres.

Brahminy Mynas Approximately 2

metres.

Barbets . . Approximately 10

metres.

The hostility towards the same species varied

in different degrees among the birds studied.

The roller exhibited the maximum territorial

aggressiveness while parakeets and Brahminy

Mynas were the least aggressive.

Nest Construction : The birds studied included

primary hole nesters and secondary hole nesters.

The primary hole nesters are by definition species

capable of excavating their own nests such as

woodpeckers, barbets and parakeets as opposed

to the secondary hole-nesters such as mynas

and rollers which are dependent on natural holes

or the abandoned nests of the primary builders

for breeding. It was observed that parakeets

which are early breeders, complete their breeding

cycle in May, thus enabling the Common Myna

and Indian Roller to occupy the same nest holes.

Likewise Brahminy Mynas take over the nest

holes of barbets. The breeding season of the

two groups are so arranged that the secondary

users invariably follow the primary nesters.

1229

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 75

In choosing the site, in bringing the materials

for building the nest, and in the construction

of the nest, both males and females, take active

part. The vegetation in the habitat not only

provides nesting site and food but also barks,

fibre, twigs, leaves etc. suitable for nest con-

sfruction (Nickell 1958). The nests are built

in such a way that they are concealed from nest

predators. Proper selection of the site and

protection of the nest ensures safe breeding

for hole nesting species in general. Different

materials are used to line nests. Common Myna

and Brahminy Myna use mostly miscellaneous

mass of feathers, straw, fine twigs, leaves and

paper bits as nesting materials. Skin (slough) of

snakes is also used for lining the nest. The

materials are arranged in the form of a cup

with a central depression for laying the egg.

They accumulate material which weighs between

125 to 250 gm. No nest material was used by

the roller in tree holes unlike Lamba’s (1963)

observation, the eggs being laid directly on the

decayed debris of wood at the bottom of the

hole. Similar instances were observed with

Crimsonbreasted Barbets and Roseringed

Parakeets.

Laying and clutch size : Egg laying started

with completion of the nest in some cases and

in some, while the nest was under construction.

The variations of clutch sizes observed in

different regions and of different birds are

tabulated in Table 1.

Though the normal clutch size was 3 to 4,

some variation was noticed in relation to the

locality. All the hole nesters were found to lay

their eggs in the morning hours, in both the

study areas.

Lack states that climatic conditions and even

a change of season influences the clutch size

(Lack 1947, 1948 and Parkhurst & Lack 1946).

The clutch size of the Common Myna from the

south rarely exceeded four, whereas in Delhi

it was up to six eggs. Clutches of the same size

were recorded by Hume (1889) and Baker (1933).

The average number of eggs in a clutch was

3.5 in the south and 4.6 in Delhi. The average

number of eggs in a clutch of Brahminy Myna,

was 3.3 in the south but in Delhi it increased

to 3.5. Crimsonbreasted Barbet too showed

a slight increase with an average of two in the

south and 2.5 in Delhi. The roller showed

Table 1

Variation of clutch sizes in different regions and of different birds

1230

ECOLOGY OF HOLE NESTING BIRDS

a different trend with an average of 2.7 eggs

in the south and 2.5 in Delhi.

The eggs are rounded oval with a rough

texture. Parakeets, barbets and rollers laid

white coloured eggs. Common and Brahminy

Mynas laid glossy blue and pale blue eggs, res-

pectively. Lack (1958) has analysed the eggs

of 151 species of the large Thrush family for the

colour of the eggs and noted that colours of

eggs tend to be associated with certain types

of nesting site : species nesting in deep holes

tend to have immaculate white eggs, those in

shallower holes and crevices speckled white

or immaculate blue eggs.

All the birds studied agree with Lack’s

conclusion except the Common Myna and the

Brahminy Myna. Perhaps the breeding in

holes is a later development in these species.

The ability of mynas to construct nests outside

of holes supports this assumption.

From the Table 2 giving the measurements

of eggs of the roller and mynas, it is clear

that the size of the egg is not constant for each

clutch. This is perhaps due to the availability

of food in the breeding area as noted by Preston

(1953) which determines the size of the egg.

The quality and the abundance of food in the

locality influence the clutch size (Lack 1947).

The heaviest egg of a Common Myna was 8 gm.

and the lightest was 6 gm. In rollers,

there is not much difference, the heaviest

being 11 gm against the lightest 10 gm.

Incubation : The incubating bird spends

varying amounts of time brooding the eggs.

The roller spend two to seven hours in the nest

incubating the eggs, in addition to overnight

brooding. It sits for longer duration at a

stretch than other species. The mynas had

a different behaviour spending a maximum of

ten minutes at a stretch brooding the eggs.

However, one bird broods overnight. In the

parakeet, the female does most of the incu-

bation and the male relieves it at intervals.

The barbet too, spend comparatively longer

time brooding the eggs. During incubation the

birds periodically turn the eggs as was evident

from marked eggs.

Incubation Period : According to Nice

(1954), incubation period is the elapsed time

between the laying of the last egg in a clutch

and the hatching of that egg. In general,

eggs hatch in the order laid. The incubation

period of the birds studied, are given below

Roseringed Parakeet . .

Indian Roller

Common Myna

Brahminy Myna

Crimsonbreasted

Barbet

22 to 24 days (9 nests)

18 days (3 nests)

12 to 16 days (8 nests)

12 to 14 days (6 nests)

13 days (One clutch)

Table 2

Egg measurements in millimetres

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V&i 75

Young in the Nest : Observations were made

on the young in the nest, their care, the nature

of food fed to them, and feeding pattern. In

all species studied, the newly hatched young

were flesh coloured, devoid of feathers (except

the Common Myna), and had their eyes closed.

Both parents took part in feeding the young.

As nestlings grew, the frequency of feeding

became less. Lack (1968) observed ‘ rapid

growth of the nestling is advantageous because

the period of vulnerability to predators, is

reduced \ A roller chick gains four to five

gm weight within twenty four hours of hatching.

By the third week, it will be fully fledged.

Common Myna chick gains three to four gm

weight in twenty-four hours after hatching

and are fledged by the third week. As observed

by Ricklefs (1973), the larger the species the

slower is the rate of growth, for instance, the

parakeets take a longer time to leave the nest.

While nestlings of the rollers and mynas leave

the nest when they are four to five weeks old,

nestlings of the parakeet take six to seven

weeks to leave the nest. It should be noted

that the young of the rollers and mynas, are

fed on a high protein diet as insects form the

major portion of their food. The parakeets

and the barbet feed the young mainly on grains

and wild fruits respectively.

Nest site and nest competition

Early in the breeding season, the paired birds

get busy with the selection of a nest site. Usually,

a deep hole or hollow is selected for this purpose.

In the southern study area, nests were found

on trees like Albizzia lebbek , Delonix regia ,

Enterolobium saman and Dalbergia sissoo,

whereas in Delhi the birds preferred Tecoma

indica , Morus alba and Azadirachta indica.

The order of preference of trees selected by

different species in different localities, is pre-

sented in Table 3. Albizzia lebbek in the south

and Tecoma indica in north, were favoured

most. Both species of trees, are soft-wooded,

which makes easy the excavating of a hole.

Therefore, primary nest builders preferred these

trees which were subsequently used by secon-

dary hole nesters. In addition, secondary hole

nesters were satisfied with any natural hole

in trees.

The height at which the tree holes were

found is given in Table 4 and the majority was

between seven to ten metres from the ground

level.

The lowest height in which the nest holes

were found was three metres and the highest

was thirteen metres from the ground for species

except the barbet. The barbet’s nests were seen

from about 1.5 metres above the ground.

The parakeet preferred holes on the tree

trunk while the barbet chose the underside of

a dead branch. The parakeets, and the Com-

mon Myna occupy holes in the upper part

of the trees, whereas the barbets and the

Brahminy Myna used holes in the lower portion

of the trees.

The entrance of the nest holes were usually

oval and very rarely circular. The circum-

ference of the opening of the nest holes from

a sample in Thirumani is given in Table 5.

It indicates that parakeet. Common Myna and

the roller, being larger birds, occupied nest

holes with a larger entrance while the barbet

and the Brahminy Myna, being smaller birds,

occupied holes with smaller entrance.

It is reasonable to assume that since the

barbet’s and the Brahminy Myna’s nest hole

openings were comparatively small, the roller

and the Common Myna compete only with the

parakeet for nest holes. The Brahminy Myna

always prefers the barbet’s hole and in the

absence of such holes, they breed in deep holes

often seen in the form of a cavity, well concealed

within the branch or trunk with a small entrance

and narrow communicating passage. These

holes are not preferred by the common mynas

and the roller. Clashes between them occurred

1232

ECOLOGY OF HOLE NESTING BIRDS

Table 3

Order of preference of trees in different localities of different species

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 5

Circumference of the opening of nest holes of different species (in centimetres)

only a considerable time after the fledglings

of the early breeder or the occupant flew out

of the nest. In the clashes between the common

myna and the roller, for occupation of the same

nest hole, the myna always won. But if the

roller had established itself in a nest hole, no

other species could evict it. The rollers were,

however, irresponsible parents neglecting the

brood for long hours and thus losing the young.

When this happens, they vacate the nest too,

letting the nest hole be occupied by the common

myna. In one instance, the roller parents

guarded the nest for twelve days after losing

the brood and then lost interest and vacated

the nest which was readily taken over by the

common myna.

Even though there is strong demand

for the same breeding site between parakeet

and common myna, it does not interfere

with their nesting success as their breeding

timing does not coincide, thereby giving time

for the early breeder to complete its cycle. The

time at which parakeet fledglings flew out of the

nests and clashes between parakeets and mynas

were observed are given in Table 6. The

parakeets were obviously using the nest as

a shelter in post-breeding season.

During the course of the study, a fierce

Table 6

Time gap between nest-leaving and re-occupation

1234

ECOLOGY OF HOLE NESTING BIRDS

clash between a late breeding pair of parakeets

and of rollers was seen in which the original

occupant of the nest hole, the roller succeeded

in retaining the nest. Competition between

the Crimsonbreasted barbet and the Yellow-

throated Sparrow for the same nest, was

common in Thirumani study area. Each time

the barbets successfully retained the nests,

the sparrows had to be satisfied with some

natural hollow or depressions in the dead

branches of the trees. But a clear cut working

adjustment was observed between barbet and

Brahminy Myna. When barbets completed

their breeding, the nest was taken over by

Brahminy Mynas. However, in Delhi the

Brahminy Mynas successfully drove out barbets

and occupied their nests.

A species competing with the Brahminy

Myna for the nest of the barbet was the Magpie

Robin. Between them the Magpie Robin

was successful every time. Spotted Owlets

and Hoopoes also breed in tree holes and their

breeding season was also from April to May.

Owlets prefer rotten natural hollows and

Hoopoes preferred some natural deep holes

with two or three entrances. A General

picture of the clashes between different species

for the same nest is given in Table 7.

As already reported by Lamba (1963), perfec

harmony was observed between the different

species occupying neighbouring holes either in

the same tree or trees nearby.

Nesting Success

While breeding success of hole nesters depends

on their ability to find a suitable hole and hold

it against competition, both inter-and intra-

specific, nesting success is the ratio of young

that flew from the nest to the number of eggs

laid and is the end result of the breeding acti-

vities. The tree hole nesters showed variation

in nesting success both within and among the

species and at different places. The presence

of predators, the quality of parental protection

and the unequal distribution of food, were the

main reasons of nesting failure. The breeding

success was studied for Roseringed Parakeet,

Indian Roller, Brahminy Myna, and Crimson-

breasted Barbet, both in Thirumani and in

Delhi, the breeding success of Common Myna

was studied in Thirumani.

In Thirumani, the Roseringed Parakeets under

observation laid 28 eggs, of which 24 hatched

(85%) and 19 flew out of the nest, making the

nesting success 67.8%. However, in Dvlhi,

Table 7

Clashes for nest holes

1235

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 75

of the 15 eggs laid, 11 hatched (66%) and only

5 nestlings flew out of the nest (33.3 %).

Of rollers in Thirumani out of 1 1 eggs laid,

9 hatched (81 %) and only 2 nestlings survived

to leave the nest (18.2%). However, in Delhi,

of 5 eggs laid, 3 were hatched (60%) and 2

nestlings flew out of the nest (40 %).

Brahminy Mynas in Thirumani laid 32 eggs,

of which 28 hatched (87%) and 16 nestlings

successfully flew out (50%). In Delhi area,

Brahminy Mynas laid 32 eggs, of which 28

hatched (87%) and 23 nestlings were reared

successfully (71 %).

Crimsonbreasted Barbets laid 6 eggs in

Thirumani from which 2 hatched (33 %) and of

those 2 survived (33 %). In Delhi, 1 1 eggs

were laid of which 9 hatched (81%) and 7

nestlings survived to become adults (63.7%).

In Thirumani, Common Mynas laid 28 eggs

from which 19 hatched (67%) and 8 were

successfully reared (28.6 %).

Conclusions

The percentage of young surviving to leave

the nest, varies widely among different species.

Within the same species also it varies geo-

graphically and seasonally.

In the present study, among different species

of birds having common ecological niches for

breeding, the Brahminy Myna and the Crimson-

breasted Barbel were found to have the highest

nesting success. This is attributed to

(1) Safe nesting sites — for successful rear-

ing of the offspring, the young have

to be cared for, fostered, and pro-

tected. The birds have to select a site

which helps to conceal the nests from

predators and also provides food for

themselves and the young ones. But

at times, birds like the rollers and the

Common Mynas tend to select un-

suitable sites.

(2) The entrance of the nest holes are

smaller in size in case of the barbets

and the Brahminy Myna, which pre-

vents the predator’s access to the nests

and also limits intra-species com-

petition. In spite of the thick vegetation

the wider entrance of the holes of

roller and common mynas provide

easier access for the predators.

(3) Nesting success depends also upon

the parents in providing food for the

young ones. Rollers were found to be

inefficient parents. The youngest in

the nest seldom receives its share of

food as it is shoved away by its elder

siblings when the parent brings the

food. Hence starvation results in

mortality.

(4) Predation : Human predation had a

marked influence, in the case of para-

keets, on the Delhi population and the

Thirumani data with 67 % nesting

success without human predation gives

a true picture.

For the other species, predators of eggs were

monkeys, House Crows and Jungle Crows and

predators of nestlings were monkeys, House

Crows, Jungle Crows, Brahminy Kites, and

ants of Camponotus species.

In addition, nests were destroyed by rain,

and high winds. An unexpected storm took

toll of some trees which had the broods of barbets

in Thirumani, hence nesting success was reduced

to 33% for that breeding season and the data

does not give the correct picture of the normal

breeding success of the species in that area.

In general, hole nesting has certain advantages

and disadvantages. Nice (1957) has reported

that out of 7788 nests studied, the survival

rate of hole nesting species average 66 %. Nests

are built in relatively inaccessible sites. These

species breed solitarily which increases conceal-

ment under the thick vegetation. Breeding in

1236

ECOLOGY OF HOLE NESTING BIRDS

thick vegetation with wide spacing presumably

diminishes the chance of their being found by

predators.

The birds which build the nests in unpro-

tected places, have the compensatory advantages

of a much wider choice of nesting sites in

relation to the food supply and can occupy

many different habitats. But the birds depen-

dent on tree holes, may not find enough safe

holes.

Another disadvantage would be the inability

of the young to scatter when attacked by a

predator, therefore the loss from a predator

once it makes a successful entry into the nest,

Refe

Alt, Salim (1955) : The Book of Indian Birds, 5th

Ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1933) : Nidification of Birds of the

Indian Empire, 2. Taylor and Francis, London.

Betts, F. N. (1952) : The Breeding seasons of birds

in the hills of South India. Ibis , 94 : 621-628.

Hume, A. O. (1889) : Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds.

I. London, R. H. Porter.

Lack, David (1947): The significance of clutch-size.

Ibis, 89 : 302-352.

(1948) : The significance of clutch-size.

Ibis, 90 : 25-45.

(1950) : The breeding seasons of European

birds. 76/5., 92: 288-316.

— (1958) : The significance of the colour of

turdine eggs. Ibis., 100 : 145-166.

(1940 b) : Pair-formation in birds.

Condor 42 : 269-286.

(1968) : Ecological Adaptations for breeding

in Birds. Oxford, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London.

Lamba, B. S. (1963) : The nidification of some com-

mon Indian birds : 4. The Common Myna Acridotheres

tristis (Linn.). Res. Bull, of Punjab University 14 :

11-20.

could be total. The loss at egg stage would be

equal for open nesting and hole nesting forms

but will be more at nestling stage for hole

nesters. However, this disadvantage would be

offset by the fact that hole nest is more easily

defended.

Acknowledgement

I am indebted to Dr. Salim Ali and Mr. J. C.

Daniel for advice and encouragement. This

paper formed part of a M.Sc. thesis submitted

to the University of Bombay.

ENCES

— (1963) : The Nidification of some common

Indian Birds : 5. The Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis

(Linn.). Res. Bull, of Punjab University, 14 : 21-28.

Moreau, R. E. (1950 b) : The breeding seasons — 2.

Sea Birds. Ibis, 92 : 419-433.

Nice, M. M. (1954) : Problems of incubation periods

in North American Birds. Candor 56 : 173-197.

Nickell, W. P. (1957) : Variations in engineering

features of the nests of several species of birds in re-

lation to nest sites and nesting materials. Butler Univ.

Bot. Studies, 13 : 121-139.

Parkhurst and Lack, D. (1946) : The clutch size

of Yellow Hammer, Brit. Birds, 39 : 358.

Preston, F. W. (1953) : The shapes of birds’ eggs.

Auk, 70 : 160-182.

Ricklefs, R. E. (1973) : Patterns of growth in birds,

II Growth Rate and mode of development. Ibis , 115 :

176-200.

Thompson, A. L. (1950) : Factors determining the

breeding season of birds. An introductory review.

Ibis, 92 : 173-184.

Van Tyne, J. and Berger, A. J. (1959) : Funda-

mentals of Ornithology, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

19

1237

THE STATUS OF INDIAN CROCODILIANS

Romulus Whitaker1 and J. C. Daniel2

(With two plates)

Introduction

Crocodilians have been singularly unsuccessful

in the 20th century. Most of the generally

recognized 22 species survive exclusively in

national parks, protected preserves and in

farms and breeding stations. This non-success

is due mainly to (a) the hunting for skins on

a very wide scale with, till recently, very little

or no restrictions on numbers and seasons and

(b) habitat loss. The world market for croco-

dilian skins used to peak over 2,000,000 skins

per annum. As late as 1976 the Colombian

Government issued licenses for huning 290,000

caiman (IUCN 1971).

The three species of Indian crocodilians are

the mugger or marsh crocodile (Crocodylus

palustris), the saltwater or estuarine crocodile

(Crocodylus porosus), and the gharial (Gavialis

gangeticus). Of these the mugger has been the

most successful ecologically, adapting to a wide

habitat range from hill streams and rivers to

ponds, marshes and lakes. Gharials are res-

tricted to deep, fast flowing northern rivers and

estuarine crocodiles to coastal creeks and

mangrove swamps.

Methods of Study

From 1973 on the Madras Snake Park Trust

and the Bombay Natural History Society have

1 Hon. Director, Madras Snake Park Trust, Madras-

600 022.

2 Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay-

400 023.

sent questionnaires throughout the country

enquiring about the status of crocodilians.

Field workers of the Madras Snake Park have

made survey trips or visits to all the states with

known crocodile populations. Considerable

correspondence and searching in old literature

helped ascertain past status and distribution of

India’s crocodilians.

Results and Discussion

Mugger were once extremely common in the

former wide range from Dasht in the extreme

west of Pakistan to Assam in north-eastern

India and over most of the peninsula and Sri

Lanka (Smith 1931).

Estuarine crocodiles were plentiful in the

Sunderbans in West Bengal, Bhitar Kanika in

Orissa (Daniel & Hussain 1974) and the

Andamans and Nicobar Islands, since these areas

support extensive mangrove swamps and tidal

creeks. Other populations also existed along the

southern east and west coasts but were already

rare in the 1940’s. Kerala, which today has

no mangrove left, evidently once had a sub-

stantial population of estuarine crocodiles.

Old accounts, such as those of Andrew Leith

Adams (1867), indicate how plentiful gharial

used to be in northern rivers : 4 The gavial or

Indian alligator (Gavialis gangeticus) abounds

in all the great rivers of Northern India . . .

Ten or twenty may be frequently seen

together . . . ’ Their range extended through-

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Plate I

Whitaker & Daniel : Indian Crocodile

Estuarine Crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus) hatching (Andamans).

Marsh Crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris ) in natural habitat (Corbett National Park),

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STATUS OF INDIAN CROCODILIANS

out the Gangetic 'system, west to Pakistan and

north-east to the Brahmaputra, with an

isolated population in Orissa in the Mahanadi.

Another early naturalist, Hornaday, in 1880

reported seeing 24 gharial in two hours on the

Yamuna River, not far from Allahabad

(Hornaday 1881).

Depletion :

The general reasons for the decline of the

three species are uncontrolled and all-season

hunting for hides, meat, 4 medicine ’ and sport ;

killing by fishermen ; extensive collection of

eggs for eating, and loss of habitat caused by dam

construction, river diversions, agricultural and

forestry activities, water pollution and human

disturbance and encroachment. It was recently

observed that the gharial on the Karnali River

(a group of seven adults) in Western Nepal

failed to breed in 1976 because of the distur-

bance caused by a dam feasibility project

(Whitaker 1976). Natural predation in croco-

diles, especially in the egg and hatchling stage,

is very high and gains importance in danger-

ously low populations, as is the case with

India’s three species. It is estimated that only

1-2% of hatchling crocodiles reach adulthood

in nature.

The Skin Industry :

From interviewing skin dealers it is evident

that a few people once made considerable

profits on crocodile skins. Fishermen supplied

the skin markets of Agra and Kanpur, whereas

in other areas tribal crocodile hunters (operating

throughout the north) supplied middlemen.

In some parts of the country one or two

4 specialist ’ hunters were apparently responsible

for wiping out considerable populations. One

well-known ex-hunter in Diglipur, North

Andaman, claims to have killed a thousand

crocodiles during his 15 year career.

With the 1972 ban on crocodile killing, the

skin market went underground. The value of

crocodile meat, fat, gall bladder (for 4 medicinal '

uses) and other parts still makes it worthwhile

to kill crocodiles even without the danger

involved in selling the skin. In 4 country

medicine ’ shops throughout the country

crocodile fat is a rare but available 4 remedy ’

for asthma, whooping cough or rheumatism.

The only available statistics on the Indian

crocodile skin industry are for 1964-65 when

a total of Rs. 25,948 worth of skins were ex-

ported to U.K. and France. The absence of

statistics makes it difficult to assess the size

of the industry (Bhanotar et al. 1975).

Legal Status and Protection :

Before the export of crocodile skins from

India was controlled in 1969 (Instruction

No. 57/75), crocodiles in some areas received

protection as religious symbols. In some

parts of Kerala it was customary to have a

resident mugger in temple tanks and these were

zealously protected by the villagers. The

famous Mugger Pir near Karachi in Pakistan

still exists today and here the last three resident

mugger are venerated and fed by the local

people. Effective and thorough ‘ paper ’ pro-

tection for Indian crocodilians was accom-

plished only in 1972 (Wildlife Protection Act,

1972). The: three species are listed under

Schedule 1 of the Act, rendering the killing,

trapping, transporting or being in possession

of a crocodile or its products without a special

permit illegal with a penalty of upto 6 months

imprisonment and Rs. 2,000 fine. Export

instruction No. 46/73 forbids the export of

crocodiles and gharial, their hides, or products

therefrom.

Present Status :

State by state status accounts are given in

Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. Madras Snake Park field

investigations have covered most states but

only Tamil Nadu in great detail.

1239

Present Status of Mugger (Crocodylus palustris)

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL NIST. SOCIETY , Vol 75

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Krishna R. . . Less than 10

State Crocodile Project for C. palustris and C. porosus initiated in 1976.

STATUS OF INDIAN CROCODILIANS

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Mugger seem to be extinct in Assam.

Tablb 1

Present Status of Mugger (Crocodylus palustris)

State

Habitat Estimate of

numbers

Remarks

Tamil Nadu

.. Chidambaram Waterworks. 15-20

Kilikudu * Crocodile Farm \ 20

Mettur Reservoir

Sathanur Reservoir

Bhavani Sagar Reservoir . .

Kedarhalla and Moyar

Stream.

Amaravathi Reservoir . .

Hogenekal Falls (Cauvery

Less than 10

12

Less than 10

25

Less than 10

4 breeding females. Good protection from Municipality.

5 breeding females. Complete protection by local villagers

and the Forest Department.

6 breeding females. State Crocodile Project site.

6 breeding females. Recommended as Crocodile Preserve.

12 breeding females, State Crocodile Project site.

3 breeding females.

Tamil Nadu has less than 200 wild crocodiles but this is the largest confirmed population in the country.

rnataka . . Ranganathittoo Bird Sane- Less than 10

tuary (Cauvery R.).

Other rivers (other parts of Very few, totalling les

Cauvery, Kafcini, Thunga- than 100.

bhadra, Nugu, etc.).

A State Crocodile Project has been initiated at Bannerghatta National Park, n

Kerala .. Neyyar Reservoir .. Less than 10

Parambikulam Reservoir. Less than 5

The total crocodile population of Kerala iprobably does not exceed 30.

Andhra Pradesh .. Godavari R.

Krishna R.

State Crocodile Project for C. palu

. . Less than 10

f and C. porosus initiated in 1976.

1 nesting female. One of the sites for the State Crocodile

Project.

1 breeding female.

Tadoba National Park . . Less than 20

Other Parks and Rivers . . c 50

Population probably less than 100.

Madhya Pradesh . . Large rivers e.g. Mahanadi, Less than 100

Son, Betwa, Ken.

Mugger formerly very plentiful in tanks and rivers. Forest Dept, is taking conservation measures.

^ .. Majorriverslike Mahanadi, Less than 20

Bahmani, small reservoirs,

tanks.

No breeding population known. Extensive State Crocodile Project commenced in 1975, with ;

mugger rehabilitation centre at Simlipal.

Gujarat . . Hiran Lake (Gir National 60 . . 6 nests located in 1977.

Park).

Other reservoirs and Small remnant populations,

tanks in the State.

Gujarat has the second largest mugger population in the country and the Forest Dept, has initiated a crocodile rehabilitation project.

Rajasthan .. Chambal R.

Reservoirs and tanks

A State Crocodile Project was initiated in 1975.

Less than 20

Few isolated individuals . .

Uttar Pradesh . . Ramganga (Corbett

National Park) 8

Rivers, streams . . Under 100

Large scale State Crocodile Project underway since 1975.

Bihar • • Remote rivers and jungle Total less than 50

lakes

Some rehabilitation work has been started by the Forest Department.

West Bengal .. Ganga and other rivers .. Under 30

A project for the three species has been commenced by Forest Department.

Assam . . All rivers

Mugger seem to be extinct in Assam.

. . No mugger reported in

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 2

Present Status of Estuarine Crocodile {Crocodylus porosus )

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Bihar . . Gandak, Kosi . . Under 10

A rehabilitation project is underway.

Crocodiles on the sub-continent

STATUS OF INDIAN CROCODILIANS

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , m 75

Conservation

In 1974 Government of India invited Dr. H. R.

Bustard, FAO/UNDP Crocodile Consultant

to advise on crocodile conservation and manage-

ment schemes. Under the initiative and

guidance of Dr. Bustard several state Govern-

ments have established crocodilian projects,

which include incubation of eggs, rearing of

young and release in preserves. These projects

also have the academic participation of several

full-time Ph.D. scholars working on crocodilian

biology. The gharial research and rehabili-

tation units in Orissa and U.P. have had

remarkable success and are currently rearing

over 500 gharial hatched from wild-laid eggs

which will be released in the adjacent protected

areas. On 9th April 1977 the first 2 year old

gharial over a metre long were released into the

Mahanadi at Satkosia Gorge. Four sanc-

tuaries have been created for the gharial :

Orissa (Satkosia Gorge, Mahanadi River),

U.P. (Katerniaghat, Girwa River), Bihar (near

Nepal border, Gandak River) and Rajasthan

(near Kota, Chambal River). Bhitar Kanika

in Orissa is now a sanctuary for the estuarine

crocodile. The survival of India’s three

crocodilians depends on the success of these

projects.

Tamil Nadu has the potential for the largest

mugger rehabilitation scheme in the country.

In 1977 the Tamil Nadu Forest Department

has collected over 600 eggs from wild nests

and is rearing about 150 hatchlings from 1976

egg collection. Hatcheries and rearing ponds

have been set up at Sathanur, Madras, Amara-

vathi and Hogenakal. In addition, several

areas that are important crocodile habitats

are under consideration as crocodile preserves.

During 1976 Andhra Pradesh and Kerala

initiated mugger conservation projects. At

least 2 mugger have been released in protected

habitats in Andhra.

Gujarat State, which has the second largest

known mugger population after Tamil Nadu

is reported to have a project proposal for the

Gir crocodiles. It would be advantageous if

crocodile conservation measures could be taken

up state wide. States such as Madhya Pradesh

and Karnataka have remained mostly inactive

with regard to crocodile rehabilitation. With

the current interest and involvement of the

Govt, of India and FAO/UNDP in crocodile

conservation it would be timely for all states

to take advantage of this and develop projects

for the rehabilitation and management of this

resource. The FAO/UNDP aided schemes aim

to help recuperate crocodile populations to a

safe, viable level in protected wild habitat.

Simultaneously the technology of captive rearing

(and eventually breeding) is being studied and

developed for eventual farming. The pro-

gramme envisages eventual culling of surplus

animals, large scale battery type farming as

well as crocodile farming as a ‘cottage industry*

as in Papua/New Guinea (Pooley 1976). The

Andamans and Nicobars are in particular need

of attention. The estuarine crocodile could be

ensured a future there and a major forest based

industry could grow from a carefully managed

programme.

Sustained protection of our crocodilian

resources is possible only through clear con-

sideration of all the factors. The fisheries

interests and the public must be convinced

of the value of crocodilians in the eco-cycle of

India’s aquatic and estuarine environments.

Personnel with the aptitude and interest in the

specialized field of wild animal husbandry

must be located and trained. We must be

certain that we do not create too big a market

for farmed skins to fulfil which would again

place increasing pressure on wild stocks. Aspects

such as genetic stock and in-breeding must be

studied in this initial phase of ‘ domesticating ’

a wild species. The carrying capacity of all

previous or potential crocodilian habitat will

have to be critically determined to guide release

programmes. Similarly, monitoring and studies

1244

STATUS OF INDIAN CROCODILIANS

II

on existing wild and released populations will

guide our management and sustained yield

cropping policies.

The Madras Crocodile Bank, a joint project

of the Madras Snake Park Trust and the World

Wildlife Fund was initiated in 1974 to breed

and rear the 3 species of Indian crocodilians

for conservation purposes. This year (1977)

the Bank has for the third consecutive year

had breeding success with mugger, and hopes

to breed estuarine crocodiles and gharial in the

future. The Bank possesses 130 mugger, 8

estuarine crocodiles and 3 gharial and has

received support from the State Govt. The

Tamil Nadu Tourist Development Corporation

recently granted Rs. 50,000 to the Bank for

developing the touristic and educational aspects

of the Bank. The M. C. B. has supplied

hatchlings to the forest departments of

Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa for their rearing

projects and is aiding crocodilian conservation

by public education, advice to state projects

and the development of crocodile farming

technology.

The Future :

Like most wildlife in India, crocodilian

survival is threatened primarily because of value

placed on skin, meat, eggs and other parts and

secondly from increasing human pressure on the

environment. Protection, public education and

human population control are needed to ensure

their survival. Meanwhile the most valid

argument to offset the destruction of species like

the crocodile is that these resources can be

carefully managed for captive farming and free

range sustained yield exploitation. If we can

accomplish the marketing of farmed products

only, we have paved the way for the survival of

wildlife.

References

Adams, A. L. (1867) : Wanderings of a Naturalist in

India. Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh.

Bhanotar, R. K., Bhatnagar, R. K. and Mathur.

D. K. (1975) : Export of India’s wildlife and its

biological significance. Cheetal , Vol. 16, No. 3.

Bustard, H. R. (1974) : A Preliminary Survey of the

Prospects for Crocodile Farming (India). FAO, Rome.

(1975) : A Future for the Gharial. Cheetal

17 No. 2.

(1976) : Operation Gharial. Cheetal 17

No. 3 & 4.

Cott, H. B. (1961) : Nile Crocodile. Trans, of

Zool. Soc. of London.

Daniel, J. C. and Hussain, S. A. (1974) : The

record (?) salt water crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ,

Schneider). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (2) : 309-

312.

Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1972) : Crocodiles. Stack-

pole Books, USA.

Hornaday, W. T. (1885) : Two Years in the Jungle.

Scribner, New York.

(1881) : Two years in the Jungle. Scribner,

New York.

IUCN (1971) : Crocodiles. Supplementary Paper

No. 32, Morges, Switzerland.

Mahadev, E. (1976) : Gharial Survey in Madhya

Pradesh, Madras Snake Park Trust.

Neill, W. T. (1971) : Last of the Ruling Reptiles.

Colombia University Press, New York.

and Gans, Carl (1976) : The Nile

Crocodile. Scientific American , April 1976.

Pooley, A. C. (1976): Papua /New Guinea-

Crocodile Farming, IUCN.

Smith, M. A. (1931) : Fauna of British India, Vol. 1.

London.

Whitaker, R. et al. (1974) : Preliminary Survey of

the Gharial. Madras Snake Park Trust.

(1974) : Notes on Behaviour, Ecology and

Present Status of the Marsh Crocodile in South India.

1245

NOTES ON THE HOST PLANTS OF THE LORANTHACEAE

IN THE NILGIRIS

Priya Dayidar1

Fischer in 1926 contributed extensively to our

knowledge of the host affinities of the loran-

thacean plant parasites or the mistletoe of

south India. However, little work has been

done since then on the host ranges and

affinities of these species, but for the host

range of a few species recorded by Nara-

simha and Rabindranath (1964). I made some

observations and notes on the host range of

the loranthacean species in the Nilgiris during

the course of a two-year study on ornithophily.

In this paper the name loranthus is used as

a common name to indicate the semi plant

parasites that fall under the family Loran-

thaceae. A recent development in the classifi-

cation of the mistletoe has been the formal

separation of the Loranthaceae into two

separate families Loranthaceae and Viscaceae

(Kuijt 1969).

The host plants of the Loranthaceae listed in

this paper is neither complete nor exhaustive.

However, some interesting host-parasite combi-

nations are dealt with, and an effort made to

identify the causes that may underlie them»

as this could lead to a greater understanding of

their phylogeny and evolution.

The study area, the Nilgiri Hills, lies between

latitude 11° 8' and 11° 37' N., and longitude

76° 27' and 77° 4' E. The area receives rainfall

from both the NE and the SW monsoons.

The differences in rainfall, temperature and

altitude in different parts of the district contri-

bute to make the flora of this district varied

1 Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay-400023.

Present address t Canowie, Coonoor-613101,

Tamil Nadu.

and rich. Heavy rainfall on the western

slopes supports a moist evergreen forest at

elevations between 900 m and 1200 m. Slopes

with less rain have a moist mixed deciduous

type of forest, and in dry areas the dry deciduous

forest. At about 1500 m the southern sub-

tropical hill forest, the transitional belt of the

shola forest intergrades with the shola forest.

The southern montane wet temperate forest

or the shola forest occurs above 1700 m, and

is confined to the hollows and ravines on the

hillsides. The southern montane wet grass-

lands cover large areas on the hillsides.

Several reasons have been put forward to

explain the inability of a loranthus to establish

itself on certain plants. The mechanical pro-

perties of the host species bark that prevent

penetration by the haustoria of the parasite,

the biochemical incompatibility of the parasite

and host systems, and the light or shade require-

ments of the loranthus are some of them. The

habits and movements of the birds that disperse

the seeds of this parasite could also play a

large role in determining the host species

(Kuijt 1969).

One of the obvious reasons for the restriction

of the host range of a certain species of loranthus

is its limitation to a certain biotope or vege-

tational type, by environmental factors. This

limits the number of host species the loranthus

can parasitise. In the Nilgiris, loranthi such

as Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis and D. meme-

cylifolia are limited geographically to the

montane evergreen forests as they occur

only above a certain elevation on the sou-

thern hills. Other species such as Scurrula

1246

HOST PLANTS OF THE LORANTHACEAE

cordifolia and Helixanthera intermedia have

a wider altitudinal tolerance and occupy two

or three vegetational zones on the slopes.

Helixanthera intermedia occurs between the

altitudes of 1000 m-2000 m and straddles

two to three vegetational zones. In the lower

elevations it is found in the moist deciduous

type of vegetation, where the tree predominantly

attacked is Toona ciliata. Its range extends

through the subtropical hill forest to the shola

forest proper where its commonest host plant

is Symplocos laurina. Dendrophthoe falcata

possesses a high degree of adaptability to

different environmental conditions. It has a

very wide host range with 343 recorded host

plants (Narasimha and Rabindranath). It is

an extremely polymorphic species and two

different forms may not seem to have

much resemblance to each other, and inter-

mediate forms also occur. Wiens (1971) main-

tains that due to the extreme variation of forms

and their lack of geographical consistency the

variety subgrouping serves no useful purpose.

However, I feel that the varieties should

be delimited as it would make the different forms

easier to describe. Besides there is strong

evidence to suggest that the habit of this parasite

varies with the habitat in which it is found.

The form with long leathery leaves and yellow

flowers is found in the dry deciduous biotope.

This habit is possibly an adaptation to

xerophytic conditions. The plants it com-

monly parasitises are Zizyphus mauritiana ,

Z. xylopyra , Acacia spp., and Albizzia spp.,

the dominant trees in dry deciduous forest.

The form with white flowers and falcate

leaves occurs most commonly in the moist

mixed deciduous forests, and it may occur

to a less extent in wetter and in drier

areas. The form with amplexicaule leaves is

found in much wetter conditions on the

slopes from 625 m to the shola forests.

There is a significant amount of geographic

consistency between the different forms and

isolating mechanisms possibly operate to make

them more distinct from each other.

In D. falcata with amplexicaule leaves,

colour of the flower varies from deep red to

pink. In the sholas the trees most commonly

attacked by this loranthus are Syzygium

cuminii , S. arnottianum, and less often the

shrub Rhodomyrtus tomentosa. There is a

possibility that it extended its range up the

hillside by parasitising a tree species also

common in lower elevations. Another common

host is the woody climber Dalbergia gard -

neriana. This climber grows over several

trees in the shola forming a tangle of vegetation.

In one instance the climber was heavily infested

with Dendrophthoe falcata , while not a single

clump was found on any of the trees supporting

the climber.

In a mixed forest certain species are found

to be highly host selective. It would be interest-

ing to know why a loranthus confines itself

to a few host species when there is an ample

choice of hosts. In the temperate regions with

stands of a single or a few species of trees it

may be advantageous for the mistletoes to be

host selective (Kuijt 1969). Though in a

heterogenous tropical forest a high degree of

host selectivity seems disadvantageous unless

the parasite has also evolved a successful dis-

persal system to propagate the parasite onto

the required host. More study is required

before it is established whether loranthus with

a wide host range is more or less successful or

advanced than loranthus with a limited host

range (though success in parasitism cannot

necessarily be equated with an advanced

nature).

Helixanthera hookeriana is a loranthus con-

fined to the altitudinal zone of 1200-1700 m

on the slopes of the western ghats complex.

In the Nilgiris it is found in the moist mixed

deciduous tract on the slopes. I have recorded

this loranthus on only one species of

host Mallotus philippinensis. Fischer in

1247

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

1926 recorded this loranthus on the ^bove

host species only. The reasons for such a

narrow host range in a forest support-

ing numerous species of trees and shrubs is

not, as yet, known. The limited geographical

distribution and narrow host range of this

loranthus could indicate an advanced nature

though it also makes it vulnerable to

extermination. This is an entomophilous

species unlike the rest of the species in this

district that are ornithophilous. The few

species in this genus whose pollination has

been studied are known to be ornithophi-

lous though also visited by insects. Helix-

anthera hookeriana has bisexual flowers, and

its structure suggests an ornithophilous

ancestry. With exceptions typical insect polli-

nated loranthus are unisexual (Kuijt 1969).

Entomophily in this case suggests an advanced

nature. The fruits are dispersed by the flower-

pecker.

All the species of loranthus in the Nilgiris

are propagated by birds. The most common

agent for dispersal is the flowerpecker, Dicaeum

concolor. At lower elevations both Dicaeum

agile and D. erythrorhynchos are present. Nearly

all the species of loranthus in the Niligiris are

dispersed by Dicaeum , the common method is

by discarding the epicarp, swallowing the viscid

seed and excreting it on to a branch (Salim Ali

1931). However, Macrosolen parasiticus is also

dispersed by frugivorous birds such as bulbuls

and the barbets.

Dendrophthoe memecylifolia , an endemic

Nilgiri mistletoe found above 1700 m has a very

limited host range, most often, if not always,

the tree parasitised being Vaccinium lesche-

naultii. Fischer’s paper in 1926 lists five host

plants for this parasite. I have recorded it

on four host plants, three of which are common

with Fischer’s list. I have found this parasite

only once each on the host species other than

Vaccinium leschenaultii. To give an example :

in a hectare of shola forest comprising of

numerous shola trees, 10 out of the 17 Vacci-

nium leschenaultii were parasitised by Dendro-

phthoe memecylifolia. This loranthus was not

found on any other shola tree. D. memecyli-

folia produces a very limited number of fruits

by comparison with the other loranthi. The

fruiting period is very short, and the fruits

are dispersed by Dicaeum concolor. The fruits

of D. memecylifolia start to ripen when Vacci-

nium leschenaultii is in fruit though past its

peak. The fruits of V. leschenaultii are a great

favourite with Dicaeum concolor and the birds

move from one tree to another feeding on them.

I have observed the bird consume a few fruits

of the loranthus along with those of the host,

and possibly the seeds are excreted on the next

tree the bird visits. Apparently, birds could

be one of the important factors that determine

the host plant of D. memecylifolia.

In Macrosolen capitellatus which occurs upto

an elevation of 1500 m, flowerpeckers (observed

species Dicaeum concolor ) use a different

technique to disperse the seed. The flesh alone

is eaten, the epicarp is dropped and the seed is

rubbed off from its bill onto a branch. The

bird plucks a fruit, flies a short distance away

to a bare branch and proceeds to eat the flesh.

Usually the bird stays close to the source of

berries repeatedly visiting the clump for more

fruit. As the seed is not taken to a distance

it is common to see a tree fully infested with

this loranthus.

Many cases of hyper-parasitism have been

recorded, and usually Viscum parasitising a

loranthus is common. In these cases too the

bird plays the major role.

In Coonoor the fruiting of the loran-

thus is spread over the year. Thus the

bird does not have more than one to three

species of loranthus in fruit to contend with

at any given time of the year. The activity

of the Dicaeum may differ at different times of

the year, and this could also be a reason why

a host species sometimes supports only a certain

1248

HOST PLANTS OF THE LORANTHACEAE

species of loranthus and not others. Though

ringed birds have not been followed, the

Dicaeum is apparently territorial around a few

clumps of loranthus in fruit, and apparently

restricts its feeding to that area. The perch

preference of the Dicaeum could also determine

the subsequent dispersal of the seed. A small

bird like the Dicaeum would normally prefer

thinner branches to perch on.

Light is an important controlling factor in

the distribution of loranthus in a forest, light

tolerant or the light intolerant species selecting

habitats as per their requirements. Helixan-

thera intermedia above 1500 m predominantly

parasitises Symplocos laurina , and one of the

factors could be that Helixanthera intermedia

is a light tolerant branch inhabiting loranthus,

and this particular host plant could offer possi-

bilities for exposure to light. Helixanthera

intermedia growing in shady conditions show

listless growth and poor flowering, the flowers

being pale. Taxillus cuneatus , T. recurvus

and Helixanthera wallichiana appear to be

light tolerant. Dendrophthoe memecylifolia , D.

neelgherrensis appear to be light intolerant.

Though some species of loranthus including

D. neelgherrensis grow both in light and shaded

conditions.

Certain species have a wide host range. Den-

drophthoe neelgherrensis which occurs above

1500 m and is a highly successful parasite of many

of the indigenous as well as the introduced

vegetation. It is the only loranthus that

has parasitised Eucalyptus globulus. It had

been suggested that the eucalyptus due

to rapid exfoliation of its bark does not en-

courage attack by the loranthus (Bidie 1874).

Since then it has been noted that the loranthus

does attack Eucalyptus globulus (Fischer 1926).

Eucalyptus ficifolia is parasitised by Macrosolen

parasiticus. I have seen D. neelgherrensis not

only on the extremities of the branches of

E. globulus but also on the main trunk where the

bark is shed rapidly. Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis

‘ travels’ along the branches of the host by

means of epicortical roots, producing haus-

toria at intervals. Epicortical roots are not

true roots as they arise from the base of the

plant and not from the radicle. Loranthus

such as Dendrophthoe memecylifolia , Taxillus

cuneatus , T. recurvus , and Macrosolen parasi-

ticus produce epicortical roots, and Dendro-

phthoe falcata with amplexicaul leaves, Helix-

anthera intermedia , and Helixanthera hookeriana

do not have epicortical roots. Trunk inhabiting

loranthus seem prone to developing epicortical

roots, even within a species the clump on the

trunk produces more epicortical roots than

that on a thin branch.

The introduced Acacias from Australia are

attacked by most of the loranthus. Fruit

trees like the plum, peach and pear are

most suspectible to attack by Taxillus recurvus

and Taxillus cuneatus. Many other introduced

species of trees and shrubs are attacked by

many species predominant among them being

Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis , whereas some

species of loranthus are not found on any

exotic vegetation at all. Fischer notes that

Monocotyledons are not attacked by the mistletoe.

However in Ooty Botanical Gardens I have

seen Taxillus recurvus parasitising Cordyline

australis of Agavaceae, a monocot introduced

from New Zealand.

Resemblance between the foliage of the

loranthus and that of its host is rare. The

resemblance, if present may be accidental.

However, the foliage of Dendrophthoe

memecylifolia resembles that of its main host

plant Vaccinium leschenaultii to such an extent

that it is difficult to make out the parasite

in vegetative condition. The host plants of

a species of loranthus generally do not

have any similarity or relationship to each

other, though Dendrophthoe trigona is found

very often on species of Ficus. The loranthus

and its host plant do not have a common

pollinating agent, nor does it appear that

1249

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 75

flowering in the host influences flowering in the

parasite.

The little that is known about the host

preferences of the parasite, could be augmented

by detailed study on loranthus seed germina-

tion, penetration and successful parasitism of

various host plants. The influence of factors

like rainfall, humidity, temperature, and passage

of the seed through the alimentary canal of the

bird on germination needs to be known. The

habits and movements of the birds involved

in loranthus propagation merit study to deter-

mine the role they play in host selection. The

life span of a clump of loranthus needs to be

determined. I have noticed clumps of loranthus

dying for apparently no reason on a perfectly

healthy host plant. Detailed study would

possibly clarify the main factor or factors

involved in host selection. The damage done

by the loranthacean species on natural vegeta-

tion and cultivated plants needs to be

assessed.

List or host plants of the Loranthaceae

Species or loranthus Species of host

Helixanthera hookeriana (W. & A) Danser M. Arg. (1200 m-1700 m) Mallotus philippinensis M. Arg.

Helixanthera intermedia Wt. ( Danser) (900 m-2200 in) Gordonia obtusa Wall.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Ilex wightiana Wall.

Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Walp.

* Acacia melanoxylon R. Br.

Photonia notoniana W. & A.

Symplocos laurina (Retz.) Wall., Rehd. &

Wills.

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn.f.) Etting.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Acacia caesia Willd.

Acacia sp.

Albizzia sp.

Anogeissus latifolia Wall.

Premna cordifolia W.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn.

Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp.

* Acacia dealbata Link.

* Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. t,

* Prunus domes tica Linn.

* Prunus persica (Linn.) Batsch.

* Pyrus communis Linn.

* Nerium odorum Soland.

* Cinnamomum camphora Nees

Elaeagnus kologa Schlecht

Glochidion neilgherrense W.

Celtis wightii PI.

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

* Cordyline australis (Foist.) Hook. f.

Scurrula parasitica Linn. (300 m-2500 m)

Taxillus recurvus (DC.) van Tieghem (1500 m +)

1250

HOST PLANTS OF THE LORANTHACEAE

Species of loranthus

Species of host

Taxillus cuneatus (Roth)

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn, f.) Etting

widespread

Dendrophthoe trigona (W. & A.) Dans. (900 m)

* Cryptomeria japonica (Linn. f.). D. Don

* Citrus aurantium Linn.

* Citrus medica Linn.

* Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.

Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp.

* Acacia dealbata Link.

Photonia lindleyana W. Sc A.

* Prunus domestica Linn.

* Prunus persica (Linn.) Batsch.

* Prunus cerassoides D. Don

* Pyrus communis Linn.

Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels.

Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Roem. & Schult.)

Steud.

Maesa perrottetiana A. DC.

Ligustrum perrottetii A. DC.

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus DC.

Celtis wight ii PI.

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Bombax ceiba Linn.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

Zizyphus xylopyra (Retz.) Willd.

Man gif era indica Linn.

Dalbergia gardneriana Benth.

Dalbergia lati folia Roxb.

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wt.

Tamarindus indica Lipn.

Acacia ferruginea DC.

* Acacia dealbata Link.

* Acacia melanoxylon R. Br.

Acacia leucophloea Willd.

Albizzia sp.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Anogeissus latifolia Wall.

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wt.

Psidium guajava Linn.

Syzygium arnottianum Walp.

Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels.

Tristania conferta R. Br.

Maesa perrottetiana DC.

Tectona grandis L.f.

* Grevillea robusta A. Cunn.

Mallotus philippinensis M. — Arg.

* Celtis serotina PI.

Celtis wightii PI.

Morus alba Linn.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Ficus bengalensis Linn.

Ficus mysorensis Linn.

Ficus glomerata Roxb.

* Nerium odorum Soland.

1251

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Lb/. 75

1252

HOST PLANTS OF THE LORANTHACEAE

Species of loranthus

Macrosolen capitellatus (W. & A.) (1000 m-1500 m)

Species of host

* Eucalyptus ficifolia F.v. Muell.

Maesa perrottetiana A. DC.

Phoebe paniculata Nees.

Cinnamomum wightii Meissn.

* Celtis serotina PI.

Celtis wightii PI.

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

* Ficus elastica Roxb.

Maesa perrottetiana A. DC.

Ficus tjakela Burm.

Ficus spp.

Artocarpus integrifolia Linn.

* introduced species

Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Salim Ali

for the inspiration and guidance he provided.

The study was undertaken with financial

Re fe

Ali, Salim A. (1931) : The role of the Sunbirds and

Flowerpeckers in the propogation and distribution of

the tree parasite Loranthus longiflorus Desr. in the

Konkan (W. India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 1 :

144-149.

Docters van Leeuwen, W. M. (1954) : On the

Biology of some Javanese Loranthaceae and the role

birds play in their life history. Beaufortia Misc. Pub .

4 : 105-207.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1926) : Loranthaceae of Southern

India and their host plants. Records of the Bot. Surv.

of Indiall: 159-195.

Gamble, J. S. and Fischer, C. E. C. (1967) : Flora of

the Presidency of Madras (reprint).

assistance from the Bombay Natural History

Society through a Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho

Ornithological Research Fund Fellowship.

ences

Kuijt, J. (1969) : The Biology of Parasitic Flowering

Plants. University of California Press.

Matthew, K. M. (1969) : The exotic Flora of

Kodaikanal, Palni Hills. Rec. of the Bot. Surv. of

India 20 : 1-241.

Sharma, B. D. (1975) : Flora of Nilgiri District,

Tamilnadu— A checklist. Botanical Survey of India

(unpublished).

Wiens, D. (1971) : Critical Notes on the Viscaceae

and Loranthaceae of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science

9: 43-50.

* Not referred to in the original.

20

1253

ECOLOGICAL IMPACT OF AFFORESTATION AT THE

RANIBENNUR BLACKBUCK SANCTUARY

S. G. Neginhal1

{With two plates)

Introduction

This paper deals with the ecological impact

of afforestations on the populations of the

Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra , the Great

Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps and the

Wolf Canis lepus at the Ranibennur Black-

buck Sanctuary of Karnataka State. These

species had locally become almost extinct at

Ranibennur on account of the destruction of

their habitat and killings on a large scale,

both by the villagers and poachers.

Methods

No systematic census was carried out. Rough

estimates of the Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra

and the Great Indian Bustard Choriotis

nigriceps were arrived at through several visits

taking counts, assisted by the Sanctuary officials.

Information was also derived from the ‘ fre-

quency of sighting \ I also had the

opportunity of personal contacts with several

forest officers who worked in this area since

1958.

The Habitat

Abiotic Conditions :

The Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary covers

an area of 119 km2 of open and undulating

scrub forests near Ranibennur of Dharwar

District, Karnataka State. It has vast expanses

of grasslands. The configuration is flat and

1 Assistant Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Meh-

boobnagar, Hubli-580 022 (Karnataka).

undulating, giving rise to gentle slopes and

elevations (mounds) at places. The elevation

ranges from 780 m to 985 m. The under-

lying rock chiefly consists of iron stone

and quartz. The soil is very poor and lacks

humus. It is shallow on the slopes and

on the mounds and is eroded. The habitat

is surrounded by agricultural fields where

jowar, cotton, millets and oil crops are raised.

The average annual precipitation is about

440 mm. The habitat receives both the south-

west (June to August) and the north-east (Sep-

tember to November) monsoons, the latter con-

tributing the major precipitation. The rainfall

is, however, irregular and scanty. Drought

and arid conditions generally prevail. All

the streams cease flowing before the end of

December and almost all water sources dry

up in summer. The maximum temperature is

around 38°C and the minimum around 20°C.

Biotic Conditions

Flora :

From the abiotic conditions detailed above

and the residual forests still occurring in the

sanctuary it is evident that the ecosystem once

supported a scrub type of forest at its climax.

Kanitkar (1924) has recorded that the forests

of Ranibennur were of scrub type which were

already in poor and degraded conditions in

1924. So he had recommended replacing this

silviculturally ‘ unsound and stunted growth ’

with a vigorous 4 coppice and seedling growth ’ .

1254

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75

Neginhal : Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary

Plate I

1. Afforested areas of Ranibennur, raised prior to 1972 by contour trenching,

which provided sufficient open areas for blackbuck and bustard.

2. Mechanised afforestations from 1972 onwards created ‘ tall forests ’ of

Eucalyptus and covered all open areas and even mounds, thereby discouraging

blackbuck and bustard.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 Plate II

Neginhal : Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary

3. The blackbuck spending their time in the adjoining open agricultural fields

than in the intensively afforested areas.

4. A Great Indian Bustard’s nest and its large egg found in the Sanctuary.

ECOLOGICAL IMPACT OF AFFORESTATION

The forest growth, as described by Kanitkar,

consisted of the species of Albizzia amara ,

Chloroxylon swietenia. Acacia spp., Hardwickia

binata , Ixora parviflora , Euphorbia spp., Dodo-

naea viscosa , Carissa spp., Cassia auriculata ,

Lantana camara , etc. Sandalwood Santalum

album was found throughout the area. A fairly

good growth of grass came up everywhere.

Wildlife :

No information on wildlife that existed

in the area in 1924 is available. Kanitkar

is silent about this rich inheritance. Local

reports, however, confirm that the Rani-

bennur ecosystem supported in the past a

varied and rich fauna such as the Blaclcbuck

Antilope cervicapra, the Wild Boar Sus scrofa ,

the Wolf Canis lupus , and birds such as the

Peafowl Pavo cristatus , and the Great Indian

Bustard Choriotis nigriceps.

Observations

As prescribed by Kanitkar (1924), the scrub

forests of Ranibennur were extracted and

removed between 1924-1925 to 1954-1955. By

1958 the scrub forests were reduced to

vast grasslands with scattered patchy growth

of Ixora parviflora, Euphorbia Spp., Dodonaea

viscosa, and a few other scrub species. These

degraded conditions were ushered in by the

mounting influences of biotic factors of over-

grazing, hacking and fires.

No wild animals were to be seen here in

1958. The blackbuck that reportedly moved

in big herds in the past was not there. The

great Indian bustard that had earned a local

name as ‘ Yeraladdu 9 , suggesting its local

abundance, was not to be seen.

From 1958 to 1971 attempts were made by

the Karnataka Forest Department to afforest

these barren areas by contour trenching. These

manually dug contour trenches were of the

sizes of 0.91 m x 0.61 m x 0.45 rn, 1.83 m x

0.61 m x 0.45 m and 3.66 mx 0.45 m x 0.45 m

and were staggered with a gap of 2 m in

between two trenches and were vertically

spaced at 9.15 m apart. Extensive denuded

areas were also taken up for afforestation

from 1970 onwards (Nadgouda 1977) to arrest

soil erosion in the catchment areas of the

Tungabhadra River of which Ranibennur

formed a part.

In 1972 afforestation by manually dug

trenches was replaced by mechanised affore-

station. With the help of the heavy bulldozers,

attached with specially designed rippers, the

forest floor was ripped in lines at 2 m apart,

instead of the spacing of 9.15 m apart earlier

adopted during the manual trenching opera-

tions, and eucalyptus plants were planted

1.25 m and 1.5 m apart (Torvi 1975). Even

the open space between the two rows of the

previously afforested manually dug trenches

was further ripped with the bulldozer and

planted. More stress was also laid on planting

eucalyptus hybrid, which soon grew to a height

of 7-8 metres within 4-5 years. This mecha-

nised afforestation from 1972 onwards went on

drastically changing the entire structure and

type of the habitat. The vast and expansive

grassy blanks were covered by the fast growing

eucalyptus hybrid over the years. So the open

habitat of the blackbuck and the bustard

went on shrinking ; and they were forced to

shift their resting and breeding grounds to

other open areas, which would also be ripped

later for planting. (On an average about

640 ha. of this area is covered annually under

mechanised afforestations.)

Moreover the operations involved in the

mechanised afforestations offered much dis-

turbance to the wildlife. The noise of the

bulldozer scared away the blackbuck and

the bustards. On account of its capacity to

plough any hard ground, most of the

grazing grounds of the blackbuck and the

nesting sites of the bustards were lost.

1255

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 75

In 1976 I observed the blackbuck spending

more of their time in the open harvested agri-

cultural lands that adjoin the sanctuary than

in the sanctuary itself. It was also an ecolo-

gical warning that the sanctuary was slowly

becoming unfit for their use due to the thick

and tall vegetation replacing their open-ground

and stunted vegetation.

Prior to taking up afforestations in 1958,

the Ranibennur was in a degraded con-

dition. The rich scrub forests and the

fauna that it reportedly supported in the past

were destroyed by man. Even the fertility of

the soil had come down and erosion was taking

place. The ‘ Soil conservation and affores-

tation ’ measures taken up from 1958 onwards

recovered the situation and rejuvenated the

habitat. As grazing was stopped in the

afforested areas, fodder grass came up.

Seeds of local species, brought from outside^

were sown on the manually dug trench mounds.

So the once eliminated local species started

establishing in the forest. The exotic fast

growing eucalyptus soon surpassed the

local species in height and growth and thus

established itself as the dominant species.

The eucalyptus, however, did not pose any

problems initially as it was planted far apart

(9.15 m). But as the years passed the eucaly-

ptus shot up and ecologically changed the scrub

type of habitat, where the height of the forest

was not more than 2 metres, into a different

habitat with its vegetational growth of 7 to 8

metres.

The measures taken to afforest the area had

initially a remarkable effect on the fauna.

The blackbuck that was reduced to near

extinction in the Ranibennur slowly started

recovering. In 1958 when afforestations were

taken up the blackbuck was not noticed

in the area, although a few must have

existed. As afforestations proceeded and

years passed, reports started trickling in

from the forest staff of sighting the black-

buck moving in the area in ones and

twos ; and this soon grew into small

herds as the years passed. In 1970 and

1971 I observed the blackbuck roaming over

this area in large herds, congregating on the

grassy plains and barren mounds which were

not covered by afforestation (Neginhal 1974).

In 1970 I had estimated the population of

blackbuck to be about 600 by visual counts.

In September 1971 this habitat was constituted

as a blackbuck sanctuary (based on my report),

covering an area of 119 km2. In my 1974

visit the population of blackbuck was still on

the increase and my visual count put the popu-

lation around 1000.

This spurt in the population of the blackbuck

was not a healthy sign in the absence of a

predator, and I was wondering how nature

would respond to this requirement. Nature

soon met this situation by bringing in a pre-

dator. In 1973 a wolf was reported in the

sanctuary and 2 years later a wolf was

sighted with cubs (Krishnan 1975).

In 1971 the Great Indian Bustard, an

endangered species, was sighted in the

sanctuary authentically for the first time. These

birds soon started breeding here. In 1974

I counted 15 birds and in May 1976 I

saw and photographed a nest with an egg

(Neginhal 1976). The other important birds

seen were the Common Sandgrouse Pterocles

exustus , the Indian Courser Cursorius coro-

mandelicus, the peafowl and the Pale Harrier

Circus macrourus.

The intensive work of afforestations has

also affected the indigenous flora, so typical

of the open scrub forests of the Deccan. The

Acacia spp., Euphorbia spp., Ixora parviflora

and other indigenous floral patches where

the bustard used to shelter have dis-

appeared now.

The eucalyptus hybrid, a variety selected

initially in 1958 for its fast growing and hardy

nature, later found to be of industrial use in the

1256

ECOLOGICAL IMPACT Of AFFORESTATION

manufacture of rayon and paper pulp, posed

a further danger to the habitat owing to the

disturbance caused while cutting and transport-

ing the wood.

Discussions and Conclusions

The blackbuck, the wolf, the fox and the

Great Indian bustard were not reported in the

Ranibennur habitat in 1958, when the affores-

tations were started. Afforestations were taken

up from 1958 to 1972 with wide spaced

manually dug trenches. The blackbuck rose to

a population of 600 in 1970 and to 1000 in 1974.

The wolf was spotted in 1973. The Great Indian

bustard was first sighted in 1971 and rose to

a population of 15 in 1974 and remained almost

constant in 1976.

Prior to carrying out afforestations, the black-

buck population must have been reduced to im-

perceptible proportions due to adverse biotic fac-

tors to which the habitat was subjected, such as

heavy grazing, hacking, fires and poaching. The

afforestation work increased the carrying capa-

city of the habitat. It gave indirect protection

against the poachers on account of the constant

presence of the forest staff engaged in affores-

station-cum-soil conservation works. As the

grazing was restricted and was closed in the

afforested parts, grass came up profusely

and provided ample food to the blackbuck.

This was supplemented by the indigenous

vegetation that came up on account of the

stoppage of grazing. The grass and other

vegetation also offered the much needed

shelter and cover. So the adverse factors

decreased as the welfare factors increased

in proportion. This gave a boost to the

natality rate while the mortality was far

reduced. On account of these favourable

conditions the population of blackbuck kept

increasing rapidly.

As the population of blackbuck increased

along with an increase in the small mammals

and birds, favourable conditions were set for

sustaining a predator ; and this came in the

form of the wolf.

The afforestations work also created congenial

environmental conditions for the Great Indian

bustard. However, the intensification of afforesta-

tions by mechanised means started clothing what-

ever open areas were available with tall growth

of fast growing vegetation and this poses a great

threat to the blackbuck and the bustard. With

the help of heavy bulldozers the remaining

open grassy patches, used for roaming and

breeding by the blackbuck and the bustard,

were ripped and planted intensively within no

time. The afforestations with exotics also

endangered the local flora.

The blackbuck and the bustard are evolved

for open habitat and hence they thrive best

in open plains scattered with scrub growth.

Salim Ali (1969) refers to the Great Indian

bustard as a species affecting wide open spaces

of scanty grassland interspersed with scrub.

Prater (1948), Schaller (1967) and Krishnan

(1972) gave the habitat of the blackbuck in

open forests and open meadows. The wolf

too prefers open scrub areas. In the initial

years of afforestations from 1958 onwards the

general conditions and characters of the

‘ scrub and grass ’ continued to prevail in

the environment. The initial low height of

the plants, especially of eucalyptus, did not

pose any ecological problems to these animal

and bird species. But soon the habitat changed.

The stunted condition of the 4 scrub forests ’

changed to a tall ‘ forest growth ’ on account

of the fast growing eucalyptus which reached

a height of about 8 metres within about

4-5 years. This ‘ tall forest ’ started covering

the existing bare areas, year by year, on account

of the progressive afforestation works, thereby

shrinking the habitat of the blackbuck, the

bustard and the wolf. The habitat is becoming

unsuitable for the existence of these species.

In course of time the habitat may even

1257

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

replace the blackbuck with the Spotted Deer

Axis axis , the wolf with the Leopard Panthera

pardus , the great Indian bustard with the

Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii , the Indian

courser with the lapwings ( Vanellus malabaricus

and V. indicus). Should we desire this ecological

succession which would eliminate the endan-

gered blackbuck, the great Indian bustard and

the wolf that Nature has attempted to rehabilitate

in this ecosystem in the question.

References

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan, Yol. 2. Oxford Uni-

versity Press, London.

Kanitkar, R. K. (1924) : Working Plan report

for the scrub forests of Dharwar and Kod Ranges.

Karnataka Forest Department.

Krishnan, M. (1972) : An ecological survey of

mammals of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (3).

469-501.

(1975) : A report on the Ranibennur

Sanctuary sent to the Director, Wildlife, Bangalore.

Nadgouda, K. S. (1977) : Note on Gadag Forest

Division. My Forest (Karnataka Forest Department

quarterly magazine), June 1977. Yol. 13. No. 2.

Neginhal, S. G. (1974) : Blackbuck of Ranibennur.

My Forest. June 1974. Vol. 10. No. 2. (Article sent

in 1971).

(1976) : At a Bustards’ Nest. Newsletter

for Birdwatchers, August 1976. Yol. XYI. No. 8.

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals,

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger.

Torvi, R. K. (1975) : Mechanised afforestation in

drought prone areas, Dharwar District. My Forest.

September 1975, Vol. 11. No. 3.

Note : In 1979 I again visited this sanctuary and could trace only one bustard as

against 15 spotted in 1974. Most of the Blackbuck were found in the

surrounding agricultural fields than in the sanctuary. A leopard was also

reported prowling in the sanctuary.

1258

HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS IN THE RAJASTHAN

DESERT

ISHWAR PRAKASH1 AND P. K. GHOSH

Introduction

The north-western and western parts of Rajas-

than comprising the arid and semi-arid districts

of Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar?

Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Nagaur’

Pali, Sikar and Sirohi — have harboured a large

variety of fauna since proto-historic times

(Sankhala 1964 ; Prakash 1975). Archaeological

evidences and historical records indicate that

in the not-too-distant past, the tract abounded

in several species of wildlife that no longer

exist here. For example, excavations carried

out at sites of mesolithic culture in the Luni

basin, particularly near Tilwara in Barmer

district have unearthed charred bones of the

spotted deer Axis axis and the hog deer Axis

porcinus , besides a host of other species, — both

of which have now disappeared from the desert

scene. These finds also point to the prevalence

of a combination of hunting and stock-raising

economy in this region in the mesolithic period.

The archaeological finds also suggest that in times

of antiquity, the jackal Canis aureus and the

Domestic dog Canis familiaris were perhaps as

much preferred for their meat as the herbivores.

Today, consumption of the meat of such

carnivorous animals is restricted to only a few

tribes or sects. In historical times, western

Rajasthan provided enough opportunities to

the sporting nobility to test their mettle (Prakash

1960). The first Mughal emperor, Babur, has

left behind vivid narratives of his hunting

expeditions in this tract and in adjacent Sind

where the Asiatic lion was not scarce at all.

In all probability, the lion had its sway over

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur.

much of the Rajasthan desert until compara-

tively recent times. Besides the lion, the region

could easily boast of a surprising variety of

wildlife, only a fraction of which has managed

to survive to this day. Culturally speaking,

the people of Rajasthan have, over the cen-

turies, developed a dichotomous attitude

towards wildlife. On the one hand, there were

the Rajputs — the princely caste — and their

minions, besides a number of nomadic and

forest-dwelling tribes — who looked upon

hunting of wildlife as one of the more manly

pastimes and revelled in killing whatever game

came their way. On the other extreme of the

psycho-social spectrum there were the believers

in absolute non-violence, particularly, those

belonging to the trading communities, brahmins

and practising Jains and some other religious

sects.

Human-Animal Interactions

A desert community of people called the

Vishnoi occupies a distinctive position in this

arrangement. These people nurse a peculiarly

strong inhibition towards the killing of the

Blackbuck Antelope cervicapra , but are not

particularly against destruction of other forms

of wildlife. To a Vishnoi , the blackbuck, any

blackbuck, represents one of his ancestors and,

as such, is an object of veneration. It will be

no exaggeration to say that but for the aggres-

sive protection afforded by the Vishnois to this

beautiful antelope species, it would have

vanished from the desert scene, as have vanished

(or almost vanished) the panther, the Great

Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps and the

Wild Boar Sus scrofa. We have witnessed

1259

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 75

what results people’s active involvement in

wildlife preservation can achieve. In the

Dawa-Doli Blackbuck Sanctuary situated about

40 km west of Jodhpur, and managed by the

Rajasthan Forest Department, there are now

about 3000 blackbuck of both sexes and all

age groups. The sanctuary is fortunately

surrounded by Vishnoi villages and is, thus,

not the least dependent upon the vigilance of

the government guards for the protection of

its denizens. They are lovingly protected at

all times by the whole populace and the result

is worthy of emulation in all parts of the world.

They even provide grains and water to the

animals during droughts and engage people

to look after the needs of animals in remote

areas. We would consider the Vishnoi as

perhaps the only such group of people with

such zeal for affording protection to a wildlife

species. Should not the IUCN and the World

Wildlife Fund recognise the meritorious services

of the Vishnois in the cause of wildlife preser-

vation by at least an honourable mention of

their sustained efforts ?

As far as the nobles were concerned, it has

been a ‘ shoot-at-sight ’ in certain cases and

a logical and seasonal harvesting of wildlife,

development of game sanctuaries and syste-

matic management and breeding of different

species — in other cases. The sagacity of the

former Maharajas of Bikaner with regard to

wildlife management — for game purposes, of

course — speaks for itself in the form of the

beautiful Gajner Sanctuary — the winter resort

of the imperial sandgrouse and the favourite

habitat of the chinkara Gazella gazella

and the blackbuck. Similarly, the erst-while

Maharajas of Jaipur have left us the legacy of

the wildlife wealth of Sawai-Madhopur while

the princely house of Alwar had preserved for

posterity the excellent Sariska Sanctuary.

The Ghana Bird Sanctuary of Bharatpur is

another example of man’s appreciation of wild

beauty.

During days of the princes, it was the preroga-

tive of the Rajas and nobles to hunt in the state

forests. Poachers and defaulting commoners

were severely punished for any violation of the

rules. The situation totally changed since

1947. While the Indians got their political

independence, they also got the freedom to

totally annihilate their wildlife (Prakash 1958).

Merciless, thoughtless, ruthless killing of all

wildlife became the order of the day, and the

desert soon became bereft of some of its most

precious jewels that Nature had adorned

her with. Fortunately for all of us, the mad

frenzy for wanton killing has given way to a little

bit of rational thinking. The high-powered

jeep with blinding flash-light and the high-

velocity rifle is no longer the ruler of the desert

night — even though it is still not an uncommon

exception. Hopefully, the day is not far off

when all of us will feel a positive attraction for

our wildlife. At the moment, for most of us,

a bird or an animal is just a bird or an animal,

with no special significance. We are rather

insipid, non-involved or down-right callous in

our attitude towards wildlife. What we need

is a tiny shot of the VishnoV s protective spirit

in our arms — and all our wildlife will be safe.

We have already paid a heavy price for our

callousness. We have been silent spectators

of the mass slaughter of a great many species

and in some cases the germ plasm has been

lost for ever. The desert sands no longer

reverberate to the thunderous roar of the lion,

nor does the sleek cheetah survey the horizon

from the height of a mound and then, in a flash,

almost glides through the air to prey on a herd

of unwary blackbuck serenely grazing under

the shadow of a dune. The wild boar too has

had its day, and we may never encounter them

in lonely paths as our ancestors used to do so

commonly. We have lost much. But we still

have that magnificent bird — the great Indian

bustard and the smaller, though equally attrac-

tive, game-bird— the Houbara Chlamydotis m-

1260

HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS in RAJASTHAN

dulata in sufficient numbers to allow reasonably

stable population build-up of these two species

in this tract. We are also fortunate that the

desert still abounds in the fleet-footed chinkara

and the blackbuck.

Future Plan

Lest we lose even these few remnants of

our heritage for ever, efforts are under way to

organize a Desert National Park near Pokaran

in Jaisalmer district where these graceful birds

and animals will be allowed to live and breed

in their own ecological niche and without the

fear of man. Attention must, however, be

R E F E

Prakash, Ishwar (1958) : Extinct and vanishing

mammals from the desert of Rajasthan and the

problems of their preservation. Indian Forester , 88 :

642-645.

(1960) : Shikar in Rajasthan. The Cheetal,

2(2) : 68-72.

paid to restore climax conditions in the Desert

National Park even if it has to be done by

irrigating the grasslands by tube well water.

Any rejuvenation of wildlife in the present

degraded land will be almost impossible. A

development plan for wildlife in the Thar

Desert has been proposed in another communi-

cation (Prakash 1975).

Acknowledgement

Our thanks are due to the Director, Central

Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur for

encouragement and support.

E NC e s

(1975) : Wildlife ecology and conservation.

Chapter XX. In ‘ Environmental Analysis of the Thar

Desert ’ (Eds. R. K. Gupta and Ishwar Prakash).

English Book Depot, Dehra Dun : 467-480.

Sankhala, K. S. (1964) : Wildlife sanctuaries in

Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 27-34.

1261

HEALTH PERSPECTIVES FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

C. M. Singh1

It is well known that changes have been occurring

since prehistoric times in the population numbers

of various animal species and that these changes

are influenced by a complex interplay of a wide

variety of ecological factors. A number of

these factors related to physical and biological

characteristics of ecosystems are generally

recognised and have received attention. There

is, however, little knowledge and appreciation

of the role of highly contagious and fatal

epizootics, some of which affect a wide range

of animal species over large areas, in the popu-

lation changes in wildlife that have been

observed over certain periods of time.

During the past century, human activities

have considerably hastened the process of

decrease in numbers or even extinction of some

species of wildlife. Owing to the increasing

land use for agricultural operations and conse-

quent progressive decrease in forest areas,

there is already a growing tendency to conserve

wildlife in the limited geographic areas of

national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

Under these conditions, the prevalence of

epizootics among wildlife is likely to play a

more important and crucial role in the popu-

lation dynamics of wildlife. Therefore, there

is an urgent need to determine the nature and

the extent of epizootics encountered among

different species of wildlife in the country.

A clearer understanding of the diseases that may

influence the mortality rates in free living wild

animals, will be helpful not only for adopting

more effective steps for conservation of our

valuable wildlife, but also for devising measures

director, Indian Veterinary Research Institute,

Izatnagar.

to decrease the perpetual hazard of spread of

some of the diseases in wild animals to and

from domestic animals and man.

Epidemiological aspects of some of the

epizootics encountered in different species of

wildlife in the country are briefly summarized

in spite of the fact that not much information

is available in the published literature.

Rinderpest :

The devastating effect of this pestilence of the

Gaur Bos gaurus population in wildlife reserves

and sanctuaries in the country, has been reported

on a number of occasions during the past

fifty years (Burton 1953). This disease has

accounted for the death of a large number

of gaur and wild buffalo in peninsular India

(Editorial 1927). As early as 1935, Salim Ali

drew attention to the fact that large tracts of

game country have been known to be ravaged

by rinderpest and foot and mouth disease

contracted from infected cattle left to graze

in forests inhabited by wild animals. More

recently this disease had almost wiped out the

gaur populations of Mudumalai Sanctuary in

1968 and Periyar Sanctuary in 1974.

Ray and Samanta (1974) reported the occur-

rence of a syndrome simulating rinderpest at

Calcutta zoo. The disease attacked Nilgai

Boselaphus tragocamelus , gayal Bos fron-

talis and hog deer Axis porcinus. The case

fatality rate was 61 per cent. Virological studies

were not done. The disease was controlled

by administration of caprinised rinderpest

vaccine to other artiodactyles and institution

of quarantine measures.

The disease is believed to spread from the

infected domestic cattle and buffaloes to

1262

HEALTH PERSPECTIVES FOR WILDLIFE

the wild animals through common pastures.

In addition to the bovines, many other

artiodactyls may contract this disease.

Among the wildlife in this country, these

include Sambar Cervus unicolor , Nilgai,

Yak etc. The epidemiologic characteristics of

the disease encountered in these species are

not known. It is also not known whether

epizootics may occur which may remain

confined to the gaur population while the

disease has not been noticed in the domestic

bovine population in the area over the period

of time preceding the observed outbreak in

wildlife. The possibility of any other species

of wildlife becoming carriers of rinderpest

virus infection during the inter-epizootic periods

has not been investigated.

Foot and Mouth Disease :

Outbreaks of Foot and Mouth disease

(FMD) in the gaur populations associated with

high mortality have been reported to occur

frequently during the past several decades.

Salim Ali (1935) reported that an entire herd

of gaur perished from foot and mouth disease

at Manikgarh in Hyderabad State. From the

information received by him it appeared that

in a similar epidemic hundreds of animals

perished in Warangal district. Morris (1952)

reported the death of 15,620 ‘bison’ due

to foot and mouth disease contracted from

village cattle penned in hill forests owing

to lack of grazing down below. FMD

is a highly contagious disease with a wide

host range among artiodactyls and has a

high morbidity rate among several species

of domestic animals. The disease may occur

in animals other than artiodactyls such as

hedgehogs, and even rats have been considered

potential carriers. There is some evidence to

suggest that elephants Elephas maximus may

also contract infection. It has been contended

that the presence and the persistence of FMD

virus infection in certain species of wild animals

may play a vital role in the general epidemiology

of this disease (McDiarmid 1975).

Rabies :

In India, apart from the domestic dog

which is generally acknowledged as the most

common transmitter of urban and rural

human rabies, a number of wildlife hosts

such as the wild dog, jackal, wolf, fox,

jungle ( cat and mongoose are known to

contract and transmit the disease to other

susceptible animals and man. However, there

is little reported information on the sylvatic

rabies cycle in the country. It is known that

rabies tends to cycle within host species and

only rarely spills over to other species so that

it may be present in jackals or foxes without

being observed for many years. The extent

of wildlife rabies hazard to man and the

domestic livestock, is illustrated by a recent

observation reported by Shah and Jaswal (1976).

In February 1973 a rabid wolf travelled over

23 km in 12 hours in Aurangabad district and

attacked 12 persons and 6 domestic animals in 15

different places. Three persons and 3 animals

died of rabies. One animal died of injuries

immediately after the attack. One pig that

was bitten, became aggressive and was killed

and buried. This was dug up and eaten by

4 dogs. One of these dogs had onset of rabies

12 days later. All the 4 dogs were destroyed.

Anthrax :

This fatal disease has a wide range of

hosts. The disease is endemic in the country

and almost all species of domestic herbivores

are susceptible. There is, however, little

information on the incidence of this disease in

wildlife. According to Lahan and Sonowal

(1973) this and another unidentified disease

were responsible for heavy casualties among

rhinoceros population in Kaziranga wildlife

sanctuary in 1944 and 1947,

1263

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , F<?7. 75

African Horse Sickness :

A large number of wild ass were reported to

have died of African horse sickness in Novem-

ber and December, 1961 in the little Rann of

Kutch. Again there was an epidemic among

wild asses in October and November 1964

when a forest guard claimed to have seen about

100 dead asses between Jesda and Mai van

(Spillett 1968). The disease was contracted

from domestic equines. This disease has

not been reported since and hence possibly

eradicated from the country

Leptospirosis :

It is well known that the wildlife plays an

important role in the epidemiology of lepto-

spirosis. Continuing search for sources of

infection for domestic animals and man has

revealed an expanding host range in the

wildlife belonging to five orders of the mammals,

namely, Rodentia, Lagomorpha, Insectivora,

Chiroptera and Artiodactyla (Twigg et al.

1969). Besides domestic livestock and laboratory

animals, already pathogenic leptospires have

been isolated from 118 species of wild mammals

and 2 species of birds (Communicable Disease

Centre 1966). Small animals belonging to

families Muridae, Erinacidae and Soricidae are

the primary hosts and the main source of

infection for most of the leptospiral types in-

fecting man and domestic animals.

Leptospirosis is prevalent in the domestic

livestock and human populations in the country.

However, so far little work has been done

to survey leptospiral infection in wildlife

and, therefore, there is no published information

on its prevalence among the wildlife species.

Parasitic infections :

There is little published information on the

prevalence of parasitic infections in wildlife

and their impact on population dynamics of

different species of wild animals in this country.

In 1958 and 1960 Surra accounted for some

deaths in the wild ass in the little Rann of Kutch

(Salim Ali — cited by Spillett 1968). The

domestic equines and bovines (possibly a number

of other species) may harbour the infection

which is transmitted from the infected to sus-

ceptible animals through insect vectors, mainly

the Tabanid and Stomoxys flies.

However, Warble grub infestation in chinkara i

was reported at Hissar, from the material ;

obtained from the Assistant Superintendent,

Cattle Farm, Hissar (Annual Report, IVRI,

1931).

Occurrence of Muticaecum sp. was reported

from stomach tumour of an Indian crocodile

at Jullunder (Annual Report, IVRI, 1934).

Another report is on the nematode causing

stomach tumour in Indian crocodile (Annual

Report, IVRI, 1935). Occurrence of Gastro -

thy lax sp. was reported from the stomach of

a ‘bison’ (Annual Report, IVRI, 1942-43).

Disease among non-human primates :

Several species of non-human primates which

inhabit different parts of this country, are

prone to suffer from a variety of epidemic and

other diseases, most of which are communi-

cable among these animals and man. Because

of their high susceptibility to some of the

diseases transmissible to human beings, these

simians may even serve as sentinels of human

disease as was observed in the case of Kya-

sanur forest disease. This disease caused by

an arbovirus of the Russian Spring Summer

Encephalitis (RSSE) Group had not been

known to occur in India until 1955. Late in

1955, a large number of Bonnet Macaques

Macaca radiata and Common langurs Presbytis

entellus were found dead in Kyasanur forest

area in Karnataka. About the same time, cases

of a severe fibrile illness called the ‘ monkey

disease ’ by the natives occurred among the

humans in this area. A second outbreak

began early in 1957 over a much wider area.

Investigations by the Virus Research Centre,

1264

HEALTH PERSPECTIVES FOR WILDLIFE

Poona showed that the disease in both monkeys

and man was caused by an arbovirus closely

related to the virus of RSSE, which might be

epidemic in Western Siberia (Webb 1969).

Deaths from tuberculosis have been recorded

among Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta

(Krishnan 1936 ; Singh et al. 1951 ; Nair and

Ray 1955). A fairly high proportion of

monkeys exported from India have been found

to suffer from Salmonellosis (Rowe 1969)

Shigellosis (Cook 1969) and several other

bacterial and viral infections. Monkeys in

this country have also been shown to suffer

from malaria caused by Plasmodium cynomolgi

(Prakash and Chakrabarti 1962) and P. fragile

(Choudhary et al. 1963).

Pathological Examination

During the five years from 1972, a good

number of morbid materials have been received

at the Division of Pathology of Indian Veterinary

Research Institute, Izatnagar, from different

Zoological Parks, etc. for investigation and

diagnosis of the disease conditions in the wild

animals. Although efforts are made to dia-

gnose the disease from such materials, on

many occasions a definite diagnosis could not

be ascertained due to either the unsuitability

of the material or specific material needed for

other laboratory tests was not available. The

details of the diagnosis of the specimens are

given in table 1.

While most of these syndromes may be

responsible for sporadic cases and tissue damage

in vital organs such as lungs, kidneys, and

liver (characterised by pneumonia, hepatitis,

nephritis etc.), some of the diseases such as

canine distemper and feline viral enteritis can

prove extremely dangerous for wildlife members

of dog and cat families which are susceptible

to these diseases and may suffer heavy

mortality.

The available information on the reported

occurrence of a number of epizootics which

were responsible for heavy mortality among

different species of already declining wildlife

populations during the past several decades

clearly points to the urgent need for effective

measures to minimise losses from these diseases.

This in turn would necessitate wildlife surveys

to determine the prevalence of disease in

different species of wildlife and investigations

to elucidate the nature of relationships between

the domestic livestock and the wildlife which

causes the spread of disease between them.

Some insight into the diseases of free living

wildlife can also be gauged by extending these

studies to captive animals in the zoological

gardens and limited colonies maintained for

biomedical research.

At the Indian Veterinary Research Institute

in the Division of Epidemiology, we have a

Wildlife Section which is exclusively con-

cerned with the study of wildlife diseases. In

this Division, already we have, in collaboration

with the Zoological Survey of India, taken up

a project for population census and survey of

infections in Rhesus monkeys and Common

Langurs in India. Under this project, materials

collected from monkeys through field teams in

different parts of the country will be examined

for bacterial, viral, mycotic and parasitic infec-

tions. In due course, it would be possible to

extend the scope of such surveys to other

wildlife species keeping in view the priorities

in terms of extent of threat from disease to the

wildlife.

It is of utmost importance that animal disease

surveillance and monitoring is scrupulously

carried out in the core area of wildlife sanc-

tuaries and national parks besides strict

quarantine and prophylactic measures. More-

over, a strict watch has to be kept on domestic

animals in grazing area in the forests surrounding

the core area of wildlife sanctuaries and national

parks to safeguard against spread of infection

through domestic animals.

1265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 75

Table 1

Diagnosis of the Specimens

1266

HEALTH PERSPECTIVES FOR WILDLIFE

Acknowledgements

The active co-operation of my colleagues Division of Pathology, and Dr. K. C. Sinha,

at the Indian Veterinary Research Institute

particularly, Dr. S. S. Khera, Head, Division

of Epidemiology, Dr. B. S. Rajya, Head,

Refer

Ali, Salim (1935) : The Preservation of Wildlife in

India. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc. 38 (2) : Reproduced by

Burton, R. W. (1953) : pp. 82-99.

Anderson, R. C. (1975) : In ‘ Wildlife Diseases ’,

Ed. by L. A. Page. Plenum Press, New York,

pp. 35-43.

Annual Report, I.V.R.I., 1931, 1934 and 1942-43

Burton, R. W. (1953) : The Preservation of Wildlife

in India — A compilation. Bangalore Press, Bangalore,

pp. 11, 88, 110.

Choudhury, D. S., Wattal, B. L., and Rama-

krishnan, S. P. (1963) : Indian J. Malarioi. 17 : 243.

Communicable Disease Centre (1966) : Leptospiral

serotype distribution lists. U.S. Dept. Hlth. Edn. &

Welfare, PHS, Atlanta, Ga.

Cook, R. (1969) : Simians Shigellosis. In : Hazards of

handling Simians Laboratory Animal Handbook-4,

Laboratory Animals Ltd., London, pp. 83-91.

Editorial (1927) : Game Preservation in India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32 : 359-365.

Krishnan, K. V. (1936): Spontaneous tuberculosis in

laboratory monkeys. Indian J. Med. Res. 23 : 721-727.

Lahan, P. and Sonowal, R. N. (1973) : Kaziranga

Wild Life Sanctuary, Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist .

Soc. 70 : 245-278.

McDiarmid, A. (1975) : Some diseases of free living

wild life. Adv. Vet. Sc. & Com. Med. 19 : 97-126.

Morris, R. C. (1952) : The Preservation of Wildlife

in India — A compilation, Bangalore Press, pp. 11.

Nair, C. P. and Ray, A. P. (1955) : Observations on

Head, Division of Biological Products, for

collection and collation of the information

is gratefully acknowledged.

E n c e s

the incidence and types of tuberculosis in rhesus monkeys

on antopsy studies. Indian J. Malarioi. 9 : 185.

Prakash, S. and Chakrabarti, S. C. (1962) : The

isolation and description of Plasmoduimlgi (Mayer 1970)

and Plasmodium issue (Halberstadder and Prowazak

1907) from naturally occurring mixed infections in

Macaca radiata monkeys of Nilgiris. Madras State*

India. Indian J. Malarioi. 16 : 303-311.

Ray, D. K. and Samanta, D. P. (1974) : A syndrome

simulating rinderpest among captive wild animals at

Calcutta zoo. Indian Vet. J. 51 : 199-202.

Rowe, B. (1969) : Salmonellosis in Simians and

other non-human primates. In : Hazards of handling

Simians. Laboratory Animal Handbook-4, Laboratory

Animals Ltd., London, PP. 63-75.

Shah, V. and Jaswal, G. S. (1976) : Victims of a

rabid wolf in India. Effect of severity and location of

bites on development of rabies. /. Infect. Diseases ,

134 : 25.

Singh, J., Singh, B., Gupta, D. N., Nair, C. P. and

Prakash, S. (1951) : A note on tuberculosis in a labora-

tory monkey colony. Indian J. Malarioi , 5 : 249.

Spillett, J. J. (1968) : Wildlife in Gujarat State.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 : 15-46.

Twigg, G. I., Guerden, C. M., Hughes, D. M. and

Medhurst, P. (1969) : The leptospirosis in British

Wild mammals. Vet. Rec. 84 : 424-426.

Webb, H. E. (1969) : Kyasanur forest disease virus

infection in monkeys. In : Hazards of handling Simians.

Laboratory Animal Handbook-4, Laboratory Animals

Ltd., London, pp. 131-134.

1267

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CONTENTS

Page

Preface

On the time-budget of different life-history stages of Chital (Axis axis). By H. C.

Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil.

On the Primate resources of India. By S. M. Mohnot

Seasonal changes in Body weights of some Rodents from South India. By R. K.

Chandrahas

Ecology of the Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata Geoffroy) with special reference to

Feeding Habits. By George P. Kuruvilla

Banding Bats for the study of population ecology. By H. B. Devaraj Sarkar, B.S. Bhima

Rao, M. Suvarnalatha and B. S. Thyagaraja

The status and Distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka. By P. Vijayakumaran

Nair and Madhav Gadgil

The status, ecology and behaviour of Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus). By

J. Mangalraj Johnson

A comparative account of the Avifauna of the Sholas and the neighbouring plantations

in the Nilgiris. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan

Nectar-feeding adaptations of Flowerbirds. By P. Kannan

Population and roosting behaviour of Migratory Rosy Pastor Sturnus roseus in Poona,

Maharashtra State. By Anil Mahabal and D. B. Bastawde

The Griffon Vultures (Gyps bengalensis, G. indicus & G.fulvus) of Gir forest : their feeding

habits and the nature of association with the Asiatic Lion. By Robert B, Grubh

The ecology and behaviour of the Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus Linn.) of Injar. By

A. J. T. Johnsingh and S. Murali

Ecological notes on some Migrant Waders in India. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju

Breeding Biology of Bulbuls, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus luteolus (Class : Aves, Family :

Pycnonotidae) with special reference to their ecological isolation. By V. S. Vijayan

Breeding season in a tropical population of the House Sparrow. By R. M. Naik and

Lalit Mistry . .

The availability of nesting materials and nesting sites as vital factors in the gregarious

breeding of Indian Water-Birds. By M. Krishnan

Wintering habits of the Blue Chat Erithacus bninneus (Hodgson), in the Nilgiris, Southern

India. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan

A contribution to the Ecology of Indian Pied Myna, Sturnus contra contra Linnaeus. By

M. L. Narang, A. K. Tyagi and B. S. Lamba

A comparative study of the feeding habits of certain species of Indian birds affecting

Agriculture. By D. N. Mathew, T. C. Narendran and V. J. Zacharias

Observations on the food and feeding habits of Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus. By Mir

Hamid Ali, T. G. Manmohan Singh, Aziz Banu, M. Anand Rao and A. T. Sainath Janak

Abnormal nests of the Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). By V. C.Ambedkar

Breeding biology of the Black Drongo. By E. A. A. Shukkur and K. J. Joseph

Ecology of hole nesting birds. By K. N. Panicker

The status of Indian Crocodilians. By Romulus Whitaker and J. C. Daniel

Notes on the Host Plants of the Loranthaceae in the Nilgiris. By Priya Davidar

Ecological impact of afforestation at the Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary. By S. G .

Neginhal

Human- Animal interactions in the Rajasthan desert. BylshwarPrakashand P. K. Ghosh . .

Health perspectives for wildlife conservation.

0 JL

a & ~ v *

By C. M. Singh

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printed and published by t. durai at the diocesan press, 10 CHURCH road, vepery, madras. C715.

editors : J. C. DANIEL, p. v. bole & A. n. d. nanavati

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